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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3 + "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE III<br /><br /> +Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BORGIA, LUCREZIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BOULTON, MATTHEW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BOUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BORGO SAN DONNINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BOUNDS, BEATING THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BORGU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BOUNTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BORIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BORING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BOURBON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BOURBON, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BORISOGLYEBSK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BOURBON-LANCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BORKU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BOURBON L’ARCHAMBAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BORKUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BORLASE, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BORMIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BOURCHIER, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BORN, IGNAZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BORNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BOURG-EN-BRESSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BORNEO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BORNHOLM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BOURGEOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BORNIER, HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BOURGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BORNU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BORODINO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BOURKE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BOROLANITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BORON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BOURNE, VINCENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BOROUGH, STEVEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BOURNE</a> (town)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BOURNE</a> (stream)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BOROUGHBRIDGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BOURNEMOUTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BOROUGH ENGLISH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BOURNONITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BORROMEAN ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BOURRÉE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BORROMEO, CARLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BOURSAULT, EDME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BORSIPPA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BOURSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BORT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BOURSSE, ESAIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BORZHOM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BOS, LAMBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BOSA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BOUTS-RIMÉS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BOUVARDIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BOSCASTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BOUVIER, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BOUVINES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BOSCH, JEROM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BOVEY BEDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BOVIANUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BOVIDAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BOSPORUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BOVILLAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BOW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BOSS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BOSSU, RENÉ LE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BOWDLER, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BOWDOIN, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BOSTANAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BOSTON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BOSTON</a> (Lincolnshire, England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BOWEN, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BOSTON</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BOSTON</a> (game of cards)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BOWER, WALTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BOSTONITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BOWIE, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BOSWELL, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BOW-LEG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BOWLES, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BOTANY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BOTANY BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BOWLINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BOTHA, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BOWLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BOTHNIA, GULF OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BOTHWELL</a> (town)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BOWLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BOTOCUDOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BOTORI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BOWRING, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BOTOSHANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BOWTELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BO-TREE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BOWYER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BOTRYTIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BOX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BOXING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BOXWOOD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BOYACÁ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BOYAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BOTTLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BOY-BISHOP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BOYCE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BOTTLENOSE WHALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BOYCOTT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BOTTOMRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BOTZARIS, MARCO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BOTZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BOYD, ZACHARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BOUCHARDON, EDME</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BOYDELL, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BOYER, ALEXIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BOUCHER, JONATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BOYLE, JOHN J.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BOYLE, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BOUCHOR, MAURICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BOYLE</a> (town)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BOYNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BOUCICAULT, DION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BOYS’ BRIGADE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BOUCICAUT, JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BOZDAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BOZRAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BOUDINOT, ELIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BRABANT</a> (duchy)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BOUÉ, AMI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BRABANT</a> (Belgium)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BRABANT, NORTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BRACCIANO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BRACE, CHARLES LORING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BOUGIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BRACE, JULIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BOUGUER, PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BRACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BRACELET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BRACHIOPODA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BRACHISTOCHRONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BOUILLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BRACHYCEPHALIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BOUILLOTTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BRACKYLOGUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BRACKET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BRACKET-FUNGI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BOULANGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BRACKLESHAM BEDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BRACKLEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BOULDER</a> (Colorado, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BOULDER</a> (large stone)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BRACTON, HENRY DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BOULDER CLAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BRADAWL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BOULĒ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BRADDOCK, EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BOULEVARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BRADDOCK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BOULOGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BRADFORD, JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BORGIA, LUCREZIA<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara, +daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. +(<i>q.v.</i>), by his mistress Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at +Rome in 1480. Her early years were spent at her mother’s house +near her father’s splendid palace; but later she was given over +to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of Cardinal Borgia +and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his mistresses. +Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of +Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music, +embroidery, painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and +charm, but the corrupt court of Rome in which she was brought +up was not conducive to a good moral education. Her father +at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for her, and at the age +of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de Centelles, a +Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost +immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another +Spaniard, Don Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa. +On the death of Innocent VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was +elected pope as Alexander VI., and, contemplating a yet more +ambitious marriage for his daughter, he annulled the union with +Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed to Giovanni +Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now +in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when +the pope’s policy changed and he became friendly to the king +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span> +of Naples, the enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the +subjugation of the vassal lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling +his position insecure, left Rome for Pesaro with his wife. By +Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the pope had all his +children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a series +of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with +Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband’s +impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with +Naples, he married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of +Bisceglie, a handsome youth of eighteen, related to the +Neapolitan king. But he too realized the fickleness of the Borgias’ +favour when Alexander backed up Louis XII. of France in the +latter’s schemes for the conquest of Naples. Bisceglie fled from +Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent Lucrezia to receive +the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On her return to +Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was induced +to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the +order of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie, +Lucrezia retired to Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where +she acted for a time as regent during Alexander’s absence. +The latter now was anxious for a union between his daughter +and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d’Este, duke of Ferrara. +The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither Alphonso +nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of +Borgia, and Lucrezia’s own reputation was not unblemished. +However, by bribes and threats the opposition was overcome, +and in September 1501 the marriage was celebrated by proxy +with great magnificence in Rome. On Lucrezia’s arrival at +Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her youthful +charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth +she led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath +of scandal. On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became +duke, and she gathered many learned men, poets and artists at +her court, among whom were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus +Manutius the printer, and the painters Titian and Dosso Dossi. +She devoted herself to the education of her children and to +charitable works; the only tragedy connected with this period +of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to have +admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso’s jealousy. She +died on the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter +by the duke of Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke +of Bisceglie, and possibly another of doubtful paternity. She +seems to have been a woman of very mediocre talents, and only +played a part in history because she was the daughter of +Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was +in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women +around her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of +incest with her father and brothers which were brought against +her by the scandal-mongers of the time.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the bibliographies for <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander VI.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borgia, Cesare</a></span>; +and especially F. Gregorovius’s <i>Lucrezia Borgia</i> (Stuttgart, 1874), +the standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert’s <i>Lucrezia Borgia, +Duchess of Ferrara</i> (London, 1869), which, while containing much +information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori’s “Una +Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia,” in the <i>Nuova Antologia</i> +(August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1868-  ), American +sculptor, was born in Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868, +the son of a Danish wood-carver. He studied under Louis F. +Rebisso in the Cincinnati art school in 1895-1897, and under +Frémiet in Paris. He took as his chief subjects incidents of +western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he was familiar +from his years on the ranch; notably “Lassoing Wild Horses,” +“Stampeding Wild Horses,” “Last Round-up,” “On the +Border of White Man’s Land,” and “Burial on the Plains.” +His elder brother, Gutzon Borglum (b. 1867), also showed +himself an artist of some originality.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter +of the Milanese school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani +da Fossano, was approximately contemporary with Leonardo da +Vinci, but represented, at least during a great part of his career, +the tendencies of Lombard art anterior to the arrival of that +master—the tendencies which he had adopted and perfected +from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and Zenale. We are +not precisely informed of the dates either of the death or the birth +of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and +whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian +school. His fame is principally associated with that of +one great building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the +Carthusians at Pavia, for which he worked much and in many +different ways. It is certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the +tradition which represents him as having designed, in 1473, the +celebrated façade of the Certosa itself. His residence there +appears to have been of eight years’ duration, from 1486, when +he furnished the designs of the figures of the virgin, saints and +apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in <i>tarsia</i> or inlaid wood +work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to Milan. +Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San +Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his +career earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to +Milan he worked at the church of San Satiro in that city. From +1497 he was engaged for some time in decorating with paintings +the church of the Incoronata in the neighbouring town at Lodi. +Our notices of him thenceforth are few and far between. In +1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his signature +appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524—and this is our +last authentic record—he painted a series of frescoes illustrating +the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan. +Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty, +Borgognone is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an +interesting place in the most interesting period of Italian art. +The National Gallery, London, has two fair examples of his work +—the separate fragments of a silk banner painted for the Certosa, +and containing the heads of two kneeling groups severally of men +and women; and a large altar-piece of the marriage of St Catherine, +painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near Pavia. But to judge +of his real powers and peculiar ideals—his system of faint and +clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his somewhat +slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us +of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their +Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive +love of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed +energy in figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in +the matter of storied and minutely diversified backgrounds—to +judge of these qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary +to study first the great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at +the Certosa, and next those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces +at Milan and Lodi, in which we find the influence of +Leonardo and of the new time mingling with, but not expelling, +his first predilections.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGO SAN DONNINO,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia, +Italy, in the province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the +town of Parma. Pop. (1901) town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It +occupies the site of the ancient Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no +doubt, as its name shows, of Roman origin. Here M. Lucullus +defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was independent +under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village +dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom +of S. Domninus under Maximian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304. The cathedral, +erected in honour of this saint, is one of the finest and +best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque churches of the 11th-13th +centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the façade is incomplete, +but the lower, with its three portals and sculptures, is very +fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, and has not +been spoilt by restorations. For the <i>bénitier</i>, a work of the early +11th century, see <i>Rassegna d’Arte</i>, 1905, 180. Not far from the +town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century +structure in brick (<i>ib</i>., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale, +in the Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century. +Borgo S. Donnino is an important centre for the produce and +cattle of Emilia.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGU,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Barba</span>, an inland country of West Africa. The +western part is included in the French colony of Dahomey (<i>q.v</i>.); +the eastern division forms the Borgu province of the British +protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu is bounded N.E. and E. by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span> +Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by Gurma. The country +consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers draining north +or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger basin +and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east +and south-west near the western frontier. In about 10° N., +below the town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger, +navigable up to that point from the sea. The soil is mostly +fertile, and is fairly cultivated, producing in abundance millet, +yams, plantains and limes. The acacia tree is common, and +from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From the nut +of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are numerous +and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is inhabited +by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were +dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the +country, the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king +of Bussa was another more or less powerful potentate. In the +early years of the 19th century Borgu was invaded by the Fula +(<i>q.v</i>.), but the Bariba (as the people are called collectively) maintained +their independence. In 1894 Borgu became the object +of rivalry between France and England. The Royal Niger +Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection +with the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D. +Lugard to negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other +chiefs, and Lugard succeeded in doing so a few days before the +arrival of French expeditions from the west. Disregarding the +British treaties, French officers concluded others with various +chiefs, invaded Bussa and established themselves at various +points on the Niger. To defend British interests, the West +African Frontier Force was raised locally under Lugard’s command, +and a period of great tension ensued, British and French +troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, however, +averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western +part of Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the +French withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.</p> + +<p>The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m. +Up to the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria +little or nothing was known of the country, though there were +interesting legends of the antiquity of its history. The population +was entirely independent, and resisted with success not only the +Fula from the north but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi +from the south and west. Travellers who attempted to penetrate +this country had never returned. Since 1898 the country has +been opened, and from being the most lawless and truculent of +people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and +law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little +crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced +by civil police. The assessment of taxes under British administration +was successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected +without trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but +not industrious or inclined for trade. In the north there are +some pastoral settlements of Fula. The Bariba themselves +remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been constructed between +the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural resources of +Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the +cessation of war and by immigration the country should show +marked development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are +still to be found in the fifty-mile strip of forest land which +stretches between the Niger and the interior of the province. +The forest contains valuable sylvan products, and there are +great possibilities for the cultivation of rubber. There are also +extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, with the waterway +of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought from +Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally +started. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bussa</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORIC ACID,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boracic Acid</span>, H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>, an acid obtained by +dissolving boron trioxide in water. It was first prepared by +Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715) from borax, by the action of +mineral acids, and was given the name <i>sal sedativum Hombergi</i>. +The presence of boric acid or its salts has been noted in sea-water, +whilst it is also said to exist in plants and especially in almost all +fruits (A.H. Allen, <i>Analyst</i>, 1904, 301). The free acid is found +native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, the Lipari +Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures in +the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals +(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).</p> + +<p>The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the +Maremma of Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country +over which jets of vapour and heated gases (<i>soffioni</i>) and springs +of boiling water spurt out from chasms and fissures. In some +places the fissures open directly into the air, but in other parts +of the district they are covered by small muddy lakes (<i>lagoni</i>). +The soffioni contain a small quantity of boric acid (usually less +than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of ammoniacal +vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is constructed +over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the +passage of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into +the highest basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon +brought into a state of ebullition; after remaining in this basin +for about a day, it is run off into the second one and is treated +there in a similar manner. The operation is carried on through +the entire series, until the liquor in the last basin contains about +2% of boric acid. It is then run into settling tanks, from which +it next passes into the evaporating pans, which are shallow lead-lined +pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. These pans are +worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first being +concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is +sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified +by recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes +prepared by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached, +and the water so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated +with boric acid to be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also +obtained from boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric +acid, followed by the evaporation of the solution so obtained. +The residue is then heated in a current of superheated steam, in +which the boric acid volatilizes and distils over. It may also be +obtained by the decomposition of boracite with hot hydrochloric +acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by the addition +of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of +borax.</p> + +<p class="center">Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O = Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 4H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae +belonging to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold +water, but dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the “weak” +acids, its dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, <i>Jour. +of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably +hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus +to a claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a +turmeric paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown, +the colour becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the +addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black. +Boric acid is easily soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution +be inflamed it burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The +acid on being heated to 100° C. loses water and is converted into +<i>metaboric acid</i>, HBO<span class="su">3</span>; at 140° C., <i>pyroboric acid</i>, H<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, is produced; +at still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of +the normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric +acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily +converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid. +That orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of +ethyl orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which +corresponds to the molecular formula B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span>; the molecular +formula of the acid must consequently be B(OH)<span class="su">3</span> or H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>. The +metallic borates are generally obtained in the hydrated condition, +and with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in +water. The most important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or +borax (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence +they may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and +butter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). In medicine boracic acid is used in +solution to relieve itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic +to impregnate lint or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too +feeble to be relied upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics, +such as mercuric chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been +already employed, boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous +and non-irritant) may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic +or non-bacterial condition which they have obtained. Borax taken +internally is of some value in irritability of the bladder, but as a +urinary antiseptic it is now surpassed by several recently introduced +drugs, such as urotropine.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORING.<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> The operations of deep boring are resorted to for +ascertaining the nature, thickness and extent of the various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span> +geological formations underlying the surface of the earth. Among the +purposes for which boring is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting +or searching for mineral deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas, +artesian or salt wells; (3) determining the depth below the surface of +bed-rock or other firm substratum, together with the character of the +overlying materials, preparatory to mining or civil engineering +operations; (4) carrying on geological or other scientific explorations.</p> + +<p>Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of +mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least +not highly inclined; <i>e.g.</i> deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide, +flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of +points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the +thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map +may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral +are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While +boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply +inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less +trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually +misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally, +bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the +valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit. +Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in +estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the +development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells, +boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also +for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in +many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock +salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing +water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The +sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are +often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St +Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft.</p> + +<p>Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as +exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring +veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated +workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk +for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote +from a shaft.</p> + +<p>Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in +connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the +depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and +designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the +cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock.</p> + +<p>Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological +exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth +in the earth’s crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about +6700 ft. deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, 5532 ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of the bituminous coal and oil-bearing +formations.</p> + +<p>There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers, +(2) drive pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope +system, in which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The +first two methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others +are for rock.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. <i>Earth augers</i> comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary +spiral auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is +attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections +of rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by +means of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod—by hand for holes of +small diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse +power. Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily +bored; stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is +intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the soil +clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually bored +by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive soils, the +auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron cylinder to prevent +the soil from falling out.</p> + +<p>Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common +form (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the +rod rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through +a few revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied. +For boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates. +Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter +earth augers are handled with the +aid of a light derrick.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:304px" src="images/img252a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.    <span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.<br /> +Pod Auger.</td></tr></table> + +<p>2. <i>Drive pipes</i> are widely used, +both for testing the depth and +character of soft material overlying +solid rock and as a necessary preliminary +to rock boring, when some +thickness of surface soil must first +be passed through. In its simplest +form the drive pipe consists of one +or more lengths of wrought iron +pipe, open at both ends and from +½ in. to 6 in. diameter. When of +small size the pipe is driven by a +heavy hammer; for deep and large +holes, a light pile-driver becomes +necessary. The lower end of the +pipe is provided with an annular +steel shoe; the upper end has a +drivehead for receiving the blows +of the hammer. Successive lengths +are screwed on as required. For +shallow holes the pipe is cleaned +out by a “bailer” or “sand-pump”—a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long, +with a valve in the lower end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by +being dashed up and down, and then raised and emptied. If, +after reaching some depth, the external frictional resistance prevents +the pipe from sinking farther, another pipe of small diameter may +be inserted and the driving continued. Drive pipes are often sunk +by applying weights at the surface and slowly rotating by a lever. +Two pipes are then used, one inside the other. Water is pumped +down the inner pipe, thus loosening +the soil, raising the debris and increasing +the speed of driving. The +“driven well” for water supply is an +adaptation of the drive pipe and put +down in the same way.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Drill and Rods</i>.—This method has +long been used in Europe and elsewhere +for deep boring. In the United +States it is rarely employed for depths +greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual +form of cutting tool or drill is shown +in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to +2 in. square, in long lengths with +screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are +occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is +done by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod. +The men alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly +walking around and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole +true. The cuttings are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:175px; height:170px" src="images/img252b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3<br />Drill Bit.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.<br />Rod Joint.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:331px" src="images/img252c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.<br />Sliding Link.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached, +on account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper +a “spring-pole” may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft. +long and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests +in an inclined position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft. +from the butt, the latter being firmly fixed. The rods +are suspended from the end of the pole, which extends +at a height of several feet over the mouth of the +hole. With the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes +are produced by a slight effort on the part of the +driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per 10 hours are +easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.</p> + +<p>For deep boring the rod system requires a more +elaborate plant. The rods are suspended from a +heavy “walking beam” or lever, usually oscillated +by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device, +the rods, which are rotated slightly after every +stroke, are gradually fed down as the hole is deepened, +length after length being added. A tall derrick +carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and +tools are manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached +rigidly to the rods as in shallow boring, because the +momentum of the heavy moving parts, transmitted +directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause +excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary, +therefore, to introduce a sliding-link joint between +the rods and bit. One form of link is shown +in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest, +while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper +member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up +stroke the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow. +For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 ℔, length of +stroke 2½ to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:77px; height:416px" src="images/img253a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.<br /> +Kind Free-Falling Tool.</td></tr></table> + +<p>By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the +rods may be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension. +To deliver a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop +with a quick stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the +operating machinery. For overcoming this difficulty, various +“free-falling tools” have been devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall +by gravity; the rod follows on its measured down +stroke, and picks up the bit. Free-falling tools are of +two classes: (1) those by which the bit is released +automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist +imparted to the rod by the drillman. One of the best +known of the first class is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6). +The shank of the bit is gripped and released by the +jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements +of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward +stroke, the resistance of the water in the hole +slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and releasing +the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end +of the stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the +bit and raise it for delivering another blow. The +Fabian free-fall may be noted as an example of the +second class (see Köhler, <i>Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde</i>, +p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an +annular groove in the bottom of the hole, and raising +to the surface the core so formed, for observing the +character of the rock.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Rope and Drop Tools.</i>—This method was long ago +used in China. Because of its extensive application +in the oil-fields it is generally designated in the +United States as the “oil-well system.” In its +various modifications it is often employed also in +general prospecting of mineral deposits and in sinking +artesian, natural gas and salt wells. One of its forms +is known in England as the Mather & Platt system.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:132px; height:464px" src="images/img253b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.<br />Temper Screw.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The chief point of difference from rod-boring is +the substitution of rope for the jointed rods. For +deep boring it possesses the advantage of saving +the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering +the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or +a dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down +by means of the rope with which they are operated while drilling. +The speed of rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase +of depth, while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest +form the so-called “string of tools,” suspended from the rope, is +composed of the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair +of sliding links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a +different purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward +stroke, as the jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend +to stick fast in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally +inserted between the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow. +The weight of another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope +taut. The length of stroke and feed are regulated +by the “temper-screw” (fig. 7), a feed device +resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped +to it is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals, +as the hole is deepened. The bits usually range +from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed of boring +being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24 +hours, according to the kind of rock. A great +variety of special “fishing tools” are made, for +use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or other +accident.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Diamond Drill.</i>—The methods described above +are capable of boring holes vertically downward +only. By the diamond drill, holes can be +bored in any direction, from vertically downward +to vertically upward. It has the further advantage +of making an annular hole from which is +obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete +cross-section of the strata penetrated; the thickness +and character of each stratum are shown, +together with its depth below the surface. Thus, +the diamond drill is peculiarly well adapted for +prospecting mineral deposits from which samples +are desired. The first practical application of +diamonds for drilling in rock was made in 1863 +by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a civil engineer of +Paris.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists essentially of a line of +hollow rods, coupled by screw joints, an annular +steel bit or crown, set with diamonds, being +attached to the lower end. By means of a small +engine on the surface the rods are rapidly rotated +and fed down automatically as the hole +deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions +per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter +of the bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the +hollow rods by a pump, passing back to the surface through the +annular space between the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The +cuttings are thus carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole +clean and unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the +bit and diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This +is done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:490px; height:403px" src="images/img253c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Little<br />Champion Rock Drill.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.   </td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:125px" src="images/img253d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.<br />Diamond Drill Bit.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> to +2¾ in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. diameter, and are capable +of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. They require +from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore +shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating +in underground workings of mines, small and compact machines +are sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1¼ to 1<span class="spp">9</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. +holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> to 1 in. diameter. +Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields +several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been +successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate +depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour, +including ordinary delays, though in favourable +rock much higher speeds are often attained. +In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of +time consumed in raising and lowering the rods. +If no core is desired a “solid bit” is used. +The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only +necessary to raise the rods occasionally, for +examining the condition of the bit.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:364px" src="images/img253e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.<br />Core Lifter and Barrel</td></tr></table> + +<p>The driving engine has two inclined cylinders, +coupled to a crank-shaft, by which, +through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The +rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For producing +the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw and +hydraulic cylinder. For the <i>differential feed</i> (fig. 9) the engine has a +hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods are coupled. +This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is supported +by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared to the +screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly +proportioning the number of teeth in the +system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is caused +to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft, +so that the drill-rod is fed downward a small +fraction of an inch for each revolution. To +vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different +rocks, three pairs of gears with different ratios +of teeth are provided. The screw-shaft and +gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which +can be rotated in a vertical plane, for boring +holes at an angle.</p> + +<p>The <i>hydraulic feed</i> is an improvement on +the above, in that the rate of feed is independent +of the rotative speed of the rods and +can be adjusted with the utmost nicety. There +are either one or two feed cylinders, supplied +with water from the pump. The rod, while +rotating freely, is supported by the feed +cylinder piston and caused to move slowly +downward by allowing the water to pass +from the lower to the upper part of the +cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of +the water and hence the rate of feed.</p> + +<p>The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft +steel, set with six to eight or more diamonds +according to its diameter. The diamonds, +usually from 1½ to 2½ carats in size, are carefully set in the bit, +projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds +are used, “carbons” and “borts.” The carbons are opaque, dark +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span> +in colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes. +They are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are +rough, imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks. +As the bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The +wear of carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable. +Above the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter +(fig. 11, A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and +raising it to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in +the hole and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water +and debris. It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole +straight, partly for holding and protecting the core.</p> + +<p>Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock, +as the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their +settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond +bit may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for +core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an +annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for +soft rock, a toothed bit is used.</p> + +<p>Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate +considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very +deep holes have been found to vary as much as 45° and even 60° +from their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do +not fit closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to +occur in drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different +degrees of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel +the liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented. +Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the +sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should +therefore always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole +instruments for observing at a number of successive points the +direction and degree of deviation.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> If accurately surveyed a +crooked hole may be quite as useful as a straight one.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For further information on boring see <i>Trans. Amer. +Inst. Mining Engs.</i> vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C. +le Neve Foster, <i>Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining</i>, chap. iii.; +<i>Glückauf</i>, 9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905; +<i>Scientific American</i>, 21st August 1886; +<i>Engineering and Mining Jour.</i> vol. lviii. p. 268, +vol. lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920; +<i>Trans. Inst. Mining Engs.</i>, England, vol. xxiii. p. 685; +<i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>, N. Y., vol. xvi. p. 1; +<i>Zeitschr. für Berg- Hütten- und Salinenwesen</i>, vol. xxv. p. 29; +Denny, “Diamond Drilling,” <i>Mines and Minerals</i>, vol. xx., +August 1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241; +<i>Mining Jour.</i>, 26th January 1901; +<i>Mining and Scientific Press</i>, 28th November 1903, p. 353; +<i>Öst. Zeitschr. für Berg- und Hüttenwesen</i>, 21st May, 4th June 1904; +<i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xii. p. 301; +<i>Engineering Magazine</i>, March 1896, p. 1075.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. P.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Brough, <i>Mine Surveying</i>, pp. 276-278; +Marriott, <i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xiv. p. 255.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> tsar of Muscovy (<i>c.</i> 1551-1605), +the most famous member of an ancient, now extinct, +Russian family of Tatar origin, which migrated from the Horde +to Muscovy in the 14th century. Boris’ career of service began +at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is mentioned in 1570 as +taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the archers of +the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by his +marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan’s abominable favourite +Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of +Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which +occasion Boris was promoted to the rank of <i>boyar</i>. On his +deathbed Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of his son and +successor; for Theodore, despite his seven-and-twenty years, +was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of Theodore began +with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich Demetrius, the +son of Ivan’s fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion resulting in the +banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her relations, to +their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar’s coronation +(May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches, +yet he held but the second place in the regency during the +lifetime of his co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in +August, he was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy +against him of all the other great boyars and the metropolitan +Dionysy, which sought to break Boris’ power by divorcing the +tsar from Godunov’s childless sister, only ended in the +banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov +was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into +his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their +equal. His policy was generally pacific, but always most prudent. +In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the +former reign. Five years previously he had defeated a Tatar +raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the title of <i>sluga</i>, +an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. Towards +Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an +anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor +with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov +encouraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting +them from tolls. He civilized the north-eastern and +south-eastern borders of Muscovy by building numerous towns and +fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic tribes in order. Samara, +Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of lesser towns derive +from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had been slipping +from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settlements, +including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during his +government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate, +which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches +and emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan +of Kiev. Boris’ most important domestic reform was the +<i>ukaz</i> (1587) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves +from one landowner to another, thus binding them to the soil. +The object of this ordinance was to secure revenue, but it led to +the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden +death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, 1591) +has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his +way to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was +personally concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the +many, often absurd, accusations subsequently brought against +him by jealous rivals or ignorant contemporaries who hated +Godunov’s reforms as novelties.</p> + +<p>On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598), +self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to +seize the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a +monastery would have been his lightest fate. His election was +proposed by the patriarch Job, who acted on the conviction that +Boris was the one man capable of coping with the extraordinary +difficulties of an unexampled situation. Boris, however, would +only accept the throne from a <i>Zemsky Sobor</i>, or national +assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously +elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly +crowned tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both +popular and prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well. +Enlightened as he was, he fully recognized the intellectual +inferiority of Russia as compared with the West, and did his +utmost to bring about a better state of things. He was the first +tsar to import foreign teachers on a great scale, the first to send +young Russians abroad to be educated, the first to allow Lutheran +churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the necessity of a +Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by diplomatic +means. He cultivated friendly relations with the Scandinavians, +in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal houses, so as +to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was one of +the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But his +great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness, +which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about +him. His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as +to forbid the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged +informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. +The Romanov family in especial suffered severely from +these delations. Boris died suddenly (April 13, 1605), leaving one +son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a few months and then +was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, <i>On the Historical Significance of +the Reign of Boris Godunov</i> (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850); +Sergyei Mikhailivich Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.) +(2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St Petersburg, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORISOGLYEBSK, <a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>a town of Russia, in the government of +Tambov, 100 m. S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51° 22′ N. lat. +and 43° 4′ E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern +frontiers of Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was +surrounded by wooden fortifications. The principal industries +are the preparation of wool, iron-casting, soap-boiling, +tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there is an active trade in +grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two important annual fairs. +Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BORKU,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Borgu</span>, a region of Central Africa between 17° and +19° N. and 18° and 21° E., forming part of the transitional zone +between the arid wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of +the central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains, +and is in great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging +to the same system. These hills to the south and east merge into +the plains of Wadai and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of +Lake Chad, is the Bodele basin. The drainage of the country +is to the lake, but the numerous khors with which its surface is +scored are mostly dry or contain water for brief periods only. A +considerable part of the soil is light sand drifted about by the +wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist mainly of a +number of valleys separated from each other by low and irregular +limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also +cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled +population of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies +of negroes; the others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber and +Arab tribes. The inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses.</p> + +<p>A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through +Borku to Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to +Europeans. Gustav Nachtigal spent some time in it in the +year 1871, and gave a valuable account of the region and its +inhabitants in his book, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i> (Berlin, 1879-1889). +In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great Britain, was assigned +to the French sphere of influence. The country, which had +formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs, was +then governed by the Senussi (<i>q.v.</i>), who had placed garrisons +in the chief centres of population. From it raids were made +on French territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem +entered Borku, but after capturing Ain Galakka, the principal +Senussi station, retired. Borku is also called Borgu, but must +not be confounded with the Borgu (<i>q.v.</i>) west of the Niger.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A summary of Nachtigal’s writing on Borku will be found in section 28 +of <i>Gustav Nachtigal’s Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan</i> +(1 vol.), arranged by Albert Fränkel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an +article (with map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in <i>La Géographie</i>, Oct. 1908.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORKUM,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging +to the Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the +East Frisian chain, lying between the east and west arms of the +estuary of the Ems, and opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about +2500. The island is 5 m. long and 2½ m. broad, is a favourite +summer resort, and is visited annually by about 20,000 persons. +There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, Leer and Hamburg +during the summer months. The island affords pasture for +cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORLASE, WILLIAM<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1695-1772), English antiquary and +naturalist, was born at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient +family, on the 2nd of February 1695. He was educated at +Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was ordained. In 1722 he +was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in 1732 he obtained +in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish. In the +parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with +mineral and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and +thus was led to study somewhat minutely the natural history of +the county. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal +Society; and in 1754 he published, at Oxford, his <i>Antiquities of +Cornwall</i> (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next publication was +<i>Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of +Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain</i> (Oxford, +1756). In 1758 appeared his <i>Natural History of Cornwall</i>. He +presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils +and antiquities, which he had described in his works, and +received the thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D. +He died on the 31st of August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted +with most of the leading literary men of the time, particularly +with Alexander Pope, with whom he kept up a long correspondence, +and for whose grotto at Twickenham he furnished the +greater part of the fossils and minerals.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Borlase’s letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill +several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and +a complete unpublished treatise <i>Concerning the Creation and Deluge</i>. +Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given +in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, October 1875. Borlase’s memoirs of his +own life were published in Nichol’s <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, vol. v.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORMIO<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Worms</i>), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the +province of Sondrio, 41½ m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop. +(1901) 1814. It is situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the +Adda), 4020 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass, +and, owing to its position, was of some military importance in +the middle ages. It contains interesting churches and picturesque +towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman date was discovered at Bormio in 1820.</p> + +<p>The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned +by Pliny and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are +much frequented.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORN, IGNAZ,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> <span class="sc">Edler von</span> (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist +and metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg, +in Transylvania, on the 26th of December 1742. Educated +in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he was for sixteen months a +member of the order, but left it and studied law at Prague. +Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and France, +studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered +the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed +by Maria Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna, +where he was nominated to the council of mines and the mint, +and continued to reside until his death on the 24th of July 1791. +He introduced a method of extracting metals by amalgamation +(<i>Über das Anquicken der Erze</i>, 1786), and other improvements in +mining and other technical processes. His publications also include +<i>Lithophylacium Bornianum</i> (1772-1775) and <i>Bergbaukunde</i> +(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born +attempted satire with no great success. <i>Die Staatsperücke</i>, a +tale published without his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on +Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king’s astronomer at Vienna, are two +of his satirical works. Part of a satire, entitled <i>Monachologia</i>, +in which the monks are described in the technical language of +natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born was well +acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of +Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately +connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active +part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of +the emperor Joseph II., the diet of the states of Hungary +rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and conferred the rights +of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the +cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von Born. At the +time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a work +entitled <i>Fasti Leopoldini</i>, probably relating to the prudent +conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORNA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the +Wyhra at its junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig +by rail. Pop. (1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting, +iron foundries, organ, pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1786-1837), German political writer and +satirist, was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main, +where his father, Jakob Baruch, carried on the business +of a banker. He received his early education at Giessen, but +as Jews were ineligible at that time for public appointments in +Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study medicine at Berlin +under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he resided. +Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron’s wife, +the talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave +vent to his adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of +medical science, which he had subsequently pursued at Halle, +he studied constitutional law and political science at Heidelberg +and Giessen, and in 1811 took his doctor’s degree at the latter +university. On his return to Frankfort, now constituted as a +grand duchy under the sovereignty of the prince bishop Karl von +Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of police actuary in +that city. The old conditions, however, returned in 1814 and +he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the oppression +under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in journalism, +and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers, <i>Staatsristretto</i> +and <i>Die Zeitschwingen</i>. In 1818 he became a convert to Lutheran +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span> +protestantism, changing his name from Löb Baruch to Ludwig +Börne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than, +as in the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve +his social standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited <i>Die Wage</i>, +a paper distinguished by its lively political articles and its powerful +but sarcastic theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed +by the police authorities, and in 1821 Börne quitted for a while +the field of publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg +and Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he +hurried to Paris, expecting to find the newly-constituted state of +society somewhat in accordance with his own ideas of freedom. +Although to some extent disappointed in his hopes, he was not +disposed to look any more kindly on the political condition of +Germany; this lent additional zest to the brilliant satirical +letters (<i>Briefe aus Paris</i>, 1830-1833, published Paris, 1834), +which he began to publish in his last literary venture, <i>La Balance</i>, +a revival under its French name of <i>Die Wage</i>. The <i>Briefe aus +Paris</i> was Börne’s most important publication, and a landmark +in the history of German journalism. Its appearance led him +to be regarded as one of the leaders of the new literary party of +“Young Germany.” He died at Paris on the 12th of February +1837.</p> + +<p>Börne’s works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a +thorough French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found +in his <i>Denkrede auf Jean Paul</i> (1826), a writer for whom he had +warm sympathy and admiration, in his <i>Dramaturgische Blätter</i> +(1829-1834), and the witty satire, <i>Menzel der Franzosenfresser</i> +(1837). He also wrote a number of short stories and sketches, of +which the best known are the <i>Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke</i> +(1829) and <i>Der Esskünstler</i> (1822).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The first edition of his <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> appeared at Hamburg +(1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of <i>Nachgelassene +Schriften</i> (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition +in 12 volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently. +The latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar +(8 vols., Leipzig, 1900). For further biographical matter see +K. Gutzkow, <i>Börnes Leben</i> (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann, +<i>L. Börne, sein Leben und sein Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1888). <i>Börnes Briefe +an Henriette Herz</i> (1802-1807), first published in 1861, have been +re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg, 1905), who has also published +Börne’s <i>Berliner Briefe</i> (1828) (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine’s +witty attack on Börne (<i>Werke</i>, ed. Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus’ essay +in his <i>Historiche Schriften</i> (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters +in G. Brandes, <i>Hovedströmninger i det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur</i> +vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German trans. 1891; English trans. +1905), and in J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (Stuttgart, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORNEO,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending +from 7° N. to 4° 20′ S., and from 108° 53′ to 119° 22′ E. It is +830 m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth. +Its area according to the calculations of the Topographical +Bureau of Batavia (1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures +are admittedly approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate, +gives the area of Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however, +five times as large as England and Wales. Politically Borneo is +divided into four portions: (1) British North Borneo, the territory +exploited and administered by the Chartered British North +Borneo Company, to which a separate section of this article +is devoted; (2) Brunei (<i>q.v.</i>), a Malayan sultanate under British +protection; (3) Sarawak (<i>q.v.</i>), the large territory ruled by +raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign +relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises +the remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion +of the island.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features</i>.—The general character of the country is +mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great +elevation, and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is +situated near its north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above +sea-level. There is no proper nucleus of mountains whence chains +ramify in different directions. The central and west central +parts of the island, however, are occupied by three mountain +chains and a plateau. These chains are: (1) the folded chain +of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western division of +Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains +near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.; +(2) the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits +range from 3000 to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit +Raja, a plateau which divides the waters of the Kapuas from the +rivers of southern Borneo; and (3) the Müller chain, between the +eastern parts of the Madi plateau (presently to be mentioned) and +the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region presenting heights, such as +Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once active but are now long +extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between the Kapuas and +the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft., and it +is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are +homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera, +but of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern +end of the Kapuas mountains there are further to be observed: +(1) A chain running north-north-east, which forms the boundary +between Sarawak and Dutch Borneo, the highest peak of which, +Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft. This chain can hardly be +said to extend continuously to the extreme north of the island, +but it carries on the line of elevation towards the mountains of +Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to the +north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The +mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in +the portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2) +A chain which runs eastward from the central mountains and +terminates in the great promontory of the east coast, known +variously as Cape Kanior or Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked +chain running in a south-easterly direction among the congeries +of hills that extend south-eastward from the central mountains, +and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast, heights +up to and exceeding 6000 ft.</p> + +<p><i>Coasts.</i>—Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth, +the coasts of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low +alluvial lands, of a marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy +character. In places the sands are fringed by long lines of +<i>Casuarina</i>, trees; in others, and more especially in the neighbourhood +of some of the river mouths, there are deep banks of black +mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast presents to +the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue, sparsely +clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of rank +grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a +maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers +few accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a +rule at or near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded +too efficiently by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the +long coast-line of Dutch Borneo there are only seven ports of call, +which are habitually made use of by the ships of the Dutch +Packet Company. They are Pontianak, Banjermasin, Kota +Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The islands off +the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial formation +at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the +shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the +principal islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern +extremity, Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>), a British colony off the west coast of +the territory of North Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the +south-west coast. On Great Karimata is situated the village of +Palembang with a population of about 500 souls employed in +fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest produce.</p> + +<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:1076px" src="images/img257.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><i>Rivers</i>.—The rivers play a very important part in the economy +of Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the +main arteries of population. Hydrographically the island may +be divided into five principal versants. Of these the shortest +embraces the north-western slope, north of the Kapuas range, +and discharges its waters into the China Sea. The most important +of its rivers are the Sarawak, the Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the +Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.), the Baram, the Limbang +or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of British North +Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and of +scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range +here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs +parallel. In the south-western versant the largest river is the +Kapuas, which, rising near the centre of the island, falls into the +sea between Mampawa and Sukadana after a long and winding +course. This river, of volume varying with the tide and the +amount of rainfall, is normally navigable by small steamers and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span> +native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for 300 to 400 m., that is +to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence as far as Benut. +The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow than the +lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes which +extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its +considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi +with its affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several +channels in a wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the +Kapuas, is navigable in its lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft. +Rivers lying to the south of the Kapuas, but of less importance in +the way of size, commerce and navigation, are the Simpang, +Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood of whose mouths, +or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native villages are +situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal river of +the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and +falls into the Java Sea in 114° 30′ E. Its upper reaches are +greatly impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower +part of its course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district, +much of which is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two +rivers of considerable size towards the west, the Kapuas Murung +or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or Great Dyak. The Katingan +or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and the Kota +Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west. The +rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage, +the basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000 +sq. m., and the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are +navigable for two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size, +but in many cases the bars at their mouths present considerable +difficulties to ships drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the +larger affluents of the Barito are also navigable throughout the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span> +greater part of their courses. The south-eastern like the +north-western corner of the island is watered by a considerable +number of short mountain streams. The one great river of the eastern +versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the central +mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by numerous +mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from its +mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical +features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan +or Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that +calls for mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant +are comparatively small, as the island narrows into a kind of +promontory. Of these the Kinabatangan in the territory of British +North Borneo is the most important. Lakes are neither +numerous nor very large. In most cases they are more fittingly +described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper Kapuas, of +which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar, +and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the +basins of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine +natural harbour in the island of which any use has been made is +that of Sandakan, the principal settlement of the North Borneo +Company on the north coast.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known. +The mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch +possessions, and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island, +consists chiefly of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones +and limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The +sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but +Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable that +several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar +rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and +possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Müller range, the +Madi plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist +chiefly of almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of +Tertiary age. The low-lying country between the mountain ranges +is covered for the most part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, +but Cretaceous beds occur at several localities. Some of the older +rocks of the mountain regions have been referred to the Devonian, +but the evidence cannot be considered conclusive. <i>Vertebraria</i> and +<i>Phyllotheca</i>, plants characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series, +have been recorded in Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those +of the lower part of the Australian Carboniferous system, are stated +to occur in the limestone of north Borneo. <i>Pseudomonotis salinaria</i>, +a Triassic form, has been noted from the schists of the west of Borneo. +In the Kapoewas district radiolarian cherts supposed to be of +Jurassic age are met with. Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging +to several horizons, have been described from west Borneo and +Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which have long been known in +west Borneo, are comparatively little disturbed. They consist +for the most part of marls with <i>Orbitolina concava</i>, and are +referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of somewhat later date are +found in the Marpapura district in south-east Borneo. The Tertiary +system includes conglomerates, sandstones, limestones and marls, +which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene age. They +contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds generally lie +nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the Madi plateau +and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several thousand +feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are +extensively developed, especially in the Müller Mountains. The whole +of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west +and rhyolites and dacites in the east.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied. +It includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a +somewhat yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper, +iron, tin, antimony, mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and +coal. The exploitation of the mines suffers in many cases from +the difficulties and expense of transport, the high duties payable +in Dutch Borneo to the native princes, the competition among +the rival companies, and often the limited quantities of the +minerals found in the mines. The districts of Sambas and +Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys of +the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest +quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from +alluvial washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working +gold-mines in the upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the +prospects of the enterprise, which is conducted on a fairly +extensive scale, are known to be encouraging. Diamonds are also +found widely distributed and mainly in the same regions as the +gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the largest quantity, +and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of export. +Considerable progress has been made in the development of the +oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the <i>Nederlandsch Indische +Industrie en Handel Maatschappij</i>, the Dutch business of the +Shell Transport and Trading Company, increased its output +from 123,592 tons in 1901 to 285,720 tons in 1904, and showed +further satisfactory increase thereafter. This company owns +extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and Sanga-Sanga. The quality +of the oil varies in a remarkable way according to the depth. +The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft., and yields +a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next source +is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much lighter +in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the +refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis, +whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable +percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very +high, owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the +natural pressure of the gas. There is every reason to believe +that the oil-fields of Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal +mines have, in many instances, been opened and abandoned, +failure being due to the difficulty of production. Coal of good +quality has been found in Pengaron and elsewhere in the Banjermasin +district, but most Borneo coal is considerably below this +average of excellence. It has also been found in fair quantities +at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak. The coalmines +of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success +has never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under +130 tons a day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the +raja of Sarawak, yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent +coal. The discovery that Borneo produced antimony was made +in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the orientalist, who learned in that +year that a quantity had been brought to Singapore by a native +trader as ballast. The supply is practically unlimited and widely +distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in Sarawak.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Health</i>.—As is to be anticipated, having regard to +its insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through +the very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very +damp. In the hills and in the interior regions are found which +may almost be described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere +is dense, humid and oppressive. Throughout the average +temperature is from 78° to 80° F., but the thermometer rarely +falls below 70°, except in the hills, and occasionally on exceptional +days mounts as high as 96° in the shade. The rainy +westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the meteorological +stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind. +Even at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west +wind brings annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain +carried by the south-east wind. The difference between the +seasons is not rigidly marked. The climate is practically unchanging +all the year round, the atmosphere being uniformly +moist, and though days of continuous downpour are rare, comparatively +few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls +between November and May, and at this season the torrents are +tremendous while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and +violent, almost invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an +extensive area there is, of course, great variety in the climatic +character of different districts, especially when viewed in relation +to health. Some places, such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance, +are notoriously unhealthy; but from the statistics of the Dutch +government, and the records of Sarawak and British North +Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo has in +general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java, +or in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula. +Among the native races the prevailing diseases, apart from those +of a malarial origin, are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient +food, from intemperance, and from want of cleanliness. +The habit of allowing their meat to putrefy before regarding it +as fit for food, and of encouraging children of tender age to drink +to intoxication, accounts for absence of old folk and the heavy +mortality which are to be observed among the Muruts of British +North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes of +the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus +are common among the natives throughout the country and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span> +especially in the interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with +on the coast. Smallpox, dysentery and fevers, frequently of +a bilious character, are endemic and occasionally epidemic. +Cholera breaks out from time to time and works great havoc, as +was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak’s punitive +expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by +boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast +could be regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will +attack whole tribes. About one sixth of the native population +of the interior, and a smaller proportion of those living on the +coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm called <i>kurap</i>, which also +prevails almost universally among the Sakai and Semang, the +aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The disease is +believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is +not uncommon.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of +species, many of which are numerically of great importance. +Among the quadrupeds the most remarkable is the orang-utan +(Malay, <i>ôrang ûtan</i>, <i>i.e.</i> jungle man), as the huge ape, called <i>mias</i> +or <i>mâyas</i> by the natives, is named by Europeans. Numerous +species of monkey are found in Borneo, including the wahwah, +a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance and +habits than the orang-utan, and several <i>Semnopitheci</i>, such as the +long-nosed ape and the golden-black or <i>chrysomelas</i>. The large-eyed +<i>Stenops tardigradus</i> also deserves mention. The larger +beasts of prey are not met with, and little check is therefore put +on the natural fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small +panther and the clouded tiger (so called)—<i>Felis macroscelis</i>—are +the largest animals of the cat kind that occur in Borneo. +The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay or honey-bear is +very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur in +the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare, +and in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution +of quadrupeds as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan +Peninsula is somewhat peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious. +Many quadrupeds, such as the honey-bear and the +rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is common +both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur +in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found +in Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so +plentiful in parts of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never +been discovered in the Malay Peninsula. It has been suggested, +but with very scant measure of probability, that the existence of +elephants in Borneo, whose confinement to a single district is +remarkable and unexplained, is due to importation; and the +fact is on record that when Magellan’s ships visited Brunei in +1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the sultan of +Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way confounded +with the Malayan <i>seladang</i> or gaur, are rare, but the +whole country swarms with wild swine, and the <i>babirusa</i>, a +pig with curious horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators +are found in most of the rivers, and the gavial is less frequently +met with. Three or four species of deer are common, including +the mouse-deer, or <i>plandok</i>, an animal of remarkable grace and +beauty, about the size of a hare but considerably less heavy. +Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines, civet-cats, rats, bats, +flying-foxes and lizards are found in great variety; snakes of +various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are abundant, +while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes with +horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered +by Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some +quarters. The most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons, +owls, horn-bills, cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back +and peacock-pheasants), partridges, ravens, crows, parrots, +pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe, quail and swallows. Of most +of these birds several varieties are met with. The <i>Cypselus +esculentus</i>, or edible-nest swift, is very common, and the nests, +which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed the best +in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief insect +pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds +of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to +beasts. There are also two kinds of ants, the sěmut âpi (“fire +ant”) and the <i>sěmut lâda</i> (“pepper ant”), whose bites are +peculiarly painful. Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties +abound. The honey and the wax of the wild bee are collected +by the natives. Butterflies and moths are remarkable for their +number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no less numerously +represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly +wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding +seas, swarm with fish. The <i>siawan</i> is a species of fish +found in the rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted. +The natives are expert and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang +and pearl-shell are of some commercial importance.</p> + +<p>The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not +very obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo, +a smaller breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula, +and in some districts bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small +horses, are the principal domestic animals. The character of the +country and the nomadic habits of many of the natives of the +interior, who rarely occupy their villages for more than a few +years in succession, have not proved favourable to pastoral +modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture, +but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the +saddle. Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by +the wealthier classes, are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak. +In British North Borneo, and especially in the district of Tempasuk +on the north-west coast, Borneo ponies, bred originally, +it is supposed, from the stock which is indigenous to the Sulu +archipelago, are common.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion +of the surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation. +The king of the forest is the <i>tapan</i>, which, rising to a great height +without fork or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage. +The official seats of some of the chiefs are constructed from the +wood of this tree. Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of +its timber, is abundant; it is used by the natives for the pillars +of their homes and forms an article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong. +It is rivalled in hardness by the <i>kâyu těmběsu</i>. In all, +about sixty kinds of timber of marketable quality are furnished +in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of extraction, even +in the regions situated in close proximity to the large waterways, +renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will attain +to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of +supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in +great variety, including the <i>nîpah</i>, which is much used for thatching, +the cabbage, fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two +furnish large supplies of food to the natives, some copra is exported, +and sago factories, mostly in the hands of Chinese, +prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets. Gutta-percha +(<i>gětah pěrcha</i> in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon, cloves, +nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in +the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the +much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian, +a large fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed +of stout pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a +tall tree and occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries +upon passers-by. Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons, +pumpkins, cucumbers, pineapples, bananas and mangosteens +are cultivated, as also are a large number of other fruits. Rice +is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers and in the swamps, +and also in rude clearings in the interior; sugar-cane of superior +quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes exported +in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of the +Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of +cigars, in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for +native consumption, which is of small commercial importance, +is cultivated in most parts of the island. Indigo, coffee and +pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in the western division +of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the flowering +plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants—the +latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the +northern districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very +common, many that are usually independent assuming here the +parasitic character; the <i>Vanda lowii</i>, for example, grows on the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span> +lower branches of trees, and its strange pendent flower-stalks +often hang down so as almost to reach the ground. Ferns are +abundant, but not so varied as in Java.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The population of Borneo is not known with any approach to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it is estimated as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">1,130,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">British North Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Sarawak</td> <td class="tcr">500,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Brunei</td> <td class="tcr">20,000</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and +vast areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain +unexplored, and free from any practical authority or control. +In Sarawak, owing to the high administrative genius of the first +raja and his successor, the natives have been brought far more +completely under control, but the raja has never found occasion +to utilize the machinery of his government for the accurate +enumeration of his subjects.</p> + +<p>Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two +divisions, the western and the south and eastern respectively. +Of the two, the former is under the more complete and effective +control. The estimated population in the western division is +413,000 and in the south and eastern 717,000. Europeans +number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and Chinese, mainly in +the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions there is an +average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The +sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is +due to a variety of causes—to the physical character of the +country, which for the most part restricts the area of population to the +near neighbourhood of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to +which the majority of the natives have attained and the consequent +disregard of sanitation and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting, +the last of which has not even yet been effectually checked among some +of the tribes of the interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in +earlier times of Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives, +more especially of the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a +life of spasmodic nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an +incredible improvidence which induces them to convert into intoxicating +liquor a large portion of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious +character which are invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies, +and certain superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of +abortion, have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas, +Montrado and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the +population is due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of +mines, the navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the +concentration of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths +of rivers and the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western +division, Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000; +Montrado, Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the +south and eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000 +inhabitants; Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with +populations of from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and +Martapura early Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the +influence still are manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided +by navigable rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population +to a degree which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the +interior parts of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only +a very small proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by +agriculture and industry, the great majority of them being officials. +The Arabs and Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and +agriculture. Of the natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which, +however, is for the most part of a somewhat primitive description. The +industries of the natives are confined to such crafts as spinning and +weaving and dyeing, the manufacture of iron weapons and implements, +boat- and shipbuilding, &c. More particularly in the south-eastern +division, and especially in the districts of Negara, Banjermasin, +Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding, iron forging, gold- and +silversmith’s work, and the polishing of +diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger +centres of population.</p> + +<p><i>Races.</i>—The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable +variety of races, of different origin and degrees of civilization. +The most important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and +Muruts of the interior, the Malays, among whom must be +counted such Malayan tribes as the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &c., the +Bugis, who were originally immigrants from Celebes, and the +Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs, are of +importance on account of their political influence in Dutch +Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance +in Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the +Malays, Dyaks and Bugis are given under their several headings, +and some information concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will +be found in the section below, which deals with British North +Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with Borneo calls for +notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized people +who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion +of the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted. +The Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la +on the north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century, +and later documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th +century. The traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm +the statements, and many of the leading families of Brunei +in north-west Borneo claim to have Chinese blood in their +veins, while the annals of Sulu record an extensive Chinese +immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is certain +that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th +centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and +to trade with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable +Chinese population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most +part in planting and exporting pepper, but the consistent +oppression of the native rajas destroyed their industry and led +eventually to the practical extirpation of the Chinese. The +Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged immigration from +China with a view to developing the mineral resources of their +territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found in +considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere. +They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or +agriculture, to carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder. +About 1779 the Dutch acquired immediate authority +over all strangers, and thus assumed responsibility for the +control of the Chinese, who presently proved themselves somewhat +troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and +were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search +of fresh mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages +with the Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives. +They brought with them from China their aptitude for the +organization of secret societies which, almost from the first, +assumed the guise of political associations. These secret societies +furnished them with a machinery whereby collective action was +rendered easy, and under astute leaders they offered a formidable +opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when driven into +the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they cost the +first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were +at last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the +Chinese are now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day +the Chinaman forms perhaps the most valuable element in the +civilization and development of the island, just as does his fellow +in the mining states of the Malayan Peninsula. They are industrious, +frugal and intelligent; the richer among them are +excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in their +dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own +script, and the second generation acquires an education of an +European type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping, +trading and mining industries, so long as the mining +is of an alluvial character, is in Chinese hands. The greater +part of the Chinese on the west coast are originally drawn +from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They are +called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those +which furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the +Malay Peninsula. They are a rough and hardy people, and are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span> +apt at times to be turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes +mostly from Fuh-kien and the coast districts of Amoy. They +are known to the Borneans as Ollohs.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political +unity, and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact +unappreciated by the vast majority of its native inhabitants. +The name of Kalamantan has been given by some Europeans +(on what original authority it is not possible now to ascertain) +as the native name for the island of Borneo considered as a +whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of the island +itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To this +day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak +of going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may +be, but make use of no term which recognizes that these localities +are part of a single whole. The only archaeological remains are +a few Hindu temples, and it is probable that the early settlement +of the south-eastern portion of the island by Hindus dates from +some time during the first six centuries of our era. There exist, +however, no data, not even any trustworthy tradition, from +which to reconstruct the early history of Borneo. Borneo began +to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca in 1511, when +Alphonso d’Albuquerque despatched Antonio d’Abreu with three +ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions +to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he +might encounter on his way. D’Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly +direction from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern +coast of Borneo and laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island +near the south-western extremity of Ceram. He returned to +Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his captains, Francisco Serrano, +at Ternate, where Magellan’s followers found him in 1521. After +Magellan’s death, his comrades sailed from the Moluccas across +the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white men who +are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of +Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting +account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers +by the sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the +principal objective of European traders, and the route followed +by Magellan’s ships being frequently used, Borneo was often +touched at during the remainder of the 16th century, and trade +relations with Brunei were successfully established by the +Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat unsuccessfully +to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until +1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance +and by their agency was restored to his own, that they attained +their object. Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful +intercourse with Brunei, varied by not infrequent hostilities, +and in 1645 a punitive expedition on a larger scale than heretofore +was sent to chastise Brunei for persistent acts of piracy. +No attempt at annexation followed upon this action, commerce +rather than territory being at this period the prime object of +both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon +the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only +effort at proselytizing of which we have record came to an +untimely end in the death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia, +who had been its originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and +British East India Companies had been formed, had destroyed +the monopoly so long enjoyed by the Portuguese, and to a less +extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the Malayan Archipelago, +and had gained a footing in Borneo. The establishment of +Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates from +1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman, +sailed from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession +of the Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was +appointed Dutch resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana. +The first appearance of the British in Borneo dates from +1609, and by 1698 they had an important settlement at Banjermasin, +whence they were subsequently expelled by the influence +of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the sultan a trading +monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the predominant +European race throughout the Malay Archipelago, +defeating the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the +trading-posts all along the western and southern coasts of +Borneo were presently their exclusive possessions, the sultan of +Bantam, who was the overlord of these districts, ceding his +rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile had turned their +attention to the north of the island, over which the sultan of +Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759, +Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of +Balambangan, and the whole of the north-eastern promontory. +A military post was established, but it was destroyed in 1775 +by the natives under the <i>dâto’</i>, or vassal chiefs, who resented +the cession of their territory. This mishap rendered a treaty, +which had been concluded in 1774 with the sultan of Brunei, +practically a dead letter, and by the end of the century British +influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at an end. +The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered +from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809 +to order the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the +coasts of Borneo, assisted and stimulated by immigrants from +the neighbouring islands to the north, devoted themselves more +and more to organized piracy, and putting to sea in great fleets +manned by two and three thousand men on cruises that lasted +for two and even three years, they terrorized the neighbouring +seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost impossible +for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the +British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by +the sultan of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811 +Alexander Hare was despatched thither as commissioner and +resident. He not only obtained for his government an advantageous +treaty, but secured for himself a grant of a district +which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About the same +time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a +post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the +Dutch in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the +Dutch government was left in undisputed possession of the field. +An energetic policy was soon after adopted, and about half the +kingdom of Banjermasin was surrendered to the Dutch by its +sultan in 1823, further concessions being made two years later. +Meanwhile, George Müller, while exploring the east coast, +obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of Dutch +authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the +enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak +of war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected +by the Dutch for a considerable period, and no effective check +was imposed upon the natives with a view to stopping piracy, +which was annually becoming more and more unendurable. On +the rise of Singapore direct trade had been established with +Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to +British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir +James Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned +to the state of affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for +Borneo, determined, if possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he +had obtained from the sultan of Brunei the grant of supreme +authority over Sarawak, in which state, on the sultan’s behalf, +he had waged a successful war, and before many years had +elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government, succeeded +in suppressing piracy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brooke, Sir James</a></span>; and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sarawak</a></span>). In 1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no +cession of territory to any nation or individual without the +consent of Great Britain. Since then more and more territory +has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the raja of Sarawak +and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest remnant +of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of the +sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the +hopes which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole +island in their dominions, but it served also to stimulate their +efforts to consolidate their power within the sphere already +subjected to their influence. Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and +Bulungan had made nominal submission to them in 1834, and +in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their protectorate, a +treaty of a similar character being concluded about the same +time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo +were finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June +1891. In spite of this, however, large areas in the interior, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span> +both in Dutch Borneo and in the territory owned by the British +North Borneo Company, are still only nominally under European +control, and have experienced few direct effects of European administration.</p> + +<p class="center pt2 sc">British North Borneo or Sabah</p> + +<p>Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions +of the territory situated on the north-western coast of the island, +and originally in no way included the remainder of the country +now owned by the British North Borneo Company. It has +become customary, however, for the name to be used by +Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the company’s +territory, and little by little the more educated natives are +insensibly adopting the practice.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—As has been seen, the British connexion with +northern and north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century, +nor was it resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for +Brunei and Sarawak. The island of Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>) was occupied +by the British as a crown colony in 1848, and this may be taken +as the starting-point of renewed British relations with that +portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the north of +Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established +in Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which +was subsequently the capital of the North Borneo Company’s +territory. In 1878, through the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards +Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of Sulu was induced to transfer +to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck and Mr Dent, all his +rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen, he had +been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters +of this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon. +Sir Harry Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had +rendered great assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the +suppression of piracy, and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881 +the British North Borneo Provisional Association, Limited, was +formed to take over the concession which had been obtained +from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that year a petition +was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal charter. +This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo +Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of +some diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish +governments, all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by +the original grants, and proceeded under its charter to organize +the administration of the territory. The company subsequently +acquired further sovereign and territorial rights from the sultan +of Brunei and his chiefs in addition to some which had already +been obtained at the time of the formation of the company. +The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas district, +including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same +year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani +islands in April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the “State +of North Borneo,” the territory of the company was made a +British protectorate, but its administration remained entirely +in the hands of the company, the crown reserving only control +of its foreign relations, and the appointment of its governors +being required to receive the formal sanction of the secretary of +state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government placed the +colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the +governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal +commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission +from the company. This arrangement held good until 1905, +when, in answer to the frequently and strongly expressed desire +of the colonists, Labuan was removed from the jurisdiction of +the company and attached to the colony of the Straits Settlements. +In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby the sultan +of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and territorial +rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas river +which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the +effect of rounding off the company’s territories, and had the +additional advantage of doing away with the various no-man’s +lands which had long been used by the discontented among the +natives as so many Caves of Adullam. The company’s acquisition +of territory was viewed with considerable dissatisfaction +by many of the natives, and this found expression in frequent acts +of violence. The most noted and the most successful of the +native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet Saleh), +who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his +regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation. +In 1898 a composition was made with him, the terms of which +were unfortunately not defined with sufficient clearness, and he +retired into the Tambunan country, to the east of the range +which runs parallel with the west coast, where for a period he +lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes of the valley. In +1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his acts of +aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and this +time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of +January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of +his defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town +of Kudat on Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused +more panic than damage, and little by little during the next +years the last smouldering embers of rebellion were extinguished. +At the present time, though effective administration of the more +inaccessible districts of the interior cannot be said to have been +established even yet, the pacification of the native population +is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan district, +the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled. +It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of +perhaps 12,000.</p> + +<p><i>Geography.</i>—The state of North Borneo may roughly be +said to form a pentagon of which three sides, the north-west, +north-east and east are washed by the sea, while the remaining two +sides, the south-west and the south, are bordered respectively +by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and by the territories of the +raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government. The boundary +between the company’s territory and the Dutch government is +defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention +has already been made.</p> + +<p>The total area of the company’s territory is estimated at about +31,000 sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater +portion is exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the +interior consists almost entirely of highlands with here and there +open valleys and plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the +west coast the mountain range, as already noted, runs parallel +with the seashore at a distance from it of about 15 m. Of this +range the central feature is the mountain of Kinabalu, which is +composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks and attains +to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to +the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of +the Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country +and falls into the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated +to be 11,000 ft. above sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is +itself for the most part from 1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea, +forming a string of small plateaus marking the sites of former +lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the eastern coast the country +consists of huddled hills broken here and there by regions of a +more mountainous character. The principal plateaus are in the +Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan, +and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu. +Similar plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted +about the interior. The proximity of the mountain range to the +seashore causes the rivers of the west coast, with the single +exception of the Padas, to be rapid, boulder-obstructed, shallow +streams of little value as means of communication for a distance +of more than half a dozen miles from their mouths. The Padas +is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and native boats +for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller craft +can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at +this point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids, +which are of such a character that nothing can even be brought +down them. Even below Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult +and occasionally dangerous by similar obstructions. The other +principal rivers of the west coast are the Kalias, Kimanis, +Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman, Mengkabong, Tampasuk +and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any great importance +as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of pony +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span> +raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis +waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the +volume of water is not great. Here also are the principal +Bajau settlements. Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the +words <i>Bâjau</i> and <i>pěrômpak</i> (pirate) are still used as +synonymous terms. At the northern extremity of the island Marudu Bay +receives the waters of the Marudu which rises on the western side +of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal rivers are the +Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu and forms +its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk, +which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay; +and the Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in +the territory, which is believed to have its rise eastward of the +range of which Trus Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable +by steamer for a considerable distance and by native boats for +a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth. Some valuable +tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat liable to flood, and +some remarkable burial-caves are found in the valley of the +Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are the +Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the +Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it +as a whole, the company’s territory is much less generously +watered than are other parts of Borneo, which again compares +unfavourably in this respect with the Malayan states of the +peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially those of the west coast, +are obstructed by bars at their mouths that render them difficult +of access. Several of the natural harbours of North Borneo, on +the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious. Sandakan +Harbour, on the north-east coast (5° 40′ N., 118° 10′ E.), runs +inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by +the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only +2 m. across, is split into two channels by the little, high, +bluff-like island of Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies +from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance +half-way up the bay. The principal town in the territory, and +the seat of government (though an attempt has been unsuccessfully +made to transfer this to Jesselton on the west coast), is +Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the Sarwaka inlet. +At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and Kudat +in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of +H.M.S. “Nigeria” in 1881, is a small but useful harbour.</p> + +<p><i>Climate and Population.</i>—The climate of North Borneo is +tropical, hot, damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and +not usually excessive. The shade temperature at Sandakan +ordinarily ranges from 72° to 94° F. The population of the +company’s territory is not known with any approach to accuracy, +but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to 175,000, +including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are +found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the +country bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly +by Dusuns, by Kadayans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns—both Malayan +tribes—and by Brunei Malays. The east coast is very sparsely +populated and its inhabitants are mostly Bajaus and settlers +from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. The interior is dotted +with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or by Muruts, +a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided up +into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a +common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe +are festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as +belonging to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly +seem to be the representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of +the island, and there is much reason to think that the Dusuns +also must be classed as distinct from the Dyaks. The Dusun +language, it is interesting to note, presents very curious +grammatical complications and refinements such as are not to be +found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples +of the Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern +Asia. Dusuns and Muruts alike are in a very low state of +civilization, and both indulge inordinately in the use of +intoxicating liquors of their own manufacture.</p> + +<p><i>Settlements and Communication.</i>—The company possesses a +number of small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan, +with a population of 9 500, is the most important. The remainder +which call for separate mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay +on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu Bay and Jesselton on Gaya +Bay on the west coast. A railway of indifferent construction +runs along the west coast from Jesselton to Weston on Brunei +Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to Tenom above +the rapids. It was originally intended that this should eventually +be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko Bay) +on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties +which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse +population of the territory, and the failure of the existing line +to justify the expectations entertained by its designers, combine +to render the prosecution of any such project highly improbable. +Sandakan is connected by telegraph with Mempakul on the west +coast whence a cable runs to Labuan and so gives telegraphic +communication with Singapore. The overland line from Mempakul +to Sandakan, however, passes through forest-clad and +very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is therefore +subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic communication +between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been +established and is more regularly and successfully maintained. +The only roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate +vicinity of the company’s principal stations. The Sabah Steamship +Company, subsidized by the Chartered Company, runs +steamers along the coast, calling at all the company’s stations +at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm runs +vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore +to Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at +Jesselton and Kudat <i>en route</i>. There is also fairly frequent +communication between Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey +of four days’ steaming.</p> + +<p><i>Products and Trade</i>.—The capabilities of the company’s +territory are only dimly known. Coal has been found in the +neighbourhood of Cowie Harbour and elsewhere, but though its +quality is believed to be as good as that exported from Dutch +Borneo, it is not yet known whether it exists in payable +quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits on the +banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the +quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a +whole has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and +no opinion can at present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth +or poverty of the company’s property. Traces of mineral oil, +iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony have been found, but the +wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its jungle produce. +It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but the +difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry +within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans, +mangrove-bark, edible nuts, guano, edible birds’-nests, &c., are +all valuable articles of export. The principal cultivated produce +is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts, coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes. +Of these the tobacco and the sago are the most important. +Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the tobacco crop increased +from £471 to £200,000.</p> + +<p>As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North +Borneo is largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send +their agents inland to attend the <i>Tamus</i> (Malay, <i>těmu</i>, to meet) +or fairs, which are the recognized scenes of barter between the +natives of the interior and those of the coast. At Sandakan +there is a Chinese population of over 2000.</p> + +<p><i>Administration</i>.—For administrative purposes the territory +is divided into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the +north; Keppel on the west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh, +Mayne and Elphinstone on the east coast; and Dent and +Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these provinces, however, +are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The form +of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted +in the Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of +their administration by British residents. The government is +vested primarily in the court of directors appointed under the +company’s charter, which may be compared to the colonial +office in its relation to a British colony, though the court of +directors interests itself far more closely than does the colonial +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span> +department in the smaller details of local administration. The +supreme authority on the spot is represented by the governor, +under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel, +officers who occupy much the same position as that usually +known by the title of magistrate and collector. The less important +districts are administered by district magistrates, who +also collect the taxes. The principal departments, whose chiefs +reside at the capital, are the treasury, the land and survey, the +public works, the constabulary, the medical and the judicial. +The secretariat is under the charge of a government secretary +who ranks next in precedence to the governor. Legislation is +by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a council, +meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads +of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The +public service is recruited by nomination by the court of directors. +The governor is the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a +judge who is subordinate to him takes all ordinary supreme court +cases. The laws are the Indian Penal and Civil Procedure Codes +and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few local laws promulgated +by proclamation. There is an Imam’s court for the +trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession, +&c. The native chiefs are responsible to the government for +the preservation of law and order in their districts. They have +restricted judicial powers. The constabulary numbers some +600 men and consists of a mixed force of Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi +Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a few Europeans. +There is a Protestant mission which supports a church—the only +stone building in the territory—and a school at Sandakan, with +branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman +Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at +Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points +on the west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters +are at Kuching in Sarawak. The Chinese have their +joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few small mosques, but +the vast majority of the native inhabitants are pagans who +have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Finance and Money.</i>—The principal sources of revenue are +the licences granted for the importation and retailing of opium, +wine and spirits, which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs +duty of 5% on imports; an export tax of 5% on jungle produce; +a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient native custom; and a stamp +duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale of government +lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &c. Judicial fees +bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and +revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The +people of the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large +number of the natives of the interior escaping all payment of +dues to the company, the revenue being for the most part contributed +by the more civilized members of the community +residing in the neighbourhood of the company’s stations. There +are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking +business when required. The state, which has adopted the +penny postage, is in the Postal Union, and money orders on +North Borneo are issued in the United Kingdom and in most +British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the principal +banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900. +There is also a government note issue issued by the company for +use within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and +British dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin—viz. +cents and half cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the +Straits Settlements, and measures have been taken with a view +to the accomplishment of this. In the interior the principal +medium of exchange among the natives is the large earthenware +jars, imported originally, it is believed, from China, which form +the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Cl.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert, +<i>Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear +1609</i>; <i>Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en +Atchin in het jaar 1691</i>; Beeckman, <i>Visit to Borneo</i>, 1718, in J. +Pinkerton’s <i>General Collections</i> (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in <i>Ond +en Nieuw Oost Indiën</i> (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel, +<i>Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. “Dido”</i> (London, 1846); R. Mundy, +<i>Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes</i> (London, 1848); F.S. +Marryat, <i>Borneo</i>, &c. (1848); P.J. Veth, <i>Borneo’s Westerafdeeling</i> (Zalt-Bommel, +1854 and 1856); S. Müller, <i>Reizen en onderzoekingen in den +Indischen Archipel</i> (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, <i>Head-hunters of +Borneo</i> (London, 1881), and <i>Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo</i> (The Hague, +1887); J. Hatton, <i>The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North +Borneo</i> (London, 1882); F. Hatton, <i>North Borneo</i> (London, 1885); +T. Posewitz, <i>Borneo ... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien</i> +(Berlin, 1889), Eng. trans., <i>Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources</i> +(London, 1892); J. Whitehead, <i>Exploration of Mount Kini Balu</i> +(London, 1893); Mrs W.B. Pryor, <i>A Decade in Borneo</i> (London, +1894); H. Ling Roth, <i>The Natives of Sarawak and North Borneo</i> +(London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf, <i>Geologische Verkinningstochten +in Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1900, Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis, +<i>In Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1901), and <i>Quer durch Borneo</i> +(Leiden, 1904), &c.; W.H. Furness, <i>Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters</i> +(London, 1902); O. Beccari, <i>Nelle Foreste di Borneo</i> (Florence, +1902), Eng. trans., <i>Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo</i> (London, +1904); D. Cator, <i>Everyday Life among the Head-hunters</i> (London, +1905). For geology, besides the works of Posewitz and Molengraaf +already cited, see R.B. Newton in <i>Geol. Mag</i>., 1897, pp. 407-415, +and <i>Proc. Malac. Soc</i>., London, vol. v. (1902-1903), pp. 403-409. +A series of papers on the palaeontology of the island will be found in +the several volumes of the <i>Samml. Geol</i>. R. Mus., Leiden.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORNHOLM,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the +Swedish coast, belonging to Denmark, lying on 15° E., and +between 55° and 55° 18′ N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to +N.W. and 19 (extreme) from E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The +surface is generally hilly; the scenery is fine in the north, where +the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and the granite hill of Helligdomsklipper +dominates the island. Besides freestone, exported +for building, limestone, blue marble, and porcelain-clay are +worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but it is not +of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The +inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing, +distillation and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving +and clock-making are also carried on to some extent. The +capital is Rönne (115 m. by sea from Copenhagen), and there are +five other small towns on the island—Svanike, Neksö, Hasle, +Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects Rönne with Neksö +(22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N. Madvig, the +philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch’s +Hotel, 10 m. N. of Rönne, is the most favoured resort on the +island, which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast +are the ruins of the castle of Hammershus, which was built in +1158, and long served as a state prison; while another old +castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684, and important as commanding +the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on Christiansö, +one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island of +Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was +long the independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th +century it became a fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it +was captured by the Hanseatic League, in 1522 it came under +Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made directly subject to the +city of Lübeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by storm, and their +possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde in 1658; +but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a +popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces, +the island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORNIER, HENRI,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1825-1901) French poet +and dramatist, was born at Lunel (Hérault) on the 25th of +December 1825. He came to Paris in 1845 With the object of +studying law, but in that year he published a volume of verse, +<i>Les Premières Feuilles</i>, and the Comédie Francaise accepted a +play of his entitled <i>Le Mariage de Luther</i>. He was given a post +in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century, +becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Théâtre +Français his heroic drama in verse, <i>La Fille de Roland</i>. The +action of the play turns on the love of Gérald, son of the traitor +Ganelon, for the daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and +the nobility of the character of Gérald, who renounces Berthe +when he learns his real origin, procured for the piece a great +success. The conflict between honour and love and the grandiose +sentiment of the play inevitably provoked comparison with +Corneille. The piece would indeed be a masterpiece if, as its +critics were not slow to point out, the verse had been quite equal +to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span> +Bornier should be mentioned: <i>Dimitri</i> (1876), libretto of an +opera by M.V. de Jonciêres; and the dramas, <i>Les Noces d’Allila</i> +(1880) and <i>Mahomet</i> (1888). The production of this last piece +was forbidden in deference to the representations of the Turkish +ambassador. Henri de Bornier was critic of the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i> +from 1879 to 1887. His <i>Poésies complètes</i> were published in 1894. +He died in January 1901.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORNU,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of +Lake Chad. It is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and +N. by the Sahara. Formerly an independent Mahommedan +sultanate it has been divided between Great Britain, Germany +and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern Bornu +and also Zinder (<i>q.v.</i>), a tributary state to the north-west, while +the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of +Cameroon. Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m., +forms part of the British protectorate of Nigeria.</p> + +<p>Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping +gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much +larger area than it now occupies. The Komadugu (<i>i.e.</i> river) +Waube—generally known as the Yo—and its tributaries rise +in the highlands which, beyond the western border of Bornu, +form the watershed between the Niger and Chad systems, and +flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo in its +last few miles marking the frontier between the French and +British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains +to the Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern +Bornu is obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great +depth. The vast plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare +outcrops of ironstone, and consists of the porous fissured black +earth called “cotton soil” in India, alternating with, or more +probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout the flat country water +is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54 ft., corresponding +to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the north-west the +country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the south +limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola +tributary of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked +acacia, yielding the species of gum most valuable in the market, +extends from the Gongola to Gujba. Immense baobabs (<i>Adansonia +digitata</i>), fine tamarinds and a few trees of the genus <i>Ficus</i> +are met with in the south. North of Maifoni (latitude 12° N.) +the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive plantations +have been made, and its place is taken by the <i>Kigelia</i> and also +by a very handsome species of <i>Diospyros</i>. North of Kuka is a +dense belt of <i>Hyphaene</i> palm with fine tamarinds and figs. +Cotton and indigo grow wild, and afford the materials for the +cloths, finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple +fabric of the country. On the shores of Lake Chad the cotton +grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and wheat of excellent +quality are raised, but in small quantities, the staple food being +a species of millet called <i>gussub</i>, which is made into a kind of +paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams, +sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers, +onions, water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees +the country possesses the lime and fig.</p> + +<p>Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover +in the extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes, +elephants, hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles +and ostriches are found. The horse, the camel and the ox are +the chief domestic animals; all are used as beasts of burden. The +country abounds with bees, and honey forms one of the chief +Bornuese delicacies.</p> + +<p>The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is +oppressively hot, rising sometimes to 105° and 107°, and even +during most of the night not falling much below 100°. In May +the wet season begins, with violent storms of thunder and +lightning. In the end of June the rivers and lakes begin to +overflow, and for several months the rains, accompanied with +sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants at this +season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate; +cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for +several months the climate is healthy and agreeable.</p> + +<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.—The inhabitants, of whom the great majority +profess Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of +mixed blood, <i>i.e.</i> Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing. +The total population of British Bornu is estimated at 500,000. +The dominant tribe, called Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a +Negro race with an infusion of Berber blood, have black skins, +large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but good teeth and +high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty by +extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo, +and dye their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The +law allows polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more +than two or three wives. The marriage ceremonies last for a +whole week, the first three days being spent in feasting on the +favourite national dishes, and the others appropriated to certain +symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the watching of +wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess, +played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite +occupation.</p> + +<p>The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the +Shuwas, who are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved +dialect of Arabic. Of the date of their immigration from the +East there is no record; but they were in the country as early +as the middle of the 17th century. They are divided into +numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist of +rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form. +Another tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile +islands in Lake Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable +channels.</p> + +<p>The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the +horses, as well as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail. +The Shuwas, however, are clad only in a light shirt, and the +Kanembu spearmen go almost naked, and fight with shield and +spear. It is indispensable to a chief of rank that he should +possess a huge belly, and when high feeding cannot produce this, +padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding the heat +of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the +number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise +is enclosed in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in +Bornu is the Kanuri. It has no affinity, according to Heinrich +Barth, with the great Berber family. A grammar was published +in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a volume of tales and fables, +with a translation and vocabulary.</p> + +<p>The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from +10,000 to 50,000 or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft. +in height and 20 ft. in thickness, having at each of the four +corners a triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with +bars of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an +enclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of the +wives; the chief’s palace consists of turrets connected together +by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly polished, +so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed only +of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908 +became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial +town some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former +capital, Kuka (<i>q.v.</i>), and Ngornu (the town of “blessing”), are +near the shores of Lake Chad. On the Yo are still to be seen +extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and Gambarou or +Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809. +Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the +German part of Bornu.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious. +The first dynasty known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants +of Sef, which came to the throne in the person of Dugu or Duku, +and had its capital at Njimiye (Jima) in Kanem on the north-east +shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of Berber origin, the +descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being mythical. From +this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or Ba-Berberche, +applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu. Mahommedanism +was adopted towards the end of the 11th century, +and has since continued the religion of the country. From +1194 to 1220 reigned Selma II., under whom the power of the +kingdom was greatly extended; and Dunama II., his successor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span> +was also a powerful and warlike prince. In the following reigns +the prosperity of the country began to diminish, and about 1386 +the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek +refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the +Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni, +rendered his country once more redoubtable and strong. His +successor, Idris II., completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated +Kanem; and under Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu +reached its highest pitch of greatness. At this period Zinder +became a tributary state. A series of for the most part peaceful +reigns succeeded till about the middle of the 18th century, when +Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with the +Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the +kingdom began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already +conquered the Hausa country. Expelled from his capital by the +invaders, Ahmed was only restored by the assistance of the fakir +Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who, pretending to a celestial +mission, hoisted the green flag of the Prophet, and undertook +the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear to have been +taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely out +of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient +kings with all the appearance of sovereignty—reserving for +himself, however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The +court of the sultan (<i>shehu</i>) was established at New Bornu, +or Birni, which was made the capital, the old city having +been destroyed during the Fula invasion; while the sheik, in +military state, took up his residence at the new city of Kuka. +Fairly established, he ruled the country with a rod of iron, and +at the same time inspired his subjects with a superstitious notion +of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed against moral or +religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women, as talking +too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the offender +liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited with +the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself. +Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar, +who altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.</p> + +<p>During Omar’s reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu +was visited by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and +the Sahara. The first to enter the country were Walter Oudney, +Hugh Clapperton and Dixon Denham (1823). They were +followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later travellers included +Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All these +travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the +middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by +Barth; and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by +King William of Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik’s kindness +to many German explorers, writes thus in December 1872:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable +fact. It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless +weakness of Sheik Omar—otherwise so worthy and brave a man—must +bear almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder +the provinces in an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse +are almost at a standstill; good faith and confidence exist +no more. The indolence of the court avoids military expeditions, +and anarchy and a lack of security on the routes are the consequences.... +Thus the sheik and the land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and lower.”</p> +</div> + +<p>After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no +European traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil +resided for a time at Kuka during his great journey from the +Senegal to Tripoli. The French traveller noticed many signs of +decadence, the energy of the people being sapped by luxury, +while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to rivalries and intrigues +among members of the royal family. The chief of Zinder had +ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough to +exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening +from the south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once +a slave of Zobeir Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi. +After making himself master of the fortified town of Manifa, +Rabah proceeded against Bornu, defeating the army of the sultan +Ahsem in two pitched battles. In December 1893 Ahsem fled +from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon afterwards +destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the south-east +of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the +trade between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route +via Bilma. Rabah had raised a large, well-drilled army, and +proved a formidable opponent to the French in their advance on +Lake Chad from the south. However in 1900 he was killed at +Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined forces of three +French expeditions which had been converging from the Congo, +the Sahara and the Niger.</p> + +<p>By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of +Zinder in the north had been included in the French sphere, +and after the defeat of Rabah French military expeditions +occupied both the German and British portions of Bornu, but +in 1902 on the appearance of British and German expeditions +the French withdrew to their own country east of the Shari. +The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a +descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as +the capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been +under administrative control. It has been divided into East and +West Bornu, the line of division being fixed approximately at +longitude 12°, and placed under the administration of a resident. +Maifoni and Kuka were selected for British stations in the east, +and Damjiri and Gujba in the west. Garrisons are quartered at +these points. The province has been mapped, and a network of +tracks available for wheeled transport has been made through it. +Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been +opened through the Gongola river. The <i>shehu</i>, who took the +oath of allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his +formal installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local +dignity as a native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British +administration. Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British +occupation, and it is estimated that the population has increased +by immigration to about 50% more than it was in 1902. The +people are industrious. Extensive areas are being brought under +cultivation, and taxes are collected without difficulty. Owing +to its increasing commercial importance, the native capital was +in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>: <i>History;</i> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rabah</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Heinrich Barth’s <i>Travels in North and Central +Africa</i> (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture +of the state in the period (<i>c</i>. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier +<i>Travels</i> of Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be +consulted, as well as Rohlfs, <i>Land und Volk in Afrika</i> (Bremen, 1870); +Nachtigal, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil, +<i>de St.-Louis à Tripoli par le lac Tchad</i> (Paris, 1895). For later information +consult Lady Lugard’s <i>A Tropical Dependency</i> (London, 1905), +and the <i>Annual Reports</i>, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria, +issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. L. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1834-1887), +Russian musical composer, natural son of a Russian prince, was +born in St Petersburg on the 12th of November 1834. He was +brought up to the medical profession, and in 1862 was appointed +assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg academy of +medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a +leading part in advocating women’s education, helping to found +the school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872 +till his death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest +in music was indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship +with Balakirev, and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady +who was an accomplished pianist; but in his earlier years he +had been proficient both in playing the piano, violin, ’cello and +other instruments, and also in composing; and during life he +did his best to pursue his studies in both music and chemistry +with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed +much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony +was written in 1862-1867; his opera <i>Prince Igor</i>, begun in 1869, +was left unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov +and Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, “In +the Steppes” (1880) is, however, his best-known work. Borodin +also wrote a second symphony (1871-1877), part of a third +(orchestrated after his death by Glazounov), and a few string +quartets and some fine songs. His music is characteristically +Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died suddenly +at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BORODINO,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow, +on the Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the +scene of a great battle between the army of Napoleon and the +Russians under Kutusov on the 7th of September 1812. Though +the battle is remembered chiefly for the terrible losses incurred +by both sides, in many respects it is an excellent example of +Napoleon’s tactical methods. After preliminary fighting on +the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the 6th, +Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in +his resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason +the French right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians +from their position, was designedly weakened. The Russian +right, bent back at an angle and strongly posted, was also +neglected, for Napoleon intended to make a direct frontal attack. +The enemy’s right centre near the village of Borodino was to be +attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was afterwards +to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called +“great redoubt,” which was to be attacked directly from the +front by Ney and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout +was to attack frontally a group of field works on which the +Russian left centre was formed; and the extreme right of the +French army was composed of the weak corps of Poniatowski. +The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders named, +and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more +than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard. +When the Russians closed on their centre they were even more +densely massed, and their reserves were subjected to an effective +fire from the French field guns. At 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 7th of September +the French attack began. By 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the Russian centre was +driven in, and though a furious counter-attack enabled Prince +Bagration’s troops to win back their original line, fresh French +troops under Davout and Ney drove them back again. But +the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung to +the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was +suspended by Napoleon’s order, owing to a cavalry attack by +the Russians on Eugene’s extreme left. When this alarm was +ended the advance was resumed. Napoleon had now collected +a sufficient target for his guns. A terrific bombardment by the +artillery was followed by the decisive charge of the battle, made +by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen, followed by the +infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in two, and +the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt just +as Eugene’s infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful <i>mêlée</i> the +Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The +defenders were now dislodged from their main line and the battle +was practically at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not +using the Guard, which was intact, to complete the victory. +There is, however, no evidence that any further expenditure of +men would have had good results. Napoleon had imposed his +will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of Moscow +without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the +Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national +spirit of the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon. +Had it not been for this spirit, Borodino would have been +decisive of the war without’the final blow of the Guard. As +it was, the Russians lost about 42,000 men out of 121,000; +Napoleon’s army (of which one-half consisted of the contingents +of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Holland, &c.) +32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, <i>Zahl im Kriege</i>). On the side of +the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken, +and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at +the head of his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who +took Montbrun’s place and fell in the <i>mêlée</i> in the redoubt. +The Russians lost 22 generals, amongst them Prince Bagration, +who died of his wounds after the battle, and to whose +memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the +tsar Nicholas I.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOROLANITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> one of the most remarkable rocks of the +British Isles, found on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire, +after which it has been named. In this locality there is +a considerable area of granite rich in red alkali felspar, and +passing, by diminution in the amount of its quartz, into quartz-syenites +(nordmarkites) and syenites. At the margins of the +outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the nepheline +is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the other +ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and +aegirine. The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous +rocks, though some syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites +resemble borolanite in this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite +assumes the form of a dark rock with large rounded white +spots. These last consist of an intermixture of nepheline or +sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the analogy of certain leucite-syenites +which are known in Arkansas, it is very probable that +these spots represent original leucites which have been changed +into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble +leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have +its crystalline outlines. The “pseudo-leucites,” as they have +been called, measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch +across. The dark matrix consists of biotite, aegirine-augite +and melanite. Connected with the borolanite there are other +types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In Finland, melanite-bearing +nepheline rocks have been found and described as +Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite +is Magnet Cove in Arkansas.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORON<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic +elements, occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid, +and in various borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite +and boracite. It was isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thénard +in 1808 by heating boron trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube. +It was also isolated at about the same time by Sir H. Davy, +from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a dark brown amorphous +powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the roughly +powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot +crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried +common salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all +the sodium has been used up, the mass is thrown into dilute +hydrochloric acid, when the soluble sodium salts go into solution, +and the insoluble boron remains as a brown powder, which may +by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1895, 6, +p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide with one part of magnesium +powder. The dark product obtained is washed with water, +hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally calcined +again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air +during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous +boron is a chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45; +it sublimes in the electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at +ordinary temperatures, and burns on strong ignition with production +of the oxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> and the nitride BN. It combines +directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature, and with chlorine, +bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react with the +alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat +to form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated +temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead +monoxide and cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat. +Heated with sulphuric acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized +to boric acid, whilst on fusion with alkaline carbonates and +hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali metal. Like silicon +and carbon, very varying values had been given for its specific +heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat increases +rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a +mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the +air by a layer of charcoal, F. Wöhler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville +obtained a grey product, from which, on dissolving out the +aluminium with sodium hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline +product, which they thought to be a modification of boron, +but which was shown later to be a mixture of aluminium +borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten aluminium, +and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals +are obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near +that of the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kühne (D.R.P. 147,871) +described a process in which external heating is not necessary, +a mixture of aluminium turnings, sulphur and boric acid being +ignited by a hot iron rod, the resulting aluminium sulphide, +formed as a by-product, being decomposed by water.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition; +on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium +boride Mg<span class="su">3</span>B<span class="su">2</span> is obtained, and if this be decomposed with +dilute hydrochloric acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a +mixture of hydrogen and boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture +burns with a green flame forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is +deposited on passing the gas mixture through a hot tube, or on +depressing a cold surface in the gas flame. By cooling it with liquid +air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield obtained from it a gas of +composition B3H3. The mixture probably contained also some +BH<span class="su">3</span> (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, <i>Proc. Chem. Soc</i>., 17, p. 152). +Boron fluoride BF<span class="su">3</span> was first prepared in 1808 by Gay Lussac and +L. Thénard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of the trioxide +and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless +pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes strongly +in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the elements +of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged into +the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it support +combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a colourless, +oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time decomposes, with +separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric acid HF·BF<span class="su">3</span> +in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free condition, but +many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also combines with +ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a white crystalline +solid of composition BF<span class="su">3</span>·NH<span class="su">3</span>; with excess of ammonia gas, +colourless liquids BF<span class="su">3</span>·2NH<span class="su">3</span> and BF<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span> are produced, which on +heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.</p> + +<p>Boron chloride BCl<span class="su">3</span> results when amorphous boron is heated in +chlorine gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over +a heated mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product +being condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is +a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18° C, and is readily decomposed +by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It +unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid +of composition 2BCl<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span>.</p> + +<p>Boron bromide BBr<span class="su">3</span> can be formed by direct union of the two +elements, but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation +of the chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5° C. +With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as +the chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous +hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide, +BI<span class="su">3</span>, which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and +hydriodic acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white +crystalline solid of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210° C., and it +can be distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water, +and with a solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives +a red powder of composition PBI<span class="su">2</span>, which sublimes <i>in vacuo</i> at +210° C. to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen +loses its iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.</p> + +<p>Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either +in air or in nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating +to redness in a platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous +borax with two parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion, +the melt is well washed with dilute hydrochloric acid and +then with water, the nitride remaining as a white powder. +It can also be prepared by heating borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span>; or by +heating boron trioxide with a metallic cyanide. It is insoluble in +water and unaffected by most reagents, but when heated in a +current of steam or boiled for some time with a caustic alkali, +slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the formation +of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly in +hydrofluoric acid.</p> + +<p>Borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span> is obtained on long heating of the compound +B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>·6NH<span class="su">2</span> in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120° C. +It is a white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride +and ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes +it slowly.</p> + +<p>Boron sulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span> can be obtained by the direct union of the +two elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at +440° C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the +trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It +forms slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable +smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation +of boric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">5</span> +is prepared, in an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur +in carbon bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline +powder which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur, +sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.</p> + +<p>Boron trioxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is the only known oxide of boron; and may +be prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by +strongly igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a +transparent vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form +boric acid (<i>q.v</i>.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing +in moist air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation +of boric acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is +not volatile below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with +salts of more volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from +such salts; for example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron +trioxide, sulphur trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed. +It also possesses the power of combining with most metallic oxides +at high temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show +characteristic colours. Many organic compounds of boron are +known; thus, from the action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol +or on methyl alcohol, ethyl borate B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> and methyl borate +B(OCH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> are obtained. These are colourless liquids boiling at +119° C. and 72° C. respectively, and both are readily decomposed by +water. By the action of zinc methyl on ethyl borate, in the requisite +proportions, boron trimethyl is obtained, thus:—2B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span> + +6Zn(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2B(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + 6Zn <span class="f150"><</span> +{ CH<span class="su">3</span> / OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> } as a colourless spontaneously +inflammable gas of unbearable smell. Boron triethyl B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> is +obtained in the same manner, by using zinc ethyl. It is a colourless +spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling point 95° C. By the +action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two molecules of zinc ethyl, +the compound B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> diethylboron ethoxide is obtained +as a colourless liquid boiling at 102° C. By the action of water +it is converted into B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OH, and this latter compound on +exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the compound +B·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OH, which, with water, gives B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)·(OH)<span class="su">2</span>. From +the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule +of zinc ethyl the compound B<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">5</span> is obtained as a colourless +liquid of boiling point. 112° C. Boron triethyl and boron trimethyl +both combine with ammonia.</p> + +<p>The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating +the water content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion +of anhydrous borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston) +and from analysis of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville); +the values obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be +estimated by precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble +in a mixture of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose +only boric acid or its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure +this, the borate can be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl +alcohol and the volatile ester absorbed in potash.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Burrough, Burrowe, Borrows</span>], <span class="bold">STEVEN</span> +(1525-1584), English navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire +on the 25th of September 1525. In 1553 he took part in +the expedition which was despatched from the Thames under +Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to Cathay +and India, serving as master of the “Edward Bonaventure,” +on which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated +by a storm from the “Bona Esperanza” and the “Bona Confidentia,” +the other two ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded +on his voyage alone, and sailing into the White Sea, in the words +of his epitaph, “discouered Moscouia by the Northerne sea +passage to St Nicholas” (Archangel). In a second expedition, +made in the “Serchthrift” in 1556, he discovered Kara Strait, +between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was +in charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in +1558, he also made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563 +he was appointed chief pilot and one of the four masters of the +queen’s ships in the Medway, and in this office he spent the rest +of his life. He died on the 12th of July 1584, and was buried at +Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough, wrote a description +of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the White Sea +to the Caspian and back.</p> + +<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">William Borough</span>, born in 1536, also +at Northam, served as an ordinary seaman in the “Edward +Bonaventure” on her voyage to Russia in 1553, and subsequently +made many voyages to St Nicholas. Later he transferred +his services from the merchant adventurers to the crown. As +commander of the “Lion” he accompanied Sir Francis Drake +in his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble +by presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom +of the attack on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of +<i>A Discourse of the Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle</i> +(1581), and some of the charts he made are preserved at the +British Museum and Hatfield.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (A.S. nominative <i>burh</i>, dative <i>byrig</i>, which produces +some of the place-names ending in <i>bury</i>, a sheltered or +fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a +chieftain; of. Ger. <i>Burg</i>, Fr. <i>bor</i>, <i>borc</i>, <i>bourg</i>), the term for a +town, considered as a unit of local government.</p> + +<p><i>History of the English Borough.</i>—After the early English settlement, +when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations, +their colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders +to form tribal strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of +Roman colonies show no continuity with Roman municipal +organization. The resettlement of the Roman Durovernum as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span> +the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed name, the +name “burh of the men of Kent,” Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury), +illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was +Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other <i>ceasters</i> +mark the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early +English burh. The tribal burh was protected by an earthen +wall, and a general obligation to build and maintain burhs at the +royal command was enforced by Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in +disturbance of the peace of the burh were punished by higher +fines than breaches of the peace of the “ham” or ordinary +dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the +asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary +of the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony, +and hence the long retention of a processional perambulation. +Possibly the “hedge” or “wall” of the borough gave it, +besides safety, a sanctity analogous to that enjoyed by the +Germanic assembly while gathered within its “hedge,” which +the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered, and +removed when it was over. While the “peace” of the Germanic +assembly was essentially temporary, the “peace” of the burh +was sacred all the year round. Its “hedge” was never removed. +The sanctity of the burh was enjoyed by all the dwellings of the +king, at first perhaps only during his term of residence. Neither +in the early English language nor in the contemporary Latin was +there any fixed usage differentiating the various words descriptive +of the several forms of human settlement, and the tribal refuges +cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages or the +strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test. +It is not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to +draw a distinction between the burhs that served as military +strongholds for national defence and the royal vills which served +no such purpose. Some of the royal vills eventually entered +the class of boroughs, but by another route, and for the present +the private stronghold and the royal dwelling may be neglected. +It was the public stronghold and the administrative centre of a +dependent district which was the source of the main features +peculiar to the borough.</p> + +<p>Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the +boroughs built for national defence. They were placed where +artificial defence was most needed, at the junction of roads, in +the plains, on the rivers, at the centres naturally marked out for +trade, seldom where hills or marshes formed a sufficient natural +defence. The burhs drew commerce by every channel; the +camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the ecclesiastical +centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in its chief +burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The +burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and +exchangers, with an authorized scale for weights and measures. +Mercantile transactions in the burhs or <i>ports</i>, as they were called +when their commercial rather than their military importance +was accentuated, were placed by law under special legal privileges +in order no doubt to secure the king’s hold upon his toll. Over +the burh or port was set a reeve, a royal officer answerable to the +king for his dues from the burh, his rents for lands and houses, +his customs on commerce, his share of the profits from judicial +fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had a “moot” +or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter of +speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should +meet three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies +at which attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the +burghal district, when pleas concerning life and liberty and land +were held, and men were compelled to find pledges answerable +for their good conduct. At these great meetings the borough +reeve (<i>gerefa</i>) presided, declaring the law and guiding the judgments +given by the suitors of the court. The reeve was supported +by a group of assistants, called in Devon the “witan,” in the +boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve) +“lawmen,” in other towns probably by a group of aldermen, +senior burgesses, with military and police authority, whose +office was in some cases hereditary. These persons assisted the +reeve at the great meetings of the full court, and sat with him as +judges at the subordinate meetings which were held to settle the +unfinished causes and minor causes. There was no compulsion +on those not specially summoned to attend these extra meetings. +At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in public, +and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all +the <i>burh-wara</i>, other business concerning borough administration +was decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies +that the origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed. +In the larger towns the division into wards, with a separate +police system, can be traced at an early time, appearing as a unit +of military organization, answerable for the defence of a gate of +the town. The police system of London is described in detail in a +record of 930-940. Here the free people were grouped in associations +of ten, each under the superintendence of a headman. The +bishops and reeves who belonged to the “court of London” +appear as the directors of the system, and in them we may see +the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word +<i>bertha</i> for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London +wardmoot at a later time was used for the frankpledge system +as well as for the organization of the muster, point to a connexion +between the military and the police systems in the towns. At +the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century there is +evidence of a systematic “timbering” of new burhs, with the +object of providing strongholds for the defence of Wessex against +the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts were +charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a +“haw,” or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by +charter as if it were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood +with which it was conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded +to lands in the county succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs, +for a close association existed between the “thegns” of the +shire and the shirestow, an association partly perhaps of duty +and also of privilege. The king granted borough “haws” as +places of refuge in Kent, and in London he gave them with +commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been called the +“heterogeneous” tenure of the shirestow, one of the most +conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough, +was further increased by the liberty which some burgesses +enjoyed to “commend” themselves to a lord of their own +choosing, promising to that lord suit and service and perhaps +rent in return for protection. Over these burgesses the lords +could claim jurisdictional rights, and these were in some cases +increased by royal grants of special rights within certain “sokes.” +The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or areas of +seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve’s authority +was greatly restricted while that of the lord’s reeve took precedence. +Even the haws, being “burhs” or strongholds within +a stronghold, enjoyed a local “peace” which protected from +official intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction +in the borough, there was also heterogeneity of status; +there were burh-thegns and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of +various kinds, the three groups representing perhaps military, +commercial and agricultural elements. The burh generally +shows signs of having been originally a village settlement, +surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary +before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule +eventually the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some +evidence pointing to the fact that the restriction of the borough +authority to this area is not ancient, but due to the Norman +settlement. The wide districts over which the boroughs had had +authority were placed under the control of the Norman castle +which was itself built by means of the old English levy of +“burh-work.” The borough court was allowed to continue its work +only within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict, +the castle was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in +the national scheme of defence, the burgess “cnihts” made +commerce their principal object under the encouragement of +the old privileges of the walled place.</p> + +<p>Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords +had burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord. +In many cases boroughs of this “seignorial” type were created +upon the royal estates. Out of the king’s vill, as a rule the +jurisdictional centre of a hundred, there was sometimes created +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span> +a borough. The lines of division before Domesday Book are +obscure, but it is probable that in some cases, by a royal grant +of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal vill, where a +hundred court for the district was already held, were authorized +to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their disputes, +distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs +of this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the +king’s estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in +1086 they were probably already numerous. A borough was +usually, though perhaps not invariably, the companion of a +Norman castle. In some cases a French “bourg” was created +by the side of an English borough, and the two remained for +many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in other +cases a French “bourg” was settled by the side of an English +village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords +had been almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country, +and lost none of their burghal privileges by the migration. +Every castle needed for its maintenance a group of skilled +artisans, and the lords wished to draw to the castle gates all kinds +of commodities for the castle’s provision. The strength of the +garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a place of danger +to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to invite to +its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar to +those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed +to those who would build on the plots which were offered to +colonists. A low fixed rental, release from the renders required +of villeins, release from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the +creation of a separate borough jurisdiction, with or without the +right to choose their own officers, rules fixing the maximum of +fees and fines, or promising assessment of the fines by the +burgesses themselves, the cancelling of all the castellan’s rights, +especially the right to take a forced levy of food for the castle +from all within the area of his jurisdiction, freedom from arbitrary +tallage, freedom of movement, the right to alienate property +and devise land, these and many other privileges named in the +early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman +<i>liber burgus</i> of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were +enjoyed by all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial +rights accompanied the lord’s charter which created a borough +and made burgesses out of villeins. However liberal the grant, +the lord or his reeve still remained in close personal relation with +the burgesses of such places, and this character, together with +the uniformity of their tenure, continued to hold them apart +from the boroughs of the old English type, where all varieties +of personal relationship between the lords and their groups of +tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right to +retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into +the old boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of +the king took precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the +king’s consent was legal. By these means the lords’ position +was weakened, and other seignorial claims were later evaded or +contested. The rights which the lords failed to keep were divided +between the king and the municipality; in London, for instance, +the king obtained all escheats, while the borough court secured +the right of wardship of burgess orphans.</p> + +<p>From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs +was as a rule included in the general “farm” rendered for the +county by the sheriff; sometimes it was rendered by a royal +farmer apart from the county-farm. The king generally accepted +a composition for all the various items due from the borough. +The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep that composition +unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of +the right amount at the right time for fear that it should be +increased by way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent +arrear, and the distraints for debt due, which were obtained +through the borough court, were a matter of interest to the +burgesses of the court, and first taught the burgesses co-operative +action. Money was raised, possibly by order of the borough +court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to choose +officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not +through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases +also the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe +the English boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous +enough to make him an officer specially obnoxious to the +boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave the London citizens the +right to choose their own sheriffs and a justiciar answerable for +keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the Lincoln citizens +paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the end of the +12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves, +and John’s charters began to make rules as to the freedom of +choice to be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and +as to the royal power of dismissal. In Richard I.’s reign London +imitated the French communes in styling the chief officer a +mayor; in 1208 Winchester also had a mayor, and the title +soon became no rarity. The chartered right to choose two or +more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many +boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position +of the London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable +modifications which Henry II.’s systematization of +the criminal law had introduced. Burgesses who had gone for +criminal and civil justice to their own court in disputes between +themselves, or between themselves and strangers who were in +their town, secured confirmation of this right by charter, not to +exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt themselves from the +necessity of pleading in a distant court. The burgess, whether +plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and could claim +in this respect a “benefit” somewhat similar to the benefit of +clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own +officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the +farming of his rents and a large number of rights which would +eventually prove to be sources of great profit.</p> + +<p>No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings +at the time of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that +the communities in the 12th century became alive to the possibilities +of their new position, that trade received a new impulse, +and the vague constitutional powers of the borough court +acquired a new need for definition. At first the selection of +officers who were to treat with the exchequer and to keep the +royal pleas was almost certainly restricted to a few rich persons +who could find the necessary securities. Nominated probably +in one of the smaller judicial assemblies, the choice was announced +at the great Michaelmas assembly of the whole community, +and it is not till the next century that we hear of any attempt +of the “vulgus” to make a different selection from that of the +magnates. The “vulgus” were able to take effective action by +means of the several craft organizations, and first found the +necessity to do so when taxation was heavy or when questions +of trade legislation were mooted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilds</a></span>). The taxation of +the boroughs in the reign of Henry II. was assessed by the +king’s justices, who fixed the sums due <i>per capita</i>; but if the +borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was made by the +burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the magnates. +In the levy <i>per communam</i> the assessment was made through +the wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer +class. In Henry II.’s reign London was taxed by both methods, +the <i>barones majores</i> by head, the <i>barones minores</i> through the +wardmoot. The pressure of taxation led in the 13th century to +a closer definition of the burghal constitutions; the commons +sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in London) not only to +hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end of the century +London had definitely established two councils, that of the +mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and +a common council, representing the voice of the commonalty, +as expressed through the city wards. The choice of councillors +in the wards rested probably with the aldermen and the ward +jury summoned by them to make the presentments. In some +cases juries were summoned not to represent different areas but +different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in 1272 juries of the +rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by authority +from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the +several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds +all-powerful agencies for organizing joint action among classes of +commons united by a trade interest, and the history of the towns +becomes the history of the struggle between the gilds which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span> +captured control of the council and the gilds which were excluded +therefrom. Many municipal revolutions took place, and a large +number of constitutional experiments were tried all over the +country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which directed +a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose +more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom, +found much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like +the London plan, of two companies, alderman and council, was +widely favoured in the 14th century, perhaps in imitation of the +Houses of Lords and Commons. The mayor was sometimes +styled the “sovereign” and was given many prerogatives. +Great respect was paid to the “ancients,” those, namely, who had +already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were +orderly arrangements for counting “voices” arrived at in a few +of the most highly developed towns, and these were used only in +the small assemblies of the governing body, not in the large +electoral assemblies of the people.</p> + +<p>In <span class="correction" title="amended from Londom">London</span> in the 13th century there was a regular system for +the admission of new members to the borough “franchise,” +which was at first regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage +but as a means to secure a privileged position in the borough +court and in the trade of the borough. Admission could be +obtained by inheritance, by purchase or gift, in some places by +marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by a municipal +register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for his +privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the +burdens of taxation, control, &c., which fell upon burgesses. +Personal service was not always necessary, and in some towns +there were many non-resident burgesses. When in later times +admission to this freedom came to be used as means to secure +the parliamentary franchise, the freedom of the borough was +freely sold and given. The elections in which the commons of +the boroughs first took interest were those of the borough +magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in +asserting their right to take part in borough elections they were +rarely able to keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their +power was feared, but sometimes because of the riotous proceedings +which ensued. These led to government interference, +which no party in the borough desired. The possibility of a +forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the burgesses on +the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London +repeatedly was “taken into the king’s hand,” subjected to +heavy fines and put under the constable of the Tower. In the +15th century disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new +constitutions, some of which were the outcome of royal charters, +others the result of parliamentary legislation. The development +of the law of corporations also at this time compelled the boroughs +to seek new charters which should satisfy the now exacting +demands of the law. The charters of incorporation were issued +at a time when the state was looking more and more to the +borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial staff, +and thus the government was closely interested in the manner +of their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way +as to narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed +under a council and in a number of cases popular control was +excluded altogether, the whole system being made one of co-optation. +The absence of popular protest may be ascribed in +part to the fact that the old popular control had been more +nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two +councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy +burden of taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences, +paying <i>per capita</i> like the magnates of the 12th century, and +for a time there is on the whole little evidence of friction between +the governors and the governed. Throughout, popular opinion +in the closest of corporations had a means of expression, though +none of execution, in the presentments of the leet juries and +sessions juries. By means of their “verdicts” they could use +threats against the governing body, express their resentment +against acts of the council which benefited the governing body +rather than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize +where the members of the governing body were suspected of +fraud. Elizabeth repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations +“because of the abuses committed by their head rulers,” +but in her reign they were fairly easily controlled by the privy +council, which directed their choice of members of parliament and +secured supporters of the government policy to fill vacancies on +the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and Stuart charters +of specifying by name the members of the governing body and +holders of special offices opened the way to a “purging” of the +hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were +also rather vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal +of officers for misconduct, though as a rule the appointments +were for life. When under the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth +political and religious feeling ran high in the boroughs, +use was made of these clauses both by the majority on the +council and by the central government to mould the character +of the council by a drastic “purging.” Another means of control +first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various +acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal +office to the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there +was no improvement in the methods used by the central +government to control the boroughs. All opponents of the ruling +policy were disfranchised and disqualified for office by act of +parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were to be +tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals +gave them opportunity to control the borough policy. +Few Commonwealth charters have been preserved, though several +were issued in response to the requests of the corporations.</p> + +<p>In some cases the charters used words which appeared to +point to an opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where +a usage of election by the town council had been established. +In 1598 the judges gave an opinion that the town councils could +by by-law determine laws for the government of the town +regardless of the terms of the charter. In the 18th century the +judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage of +popular election was established, there were means of controlling +the result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations, +though their right to choose a member of parliament might be +doubtful, had the sole right to admit new burgesses, and in order +to determine parliamentary elections they enfranchised +non-residents. Where conflicts arose over the choice of a member, +and two selections were made, the matter came before the House +of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in favour +of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the +town council, on the general principle that neither the royal +charter nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise. +But as each case was separately determined by a body swayed +by the dominant political party, no one principle was steadily +adhered to in the trial of election petitions. The royal right to +create boroughs was freely used by Elizabeth and James I. as a +means of securing a submissive parliament. The later Stuarts +abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made by the +Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the +later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence, +not to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration +decided to exercise a strict control of the close corporations +in order to secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a +pliant executive among the borough justices, and pliant juries, +which were impanelled at the selection of the borough officers. +In 1660 it was made a rule that all future charters should reserve +expressly to the crown the first nomination of the aldermen, +recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso should be entered placing +with the common council the return of the member of parliament. +The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal commissioners +to settle the composition of the town councils, and to remove +all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or +were suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take +the necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive +juries was again so great in 1682 that a general attack +on the borough franchises was begun by the crown. A London +jury having returned a verdict hostile to the crown, after various +attempts to bend the city to his will, Charles II. issued a <i>quo +warranto</i> against the mayor and commonalty in order to charge +the citizens with illegal encroachments upon their chartered +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span> +rights. The want of a sound philosophical principle in the laws +which were intended to regulate the actions of organized groups +of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws in the +legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it possible +for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken +against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a “body politic +invisible”; that the indictment lay only against every particular +member of the governing body; and that the corporation as a +corporation was incapable of suffering a forfeiture or of making +a surrender. The judges gave a judgment for the king, the +charters were forfeited and the government placed with a court +of aldermen of the king’s own choosing. Until James II. yielded, +there was no common council in London. The novelty of the +proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon +of the <i>quo warranto</i> systematically to ensure a general +revocation of charters. The new charters which were then granted +required the king’s consent for the more important appointments, +and gave him power to remove officers without reason given. Under +James II. in 1687 six commissioners were appointed to “regulate” +the corporations and remove from them all persons who were +opposed to the abolition of the penal laws against Catholics. +The new appointments were made under a writ which ran, “We +will and require you to elect” (a named person). When James +II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a +proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their +ancient charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many +boroughs, though not in all, was the charter which had established +a close corporation, and from this time on to 1835 the boroughs +made no progress in constitutional growth. The tendency for +the close corporation to treat the members of the governing +body as the only corporators, and to repudiate the idea that the +corporation was answerable to the inhabitants of the borough +if the corporate property was squandered, became more and +more manifest as the history of the past slipped into oblivion. +The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a +club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the +same among themselves whensoever such a division should seem +profitable. Even where the constitution of the corporation was +not close by charter, the franchise tended to become restricted +to an ever-dwindling electorate, as the old methods for the +extension of the municipal franchise by other means than +inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the “freemen” +numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate +was increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to +the freedom of voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation +at parliamentary elections. The growth of corruption in the +boroughs continued unchecked until the era of the Reform Bill. +Several boroughs had by that time become insolvent, and some +had recourse to their member of parliament to eke out their +revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town +revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however, +heavy charges fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era +dissatisfaction with the corporations was mainly shown by the +number of local acts of parliament which placed under the +authority of special commissioners a variety of administrative +details, which if the corporation had not been suspected would +certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered +another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some +towns out of the trust was developed a system of municipal +administration where there was no recognized corporation. +Thus at Peterborough the feoffees who had succeeded to the +control of certain ancient charities constituted a form of town +council with very restricted powers. In the 17th century +Sheffield was brought under the act “to redress the misemployment +of lands given to charitable uses,” and the municipal +administration of what had been a borough passed into the +hands of the trustees of the Burgery or town trust.</p> + +<p>The many special authorities created under act of parliament +led to much confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased +the need for a general reform. The reform of the boroughs was +treated as part of the question of parliamentary reform. In +1832 the exclusive privileges of the corporations in parliamentary +elections having been abolished and male occupiers enfranchised, +the question of the municipal franchise was next dealt with. In +1833 a commission inquired into the administration of the +municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the +Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal +franchise to the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations +dealt with by the act, the town council was to consist of a mayor, +aldermen and councillors, and the councils were given like +powers, being divided into those with and those without a +commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open to the +inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required. +The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were +restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The +system of police, which in some places was still medieval in +character, was placed under the control of the council. The +various privileged areas within the bounds of a borough were +with few exceptions made part of the borough. The powers of +the council to alienate corporate property were closely restricted. +The operations of the act were extended by later legislation, and +the divers amendments and enactments which followed were +consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882.</p> +<div class="author">(M. Bat.)</div> + +<p><i>Irish Boroughs.</i>—In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life +are connected with the maritime settlements on the southern +and eastern coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these +Ostman ports with Anglo-Norman communities, who brought +with them, or afterwards obtained, municipal charters of a +favourable kind. The English settlement obviously depended +on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over the +native population outside. Quite different from these were the +new close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster +James I. introduced from England. The conquest was by this +time completed, and by a rigorous enforcement of the Supremacy +and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties of the older boroughs +were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules published +(in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672 +resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither +this regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth, +marriage and apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free +and vigorous municipalities. The corrupt admission of +non-resident freemen, in order to outvote the ancient freeholders +in parliamentary elections, and the systematic exclusion of +Roman Catholics, soon divorced the “commonalty” from true +local interests, and made the corporations, which elected themselves +or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.</p> + +<p><i>Scottish Boroughs.</i>—In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided +into royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony. +The first were erected by royal charter, and every burgess held +direct of the crown. It was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the +burgh lands,—a distinction still traceable in modern conveyancing. +Where perhaps no charter ever existed, the law on proof of +immemorial possession of the privileges of a royal burgh has +presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The charter +gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long +exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council +to be chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates +by both councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which +was specially reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable +jurisdictions, was originally cumulative with, and as large as, +that of the sheriff. It is now confined to police offences, summary +ejections, orders for <i>interim</i> aliment (for prisoners), payment +of burgh dues and delivery of title deeds. Three head courts were +held in the year, at which all burgesses were obliged to attend, +and at which public business was done and private transactions +were ratified. There were three classes of burgesses—burgesses +<i>in sua arte</i>, members of one or other of the corporations; +burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses. The +Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable +inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of +admission was required, at which the applicant swore fealty and +promised to watch and ward for the community, and to pay his +“maill” to the king. These borough maills, or rents, and the +great and small customs of burghs, formed a large part of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span> +royal revenue, and, although frequently leased or feued out for +a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I. annexed to the +crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in the +peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable; +they are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the +usual privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or +tribute, and that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess’s +own debts. There was also the usual strife between the gildry +and the craftsmen, who were generally prohibited from trading, +and of whom dyers, fleshers and shoemakers were forbidden to +enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and visitors were appointed +by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed by the magistrates. +The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated, not by royal +charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh, by +seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the +free burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of +importing and exporting merchandise was confined to freemen, +burgesses and their factors. Ships were directed to trade to the +king’s free burghs, there to pay the customs, and to receive their +<i>cocquets</i> or custom-house seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling +outside burghs were forbidden to “use any merchandise,” or to +sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633, erroneously called a +<i>Ratification</i> of the privileges of burghs, extended these privileges +of buying and selling to retail as well as wholesale trade, but +restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs. Accordingly, in +1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to the +freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk, +dyeing materials, &c., permitting generally to all persons the +export of native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses +of barony and regality to export their own manufactures, and +such goods as they may buy in “markets,” and to import against +these consignments certain materials for tillage, building, or for +use in their own manufactures, with a general permission to +retail all commodities. This extraordinary system was again +changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen of royal +burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by sea +or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything +which was not native raw material, which might be freely +exported by land. The gentry were always allowed to import +for their personal consumption and to export an equal quantity +of commodities. The act mentions that the royal burghs as an +estate of the kingdom contributed one-sixth part of all public +impositions, and were obliged to build and maintain prison-houses. +Some of these trade privileges were not abolished till 1846.</p> + +<p>In the north of Scotland there was an association of free +burghs called the Hanse or <i>Ansus</i>; and the lord chamberlain, +by his <i>Iter</i>, or circuit of visitation, maintained a common +standard of right and duties in all burghs, and examined the state of +the “common good,” the accounts of which in 1535 were +appointed to be laid before the auditors in exchequer. The +chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor Burgorum +(Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made +regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right +(<i>e.g.</i> succession), according to the varying customs of burghs. +This court frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed +at Edinburgh. The more modern convention of royal burghs +(which appeared as a judicial <i>persona</i> in the Court of Session so +late as 1839) probably dates from the act of James III. (1487, +c. 111), which appointed the commissioners of burghs, both north +and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing “to treat of the +welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the +common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the +skaith and injuries sustained within the burghs.” Among the +more important functions of this body (on whose decrees at one +time summary diligence proceeded) were the prohibition of undue +exactions within burghs, the revisal of the “set” or mode of +municipal election, and the <i>pro rata</i> division among the burghs +of the parliamentary subsidy required from the third estate. +The reform of the municipalities, and the complete representation +of the mercantile interests in the united parliament, deprived +this body of any importance.</p> + +<p>Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some +great lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory +or in practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction +in civil and criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of +the baron or the lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the +right of nominating magistrates. Powers to hold markets and +to levy customs were likewise given to these burghs.</p> + +<p>The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance. +In 1295 the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement +for the marriage of Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized +as a third estate, granting a tenth penny on all rents +for the king’s life, if he should apply it for the public good. +The commissioners of burghs received from the exchequer their +costages or expenses of attending parliament. The burghs were +represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee on +articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the +Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown, +and the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion +of general taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly +preserved by act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners, +of course, fluctuated from time to time. Cromwell +assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs in the second +parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice until +1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two +members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention +of burghs) certain groups of burghs returned one member, +Edinburgh returning two. Under art. 22 of the treaty of +Union the number of members for royal burghs was fixed at +fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the magistrates +and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates +chosen ad hoc.</p> +<div class="author">(W. C. S.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Gross, <i>Bibliography of British Municipal History</i> (1897), +which contains all needful references up to that date; +F.W. Maitland, <i>Township and Borough</i> (1898); +A. Ballard, <i>Domesday Boroughs</i> (1904); +M. Bateson, <i>Borough Customs</i> (1904-1906); +S. and B. Webb, <i>English Local Government</i> (3 vols., 1906-1908). +For the character of the modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson, +<i>Local Government in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1904), where other +works are mentioned.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOROUGHBRIDGE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a market town in the Ripon parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W. +of York on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) +830. It lies in the central plain of Yorkshire, on the river Ure +near its confluence with the Swale. It is in the parish of +Aldborough, the village of that name (<i>q.v.</i>), celebrated for +its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three +upright stones called the Devil’s Arrows, which are of uncertain +origin but probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge, +then called Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and +passed to William the Conqueror, but suffered so much from the +ravages of his soldiers that by 1086 it had decreased in value from +£10 to 55 s. When the site of the Great North Road was altered, +towards the end of the 11th century, a bridge was built across the +Ure, about half a mile above the Roman bridge at Aldborough, +and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This caused a village +to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as to become a +market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor of +Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited +a few years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham. +It then remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several +citizens of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands +to the present owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the +early 14th century centres round the war with Scotland, and +culminates with the battle fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the +Scots invaded England, they penetrated as far south as +Boroughbridge and burnt the town. Boroughbridge was evidently a +borough by prescription, and as such was called upon to return +two members to parliament in 1299. It was not represented again +until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town was finally +disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants of +Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in 1670 +created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the +5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis +Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH ENGLISH,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a custom prevailing in certain ancient +English boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where +the lands are held in socage), and also in certain copyhold manors +(chiefly in Surrey, Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in +general lands descend to the youngest son, to the exclusion of all +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span> +the other children, of the person dying seised and intestate. +Descent to the youngest brother to the exclusion of all other +collaterals, where there is no issue, is sometimes included in the +general definition, but this is really a special custom to be +proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from local +reputation—a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest +sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart +from specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not +including collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the +distinct custom that the widow shall take as dower the whole +and not merely one-third of her husband’s lands.</p> + +<p>The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much +disputed. Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin, +there is no direct evidence of such being the case. The first +mention of the custom in England occurs in Glanvil, without, +however, any explanation as to its origin. Littleton’s explanation, +which is the more usually accepted, is that custom casts +the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the death of +his parents he is least able to support himself, and more likely +to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived +Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons +migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household. +C.I. Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It +was referred to by the Normans as “the custom of the English +towns.” In the Yearbook of 22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described +as the custom of Nottingham, which is made clear by the report +of a trial in the first year of Edward III. where it was found +that in Nottingham there were two districts, the one the <i>Burgh-Fraunçoyes</i>, +the other the <i>Burgh-Engloyes</i>, where descent was +to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has +derived its name. On the European continent the custom of +junior-rights is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and +it has by some been ascribed to the <i>jus primae noctis</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). +It is also said to exist amongst the Mongols.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gavelkind</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primogeniture</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tenure</a></span>; +Blackstone’s <i>Commentaries</i>; Coke’s <i>Institutes</i>; +Comyn’s <i>Digest of the Law</i>; +Elton’s <i>Origin of English History</i>; +Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORROMEAN ISLANDS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a group of four islands on the W. side +of Lago Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost, +the Isola Bella, is famous for its château and terraced +gardens, constructed by Count Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690). +To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori, containing a fishing +village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre, the largest of +the group, with a château and garden; and to the N. again, +off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORROMEO, CARLO<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the +Roman Catholic Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of +Arona, and Margarita de’ Medici, was born at the castle of Arona +on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of October 1538. When he was +about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo resigned to him +an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in charity to +the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In +1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother, +Count Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the +management of their domestic affairs. After a time, however, +he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctor’s degree. +In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de’ Medici, was raised to the +pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made prothonotary, +entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the +ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration +of Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the +Franciscans, the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was +thus at the age of twenty-two practically the leading statesman +of the papal court. Soon after he was raised to the archbishopric +of Milan. In compliance with the pope’s desire, he lived in great +splendour; yet his own temperance and humility were never +brought into question. He established an academy of learned +persons, and published their memoirs as the <i>Noctes Vaticanae</i>. +About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at +Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On +the death of his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit +the church and marry, that his family might not become extinct. +He declined the proposal, however, and became henceforward +still more fervent in exercises of piety, and more zealous for the +welfare of the church. Owing to his influence over Pius IV., +he was able to facilitate the final deliberations of the council of +Trent, and he took a large share in the drawing up of the +Tridentine catechism (<i>Catechismus Romanus</i>).</p> + +<p>On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of +Borromeo contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of +the conclave. Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the +reformation of his diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory +condition owing to the prolonged absences of its +previous archbishops. He made a series of pastoral visits, and +restored decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity +with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral +of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing +not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the +nave of the church into two compartments for the separation of +the sexes. He extended his reforms to the collegiate churches +(even to the fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St +John the Baptist), and to the monasteries. The great abuses +which had overrun the church at this time arose principally +from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo, therefore, established +seminaries, colleges and communities for the education +of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps, +of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society +whose members were pledged to give aid to the church when and +where it might be required. He further paved the way for the +“Golden” or “Borromean” league formed in 1586 by the Swiss +Catholic cantons of Switzerland to expel heretics if necessary by +armed force.</p> + +<p>In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about +giving directions for accommodating the sick and burying the +dead, avoiding no danger and sparing no expense. He visited all +the neighbouring parishes where the contagion raged, distributing +money, providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing +those, especially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging their +duties. He met with much opposition to his reforms. The +governor of the province, and many of the senators, apprehensive +that the cardinal’s ordinances and proceedings would encroach +upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and complaints +to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had +more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate +opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the +Humiliati (Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society +formed a conspiracy against his life, and a shot was fired at him +in the archiepiscopal chapel under circumstances which led to the +belief that his escape was miraculous. The number of his enemies +was increased by his successful attack on his Jesuit confessor +Ribera, who with other members of the college of Milan was +found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His manifold labours +and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He was seized +with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of +November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is +celebrated on the 4th of November.</p> + +<p>Besides the <i>Nodes Vaticanae</i>, to which he appears to have +contributed, the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous +reformer are some homilies, discourses and sermons, with a +collection of letters. His sermons, which have little literary +merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5 vols., Milan, 1747-1748), +and have been translated into many languages. The record of +his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the <i>Acta +Ecclesiae Mediolanensis</i> (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last +wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well +as a statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers +who regarded him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.</p> + +<p>His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop +of Milan from 1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library +in that city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.P. Giussano, <i>Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo</i> (1610, Eng. ed. by +H.E. Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, <i>Documenti circa la vita e +la gesta di Borromeo</i> (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span> +<i>Histoire de St Charles Borromée</i> (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono, +<i>Un grande riformatore del secolo XVI</i> (Florence, 1904); article +“Borromäus” in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1599-1667), Italian architect, +was born at Bissone in 1599. He was the chief representative of +the style known in architecture as “baroque,” which marked a +fearless and often reckless departure from the traditional laws +of the Renaissance, and often obtained originality only at the +cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the main opponents of this +style was Barocchio (<i>q.v.</i>). Borromini was much employed in +the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works +are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La +Sapienza in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the +church of the Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of +San Giovanni in Laterano. He died by his own hand at Rome in +1667. Engravings of his chief compositions are to be found in +the posthumous work, <i>Francisci Borromini opus Architectonicum</i> +(1727).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1803-1881), English traveller, +linguist and author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the +5th of July 1803, of a middle-class Cornish family. His father +was a recruiting officer, and his mother a Norfolk lady of French +extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow attended, with no very +great profit, the grammar school at Norwich. After leaving +school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors, where he +neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention +to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William +Taylor, the friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in +1824 he went to London to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer. +In 1826 he published a volume of <i>Romantic Ballads</i> +translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir Richard Phillips, +the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages, his +experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last +became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton’s doom, he +must leave London and either return to Norwich and share his +mother’s narrow income, or turn to account in some way the +magnificent physical strength with which nature had endowed +him. Determining on the latter of these courses, he left London +on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6 ft. in height, +was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of +extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty—Greek +in type with a dash of the Hebrew—we may assume that there +had never before appeared on the English high-roads so +majestic-looking a tramp as he who, on an afternoon in May, left his +squalid lodging with bundle and stick to begin life on the roads. +Shaping his course to the south-west, he soon found himself on +Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary adventures began. +After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and it was +while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance +of the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse, +whom he has immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners. +He was now brought much into contact with the gipsies, and +this fact gave him the most important subject-matter for his +writings. For picturesque as is Borrow’s style, it is this +subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain, which—if +his pictures of that world are true—will keep his writings alive. +Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to +America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow’s pictures +of them are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate +that no one who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers +with whom he associated, and whom he depicted, has +ever written about him and them. Full of “documents” as is +Dr Knapp’s painstaking biography, it cannot be said to give a +vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this most +interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of +gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was +brought into contact, and he can only refer, in justification of +Borrow’s descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own, +where the whole question is discussed at length, and where he has +set out to prove that Borrow’s pictures of the section of the English +gipsies he knew are not idealized. But there is one great blemish +in <i>all</i> Borrow’s dramatic scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever +they may be laid. This was pointed out by the gentleman who +“read” <i>Zincali</i> for Mr Murray, the publisher:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in +several of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who +are in humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of +character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be +very advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference +to this point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and +introducing a few contractions—<i>don’ts, can’ts</i>, &c. This would +improve them greatly.”</p> +</div> + +<p>It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The +reader has only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given +in that photographic study of Romany life, <i>In Gipsy Tents</i>, by +F.H. Groome, with the dialogues in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The Romany +Rye</i>, to see how the illusion in Borrow’s narrative is disturbed +by the uncolloquial locutions of the speakers. It is true, no +doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps the English and +Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding words, +and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the +Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language +to the archduke Joseph, often called the “Gipsy Archduke.” But +after all allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow’s +presentation of it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs +Petulengro, Ursula, and the rest, to find them using complex +sentences and bookish words which, even among English people, +are rarely heard in conversation. As to the deep impression +that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly explained +by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of all +countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The +silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained +to the last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of +his hairless face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange +look “not a bit like a Gorgio’s,” to use the words of one of his +gipsy friends. Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which +Borrow assumed in the company of his social equals left him +entirely when he was with the gipsies. The result of this was +that these wanderers knew him better than did his own countrymen.</p> + +<p>Seven years after the events recorded in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The +Romany Rye</i> Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible +Society, in which capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835) +(where he published <i>Targum</i>, a collection of translations), and +Spain, Portugal and Morocco (1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he +acted as correspondent to the <i>Morning Herald</i>. The result of +these travels and adventures was the publication, in 1841, of +<i>Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain</i>, the original MS. of which, +in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was Borrow’s +method of work. In 1843 appeared <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, when +suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book +glows with freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840 +he married Mary Clarke, the widow of a naval officer, and +permanently settled at Oulton Broad, near Lowestoft, with her +and her daughter. Here he began to write again. Very likely +Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond life +in England as a hedge-smith had not <i>The Bible in Spain</i> made +him famous as a wanderer. <i>Lavengro</i> appeared in 1851 with a +success which, compared with that of <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, was +only partial. He was much chagrined at this, and although <i>Lavengro</i> +broke off in the midst of a scene in the Dingle, and only +broke off there because the three volumes would hold no more, it +was not until 1857 that he published the sequel, <i>The Romany +Rye</i>. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe, and in 1854 +he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he +described in <i>Wild Wales</i>, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought +out a volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue, +<i>Romano Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language</i>, a book +which has been exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John +Sampson. In the summer of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to +Mr Murray and a few friends, and returned to Oulton. On the +26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his house at Oulton, in +his seventy-ninth year.</p> + +<p>Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though +he was not a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span> +attainments is shown by his translation of the Church of England +<i>Homilies</i> into Manchu, of the Gospel of St Luke into the Git +dialect of the Gitanos, of <i>The Sleeping Bard</i> from the +Cambrian-British, and of <i>Bluebeard</i> into Turkish. But it is not +Borrow’s linguistic accomplishments that have kept his name fresh, and +will continue to keep it fresh for many a generation to come. It +is his character, his unique character as expressed, or partially +expressed, in his books. Among all the “remarkable individuals” +(to use his favourite expression) who during the middle of the 19th +century figured in the world of letters, Borrow was surely the +most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the most +extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled +any other writer of his time. With regard to <i>Lavengro</i> and +<i>The Romany Rye</i>, there has been very much discussion as to how +much <i>Dichtung</i> is mingled with the <i>Wahrheit</i> in those +fascinating books. Had it not been for the amazingly clumsy pieces of +fiction which he threw into the narrative, few readers would have +doubted the autobiographical nature of the two books. Such +incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of unreality over +the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never +created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the +times and Borrow’s writings the originals are easily recognizable. +This is true, no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at +Norwich, and indeed generally as regards those he knew before +the period of his gipsy wanderings. It must not be supposed, +however, that such a character as the man who “touched” to +avert the evil chance is in any sense a portrait of an individual +with whom he had been brought into contact. The character +has so many of Borrow’s own eccentricities that it might rather +be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow +strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which +he seems to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects +along his path in order to save himself from the evil chance. He +never conquered the superstition. In walking through Richmond +Park with the present writer he would step out of his way +constantly to touch a tree, and he was offended if the friend he +was with seemed to observe it. Many of the peculiarities of the +man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract his mind +from painful thoughts were also Borrow’s own.</p> +<div class="author">(T. W.-D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORSIPPA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (<i>Barsip</i> in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions; +<i>Borsif</i> in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the +Greek name of an ancient city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and +10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr Hindieh, or Hindieh canal, +formerly known as “the Euphrates of Borsippa,” and even +during the Arabic period called “the river of Birs.” Borsippa was +the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the inscriptions +Babylon II., also the “city without equal.” Its patron god +was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in +the oldest inscriptions, but comes into importance first after +Khammurabi had made Babylon the capital of the whole land, +somewhere before 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida +at this place, dedicating it, however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach). +But although Khammurabi himself does not seem to have +honoured Nebo (<i>q.v.</i>), subsequent kings recognized him as the +deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (<i>q.v.</i>). Each +new year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who +in his turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second +in wealth and importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk +in Babylon. As with Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of +Nebuchadrezzar was the period of its greatest prosperity. In +general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon, falling into decay +after the time of Alexander, and finally in the middle ages into +ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by two large +ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the two, +but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil, +from a <i>ziara</i>, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which +stands on its highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on +Jewish legends, at this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham +into a fiery furnace, from which he was saved by the grace of God. +Excavations were first conducted here by the French Expédition +Scientifique en Mésopotamie in 1852, with small result. In 1879 +and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive, although +unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a considerable +quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the British +Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains +unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is +probably the most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On +the top of a hill over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified +brick split down the centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge +masses of vitrified brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and +also single enamelled bricks, generally bearing an inscription of +Nebuchadrezzar, twisted, curled and broken, apparently by +great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition makes this the Tower +of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed by +lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in +1854 showed it to be the stage tower or <i>ziggurat</i>, called the +“house of the seven divisions of heaven and earth,” of E-Zida, +the temple of Nebo. On a large platform rose seven solid +terraces, each smaller than the one below it, the lowest being +272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these terraces was faced +with bricks of a different colour. The approach to this <i>ziggurat</i> +was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the principal +rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms +were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its +final form this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar, +but from the clay cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in +two of the corners of the tower it appears that he restored an +incomplete <i>ziggurat</i> of a former king, “which was long since +fallen into decay.” Some of the best authorities believe that it +was this ambitious but incomplete and ruinous <i>ziggurat</i>, +existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which gave occasion to or +afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—H.C. Rawlinson, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i> (1860); +J. Oppert, <i>Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie</i> (Paris, 1863); +F. Delitzsch, <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> (Leipzig, 1881); +J.P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (New York and London, 1896); +H. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i> (London and New York, 1897); +M. Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i> (Boston, 1898); +see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babel</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORT,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boart</span>, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for +cutting but useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort +occurs in small spherical masses, of greyish colour, rough or +drusy on the surface, and showing on fracture a radiate crystalline +structure. These masses, known in Brazil as bolas, are often +called “shot bort” or “round bort.” Much of the bort consists +of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the +term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and +crystalline fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A +large proportion of the output of some of the South African mines +consists of such material. This bort is crushed in steel mortars to +form diamond powder, which is largely used in lapidaries’ work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> +(1780-1846), French naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780. +He was sent as naturalist with Captain Nicholas Baudin’s +expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the vessel at Mauritius, +and spent two years in exploring Réunion and other islands. +Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles of +Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal +Soult. His attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike +to the Bourbons were shown in various ways during 1815, and +his name was consequently placed on the list of the proscribed; +but after wandering in disguise from place to place he was +allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In 1829 he was +placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea, and in +1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on +the 23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the <i>Dictionnaire +classique d’histoire naturelle</i>, and among his separate productions +were:—<i>Essais sur les Îles Fortunées</i> (1802); +<i>Voyage dans les Îles d’Afrique</i> (1803); +<i>Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau +de Saint-Pierre de Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes</i> (1821); +<i>L’Homme, essai zoologique sur le genre humain</i> (1827); +<i>Résumé de la géographie de la Péninsule</i> (1838).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORZHOM,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in +the government of Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span> +Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800. It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft. +in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow rift in the Little Caucasus +mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm climate, its two hot +springs (71½°-82° Fahr.) and its beautiful parks make it a favourite +summer resort, and give it its popular name of “the pearl of +Caucasus.” The bottled mineral waters are very extensively exported.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOS, LAMBERT<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was +born at Workum in Friesland, where his father was headmaster +of the school. He went to the university of Franeker (suppressed +by Napoleon in 1811), and was appointed professor of Greek there +in 1704; after an uneventful life he died at Franeker in 1717. +His most famous work, <i>Ellipses Graecae</i> (1702), was +translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his <i>Antiquitates +Graecae</i> (1714) passed through several editions. He also published +<i>Vetus Testamentum</i>, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709); +notes on Thomas Magister (1698); <i>Exercitationes Philologicae</i> (1700); +<i>Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos</i> (1715); +and two small treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia, +in the province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop. +(1901) 6846. The height above the town is crowned by a castle +of the Malaspina family. The cathedral, founded in the 12th +century, restored in the 15th, and rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There +are some tanneries, and the fishing industry is important, but +the coral production of Sicily has entirely destroyed that of Bosa +since 1887. The district produces oil and wine. The present town +of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1½ m. from the site +of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a well-preserved +church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but is only +mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the coast-road +in the Itineraries (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> x. 7939 seq.). +One of the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records +the erection of four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife +Faustina and their two sons.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1812-1886), +Dutch novelist, was born at Alkmaar in north Holland +on the 16th of September 1812. Her father, named +Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a fair +education, and at an early period of her career she developed a +taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced +indoor life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the +Dutch painter, Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter +was known as Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance, +<i>Almagro</i>, appeared in 1837, followed by the <i>Graaf van Devonshire</i> +(<i>The Earl of Devonshire</i>) in 1838; the <i>Engelschen te Rome</i> (<i>The +English at Rome</i>) in 1840, and <i>Het Huis Lauernesse</i> (<i>The House +of Lauernesse</i>) in 1841, an episode of the Reformation, translated +into many European languages. These stories, mainly founded +upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch history, +betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined +with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her +style is sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten +years (1840-1850) were mainly devoted to further studies, the +result of which was revealed in 1851-1854, when her <i>Leycester +in Nederland</i> (3 vols.), <i>Vrouwen van het Leycestersche Tydperk</i> +(<i>Women of Leicester’s Epoch</i>, 3 vols.), and <i>Gideon Florensz</i> (3 vols.) +appeared, a series dealing with Robert Dudley’s adventures +in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint +abandoned historical romance for the modern society novel, +but her <i>Delftsche Wonderdokter</i> (<i>The Necromancer of Delft</i>, 1871, +3 vols.) and <i>Majoor Frans</i> (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the +success of her earlier works. <i>Major Frank</i> has been translated +into English (1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of +April 1886. Her novels have been published there in a collected +edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1759-1828), French +naturalist, was born at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He +was educated at the college of Dijon, where he showed a taste for +botany, and he followed up his studies in Paris at the Jardin des +Plantes, where he made the acquaintance of Mme M.J.P. +Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a government +appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in the +postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792 +he also held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent +outbreaks of 1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to +take refuge in flight. For some months he lay concealed at +Sainte-Radégonde, in the forest of Montmorency, barely subsisting +on roots and vegetables. He was enabled to return to Paris +on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title <i>Appel à l’impartiale +postérité par la citoyenne Roland</i> published a manuscript Mme +Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon +afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the +natural riches of that country. The immense materials he +gathered were never published in a complete form, but much +went to enrich the works of B.G.E. de Lacépède, P.A. Latreille +and others. After his return, on the establishment of the +Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of this he was +again deprived by the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1799, and for a time he was +in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to scientific +literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the foundations +of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new <i>Dictionnaire +d’histoire naturelle</i>, and on the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>, he +edited the <i>Dictionnaire raisonné et universel d’agriculture</i>, and was +one of the editors of the <i>Annales de l’agriculture française</i>. He +was made inspector of the gardens at Versailles, and of the public +nurseries belonging to the ministry of the interior. The last +years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work on the vine, +for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials, but +his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its completion.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1490?-1542), Spanish poet, +was born about the close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan +of patrician birth, and, after some years of military service, +became tutor to the duke of Alva. His poems were published in +1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are divided into sections +which mark the stages of Boscán’s poetical evolution. The first +book contains poems in the old Castilian metres, written in his +youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted with the +Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt +Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscán’s +activity. The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the +Italian manner, the longest of these being <i>Hero y Leander</i>, a poem +in blank verse, based on Musaeus. Boscán’s best effort, the +<i>Octava Rima</i>, is a skilful imitation of Petrarch and Bembo. +Boscán also published in 1534 an admirable translation of +Castiglione’s <i>Il Cortegiano</i>. Italian measures had been introduced +into Spanish literature by Santillana and Villalpando; it is +Boscán’s distinction to have naturalized these forms definitively, +and to have founded a poetic school.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by +W.J. Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco +Flamini, <i>Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera</i> (Livorno, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSCASTLE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a small seaport and watering-place in the +Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. +N. of Camelford station on the London & South-Western railway. +Pop. (civil parish of Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises +steeply above a very narrow cove on the north coast, sheltered, +but difficult of access, vessels having to be warped into it by +means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the harbour marks +the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St Symphorian, +Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from +Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition +that a ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the +harbour, and that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath +the waves, has been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish +poet Robert Stephen Hawker, vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast +scenery near Boscastle is severely beautiful, with abrupt cliffs +fully exposed to the sea, and broken only by a few picturesque +inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove. Inland +are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1711-1761), British admiral, was +born on the 19th of August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span> +1st Viscount Falmouth. He early entered the navy, and in 1739 +distinguished himself at the taking of Porto Bello. At the siege +of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of a party of seamen, he +took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while exposed to the fire of +another fort. On his return to England in the following year he +married, and entered parliament as member for Truro. In 1744 +he captured the French frigate “Médée,” commanded by M. de +Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he +signalized himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and +was wounded in the shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart +again became his prisoner, and the French ships, ten in number, +were taken. On the 15th of July he was made rear-admiral and +commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East Indies. On +the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David’s, and soon +after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and +the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege. +Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was +delivered up to him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in +England, and was the next year made one of the lords of the +Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinity House. +In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral, and in April he +intercepted the French squadron bound to North America, and +took the “Alcide” and “Lys” of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart +became his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen +returned to Spithead with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For +this exploit, he received the thanks of parliament. In 1758 he +was appointed admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of +the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with +General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and the +island of Cape Breton—services for which he again received the +thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to +command in the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet, +commanded by M. de la Clue, and after a sharp engagement in +Lagos Bay took three large ships and burnt two, returning to +Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. The victory +defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in +Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he +was appointed general of the marines, with a salary of £3000 per +annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He +died at his seat near Guildford on the 10th of January 1761.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSCH<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (or Bos), <span class="bold">JEROM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1518), the name generally +given, from his birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van +Aeken, the Dutch painter. He was probably a pupil of Albert +Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel of the 15th century, +for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre types, <i>diableries</i>, +and scenes of the kind generally associated with Breughel, whose +art is to a great extent based on Bosch’s. He was a satirist much +in advance of his time, and one of the most original and ingenious +artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on +Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works +were much admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose +court Bosch painted for some time. One of his chief works is the +“Last Judgment” at the Berlin gallery, which also owns a +little “St Jerome in the Desert.” “The Fall of the Rebellious +Angels” and the “St Anthony” triptych are in the Brussels +museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery. +The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important +“Adoration of the Magi,” the Antwerp museum a “Passion,” +and a practically unknown painting from his brush is at the +Naples museum.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician +and natural philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign +<i>savants</i> to adopt Newton’s gravitation theory, was born at +Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May 1711, according to the +usual account, but ten years earlier according to Lalande (<i>Éloge</i>, +1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through the usual +elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On +completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied +mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so +brilliant was his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was +appointed professor of mathematics in the college. For this +post he was especially fitted by his acquaintance with recent +advances in science, and by his skill in a classical severity of +demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the works of the +Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment he +had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem +to find the sun’s equator and determine the period of its rotation +by observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the +arduous duties of his professorship he found time for investigation +in all the fields of physical science; and he published a +very large number of dissertations, some of them of considerable +length, on a wide variety of subjects. Among these subjects +were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora Borealis, the figure of +the earth, the observation of the fixed stars, the inequalities in +terrestrial gravitation, the application of mathematics to the +theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in astronomical +observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the cycloid, the +logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of +continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of +spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with +other men of science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the +best means of securing the stability of the dome of St Peter’s, +Rome, in which a crack had been discovered. His suggestion was +adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take part in the Portuguese +expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the measurement of a +degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent request of +the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a similar +task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire, +an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between +Rome and Rimini. The operations were begun towards the +close of 1750, and were completed in about two years. An +account of them was published in 1755, entitled <i>De Litteraria +expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad dimetiendos duos meridiani +gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich</i>. The value of this work was +increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of the Church. +A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having +arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of +Lucca with respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent, +in 1757, as agent of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing +about a satisfactory arrangement of the matter. In the following +year he published at Vienna his famous work, <i>Theoria philosophiae +naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium</i>, +containing his atomic theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molecule</a></span>). Another occasion +for the exercise of his diplomatic ability soon after presented +itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of the British +government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port of +Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of +Ragusa had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to +undertake an embassy to London (1760), to vindicate the +character of his native place and satisfy the government. This +mission he discharged successfully, with credit to himself and +satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in England he +was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid +this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem, +entitled <i>De Solis et Lunae Defectibus</i> (London, 1764). This +prolix composition, one of a class which at that time was much in +vogue—metrical epitomes of the facts of science—contains in +about five thousand lines, illustrated by voluminous notes, a +compendium of astronomy. It was for the most part written +on horseback, during the author’s rides in the country while +engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is characterized +by G.B.J. Delambre as “uninstructive to an astronomer +and unintelligible to any one else.”</p> + +<p>On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but +ill-health compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was +called to the chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia, +and this post he held, together with the directorship of the +observatory of Brera, for six years. He was invited by the +Royal Society of London to undertake an expedition to California +to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but this was prevented +by the recent decree of the Spanish government for the expulsion +of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and +petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many +enemies, so that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span> +change of residence. About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he +continued to teach and to hold the directorship of the observatory +of Brera; but being deprived of his post by the intrigues of his +associates he was about to retire to his native place, when the +news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his order in Italy. +Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an invitation +from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized +and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office +instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained +there ten years, but his position became irksome, and at length +intolerable. He continued, however, to devote himself diligently +to the pursuits of science, and published many remarkable +memoirs. Among them were an elegant solution of the problem +to determine the orbit of a comet from three observations, and +memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic telescopes. In +1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at Bassano, +where he occupied himself with the publication of his <i>Opera +pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &c.</i>, which appeared in +1785 in five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to +the convent of Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his +literary labours. But his health was failing, his reputation +was on the wane, his works did not sell, and he gradually sank +a prey to illness and disappointment. He fell into melancholy, +imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid intervals, and died +at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In addition to the +works already mentioned Boscovich published <i>Elementa universae +matheseos</i> (1754), the substance of the course of study prepared +for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled <i>Giornale +di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia</i>, of which several +editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour +was the editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay +on the philosophy of Descartes, with scientific annotations and +supplements.</p> +<div class="author">(W. L. R. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosnia-Herzegovina</span>, +two provinces formerly included in European Turkey, which +now, together with Dalmatia, form the southernmost territories +of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name <i>Herzegovina</i> is +also written <i>Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina</i> or, in Croatian, +<i>Hercegovina</i>. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral +triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an +area of 19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. +They are bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by +Dalmatia; S.E. by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; +and N.E. by Servia. Opposite to the promontory of Sabbioncello, +and at the entrance to the Bocche di Cattaro, the frontier of +Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but these two strips of +coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend only for a +total distance of 14½ m. Bosnia is altogether an inland territory.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Physical Features.</i>—Along the Dalmatian border, and +through the centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric +Alps, which attain their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near +Travnik, Serajevo and Mostar. There are numerous high valleys +shut in among the mountains of this range; the most noteworthy +being the plain of Livno, which lies parallel to the Dalmatian +border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea. The zone of +highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean +altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur +frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a +region of mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial +basins, which finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, +or Vale of the Save, forming the southernmost fringe of the +Hungarian Alföld. Bosnia belongs wholly to the watershed of the +Save, and its rivers to the Danubian system, no large stream +finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows eastward along the +northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four main tributaries, +the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed on the +Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and +Piva; curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for +102 m. with Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, +after a total course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many +springs near Serajevo, and winds for 107 m. northward, through +a succession of fertile glens, reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. +Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a channel through the Dinaric Alps, +and, after passing Jajce and Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m. +from its own headwaters. The Una rises on the Croatian +border, and, after skirting the Plješevica Planina, in Croatia, +turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream +for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is +98 m. At Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.</p> + +<p>Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram +defined by Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an +irregular line drawn from a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar +to the bend of the river Narenta, differs in many respects from +the larger territory. Its mountains, which belong to the Adriatic +watershed, and form a continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, +are less rounded and more dolomitic in character. They descend +in parallel ridges of grey Karst limestone, south-westwards to +the sea; their last summits reappear in the multitude of rocky +islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the peaks of Orjen, +Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often exceeds +6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered +with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they +present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their +monotony is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and <i>poljes</i>, +or upland hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are +grouped; the districts or cantons thus formed are walled round +by a natural rampart of limestone. These <i>poljes</i> may be +described as oases in what is otherwise a desert expanse of mountains. +The surface of some, as notably the <i>Mostarsko Blato</i>, lying +west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms a lake; others are +watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes of the +rock, and make their way by underground channels either to +the sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these +is the Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in +Popovopolye, and after making its way by a subterranean +passage through a range of mountains, wells up in the mighty +source of Ombla near Ragusa, and hurries in undiminished +volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, is the one +large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground throughout +its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the Lebrsnik +mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric +Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, +and falls into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m. +North of Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated +Narenta defile, a narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by +mountains which rise on either side and culminate in Lupoglav +(6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica (7205 ft.) on the west.</p> + +<p>2. <i>Geology and Minerals.</i>—Geologically, the highlands +of Bosnia and Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their +orographic and tectonic character, as a continuation of the +South Alpine calcareous belt. Along the west frontier there +appear broad and strongly marked zones of Cretaceous limestone, +alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by a strip of +Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of +Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly +direction, are the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up +the greatest part of the north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of +flysch intermingled with several strips of eruptive rock. In the +south-east of Bosnia the predominant formations are Triassic +and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and quartzite. Along +the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the fluvial and Karst +valleys (<i>poljes</i>), are found diluvial and alluvial formations, +interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer. Bosnia is +rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome, manganese, +cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent +building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were +worked by the Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the +Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining Company of Bosnia began to +develop the coal and iron fields; and from 1886 its operations +were continued by the government. Valuable salt is obtained +from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of Herzegovina +yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound, +and those of Ilidže, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span> +days of the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at +the beginning of the 20th century.</p> + +<p>3. <i>Climate.</i>—In climate Bosnia differs considerably from +Herzegovina. In both alike the <i>scirocco</i>, bringing rain from the +south-west, is a prevalent wind, as well as the <i>bora</i>, the fearful +north-north-easter of Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral +valleys of the Dinaric Alps, overwhelms everything in its path. +The snow-fall is slight, and, except on a few of the loftier peaks, +the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the weather resembles that of +the south Austrian highlands, generally mild, though apt to be +bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual temperature +is 50° Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the Dalmatian +mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often +rises beyond 110° Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region +show that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.</p> + +<p>4. <i>Fauna.</i>—In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelaeus</i>) +were taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, +a discovery without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. +Of existing species the bear, wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and +chamois may occasionally be seen in the remotest wilds of +mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last red-deer +was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound. +Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks +of the Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and +wild-goose are fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (<i>Gypaëtus +barbatus</i>) had almost become extinct in 1900; but several +varieties of eagle and falcon are left. Falconry was long a +pastime of the Moslem landlords. The destruction of game, +recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is prevented by the +laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close time, and +rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles includes +the venomous <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> and <i>Pelias berus</i>, while +scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In +the museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, +including the remarkable <i>Pogonus anophthalmus</i>, from the +underground Karst caves. The caves are rich in curious kinds +of fish, <i>Paraphoxinus Gethaldii</i>, which is unknown elsewhere, +<i>Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus alepidatus</i> and others, +which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In Herzegovina, +although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive, +the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value. +Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of +both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon, +sturgeon and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.</p> + +<p>5. <i>Flora.</i>—Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian +flora, representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare +<i>Veronica crinita, Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica</i> and +<i>Daphne Blagayana</i>. About 50% of the occupied +<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span> +territory is clothed with forest. “Bosnia begins with the forest,” +says a native proverb, “Herzegovina with the rock”; and this +account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst +is as bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, +where only the hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes +a belt of large timber, including many giant trees, 200 ft. high, +and 20 ft. in girth at the level of a man’s shoulder. Dense +brushwood prevails on the foothills. There are three main +zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges of northern +Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the shadier by +beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely +mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm, +ash, fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized +by the predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other +conifers. In all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow +(especially <i>Salix laurea</i>), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and +yew; while the mountain ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and +other wild fruit trees are found at rarer intervals. Until 1878 +the forests were almost neglected; afterwards, the government +was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats, owing to the damage +they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the popular rights +of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These measures +were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves was +discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.</p> + +<p>6. <i>Agriculture.</i>—In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, +the surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">Acres. </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Plough-land.</td> <td class="tcr">2,355,499</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Garden-ground.</td> <td class="tcr">103,040</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow.</td> <td class="tcr">739,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Vineyards.</td> <td class="tcr">12,598</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Pasture.</td> <td class="tcr">1,875,840</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Forest.</td> <td class="tcr">5,670,619</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Unproductive.</td> <td class="tcr">210,998</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted +for the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines, +mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice +and tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered +portions of Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state +sugar-refinery, for which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. +<i>Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium</i> is exported for the manufacture of +insect-powder, and sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained +in their seeds. The plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish +prunes and a spirit called <i>šlivovica, shlivovitsa</i> or <i>sliwowitz</i>. +This district is the headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs. +Poultry, bees and silkworms are commonly kept. On the whole +agriculture is backward, despite the richness of the soil; for the +cultivators are a very conservative race, and prefer the methods +and implements of their ancestors. Many improvements +were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after 1878. +Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were +made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Gačko, on +the Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; +a model poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; +a school of agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidže; and another +school at Modric, near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain +number of village schoolmasters are annually trained, for six +weeks, in practical husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural +machinery lent, by the government. To better the breeds +of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened near Serajevo, and foreign +horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are imported.</p> + +<p>7. <i>Land Tenure.</i>—The <i>zadruga</i>, or household community, +more common in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), survives to a small extent in Bosnia +and Herzegovina; but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles +the system called <i>métayage</i>. At the time of the Austrian occupation +(1878) it was regulated by a Turkish enactment<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the 12th +of September 1859. Apart from gardens and house-property, +all land was, according to this enactment, owned by the state; +in practice, it was held by the Moslem <i>begs</i> or <i>beys</i> (nobles) and +<i>agas</i> (landlords), who let it to the peasantry. The landlord +received from his tenant (<i>kmet</i>) a fixed percentage, usually one +third (<i>tretina</i>), of the annual produce; and, of the remaining two +thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth (<i>desetina</i>) went to the +state. The amount of the <i>desetina</i> was always fixed first, and +served as a basis for the assessment of the <i>tretina</i>, which, +however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could +relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing +to pay his <i>tretina</i>, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage +done to it. The landlord was bound to keep his tenants’ dwellings +and outhouses in repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the +right of pre-emption belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to +the neighbours. Thus foreign speculators in land were excluded, +while a class of peasant proprietors was created; its numbers +being increased by the custom that, if any man reclaimed a piece +of waste land, it became his own property after ten years. The +Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire period +of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole, +satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants +farming their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One +conspicuous feature of the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem +<i>Vakuf</i>, or ecclesiastical property, consisting of estates dedicated +to such charitable purposes as poor-relief, and the endowment +of mosques, schools, hospitals, cemeteries and baths. It is +administered by a central board of Moslem officials, who meet in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span> +Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income rose to £25,000 in +1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The <i>Vakuf</i> tenants +were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent had been +fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year’s harvest, +and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their holdings.</p> + +<p>8. <i>Industries and Commerce.</i>—Beside agriculture, which +employed over 88% of the whole population in 1895, the other +industries are insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and +leather and metal work, carried on by the workmen in their own +houses. There are also government workshops, opened with a +view to a higher technical and artistic development of the house +industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid metallic wares, +<i>bez</i> (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive government +support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there +were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an +annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several +blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the +larger private establishments there existed in the same year seven +breweries, one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle +factories, two building and furniture works, a factory for spinning +thread, one iron and steel works, one paper and one ammonia +and soda factory, and one mineral-oil refinery.</p> + +<p>In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 +included in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary, +to the extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 +special statistics have been drawn up respecting their trade +also with Austria and Hungary. According to these statistics +the most important articles of export are coal and turf, fruit, +minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other articles of export +are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, sugar-beet +and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food stuffs, +building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats, clothes, +wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.</p> + +<p>There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a +hypothecary credit business and manages the wholesale trade of +the tobacco factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, +Bjelina and Brčka.</p> + +<p>9. <i>Communications.</i>—The construction of carriage-roads, +wholly neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale +by the Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion +with the Hungarian state system. One crosses the Una at +Kostajnica, and, after skirting the right bank of that river as far +as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. The other, a narrow-gauge +line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and follows the Bosna +to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond Dolnja +Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces +through the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the +Narenta valley, and runs almost parallel with the coast to +Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche di Cattaro. Up to this point +the railways of the occupied territory were complete in 1901. +A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of Servia and +Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of +railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and +Una, but the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like +the Vrbas, too full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta +only begins to be navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the +railway lines, like the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, +are state property. In many of the principal towns there are +also government hotels.</p> + +<p>Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of +the combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar +(17,010), the capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja +Tuzla (11,034), Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Foča +(4217), Jajce (3929) and Trebinje (2966). All these are described +in separate articles.</p> + +<p>10. <i>Population and National Characteristics.</i>—In 1895 the +population, which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance +of males over females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element +is small, consisting chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies, +Italians and Jews. Spanish is a comomon language of the Jews, +whose ancestors fled hither, during the 16th century, to escape +the Inquisition. The natives are officially described as Bosniaks, +but classify themselves according to religion. Thus the Roman +Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins; the +Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong +to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all +speak a language almost identical with Servian, though written +by the Roman Catholics in Latin instead of Cyrillic letters. +A full account of this language, and its literature, is given under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>. To avoid offending either +“Serbs” or “Croats,” it is officially designated “Bosnisch.” +In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical +type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The +Bosnians or Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both +appearance and character. They have the same love for poetry, +music and romance; the same intense pride in their race and +history; many of the same superstitions and customs. The +Christians retain the Servian costume, modified in detail, as +by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The “Turkish” +women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in +others they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy +is almost unknown, possibly because many of the “Turks” +are descended from the austere Bogomils, who were, in most +cases, converted to Islam, but more probably because the +“Turks” are as a rule too poor to provide for more than one +wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the people +of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting +chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their +houses are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the +Karst region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family +ties are strong, and the women are not ill-treated, although +they share in all kinds of manual labour.</p> + +<p>11. <i>Government.</i>—At the time of the Austrian annexation in +1908, the only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that +the foreign consuls received their <i>exequatur</i> from Turkey, instead +of Austria; otherwise the government of the country was +conducted in the name of the Austrian emperor, through the +imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who controlled the civil +service for the occupied territory. Its central bureau, with +departments of the interior, religion and education, finance +and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were +largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better +able than the Germans to comprehend the local customs and +language. A consultative assembly, composed of the highest +ecclesiastical authorities, together with 12 popular representatives, +also met at Serajevo. For administrative purposes the country +was divided into 6 districts or prefectures (<i>kreise</i>), which were +subdivided into 49 subprefectures (<i>bezirke</i>).</p> + +<p>Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed +by the government, and a town council, of whom one third are +similarly appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a +proportionate number of councillors representing each religious +community. To ensure economy, the decisions of this body are +supervised by a government commissioner. The commune is +preserved, somewhat as in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), but with modified +powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are +tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from +the leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges, +and three votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants +and witnesses are German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. +An appeal, on points of law alone, may be carried to the supreme +court in Serajevo, and there tried by five judges without assessors. +In cases not involving a sum greater than 300 florins (£25), no +appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins (£4 : 3 : 4) are in +question, the case is summarily decided at the <i>Bagatelle Gericht</i>, +or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers admitted to +practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the Turkish law +was retained during the period of occupation; all cases between +Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges, +against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided +by assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their +21st year, for 3 years’ service with the colours, and 9 years in the +reserve. The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, +and there are 7100 native troops. The principal military +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span> +stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, Višegrad, Goražda, Foča, Bilek, +Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern frontier; Mostar and +Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihać in the north.</p> + +<p>12. <i>Religion</i>.—In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox +Christians, 35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The +patriarch of Constantinople is the nominal head of the Orthodox +priesthood; but by an arrangement concluded in 1879, his +authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, in exchange +for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the clergy +of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate +of Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and +Mostar require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the +communes chose their own parish priests, but this right is now +vested in the government. The Roman Catholics have an +archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and an apostolic +administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of the +Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or +<i>reis-el-ulema</i>, who with his council is nominated and paid by the government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends +from the <i>Vakuf</i>. Considerable bitterness prevails between the +rival confessions, each aiming at political ascendancy, but the +government favours none. In order to conciliate even the +Moslems, who include the bulk of the great landholders and of the +urban population, its representatives visit the mosques in state +on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage; and +even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the +state.</p> + +<p>13. <i>Education</i>.—Education for boys and girls between the +ages of seven and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The +state supports primary schools (352 in 1905), where reading, +writing, arithmetic and history are taught; and separate +instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish +and Moslem clergy. There are also various private schools, +belonging to the different religious communities. These receive +a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages +all parents to send their children to its own schools. One of the +earliest and best-known private schools is the orphanage at +Serajevo, founded in 1869 by two English ladies, Miss Irby and +Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem schools, which, in 1905, comprised +855 <i>mektebs</i> or primary schools, and 41 <i>madrasas</i> or high +schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish or Arabic; while +in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic characters.</p> + +<p>For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school +at Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers’ training-college +at Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem +law-students, called <i>scheriatschule</i> from the <i>sheri</i> or Turkish code; and various theological, commercial and art institutes. +Promising pupils are frequently sent to Vienna University, +with scholarships, which may be forfeited if the holders engage +in political agitation.</p> + +<p>14. <i>Antiquities</i>.—Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man +had been discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many +later prehistoric remains are preserved in Serajevo museum. +The neolithic station of Butmir, near Ilidže, was probably a +lake-dwellers’ colony, and has yielded numerous stone and +horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off, similar +relics were found at Sobunar, Zlatište and Debelobrdo; iron +and bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate +design, occur in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the +cemetery of Jezerine, where they are associated with objects in +silver, tin, amber, glass, &c. Among the numerous finds made +in other districts may be mentioned the discovery, at Vrankamer, +near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of which dates from +300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as roads, +mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such +remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and +Serajevo; and especially near the sources of the Drina. The +period between the downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th +century, and the growth of a Bosnian state, in the 11th, is +poorer in antiquities. The later middle ages are represented by +several monasteries, and many castles, such as those of Dervent, +Doboj, Maglaj, Žepče and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihać, on +the Una; Prijedor and Kljuć, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela, +Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the +Narenta, at Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A +group of signs carved on some rocks near Višegrad have been +regarded as cuneiform writing, but are probably medieval +masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the Begova Džamia +at Serajevo, the Foča mosques and the Mostar bridge, the +buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit. +More remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. +in length, 3 in height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed +to mark the graves of the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite +unadorned, a few only being decorated with rude has-reliefs of +animals, plants, weapons, the crescent and star, or, very rarely, +the cross.</p> + +<p>15. <i>History</i>.—Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate +name or history, and until the great Slavonic immigration of +636 it remained an undifferentiated part of Illyria +(<i>q.v.</i>). Owing to the scarcity of authoritative documents, +<span class="sidenote">Formation of the Banate.</span> +it is impossible to describe in detail the events +of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia +became the generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna +(ancient <i>Basanius</i>); and subsequently for several outlying and +tributary principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla; +Usora, along the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, +the later Krajina, Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; +and Rama, the modern district of Livno. The old Illyrian +population was rapidly absorbed or expelled, its Latin institutions +being replaced by the autonomous tribal divisions, or <i>Županates</i>, +of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and Byzantium gradually +welded these isolated social units into a single nation, whose +ruler was known as the Ban (<i>q.v.</i>). But the central power +remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural +frontiers. It seems probable that the bans were originally +viceroys of the Croatian kings, who resumed their sovereignty +over Bosnia from 958 to 1010. Thenceforward, until 1180, the +bans continued subject to the Eastern empire or Hungary, with +brief intervals of independence. The territory now called +Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It +comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its +capital at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of +Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this +region as it was in the 10th century.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left +Bosnia divided between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early +in the 12th century a new religion, that of the Bogomils +(<i>q.v.</i>), was introduced, and denounced as heretical. +<span class="sidenote">Religious controversies.</span> +Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian +nobles and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign +was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing +state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining +operations carried on by the Ragusans. An unusually able +ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian dynasty +of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Kulin +perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects +and Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong +pressure from Pope Innocent III. and Béla III. of Hungary; +but, despite all efforts, Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. +In 1232 Stephen, the successor of Kulin, was dethroned by the +native magnates, who chose instead Matthew Ninoslav, a +Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant characteristics +of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the +corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by +the lack of any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme +influence of religion. Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a +crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, only to abjure Christianity in +1233. For six years he withstood the Hungarian crusaders, led +by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar invasion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span> +Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was +concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal +of the crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. +entered into friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country +was for the moment an independent and formidable state. The +importance attached to its conversion is well attested by the +correspondence of Pope Gregory IX. with Ninoslav and various +Bosnian ecclesiastics.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made +to exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Béla IV., +who appeared as the champion of Roman Catholicism, +secured the election of his nominee Prijesda to the +<span class="sidenote">Period of Hungarian supremacy.</span> +banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until +1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their +former power. From 1299 to 1322 the country was ruled by +the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen Šubić, who, though +vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper and Lower +Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the +growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native +magnates in 1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, +Stephen Kotromanić, last and greatest of the Bosnian bans.</p> + +<p>At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith; +Hungary, governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of +Anjou, was striving to crush the insurgent magnates +of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial interests were +<span class="sidenote">Stephen Kotromanic.</span> +imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the +balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic +to aid Hungary. In an unsuccessful war against the +Croats (1322-26), from which Venice derived the sole advantage, +the ban appears to have learned the value of sea-power; immediately +afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum and the +Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta. +Ragusa furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for +a guarantee of protection; commercial treaties with Venice +further strengthened his position; and the Vatican, which had +instigated the Croats to invade the dominions of their heretical +neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his conversion to +Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan, +and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I. +of Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344. +Four years later his influence brought about a truce between +Hungary and the Venetians, who had agreed with Bosnia for +mutual support against the Croats; and in 1353, the year of his +death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Louis.</p> + +<p>Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanić, was a +minor, and for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent. +Confronted by civil war, and deprived of Hlum by +the Hungarians, she was compelled to acknowledge +<span class="sidenote">Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.</span> +the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards +of Louis. But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition +at home, and forthwith embarked on a career of +conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of Dalmatia. +The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire +defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies; +and to win help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to +Tvrtko a large tract of territory, including the principality of +Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was crowned as “Stephen I., king of +Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,” although Lazar retained +his own title and a diminished authority. The death of Louis in +1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh outbreak +in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor’s designs by +establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested +from Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and +Cattaro, except the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his +kingdom at the moment when Servia was lost through the Ottoman +victory of Kossovo (1389). At his coronation he had +proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian empire; +in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar; +and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which +should extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster +of Kossovo, though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately +react on Bosnia itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his +kingdom was still at the summit of its prosperity.</p> + +<p>Kotromanić and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate +their turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under +Dabisa (Stephen II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko. +Sigismond of Hungary profited by the disorder that +<span class="sidenote">Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.</span> +ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 +the Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> overran Bosnia. +Ostoja (Stephen III., 1398-1418), an illegitimate son +of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands of Hrvoje Vukčić, +duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranić,<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and other leaders of the +aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the +Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant +to the throne in Tvrtković, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all +took sides in the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman +Catholics. During the reigns of Ostojić (Stephen IV., 1418-1421) +and Tvrtković (Stephen V., 1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an +easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a yearly tribute, after +again ravaging the country, and carrying off many thousands +of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.</p> + +<p>The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi János, and the +attempt to organize a defensive league among the neighbouring +Christian lands, temporarily averted the ruin of +Bosnia under Thomas Ostojić (Stephen VI., 1444-1461). +<span class="sidenote">Turkish conquest.</span> +Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican, +Ostojic renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former +co-religionists, until the menace of an insurrection forced him +to grant an amnesty. His position was endangered by the +growing power of his father-in-law, Stephen Vukcic, an ardent +Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into a single +principality. Vukčić—or <i>Cosaccia</i>, as he is frequently called +by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac—was +the first and last holder of the title “Duke of St Sava,” +conferred on him by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and +from this title is derived the name <i>Herzegovina</i>, or “the Duchy.” +Hardly had the king become reconciled with this formidable +antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of Hunyadi, and the fall +of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against the Turks. +In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were +unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while +the Croats proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and +his successor Tomašević (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered +to the Turks and was beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vukčić +offered a desperate resistance, held out until 1483; but apart +from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts of the Bosnians +were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining the +enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted +to the Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were +occupied by Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate +“banate” or “kingdom of Bosnia,” until 1526, when the +Hungarian power was broken at Mohács. In 1528 Jajce surrendered, +after repelling every attack by the Turkish armies for 65 years.</p> + +<p>The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest. +It was followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. +Many of the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia +and south Hungary, where they ultimately fell again under +Ottoman dominion. Others found shelter in Rome or Venice, +and a large number settled in Ragusa, where they doubtless +contributed to the remarkable literary development of the 16th +and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was +a characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged +war on their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards +from Zengg in maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious +pirate community of the Uskoks (<i>q.v.</i>). There was less inducement +for the Orthodox inhabitants to emigrate, because almost +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span> +all the neighbouring lands were governed by Moslems or Roman +Catholics; and at home the peasants were permitted to retain +their creed and communal organization. Judged by its influence +on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively +unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent +growth is perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek +Church, as the representative of Christianity in Turkey. The +Christian aristocracy lost its privileges, but its ancient titles of +duke (<i>vojvod</i>) and count (<i>knez</i>) did not disappear. The first was +retained by the leaders who still carried on the struggle for liberty +in Montenegro; the second was transferred to the headmen of +the communes. Many of the Franciscans refused to abandon their +work, and in 1463 they received a charter from the sultan +Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of Fojnica, +near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it did +not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic +of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of +Trappist monks was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.</p> + +<p>The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, +who thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the +destinies of their country for more than three centuries. +Bosnia was regarded by successive sultans as the +<span class="sidenote">Bosnia under Turkish rule.</span> +gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians +and their religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. +Thus the desire for vengeance and the prospect of a +brilliant military career impelled the Bogomil magnates to +adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, presented +some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal +governor of the country was the Turkish <i>vali</i>, who resided at +Banjaluka or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if +the taxes were duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted +Moslem aristocracy, who adopted the dress, titles and +etiquette of the Turkish court, without relinquishing their +language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in fortified +towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on sufferance +for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate +military caste, headed by 48 <i>kapetans</i>—landholders exercising +unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs, +but bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops +for the service of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were +fighting, either against a common enemy or among themselves, +hunting, hawking and listening to the minstrels who celebrated +their exploits. Their yearly visits to Serajevo assumed in time +the character of an informal parliament, for the discussion of +national questions; and their rights tended always to increase, +and to become hereditary, in fact, though not in law. In every +important campaign of the Turkish armies, these descendants +of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable +wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high +military and administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha, +a native of Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was +succeeded by the distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet +Beg Sokolović, a Bosnian. Below the feudal nobility and their +Moslem soldiers came the Christian serfs, tillers of the soil and +taxpayers, whose lives and property were at the mercy of their +lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all, the system by +which the strongest of their sons were carried off as recruits for +the corps of janissaries (<i>q.v</i>.), frequently drove them to brigandage, +and occasionally to open revolt.</p> + +<p>These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile +the country was involved in the series of wars waged by the +Turks against Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the +Krajina and all along the Montenegrin frontier, +<span class="sidenote">External history 1528-1821.</span> +Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless feud, +irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; +while the Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant +occupation for the nobles during a large part of the 16th and +17th centuries. But after the Ottoman defeat at Vienna +in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of extending the +foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard +pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the +Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was +still officially styled the “vali of Hungary,” removed his +headquarters from Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and +therefore a safer capital. Two years later, the imperial troops +reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired with 3000 Roman Catholic +emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by Eugene of Savoy, +who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties of +Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of +all the Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow +enclaves of Klek and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan +dominions from those of Venice. At the same time a strip of +territory in northern Bosnia was ceded to Austria, which was +thus able to control both banks of the Save. This territory was +restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of Belgrade;<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> but in +1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, in 1791, +the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una +as the Bosnian frontier.</p> + +<p>The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the +sultan Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in +Bosnia, where Turkish prestige had already been weakened +by the establishment of Servian autonomy under +<span class="sidenote">Moslem rebellions.</span> +Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married +and settled on the land, forming a strongly conservative +and fanatical caste, friendly to the Moslem nobles, who now +dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. Their opportunity +came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress the +insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian +revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the +massacre of the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed +in 1827. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further +attempt at reform was initiated by the sultan and his grand +vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a most formidable +outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, and the +Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march +on Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the +true faith. A holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein +Aga Berberli, a brilliant soldier and orator, who called himself +<i>Zmaj Bosanski</i>, the “Dragon of Bosnia,” and was regarded by +his followers as a saint. The Moslems of Herzegovina, under +Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte, but in +Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo +he was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha +Pasha; and within a few weeks the united armies occupied the +whole of Bulgaria, and a large part of Macedonia. Their career +was checked by Reshid Pasha, who persuaded the two victorious +commanders to intrigue against one another, secured the division +of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. The rout of the +Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at Scutari +were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate +defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his +appeal for pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished +for life to Tribizond. The power of the Bosnian nobles, though +shaken by their defeat, remained unbroken; and they resisted +vigorously when their kapetanates were abolished in 1837; and +again when a measure of equality before the law was conceded +to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović +reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to +tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. +In 1840 he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac +to wage war upon the vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and +simultaneously to suppress a Christian rising. Peace was +arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was rumoured that Ali had +concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro, hoping to shake +off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an entirely +independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge, but +during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate +policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons +at Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the +Christians, who had again revolted; and he supported the +Bosnian nobles against reforms imposed by the vali. At last, +in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to restore quiet. Ali +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span> +Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but secretly +sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved +everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their +commander Omer or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was +shortly afterwards assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish +officials should restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his +captor (March 1851).</p> + +<p>The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important +administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the +commercial centre of the country, and the jealously +guarded stronghold of the nobles, superseded Travnik +<span class="sidenote">Condition of the serfs.</span> +as the official capital, and the residence of the vali. +A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization +of Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who +governed the country until 1860. But as the administration +grew stronger, the position of the peasantry became worse. +They had now to satisfy the imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, +as well as their feudal lords. The begs and agas continued to +exact their forced labour and one-third of their produce; the +central government imposed a tithe which had become an +eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption +from military service, levied on every newborn male, forced +labour on the roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on +grapes and tobacco, and a variety of lesser taxes combined to +burden the Christian serfs; but even more galling than the +amount was the manner in which these dues were exacted—the +extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, the +brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant +villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian +independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public +bankruptcy of Turkey.</p> + +<p>Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the +Bosnian Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers +of Nevesinje, which gives its name to a mountain +range east of Mostar, rose against the Turks. Within +<span class="sidenote">Christian rising of 1875.</span> +a few weeks the whole country was involved. The +Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlović, +Socica, Ljubibratić, and others, held out for a year against all +the forces that Turkey could despatch against them.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In July +1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the struggle, and in April +1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.</p> + +<p>The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of +July 1878 by the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not +easily effected; and, owing to the difficulty of military +operations among the mountains, it was necessary to +<span class="sidenote">Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.</span> +employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the +native leader, was supported by a body of Albanians +and mutinous Turkish troops, while the whole Moslem +population bitterly resented the proposed change. The +losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those +who fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under +martial law. But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, +the Austrian general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on +the 19th of August, and ended the campaign on the 20th of +September, by the capture of Bihac in the north-west, and of +Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country was +then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the +bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von +Hoffmann and Joseph de Szlávy, resulted only in the insurrection +of 1881-82. Order was restored in June 1882, when the +administration was entrusted to Benjamin von Kállay (<i>q.v.</i>), +as imperial minister of finance. Kállay retained this position +until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he was succeeded +by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life +and property were rendered secure, and great progress was +achieved, on the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient +civil service, harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, +promoting commerce, carrying out important public works, +and reorganizing the fiscal and educational systems. All classes +and creeds were treated impartially; and, although the +administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and +undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics +have also urged that Kállay fostered the desire for material +welfare at the cost of every other national ideal; that, despite +his own popularity, he never secured the goodwill of the people +for Austria-Hungary; that he left the agrarian difficulty +unsolved, and the hostile religious factions unreconciled. These +charges are not wholly unfounded; but the chief social and +political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced to +historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian +occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival +churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kállay, it is +only necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 +and Bosnia in 1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin +entailed by four centuries of misrule were transformed into +a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in south-eastern Europe.</p> + +<p>It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish +to end the anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, +by incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the +Dual Monarchy. The treaty had contemplated the +<span class="sidenote">Austrian annexation.</span> +evacuation of the occupied provinces after the restoration +of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly +stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian +and Ottoman plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition +of Turkish assent to the provisions of the treaty. But the +Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed to promise a revival +of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled the Turks +to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the +ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms +in Turkey certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants +of the occupied territory to petition the emperor for the grant of +a constitution similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria +proper. But the Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by +the weakness of Russia after the war with Japan, and aware that +the proclamation of Bulgarian independence was imminent, had +already decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of +the pledges given at Berlin, and although the proposal was +unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being communicated +to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin, +in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis Joseph, +was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial +rescript published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and +Moslem delegates, who had started on the same day for Budapest, +to present their petition to the emperor, learned from the rescript +that the government intended to concede to their compatriots +“a share in the legislation and administration of provincial +affairs, and equal protection for all religious beliefs, languages +and racial distinctions.” The separate administration was, +however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not promise +that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative +assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—G. Capus, <i>A travers la Bosnie et l’Herzégovine</i> +(Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the +combined provinces, their resources and population. +J. Asbóth, <i>An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina</i> (London, +1890) is valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: +A. Bordeaux, <i>La Bosnie populaire</i> (Paris, 1904) for social life and +mining. Much information is also contained in the works by +Lamouche, Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and +Laveleye, cited under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balkan Peninsula</a></span>. See also +B. Nikašinović, <i>Bosnien und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der +österreich-ungarischen Monarchie</i> (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, +<i>Auf dem Rade durch Kroatien und Bosnien</i> (Vienna, 1903). The best +map is that of the Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, +J. Cvijić, <i>Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien</i> (Vienna, +1900); F. Katzer, <i>Geologischer Führer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> +(Serajevo, 1903); P. Ballif, <i>Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> +(Vienna, 1896). Sport: “Snaffle,” <i>In the Land of the Bora</i> +(London, 1897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, +and the official <i>Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen</i> (1879 and 1895), +and <i>Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (1899). The chief +official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, +<i>Through Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia</i> (Edinburgh, 1900); +A.J. Evans, <i>Illyrian Letters</i> (London, 1878); W. Radimský, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span> +<i>Die neolithische Station von Butmir</i> (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, +<i>Römische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (Vienna, 1893, &c.). +No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; +but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following +books:—A. Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram +illustrantia</i> (Rome, 1860) and <i>Vetera monumenta Slavorum +Meridionalium</i> (1. Rome, 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),—these are collections of +Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, <i>Monumenta +historica Slavorum Meridionalium</i> (Belgrade, 1885); +Y. Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum</i>, &c. +(Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. Miklosich, <i>Monumenta Serbica</i> (Vienna, 1858). +Other important authorities are +G. Lucio, <i>De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae</i> (Amsterdam, 1666); +M. Orbini, <i>Regno degli Slavi</i> (Pesaro 1601); +D. Farlatus and others, <i>Illyricum Sacrum</i> (Venice, 1751-1819); +C. du Fresne du Cange, <i>Illyricum vetus et novum</i> (1746); +M. Simek, <i>Politische Geschichte des Königreiches Bosnien und Rama</i> +(Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period +after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, <i>Histoire du Monténégro et de la Bosnie</i> +(Paris, 1895). See also V. Klaić, <i>Geschichte Bosniens</i> (Leipzig 1884). +J. Spalaïkovitch (Spalajković), in <i>La Bosnie et l’Herzégovine</i> +(Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-Hungarian +administration.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance, +were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years +allowed by Turkish law.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De Administrando Imperio</i>, 33 and 34. The names of <i>Chulmia</i> +and <i>Chelmo</i>, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian +chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia, +see L. Villari, <i>The Republic of Ragusa</i> (London, 1904).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Given by Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia</i>, +173-185.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The Slavs +were probably Bogomils.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of +south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the +Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti</i>, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For details of these events see Umar Effendi, <i>History of the War +in Bosnia</i> (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).</p> + +<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans, +<i>Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot</i> (London, 1876); +and W.J. Stillman, <i>Herzegovina and the Late Uprising</i> (London, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosphorus</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Bosporos">Βόσπορος</span> = ox-ford, traditionally +connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of +a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings). +By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially +applied to the <i>Bosporus Cimmerius</i> (see below), and the <i>Bosporus +Thracius</i>; but when used without any adjective it now denotes +the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora +and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The +channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the +northern entrance of 2¾ m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds., +and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In +the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea +of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction +below the surface and along the shores. The surface current +varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at +narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very +rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and +the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople +lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in modern times. +The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern portion +of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte; +but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing +formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls, +quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various +kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and +beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded +shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences +of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under +Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the +treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other +than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the +Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the ancient name for the Straits +of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of +Azov; the Cimmerii (<i>q.v.</i>) were the ancient inhabitants. The +straits are about 25 m. long and 2½ m. broad at the narrowest, +and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the +peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus. +This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands +intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various +sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek +cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, <i>q.v.</i>), the chief of +all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on +the east Phanagoria (Sênnája), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus, +Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians, +Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but +Phanagoria (<i>c.</i> 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum +had some connexion with Athens—at least it appears to have +been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left +hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous +barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful +objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. +They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens, +textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The +numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.</p> + +<p>According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was +governed from 480 to 438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Archaeanactidae, probably +a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems +to have endured until <i>c</i>. 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Spartocids have left many +inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house +ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native +tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches +of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions +and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete +list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus, +established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum +to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a +serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct +proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was +reserved for his son Leucon (387-347) to take this city. He +was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and +Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his brother reigned alone +until 310. Then followed a civil war in which Eumelus (310-303) +was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303-283) and +after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family +names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know +only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway +against the power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, +general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to +hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a +Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house +of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise +princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were, +strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts. +They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers +for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple +at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges. +We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return +the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up +decrees in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great +entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, +however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out +of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough +to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself. +Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces, +another of the old king’s sons. After the death of Mithradates +(<span class="scs">B.C.</span> 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to Pompey, +but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was +defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain +by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and +in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, +until 16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry +an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered +and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. To him succeeded +Aspurgus (8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38?), son of Asander, who founded a line +of kings which endured with certain interruptions until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341. +These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, +Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, +claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the +Pontic era (starting from 297 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) introduced by him, regularly +placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know +their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of +their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern +half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along +the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the +Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on +a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported +by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of +garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose +and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these +periods (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize +Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the +last coin of the last Rhescuporis, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341, materials for a connected +history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span> +kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the +neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have +been revived under Byzantine protection, and from time to time +Byzantine officers built fortresses and exercised authority at +Bosporus, which was constituted an archbishopric. They also +held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic side of the strait, a town which +in the 10th and 11th centuries became the seat of the Russian +principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn gave place to Tatar +domination.</p> + +<p>The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic +state, the first, that is to say, in which a mixed population +adopted the Greek language and civilization. It depended for +its prosperity upon the export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this +commerce supported a class whose wealth and vulgarity are +exemplified by the contents of the numerous tombs to which +reference has been made. In later times a Jewish element was +added to the population, and under its influence were developed +in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies of +“worshippers of the highest God,” apparently professing a +monotheism which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian +was purer than any found among the inhabitants of the Empire.</p> + +<p>We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other +cities from the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The gold <i>staters</i> of Panticapaeum +bearing Pan’s head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their +weight and fine workmanship. We have also coins with the +names of the later Spartocids and a singularly complete series +of dated <i>solidi</i> issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty; in +them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold <i>solidus</i> +through silver and potin to bronze (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, <i>Inscrr. orae +Septent. Ponti Euxini</i>, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. “Bosporus” +(2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencycl.</i> vol. iii. 757 +(Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, <i>Scythians and Greeks</i> (Cambridge, +1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. (St Petersburg, +1901). Coins: B. Koehne, <i>Musée Kotschoubey</i> (St Petersburg, +1855). Religious Societies: E. Schürer in <i>Sitzber. d. k. pr. Akad. d. +Wissenschaft zu Berlin</i> (1897), i. pp. 200-227. Excavations: <i>Antiquités +du Bosphore cimmérien</i> (St Petersburg, 1854, repr. Paris, +1892) and <i>Compte rendu</i> and <i>Bulletin de la Commission Imp. Archéologique +de St. Pétersbourg</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. H. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1810-1861), French +marshal, entered the artillery in 1833, and a year later went to +Algeria. Here he soon did good service, and made himself +remarkable not only for technical skill but the moral qualities +indispensable for high command. Becoming captain in 1839, +he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar +and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command +of a battalion of native <i>tirailleurs</i>, and in 1843 was thanked in +general orders for his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In +1845 he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a +French line regiment. In the following year he was in charge +of the Oran district, where his swift suppression of an insurrection +won him further promotion to the grade of general of brigade, +in which rank he went through the campaign of Kabulia, receiving +a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France after nineteen +years’ absence, a general of division. Bosquet was amongst the +earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the battle +of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the +Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet’s +corps of two divisions protected them against interruption. +His timely intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854) +secured the victory for the allies. During 1855 Bosquet’s corps +occupied the right wing of the besieging armies opposite the +Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his corps at the storming +of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault of the 8th of +September he was in command of the whole of the storming +troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another +serious wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the +foremost soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of +France, but his health was broken, and he lived only a few years +longer. He had the grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross +of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidieh of the 1st class.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSS.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1) (From the O. Eng. <i>boce</i>, a swelling, cf. Ital. <i>bozza</i>, +and Fr. <i>bosse</i>, possibly connected with the O. Ger. <i>bōzan</i>, to beat), +a round protuberance; the projecting centre or “umbo” of a +buckler; in geology a projection of rock through strata of +another species; in architecture, the projecting keystone of the +ribs of a vault which masks their junction; the term is also +applied to similar projecting blocks at every intersection. The +boss was often richly carved, generally with conventional +foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque figures. +The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the +15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2) +(From the Dutch <i>baas</i>, a word used by the Dutch settlers in +New York for “master,” and so generally used by the Kaffirs in +South Africa; connected with the Ger. <i>Base</i>, cousin, meaning +a “chief kinsman,” the head of a household or family), a colloquial +term, first used in America, for an employer, a foreman, +and generally any one who gives orders, especially in American +political slang for the manager of a party organization.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer +on art, was born at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan. +He was educated at the college of Monza; and his early fondness +for drawing was fostered by the director of the college, who +supplied him with prints after the works of Agostino Caracci +for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at Milan, +and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate +friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became +assistant secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine +Arts. He rendered important service in the organization of this +new institution. In 1804, in conjunction with Oriani, he drew +up the rules of the three academies of art of Bologna, Venice +and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with the decoration of +the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of Napoleon I. +to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last Judgment +of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night, +Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command +of Prince Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a +copy of the Last Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated, +for the purpose of getting it rendered in mosaic. The drawing +was made from the remains of the original with the aid of copies +and the best prints. The mosaic was executed by Raffaelli, +and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. Bossi made +another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera. +This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great +works of sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence. +Bossi devoted a large part of his life to the study of the works +of Leonardo; and his last work was a series of drawings in +monochrome representing incidents in the life of that great +master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in black chalk of the +Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the Magdalene. +In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled +<i>Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci</i>, which had the merit of greatly +interesting Goethe. His other works are <i>Delle Opinioni di Leonardo +intorno alla simmetria de’ corpi umani</i> (1811), and <i>Del Tipo dell’ arte +della pittura</i> (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December +1816. A monument by Canova was erected to his memory +in the Ambrosian library, and a bust was placed in the Brera.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSSU, RENÉ LE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1631-1680), French critic, was born in +Paris on the 16th of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and +in 1649 became one of the regular canons of Sainte-Geneviève. +He wrote <i>Parallèle des principes de la physique d’Aristote et de +celle de René Descartes</i> (1674), and a <i>Traité du poème épique</i>, +highly praised by Boileau, the leading doctrine of which was that +the subject should be chosen before the characters, and that the +action should be arranged without reference to the personages +who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of March 1680.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1627-1704), French divine, +orator and writer, was born at Dijon on the 27th of September +1627. He came of a family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers; +his father was a judge of the parliament (a provincial high court) +at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent to school with +the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the college of +Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious +mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his +natural vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span> +hard work; fellow-students nicknamed him <i>Bos suetus aratro</i>—an +ox broken in to the plough. But his abilities became known +beyond the college walls. He was taken up by the Hôtel de +Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the original +home of the <i>Précieuses</i>. Here he became the subject of a +celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about extempore +preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to +deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well +as in more conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant +degree in divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years +he spent at Metz, where his father’s influence had got him a +canonry at the early age of thirteen; to this was now added the +more important office of archdeacon. He was plunged at once +into the thick of controversy; for nearly half Metz was Protestant, +and Bossuet’s first appearance in print was a refutation of the +Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile the Protestants +with the Roman Church became the great object of his dreams; +and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the +pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where +political assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers +scarcely born. Not that he reached perfection at a bound. His +youthful imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into +a kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school. +But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659), +and three years later mounted the pulpit of the Chapel Royal.</p> + +<p>In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical +logic or clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear, +he must manage to address them in terms they would agree to +consider sensible and well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too +much of their good opinion. Having very stern ideas of the +dignity of a priest, he refused to descend to the usual devices +for arousing popular interest. The narrative element in his +sermons grows shorter with each year. He never drew satirical +pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not write +out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart: +of the two hundred printed in his <i>Works</i> all but a fraction are +rough drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sévigné forsook +him, when Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669; +though Fénelon and La Bruyère, two much sounder critics, +refused to follow their example. Bossuet possessed the full +equipment of the orator, voice, language, flexibility and strength. +He never needed to strain for effect; his genius struck out at a +single blow the thought, the feeling and the word. What he said +of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he could “fling +his fury into theses,” and thus unite the dry light of argument +with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their +highest point in the <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>. Bossuet was always best +when at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious +scruples intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought +to the artistic side of his subject. For the <i>Oraison</i>, as its name +betokened, stood midway between the sermon proper and what +would nowadays be called a biographical sketch. At least, +that was what Bossuet made it; for on this field he stood not +merely first, but alone. His three great masterpieces were +delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of Charles +I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670), +and the great soldier Condé (1687).</p> + +<p>Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in +a Paris pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop +of Condom in Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being +appointed tutor to the dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and +now a boy of nine (1670). The choice was scarcely fortunate. +Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but his genius was by no +means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; and the +dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a +merely genealogical incident at his father’s court. Probably +no one was happier than the tutor, when his charge’s +sixteenth birthday came round, and he was promptly married +off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine years at court were by +no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published nothing, +except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his +pupil’s instruction—or rather, to fit himself to give that instruction—a +remarkable trilogy. First came the <i>Traité de la connaissance +de Dieu et de soi-même</i>, then the <i>Discours sur l’histoire +universelle</i>, lastly the <i>Politique tirée de l’Écriture Sainte</i>. The +three books fit into each other. The <i>Traité</i> is a general sketch +of the nature of God and the nature of man. The <i>Discours</i> +is a history of God’s dealings with humanity in the past. The +<i>Politique</i> is a code of rights and duties drawn up in the light +thrown by those dealings. Not that Bossuet literally supposed +that the last word of political wisdom had been said by the Old +Testament. His conclusions are only “drawn from Holy Scripture,” +because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction +for the institutions of his country—to hallow the France +of Louis XIV. by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel +of Solomon. Then, too, the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him +to speak out more boldly than court-etiquette would have otherwise +allowed, to remind the son of Louis XIV. that kings have +duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten these duties, +but Louis’ son would bear them in mind. The tutor’s imagination +looked forward to a time when France would blossom into +Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is +what made him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its +forms: <i>”le roi, Jésus-Christ et l’Église, Dieu en ces trois noms”</i>, +he says in a characteristic letter. And the object of his books +is to provide authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet’s +worship of authority by no means killed his confidence in reason; +what it did was to make him doubt the honesty of those who +reasoned otherwise than himself. The whole chain of argument +seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy proved that +a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of +human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the +most part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations, +as well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit +obedience as the immediate representatives of God. Thus all +revolt, whether civil or religious, is a direct defiance of the +Almighty. Cromwell becomes a moral monster, and the revocation +of the edict of Nantes is “the greatest achievement of the +second Constantine.” Not that Bossuet glorified the <i>status quo</i> +simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his youth had known +the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France of his +manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had +suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient +Rome. Why not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation +at bay and prolong that splendour for all time? Bossuet’s +own <i>Discours sur l’histoire universelle</i> might have furnished an +answer, for there the fall of many empires is detailed. But then +the <i>Discours</i> was composed under a single preoccupation. To +Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one point of +real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet +and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome +he only touched in so far as they formed part of the <i>Praeparatio +Evangelica</i>. And yet his <i>Discours</i> is far more than a theological +pamphlet. Pascal, in utter scorn for science, might refer the +rise and fall of empires to Providence or chance—the nose of +Cleopatra, or “a little grain of sand” in the English lord +protector’s veins. Bossuet held fast to his principle that God +works through secondary causes. “It is His will that every +great change should have its roots in the ages that went before +it.” Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple +with origins and causes, and in this way his book deserves its +place as one of the very first of philosophic histories.</p> + +<p>From writing history he turned to history in the making. +In 1681 he was gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he +could take possession of his see, he was drawn into a +violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gallicanism</a></span>). Here he found himself between two fires. To +support the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated +their casuists and <i>dévotion aisée</i> almost as much as Pascal himself. +To oppose the pope was to play into the hands of Louis, who +was frankly anxious to humble the Church before the State. So +Bossuet steered a middle course. Before the general assembly of +the French clergy he preached a great sermon on the unity of the +Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise. As Louis +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span> +insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration, Bossuet +got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could. +And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on +a gigantic <i>Defensio Cleri Gallicani</i>, only published after his death.</p> + +<p>The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project +very near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had +been busy with schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman +Church. In 1668 he converted Turenne; in 1670 he published +an <i>Exposition de la foi catholique</i>, so moderate in tone that +adversaries were driven to accuse him of having fraudulently +watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a Protestant taste. +Finally in 1688 appeared his great <i>Histoire des variations des +églises protestantes</i>, perhaps the most brilliant of all his works. +Few writers could have made the Justification controversy +interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough. +Without rules an organized society cannot hold together, and +rules require an authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches +had thrown over this interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble +in showing that, the longer they lived, the more they varied on +increasingly important points. For the moment the Protestants +were pulverized; but before long they began to ask whether +variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691 and +1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion, +but negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual +Roman doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept, +but he flatly refused to guarantee that they would necessarily +believe to-morrow what they believe to-day. “We prefer,” he +said, “a church eternally variable and for ever moving forwards.” +Next, Protestant writers began to accumulate some startling +proofs of Rome’s own variations; and here they were backed up +by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the father +of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine, +Bossuet’s own special master, of having corrupted the primitive +doctrine of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a <i>Défense de la +tradition</i>, but Simon calmly went on to raise issues graver still. +Under a veil of politely ironical circumlocutions, such as did not +deceive the bishop of Meaux, he claimed his right to interpret +the Bible like any other book. Bossuet denounced him again +and again; Simon told his friends he would wait until “the old +fellow” was no more. Another Oratorian proved more dangerous +still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay +rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether. +It was blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of +nature would break through a reign of law He had Himself +established. Bossuet might scribble <i>nova, mira, falsa</i>, in the +margins of his book and urge on Fénelon to attack them; +Malebranche politely met his threats by saying that to be refuted +by such a pen would do him too much honour. These repeated +checks soured Bossuet’s temper. In his earlier controversies he +had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot +ministers he refuted found him a kindly advocate at court. +Even his approval of the revocation of the edict of Nantes +stopped far short of approving dragonades within his diocese of +Meaux. But now his patience was wearing out. A dissertation +by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk, became his +excuse for writing certain violent <i>Maximes sur la comédie</i> (1694) +wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Molière, +dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling +with Fénelon over the love of God, and employing methods of +controversy at least as odious as Fénelon’s own (1697-1699). +All that can be said in his defence is that Fénelon, four-and-twenty +years his junior, was an old pupil, who had suddenly +grown into a rival; and that on the matter of principle most +authorities thought him right.</p> + +<p>Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet’s life came slowly to +an end. Till he was over seventy he had scarcely known what +illness was; but in 1702 he was attacked by the stone. Two +years later he was a hopeless invalid, and on the 12th of April +1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private life there is little +to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted bishop, +much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring +occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was +kindly and affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until +he was over forty, he had lived among purely ecclesiastical +surroundings; and it was probably want of self-confidence, +more than want of moral courage, that made him shut his eyes +a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.’s private life. +After all, he was not the king’s confessor; and to “reform” +Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down, +would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his +books Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the +attacks on Simon, breathe an air of masculine belief in reason, +rare enough among the apologists of any age. Bossuet would +willingly have undertaken, as Malebranche actually undertook, +to make an intelligent Chinaman accept all his ideas, if only he +could be induced to lend them his attention. But his best praise +is to have brought all the powers of language to paint an undying +picture of a vanished world, where religion and letters, laws and +science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable planets, circling +for ever round one central Sun.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The best edition of Bossuet’s sermons is the <i>Œuvres +oratoires de Bossuet</i>, edited by Abbé Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris, 1890-1896). +His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols. (Paris, 1862-1864). +A complete list of the innumerable works relating to +him will be found in the <i>Bossuet</i> number of the <i>Bibliothèque des +bibliographies critiques</i>, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and +published by the Société des Études Historiques (Paris, 1900). +The general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of +M. Rebelliau, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1900), +and M. Gustave Lanson, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1901). +In English there is a modest <i>Bossuet</i> by Mrs Sidney Lear (London, 1874), +and two remarkable studies by Sir J. Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume +of his <i>Horae Sabbaticae</i> (London, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(St. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTANAI,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan +rule, in the middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their +seat in Persia, and were practically the secular heads of the +Jewish community in the Orient.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTON, THOMAS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at +Duns on the 17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and +his mother, Alison Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was +educated at Edinburgh, and licensed in 1697 by the presbytery +of Chirnside. In 1699 he became minister of the small parish of +Simprin, where there were in all “not more than 90 examinable +persons.” In 1704 he found, while visiting a member of his +flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a commonwealth +soldier. This was the famous <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i>, +by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading +Reformation divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the +Gospel. Its object was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness +of the Gospel. It cleared away such conditions as repentance, +or some degree of outward or inward reformation, and argued +that where Christ is heartily received, full repentance and a new +life follow. On Boston’s recommendation, Hog of Carnock +reprinted <i>The Marrow</i> in 1718; and Boston also published +an edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked +from the standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard +of a far-reaching movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The +“Marrow men” were marked by the zeal of their service and +the effect of their preaching. As they remained Calvinists they +could not preach a universal atonement; they were in fact +extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was translated +to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only +member of the assembly who entered a protest against what +he deemed the inadequate sentence passed on John Simson, +professor of divinity at Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox +teaching on the Incarnation. He died on the 20th of May 1732. +His books, <i>The Fourfold State, The Crook in the Lot</i>, and his +<i>Body of Divinity</i> and <i>Miscellanies</i>, long exercised +a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Memoirs</i> were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908). +An edition of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport +of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its +mouth in the Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern +railway. Pop. (1901) 15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural +fen district, drained by numerous cuts, some of which are +navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb Decorated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span> +building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in the +kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was +restored to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts, +U.S.A., in 1857, in memory of the connexion of that city with the +English town. The western tower, commonly known as Boston +Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its foundations were the +first to be laid of the present church (which is on the site of +an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the +Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent +example. It somewhat resembles the completed tower of +Antwerp cathedral, and is crowned by a graceful octagonal +lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft. in height. The church of +Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively restored, retains +good Early English details. Other buildings of interest are the +guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick; Shodfriars Hall, +a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a Dominican +priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine +gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St +Botolph’s church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a +mansion of the 16th century. Public institutions include a +people’s park and large municipal buildings (1904).</p> + +<p>As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th +century the river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels +exceeding about 50 tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in +extent was constructed, with an entrance lock giving access to +the quay sides for vessels of 3000 tons. The bed of the river +was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the town, and a new cut +of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An iron +swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway. +There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons. +Imports, principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased +owing to these improvements from £116,179 in 1881 to £816,698 +in 1899; and exports (coal, machinery and manufactured goods) +from £83,000 in 1883 to £261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and +coastal fisheries are important. Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco, +sail and rope works are the principal industries in the town. +Boston returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary +borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of the +county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen +and 18 councillors. Area, 2727 acres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph’s Town) derives its name +from St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was +destroyed by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday, +Boston was probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of +Brittany. The excellent commercial position of the town at the +mouth of the Witham explains its speedy rise into importance. +King John by charter of 1204 granted the bailiff of Boston sole +jurisdiction in the town. By the 13th century it was a great +commercial centre second only to London in paying £780 for two years +to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward III. made it a staple +port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish merchants largely +increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of the Hanseatic +League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system Boston’s +prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained almost +without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free +borough by Henry VIII.’s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI. +in 1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of +admiralty) in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent +members to the great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from +1552 to 1885 two members were returned to each parliament. The +Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one member. +In 1257 a market was granted to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308 +to John, earl of Brittany. The great annual mart was held before +1218 and attended by many German and other merchants. Two +annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted by Henry VIII.’s +charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives only in the +Beast Mart held on the 11th of December.</p> + +<p>See Pishey Thompson, <i>History and Antiquities of Boston and the +Hundred of Skirbeck</i> (Boston, 1856); +George Jebb, <i>Guide to the Church of St Botolph, with Notes +on the History of Boston; Victoria County History: Lincolnshire</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A., +in Suffolk county; lat. 42° 21′ 27.6″ N., long. 71° 3′ 30″ W. Pop. +(1900) 560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census) +595,580; (1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston & +Albany (New York Central), the Old Colony system of the New +York, New Haven & Hartford, and the Boston & Maine railway +systems, each of which controls several minor roads once independent. +The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on what was +once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a +narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water. +On the north is the Charles river, which widens here into a broad, +originally much broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface +of the peninsula was very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was +deeply indented with coves, and there were salt marshes that +fringed the neck and the river-channel and were left oozy by +the ebbing tides. Until after the War of Independence the +primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was afterwards +subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site of +any other American city. The area of the original Boston was +only 783 acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804) +this was increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate +Boston of the present day—including the annexed territories of +South Boston (1804), Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester, +Brighton and West Roxbury (1874)—comprehends almost +43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the finest residential +quarter of the city—the Back Bay, so called from that inner +harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)—stand +on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and +fairest portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries +of granite, and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water +margins, constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming +flats, and furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings. +At the edge of the Common, which is now well within the city, +the British troops in 1775 took their boats on the eve of the +battle of Lexington; and the post-office, now in the very heart +of the business section of the city, stands on the original +shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and excellently drained. The +original territory still preserves to a large degree its irregularity +of surface, but its hills have been much degraded or wholly razed. +Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as a signal warning +station, is still the most conspicuous topographical feature of +the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque +eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it +became possible, in the reconstruction of the business district, +to widen and straighten its streets and create squares, and so +provide for the traffic that had long outgrown the narrow, +crooked ways of the older city. Atlantic Avenue, along the +harbour front, was created, and Washington Street, the chief +business artery, was largely remade after 1866. It is probable +that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger outlay of labour, +material and money, in reducing, levelling and reclaiming +territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in +Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all +the other chief cities of the United States together. Washington +Street, still narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested +thoroughfare in America. The finest residence streets are in the +Back Bay, which is laid out, in sharp contrast with the older +quarters, in a regular, rectangular arrangement. The North +End, the original city and afterwards the fashionable quarter, +is now given over to the Jews and foreign colonies.</p> + +<p>The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the +United States for the purpose of fortification, are numerous, +and render the navigation of the shipping channels difficult +and easily guarded. Though tortuous of access, the channels +afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft. since great improvements were +undertaken by the national government in 1892, 1899, 1902 and +1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It affords nearly +60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of early +reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been. +The islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part +heavily wooded when first occupied. It has been found impossible +to afforest them on account of the roughness of the sea-air, and +the wash from their bluffs into the harbour has involved large +expense in the erection of sea-walls. Castle Island has been +fortified since the earliest days; Fort Independence, on this +island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on neighbouring islands, +constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad watercourses +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span> +around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges, +East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the +navy-yard at Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by +the electric subway under the harbour. At the Charlestown +navy-yard (1800) there are docks, manufactories, foundries, +machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks, furnaces, casting-pits, +timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &c. The famous +frigate “Independence” was launched here in 1814, the more +famous “Constitution” having been launched while the yard +was still private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles, +to Charlestown, was opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic +merit is the Cambridge Bridge (1908), which replaced the old +West Boston Bridge, and is one feature of improvements long +projected for the beautifying of the Charles river basin.</p> + +<p>Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by +time and the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries +remain intact—King’s chapel burying ground, with the graves +of John Winthrop and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground +in the heart of the city, where Samuel Sewall, the parents +of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis and Samuel Adams are +buried; and Copp’s Hill burial ground, containing the tombs of +the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of the +city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul +Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South +church (1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882), +and Faneuil Hall (1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898) +are rich in memorable associations of the period preceding the +War of Independence. The second was the seat of the royal +government of Massachusetts during the provincial period, and +within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions of colonial +dependence or independence probably first came into evident +conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was, +for instance, the meeting-place of the people after the “Boston +Massacre” of 1770, when they demanded the removal of the +British troops from the city; and here, too, were held the meetings +that led up to the “Boston Tea Party” of 1773. Faneuil Hall +(the original hall of the name was given to the city by Peter +Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is associated, like the +Old South, with the patriotic oratory of revolutionary days and +is called “the cradle of American liberty.” Its association with +reform movements and great public issues of later times is not +less close and interesting.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The adjoining Quincy market may +be mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to +open six new streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks +and wharf rights—all without laying tax or debt upon the city. +The original King’s chapel (1688, present building 1749-1754) was +the first Episcopal church of Boston, which bitterly resented +the action of the royal governor in 1687 in using the Old South +for the services of the Church of England. The new state house, +the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles Bulfinch) +was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again +by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to +1900). Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity +with the style of the original portion; and its gilded dome +is a conspicuous landmark. Other buildings of local importance +are the city hall (1865); the United States government building +(1871-1878, cost about $6,000,000); the county court-house +(1887-1893, $2,250,000); the custom-house (1837-1848); +and the chamber of commerce (1892).</p> + +<p>Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a +group of exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum +of Fine Arts, the public library and the new Old South church. +Trinity (1877, cost $800,000), in yellowish granite with dark +sandstone trimmings, the masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built +in the Romanesque style of southern France; it is a Latin cross +surmounted by a massive central tower, with smaller towers and +an adjacent chapel reached by open cloisters that distribute +the balance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 137). It has +windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and others.</p> + +<p>The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site, +given by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of +pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance, +suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court, +and notable decorative features and embellishments, including +bronze doors by D.C. French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by +Macmonnies, a fine staircase in Siena marble, some characteristic +decorative panels by Puvis de Chavannes (illustrating the +history of science and literature), and other notable decorative +paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of religion), Edwin +A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old Museum of +Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic style, +with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old +South (the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum) +is a handsome structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine +campanile. The dignified buildings of the Massachusetts Institute +of Technology are near. In Huntington Avenue, at its +junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another group of handsome +new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony +Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music. +In the Back Bay Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L. +Olmsted, still other groups have formed—among others those +of the marble buildings of the Harvard medical school; Fenway +Court, a building in the style, internally, of a Venetian palace, +that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner, and Simmons +College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum of +Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is +being made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.</p> + +<p>Boston compares favourably with other American cities in +the character of its public and private architecture. The height +of buildings in the business section is limited to 125 ft., and in +some places to 90 ft.</p> + +<p>One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for +electric trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in +part with two, constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000 +up to 1905. The branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath +the harbour bed and extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to +Maverick Square, East Boston; it was the first all-cement tunnel +(diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The subway was built by the +city, but leased and operated by a private company on such terms +as to repay its cost in forty years. Another tunnel has been +added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow +streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented +difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional +efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the +surface cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the +subway. All the various roads—surface, elevated (about 7 m., +built 1896-1901), and subway—are controlled, almost wholly, +by one company. They all connect and interchange passengers +freely; so that the ordinary American five-cent fare enables +a passenger to travel between almost any two points over an +area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of the +Boston & Maine and the Boston & Albany systems also deserve +mention. The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers +9 acres and has 23 tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898), +one of the largest stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has +32 tracks, and is used by the Boston & Albany and by the New +York, New Haven & Hartford railways.</p> + +<p>A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water +service was begun in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir +at Clinton, on the Nashua river. The basin here excavated +by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above high-tide level +of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average +depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of +water. It is the largest municipal reservoir in the world<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>, yet +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span> +it is only part of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan +area.</p> + +<p>The park system is quite unique among American cities. +The Common, a park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has +been a public reservation since 1634, and no city park in the +world is cherished more affectionately for historical associations. +Adjoining it is the Public Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the +made area of the city. Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back +Bay streets running from the foot of the Public Garden, is one of +the finest residence streets of the country. It is 240 ft. wide, +with four rows of trees shading the parking of its central mall, +and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the beautiful outer +park system. The park system consists of two concentric +rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the +metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in +co-operation with the city. The former has been laid out since +1875, and includes upwards of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m. +of walks, drives and rides. Its central ornament is Franklin +Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system, which extends +around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in 1893. +It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation +(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts, +a beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as +Middlesex Fells, two large beach bath reservations on the harbour +at Revere and Hull (Nantasket), and the boating section of the +Charles river. At the end of 1907 more than $13,000,000 had +been expended on the system. Including the local parks of the +cities and towns of the metropolitan district there are over +17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan park +district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in +the establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement, +planned for many years, was brought nearer by the completion +of the new Cambridge Bridge. This improvement was +projected to include the damming of the Charles river, and the +creation of a great freshwater basin, with drive-ways of reclaimed +land along the shores, and other adornments, somewhat after +the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.</p> + +<p><i>Art and Literature.</i>—The Museum of Fine Arts was founded +in 1870 (though there were art exhibits collected from 1826 +onward) and its present building was erected in 1908. It has +one of the finest collections of casts in existence, a number of +original pieces of Greek statuary, the second-best collection in +the world of Aretine ware, the finest collection of Japanese +pottery, and probably the largest and finest of Japanese paintings +in existence. Among the memorials to men of Massachusetts +(a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by monuments +in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state +house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are +statues of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew +by Thomas Ball; of Generals Joseph Hooker and William F. +Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by Daniel C. French; of W.L. +Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner; of Samuel +Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin +Franklin by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story), +Colonel W. Prescott (Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel +Webster (H. Powers), W.E. Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks +(H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St Gaudens), and J.B. +O’Reilly (D.C. French).</p> + +<p>Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A. +Ward commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic +properties of ether, made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General +Hospital by Dr W.T.G. Morton; an emancipation group of +Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of Lincoln; a fine equestrian +statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington, one of the best +works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument +in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil +War; another (1888) recording the death of those who fell in the +Boston Massacre of 1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut +(H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson (Anne Whitney), and Alexander +Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent bronze bas-relief +(1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the departure +from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment +of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art +department of the city government, under unpaid commissioners, +appointed by the mayor from candidates named by local art and +literary institutions; and without their approval no work of art +can now become the property of the city.</p> + +<p>The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January +1908, is the second library of the country in size, and is the largest +free circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111 +volumes). There was a public municipal library in Boston before +1674—probably in 1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was +apparently never replaced. The present library (antedated by +several circulating, social and professional collections) may +justly be said to have had its origin in the efforts of the Parisian, +Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830 on, to foster +international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged gifts +from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes, +and a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated +in 1849 with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private +citizens) was the nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal +foundation dates from 1848. Among the special collections are +the George Ticknor library of Spanish and Portuguese books +(6393 vols.), very full sets of United States and British public +documents, the Bowditch mathematical library (7090 vols.), +the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193 vols.), the +Barton library, including one of the finest existing collections of +Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general library), +the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full collection +on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than +100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and +literature of the United States. The library is supported almost +entirely by municipal appropriations, though holding also considerable +trust funds ($388,742 in 1905). The other notable +book-collections of the city include those of the Athenaeum, +founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets), the +Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the +Boston medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New +England Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750 +volumes and 34,150 pamphlets), the state library (founded +1826; 140,000), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences +(founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society of Natural History +(founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000 pamphlets).</p> + +<p>The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts +Institute of Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical +school in the country, opened to students (including +women) in 1865, four years after the granting of a charter to +Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president; Boston University +(chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal; co-educational); the +New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational; private; +1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States, +having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College +of Pharmacy (1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School +(1873); the School of Drawing and Painting (1876) of the +Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College (1860), Roman Catholic, +under the Society of Jesus; St John’s Theological Seminary +(1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for women, +and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute +of Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range +of its instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a +pioneer in introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory +instruction in physics, mechanics and mining. The architects +of the United States navy are sent here for instruction in their +most advanced courses. Boston University was endowed by +Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston fish-merchant, Lee Claflin +(1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a benefactor of Wesleyan +University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob Sleeper. +It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of +theology—founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical +Institute; in 1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871 +the Boston Theological Seminary—law, music, medicine, liberal +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span> +arts and agriculture (at Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts +Agricultural College), all antedate 1876. The funds for +Simmons College were left by John Simmons in 1870, who wished +to found a school to teach the professions and “branches of art, +science and industry best calculated to enable the scholars to +acquire an independent livelihood.” The Lowell Institute (<i>q.v.</i>), +established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed +$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public +lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading +scholars of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a +series of public lectures on American history is delivered in the +Old South meeting house. The public schools, particularly the +secondary schools, enjoy a very high reputation. The new English +High and Latin school, founded in 1635, is the oldest school of +the country. A girls’ Latin school, with the same standards as +the boys’ school, was established in 1878 (an outcome of the +same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are large +numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.</p> + +<p>In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American +centres. The Federal Street theatre—the first regular theatre—was +established in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its +natural influence in keeping Boston behind New York and +Philadelphia in this respect. The dramatic history of the city is +largely associated with the Boston Museum, built in 1841 by +Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in 1846 and +1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical performances +were given (see an interesting article in the <i>New England +Magazine</i>, June 1903), in later years under the management of +R. Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum +was swept away, as other interesting old places of entertainment +(the old Federal Street theatre, the Tremont theatre, &c.) had +been, in the course of further building changes. The Boston +theatre dates from 1854, and there were seventeen theatres +altogether in 1900.</p> + +<p>As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical +organizations may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society +(1815), the Harvard Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic +(1880) and the Symphony Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the +generosity of Henry Lee Higginson. This orchestra has done +much for music not only in Boston but in the United States +generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was incorporated, +and an opera house has been erected on the north side of +Huntington Avenue.</p> + +<p>Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until +the later decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable +and important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy +was identical with the long predominance of the New +England literary school, who lived in Boston or in the country +round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no longer so) that +still hold an exceptional position in periodical literature, the +<i>North American Review</i> (1815) and the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> (1857), +date from this period. The great majority of names in the long +list of worthies of the commonwealth—writers, statesmen, +orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are +intimately connected with Boston. Among the city’s daily +newspapers the <i>Boston Herald</i> (1846), the <i>Boston Globe</i>, the +<i>Evening Transcript</i> (1830), the <i>Advertiser</i> (1813) and the <i>Post</i> +(1831) are the most important.</p> + +<p><i>Industry and Commerce</i>.—Boston is fringed with wharves. +Commercial interests are largely concentrated in East Boston. +Railway connexion with Worcester, Lowell and Providence +was opened in 1835; with Albany, N.Y., and thereby with +various lines of interior communication, in 1841 (double track, +1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was +completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston +was selected as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the +first regular line of trans-Atlantic steamers. The following +decade was the most active of the city’s history as regards the +ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to all parts of the globe. +The Cunard arrangement was the first of various measures +that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New +England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty +of 1854, and Boston’s interests are foremost to-day in demanding +a return to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the +commerce of the port greatly declined. The Cunard service +has not been continuous. In 1869 there was not one vessel steaming +directly for Europe; in 1900 there were 973 for foreign +ports. Great improvements of the harbour were undertaken +in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the creation +of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been +a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like +New York, complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia, +Baltimore, New Orleans and Galveston. Boston also +feels the competition of Montreal and Portland; the Canadian +roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight differentials. +Boston is the second import port of the United States, but its +exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of Galveston, +or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade entering +and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year +9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston. +The value of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively +$123,414,168 and $104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses, +wool, hides and skins, cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their +manufactures, chemicals, coal, and leather and its manufactures +are the leading imports; provisions, leather and its manufactures, +cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs, iron and steel and +their manufactures are the leading exports. In the exportation +of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products classed as +provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the largest +wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being +in each second in the world to London only.</p> + +<p>Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as +was commerce in colonial times. The value of all manufactured +products from establishments under the “factory system” +in 1900 was $162,764,523; in 1905 it was $184,351,163. Among +the leading and more distinctive items were printing and +publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses refining +($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because +of the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men’s +clothing (in 1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women’s +clothing (in 1900, $3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and +shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655, in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe +cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445); malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668, +in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery (in 1900, $4,455,184, in +1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900, $3,504,603, +in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in 1905); +other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780); +rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323); +steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in +1905, $3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &c. Art tiles and pottery +are manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries +early became of great importance. The Waltham watch and +the Singer sewing-machine had their beginning in Boston in +1850. The making of the Chickering pianos goes back to 1823, +and of Mason & Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are to-day +very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The +ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.</p> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630, +when it was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation +before 1822; although the uncertain boundaries between the +powers of colony and township prompted repeated petitions +to the legislature for incorporation, beginning as early as 1650. +In 1822 Boston became a city. Thus for nearly two centuries +it preserved intact its old “town” government, disposing of +all its affairs in the “town-meeting” of its citizens. Excellent +political training such a government unquestionably offered; +but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition increased, +as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822) +became greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous +in blood. All the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary +ordinary business seldom drew out more than a hundred voters, +and often a mere handful. From very early days executive +officers known as “select-men,” constables, clerks of markets, +hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &c., were chosen; and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span> +select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the +freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could +control the business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and +boisterousness marred its democractic excellence in exciting +times. Large sums were voted loosely, and expended by executive +boards without any budgetary control. The whole system was +full of looseness, complexity and makeshifts. But the tenacity +with which it was clung to, proved that it was suited to the +community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was not +inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity. +Various other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown +older, have been similarly compelled to abandon their old form +of government. The powers of the old township were much +more extensive than those of the present city of Boston, including +as they did the determination of the residence of strangers, +the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the fixing of +wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a +voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised +in 1854, and again reconstructed in important particulars by +laws of 1885 separating the executive and legislative powers, +and by subsequent acts. A complete alteration of the government +has indeed been effected since 1885. Boston proper is only +the centre of a large metropolitan area, closely settled, with +interests in large part common. This metropolitan area, within +a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house, contained +in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last +two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this +greater city some general government, fully consolidated or of +limited powers, was a standing question of expediency. The +commonwealth has four times recognized a community of metropolitan +interests in creating state commissions since 1882 for +the union of such interests, beginning with a metropolitan health +district in that year. The metropolitan water district (1895) +included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or townships in +its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889) twenty +four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment +was firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of +the state commissions, independent of the city’s control, but +able to commit the city indefinitely by undertaking expensive +works and new debt, was resented. Independence is further +curtailed by other state boards semi-independent of the city—the +police commission of three members from 1885 to 1906, +and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed by the +governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the +governor; the transit commission, &c. There are, further, +county offices (Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea, +Revere and Winthrop), generally independent of the city, +though the latter pays practically all the bills.</p> + +<p>A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for +municipal elections in January; for the election of a mayor +for four years; for his recall at the end of two years if a majority +of the registered voters so vote in the state election in November +in the second year of his term; for the summary removal for cause +by the mayor of any department head or other of his appointees, +for a city council of one chamber of nine members, elected at +large each for three years; for nomination by petition; for a +permanent finance commission appointed by the governor; for +the confirmation of the mayor’s appointments by the state civil +service commission; for the mayor’s preparation of the annual +budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the +council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except +for school use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously) +appoint the superintendent and supervisors of schools. +The number of members of the school-board was in 1905 +reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by the city at large, +and serving for one, two or three years; at the same time power +was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of schools. +Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal +administration. The city’s work is done under an eight-hour +law.</p> + +<p>An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899 +showed that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice +of a president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a +governor, the determination of liquor-license questions by +referendum, and the settlement of other referenda. On 21 +referenda, 10 being questions of license, the ratio of actual to +registered voters ranged on the latter from 57.00 to 75.38% +(mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to 33.40 (mean +61.39),—the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two presidential +votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means +for mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36 +and 84.73, 61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to +65% actually register. Women vote for school committee-men +(categories as above, 95.18, 59.62, 76.49%). On a referendum +in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal suffrage +to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered +voted, and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be +registered.</p> + +<p>Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory +and penal institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and +other charitable or philanthropic organizations, private and +public, number several hundreds. The Associated Charities is an +incorporated organization for systematizing the various charities +of the city. The Massachusetts general hospital (1811-1821)— +with a branch for mental and nervous diseases, McLean hospital +(1816), in the township of Belmont (post-office, Waverley) about +6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts +school for the blind (1832), famous for its conduct by +Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman and +Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded +children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye +and ear infirmary (1824), all receive financial aid from the +commonwealth, which has representation in their management. +The city hospital dates from 1864. A floating hospital for women +and children in the summer months, with permanent and transient +wards, has been maintained since 1894 (incorporated 1901). +Boston was one of the first municipalities of the country to +make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile offenders; +in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People’s Palace +dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing +baths, gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an +employment bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &c., was +opened in 1906. Simmons College and Harvard University maintain +the Boston school for social workers (1904). Beneficent +social work out of the more usual type is directed by the music +and bath departments of the city government. In the provision +of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the +pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced. +The beach reservations of the metropolitan park system at +Revere and Nantasket, and several smaller city beaches are +a special feature of this service. Benjamin Franklin, who +was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left £1000 to +the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and +constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring +class of the city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been +the most expensively governed of American cities. The average +yearly expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416, +exclusive of payments on funded and floating debts. The running +expenses <i>per-capita</i> in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the +average of 86 leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92; +Chicago, $11.62). Schools, police, charities, water, streets and +parks are the items of heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools +for the five years from 1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937, +of which $7,057,895.42 was for new buildings; the cost of the +police department was $11,387,314.66 for the six years 1902-1907; +and of the water department $4,941,343.37 for the six years 1902-1907; +of charities and social work a much larger sum. The remaking +of the city was enormously expensive, especially the alteration +of the streets after 1866, when the city received power to make +such alterations and assess a part of the improvements upon abutting +estates. The creation of the city water-system has also been excessively +costly, and the total cost up to the 31st of January 1908 +of the works remaining to the city after the creation of the metropolitan +board in 1898 was about $17,000,000. The metropolitan +water board—of whose expenditures Boston bears only a share—expended +from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was planned +to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city park +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span> +system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the +metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are +no municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the +city depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control +of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the +contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues +were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were +used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently, +but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in +1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in +1907, $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)—this included the debt +of Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects +for which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of +dollars: highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05, +rapid transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907 +36% of all state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively +of the assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and +water services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or +for Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited +control. The improvement of the Back Bay and of the South +Boston flats was in considerable measure forced upon the city by +the commonwealth. The debt per capita is as high as the cost of +current administration relatively to other cities. The average +interest rate on the city obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The +city’s tax valuation in 1907 was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200; +in 1850, $180,000,500), of which only $242,606,856 represented personalty; +although in the judgment of the city board of trade such +property cannot by any possibility be inferior in value to realty.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Population.</i>—Up to the War of Independence the population +was not only American, but it was in its ideas and standards +essentially Puritan; modern liberalism, however, has introduced +new standards of social life. In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants +were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or in part of foreign +parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian, English +and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population +these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0, +6.7 and 5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but +unmixing nations, divide among themselves a large part of the +city, and give to its life a cosmopolitan colour of varied speech, +opinion, habits, traditions, social relations and religions. Most +remarkable of all, the Roman Catholic churches, in this stronghold +of exiled Puritanism where Catholics were so long under the +heavy ban of law, outnumber those of any single Protestant +denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the politics of the city, +and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned against each +other on the question of the control of the public schools. +Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism +of the city remains strikingly predominant. The population +of Boston at the end of each decennial period since 1790 was as +follows:—(1790), 18,320; (1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820), +43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840), 93,383; (1850), 136,881; +(1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880), 362,839; (1890), +448,477; (1900), 560,892.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it +was explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were +various attempts to settle about its borders in the following +years before John Endecott in 1628 landed at Salem as governor +of the colony of Massachusetts bay, within which Boston was +included. In June 1630 John Winthrop’s company reached +Charlestown. At that time a “bookish recluse,” William +Blaxton (Blackstone), one of the several “old planters” scattered +about the bay, had for several years been living on Boston +peninsula. The location seemed one suitable for commerce and +defence, and the Winthrop party chose it for their settlement. +The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of which no trace remains +to-day (or possibly a reference to the three hills of the then +peninsula, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort) led to the adoption of the +name Trimountaine for the peninsula,—a name perpetuated +variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont; +but on the 17th of September 1630, the date adopted for +anniversary celebrations, it was ordered that “Trimountaine shall +be called Boston,” after the borough of that name in Lincolnshire, +England, of which several of the leading settlers had formerly +been prominent citizens.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge, +Charlestown or Boston should be the capital of the colony, but +in 1632 the General Court agreed “by general consent, that +Boston is the fittest place for public meetings of any place in +the Bay.” It rapidly became the wealthiest and most populous. +Throughout the 17th century its history is so largely that of +Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable. Theological +systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this epoch +—the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions, +the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in +Boston, in 1648, 1651, 1656, 1688) &c.—are referred to in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1692 the first permanent and +successful printing press was established; in 1704 the first +newspaper in America, the <i>Boston News-Letter</i>, which was +published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily mellowed +under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry +was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half +of the 17th century was growing material prosperity, and there +were those who thought their fellows unduly willing to relax +church tests of fellowship when good trade was in question. +There was an unpleasant Englishman who declared in 1699 +that he found “Money Their God, and Large Possessions the only +Heaven they Covet.” Prices were low, foreign commerce was +already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the +official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston “town” +was drawing society from the “country.” Of the two-score or so +of families most prominent in the first century hardly one retained +place in the similar list for the early years of the second. Boston +was a prosperous, thrifty, English country town, one traveller +thought. Another, Daniel Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation +“as polite as in most of the cities and towns in England, +many of their merchants having the advantage of a free conversation +with travellers; so that a gentleman from London +would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he observes +the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their tables, +their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and +showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London.”</p> + +<p>The population, which was almost stationary through much +of the century, was about 20,000 in the years immediately before +the War of Independence. At this time Boston was the most +flourishing town of North America. It built ships as cheaply +as any place in the world, it carried goods for other colonies, +it traded—often evading British laws—with Europe, Guinea, +Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The merchant +princes and social leaders of the time are painted with elaborate +show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English +writers of Queen Anne’s reign seem to have been but little known +in the colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat +in character, showed but scant improvement. About the middle +of the century restrictions upon the press began to disappear. +At the same time questions of trade, of local politics, finally +of colonial autonomy, of imperial policy, had gradually, but +already long since, replaced theology in leading interest. In +the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most frequently recurring +and most important name in British colonial history. Sentiments +of limited independence of the British government had +been developing since the very beginning of the settlement +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>), and their strength in 1689 had been +strikingly exhibited in the local revolution of that year, when +the royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, and other high officials, +were frightened into surrender and were imprisoned. This +movement, it should be noted, was a popular rising, and not the +work of a few leaders.</p> + +<p>The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence +need barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures +of the British government for taxing and oppressing the colonies +began in Boston. The argument of Otis on the writs of assistance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span> +was in 1760-1761. The Stamp Act, passed in 1765, was repealed +in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a surprising show of +determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were first +quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March, +in a street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded +by the soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry. +This incident is known as the “Boston Massacre.” The Tea Act +of 1773 was defied by the emptying into the harbour of three +cargoes of tea on the 16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens +disguised as Indians, after the people in town-meeting had +exhausted every effort, through a period of weeks, to procure the +return of the tea-ships to England. To this act Great Britain +replied by various penal regulations and reconstructive acts of +government. She quartered troops in Boston; she made the +juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the royal +officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia +or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to +abolish town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called “Boston +Port Bill,” she closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774. +Not even a ferry, a scow or other boat could move in the harbour. +Marblehead and Salem were made ports of entry, and Salem was +made the capital. But they would not profit by Boston’s +misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British goods and +to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours +and from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement. +In October 1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the +Massachusetts general court at Salem, the members adjourned to +Concord as the first provincial congress. Finally came war, +with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and beleaguerment by the +colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the British +were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With +them went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest +families of the city and province. The evacuation closed the +heroic period of Boston’s history. War did not again approach +the city.</p> + +<p>The years from 1776 to the end of “town” government in +1822 were marked by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce +and manufactures alike took great impetus. Direct trade with +the East Indies began about 1785, with Russia in 1787. A +Boston vessel, the “Columbia” (Captain Robert Gray), opened +trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first +American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In +1805 Boston began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which +was gradually extended to Cuba, to ports of the southern states, +and finally to Rio de Janeiro and Calcutta (1833), declining +only after the Civil War; it enabled Boston to control the +American trade of Calcutta against New York throughout the +entire period. But of course it was far less important than +various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of commerce. +It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the +embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson. +In manufactures the foundation was laid of the city’s wealth. +In politics the period is characterized by Boston’s connexion +with the fortunes of the Federalist party. The city was warmly +in favour of the adoption of the federal constitution of 1787; +even Samuel Adams was rejected for Congress because he was +backward in its support. It was the losses entailed upon her +commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson’s administration +that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican +party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition +to its policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War +of 1812, and in the Hartford Convention of 1814.</p> + +<p>Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement. +Unitarian tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old +Congregational churches were plainly evident about 1750, and it +is said by Andrew P. Peabody (1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly +all the Congregational pulpits around Boston were filled by +Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates from 1785. +In 1782 King’s chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in +1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard. +But the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of +Channing, was very different from that of to-day. Theodore +Parker and Channing have been the greatest leaders. The +American Unitarian Association, organized in 1825, has always +retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological and +philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th +century were characterized by the transcendental movement +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the +most striking feature of Boston’s annals. Garrison established +the Liberator in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the +cause of abolition in 1835, and Wendell Phillips a little later. +In 1835 a mob, composed in part of wealthy and high-standing +citizens, attacked a city-building, and dragged Garrison through +the streets until the mayor secured his safety by putting him +in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given +in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader, +George Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians +in 1835 precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court +House was surrounded with chains to prevent the “rescue” +of a slave (Sims) held for rendition under the Fugitive Slave +Law; another slave (Shadrach) was released this same year, +and in 1854 there was a riot and intense excitement over the +rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since taken +her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the +rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as +in the years before the War of Independence.</p> + +<p>Later events of importance have already been indicated in +essentials. On the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire +swept the business part of the city, destroying hundreds of buildings +of brick and granite, and inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000. +Within two years the whole area, solidly rebuilt and with widened +and straightened streets, showed no traces of the ruin except an +appearance superior in all respects to that presented before the +fire. The expense of this re-creation probably duplicated, at +least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time there has +been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not upon +material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration. +It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions, +its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre +of American culture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See the annual <i>City Documents</i>; also Justin +Winsor (ed.) <i>The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk +County ... 1630-1880</i> (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that +covers every phase of the city’s growth, history and life; +S.A. Drake, <i>The History and Antiquities of ... Boston</i> (2 vols., +Boston, 1854; and later editions), +and <i>Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston</i> (Boston, 1873, and later editions); +Josiah Quincy, <i>A Municipal History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830</i> (Boston, 1852); +C.W. Ernst, <i>Constitutional History of Boston</i> (Boston, 1894); +H.H. Sprague, <i>City Government in Boston—its Rise and Development</i> (Boston, 1890); +E.E. Hale, <i>Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood</i> (New York, 1898), +and L. Swift, <i>Literary Landmarks of Boston</i> (Boston, 1903). +A great mass of original historical documents have been +published by the registry department of the city government since +1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston has been described in many works of +fiction, and the reader may be referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner, +to L. Maria Childs’ <i>The Rebels</i>, +to J.F. Cooper’s <i>Lionel Lincoln</i>, +to the early novels of W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates), +to O.W. Holmes’ <i>Poet</i> and <i>Autocrat</i>, +and Hawthorne’s <i>Scarlet Letter</i>, as pictures of Boston life +at various periods since early colonial days.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended +from 1822 to 1880.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable +Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of +the country, organized in 1638.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft., +only 750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to +rock. The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock, +sand or mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected +with the reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m. +covered masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for +the near future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons, +reservoirs holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts +capable of carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily +supply of 173,000,000 gallons.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that +city’s seals, framed in oak from St Botolph’s church, of which John +Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been +vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of +Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett, +and also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west +chapel of St Botolph’s church, and to erect in it a memorial +tablet to Cotton’s memory. The total amount raised by subscription +for this purpose was £673.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a game of cards invented during the last quarter +of the 18th century. It is said to have originated in Boston, +Massachusetts, during the siege by the British. It seems to have +been invented by the officers of the French fleet which lay for a +time off the town of Marblehead, and the name of the two small +islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from the period of the +American Revolution, been called Great and Little Misery, +correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor, +in his <i>Letters on the Eastern States</i>, published in 1821, +states somewhat differently that “A game of cards was invented in +Versailles and called in honour of the town, Boston; the points of +the game are allusive, ‘great independence,’ ‘little independence,’ +’great misery,’ ‘little misery,’ &c. It is composed partly +of whist and partly of quadrille, though partaking mostly of the +former.” The game enjoyed an extraordinary vogue in high +French society, where it was the fashion at that time to admire +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span> +all things American. “The ladies... filled my pockets with +bon-bons, and ... called me ‘<i>le pétit Bostonien.</i>’ It was indeed +by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in +France then. The war having broken out in Boston and the +first great battle fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name +universal celebrity. A game invented at that time, played with +cards, was called ‘Boston,’ and is to this day (1830) exceedingly +fashionable at Paris by that appellation” (<i>Recollections of Samuel +Breck</i>, Philadelphia, 1877). There was a tradition that Dr +Franklin was fond of the game and even that he had a hand in +its invention. At the middle of the 19th century it was still +popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its favour +has steadily declined since then.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ +somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former, +two packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting +and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no +partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values, +and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first +pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for +the trump, the suit of the card turned being “first preference,” the +other suit of the same colour “second preference” or “colour,” +while the two remaining suits are “plain suits.” The eldest hand +then announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided +he may name the trump, or lose a certain number without +trumps. The different bids are called by various names, but the +usual ones are as follows:—To win five tricks, “Boston.” (To win) +“six tricks.” (To win) “seven tricks.” To lose twelve tricks, after +discarding one card that is not shown, “little <i>misère</i>.” (To win) +“eight tricks.” (To win) “nine tricks.” To lose every trick, +“grand <i>misère</i>.” (To win) “ten tricks.” (To win) “eleven tricks.” +To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card that is not shown, +the remaining twelve cards being exposed on the table but not liable +to be called, “little spread.” (To win) “twelve tricks.” To lose +every trick with exposed cards, “grand spread.” To win thirteen +tricks, “grand slam.” If a player does not care to bid he may pass, +and the next player bids. Succeeding players may “overcall,” <i>i.e</i>. +overbid, previous bidders. Players passing may thereafter bid only +“<i>misères</i>.” If a player bids seven but makes ten he is paid for the +three extra tricks, but on a lower scale than if he had bid ten. If +no bid should be made, a “<i>misère partout</i>” (general poverty) is +often played, the trump being turned down and each player striving +to take as few tricks as possible. Payments are made by each loser +according to the value of the winner’s bid and the overtricks he has +scored. There are regular tables of payments. In America overtricks +are not usually paid for. In French Boston the knave of +diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other cards, even trumps. The +names of the different bids remind one of the period of the American +Revolution, including “Independence,” “Philadelphia,” “Souveraine,” +“Concordia,” &c. Other variations of the game are <i>Boston +de Fontainebleau</i> and Russian Boston.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTONITE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey +or pinkish rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar +(orthoclase, microperthite, &c.). Some of them contain a small +amount of interstitial quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a +small percentage of lime, which occasions the presence of a +plagioclase felspar (maenite, gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other +minerals, except apatite, zircon and magnetite, are typically +absent. They have very much the same composition as the +trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been grouped +with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as +dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite; +and they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain +types of lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite. +Though nowhere very common they have a wide distribution, +being known from Scotland, Wales, Massachusetts, Montreal, +Portugal, Bohemia, &c. The lindoites and quartz-lindoites of +Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1797-1866), Swedish +philosopher, was born at Piteå and studied at Upsala, where +from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of practical philosophy. +His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a thoroughgoing +rational idealism founded on the principle that the only true +reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence +is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space. +Thus Boström protests not only against empiricism but also +against those doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to +him to picture God as something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics +the highest aim is the direction of actions by reason in harmony +with the Divine; so the state, like the individual, exists solely in +God, and in its most perfect form consists in the harmonious +obedience of all its members to a constitutional monarch; the +perfection of mankind as a whole is to be sought in a rational +orderly system of such states in obedience to Universal Reason. +This system differs from Platonism in that the “ideas” of God +are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Boström’s writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala, +1883). For his school see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>; also H. Höffding, +<i>Filosofien i Sverig</i> (German trans. in <i>Philos. Monatsheften</i>, 1879), and +<i>History of Mod. Philos.</i> (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg, +<i>Hist. of Phil.</i> (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, <i>Om den Boströmske +filosofien</i> (Lund, 1883), and <i>Karakteristik af den Boströmska +filosofien</i> (Lund, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSWELL, JAMES<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the +biographer of Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the +29th of October 1740. His grandfather was in good practice at +the Scottish bar, and his father, Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, +was also a noted advocate, who, on his elevation to the supreme +court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire property as Lord +Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful evidence to +have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was killed at +Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its +position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots +nobility. In contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian +Whig, James was “a fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed +for King James until his uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to +pray for King George, which he accordingly did” (“Whigs of all +ages are made in the same way” was Johnson’s comment). +He met one or two English boys, and acquired a “tincture of +polite letters” at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L. +Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors +at the Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father. +At the university, where he was constrained for a season to study +civil law, he met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and +correspondent. The letters of Boswell to his “Atticus” were +first published by Bentley in 1857. One winter he spent at +Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who was then lecturing +on moral philosophy and rhetoric.</p> + +<p>In 1760 he was first brought into contact with “the elegance, +the refinement and the liberality” of London society, for which +he had long sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to +Newmarket and introduced him into the society of “the great, +the gay and the ingenious.” He wrote a poem called “The Cub +at Newmarket,” published by Dodsley in 1762, and had visions +of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by his +father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived +to alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing +his acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the +northern capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume +and Sir David Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the +Northern Circuit he kept a brief journal. Boswell had already +realized his vocation, the exercise of which was to give a new +word to the language. He had begun to Boswellize. He was +already on the track of bigger game—the biggest available in the +Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came to a +composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit +of a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition +that his father would allow him to study civil law on the +continent. He set out in April 1763 by “the best road in Scotland” +with a servant, on horseback like himself, in “a cocked +hat, a brown wig, brown coat made in the court fashion, red vest, +corduroy small clothes and long military boots.” On Monday, +the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies the bookseller, +No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first +met “Dictionary Johnson,” the great man of his dreams, and +was severely buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday, +the 24th of May, Boswell boldly called on Mr Johnson at his +chambers on the first floor of No. 1 Inner Temple Lane. On +this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the 13th of June +he said, “Come to me as often as you can”; on the 25th of June +Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and +Johnson exclaimed with warmth, “Give me your hand; I have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span> +taken a liking to you.” Boswell experienced a variety of +sensations, among which exultation was predominant. Some one +asked, “Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson’s heels?” “He is +not a cur,” replied Goldsmith, “he is only a bur. Tom Davies +flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of +sticking.” Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell +twenty-three. After June 1763 they met on something like 270 +subsequent days. These meetings formed the memorable part +of Boswell’s life, and they are told inimitably in his famous +biography of his friend.</p> + +<p>The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies, +and one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole +banquet of letters, was not so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately +maintained. Boswell’s freshness at the table of +conversation gave a new zest to every maxim that Johnson +enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for interpreting +the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so +unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding +the task-work of life. Johnson’s favourite indulgence was to +talk; Boswell’s great idea of success to elicit memorable conversation. +Boswell is almost equally admirable as a reporter +and as an interviewer, as a collector and as a researcher. He +prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared topics for him, he +drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a copy of his +famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost +verbatim report of Johnson’s interview with the king, he frequented +the tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old +scholar on lengthy peregrinations in the Highlands and in the +midlands. “Sir,” said Johnson to his follower, “you appear to +have only two subjects, yourself and me, and I am sick of both.” +Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset, and admirable +as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far too +volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that +was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and +notoriety. He would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol +Wilkes, or Chatham, or Voltaire, or even the great Frederick +himself. As it was, during his continental tour he managed in +the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with Pasquale di Paoli, the +leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise struggle against +Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to London in +February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost +cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he +was now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his +return to the law by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled <i>The +Essence of the Douglas Cause</i> (November 1767), in which he +vigorously repelled the charge of imposture from the youthful +claimant. In the same year he issued a little book called <i>Dorando</i>, +containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise of a Spanish +tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph of +Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published +extracts while the case was still <i>sub judice</i> were censured severely +by the court of session; but though his identity was notorious +the author himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768 +Boswell published through the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his +<i>Account of Corsica, Journal of a Tour to that Island, and Memoirs +of Pascal Paoli</i>. The liveliness of personal impression which he +managed to communicate to all his books gained for this one a +deserved success, and the <i>Tour</i> was promptly translated into +French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others, +jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli +Boswell or Paoli’s Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of +identifying him at the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the +trouble to insert a placard in his hat bearing the legend “Corsica +Boswell.” The amazing costume of “a Corsican chief” which he +wore on this occasion was described at length in the magazines.</p> + +<p>On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland +undertaken to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson’s emphatic +direction), Boswell married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at +Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some years henceforth his visits to +London were brief, but on the 30th of April 1773 he was present +at his admission to the Literary Club, for which honour he had +been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn of this +year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited the +Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell’s father nor his wife +shared his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck +remarked that Jamie was “gane clean gyte ... And whose tail +do ye think he has pinned himself to now, man? A dominie, +an auld dominie, that keepit a schule and ca’d it an academy!” +Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might have objected to +Johnson’s habit of turning lighted candles upside down when in the +parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a +bear. Boswell’s <i>Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides</i> was written for +the most part during the journey, but was not published until +the spring of 1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the +public, and Boswell’s indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in +him by the neat ladies’ maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of +drunkenness which he exhibited at Corrichatachin, created a +literary sensation and sent the <i>Tour</i> through three editions in one +year. In the meantime his pecuniary and other difficulties at +home were great; he made hardly more than £100 a year by his +profession, and his relations with his father were chronically +strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple and +managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John +Wilkes he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous +dinner at Dilly’s on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August +1782 his father died, leaving him an estate worth £1600 a year. +On the 30th of June 1784, Boswell met Johnson for the last time at +a dinner at Sir Joshua Reynolds’s. He accompanied him back in +the coach from Leicester Square to Bolt Court. “We bade adieu +to each other affectionately in the carriage. When he had got +down upon the foot pavement he called out ‘Fare you well’; +and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of pathetic +briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to indicate +a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a foreboding +of our long, long separation.” Johnson died that year, +and two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs +Boswell died, leaving five children. She had been an excellent +mother and a good wife, despite the infidelities and drunkenness +of her husband, and from her death Boswell relapsed into worse +excesses, grievously aggravated by hypochondria. He died of a +complication of disorders at his house in Great Poland Street +on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight later at +Auchinleck.</p> + +<p>Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his +magnum opus, <i>The Life of Samuel Johnson</i>, which was in process +of crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in +two quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May +1791. He was preparing a third edition when he died; this was +completed by his friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth +edition in 1807. That of James Boswell junior (the editor of +Malone’s <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>, 1821) appeared in 1811.</p> + +<p>The <i>Life of Johnson</i> was written on a scale practically unknown +to biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the +blotches and pimples revealed (“I will not make my tiger a cat +to please anybody,” wrote “Bozzy”). It may be overmuch an +exhibition of oddities, but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer +application of the experimental method to the determination of +human character. Its size and lack of divisions (to divide it +into chapters was an original device of Croker’s) are a drawback, +and have prevented Boswell’s <i>Life</i> from that assured +triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various English +classics such as <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> or <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i>. But +wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred +book and has pervaded English life and thought in the same way, +that the Bible, Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell +has successfully (to use his own phrase) “Johnsonized” Britain, +but has not yet Johnsonized the planet. The model originally +proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason’s <i>Life of Gray</i>, but +he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model. The fashion +that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the +neutral tints of <i>oratio obliqua</i> but in full <i>oratio recta</i> was a stroke of +genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical transmitter +of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of +the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span> +a certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell +exaggerates the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson +for some of his own tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the +best judges are of opinion that Boswell’s accuracy is exceptional, +as it is undoubtedly seconded by a power of observation of a +singular retentiveness and intensity. The difficulty of dramatic +description can only be realized, as Jowett well pointed out, by +those who have attempted it, and it is not until we compare +Boswell’s reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can +appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation +is extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling +touches. The result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early +days of his poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature, +but in the fulness of fame and competence of fortune from 1763 +to 1784, is better known to us than any other man in history. +The old theory to explain such a marvel (originally propounded +by Gray when the <i>Tour in Corsica</i> appeared) that “any fool may +write a valuable book by chance” is now regarded as untenable. +If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his folly was at times +transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not in despite +of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact, that +he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his opportunities +just as he prepared his transitions and introduced +those inimitable glosses by which Johnson’s motives are explained, +his state of mind upon particular occasions indicated, +and the general feeling of his company conveyed. This remarkable +literary faculty, however, was but a fraction of the total +make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece as the <i>Life</i>. +There is a touch of genius, too, in the naïf and imperturbable +good nature and persistency (“Sir, I will not be baited with +’what’ and ‘why.’ ‘Why is a cow’s tail long?’ ‘Why is a +fox’s tail bushy?’”), and even in the abnegation of all personal +dignity, with which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself +said of Goldsmith, “He had sagacity enough to cultivate +assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson, and his faculties +were gradually enlarged.” Character, the vital principle of the +individual, is the <i>ignis fatuus</i> of the mechanical biographer. +Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means—witness +Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude—but it has +never been attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell +in his <i>Life of Johnson</i>. The more we study Boswell, the more +we compare him with other biographers, the greater his work +appears.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The eleventh edition of Boswell’s <i>Johnson</i> was brought out by +John Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded +by numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep +in annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and +mutually corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value +as an unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before +the last links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been +adequately recognized. A new edition of the original text was +issued in 1874 by Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful +life of James Boswell in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition, +including the <i>Tour</i> and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev. +Alexander Napier in 1884; the definitive edition is that by Dr +Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887, with copious annotations and a +model index. A generously illustrated edition was completed in +1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen, and reprints of value +have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with woodcuts), A. Birrell, +Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin Dobson. A short +biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith Leask. +Boswell’s commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the title +of <i>Boswelliana</i>, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. Se.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon +scholar, was born in Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton, +whence he proceeded to Aberdeen University, he became in 1817 +vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire, and devoted his spare +time to literature and particularly to the study of Anglo-Saxon. +In 1823 appeared his <i>Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar</i>. In +1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam +and then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840, +working there on his <i>Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language</i> +(1838), his best-known work. In 1857 he became rector of Water +Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and in the following year was +appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford. He +gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 £10,000 for the +establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the +27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on +the Anglo-Saxon charters.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTANY<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="botanae">βοτάνη</span>, plant; <span class="grk" title="boskein">βόσκειν</span>, to graze), the +science which includes everything relating to the vegetable +kingdom, whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a +consideration of the external forms of plants—of their anatomical +structure, however minute—of the functions which they perform—of +their arrangement and classification—of their distribution +over the globe at the present and at former epochs—and of the +uses to which they are subservient. It examines the plant in its +earliest state of development, and follows it through all its stages +of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a comprehensive +view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the minutest +organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the most +gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which +subsist between all members of the plant world, including those +between existing groups and those which are known only from +their fossilized remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here +with the history and evolution of the science.</p> + +<p>The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries +must necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from +the earliest times. The science that treats of them dates back +to the days of Solomon, who “spake of trees, from the cedar of +Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall.” The Chaldaeans, Egyptians +and Greeks were the early cultivators of science, and botany was +not neglected, although the study of it was mixed up with crude +speculations as to vegetable life, and as to the change of plants +into animals. About 300 years before Christ Theophrastus +wrote a <i>History of Plants</i>, and described about 500 species used +for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer, who +appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work +on Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand +plants, many of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic +and Arabian writers also took up this subject. Little, however, +was done in the science of botany, properly so called, until the +16th century of the Christian era, when the revival of learning +dispelled the darkness which had long hung over Europe. +Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as the +restorer of the science in Europe. In his <i>Herbarium</i>, printed at +Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number +of plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful +woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,—Leonhard Fuchs, +whose <i>Historia Stirpium</i> (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note +for its excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose <i>Kreutter +Buch</i> appeared in 1539; and William Turner, “The Father of +English Botany,” the first part of whose <i>New Herbal</i>, printed in +English, was issued in 1551. The descriptions in these early +works were encumbered with much medicinal detail, including +speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which were +strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first little +attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on +the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was +gradually evolved, and is well illustrated in the <i>Herbal</i>, issued +in 1597 by John Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who +had a garden in Holborn, and was a keen student of British +plants.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of +plants was made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603), +who is called by Linnaeus <i>primus verus systematicus</i>. +In his work <i>De Plantis</i>, published at Florence in 1583, he distributed +the 1520 plants then known into fifteen classes, the +distinguishing characters being taken from the fruit.</p> + +<p>John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of +botany, and was also a good zoologist. He promulgated a +system which may be considered as the dawn of the “natural +system” of the present day (Ray, <i>Methodus Plantarum</i>, 1682). +He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and divided the +former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or +“classes”) were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the +affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in +his enlightened views of arrangement.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span></p> + +<p>About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1620-1683), the +first professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic +arrangement of plants, largely on the lines previously suggested +by Caesalpinus. He divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing +plants according as they were woody or herbaceous, +and taking into account the nature of the flowers and fruit. In +1690 Rivinus<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> promulgated a classification founded chiefly on +the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (1656-1708), who +about the same time took up the subject of vegetable taxonomy, +was long at the head of the French school of botany, and published +a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about +8000 species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two +classes, chiefly according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing +herbs and under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on +the other. The system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted +on the continent, but was ultimately displaced by that of Carl +von Linné, or Linnaeus (<i>q.v.</i>; 1707-1778).</p> + +<p>The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived +from the stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the +flower, and hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an +artificial method, because it takes into account only a few marked +characters in plants, and does not propose to unite them by +natural affinities. It is an index to a department of the book of +nature, and as such is useful to the student. It does not aspire +to any higher character, and although it cannot be looked upon +as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it has a certain +facility of application which at once commended it. It does not +of itself give the student a view of the true relations of plants, +and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is only +a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself +claimed nothing higher for it. He says—“Methodi Naturalis +fragmenta studiose inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc +in botanicis desideratum est. Natura non facit saltus. Plantae +omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in mappa +geographica.” Accordingly, besides his artificial index, he +also promulgated fragments of a natural method of arrangement.</p> + +<p>The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James +Edward Smith (1759-1828), who adopted it in his <i>English Flora</i>, +and who also became possessor of the Linnean collection. The +system was for a long time the only one taught in the schools of +Britain, even after it had been discarded by those in France and +in other continental countries.</p> + +<p>The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th +centuries did much in the way of advancing botany. They were +at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal +plants. This was especially the case at universities, where +medical schools existed. The first botanic garden was established +at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of Pisa. The garden +at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579. Gardens +also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier +garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg +in 1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin +des Plantes at Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala +garden in 1627. The botanic garden at Oxford was founded in +1632. The garden at Edinburgh was founded by Sir Andrew +Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and, under the name of +the Physic Garden, was placed under the superintendence of +James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in the university. +The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when +Frederick, prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House +and its gardens from the Capel family. After his death in 1751 +his widow, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, showed great +interest in their scientific development, and in 1759 engaged +William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden of the +Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796; +that of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow +in 1818. The Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of +Coimbra from 1773. Jean Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician +and botanist, states that at the end of the 18th century there were +1600 botanic gardens in Europe.</p> + +<p>A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of +Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de +Jussieu, had adopted the principles of Linnaeus’s <i>Fragmenta</i> in +his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon. +At an early age Antoine became botanical demonstrator in the +Jardin des Plantes, and was thus led to devote his time to the +science of botany. Being called upon to arrange the plants in the +garden, he necessarily had to consider the best method of doing +so, and, following the lines already suggested by his uncle, +adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, in +which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted +the simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the +natural affinities of plants. His <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, begun in +1778, and finally published in 1789, was an important advance, +and formed the basis of all natural classifications. One of the +early supporters of this natural method was Augustin Pyramus +de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813 published his <i>Théorie +élémentaire de la botanique</i>, in which he showed that the affinities +of plants are to be sought by the comparative study of the form +and development of organs (morphology), not of their functions +(physiology). His <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</i> +was intended to embrace an arrangement and description +of all known plants. The work was continued after his death, +by his son Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent +botanists, and embraces descriptions of the genera and species +of the orders of Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by +de Candolle is a modification of that of Jussieu.</p> + +<p>In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require +to have a thorough knowledge of structural and morphological +botany, and hence we find that the advances made in these +departments have materially aided the efforts of systematic +botanists.</p> + +<p>Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to +support and advocate the natural system of classification. The +publication of his <i>Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae</i> (in 1810), +according to the natural method, led the way to the adoption +of that method in the universities and schools of Britain. In +1827 Brown announced his important discovery of the distinction +between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the philosophical +character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him as +“Botanicorum facile princeps.” In 1830 John Lindley published +the first edition of his <i>Introduction to the Natural System</i>, embodying +a slight modification of de Candolle’s system. From the +year 1832 up to 1859 great advances were made in systematic +botany, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe. The +<i>Enchiridion</i> and <i>Genera Plantarum</i> of S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849), +the <i>Prodromus</i> of de Candolle, and the <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i> +(1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic botany, +according to the natural system.</p> + +<p>The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned +with the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with +the higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development +of the compound microscope rendered possible the accurate +study of their life-histories; and the publication in 1851 of the +results of Wilhelm Hofmeister’s researches on the comparative +embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed a flood of light on +their relationships to each other and to the higher plants, and +supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups Thallophyta, +Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last +named including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.</p> + +<p>A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are +frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has +been much used in Great Britain and in America, is that of +Bentham and Hooker, whose <i>Genera Plantarum</i> (1862-1883) is +a descriptive account of all the genera of flowering plants, based +on their careful examination. The arrangement is a modification +of that adopted by the de Candolles. Another system differing +somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler (Berlin, 1883), a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span> +modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf Engler of +Berlin, the principal editor of <i>Die natrürliche Pflanzenfamilien</i>.</p> + +<p>The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not +keep pace with the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew +and his contemporary Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers +in the department of plant anatomy. Both authors laid +an account of the results of their study of plant structure before +the Royal Society of London almost at the same time in 1671. +Malpighi’s complete work, <i>Anatome Plantarum</i>, appeared in 1675 +and Grew’s <i>Anatomy of Plants</i> in 1682. For more than a hundred +years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802 +appeared the <i>Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie végétale</i> of C.F.B. +de Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other +publications by Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864), +and others. In 1812 J.J. P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by +maceration of tissues in water. The work of F.J.F. Meyen +and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century placed the +study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference +must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger +(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nägeli’s investigations on +molecular structure and the growth of the cell membrane we +recognize the origin of modern methods of the study of cell-structure +included under cytology (<i>q.v.</i>). The work of Karl +Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the structure and +development of tissues, while A. de Bary’s <i>Comparative Anatomy +of the Phanerogams and Ferns</i> (1877) supplied an admirable +presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work +has been carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and +others, who have sought to correlate the large mass of facts +and to find some general underlying principles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: +<i>Anatomy of</i>).</p> + +<p>The subject of fertilization was one which early excited +attention. The idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants +was entertained in early times, long before separate male and +female organs had been demonstrated. The production of dates +in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of flowers into contact, proves +that in very remote periods some notions were entertained on +the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated, and wild +ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them. +Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that +there were male and female date-trees, and that the female +required the concurrence of the male to become fertile. This +fact was also known to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other +nations of Asia and Africa. The Babylonians suspended male +clusters from wild dates over the females; but they seem to have +supposed that the fertility thus produced depended on the +presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by entering +the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process +was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle +in his school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the +sexes of plants, but he does not appear to have determined the +organs of reproduction. Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian, +speaks particularly of a male and female palm, but his statements +were not founded on any real knowledge of the organs. From +Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome in 1603, +there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the +reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention +directed to the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation +from the male plants causing fertility in the female.</p> + +<p>Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a +paper on the <i>Anatomy of Plants</i>, read before the Royal Society +in November 1676, the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up +to this period all was vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the +<i>attire</i>, or the stamens, as being the male parts, and refers to +conversations with Sir Thomas Millington, Sedleian professor at +Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory seems really to +belong. Grew says that “when the attire or apices break or +open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus, +and touches it with a prolific virtue.” Ray adopted Grew’s +views, and states various arguments to prove their correctness +in the preface to his work on European plants, published in 1694. +In 1694 R.J. Camerarius, professor of botany and medicine at +Tübingen, published a letter on the sexes of plants, in which he +refers to the stamens and pistils as the organs of reproduction, +and states the difficulties he had encountered in determining +the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland, +in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina +(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be +conveyed into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific. +In this remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the +discoveries afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly +the peculiar views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711 +E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir presented to the Royal Academy at +Paris, supported the views of Grew and others as to the sexes +of plants. He states that the germ is never to be seen in the +seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if the +stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either +not ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments +made by him to prove this—one by cutting off the staminal +flowers in Maize, and the other by rearing the female plant of +Mercurialis apart from the male. In these instances most of the +flowers were abortive, but a few were fertile, which he attributes +to the dust of the apices having been wafted by the wind from +other plants.</p> + +<p>Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual +system. He first published his views in 1736, and he thus +writes—“Antheras et stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a +palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo, +Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, Bradleyo, Royeno, +Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili assumptum; +nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae +flores, latere potest.” He divided plants into sexual and asexual, +the former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter +Cryptogamous or flowerless. In the latter division of plants he +could not detect stamens and pistils, and he did not investigate +the mode in which their germs were produced. He was no +physiologist, and did not promulgate any views as to the embryogenic +process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the +arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive +botany made great advances the physiological department of the +science was neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at +once by all, for we find Charles Alston stating arguments against +them in his <i>Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants</i>. Alston’s observations +were founded on what occurred in certain unisexual plants, +such as Mercurialis, Spinach, Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The +conclusion at which he arrives is that the pollen is not in all +flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for fertile seeds can +be produced without its influence. He supports parthenogenesis +in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of Linnaeus’s +method of classification, the attention of botanists was directed +to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of +Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses +made its appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point +out the existence of certain cellular bodies in these plants which +appeared to perform the functions of reproductive organs, and +to them the names of antheridia and pistillidia were given. This +opened up a new field of research, and led the way in the study of +Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced +by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The interesting +observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been +neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he +had pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know +that the scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application +to the stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect +seed, but the stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored. +The matter seemed involved in mystery, and no one +attempted to raise the veil which hung over the subject of +embryogeny. The general view was, that the embryo originated +in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner fertilized by the +pollen.</p> + +<p>In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused +the attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but +although he made valuable researches, he did not add much in +the way of new information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span> +existence of pollen tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart +and R. Brown. The latter traced the tubes as far as the nucleus +of the ovule. These important discoveries mark a new epoch in +embryology, and may be said to be the foundation of the views +now entertained, which were materially aided by the subsequent +elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or cell-development, +by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole subject of +fertilization and development of the embryo has been more +recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards +both cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must +be sought in the various special articles. The observations of +Darwin as to the fertilization of orchids, <i>Primula, Linum</i> and +<i>Lythrum</i>, and other plants, and the part which insects take in +this function, gave an explanation of the observations of Christian +Konrad Sprengel, made at the close of the 18th century, and +opened up a new phase in the study of botany, which has been +followed by Hermann Müller, Federico Delpino and others, +and more recently by Paul Knuth.</p> + +<p>One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen +Hales. In his <i>Statical Essays</i> (1727) he gave an account of +numerous experiments and observations which he had made on +the nutrition of plants and the movement of sap in them. He +showed that the gaseous constituents of the air contribute +largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves are the +organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in +nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short +account of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical +work. The birth of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley +and Lavoisier, at the close of the 18th century, made possible +the scientific study of plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in +1779 discovered that plants incessantly give out carbonic acid +gas, but that the green leaves and shoots only exhale oxygen +in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby indicating the distinction +between assimilation of carbonic acid gas (photosynthesis) and +respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave precision to +the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative methods. +The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further +studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century, +and Liebig’s application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology +put beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere +and the soil in the nutrition of plants.</p> + +<p>The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted +the attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements +of the leaf of Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature. +Linnaeus also studied the periodical movements of flowers and +leaves, and referred to the assumption of the night-position as the +sleep-movement. Early in the 19th century Andrew Knight +showed by experiment that the vertical growth of stems and +roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made other +observations on the relation between the position assumed by +plant organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet, +H. von Mohl and others contributed to the advance of this phase +of plant physiology. Darwin’s experiments in reference to the +movements of climbing and twining plants, and of leaves in +insectivorous plants, have opened up a wide field of inquiry as +to the relation between plants and the various external factors, +which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of Julius +Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a +scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of +plants, for the development of which reference may be made +to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>. The study of form and +development has advanced under the name “morphology,” +with the progress of which are associated the names of K. +Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while more +recently, as cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate study of the cell and its +contents has attracted considerable attention.</p> + +<p>The department of geographical botany made rapid advance +by means of the various scientific expeditions which have been +sent to all quarters of the globe, as well as by individual effort +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Distribution</i>) since the time of A. von Humboldt. +The question of the mode in which the floras of islands and of +continents have been formed gave rise to important speculations +by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles Darwin, Sir J.D. +Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion between +climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently +under the name of “Ecology” or “Oecology” the study of +plants in relation to each other and to their environment has +become the subject of systematic investigation.</p> + +<p>The subject of palaeontological botany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>) +has been advanced by the researches of both botanists and +geologists. The nature of the climate at different epochs of the +earth’s history has also been determined from the character of +the flora. The works of A.T. Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and +W.P. Schimper advanced this department of science. Among +others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may be +noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the +Miocene flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta +(1823-1895), who examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson +and Leo Lesquereux, and others who reported on the Canadian +and American fossil plants. In Great Britain also W.C. Williamson, +by his study of the structure of the plants of the coal-measures, +opened up a new line of research which has been +followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and +others, and has led to important discoveries on the nature of +extinct groups of plants and also on the phylogeny of existing +groups.</p> + +<p>Botany may be divided into the following departments:—</p> + +<p>1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of +the various parts, including (<i>a</i>) Morphology, the study of the +general form of the organs and their development—this will be +treated in a series of articles dealing with the great subdivisions +of plants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bryophyta</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algae</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lichens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fungi</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>) and +the more important organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stem</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leaf</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Root</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flower</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit</a></span>); (<i>b</i>) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including +minute anatomy or histology (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Anatomy</i>).</p> + +<p>2. Cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate structure and behaviour of the +cell and its contents—protoplasm, nucleus, &c.</p> + +<p>3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire +plant and its organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>).</p> + +<p>4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Classification</i>).</p> + +<p>5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of +the distribution of plants on the earth’s surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: +<i>Distribution</i>).</p> + +<p>6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various +strata of which the earth is composed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>).</p> + +<p>7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each +other and to their environment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Ecology</i>).</p> + +<p>Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science, +there are various applications of botany, such as forestry (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests and Forestry</a></span>), agriculture (<i>q.v.</i>), horticulture (<i>q.v.</i>), +and materia medica (for use in medicine; see the separate articles +on each plant).</p> +<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Morison, <i>Pradudia Botanica</i> (1672); <i>Plantarum Historia +Universalis</i> (1680).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann, +<i>Introductio genetatis in Rem Herbariam</i> (Lipsiae, 1690).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Tournefort, <i>Élémens de botanique</i> (1694); <i>Institutiones Rei +Herbariae</i> (1700).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTANY BAY,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county, +New South Wales, Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney. +On its shore is the township of Botany, forming a suburb of +Sydney, with which it is connected by a tramway. It was first +visited by Captain Cook in 1770, who landed at a spot marked by +a monument, and took possession of the territory for the crown. +The bay received its name from Joseph Banks, the botanist of +the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora. When, on +the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict establishments +in America were no longer available (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New South Wales</a></span>), the attention of the British government, +then under the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay; +and in 1787 Commodore Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form +a penal settlement there. Finding, on his arrival, however, that +the locality was ill suited for such a purpose, he removed northwards +to the site of the present city of Sydney. The name of +Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy, and continued +to be used in a general way for any convict establishment +in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South +Wales was discontinued in 1840.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOTHA, LOUIS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1862-  ), Boer general and statesman, was +the son of one of the “Voortrekkers,” and was born on the 27th +of September 1862 at Greytown (Natal). He saw active service +in savage warfare, and in 1887 served as a field-cornet. Subsequently +he settled in the Vryheid district, which he represented +in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of 1899 he served at first +under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon rose to higher +commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles of +Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great +a reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made +commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was +again demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August +23-28, 1900), and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the +Boer resistance with a view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In +this task, and in the subsequent operations of the war, he was +aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey and de Wet. The +success of his measures was seen in the steady resistance offered +by the Boers to the very close of the three years’ war. He was +the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace negotiations +of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited +Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their +former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British +rule, General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of +the Boer people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating +always measures which he considered as tending to the maintenance +of peace and good order and the re-establishment of +prosperity in the Transvaal. After the grant of self-government +to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was called upon by Lord +Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of the same +year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held in +London. During his visit to England on this occasion General +Botha declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to +the British empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of +the country regardless of racial differences. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>: +<i>History</i>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTHNIA, GULF OF,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the northern part of the Baltic Sea (<i>q.v.</i>). +The name is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of +which the western part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in +Finland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Earl of</span>, duke of +Orkney and Shetland (<i>c</i>. 1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of +Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter +of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about 1536. His father, +Patrick, the 3rd earl (<i>c</i>. 1512-1556), was the only son of Adam, +the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of +Patrick (d. <i>c</i>. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell. +It was this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes. +Having fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn +in 1488, he was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with +the earldom of Bothwell, the office of lord high admiral and other +dignities. He also received many grants of land, including the +lordship of Bothwell, which had been taken from John Ramsay, +Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James III.</p> + +<p>James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father’s titles, lands +and hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of +Scotland. Though a Protestant, he supported the government of +Mary of Guise, showed himself violently anti-English, and led a +raid into England, subsequently in 1559 meeting the English +commissioners and signing articles for peace on the border. +The same year he seized £1000 secretly sent by Elizabeth to the +lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran occupied and +stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in November +sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December +he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560 +was despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on +the way, where he either married or seduced Anne, daughter of +Christopher Thorssen, whom he afterwards deserted, and who +came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain redress. He joined Mary at +Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by her as a commissioner +to summon the parliament; in February he arrived in Edinburgh +and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September. +He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his +various rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan +disorders, and was ordered in December to leave the city. In +March 1562, having made up his quarrel with Arran, he was +accused of having proposed to the latter a project for seizing the +queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, +whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the +23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray’s influence, +however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for +France, but was driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he +was detained, and was subsequently, on the 18th of January +1564, seized at Berwick and sent by Elizabeth to the Tower, +whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to France. After +these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565, but +withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents +to France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to +aid in the suppression of Murray’s rebellion, successfully eluding +the ships of Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the +Marches he was employed in settling disputes on the border, but +used his power to instigate thieving and disorders, and is +described by Cecil’s correspondents as “as naughty a man as +liveth and much given to the most detestable vices,” “as false as +a devil,” “one that the godly of this whole nation hath a cause to +curse for ever.”<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In February 1566 Bothwell, in spite of his +previous matrimonial engagements—and he had also been united +by “handfasting” to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun Riddell—married +Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly. +Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the +fact that he was the “stoutest” in refusing mass, he became +one of her chief advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her +mind and affections dates from the murder of Rizzio on the +9th of March 1566. The queen required a protector, whom she +found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the leaders of the +factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever been a +stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party +and English influence. In Bothwell also, “the glorious, rash and +hazardous young man,” romantic, handsome, charming even in his +guilt, Mary gained what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He +now stood forth as her champion; Mary took refuge with him at +Dunbar, presented him, among other estates, with the castle +there and the chief lands of the earldom of March, and made him +the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland. Her partiality +for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley +became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was +dangerously wounded, and the queen showed her anxiety for his +safety by riding 40 miles to visit him, incurring a severe illness. In +November she visited him at Dunbar, and in December took +place the conference at Craigmillar at which both were present, +and at which the disposal of Darnley was arranged, Bothwell with +some others subsequently signing the bond to accomplish his +murder. He himself superintended all the preparations, visiting +Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of +February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood +for the ball, and riding back to Kirk o’ Field to carry out the +crime. After the explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and +feigned surprise at the receipt of the news half an hour later, +ascribing the catastrophe to “the strangest accident that ever +chancit, to wit, the fouder (lightning) came out of the luft (sky) +and had burnt the king’s house.”<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Bothwell’s power was now greater, and the queen’s affection for +him more ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that +she cared not to lose France, England and her own country for +him, and would go with him to the world’s end in a white petticoat +ere she left him.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He was gratified with further rewards, and +his success was clouded by no stings of conscience or remorse. +According to Melville he had designs on the life of the young +prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley’s father, Bothwell +was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been forbidden +to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused +to attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span> +intention to marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret +before the issue of the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of +April he obtained the consent and support of the Protestant +lords, who signed a bond in his favour. On the 24th he seized +Mary’s willing person near Edinburgh, and carried her to his +castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell’s divorce from his +wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of his adultery +with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic court +on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who +now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation +for the marriage,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and in consequence it is extremely +doubtful whether according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell +and Mary were ever husband and wife. On the 12th Bothwell +was created duke of Orkney and Shetland and the marriage took +place on the 15th according to the Protestant usage, the Roman +Catholic rite being performed, according to some accounts, +afterwards in addition.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>Bothwell’s triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles, +both Protestant and Roman Catholic, now immediately united +to effect his destruction. In June Mary and Bothwell fled from +Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence Bothwell, on the place +being surrounded by Morton and his followers, escaped to +Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched +with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the +15th of June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the +nobles to single combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the +challenge. Meanwhile, during the negotiations, the queen’s +troops had been deserting; a surrender became inevitable, and +Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting from Mary for ever. +Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north, visited Orkney +and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a band of +pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived at +Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first +wife or victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the +gift of a ship and promises of an annuity, and on his identity +becoming known he was sent by the authorities to Copenhagen, +where he arrived on the 30th of September. He wrote <i>Les +Affaires du comte de Boduel</i>, exhibiting himself as the victim of +the malice of his enemies, and gained King Frederick II.’s goodwill +by an offer to restore the Orkneys and Shetlands to Denmark. +In consequence the king allowed him to remain at Copenhagen, +and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568 he +was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently +with Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration, +and a new suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary +demanded a divorce, on pleas which recall those of Henry VIII. +in the matter of Catherine of Aragon. The divorce was finally +granted by the pope in September 1570 on the ground of her +prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and met with no opposition +from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell’s good +treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was +removed to the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand. +Here the close and solitary confinement, and the dreary and +hopeless inactivity to which he was condemned, proved a terrible +punishment for the full-blooded, energetic and masterful Bothwell. +He sank into insanity, and died on the 14th of April 1578. +He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a coffin, +doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait was +taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum +of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called +death-bed confession is not genuine.</p> + +<p>He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, <span class="sc">Francis +Stewart Hepburn</span>, who, through his father, John Stewart, +prior of Coldingham, was a grandson of King James V., and was +thus related to Mary, queen of Scots, and the regent Murray, +was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord high admiral +of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the court of +James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants +was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart’s death +should be avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he +suffered a short imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this +time he had completely lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned, +this time on a charge of witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in +1591, and was deprived by parliament of his lands and titles; +as an outlaw his career was one of extraordinary lawlessness. +In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood palace, and in 1593 he +captured the king, forcing from him a promise of pardon. But +almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life, and, +although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take +refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July +1614. This earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> and +authorities; +<i>Les Affaires du comte de Boduel</i> (written January 1568, +publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829); +“Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell,” in G. Chalmers’s +<i>Life of Mary, Queen of Scots</i> (1818); +<i>Life of Bothwell</i>, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880); +<i>Pièces et documents relatifs au comte de Bothwell</i>, +by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856); +<i>Appendix to the Hist. of Scotland</i>, by G. Buchanan (1721); +<i>Sir James Melville’s Memoirs</i> (Bannatyne Club, 1827); +<i>A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary, Queen of Scots</i>, by J. Stuart (1874); +J.H. Burton’s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i> (1873); +A. Lang’s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, ii. (1902); +<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxxviii. 308; +<i>Cal. of State Papers, Foreign, Scottish, Venetian</i>, vii; +<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, xix. and xx., <i>Domestic, Border Papers</i>; +<i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Salisbury</i>, i. ii. +See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mary, Queen of Scots</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Sir James Melville’s Mem. 174.</i></p> + +<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568</i>, p. 212.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> Rep. ii. p. 177.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Scottish</i>, ii. 333.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571</i>, p. 372.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town +(1901) 3015; of parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right +bank of the Clyde, 9 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the North British +and Caledonian railways. Owing to its pleasant situation it has +become a residential quarter of Glasgow. The choir of the old +Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end of the 19th century) +forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna Baillie, the poetess, +was born in the manse, and a memorial has been erected in her +honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as well as +the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the +battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke +of Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500 +men and 1000 prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level +north-eastern bank, is the castle that once belonged to James +Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl. 1566-1580), the assassin of the +regent Murray; and near the present farmhouse the South +Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque ruins of +Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of the +river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as +Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray, +who fell at Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the +Douglases. The lordship was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick +Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of Bothwell, who resigned it +in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus. It +thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the earl of +Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic, +and mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the +south side by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of +the chapel. A dungeon bears the nickname of “Wallace’s Beef +Barrel.” The unpretending mansion near by was built by +Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar (1653-1712). The parish +of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns and villages, all +owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron and oil-shale. +The principal places, most of which have stations on the +North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park, +Carfin, Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend, +Newarthill, Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace, +Colliery Rows and Tennochside.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTOCUDOS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (from Port. <i>botoque</i>, a plug, in allusion to the +wooden disks or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign +name for a tribe of South American Indians of eastern Brazil, +also known as the Aimores or Aimbores. They appear to have +no collective tribal name for themselves. Some are called Nac-nanuk +or Nac-poruk, “sons of the soil.” The name Botocudos +cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince +Maximilian von Neuwied (<i>Reise nach Bresilien</i>, +Frankfort-On-Main, 1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando +Coutinho reached the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span> +fort at the head of Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against +“the Aimores and other tribes.” The original home of the tribe +comprised most of the present province of Espirito Santo, and +reached inland to the headwaters of Rio Grande (Belmonte) and +Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Espinhacao, but +the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country between +Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond +Serra dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter +district that at the close of the 18th century they came into +collision with the whites, who were attracted thither by the +diamond fields.</p> + +<p>The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and +living on forest products. They are below the medium height, +but broad-shouldered and remarkable for the muscular development +and depth of their chests. Their arms and legs are, however, +soft and fleshy, and their feet and hands small. Their features, +which vary individually almost as much as those of Europeans, +are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high cheek-bones, +small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection +of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse, +black and lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown, +sometimes almost approaching white. The general yellow tint +emphasizes their Mongolic appearance, which all travellers have +noticed. The Botocudos were themselves greatly struck by the +Chinese coolies, whom they met in Brazilian seaports, and whom +they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri Hollard, <i>De l’homme et +des races humaines</i>, Paris, 1853).<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Some few Botocudos have +settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them, numbering +between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest +of savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every +effort was made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the +Portuguese as no better than wild beasts. Smallpox was +deliberately spread among them; poisoned food was scattered in +the forests; by such infamous means the coast districts about +Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one Portuguese commander +boasted that he had either slain with his own hands or +ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements +and domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are +reed spears and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough +shelters of leaf and bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the +language of the Botocudos is known, it would appear that they have +no means of expressing the numerals higher than one. Their only +musical instrument is a small bamboo nose-flute. They attribute +all the blessings of life to the “day-fire” (sun) and all evil to +“night-fire” (moon). At the graves of the dead they keep fires +burning for some days to scare away evil spirits, and during storms +and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to drive away demons.</p> + +<p>The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the <i>tembeitera</i>, +or wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip +and the lobe of the ear. This disk, made of the specially light +and carefully dried wood of the barriguda tree (<i>Chorisia +ventricosa</i>), is called by the natives themselves <i>emburé</i>, +whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable derivation of +their name Aimbore (<i>Voyages dans l’intérieur du Brésil 1816-1821</i>, +Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly +by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing +the lip begins often as early as the eighth year, when an +initial boring is made by a hard pointed stick, and gradually +extended by the insertion of larger and larger disks or plugs, +sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in diameter. Notwithstanding +the lightness of the wood the <i>tembeitera</i> weighs down +the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last becomes +a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn, +of such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders. +Ear-ornaments of like nature are common in south and even central +America, at least as far north as Honduras. When Columbus +discovered this latter country during his fourth voyage (1502) +he named part of the seaboard <i>Costa de la Oreja</i>, from the +conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early Spanish explorers +also gave the name <i>Orejones</i> or “big-eared” to several +Amazon tribes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.R. Wallace, <i>Travels on the Amazon</i> (1853-1900); +H.H. Bancroft, <i>Hist. of Pacific States</i> (San Francisco, 1882), +vol. i. p. 211; +A.H. Keane, “On the Botocudos” in <i>Journ. Anthrop. Instit.</i> +vol. xiii. (1884); J.R. Peixoto, +<i>Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds</i> +(Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, <i>Geology and +Physical Geography of Brazil</i> (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who +formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian +revolt of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the +Zeklars and other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTORI,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a Japanese game played at the naval, military and +other schools, by two sides of equal number, usually about one +hundred, each of which defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly +set in the ground, the poles being about 200 yds. distant from +each other. The object of each party is to overthrow the +adversaries’ pole while keeping their own upright. Pulling, +hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking. +The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive +at the enemies’ pole, and frequently succeed in passing over +their heads and shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus +enabled to reach the pole and bear it down unless pulled off in +time by its defenders. A game similar in character is played +by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of Amherst College +(Massachusetts), called the “Flag-rush.” It was instituted at +the instance of the faculty to take the place of the traditional +“Cane-rush,” a general <i>mêlée</i> between the two classes for the +ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became +so rough that students were frequently seriously injured. In +the “Flag-rush” a small flag is set upon a padded post about +6 ft. high, and is defended by one class while the other endeavours, +as at Botori, to overthrow it. If the flag is not captured or torn +down within a certain time the defending side wins.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTOSHANI<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Botoşani</i>), the capital of the department of +Botoshani, Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia, +and in one of the richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the +north Moldavian hills. Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is +commercially important as the town through which goods from +Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the south; being situated +on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the main line from +Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour mills; +and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being +largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani +owes its name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of +Jenghiz Khan, who occupied the country in the 13th century. +There are large colonies of Armenians and Jews.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BO-TREE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bodhi-tree</span>, the name given by the Buddhists of India +and Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>). +It is regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each +temple. These are traditionally supposed to be derived from +the original one, the Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath +which the Buddha is traditionally supposed to have attained +perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined city of Anuradhapura, +80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the parent-tree +sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +is said to have been planted in 288 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is to this day +worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to +pray before it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the +Kandy priests.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTRYTIS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey +mould on decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under +a hand-lens it is seen to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks +which are branched at the tips, each branchlet being crowned +with a naked head of pale-coloured spores. It is a very common +fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in greenhouses, and +can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad record as +a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the higher +plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them +to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other +cultivated plants are subject to attack by <i>Botrytis</i>, Some of +the species exist in two other growth-forms, so different in +appearance from the <i>Botrytis</i> that they have been regarded as +distinct plants:—a sclerotium, which is a hard compact mass of +fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain its vitality for a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span> +considerable time in a resting condition; and a stalked <i>Peziza</i>, +or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The latter +is the perfect form of fruit. The <i>Botrytis</i> mould is known as +the conidial form.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1766-1837), Italian +historian, was born at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont. +He studied medicine at the university of Turin, and obtained +his doctor’s degree when about twenty years of age. Having +rendered himself obnoxious to the government during the +political commotions that followed the French Revolution, +he was imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795 +he withdrew to France, only to return to his native country +as a surgeon in the French army, whose progress he followed +as far as Venice. Here he joined the expedition to Corfu, from +which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At first he favoured +French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation of Piedmont +by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he +afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the +union of all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control. +After the separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired +into private life, but, fearing persecution at home, became a +French citizen. In 1817 he was appointed rector of the university +of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed owing to clerical influence. +Amid all the vicissitudes of his early manhood Botta had never +allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the political quiet that +followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more exclusively +to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from +1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he +himself had been an eyewitness of many of the events described. +His continuation of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards +encouraged to undertake, is a careful and laborious work, but is +not based on original authorities and is of small value. Though +living in Paris he was in both these works the ardent exponent +of that recoil against everything French which took place +throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a +reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the +marked features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned +and eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate. +Botta died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty, +but in the enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation.</p> + +<p>His son, Paul Émile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished +traveller and Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at +Khorsabad (1843) were among the first efforts in the line of +investigation afterwards pursued by Layard.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The works of Carlo Botta are +<i>Storia naturale e medica dell’ Isola di Corfu</i> (1798); +an Italian translation of Born’s <i>Joannis Physiophili specimen +monachologiae</i> (1801); +<i>Souvenirs d’un voyage en Dalmatie</i> (1802); +<i>Storia della guerra dell’ Independenza d’America</i> (1809); +<i>Camillo</i>, a poem (1815); +<i>Storia d’Italia dal 1789 al 1814</i> (1824, new ed., Prato, 1862); +<i>Storia d’ltalia in continuazione al Guicciardini</i> (1832, +new ed., Milan, 1878). +See C. Dionisiotti, <i>Vita di Carlo Botta</i> (Turin, 1867); +C. Pavesio, <i>Carlo Botta e le sue opere storiche</i> (Florence, 1874); +Scipione Botta, <i>Vita privata di Carlo Botta</i> (Florence, 1877); +A. d’Ancona c O. Bacci, <i>Manuela della Letteratura Italiana</i> +(Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist +and musical composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the +24th of December 1823. He studied music at the Milan +Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to the double-bass, an +instrument with which his name is principally associated. On +leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also occupied +the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana. Here +his first opera, <i>Cristoforo Colombo</i>, was produced in 1847. +In 1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass +solos at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he +made frequent visits to England, and his extraordinary command +of his unwieldy instrument gained him great popularity in London +and the provinces. Apart from his triumphs as an executant, +Bottesini was a conductor of European reputation, and earned +some success as a composer, though his work had not sufficient +individuality to survive the changes of taste and fashion. He +was conductor at the Théâtre des Italiens in Paris from 1855 to 1857, +where his second opera, <i>L’Assedio di Firenze</i>, was produced +in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising +the production of his opera <i>Marion Delorme</i> in 1862, and in +1863 at Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of +conducting by repeated concert tours through the principal +countries of Europe. In 1871 he conducted a season of Italian +opera at the Lyceum theatre in London, during which his opera +<i>Ali Baba</i> was produced, and at the close of the year he was +chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of <i>Aïda</i>, +which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote +three operas besides those already mentioned: <i>Il Diavolo della +Notte</i> (Milan, 1859); <i>Vinciguerra</i> (Paris, 1870); and +<i>Ero e Leandro</i> (Turin, 1880), the last named to a libretto +by Arrigo Boito, which was subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also +wrote <i>The Garden of Olivet</i>, a devotional oratorio (libretto +by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at the Norwich festival in +1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and numerous songs, and minor +instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma on the 7th of July 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> properly <span class="sc">Alessandro di Mariano +dei Filipepi</span> (1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at +Florence in 1444, in a house in the Via Nuova, Borg’ Ognissanti. +This was the home of his father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi, +a struggling tanner. Sandro, the youngest child but one of his +parents, derived the name Botticelli, by which he was commonly +known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith to whom he was +apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a prosperous +broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who +for some reason bore the nickname <i>Botticello</i> or Little +Barrel. A return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as +aged thirteen, weak in health, and still at school (if the words +<i>sta al legare</i> are to be taken as a misspelling of <i>sta al +leggere</i>, otherwise they might perhaps mean that he was +apprenticed either to a jeweller or a bookbinder). One of his elder +brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a bookseller, was at this +time in business as a goldsmith and gold-leaf-beater, and with him +Sandro was very probably first put to work. Having shown +an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was apprenticed in +1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he remained +as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to +carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the +cathedral church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years +Sandro was no doubt employed with other pupils upon the great +series of frescoes in the choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which +his master was for long intermittently engaged. The later +among these frescoes in many respects anticipate, by charm of +sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic flutter of +draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro’s +own style. One of Sandro’s earliest extant pictures, the oblong +“Adoration of the Magi” at the National Gallery, London +(No. 592, long ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost +entirely under the influence of his first master. Left in Florence +on Fra Filippo’s departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually +developing his individuality under various influences, among +which that of the realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some +time the strongest. From that school he acquired a knowledge of +bodily structure and movement, and a searching and expressive +precision of linear draughtsmanship, which he could never +have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo influence +dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio, +in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was +painted by Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one +of a series of the seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems, +were executed by Piero Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother +Antonio. The same influence is again very manifest in the two +brilliant little pictures at the Uffizi in which the youthful +Botticelli has illustrated the story of Judith and Holofernes; +in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal of Cosimo de’ +Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized “St Sebastian” +at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church +of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence +seem also to point to Botticelli’s having occasionally helped, +in his earliest or Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span> +school of engravings in Florence which had been founded by the +goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.</p> + +<p>Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while +the much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the “Fortitude” +is the only authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio +influence is really much apparent; the various other +pictures on which this opinion is founded, chiefly Madonnas +dispersed among the museums of Naples, Florence, Paris and +elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability the work not +of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced partly +by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been +endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico +di Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli +stood in friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio’s +workshop, particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the +many “Madonnas” which bear Botticelli’s name in galleries +public and private, the earliest which carries the unmistakable +stamp of his own hand and invention is that which passed from +the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs Gardner at Boston. +At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement to work at +Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the Incoronata +in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city +abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his +preserved works comes probably the much-injured round of the +“Adoration of the Magi” in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long +ascribed in error, like the earlier oblong panel of the same subject, +to Filippino Lippi. (To about this date is assigned by some the +well-known “Assumption of the Virgin surrounded with the +heavenly hierarchies,” formerly at Hamilton Palace and now in +the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism has proved +that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari’s time has +ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the +work of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco +Botticini.)</p> + +<p>A more mature and more celebrated “Adoration of the Magi” +than either of those in the National Gallery is that now in the +Uffizi, which Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in +1477, and which was originally placed over an altar against the +front wall of the church of Sta Maria Novella to the right inside +the main entrance. The scene is here less crowded than in some +other of the master’s representations of the subject, the +conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of those elements +of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which he was +sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated; +the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover, +special interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the +chief members of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of +his time in Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the +patronage of this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico +in the Via Larga he painted a decorative piece of Pallas with +lance and shield (not to be confounded with the banner painted +with a similar allegoric device of Pallas by Verrocchio, to be +carried by Giuliano de’ Medici in the famous tournament in 1475 +in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta, the wife of his +friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now lost, as +are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded +to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475 +and Lorenzo’s death in 1492. But Sandro’s more especial patron, +for whom were executed several of his most important still extant +works, was another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, +grandson of a natural brother of Cosimo <i>Pater Patriae</i>, and +inheritor of a vast share of the family estates and interests. For +the villa of this younger Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted +about 1477-1478 the famous picture of “Primavera” or Spring +now in the Academy at Florence. The design, inspired by +Poliziano’s poem the “Giostra,” with reminiscences of Lucretius +and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested, of the +late Latin “Mythologikon” of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an +enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential +spirit of the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully +draped, with Cupid hovering above her, stands in a grove of +orange and myrtle and welcomes the approach of Spring, who +enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and Zephyrus gently +urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later “Birth of +Venus,” the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the +little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly +and freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of +bodily structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which +something of the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages +is intimately and exquisitely blended with the newly awakened +spirit of naturalism and the revived pagan delight in bodily form +and movement and richness of linear rhythm. In connexion with +this and other classic and allegoric pictures by the master, much +romantic speculation has been idly spent on the supposition that +the chief personages were figured in the likeness of Giuliano de’ +Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact died +in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance +which has been spun about their names in modern days is quite +unsubstantial; and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli +should have introduced the likenesses of these two supposed +lovers (for it is not even certain that they were lovers at all) in +pictures all of which were demonstrably painted after the death +of one and most of them after the death of both.</p> + +<p>The tragedy of Giuliano’s assassination by the Pazzi +conspirators in 1478 was a public event which certainly brought +employment to Botticelli. After the capture and execution of +the criminals he was commissioned to paint their effigies hanging +by the neck on the walls of the Palazzo del Podestà, above the +entrance of what was formerly the Dogana. In the course of +Florentine history public buildings had on several previous +occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last had been +when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging +by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the +return of Cosimo de’ Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi +commission may be dated the evidences which are found in some +of Botticelli’s work of a closer study than heretofore of the +virile methods and energetic types of Castagno. His frescoes of the +hanged conspirators held their place for sixteen years only, and +were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of another revolution in +the city’s politics. Two years later (1480) he painted in rivalry +with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on the choir +screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the +church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his +contributing designs to the workshops of the “fine-manner” +engravers in the shape of a beautiful print of the triumph of +Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an antique sarcophagus (the +only example known is in the British Museum), as well as in +nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with the +commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo +della Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after +canto xix., perhaps because of the material difficulties involved +by the use of line engravings for the decoration of a printed page, +perhaps because the artist was at this time called away to Rome +to undertake the most important commission of his life. Due +possibly to the same call is the unfinished condition of a +much-damaged, crowded “Adoration of the Magi” by Botticelli +preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have +influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in +like manner remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also +at the Uffizi.</p> + +<p>The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to +take part with other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio, +Cosimo Rosselli, Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration +of Sixtus IV.’s chapel at the Vatican, the ceiling of which was +afterwards destined to be the field of Michelangelo’s noblest +labours. Internal evidence shows that Sandro and his assistants +bore a chief share in the series of papal portraits which decorate +the niches between the windows. His share in the decoration of the +walls with subjects from the Old and the New Testament consists +of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of Moses (several +episodes of his early life arranged in a single composition); +another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a third the +temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is +relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span> +animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a +leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a +year and a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken +as the central and most important productions of his career, +though they are far from being the best-known, and from their +situation on the dimmed and stained walls of the chapel are by no +means easy of inspection. Skill in the interlinking of complicated +groups; in the principal actors energy of dramatic action and +expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in the artist’s +later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the personages +of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women +an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar +strain of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist’s +own; the most expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship, +the richest and most inventive charm in fanciful costume +and decorative colouring, all combine to distinguish them. +During this time of his stay in Rome (1481-1482) Botticelli is +recorded also to have painted another “Adoration of the Magi,” +his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same subject; this has been +identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now in the Hermitage +gallery at St Petersburg.</p> + +<p>Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli +worked there for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il +Magnifico in 1492, with but slight variations in manner and sentiment, +in the now formed manner of his middle life. Some of the +recorded works of this time have perished; but a good many +have been preserved, and except in the few cases where the dates +of commission and payment can be established by existing +records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal +evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken +with other artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico +came to nothing (1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes +carried out by him in the vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il +Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra in 1484 has been destroyed +by the effects first of damp and then of fire. To 1482-1483 +belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a Madonna and Child +with six saints and four angels), now in the academy at Florence. +Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and +most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of +his works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels +in the Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book, +as the “Magnificat.” Somewhere near this must be placed +the beautiful and highly finished drawing of “Abundance,” +which has passed through the Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm +collections into the British Museum, as well as a small Madonna +in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and the fine full-faced +portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or apprentice in +the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the marriage +of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed, +and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and +dramatic set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio’s tale of +Nastagio degl’Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of +Mr Barker and are now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly +preserved altar-piece of the Madonna between the two saints John, +now in the Berlin gallery, was painted for the Bardi chapel in +the church of San Spirito in 1486. In the same year he helped +to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni with Giovanna +degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes, the +remains of which, after they had been brought to light from +under a coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were +removed in 1882 to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same +date (1485-1488) should apparently be placed that second +masterpiece of fanciful classicism done for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco’s +villa at Castello, the “Birth of Venus,” now in the +Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly inspired by +the “Stanze” of Poliziano, perhaps also by the <i>Pervigilium +Veneris</i>; together with the scarcely less admirable “Mars and +Venus” of the National Gallery, conceived in the master’s +peculiar vein of virile sanity mingled with exquisite caprice; +and the most beautiful and characteristic of all his Madonnas, +the round of the “Virgin with the Pomegranate” (Uffizi). The +fine picture of “Pallas and the Centaur,” rediscovered after an +occultation of many years in the private apartments of the Pitti +Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and to celebrate +the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the spirit of +tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo +(1488-1490). “The Annunciation” from the convent of Cestello, now +in the Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and +expressive, in its bending movements and vehement gestures, of +that agitation of spirit the signs of which become increasingly +perceptible in Botticelli’s work from about this time until the +end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with its <i>predelle</i>, +commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished in 1490, +with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels +encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of +Botticelli’s altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date +probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small +painting of the “Last Communion of St Jerome” belonging to +the Marchese Farinola.</p> + +<p>In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a +consultation as to the completion of the façade of the Duomo, +and to bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the +mosaic decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same +church. The death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the +accession to chief power of his worthless son Piero, soon plunged +Florence into political troubles, to which were by and by added +the profound spiritual agitation consequent upon the preaching +and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, +who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political +rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage +of Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between +the years 1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute +a set of drawings in illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate +and ambitious plan than the little designs for the engraver +which had been interrupted in 1481. Eighty-five of these drawings +are in the famous manuscript acquired for the Berlin museum +at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882, and eleven +more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the +most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master; +revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with +the text; full of Botticelli’s characteristic poetic yearning and +vehemence of expression, his half-childish intensity of vision; +exquisite in lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of +linear composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the +whole to the illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the +poem, and in the fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and +inadequacy of invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory +Botticelli maintains a careful adherence to the text, illustrating +the several progressive incidents of each canto on a single page +in the old-fashioned way. In the Paradise he gives a freer rein +to his invention, and his designs become less a literal illustration +of the text than an imaginative commentary on it. Almost all +interest is centred on the persons of Dante and Beatrice, who are +shown us again and again in various phases of ascending progress +and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a bare +symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them. +Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light +preliminary sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably +intended to be finished in colour, as a few actually are. To the +period of these drawings (1492-1497) would seem to belong the +fine and finely preserved small round of the “Virgin and Child +with Angels” at the Ambrosiana, Milan, and the famous +“Calumny of Apelles” at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by some +contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally +remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and +composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution +and detail. Probably the small “St Augustine” in the Uffizi, +the injured “Judith with the head of Holofernes” in the Kaufmann +collection at Berlin, and the “Virgin and Child with St John,” +belonging to Mr Heseltine in London, are works of the same period.</p> + +<p>Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at +Naples, returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro’s +home in the Via Nuova. He soon became a devoted follower of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span> +Savonarola, and has left a manuscript chronicle which is one of +the best sources for the history of the friar and of his movement. +Sandro himself seems to have remained aloof from the movement +almost until the date of the execution of Savonarola and his two +followers in 1498. At least there is clear evidence of his being +in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco so +late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have been +had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni. +It was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence +in 1497 that brought to a premature end the master’s great +undertaking on the illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo’s +return, following on the overthrow and death of Savonarola +in 1498, we find no trace of any further relations between him +and Botticelli, who by that time would seem to have become +a declared devotee of the friar’s memory and an adherent, +like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of +swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents +give some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery +of Monticelli a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the +winter of the same year as bound over to keep the peace with, a +neighbour living next to the small suburban villa which Sandro +held jointly with his brother Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro; +in 1499 as paying belated matriculation fees to the gild of doctors +and druggists (of which the painters were a branch); and again +in 1499 as carrying out some decorative paintings for a member +of the Vespucci family. It has been suggested, probably with +reason, that portions of these decorations are to be recognized in +two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history, one illustrating +the story of Virginia, which has passed with the collection +of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a +history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham, +which passed into Mrs Gardner’s collection at Boston. These +and the few works still remaining to be mentioned are all strongly +marked by the strained vehemence of design and feeling characteristic +of the master’s later years, when he dramatizes his +own high-strung emotions in figures flung forward and swaying +out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with looks cast +agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild +yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small +Pietà at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary +copy of one which the master is recorded to have painted for the +Panciatichi chapel in the church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they +are present to a degree even of caricature in the larger and +coarser painting of the same subject which bears the master’s +name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a work of his +school. The mystic vein of religious and political speculation +into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest illustration +in the beautiful symbolic “Nativity” which passed in +succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller +Maitland collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with +the apocalyptic inscription in Greek which the master has added +to make his meaning clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is +a much-injured symbolic “Magdalene at the foot of the Cross” +in private possession at Lyons. Among extant pictures those +which from internal evidence we must put latest in the master’s +career are three panels illustrating the story of St Zenobius, +of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the collection +of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after +1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence +of Isabella d’Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by +Ugolino Verino. In 1503-1504 he served on the committee of +artists appointed to decide where the colossal David of Michelangelo +should be placed. In these and the following years we +find him paying fees to the company of St Luke, and the next +thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial in the +Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May +1510.</p> + +<p>The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination +in Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the +capacity for religious conviction and emotional conversion +which made of him an ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola, +coexisted in him, according to all records, with a strong vein +of the laughing humour and love of rough practical and verbal +jesting which belonged to the Florentine character in his age. +His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been the resort, +not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to +have been at all times working for him, but of a company of +more or less idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues +always wagging. Vasari’s account of the straits into which +he was led by his absorption in the study of Dante and his adhesion +to the sect of Savonarola are evidently much exaggerated, +since there is proof that he lived and died, not rich indeed, but +possessed of property enough to keep him from any real pinch +of distress. The story of his work and life, after having been +the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and +speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work +of Mr H.P. Horne cited below,—a masterpiece of documentary +research and critical exposition.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Vasari, <i>Le Opere</i> (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.; Crowe-Cavalcaselle, +<i>Hist. of Painting in Italy</i>, vol. ii.; Fr. Lippmann, +<i>Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Göttlicher Komödie</i>; Dr Karl +Woermann, “Sandro Botticelli” (in Dohme, <i>Kunst u. Künstler</i>); Dr +Hermann Ulmann, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Dr E. Steinmann, <i>Sandro +Botticelli</i> (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author’s elucidation +of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Bernhard +Berenson, <i>The Drawings of Florentine Painters; The Florentine +Painters of the Renaissance</i> (2nd ed.); <i>The Study and Criticism of +Italian Art</i>; papers in the <i>Burlington Magazine</i>, the <i>Gazette des +Beaux-Arts</i> (to this critic is due the first systematic attempt to discriminate +between the original work of Botticelli and that of his +various pupils); J. Mesnil, <i>Miscellanea d’Arte</i> and papers in the +<i>Rivista d’Arte</i>, &c.; W. Warburg, <i>Sandro Botticelli’s “Geburt der +Venus” and “Frühling”</i>; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), <i>The Life +and Art of Sandro Botticelli</i> (1904); F. Wickhoff in the <i>Jahrbuch +der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen</i> (1906); Herbert P. Horne, +<i>Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli</i> (1908); this +last authority practically supersedes all others.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(S. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1760-1835), German archaeologist, +was born at Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He +was educated at the school of Pforta, and the university of +Leipzig. After holding minor educational posts, he obtained +in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the appointment of +rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into a circle +of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He +published in 1803 a learned work, <i>Sabina, oder Morgenszenen +im Putzzimmer einer reichen Römerin</i>, a description of a wealthy +Roman lady’s toilette, and a work on ancient art, <i>Griechische +Vasengemälde</i>. At the same time he assisted in editing the +<i>Journal des Luxus und der Moden</i>, the <i>Deutsche Merkur</i>, and the +<i>London and Paris</i>. In 1804 he was called to Dresden as superintendent +of the studies of the court pages, and received the rank +of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made director of studies +at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of Antiquities. +He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief +works are:—<i>Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei</i>, i. (1811) (no more +published); <i>Kunstmythologie</i> (1811); <i>Vorlesungen und Aufsätze +zur Alterthumskunde</i> (1817); <i>Amalthea</i> (1821-1825); <i>Ideen zur +Kunstmythologie</i> (1826-1836). The <i>Opuscula et Carmina Latina</i> +were published separately in 1837; with a collection of his +smaller pieces, <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1837-1838), including a complete +list of his works (56 pages). His biography was written by his +son Karl Wilhelm Böttiger (1790-1862), for some time professor +of history at Erlangen, and author of several valuable histories +(<i>History of Germany</i>, <i>History of Saxony</i>, <i>History of Bavaria</i>, +<i>Universal History of Biographies</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:253px" src="images/img310.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens +at Pompeii and Herculaneum.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. <i>butta</i>, +a flask; cf. Eng. “butt”), a vessel for containing liquids, generally +as opposed to one for drinking from (though this probably is +not excluded), and with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and +pouring. The first bottles were probably made of the skins of +animals. In the <i>Iliad</i> (iii. 247) the attendants are represented +as bearing wine for use in a bottle made of goat’s skin. The +ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and from the +language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a bottle +was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection +of the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed +<span class="grk" title="podeon">ποδεών</span>. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span> +bottles of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The +Greeks and Romans also were accustomed to use bottles made of +skins; and in the southern parts Europe they are still used +for the transport of wine. The first of explicit reference to bottles +of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix. 4), where it is said that +the Gibeonites took “old +sacks upon their asses, +and wine-bottles <i>old and +rent and bound up</i>.” The +objection to putting “new +wine into old bottles” +(Matt. ix. 17) is that the +skin, already stretched +and weakened by use, is +liable to burst under the +pressure of the gas from +new wine. Skins are still +most extensively used +throughout western Asia +for the conveyance and +storage of water. It is +an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as +being made exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet +speaks of “a potter’s earthen vessel.” The Egyptians (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Art and Archaeology</i>) possessed vases and bottles +of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, bone, porcelain, bronze, +silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or common +earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass +(<i>q.v</i>.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry +has attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer, +&c., or mineral waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling +the bottles has been introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering, +for labelling and for washing them.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a genus of Australian plants, +known botanically as <i>Callistemon</i>, and belongiug to the myrtle +family (Myrtaceae). They take their name from the resemblance +of the head of flowers to a bottle-brush. They are well known in +cultivation as greenhouse shrubs; the flower owes its beauty to +the numerous long thread-like stamens which far exceed the +small petals. <i>Callistemon salignus</i> is a valuable hard wood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTLENOSE WHALE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>Hyperoödon rostratus</i>), a member of +the sperm-whale family, which is an inhabitant of the North +Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas and going +farther south in winter. It resembles the sperm-whale in +possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head, +which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also +for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost indistinguishable +from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a +regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length +these whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from +black on the upper surface in the young to light brown in old +animals, the under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch +between the flukes, as in other whales, but the hinder part of the +tail is rounded. Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills, +and are practically toothless; the only teeth which exist in the +adult being a small pair at the front of the lower jaw, concealed +beneath the gum during life. Examples have frequently been +recorded on the British coasts. In November 1904 a female, +24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven ashore at Whitstable. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTTOMRY,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom) +is hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses +incurred in the course of her voyage, under the condition that if +she arrive at her destination the ship shall be liable for repayment +of the loan, together with such premium thereon as may have +been agreed for; but that if the ship be lost, the lender shall have +no claim against the borrower either for the sum advanced or for +the premium. The freight may be pledged as well as the ship, +and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the personal +obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is +borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken +up at <i>respondentia</i>; but it is now only in rare and exceptional +cases that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the +cargo, except under a general bottomry obligation, along with +the ship and freight. In consideration of the risks assumed by +the lender, the bottomry premium (sometimes termed <i>maritime +interest</i>) is usually high, varying of course with the nature of the +risk and the difficulty of procuring funds.</p> + +<p>A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which +sufficiently shows the conditions agreed on between the parties; +but it is usually drawn up in the form of a <i>bond</i> which confers a +maritime lien (<i>q.v.</i>). The document must show, either by express +terms or from its general tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed +by the lender,—this being the consideration for which the high +premium is conceded. The lender may transfer the bond by +indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of exchange or bill of +lading, and the right to recover its value becomes vested in the +indorsees. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bond</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains +in force so long as the ship exists <i>in the form of a ship</i>, whatever +amount of damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the +“constructive total loss” which is recognized in marine insurance, +when the ship is damaged to such an extent that she is not worth +repairing, is not recognized in reference to bottomry, and will not +absolve the borrower from his obligation. But if the ship go to +pieces, the borrower is freed from all liability under the bottomry +contract; and the lender is not entitled to receive any share of +the proceeds of such of the ship’s stores or materials as may have +been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on bottomry is not +liable in England for general average losses. If the ship should +<i>deviate</i> from the voyage for which the funds were advanced, her +subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower +under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all +on her intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover +the bottomry premium in addition to his advance, but only +the ordinary rate of interest for the temporary loan. As the +bottomry premium is presumed, in every case, to cover the +risks incurred by the lender, he is not entitled to charge the +borrower with the premium which he may pay for <i>insurance</i> +of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the +bond.</p> + +<p>The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the +custom of permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign +country, to pledge the ship in order to raise money for repairs, +or other extraordinary expenditures rendered necessary in the +course of the voyage. Circumstances often arise, in which, +without the exercise of this power on the part of the master, it +would be impossible to provide means for accomplishing the +voyage; and it is better that the master should have authority +to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo also, +in security for the money which has become requisite, than that +the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But +the right of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always +be created by necessity; if exercised without necessity the +contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of a British ship +has no power to grant a bottomry bond at a British port, or at +any foreign port where he might raise funds on the personal +credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any power to pledge +the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only for such +supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage. +And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the +owners of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before +pledging their property (“The Bonaparte,” 1853, 8 Moo. P.C. +473; “The Staffordshire,” 1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased +facility of communication, by telegraph and otherwise, has given +additional stringency to this rule, and caused a decline in the +practice of giving bottomry bonds.</p> + +<p>The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain +that a real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to +see to the application of the money advanced. If the lender has +originally advanced the funds on the personal credit of the owner +he is not entitled to require a bottomry obligation. A bond +procured from the shipmaster by improper compulsion would be +void.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span></p> + +<p>The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon +there being some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so +doing. He has no such power except in virtue of circumstances +which may oblige him to assume the character of <i>agent for the +cargo</i>, in the absence of any other party authorized to act on its +behalf. Under ordinary circumstances he is not at liberty to +pledge the cargo for repairs to the ship. If indeed the goods be +of a perishable nature, and if it be impossible to get the ship +repaired in sufficient time to obviate serious loss on them by +delay, without including them under the bottomry contract, he +has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in the case +supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure. +The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo, +with a reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under +the whole circumstances of the case. When he does this his +proceedings will be sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice +the interests of the cargo by including it under bottomry +for the mere purpose of relieving the ship, or of earning the +freight, the owners of the cargo will not be bound by the bottomry +contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be good in +part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted +<i>within</i> or <i>beyond</i> the scope of his legitimate authority in granting +it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different +stages of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient +to discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of +payment, as having furnished the means of preserving the ship, +and thereby preventing the total loss of the security for the +previous bonds.</p> + +<p>When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight +and cargo is not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be +taken by the bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the +sale of the ship; and should the proceeds of these be insufficient +to discharge the claim, a judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted +to. As a general rule the value of the ship and freight +must be exhausted before recourse can be taken against the +cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders against +the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability +under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged, +whether the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond +or not. But the owners of the ship, though not liable to the +bondholder for more than the value of the ship and freight, may +be further liable to the proprietors of the cargo for any sum in +excess of the cargo’s proper share of the expenses, taken by the +bondholder out of the proceeds of the cargo to satisfy the bond +after the ship and freight have been exhausted.</p> + +<p>The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties +for whose benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on +the final adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of +destination.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was +common among the ancient Greeks, being known as <span class="grk" title="ekdosis">ἔκδοσις</span> or <span class="grk" title="daneion">δάνειον</span> +(see Demosthenes’ speeches <i>Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum</i> and +<i>In Dionysodorum</i>); it passed into Roman law as <i>foenus nauticum</i> +or <i>usura maritima</i>.</p> + +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lien</a></span>: <i>Maritime</i>; and generally Abbott on <i>Shipping</i> +(14th ed., 1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTZARIS<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Bozzaris</span>], <span class="bold">MARCO</span> (<i>c.</i> 1788-1823), leader in the +War of Greek Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the +second son of Kitzo Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by +order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803, after the capture of Suli by +Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the Suliots, crossed over +to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took service in an +Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the Greek +patriotic society known as the <i>Hetairia Philike</i>, and in 1820, +with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina +against the Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he +distinguished himself by his courage, tenacity and skill as a +partisan leader in the fighting in western Hellas, and was conspicuous +in the defence of Missolonghi during the first siege +(1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August 1823 he led the +celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000 Albanians +who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha +was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks +was complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still +celebrated in popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris’s +brother Kosta (Constantine), who fought at Karpenisi and +completed the victory, lived to become a general and senator in +the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th of November +1853. Marco’s son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three +times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He +died at Athens on the 17th of August 1870.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOTZEN,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bozen</span> (Ital. <i>Bolzano</i>), a town in the Austrian +province of Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with +the Eisak, and a short way above the junction of the latter with +the Adige or Etsch. It is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a +station on the Brenner railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass +and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it had a population of 13,632, +Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though the Italian element +is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town amid +Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old +Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, +opposite which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of +the famous <i>Minnesänger</i>, Walther von der Vogelweide, who, +according to some accounts, was born (<i>c</i>. 1170) at a farm above +Waidbruck, to the north of Botzen. Botzen is the busiest +commercial town in the German-speaking portion of Tirol, +being admirably situated at the junction of the Brenner route +from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the +Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has +always been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually), +while the local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century. +Lately its prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour +as a winter resort of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the +Talfer, and now practically a suburb of Botzen.</p> + +<p>The <i>pons Drusi</i> (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen) +is mentioned in the 4th century by the <i>Peutinger Table</i>. In the +7th to 8th centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian +counts. But in 1027, with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it +was given by the emperor Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent. +From 1028 onwards it was ruled by local counts, the vassals of the +bishops, but after Tirol fell into the hands of the Habsburgers +(1363) their power grew at the expense of that of the bishops. +In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of having a +town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of +jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later +history is merged in that of Tirol.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHARDON, EDME<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1698-1762), French sculptor, was +esteemed in his day the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at +Chaumont, he became the pupil of Guillaume Coustou and gained +the <i>prix de Rome</i> in 1722. Resisting the tendency of the day +he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste, always correct, +charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the finish +that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained +at Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict +XIII. (1730). In 1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece, +“Cupid fashioning a Bow out of the Club of Hercules,” +perfect in its grace, but cold in the purity of its classic design. +His two other leading <i>chefs-d’œuvre</i> are the fountain in the rue +de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which had been finished +and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of Louis XV., +a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which, +when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of +its kind ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to +finish, but left its completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during +the Revolution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are <i>Vie d’Edme +Bouchardon</i>, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); <i>Notice sur +Edme Bouchardon, sculpteur</i>, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837); +<i>Notice historique sur Edme Bouchardon</i>, by J. Carnandet (Paris, +1855); and <i>French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century</i>, +by Lady Dilke (London, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1703-1770), French painter, was born +in Paris, and at first was employed by Jean François Cars (1670-1739), +the engraver, father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771), +to make designs and illustrations for books. In 1727, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span> +however, he went to Italy, and at Rome became well known as +a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and soon became a +favourite in society. His picture “Rinaldo and Armida” (1734) +is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins +factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by +Madame de Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute +various decorative works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like +style and graceful voluptuousness gave him the title of the +Anacreon of painting, but his repute declined until recent years. +The Wallace collection, at Hertford House, has some of his +finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings were also +numerous and masterly.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Antoine Bret’s notice in the <i>Nécrologe des hommes célèbres</i> for +1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul +Mantz.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, JONATHAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1738-1804), English divine and +philologist, was born in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton, +Cumberland, on the 12th of March 1738. He was educated at +the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went to Virginia, +where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia +planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son +of George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate +friendship. Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop +of London in March 1762, and at once sailed again for America, +where he remained until 1775 as rector of various Virginia and +Maryland parishes, including Hanover, King George’s county, +Virginia, and St Anne’s at Annapolis, Maryland. He was widely +known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments +won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest +scholars in the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he +vigorously opposed the “vestry act,” by which the powers and +emoluments of the Maryland pastors were greatly diminished. +When the struggle between the colonies and the mother country +began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his +opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other +measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a +breach between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell +discourse preached after the opening of hostilities he declared +that no power on earth should prevent him from praying and +shouting “God save the King.” In the succeeding autumn he +returned to England, where his loyalism was rewarded by a +government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in +Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April +1804, becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of +his day. He was an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed +largely to William Hutchinson’s <i>History of the County of Cumberland</i> +(2 vols., 1704 seq.), and published <i>A View of the Causes +and Consequences of the American Revolution</i> (1797), dedicated +to George Washington, and consisting of thirteen discourses +delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His philological +studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were devoted, +resulted in the compilation of “A Glossary of Provincial and +Archaic Words,” intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson’s +<i>Dictionary</i>, but never published except in part, which finally in +1831 passed into the hands of the English compilers of Webster’s +<i>Dictionary</i>, by whom it was utilized.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Barton Boucher</span> (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill +Bishops, Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of +religious tracts, hymns and novels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> +(1788-1868), French geologist and antiquary, was born on the +10th of September 1788 at Rethel, Ardennes, France. He was +the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume Boucher de Crèvecœur, +botanist and customs officer, and of Étienne-Jeanne-Marie de +Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by royal decree in +1818 to assume in addition to his father’s). In 1802 he entered +government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him +for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid +promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825) +to succeed his father as director of the <i>douane</i> at Abbeville, +where he remained for the rest of his life, being superannuated +in January 1853, and dying on the 5th of August 1868. His +leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of what was afterwards +called the Stone Age, “antediluvian man,” as he expressed it. +About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the Somme +valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human +handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make +public the important discovery of a worked flint implement +with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, &c., in the gravels of +Menchecourt. This was in 1846. A few years later he commenced +the issue of his monumental work, <i>Antiquités celtiques +et an édiluviennes</i> (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a work in which +he was the first to establish the existence of man in the Pleistocene +or early Quaternary period. His views met with little approval, +partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding +the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly +because the figures in his book were badly executed and they +included drawings of flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship. +In 1855 Dr Jean Paul Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens, +strongly advocated the authenticity of the flint implements; but +it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer (<i>q.v</i>.) saw the collection +at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (<i>q.v</i>.) in the following year +to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely agreed that the +flint implements were the work of man, and that they occurred +in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct +mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together +with worked flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near +Abbeville seemed to vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely; +but doubt was thrown on the antiquity of the human remains +(owing to the possibility of interment), though not on the good +faith of the discoverer, who was the same year made an officer +of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his +champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many +other directions. For more than thirty years he filled the +presidential chair of the Société d’Émulation at Abbeville, +to the publications of which he contributed articles on a wide +range of subjects. He was the author of several tragedies, +two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a number of +books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his scientific +books may be added <i>De l’homme antédilumen et de ses œuvres</i> +(Paris, 1860).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Alcius Ledien, <i>Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses œuvres, sa +correspondence</i> (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, “Recollections +of M. Boucher de Perthes” (with portrait) in <i>Essays Descriptive and +Biographical</i> (1901).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a maritime department of south-eastern +France situated at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026 +sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed in 1790 from western +Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which it is separated +by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the Mediterranean, +along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m. +The western portion consists of the Camargue (<i>q.v</i>.), a low and +marshy plain enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhône, +and comprising the Rhone delta. A large portion of its surface is +covered by lagoons and pools (étangs), the largest of which is the +Étang de Vaccarès; to the east of the Camargue is situated the +remarkable stretch of country called the Crau, which is strewn +with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east and north +there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation belonging +to the Alpine system. The Étang de Berre, a lagoon +covering an area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea +to the south-east of the Crau. A few small tributaries of the +Rhone and the Durance, a number of streams, such as the Arc +and the Touloubre, which flow into the Étang de Berre, and the +Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are the only +rivers that properly belong to the department.</p> + +<p>Bouches-du-Rhône enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean +coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy +north-west wind blowing from the central plateau of France. +The proportion of arable land is small, though the quantity has +been considerably increased by artificial irrigation and by the +draining of marshland. Cereals, of which wheat and oats are +the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and the plain of +Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span> +is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the +oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method +of submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera. +In the cantons of the north-west large quantities of early +vegetables are produced. Of live-stock, sheep alone are raised to +any extent. Almonds, figs, capers, mulberry trees and silkworms +are sources of considerable profit. Iron is worked, but +the most important mines are those of lignite, in which between +2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces +bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand +and gravel and marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen, +and the amount of sea-salt obtained exceeds in quantity the produce +of any other department in France. Marseilles, the capital, +is by far the most important industrial town. In its oil-works, +soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding works, distilleries, +flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering and machinery +works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved foods +and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated +most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these +must be added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne, +the silk-works in the north-west cantons, and various paper and +cardboard manufactories, while several of the industries of +Marseilles, such as the distilling of oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding +and soap-making, are common to the whole of Bouches-du-Rhône. +Fishing is also an important industry. Cereals, flour, +silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils, soap, sugar +and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and brandy, +raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &c., are +imported. The foreign commerce of the department, which is +principally carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most +part concentrated in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues, +Cassis and La Ciotat. Internal trade is facilitated by the canal +from Aries to Port-de-Bouc and two smaller canals, in all about +35 m. in length. The Rhone and the Petit-Rhône are both +navigable within the department.</p> + +<p>Bouches-du-Rhône is divided into the three arrondissements +of Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It +belongs to the archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of +the XV. army corps, the headquarters of which are at Marseilles, +and to the <i>académie</i> (educational division) of Aix. Its court of +appeal is at Aix. Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues, +Salon, Les Saintes-Maries, St Rémy, Les Baux and Tarascon, +the principal places, are separately noticed. Objects of interest +elsewhere may be mentioned. Near Saint-Chamas there is a +remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre, which probably +dates from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and is thus the oldest in +France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has +triumphal arches at either end. At Vernègues there are +remains of a Roman temple known as the “Maison-Basse.” The +famous abbey of Montmajour, of which the oldest parts are +the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2½ m. from Arles. At +Orgon there are the ruins of a château of the 15th century, and +near La Roque d’Anthéron the church and other buildings of +the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOR, MAURICE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1855-  ), French poet, was born on +the 15th of December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession +<i>Chansons joyeuses</i> (1874), <i>Poèmes de l’amour et de la mer</i> (1875), +<i>Le Faust moderne</i> (1878) in prose and verse, and <i>Les Contes +parisiens</i> (1880) in verse. His <i>Aurore</i> (1883) showed a tendency +to religious mysticism, which reached its fullest expression in +<i>Les Symboles</i> (1888; new series, 1895), the most interesting of his +works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph Félix Bouchor, b. 1853, +became well known as an artist) was a sculptor as well as a poet, +and he designed and worked the figures used in his charming +pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by +himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas +on religious subjects, <i>Tobie</i> (1889), <i>Noël</i> (1890) and <i>Sainte +Cécile</i> (1892), were produced in Paris at the Théâtre des +Marionnettes. A one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noël, was +played at the Théâtre Français in 1895, but <i>Dieu le veut</i> +(1888) was not produced. In conjunction with the musician +Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts for the preservation of +the French folk-songs, and published <i>Chants populaires pour les +écoles</i> (1897).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1754-1840), French +minister, was born at Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At +the outbreak of the Revolution he was a captain of cavalry, and +his zeal led to his being made colonel and given the command at +Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the Austrians the +minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April 1793, +Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by +the Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the +31st of March 1794. The predominant rôle of the Committee of +Public Safety during that period did not leave much scope for the +new minister, yet he rendered some services in the organization +of the republican armies, and chose his officers with insight, +among them Kléber, Masséna, Moreau and Bonaparte. During +the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his incontestable honesty, +he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was tried by the +tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he withdrew +from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the 8th +of June 1840.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAULT, DION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright, +was born in Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a +French refugee and an Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was +fortunate enough to make an immediate success as a dramatist +with <i>London Assurance</i>, produced at Covent Garden on the +4th of March 1841, with a cast that included Charles Matthews, +William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He rapidly +followed this with a number of other plays, among the most +successful of the early ones being <i>Old Heads and Young Hearts</i>, +<i>Louis XI</i>., and <i>The Corsican Brothers</i>. In June 1852 he made his +first appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled +<i>The Vampire</i> at the Princess’s theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he +was in the United States, where he was always a popular favourite. +On his return to England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic +adaptation of Gerald Griffin’s novel, <i>The Collegians</i>, entitled <i>The +Colleen Bawn</i>. This play, one of the most successful of modern +times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom +and the United States, and made its author a handsome fortune, +which he lost in the management of various London theatres. It +was followed by <i>The Octoroon</i> (1861), the popularity of which was +almost as great. Boucicault’s next marked success was at the +Princess’s theatre in 1865 with <i>Arrah-na-Pogue</i>, in which he +played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable +creation of Con in his play <i>The Shaughraun</i> (first produced at +Drury Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best +stage Irishman of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York +City and finally made his home there, but he paid occasional +visits to London, where his last appearance was made in his play, +<i>The Jilt</i>, in 1886. <i>The Streets of London</i> and <i>After Dark</i> were two +of his late successes as a dramatist. He died in New York on the +18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice married, his first +wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of Charles +Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children, +Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished +in the profession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAUT, JEAN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Jean le Meingre</span>, called <span class="sc">Boucicaut</span>] +(<i>c.</i> 1366-1421), marshal of France, was the son of another Jean +le Meingre, also known as Boucicaut, marshal of France, who +died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.). At a very early age he +became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in Flanders and in +Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of Roosebeke in +1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to the +Holy Land. Boucicaut’s great desire appears to have been to +fight the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers +who marched to the defence of Hungary and shared in the +Christian defeat at Nicopolis, where he narrowly escaped death. +After remaining for some months a captive in the hands of the +sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned to France; then +in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the Eastern +emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut +drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and +returned to France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span> +again to eastern Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa, +who in 1396 had placed herself under the dominion of France. +Here he was successful in restoring order and in making the +French occupation effective, and he was soon able to turn his +attention to the defence of the Genoese possessions in the +Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this direction involved +him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus, but led +also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off +Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been +claimed by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with +the republic, and then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on +a campaign in northern Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke, +and Boucicaut, unable to reduce her again to submission, retired +to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt, where he was taken +prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was very skilful +in the tournament, founded the order of the <i>Dame blanche à +l’écu vert</i>, a society the object of which was to defend the +wives and daughters of absent knights.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut’s life +and adventures, entitled <i>Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le +Meingre dit Boucicaut</i>, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy +in 1620. See J. Delaville le Roulx, <i>La France en Orient: expéditions +du maréchal Boucicaut</i> (Paris, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1824-1898), French painter of the <i>paysage +de mer</i>, was the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy +for a while on board the rickety steamer that plied between +Havre and Honfleur across the estuary of the Seine. But before +old age came on him, Boudin’s father abandoned seafaring, +and the son gave it up too, having of course no real vocation +for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a sailor’s +character,—frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin +the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker; +this time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugène +helped in the little business, and, in stolen hours, produced +certain drawings. That was a time at which the romantic outlines +of the Norman coast engaged Isabey, and the green wide +valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon; and Troyon and +Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young Boudin +found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence; +his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the +young man resulted in his being granted for a short term of +years by the town of his adoption a pension, that he might study +painting. He studied partly in Paris; but whatever individuality +he possessed in those years was hidden and covered, rather than +disclosed. An instance of tiresome, elaborate labour—good +enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of keeping with +what at least was the popular taste of that day—is his “Pardon +of Sainte Anne de la Palud,” a Breton scene, of 1858, in which +he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately +to become his wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture +hangs in the museum of Havre, along with a hundred later, +fresher, thoroughly individual studies and sketches, the gift +of Boudin’s brother, Louis Boudin, after the painter’s death. +Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and poor. +But his work gained character and added, to merely academic +correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be +himself by 1864 or 1865—that was the first of such periods +of his as may be accounted good—and, though not at that time +so fully a master of transient effects of weather as he became +later, he began then to paint with a success genuinely artistic +the scenes of the harbour and the estuary, which no longer +lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious completeness. +The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for +then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously +conceived canvases and panels, which record the impressions +of a precursor of the Impressionists in presence of the Channel +waters, and of those autumn skies, or skies of summer, now +radiant, now uncertain, which hung over the small ports and +the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the watering-places, Trouville, +Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with <i>port</i> and +<i>avant-port</i> and <i>bassin</i>, of Dunkirk, of Havre. In the war +time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About 1875-1876 +he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird’s-eye +vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from +these years, and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion +of Jongkind, with whom he had so much in common, +but whose work, like his, free and fearless and unconventional, +can never be said with accuracy to have seriously influenced +his own. Doing excellent things continually through all the +’seventies, when he was in late middle age—gaining scope in +colour, having now so many notes—faithful no longer wholly +to his amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery, +now nobly deep—sending to the Salon great canvases, and to +the few enlightened people who would buy them of him the +<i>toile</i> or panel of most moderate size on which he best of all expressed +himself—Boudin was yet not acceptable to the public +or to the fashionable dealer. The late ’eighties had to come +and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale for his work +at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly speaking +his work in those very ’eighties was not so good as the labour, +essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier, +nor had it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances +of some years later, when the inspired sketch was the thing +that he generally stopped at. Old age found him strong and +receptive. Only in the very last year of his life was there perceptible +a positive deterioration. Not very long before it, +Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions of Venice +for which much more was to be said than that they were not +Ziem’s. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the +sunshine blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly +at Antibes and Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again +as a refuge from ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief +it could give him was almost spent, he resolved that it should +not be for him, in the words of Maurice Barrès, a “<i>tombe fleurie</i>,” +and he returned, hastily, weak and sinking, to his home at +Deauville, that he might at least die within sight of Channel +waters and under Channel skies. As a “marine painter”—more +properly as a painter of subjects in which water must have +some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that +goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks +of tidal rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined +Parisienne noted as ably as the sailor-folk—Boudin stands alone. +Beside him others are apt to seem rather theatrical—or if they +do not romance they appear, perhaps, to chronicle dully. The +pastels of Boudin—summary and economic even in the ’sixties, +at a time when his painted work was less free—obtained the +splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other than Corot +who, before his pictures, said to him: “You are the master +of the sky.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Gustave Cahen, <i>Eugène Boudin</i> (Paris, 1899); Arsène +Alexandre, <i>Essais</i>; Frederick Wedmore, <i>Whistler and Others</i> (1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. We.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUDINOT, ELIAS<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1740-1821), American revolutionary +leader, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot +descent, on the 2nd of May 1740. He studied law at Princeton, +New Jersey, in the office of Richard Stockton, whose sister +Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760 he was +licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards practising +at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of +Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs. +He was a deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from +May to August 1775, and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the +commissary-general of prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in +the continental army. He was one of the New Jersey members +of the continental congress in 1778 and again from 1781 until +1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was president +of that body, acting also for a short time, after the resignation +of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs. From +1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of Representatives, +and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the +United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part +in the founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which +he became the first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor +of the college of New Jersey (afterwards Princeton University). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span> +In reply to Thomas Paine’s <i>Age of Reason</i>, he published the +<i>Age of Revelation</i> (1790); he also published a volume entitled +<i>A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost +Ten Tribes of Israel</i> (1816), in which he endeavours to prove +that the American Indians may be the ten lost tribes. Boudinot +died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October 1821.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias +Boudinot</i>, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUÉ, AMI<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at +Hamburg on the 16th of March 1794, and received his early +education there and in Geneva and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh +to study medicine at the university, he came under +the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in geology +and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boué was thus led +to make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and +the Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he +settled for some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his <i>Essai +géologique sur l’Écosse</i>, in which the eruptive rocks in particular +were carefully described. He travelled much in Germany, +Austria and southern Europe, studying various geological formations, +and becoming one of the pioneers in geological research; +he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France +in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he settled in +Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the +21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences +at Vienna he communicated important papers on the geology +of the Balkan States (1859-1870), and he also published <i>Mémoires +géologiques et paléontologiques</i> (Paris, 1832) and <i>La Turquie +d’Europe; observations sur la géographie, la géologie, l’histoire +naturelle, &c.</i> (Paris, 1840).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span>, comte de Cagny +(1644-1711), marshal of France, was born on the 10th of January +1644. He entered the army and saw service in 1663 at the siege +of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of dragoons. In the conquest +of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de Créqui. In Holland +he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing himself +by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a +cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the +retreat of the French army. He was already a brigadier, and +in 1677 he became <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He served throughout the +campaigns of the time with increasing distinction, and in 1681 +became lieutenant-general. He commanded the French army +on the Moselle, which opened the War of the League of Augsburg +with a series of victories; then he led a corps to the Sambre, +and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of Fleurus. +In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in person; +and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack +on the town. He was present with the king at the siege of +Namur in 1692, and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For +his services he was raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of +France, and in 1694 was made a duke. In 1694 he was appointed +governor of French Flanders and of the town of Lille. By a +skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in 1695, and +only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of his +13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace +of Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war, +when Lille was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and +Eugene, Boufflers was appointed to the command, and made a +most gallant resistance of three months. He was rewarded and +honoured by the king for his defence of Lille, as if he had been +victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph; his enemy, +appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms of +capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709, +when the affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent +danger, Boufflers offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and +was with him at the battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed +the highest skill, and after Villars was wounded he conducted +the retreat of the French army without losing either cannon or +prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd of August +1711.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F...., <i>Vie du Mal. de Boufflers</i> (Lille, 1852), and Père +Delarue’s and Père Poisson’s <i>Oraisons funèbres du Mal. B.</i> (1712).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> <span class="sc">Chevalier de</span> (1737-1815), +French statesman and man of letters, was born near Nancy +on the 31st of May 1738. He was the son of Louis François, +marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie Catherine de Beauveau +Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, and the boy +was brought up at the court of Lunéville. He spent six months +in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during his +residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely +popular, <i>Aline, reine de Golconde</i>. Boufflers did not, +however, take the vows, as his ambitions were military. He +entered the order of the Knights of Malta, so that he might be +able to follow the career of arms without sacrificing the revenues +of a benefice he had received in Lorraine from King Stanislas. +After serving in various campaigns he reached the grade of +<i>maréchal de camp</i> in 1784, and in the next year was sent to West +Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent administrator, +and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of +the slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the +material resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787 +was regarded as a real calamity by both colonists and negroes. +The <i>Mémoires secrets</i> of Bachaumont give the current opinion +that Boufflers was sent to Senegal because he was in disgrace at +court; but the real reason appears to have been a desire to pay +his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran, which took +place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted +to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of +the states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum +with Prince Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration +he was made joint-librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine. His +wit and his skill in light verse had won him a great reputation, +and he was one of the idols of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical +character was described in an epigram attributed to Antoine +de Rivarol, “<i>abbé libertin, militaire philosophe, diplomate chansonnier, +émigré patriote, républicain courtisan</i>.” He died in Paris +on the 18th of January 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> were published under his own supervision +in 1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by +Eugène Asse in 1878; his <i>Poésies</i> by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the +<i>Correspondance inédite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de +Boufflers</i> (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1729-1811), French +navigator, was born at Paris on the 11th of November 1729. +He was the son of a notary, and in early life studied law, but +soon abandoned the profession, and in 1753 entered the army +in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he published +a treatise on the integral calculus, as a supplement to +De l’Hôpital’s treatise, <i>Des infiniment petits</i>. In 1755 he was sent +to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made +a member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as +captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm; +and having distinguished himself in the war against +England, was rewarded with the rank of colonel and the cross +of St Louis. He afterwards served in the Seven Years’ War +from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French government +conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands, +Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the +settlement having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the +French government gave it up to them, on condition of their +indemnifying Bougainville. He was then appointed to the +command of the frigate “La Boudeuse” and the transport +“L’Etoile,” and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of +discovery round the world. Having executed his commission +of delivering up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville +proceeded on his expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires. +Passing through the Straits of Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu +archipelago, and Tahiti, where the English navigator Wallis +had touched eight months before. He proceeded across the +Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named +the Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon +Islands. His men now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels +requiring refitting, he anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas, +where the governor of the Dutch settlement supplied his wants. +It was the beginning of September, and the expedition took +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span> +advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried them to +Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with +the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville’s +account of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity +and some humour. After an interval of several years, he again +accepted a naval command and saw much active service between +1779 and 1782. In the memorable engagement of the 12th of April +1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte de Grasse, near +Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the “Auguste,” succeeded +in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them +safely into St Eustace. He was created <i>chef d’escadre</i>, and on +re-entering the army, was given the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i>. +After the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of +associate of the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery +towards the north pole, but this did not meet with support from +the French government. Bougainville obtained the rank of +vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, having escaped almost +miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he retired to his estate +in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the Institute at its +formation, and returning to Paris became a member of the Board +of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator, +count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He +died at Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and +had three sons, who served in the French army.</p> + +<p>Bougainville’s name is given to the largest member of the +Solomon Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait +which divides it from the British island of Choiseul. It is also +applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo +Islands of the New Hebrides group, and the South American +climbing plant <i>Bougainvillea</i>, often cultivated in greenhouses, +is named after him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1834-1905), Anglo-American +painter, was born in England, but his parents went to the +United States in 1839, and he was brought up at Albany, N.Y. +He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and subsequently +lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick +Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made +his reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. +in 1896, and a member of the National Academy of Design in +New York in 1871. His pictures of Dutch life and scenery were +especially characteristic; and his subject-pictures, such as the +“Return of the Mayflower” and “The Scarlet Letter,” were +very popular in America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUGIE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement +in the department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The +town, which is defended by a wall built since the French occupation, +and by detached forts, is beautifully situated on the slope +of Mount Guraya. Behind it are the heights of Mounts Babor +and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and crowned with forests of +pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting buildings in the +town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and Abd-el-Kader, +and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by +bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was +built by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist, +and considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in +the 11th century. The streets are very steep, and many are +ascended by stairs. The harbour, sheltered from the east by a +breakwater, was enlarged in 1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and +has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft. Bougie is the natural port +of Kabylia, and under the French rule its commerce—chiefly +in oils, wools, hides and minerals—has greatly developed; a +branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from +Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the +commune, 17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight +communes, 37,711.</p> + +<p>Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the +Romans, is a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its +origin to the Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric +the Vandal surrounded it with walls and for some time made it +his capital. En-Nasr (1062-1088), the most powerful of the +Berber dynasty of Hammad, made Bougie the seat of his government, +and it became the greatest commercial centre of the North +African coast, attaining a high degree of civilization. From an +old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the heliograph was in +common use, special towers, with mirrors properly arranged, +being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian merchants +of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the +city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of +the 13th century Bougie passed under the dominion of the +Hafsides, and in the 15th century it became one of the strongholds +of the Barbary pirates. It enjoyed partial independence +under amirs of Hafside origin, but in January 1510 was captured +by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The Spaniards strongly +fortified the place and held it against two attacks by the corsairs +Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah +Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his <i>Africae +descriptio</i>, speaks of the “magnificence” of the temples, palaces +and other buildings of the city in his day (<i>c.</i> 1525), but it appears +to have fallen into decay not long afterwards. When the French +took the town from the Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little +more than a few fortifications and ruins. It is said that the +French word for a candle is derived from the name of the town, +candles being first made of wax imported from Bougie.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUGUER, PIERRE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1698-1758), French mathematician, +was born on the 16th of February 1698. His father, John +Bouguer, one of the best hydrographers of his time, was regius +professor of hydrography at Croisic in lower Brittany, and +author of a treatise on navigation. In 1713 he was appointed +to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. In 1727 he +gained the prize given by the Académie des Sciences for his +paper “On the best manner of forming and distributing the +masts of ships”; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation +“On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea,” +the other for his paper “On the best method of observing the +variation of the compass at sea.” These were published in the +<i>Prix de l’Académie des Sciences</i>. In 1729 he published <i>Essai +d’optique sur la gradation de la lumière</i>, the object of which is to +define the quantity of light lost by passing through a given +extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun to be +300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made +some of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he +was made professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded +P.L.M. de Maupertuis as associate geometer of the Académie +des Sciences. He also invented a heliometer, afterwards +perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards promoted in the +Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside in Paris. +In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in +order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator. +Ten years were spent in this operation, a full account of which +was published by Bouguer in 1749, <i>Figure de la terre déterminée</i>. +His later writings were nearly all upon the theory of navigation. +He died on the 15th of August 1758.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following is a list of his principal works:—<i>Traité d’optique +sur la gradation de la lumière</i> (1729 and 1760); +<i>Entretiens sur la cause d’inclinaison des orbites des planètes</i> (1734); +<i>Traité de navire, &c.</i> (1746, 4to); +<i>La Figure de la terre déterminée, &c.</i> (1749), 4to; +<i>Nouveau traité de navigation, contenant la théorie et la pratique du pilotage</i> (1753); +<i>Solution des principaux problèmes sur la manoeuvre des vaisseaux</i> (1757); +<i>Opérations faites pour la vérification du degré du méridien entre +Paris et Amiens</i>, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, Cassini et Pingré(1757).</p> + +<p>See J.E. Montucla, <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> (1802).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1825-1905), French +painter, was born at La Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825. +From 1843 till 1850 he went through the course of training at +the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix +de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set being “Zenobia +on the banks of the Araxes.” On his return from Rome in 1855 +he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences, +deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at +Pompeii and Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his +“Idyll” (1853). He also began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at +the Salon. “The Martyr’s Triumph,” the body of St Cecilia +borne to the catacombs, was placed in the Luxembourg after +being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in the same +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span> +year he exhibited “Fraternal Love,” a “Portrait” and a +“Study.” The state subsequently commissioned him to paint +the emperor’s visit to the sufferers by the inundations at +Tarascon. In 1857 Bouguereau received a first prize medal. +Nine of his panels executed in wax-painting for the mansion of +M. Bartholomy were much discussed—“Love,” “Friendship,” +“Fortune,” “Spring,” “Summer,” “Dancing,” “Arion on a +Sea-horse,” a “Bacchante” and the “Four Divisions of the +Day.” He also exhibited at the Salon “The Return of Tobit” +(now in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed +much grace of design, in his “Napoleon,” a work of evident +labour, he betrayed a lack of ease in the treatment of modern +costume. Bouguereau subsequently exhibited “Love Wounded” +(1859), “The Day of the Dead” (at Bordeaux), “The First +Discord” (1861, in the Club at Limoges), “The Return from the +Fields” (a picture in which Théophile Gautier recognized “a +pure feeling for the antique”), “A Fawn and Bacchante” and +“Peace”; in 1863 a “Holy Family,” “Remorse,” “A Bacchante +teasing a Goat” (in the Bordeaux gallery); in 1864 “A +Bather” (at Ghent), and “Sleep”; in 1865 “An Indigent +Family,” and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 “A +First Cause,” and “Covetousness,” with “Philomela and +Procne”; and some decorative work for M. Montlun at La +Rochelle, for M. Emile Péreire in Paris, and for the churches of +St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 the large painting of +“Apollo and the Muses on Olympus,” in the Great Theatre at +Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned +“Between Love and Riches” (1869), “A Girl Bathing” (1870), +“In Harvest Time” (1872), “Nymphs and Satyrs” (1873), +“Charity” and “Homer and his Guide” (1874), “Virgin and +Child,” “Jesus and John the Baptist,” “Return of Spring” +(which was purchased by an American collector, and was destroyed +by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a “Pietà” +(1876), “A Girl defending herself from Love” (1880), “Night” +(1883), “The Youth of Bacchus” (1884), “Biblis” (1885), +“Love Disarmed” (1886), “Love Victorious” (1887), “The +Holy Women at the Sepulchre” and “The Little Beggar Girls” +(1890), “Love in a Shower” and “First Jewels” (1891). To +the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau’s +best-known pictures. Most of his works, especially “The Triumph +of Venus” (1856) and “Charity,” are popularly known through +engravings. “Prayer,” “The Invocation” and “Sappho” +have been engraved by M. Thirion, “The Golden Age” by M. +Annetombe. Bouguereau’s pictures, highly appreciated by the +general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of +a freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with +being too content to revive the formulas and subjects of the +antique. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a +third-class medal, in 1878 a medal of honour, and the same again +in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the Society of French +Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled with much +energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856, +an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of +July 1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute, +8th of January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ch. Vendryes, <i>Catalogue illustré des œuvres de Bouguereau</i> +(Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, <i>Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains</i> +(Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, <i>French Painters; Artistes modernes: +dictionnaire illustré des beaux-arts</i> (1885); “W. Bouguereau,” <i>Portfolio</i> +(1875); Émile Bayard, “William Bouguereau,” <i>Monde +moderne</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1628-1702), French critic, was +born in Paris in 1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the +age of sixteen, and was appointed to read lectures on literature +in the college of Clermont at Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours. +He afterwards became private tutor to the two sons of the duke +of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the Romanist +refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary +occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he +returned to Paris, and published in 1671 <i>Les Entretiens d’Ariste +et d’Eugène</i>, a critical work on the French language, printed +five times at Paris, twice at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons, +Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c. The chief of his other works +are <i>La Manière de bien penser sur les ouvrages d’esprit</i> (1687), +<i>Doutes sur la langue française</i> (1674), <i>Vie de Saint Ignace de Loyola</i> +(1679), <i>Vie de Saint François Xavier</i> (1682), and a translation of +the New Testament into French (1697). His practice of publishing +secular books and works of devotion alternately led to the +<i>mot</i>, <i>”qu’il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre.”</i> Bouhours +died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Georges Doucieux, <i>Un Jésuite homme de lettres au dix-septième +siècle: Le père Bouhours</i> (1886). For a list of Bouhours’ works see +Backer and Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, i. +pp. 1886 et seq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1822-1869), French poet +and dramatist, was born at Cany, Seine Inférieure, on the 27th +of May 1822. He was a schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to +whom he dedicated his first work, <i>Méloenis</i> (1851), a narrative +poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman manners under the +emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled <i>Fossiles</i> +attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt +therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were +included also in <i>Festons et astragales</i> (1859). As a dramatist +he secured a success with his first play, <i>Madame de Montarcy</i> +(1856), which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odéon; and +<i>Hélène Peyron</i> (1858) and <i>L’Oncle Million</i> (1860) were also +favourably received. But of his other plays, some of them +of real merit, only the <i>Conjuration d’Amboise</i> (1866) met with +any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th of July 1869, at +Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a notice +of the author, in 1872.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Maxime du Camp, <i>Souvenirs littéraires</i> (1882); and +H. de la Ville de Mirmont, <i>Le Poète Louis Bouilhet</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1739-1800), +French general. He served in the Seven Years’ War, +and as governor in the Antilles conducted operations against +the English in the War of American Independence. On his +return to France he was named governor of the Three Bishoprics, +of Alsace and of Franche-Comté. Hostile to the Revolution, +he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and +brutally suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy, +which had been provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble +officers. Then he proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a +frontier town where an appeal could be made to other nations +against the revolutionists. When this project failed as a result +of Louis XVI.’s arrest at Varennes, Bouillé went to Russia to +induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the king, and then +to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in various +royalist attempts on France. He left <i>Mémoires sur la Révolution +française depuis son origine jusqu’à la retraite du duc de +Brunswick</i> (Paris, 1801).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUILLON,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes, +now a small town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop. +(1904) 2721. It is most picturesquely situated in the valley +under the rocky ridge on which are still the very well preserved +remains of the castle of Godfrey of Bouillon (<i>q.v.</i>), the leader +of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. above the sea, but lying +in a basin, skirts both banks of the river Semois which is crossed +by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round and almost +encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of the +sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The +whole effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant +woods makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In +the 8th and 9th centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the +counts of Ardenne and Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries +the family took the higher titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine +and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the name of Godfrey (Godefroy) +and the fifth of them was the great crusader. He was the +son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many commentators +into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was +born at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle +of Baisy near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida +d’Ardenne, sister of the fourth Godfrey (“the Hunchback”), +and the successful defence of the castle when a mere youth +of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat of arms of the future +conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, strong by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span> +art as well as position before the invention of modern artillery, +has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake +the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince +bishop of Liége, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the +appendage of the bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The +bishops appointed “châtelains,” one of whom was the celebrated +“Wild Boar of the Ardennes,” William de la Marck. His +descendants made themselves quasi-independent and called +themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of Bouillon, and they +were even recognized by the king of France. The possession +of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife +until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of +Nijmwegen. From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested +in the French family of La Tour d’Auvergne, one of whom +(Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of France) had +married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race. +In 1676 the duke of Créquy seized it in the name of Louis XIV., +who in 1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d’Auvergne, +whose descendants continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon +remained French till 1814, and Vauban called it “the key +of the Ardennes.” In 1760 the elder Rousseau established +here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In 1814-1815, +before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an extraordinary +attempt was made by Philippe d’Auvergne of the +British navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to +revive the ancient duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon +freely recognized him, and Louis XVIII. was well pleased with +the arrangement, but the congress assigned Bouillon to the +Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to Germany after Sedan +slept one night in the little town, which is a convenient centre +for visiting that battlefield.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUILLOTTE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a French game of cards, very popular during +the Revolution, and again for some years from 1830. Five, four +or three persons may play; a piquet pack is used, from which, +in case five play, the sevens, when four the knaves, and when +three the queens also, are omitted. Counters or chips, as in +poker, are used. Before the deal each player “antes” one +counter, after which each, the “age” passing, may “raise” +the pot; those not “seeing the raise” being obliged to drop +out. Three cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth, +called the <i>retourne</i>, when four play, turned up. Each player +must then bet, call, raise or drop out. When a call is made +the hands are shown and the best hand wins. The hands rank +as follows: <i>brélan carré</i>, four of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>; +<i>simple brélan</i>, three of a kind, ace being high; <i>brélan favori</i>, +three of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>. When no player holds +a <i>brélan</i> the hand holding the greatest number of pips wins, +ace counting 11, and court cards 10.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1763-1842), French author, +was born near Tours on the 24th of January 1763. At the +outbreak of the Revolution he held office under the new government, +and had a considerable share in the organization of +primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life to devote +himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical +comedy, <i>Pierre le Grand</i> (1790), for Grétry’s music, and the +opera, <i>Les Deux Journées</i> (1800), music by Cherubini; also +<i>L’Abbé de l’épée</i> (1800), and some other plays; and <i>Causeries +d’un vieillard</i> (1807), <i>Contes à ma fille</i> (1809), and <i>Les Adieux du +vieux conteur</i> (1835). His <i>Léonore</i> (1798) formed the basis of +the libretto of the <i>Fidelio</i> of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris +on the 14th of April 1842.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bouilly, <i>Mes récapitulations</i> (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouvé, +<i>Soixante ans de souvenir</i> (lère partie, 1886).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1658-1722), French +political writer, was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He +was educated at the college of Juilly, and served in the army +until 1697. He wrote a number of historical works (published +after his death), of which the most important were the following: +<i>Histoire de l’ancien gouvernement de la France</i> (La Haye, 1727); +<i>État de la France, avec des mémoires sur l’ancien gouvernement</i> +(London, 1727); <i>Histoire de la pairie de France</i> (London, 1753); +<i>Histoire des Arabes</i> (1731). His writings are characterized by +an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was an +aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute +monarchy on the one hand and popular government on the +other. He was at great pains to prove the pretensions of his +own family to ancient nobility, and maintained that the government +should be entrusted solely to men of his class. He died +in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the name of several French artists:—<span class="sc">Jean</span> +(1606-1660), a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an +academy at Modena; his cousin <span class="sc">Jean</span> (1607-1680), a celebrated +line-engraver; the latter’s son <span class="sc">Matthieu</span>, another engraver; +<span class="sc">Louis</span> (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of Victor Hugo, +and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best-known, +<span class="sc">Gustave Rodolphe Clarence</span> (1824-1888), a pupil +of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and +Roman subjects, and a member of the Institute (1882); and +<span class="sc">Clément</span> (1805-1842), a pupil of Ingres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1837-1891), +French general, was born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837. +He entered the army in 1856, and served in Algeria, Italy, +Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, earning the reputation +of being a smart soldier. He was made a brigadier-general +in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d’Aumale, then +commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger’s expressions +of gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered +against him afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet’s +cabinet, he erased the name of the due d’Aumale from the army +list, as part of the republican campaign against the Orleanist +and Bonapartist princes. In 1882 his appointment as director of +infantry at the war office enabled him to make himself conspicuous +as a military reformer; and in 1884 he was appointed +to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled owing +to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political +resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in +politics under the aegis of M. Clémenceau and the Radical party; +and in January 1886, when M. Freycinet was brought into power +by the support of the Radical leader, Boulanger was given the +post of war minister.</p> + +<p>By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and +common soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity +in the most pronounced fashion—notably by his fire-eating +attitude towards Germany in April 1887 in connexion with the +Schnaebele frontier incident—Boulanger came to be accepted by +the mob as the man destined to give France her revenge for the +disasters of 1870, and to be used simultaneously as a tool by all +the anti-Republican intriguers. His action with regard to the +royal princes has already been referred to, but it should be added +that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his ingratitude to +the duc d’Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the words +alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published, +and the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel +with the baron de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at +the moment in dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet’s +defeat in December 1886 he was retained by M. Goblet at the +war office. M. Clémenceau, however, had by this time abandoned +his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so inconveniently +prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to get rid +of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their “brav’ +général,” but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined +to take him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand +to command an army corps. A Boulangist “movement” +was now in full swing. The Bonapartists had attached themselves +to the general, and even the comte de Paris encouraged +his followers to support him, to the dismay of those old-fashioned +Royalists who resented Boulanger’s treatment of the duc +d’Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the +moment—“C’est Boulanger qu’il nous faut”; the general and +his black horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and +he was urged to play the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the +presidency.</p> + +<p>The general’s vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after +various symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span> +was deprived of his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris +without leave, and finally on the recommendation of a council of +inquiry composed of five generals, his name was removed from +the army list. He was, however, almost at once elected to the +chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a demand +for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a +minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see +what his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly +directed to keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular +hero survives many deficiencies, and neither his failure as an +orator nor the humiliation of a discomfiture in a duel with +M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian, sufficed to check the +enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his personality was +the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he resigned +his seat as a protest against the reception given by the chamber +to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one another +in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January +1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority. +He had now become an open menace to the parliamentary +Republic. Had Boulanger immediately placed himself at the +head of a revolt he might at this moment have effected the +<i>coup d’état</i> which the intriguers had worked for, and might +not improbably have made himself master of France; but +the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M. +Constans as minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its +measures for bringing a prosecution against him, and within two +months a warrant was signed for his arrest. To the astonishment +of his friends, on the 1st of April he fled from Paris before it +could be executed, going first to Brussels and then to London. +It was the end of the political danger, though Boulangist echoes +continued for a little while to reverberate at the polls during +1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and condemned +<i>in absentia</i> for treason, in October 1889 went to live +in Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings. +The world was startled, however, on the 30th of September +1891 by hearing that he had committed suicide in a cemetery at +Brussels by blowing out his brains on the grave of his mistress, +Madame de Bonnemains (<i>née</i> Marguerite Crouzet), who had died +in the preceding July.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: History; and Verly, <i>Le Général +Boulanger et la conspiration monarchique</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Comte</span> (1761-1840), French politician and magistrate, +son of an agricultural labourer, was born at Chamousey (Vosges) +on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the bar at Nancy in +1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly acquired a +reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the revolutionary +cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and +Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate +principles brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he +had to go into hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council +of Five Hundred, of which he was twice president, but his views +developed steadily in the conservative direction. Fearing a +possible renewal of the Terror, he became an active member of +the plot for the overthrow of the Directory in November 1799. +He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative commission +formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as +president of the legislative section of the council of state he +examined and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years +of hard work as director of a special land commission he settled +the titles of land acquired by the French nation at the Revolution, +and placed on an unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors +who had bought this land from the government. He received +the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and the title of count, +was a member of Napoleon’s privy council, but was never in high +favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain the recognition +of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at +Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He +was allowed to return to France in 1819, but took no further +active part in politics, although he presented himself unsuccessfully +for parliamentary election in 1824 and 1827. He died in +Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He published two books on +English history—<i>Essai sur les causes qui, en 1649, amenèrent en +Angleterre l’établissement de la république</i> (Paris, 1799), and +<i>Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II, derniers +rois de la maison de Stuart</i> (The Hague, 1818)—which contained +much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration +governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing +his memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the +<i>Théorie constitutionnelle de Sieyès</i> (1836), remained unpublished.</p> + +<p>His elder son, Comte <span class="sc">Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe</span> +(1797-1858), was a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of +Louis Napoleon to the presidency, was named (January 1849) +vice-president of the republic. He zealously promoted popular +education, and became in 1842 president of the society for +elementary instruction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULDER,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boulder county, +Colorado, U.S.A., about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890) +3330; (1900) 6150 (693 foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served +by the Union Pacific, the Colorado & Southern, and the Denver, +Boulder & Western railways; the last connects with the neighbouring +mining camps, and affords fine views of mountain scenery. +Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle Boulder +Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its +confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the +valley at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado, +established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in +1877; it includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine +(1883), school of law (1892), college of engineering (1893), +graduate school, college of commerce (1906), college of education +(1908), and a summer school (1904), and has a library of about +42,000 volumes. There are a fine park of 2840 acres, the property +of the city, and three beautiful cañons near Boulder. At the +southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above the city, +are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado +Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with +bronchial and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual +temperature for eleven years ending with 1907 was 51° F. +There are medicinal springs in the vicinity. The water-works +are owned and operated by the city, the water being obtained +from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in the Snowy +Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is irrigated, +and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There +are ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil +and natural gas abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries +in the city; and in Boulder county, especially at Nederland, +18 m. south-west, and at Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the +city, has been obtained since 1900 most of the tungsten mined +in the United States; the output in 1907 was valued at about +$520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder was made +in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an +affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid +out and organized in February 1859, and a city charter was +secured in 1871 and another in 1882.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULDER<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (short for “boulder-stone,” of uncertain origin; +cf. Swed. <i>bullersten</i>, a large stone which causes a noise of +rippling water in a stream, from <i>bullra</i>, to make a loud noise), +a large stone, weathered or water-worn; especially a geological +term for a large mass of rock transported to a distance from the +formation to which it belongs. Similarly, in mining, a mass of +ore found at a distance from the lode.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULDER CLAY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of +boulders, which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets +wherever they are found, but is in a special sense the typical +deposit of the Glacial Period in northern Europe and America. +Boulder clay is variously known as “till” or “ground moraine” +(Ger. <i>Blocklehme</i>, <i>Geschiebsmergel</i> or <i>Grundmoräne</i>; Fr. <i>argile à +blocaux</i>, <i>moraine profonde</i>; Swed. <i>Krosstenslera</i>). It is usually a +stiff, tough clay devoid of stratification; though some varieties +are distinctly laminated. Occasionally, within the boulder clay, +there are irregular lenticular masses of more or less stratified +sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder clay is the result of the +abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older rocks over which the +ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them; thus, in Britain, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span> +over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is red, over +Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it may +be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay +may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much +boulder clay is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it +becomes brown upon being weathered.</p> + +<p>The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner, +and they vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons +in weight. Usually they are somewhat oblong, and often they +possess a flat side or “sole”; they may be angular, sub-angular, +or well rounded, and, if they are hard rocks, they frequently +bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with other rocks +while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which they +are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice +has travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or +sandstones; in others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &c.; +indeed, they may consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the +contained boulders it is often possible to trace the path along +which a vanished ice-sheet moved; thus in the Glacial drift of +the east coast of England many Scandinavian rocks can be +recognized.</p> + +<p>With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in +the boulder clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically +unknown; but in some maritime districts marine shells +have been incorporated with the clay. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacial Period</a></span>; +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacier</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULĒ<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="boulae">βουλή</span>, literally “will,” “advice”; hence a +“council”), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory +council. In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies, +there was a council of this kind, probably composed of the heads +of families, <i>i.e.</i> of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually +on the summons of the king for the purpose of consultation. +Sometimes, however, it met on its own initiative, and laid suggestions +before the king. It formed a means of communication +between the king and the freemen assembled in the Agora. In +Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was retained +(for the Spartan Council of Elders see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gerousia</a></span>). In Athens +the ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of +a democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for +purposes of distinction, it was described as “the Boulē on the +Areopagus,” or, more shortly, “the Areopagus” (<i>q.v.</i>). It must +be clearly understood that the second, or Solonian Boule, was +entirely different from the Areopagus which represented the +Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian history, even +after the “mutilation” carried out by Ephialtes. Further, it +is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second +Boule a “senate.” There is no real analogy between the Roman +senate and the Athenian council of Five Hundred.</p> + +<p>Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind +of which we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary +to mention that councils existed in other Greek states also, both +oligarchic and democratic. A Boulē was in the first place a +necessary part of a Greek oligarchy; the transition from +monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun by the gradual +transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of nobles. +Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule +was equally essential. The general assembly of the people was +utterly unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all +their minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in +almost all the states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that +there was an oligarchic council of unknown numbers presided +over by eight leaders (Nicol. Damasc. <i>Frag</i>. 60). It was probably +like the old Homeric council, except that its constitution did not +depend on a birth qualification, but on a high census. This was +natural in Corinth where, according to Herodotus (ii. 167), +mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an inscription we +learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on Erythrae +(about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), included a council analogous to their own. +(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of +ninety, which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred +(471). (4) Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council +of eighty and later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc. +v. 47). Councils are also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis +(democratic), (7) Corcyra (democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these +seven the most instructive is that of Erythrae, which proves +that in the 5th century the Council of Five Hundred was so +efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed at Erythrae +(and probably in the other tributary cities).</p> + +<p><i>The Boulē at Athens. History.</i>—The origin of the second +Boulē, or Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in +obscurity. In the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c.</i> 4), +it is stated that Draco established a council of 401, and that he +transferred to it some of the functions of the Council of Areopagus +(<i>q.v.</i>). It is, however, generally held (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>) that this +statement is untrue, and that it was Solon who first established +the council as a part of the constitution. Thirdly, it has been +held that the council was not invented either by Draco or by +Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has +also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boulē +existed before Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view +is the omission of any reference to the Boulē in one of the earliest +Athenian inscriptions, that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill, +No. 4), where in place of the customary formula of a later age, +<span class="grk" title="hedoxe tae boulae kai to daemo">ἔδοξε τῇ βουλῇ καὶ τῷ δήμῳ</span>, we have the formula <span class="grk" title="edochsen to +daemo">ἔδοχσεν τῷ δήμῳ</span>. This argument is far from conclusive, and it is clear +from the <i>Constitution</i> (<i>c.</i> 20) that the resistance of the Boulē to +Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior to the legislation of Cleisthenes +(<i>i.e.</i> that the Boulē in question was the Solonian and not +the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to conclude +that it was Solon who invented the Boulē to act as a semi-democratic +check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing +at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the +people in the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing +is known of the operations of this council until the struggle +between Isagoras and Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon’s +council had been based on the four Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes +created the new ten tribes in order to destroy the local +influence of dominant families and to give the country demes +a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a +body of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see +below) was the keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and +may be said in a sense to have embodied the principle of local +representation. After Cleisthenes, the council remained unaltered +till 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when, on the addition of two new tribes +named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, its +numbers were increased to 600. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 126-127 the old number +of 500 was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned +in an inscription of the early 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 +the number of councillors had fallen to 300.</p> + +<p><i>Constitution and Functions.</i>—(<i>a</i>) Under Solon the council +consisted of 400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes. +It is certain that all classes were eligible except the +Thētes, but the method of appointment is not known. +<span class="sidenote">Solon’s council.</span> +Three suggestions have been made, (1) that each tribe +chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot +from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method +of selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates +was employed. According to the passage in Plutarch’s <i>Solon</i> +the functions of this body were from the first <i>probouleutic</i> (<i>i.e.</i> +it prepared the business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that +this function was not assigned to it until the Cleisthenean +reforms. When we consider, however, the double danger of +leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and yet under the presidency +of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable that the probouleutic +functions were devised by Solon as a method of maintaining +the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boulē was +from the first what it certainly was later, a <i>committee</i> of the +Ecclesia, <i>i.e.</i> not a “senate.” It may be regarded as certain +<span class="sidenote">Cleisthenes’ council.</span> +that the system of Prytaneis was the invention of +Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (<i>b</i>) Under Cleisthenes the +council reached its full development as a democratic +representative body. Its actual organization is still +uncertain, but it may be inferred that it became gradually a +more strictly self-existent body than the Solonian council. Every +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span> +full citizen of thirty years of age was eligible, and, unlike other +civil offices, it was permissible to serve twice, but not more than +twice (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 62). It may be regarded as certain, although +our evidence is derived from inscriptions which date from the +3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that from the first the Bouleutae were appointed +by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the deme, +and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed. +For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in +case of death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass +before the old council an examination in which the whole of his +private life was scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to +take an oath that they (1) would act according to the laws, (2) +would give the best advice in their power, and (3) would carry +out the examination of their successors in an impartial spirit. +As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they received payment +originally at the rate of one drachma a day,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> at the end of the +4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of office +each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the +council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within +its own sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over +its members by the device known as <i>Ecphyllophoria</i>; it could +provisionally suspend a member, pending a formal trial before +the whole council assembled <i>ad hoc</i>. The council had further a +complete system of scribes or secretaries (<i>grammateis</i>), private +treasury officials, and a paid herald who summoned the Boule +and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place generally in the +council hall (<i>Bouleuterion</i>), but on special occasions in the +theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the +Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being +separated by a barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance +the public was excluded.</p> + +<p>The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable +to meet more than three or four times a month; the council, on +the other hand, was in continuous session, except on +feast days. It was impossible that the Five Hundred +<span class="sidenote">Prytaneis.</span> +should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate the despatch +of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, probably +by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten +equal periods. During each of these periods the council was +represented by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who +acted as a committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the +year. Each of these committees was led by a president (<i>Epistates</i>), +who acted as chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also, +and a third of its numbers lived permanently during their period +of office in the Tholos (Dome) or Skias, a round building where +they (with certain other officials and honoured citizens) dined +at the public expense. In 378-377 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or perhaps in the +archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the Ecclesia was +transferred to the <i>Epistates of the Proedri</i>, the <i>Proedri</i> being a +body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the Prytaneis +from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule +(<i>i.e.</i> the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare +all business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation +(<span class="grk" title="probouleuma">προβούλευμα</span>) was presented to the popular assembly +(for procedure, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>), which either passed it as it stood +or made amendments subject to certain conditions. It must +be clearly understood that the recommendation of the council +had no intrinsic force until by the votes of the Ecclesia it passed +into law as a psephism. But in addition to this function, the +Council of the Five Hundred had large administrative and +judicial control. (1) It was before the council that the Poletae +arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of tenders +for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further, +it dealt with defaulting collectors (<span class="grk" title="eklogeis">ἑκλόγεις</span>), exacted the debts +of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual +estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the +Apodectae (“Receivers”) and the “Treasurers of the God.” +(3) From Demosthenes (<i>In Androt</i>.) it is clear that it had to +arrange for the provision of so many triremes per annum and +the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It arranged for the +maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from the +demes. (5) It heard certain cases of <i>eisangelia</i> (impeachment) +and had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case +over to the Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly +prosecutions for crimes against the state (<i>e.g.</i> treason, conspiracy, +bribery). In later times it acted mainly as a court of first +instance. Subsequently (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 45) its powers were limited +and an appeal was allowed to the popular courts. (6) The +council presided over the <i>dokimasia</i> (consideration of fitness) +of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally +concerned with a candidate’s moral and physical fitness, degenerated +into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign +affairs the council as the only body in permanent session naturally +received foreign envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia. +Further, the Boulē;, with the Strategi (“Generals”), took treaty +oaths, after the Ecclesia had decided on the terms. The Xenophontic +<i>Politeia</i> states that the council of the 5th century was +“concerned with war,” but in the 4th century it chiefly supervised +the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least the +council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes +(<i>De Fals. Leg.</i> p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers +to send ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (<i>De Myst.</i> 14 foil.) +states that it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation +of the Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian +Expedition.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely +essential to the working of the Athenian state. Without having +any final legislative authority, it was a necessary part of the +legislative machinery, and it may be regarded as certain that a +large proportion of its recommendations were passed without +alteration or even discussion by the Ecclesia. The Boulē was, +therefore, in the strict sense a committee of the Ecclesia, and +was immediately connected with a system of sub-committees +which exercised executive functions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—With this article compare <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>, where collateral information +is given. Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer +&c.), see Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng. trans. by E.J. +Brooks and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, <i>History of Greece</i> (1900); +A.H.J. Greenidge <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (1896); +J.E. Sandys’ edition of the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>; Boeckh, <i>Die +Staatshaushaltung der Athener</i> (1886); Schumann, <i>Griechische +Altertümer</i> (1897-1902); Busolt, <i>Die griechischen Staats- und +Rechtsaltertümer</i> (1902). See also H. Swoboda, <i>Die griechischen +Volksbeschlüsse</i> (1890); Szanto, <i>Das griechische Bürgerrecht</i> (1892); +Perrot, <i>Essai sur le droit public d’Athènes</i> (1869). It should be +observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless +that they are without the information contained in the <i>Constitution +of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed +to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +(Thuc. viii. 69; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULEVARD<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (a Fr. word, earlier <i>boulevart</i>, from Dutch or +Ger. <i>Bollwerk</i>, cf. Eng. “bulwark”), originally, in fortification, +an earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into +use owing to the width of the gangways in medieval walls being +insufficient for the mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard +or bulwark was usually an earthen outwork mounting artillery, +and so placed in advance as to prevent the guns of a besieger +from battering the foot of the main walls. It was as a rule +circular. Semicircular <i>demi-boulevards</i> were often constructed +round the bases of the old masonry towers with the same object. +In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote a +promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by +analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker, +who gave his name to a fashion of inlaying known as +Boulle or Buhl work. The son of Jean Boulle, a member of a +family of <i>ébénistes</i> who had already achieved distinction—Pierre +Boulle, who died <i>c.</i> 1636, was for many years <i>tourneur et menuisier +du roy des cabinets d’ébène</i>,—he became the most famous of his +name and was, indeed, the second cabinet-maker—the first was +Jean Macé—who has acquired individual renown. That must +have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty he had +already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of the +Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span> +most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be +admitted to these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark +of royal favour, but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom +from the trammels of the trade gilds. Boulle was given the +deceased Jean Macé’s own lodging in 1672 by Louis XIV. upon +the recommendation, of Colbert, who described him as “<i>le plus +habile ébéniste de Paris</i>,” but in the patent conferring this privilege +he is described also as “chaser, gilder and maker of marqueterie.” +Boulle appears to have been originally a painter, since the first +payment to him by the crown of which there is any record (1669) +specifies “ouvrages de peinture.” He was employed for many years +at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of “wood +mosaic,” the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in +the Cabinet du Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable +work. These rooms were long since dismantled and their +contents dispersed, but Boulle’s drawings for the work are in the +Musée des Arts Décoratifs. His royal commissions were, indeed, +innumerable, as we learn both from the <i>Comptes des bâtiments</i> +and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most +magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the +great nobles and financiers of his own country crowded him with +commissions, and the <i>mot</i> of the abbé de Marolles, “<i>Boulle y +tourne en ovale</i>,” has become a stock quotation in the literature of +French cabinet-making. Yet despite his distinction, the facility +with which he worked, the high prices he obtained, and his +workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle appears to have been +constantly short of money. He did not always pay his workmen, +clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain the +fine things they had ordered, more than one application was +made for permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the +courts within the asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the +king giving him six months’ protection from his creditors on +condition that he used the time to regulate his affairs or “ce scra +la derniére grâce que sa majesté lui fera là-dessus.” Twenty +years later one of his sons was arrested at Fontainebleau and +kept in prison for debt until the king had him released. In 1720 +his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire which, +beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops +and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances, +models and finished work of which they were full. The salvage +was sold and a petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent, +the result of which does not appear. It would seem that Boulle +was never a good man of business, but, according to his friend +Mariette, many of his pecuniary difficulties were caused by his +passion for collecting pictures, engravings and other objects of +art—the inventory of his losses in the fire, which exceeded +£40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters, including +forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal +kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings +and engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases, +and when the next sale took place, fresh expedients were +devised for obtaining more money. Collecting was to Boulle a +mania of which, says his friend, it was impossible to cure him. +Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years and debts. He left four +sons who followed in his footsteps in more senses than one—Jean +Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745), Pierre +Benoit (d. 1741), Charles André (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph +(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their +lives, and the three last are known to have died in debt.</p> + +<p>All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder +Boulle was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He +was born into a France which was just entering upon the most +brilliant period of sumptuary magnificence which any nation has +known in modern times. Louis XIV., so avid of the delights of +the eye, by the reckless extravagance of his example turned the +thoughts of his courtiers to domestic splendours which had +hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which arose in his +time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not only +inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late +Renaissance, but had <i>ébénisterie</i> in his blood, arose, as some such +man invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal +pride and love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was +by no means the first Frenchman to practise the delightful art +of marqueterie, nor was he quite the inventor of the peculiar +type of inlay which is chiefly associated with his name; but no +artist, before or since, has used these motives with such astonishing +skill, courage and surety. He produced pieces of monumental +solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or gleaming with the +sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and white metal. +The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making +furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying +it with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints, +ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods. +Boulle improved upon this by inlaying brass devices into wood +or tortoise-shell, which last he greatly used according to the +design he had immediately in view, whether flowers, scenes, +scrolls, &c.; to these he sometimes added enamelled metal. +Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so characteristic that any +furniture, however cheap and common, which has a reddish <i>fond</i> +that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now described +as “Buhl”—the name is the invention of the British auctioneer +and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like +the ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the +first instance the production of his work was costly, owing to the +quantity of valuable material that was cut away and wasted, +and, in addition, the labour lost in separately cutting for each +article or copy of a pattern. By a subsequent improvement +Boulle effected an economy by gluing together various sheets of +material and sawing through the whole, so that an equal number +of figures and matrices were produced at one operation. Boulle +adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of +his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under +the tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased +the brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the +metal required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails, +these were hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing. +He also adopted, in relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets, +edgings, and other ornaments of appropriate design, partly to +protect the corners and edges of his work, and partly for decoration. +He subsequently used other brass mountings, such as +claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low relief, according +to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in the pieces +that undoubtedly come from Boulle’s <i>atelier</i> are nearly always +of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the +rough—the tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute +finish, their jewel-like smoothness.</p> + +<p>Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to +declare the authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in +the manner of Boulle and to all appearance from his workshops. +His sons unquestionably carried on the traditions for some years +after his death, and his imitators were many and capable. A +few of the more magnificent pedigree-pieces are among the world’s +mobiliary treasures. There are, for instance, the two famous +<i>armoires</i>, which fetched £12,075 at the Hamilton Palace sale; +the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze mounts, in the +Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and +tables in the Louvre, the Musée Cluny and the Mobilier National; +the marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato +collection. There are several fine authenticated pieces in the +Wallace collection at Hertford House, together with others +consummately imitated, probably in the Louis Seize period. +On the rare occasions when a pedigree example comes into the +auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but there +can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous +specimens of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the +second and third classes of his work are perhaps becoming more +numerous. The truth is that this wonderful work, with its +engraved or inlaid designs of Bérain, its myriads of tiny pieces +of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell, all kept together +with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very often to a +rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages +of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat +and humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than +time and wear—such delicate things are rarely much used, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span> +are protected from ordinary chances of deterioration. There is +consequently reason to rejoice when a piece of real artistry in +furniture finds its final home in a museum, where a degree of +warmth is maintained which, however distressing it may be to +the visitor, at least preserves the contents from one of the worst +enemies of the collector.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boullongne</span>, the name of a family of French +painters. Louis (1609-1674), who was one of the original +members of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648), +became celebrated under Louis XIV. His traditions were continued +by his children: <span class="sc">Genevieve</span> (1645-1708), who married +the sculptor Jacques Clerion; <span class="sc">Madeleine</span> (1646-1710), whose +work survives in the <i>Trophies d’armes</i> at Versailles; <span class="sc">Bon</span> (1649-1717), +a successful teacher and decorative artist; and <span class="sc">Louis</span> the +younger (1654-1733), who copied Raphael’s cartoons for the +Gobelins tapestry, and besides taking a high place as a painter +was also a designer of medals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a fortified seaport of northern France +and chief town of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated +on the shore of the English Channel at the mouth of the river +Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway, and +28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop. (1906) 49,636. +Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of hills +skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of +Capécure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two +bridges, while the river is also crossed by a double railway +viaduct. The town consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and +the Basse Ville. The former, situated on the top of the hill, is +of comparatively small extent, and forms almost a parallelogram, +surrounded by ramparts of the 13th century, and, outside them, +by boulevards, and entered by ancient gateways. In this part +are the law court, the château and the hotel de ville (built in the +18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and 17th centuries +is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the château (13th century) +now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was +confined after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance +north-west stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known +place of pilgrimage, erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old +building destroyed in the Revolution, of which the extensive +crypt still remains. The modern town stretches from the foot +of the hill to the harbour, along which it extends, terminating +in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers, and provided +with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains +several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep. +A main street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas +and Grande rue, extends from the bridge across the Liane to the +promenade by the side of the ramparts. This is intersected first +by the Quai Gambetta, and farther back by the rue Victor Hugo +and the rue Nationale, which contain the principal shops. The +public buildings include several modern churches, two hospitals +and a museum with collections of antiquities, natural history, +porcelain, &c. Connected with the museum is a public library +with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts, +many of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in +the town, and numerous boarding-schools intended for English +pupils. Boulogne is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals +of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. +There are also communal colleges, a national school of music, +and schools of hydrography, commerce and industry. Boulogne +has for a long time been one of the most anglicized of French +cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of English +travellers reach the continent at this point.</p> + +<p>The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties +enclose a channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal +basin with a depth at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an +extensive dock, and behind it an inner port. There is also a +tidal basin opening off the entrance channel. The depth of +water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at spring-tide and 24 ft. at +neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the numbers are 29½ and 23½ +respectively. The commerce of Boulogne consists chiefly in the +importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk and wool skins, +threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the exportation of +wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other vegetables, +skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual value +of the exports in the five years 1901-1905 was £10,953,000 +(£11,704,000 in the years 1896-1900), and of the imports +£6,064,000 (£7,003,000 in the years 1896-1900). From 1901 to +1905 the annual average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735, tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared 2750, tonnage +1,748,297. The total number of passengers between Folkestone +and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49% above the average +for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the steamers of the +South-Eastern & Chatham railway company. The liners of +the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies +also call at the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries +Boulogne is exceeded by no seaport in France. The most +important branch is the herring-fishery; next in value is the +mackerel. Large quantities of fresh fish are transmitted to +Paris by railway, but an abundant supply is reserved to the town +itself. The fishermen live for the most part in a separate quarter +called La Beurrière, situated in the upper part of the town. +In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village +of Étaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value +of the fish taken being estimated at £1,025,000. Among the +numerous industrial establishments in Boulogne and its environs +may be mentioned foundries, cement-factories, important steel-pen +manufactories, oil-works, dye-works, fish-curing works, +flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories of cloth, fireproof ware, +chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. Shipbuilding is also +carried on.</p> + +<p>Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the +most remarkable is the Colonne de la Grande Armée, erected +on the high ground above the town, in honour of Napoleon I., +on occasion of the projected invasion of England, for which +he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is +of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue +of the emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the +monument was not completed till 1841. On the edge of the +cliff to the east of the port are some rude brick remains of an +old building called Tour d’Ordre, said to be the ruins of a +tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended invasion of +Britain.</p> + +<p>Boulogne is identified with the <i>Gessoriacum</i> of the Romans, +under whom it was an important harbour. It is suggested that +it was the <i>Portus Itius</i> where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Itius Portus</a></span>). At an early period it began to be known as +<i>Bononia</i>, a name which has been gradually modified into the +present form. The town was destroyed by the Normans in +882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period +Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the +subject of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the +year 965 it belonged to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey +of Bouillon, the first king of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of +Blois, who became king of England in 1135, had married Mahaut, +daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne. Their +daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and her +daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this +last marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of +Philip Hurepel (d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her +succeeded the house of Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne, +sister of Ida, and wife of Henry I. of Brabant; and then the +house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter of Henry I. of +Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the possession +of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke +of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France +reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving +Lauraguais as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of +Auvergne, heir of the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage +to Mary of Burgundy, suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess +of Artois, Louis XI declared the countship of Boulogne to be +held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544 Henry VIII.— +more successful in this than Henry III. had been in 1347—took +the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span> +From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat +of a bishopric.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the +department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of +Paris and immediately outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906) +49,412. The town has a Gothic church of the 14th and 15th +centuries (restored in 1863) founded in honour of Notre-Dame of +Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name of the place, +which was previously called Menus-lès-St Cloud. Laundrying is +extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes, +soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome +residences. For the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paris</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOULTON, MATTHEW<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1728-1809), English manufacturer +and engineer, was born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham, +where his father, Matthew Boulton the elder, was +a manufacturer of metal articles of various kinds. To this +business he succeeded on his father’s death in 1759, and in +consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from +Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi. +north of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of +artistic objects in metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings +by a mechanical process in which he was associated with +Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who subsequently achieved a +reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled glass. About +1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the motive +power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt, +who on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho +works for the development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt’s +partner, Dr John Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and +Boulton, to whom he owed £1200, accepted the two-thirds share +in Watt’s patent held by him in satisfaction of the debt. Three +years later Boulton and Watt formally entered into partnership, +and it was mainly through the energy and self-sacrifice of the +former, who devoted all the capital he possessed or could borrow +to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length made a +commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an +act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt’s +1769 patent to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from +the business, which they handed over to their sons, Matthew +Robinson Boulton and James Watt junior. In 1788 Boulton +turned his attention to coining machinery, and erected at Soho a +complete plant with which he struck coins for the Sierra Leone +and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797 produced +a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a +patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the +hydraulic ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August +1809.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUND,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boundary</span> (from O. Fr. <i>bonde</i>, Med. Lat. <i>bodena</i> or +<i>butina</i>, a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or +extent of land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a +post, ditch, hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &c., though on the other +hand it may have to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by +measurement. In law, the exact boundary of land is always a +matter of evidence; where no evidence is available, the court +acts on presumption. For example, the boundary of land on +opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is presumed to +be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are separated by +a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the hedge +and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended +upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes +great care was taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish +by perambulations from time to time. The confusion of local +boundaries in England was the subject of several commissions +and committees in the 19th century, and much information will +be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873, 1888). The Local +Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for the +alteration of local areas.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUNDS, BEATING THE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> an ancient custom still observed in +many English parishes. In former times when maps were rare +it was usual to make a formal perambulation of the parish +boundaries on Ascension day or during Rogation week. The +latter is in the north of England still called “Gang Week” +or “Ganging Days” from this “ganging” or procession. The +priest of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial +officials headed a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs, +beat with them the parish border-stones. Sometimes the boys +were themselves whipped or even violently bumped on the +boundary-stones to make them remember. The object of taking +boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the boundaries +should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is as +old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and +Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from +the Roman Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of +February in honour of Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom +cakes and wine were offered, sports and dancing taking place at +the boundaries. In England a parish-ale or feast was always +held after the perambulation, which assured its popularity, and in +Henry VIII.’s reign the occasion had become an excuse for so +much revelry that it attracted the condemnation of a preacher +who declared “these solemne and accustomable processions and +supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable +abuse.” Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice +which originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy +being supposed to beseech (<i>rogare</i>) the divine blessing upon the +parish lands for the ensuing harvest. This feature originated in +the 5th century, when Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted +special prayers and fasting and processions on these days. This +clerical side of the parish bounds-beating was one of the +religious functions prohibited by the Injunctions of Queen +Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the perambulation +should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular function, +so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &c. might be +preserved (Gibson, <i>Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani</i> (1761) +pp. 213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with +bounds-beating. Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday, +in accordance with the will of one Edward Wilkes, a London +merchant who died in 1646, the trustees of his almshouses +accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and plum +rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that +while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUNTY<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>bontet</i>, from Lat. <i>bonitas</i>, goodness), +a gift or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government +to encourage some branch of production or industry, as in +England in the case of the bounty on corn, first granted in 1688 +and abolished in 1814, the herring-fishery bounties, the bounties +on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. It is admitted that the +giving of bounties is generally impolitic, though they may sometimes +be justified as a measure of state. The most striking +modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (<i>q.v.</i>). Somewhat +akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (<i>q.v.</i>) +by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be +termed, grants are often given, more especially in new countries, +for the destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and +some other countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting; +France has given bounties to encourage the Newfoundland +fisheries.</p> + +<p>Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce +men to enlist in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom, +to the sum given on entering the militia reserve. During the +American Civil War, many recruits joined solely for the sake of +the bounty offered, and afterwards deserted; they were called +“bounty-jumpers.” The term bounty was also applied in the +English navy to signify money payable to the officers and crew +of a ship in respect of services on particular occasions.</p> + +<p>Queen Anne’s Bounty (<i>q.v.</i>) is a fund applied for the augmentation +of poor livings in the established church.</p> + +<p>King’s Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal +bounty to those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of +three or more children at a birth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1816-1897), French +general, was born at Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a +Greek colonel who died in the War of Independence in 1827. +He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined the Zouaves, becoming +lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and aide-de-camp to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span> +King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition that he +first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves; +1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st +Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the +Crimean War he commanded a portion of the Algerian troops; +and at the Alma, Inkerman and Sevastopol Bourbaki’s name +became famous. In 1857 he was made general of division, +commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war with Italy +was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was proposed +as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined +the proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with +the command of the Imperial Guard, and he played an important +part in the fighting round Metz.</p> + +<p>A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with +Bourbaki’s name. A man who called himself Regnier,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> about +the 21st of September, appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview +with the refugee empress Eugénie, and failing to obtain this he +managed to get from the young prince imperial a signed photograph +with a message to the emperor Napoleon. This he used, +by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as credentials to +Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz, telling +him on the empress’s alleged authority that peace was about to +be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki +was to go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went +to England, with Prussian connivance, as though he had a +recognized mission, only to discover from the empress at Hastings +that a trick had been played on him; and as soon as he could +manage he returned to France. He offered his services to +Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army, +but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the +Army of the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and +ill-equipped Army of the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to +raise the siege of Belfort, which, after the victory of Villersexel, +ended in the repulse of the French in the three days’ battle of the +Lisaine. Other German forces under Manteuffel now closed upon +Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven over the Swiss frontier +with the remnant of his forces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). His +troops were in the most desperate condition, owing to lack of +food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started, only +84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki +himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable +surrender, on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions +to General Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own +head, but the bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was +flattened against his skull and his life was saved. General +Clinchant carried Bourbaki into Switzerland, and he recovered +sufficiently to return to France. In July 1871 he again took the +command at Lyons, and subsequently became military governor. +In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was placed on the +retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the +senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic +Frenchman and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like +some other French generals of the Second Empire whose training +had been obtained in Africa, was found wanting in the higher +elements of command when the European conditions of 1870 +were concerned.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself— +who on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on +Lord Granville (see the <i>Life of Lord Granville</i>, by Lord Fitzmaurice, +ii. 61) of being a “swindler” but honestly wishing to serve the +empress—was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of +1902-1903; he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in +a pamphlet, <i>Quel est votre nom?</i> It has been suspected that on the +part either of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed +intrigue was on foot.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBON.<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> The noble family of Bourbon, from which so +many European kings have sprung, took its name from Bourbon +l’Archambault, chief town of a lordship which in the 10th century +was one of the largest baronies of the kingdom of France. The +limits of the lordship, which was called the Bourbonnais, were +approximately those of the modern department of Allier, being +on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and +Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry. +The first of the long line of Bourbons known in history was +Adhémar or Aimar, who was invested with the barony towards +the close of the 9th century. Matilda, heiress of the first house +of Bourbon, brought this lordship to the family of Dampierre +by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre, marshal of +Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes +of Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy, +married Robert, count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St +Louis) of France. The elder branches of the family had become +extinct, and their son Louis became duke of Bourbon in 1327. +In 1488 the line of his descendants ended with Jean II., who +died in that year. The whole estates passed to Jean’s brother +Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne, daughter of +Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter, Suzanne, +who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the +Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards +constable of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on +his marriage, was born in 1489, and at an early age was looked +upon as one of the finest soldiers and gentlemen in France. +With the constable ended the direct line from Pierre I., duke of +Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in descent from Pierre’s +brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count of Vendôme +and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal house +of Bourbon and of the noble families of Condé, Conti and +Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendôme +was Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d’Albret, +heiress of Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their +son became king of France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded +by his son, Louis XIII., who left two sons, Louis XIV., and +Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the Orleans branch. Louis XIV.’s +son, the dauphin, died before his father, and left three sons, +one of whom died without issue. Of the others the elder, Louis +of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son became +Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king +of Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon +family. Louis XV. was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., +who perished on the scaffold. At the restoration the throne of +France was occupied by Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI., +who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles X. The second +son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri Charles +Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d’Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and +comte de Chambord (<i>q.v.</i>). From Louis XIV.’s brother, Philip, +descended another claimant of the throne. Philip’s son was +the regent Orleans, whose great-grandson, “Philippe Égalité,” +perished on the scaffold in 1793. Égalité’s son, Louis Philippe, +was king of the French from 1830 to 1848; his grandson, Louis +Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on the death +of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the throne +of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had +a son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d’Orléans, called by his +adherents Philip VIII.</p> + +<p><i>Spanish Branch.</i>—Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis +XIV., became king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was +succeeded in 1746 by his son Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759 +without family, and was followed by his brother Charles III. +Charles III.’s eldest son became Charles IV. of Spain in 1788, +while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples in +1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his +son, Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand +was succeeded by his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated +in favour of her son, Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso’s +posthumous son became king of Spain as Alphonso XIII. +Ferdinand’s brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the throne +in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged +for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos, +count de Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was +defeated and compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of +the latter, Don Carlos Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for +some years carried on war in Spain with the object of attaining +the rights contended for by the Carlist party.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON</p> + +<p class="center bold">I. <i>The French Bourbons.</i></p> + +<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:638px" src="images/img326.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span></p> + +<p class="center pt2 bold">II. <i>The Spanish and Italian Bourbons.</i></p> + +<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:706px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span></p> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Neapolitan Branch.</i>—The first Bourbon who wore the crown +of Naples was Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to +the Spanish throne in 1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples +to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was deposed by Napoleon, +but afterwards regained his throne, and took the title of +Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was succeeded +by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his son +Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following +year his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom, +which was incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.</p> + +<p><i>Duchies of Lucca and Parma.</i>—In 1748 the duchy of Parma +was conferred on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain. +He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was +ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand’s son Louis being made king +of Etruria, but the French only took possession of the duchy +after Ferdinand’s death in 1802. Louis’s son Charles Louis +was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he was +given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815. +In 1847, on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon, +who had received Parma and Piacenza in accordance with the +terms of the treaty of Paris of 1814, Charles Louis succeeded +to the duchies as Charles II., at the same time surrendering +Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son, +Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and +was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert. +In 1860 the duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the +new kingdom of Italy.</p> + +<p><i>Bastard Branches.</i>—There are numerous bastard branches +of the family of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendôme +branch, descended from Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and +the Maine and Toulouse branches, descended from the two +natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Coiffier de Moret, <i>Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons</i> (2 vols., 1824); +Berand, <i>Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon</i> (1835); +Désormeaux, <i>Histoire de la maison de Bourbon</i> (5 vols., 1782-1788); +Achaintre, <i>Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de Bourbon</i> +(2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, <i>Généalogie de la maison de Bourbon</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBON, CHARLES,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1490-1527), constable of +France, second son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin +of Auvergne, was born on the 17th of February 1490, his mother +being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II., +duke of Bourbon, by Anne of France, daughter of King Louis XI., +and assumed the title of duke of Bourbon. The addition +of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships and other +fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother +Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest +noble in Europe. He gained his first military experience in +the Italian campaigns of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression +of the Genoese revolt (1507) and contributing to the victory +over the Venetians at Agnadello (May 14, 1509). Shortly after +the accession of Francis I. Bourbon received the office of constable +of France, and for his brilliant services at the battle of Marignano +(September 1515) he was made governor of the Milanese, which +he succeeded in defending against an attack of the emperor +Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis and the +constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill +suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and +influence kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not +of fear. The duke was recalled from the government of the +Milanese; his official salary and the sums he had borrowed +for war expenses remained unpaid; and in the campaign in +the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the command +of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the +constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without +surviving issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother +of the king, Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and +at the same time to revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted +her love. A suit was instituted at her instance against the duke +in the parlement of Paris, in which Louise, as grand-daughter +of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d. 1456), claimed the female and +some of the male fiefs of the duchy of Bourbon, while the king +claimed those fiefs which were originally appanages, as escheating +to the crown, and other claims were put forward. Before the +parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis handed over +to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered the +remainder to be sequestrated.</p> + +<p>Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time +had been coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his +negotiations with the emperor and Henry VIII. of England. +It was agreed that the constable should raise in his own dominions +an armed force to assist the emperor in an invasion of France, and +should receive in return the hand of Eleonora, queen dowager +of Portugal, or of another of the emperor’s sisters, and an +independent kingdom comprising his own lands together with +Dauphiné and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity +to Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon’s plans were +hampered by the presence of the French troops assembling for +the invasion of Italy, and for this reason he was unable to effect +a junction with the emperor’s German troops from the east. +News of the conspiracy soon reached the ears of Francis, who +was on his way to take command of the Italian expedition. In +an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured +to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but +without success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days, +and after many vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint +invasion of France by the emperor and his ally of England had +failed signally, mainly through lack of money and defects of +combination. In the spring of 1524, however, Bourbon at the +head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French across +the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded) +and drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested +Marseilles, but being unable to prevent the introduction of +supplies by Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of +Francis, he was forced to raise the siege and retreat to the +Milanese. He took part in the battle of Pavia (1525), where +Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But Bourbon’s +troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to +extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his +kingdom and his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon +had been offered the duchy of Milan by way of compensation. +He now levied contributions from the townsmen, and demanded +20,000 ducats for the liberation of the chancellor Girolamo +Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an attempt to +realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But the +sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527 +Bourbon’s army was joined by a body of German mercenaries, +mostly Protestants, and the combined forces advanced towards +the papal states. Refusing to recognize the truce which the +viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope Clement VII., +Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor’s plan of +attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the +troops, starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and +Spaniards and Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the +5th of May 1527 the imperial army appeared before the walls +of Rome. On the following morning Bourbon attacked the +Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling ladder fell mortally +wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his <i>Life</i> claims +to have fired. After Bourbon’s death his troops took and sacked Rome.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Armstrong, <i>Charles V.</i> (London, 1902); <i>Cambridge Mod. +Hist.</i> vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBON-LANCY,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a watering-place of east-central France +in the department of Saône-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from +the right bank of the Loire and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of +Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1896; commune, 4266. The +town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in the Roman period, +and ancient baths and other remains have been found. The +waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking +and bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature +varies from 117° to 132° F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de +Sévigné, James II. of England, and other celebrated persons +visited the springs in the 17th and 18th centuries. The town +has a well-equipped bathing establishment, a large hospital, and +a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as an archaeological +museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a +hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span> +the 15th century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also +remain. The industries of the town include the manufacture of +farm implements.</p> + +<p>In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold +and a fief of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member +of which the suffix to its name is derived.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBON L’ARCHAMBAULT,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of central France in +the department of Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by +rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The town has thermal springs known +in Roman times, which are used in cases of scrofula and +rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the state. +A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle +of the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a +cylindrical keep, are of interest. There are a military and a +civil hospital in the town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity. +Bourbon (<i>Aquae Borvonis</i> or <i>Bormonis</i>) was anciently the +capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its name to the great Bourbon +family. The affix Archambault is the name of one of its early lords.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the +department of Haute-Marne, 35½ m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres. +Pop. (1906) 3738. It is much frequented on account of its hot +saline springs, which were known to the Romans under the name +<i>Aquae Borvonis</i>. The heat of these springs varies from 110° to +156° F. The waters are used in cases of lymphatic affections, +scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal buildings are +a church of the 12th century, the state bathing-establishment +and the military hospital; there are also the remains of a castle. +Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried on in the +town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated +Cistercian abbey of Morimond.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1864-  ), English actor, was born +in Berkshire in 1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, +Oxford. At the university he became prominent as an amateur +actor in connexion with the O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and +in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a professional. He also acted +with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and was for a while in +Daly’s company in America. In 1894 he married the actress +Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress +Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading +parts under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both +as tragedian and comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the +London stage, and his career as actor-manager was remarkable +for the production of a number of successful modern plays, by +Mr Sutro and others.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, THOMAS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1404-1486), English archbishop, +lord chancellor and cardinal, was a younger son of William +Bourchier, count of Eu (d. 1420), and through his mother, Anne, +a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, was a +descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers was Henry, +earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord +Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and +then entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and +after holding some minor appointments he became bishop of +Worcester in 1434. In the same year he was chancellor of the +university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was appointed bishop of +Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of Canterbury, +becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March. +Bourchier’s short term of office as chancellor coincided with the +opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong +partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when +Richard, duke of York, was deprived of power in October 1456. +Afterwards, in 1458, he helped to reconcile the contending +parties, but when the war was renewed in 1459 he appears as a +decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June 1461, and four +years later he performed a similar service for the queen, Elizabeth +Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial +of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he +was created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four +arbitrators appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of +Picquigny between England and France. After the death of +Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier persuaded the queen to allow +her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to share his brother’s +residence in the Tower of London; and although he had sworn +to be faithful to Edward V. before his father’s death, he crowned +Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way +implicated in the murder of the young princes, and he was +probably a participant in the conspiracies against Richard. +The third English king crowned by Bourchier was Henry VII., +whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in January 1486. +The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his residence, +Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i> (1860-1884).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1632-1704), French Jesuit and +preacher, was born at Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At +the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus, and was +appointed successively professor of rhetoric, philosophy and +moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His success as +a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call him +to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of +St Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in +popular estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading +figures of the most brilliant period of Louis XIV.’s reign. He +preached at the court of Versailles during the Advent of 1670 +and the Lent of 1672, and was subsequently called again to +deliver the Lenten course of sermons in 1674, 1675, 1680 and +1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and 1693. This +was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to call +the same preacher more than three times to court. On the +revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to +confirm the new converts in the Catholic faith, and he had +extraordinary success in this delicate mission. Catholics and +Protestants were unanimous in praising his fiery eloquence in +the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier in 1686. +Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to charitable +institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic +discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He +died in Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay +in his power of adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and +throughout his public career he was highly appreciated by all +classes of society. His influence was due as much to his saintly +character and to the gentleness of his manners as to the force of +his reasoning. Voltaire said that his sermons surpassed those of +Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however, practically coincided +with Bourdaloue’s early pulpit utterances); and there is little +doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the direct appeal +which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a superiority +over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may +be with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators, +and many of his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The only authoritative source for the Sermons +is the edition of Père Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed +by the <i>Pensées</i>, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy +both as to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition +and as to the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that +the changes confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal. +Other editions not based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed, +are altogether spurious (<i>e.g.</i> that of Abbé Sicard, 1810). Among +critical works are: Anatole Feugère, <i>Bourdaloue, sa prédication et son temps</i> (Paris, 1874); +Adrien Lézat, <i>Bourdaloue, théologien et orateur</i> (Paris, 1874); +P.M. Lauras, <i>Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses œuvres</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1881); +Abbé Blampignon, <i>Étude sur Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1886); +Henri Chérot, <i>Bourdaloue inconnu</i> (Paris, 1898), and +<i>Bourdaloue, sa correspondance et ses correspondans</i> (Paris, 1898-1904); +L. Pauthe, <i>Bourdaloue</i> (<i>les maîtres de la chaire au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>) (Paris, 1900); +E. Griselle, <i>Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa prédication</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1901), +<i>Sermons inédits; bibliographie, &c.</i> (Paris, 1901), +<i>Deux sermons inédits sur le royaume de Dieu</i> (Lille and Paris, 1904); +Ferdinand Castets, <i>Bourdaloue, la vie et la prédication d’un religieux au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, +and <i>La Revue Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1902-1904); +C.H. Brooke, <i>Great French Preachers</i> (sermons of Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904); +F. Brunetière, “L’Éloquence de Bourdaloue,” in <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (August 1904), +a general inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general characteristics.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (d. 1797), known as <span class="sc">Bourdon +de l’Oise</span>, French revolutionist, was <i>procureur</i> at the parlement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span> +of Paris. He ardently embraced the revolutionary doctrines +and took an active part in the insurrection of the 10th of August +1792. Representing the department of the Oise in the Convention, +he voted for the immediate death of the king. He accused +the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned against +Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for +his conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of +La Rochelle. On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies +delegated to aid Barras to repress the insurrection made by the +commune of Paris in favour of Robespierre. Bourbon then became +a violent reactionary, attacking the former members of the +Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against the rioters +of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III. In +the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of +“Clichyens,” composed of disguised royalists, against whom +the directors made the <i>coup d’état</i> of the 18th Fructidor. +Bourdon was arrested and deported to French Guiana, where he +died soon after his arrival.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURG-EN-BRESSE,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of +the department of Ain, and formerly capital of the province +of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. +Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune, 20,045. Bourg is situated +at the western base of the Jura, on the left bank of the Reyssouze, +a tributary of the Saône. The chief of the older buildings +is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the façade +belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic. +In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other +public buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. +The hôtel de ville contains a library and the Lorin museum +with a collection of pictures, while another museum has a collection +of the old costumes and ornaments characteristic of Bresse. +Among the statues in the town there is one of Edgar Quinet +(1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat of a prefect +and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a +tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank +of France. Its educational establishments include lycées for +boys and girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist +of iron goods, mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware, +and there are flour mills and breweries; and there is considerable +trade in grain, cattle and poultry. The church of Brou, a +suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic interest. Marguerite of +Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had intended to found a +monastery on the spot, but died before her intention could be +carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the 16th +century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of +Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The +exterior, especially the façade, is richly ornamented, but the +chief interest lies in the works of art in the interior, which date +from 1532. The most important are the three mausoleums with +the marble effigies of Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau, +and Marguerite of Austria. All three are remarkable for perfection +of sculpture and richness of ornamentation. The rood loft, +the oak stalls, and the reredos in the chapel of the Virgin are +masterpieces in a similar style.</p> + +<p>Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is +known of its early history. Raised to the rank of a free town +in 1250, it was at the beginning of the 15th century chosen by +the dukes of Savoy as the chief city of the province of Bresse. +In 1535 it passed to France, but was restored to Duke Philibert +Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel, which afterwards +withstood a six months’ siege by the soldiers of Henry IV. +The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the inhabitants, +in spite of the defenceless condition of their town, +offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to +pillage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1851-  ), French +statesman, was born at Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was +educated for the law. After holding a subordinate office (1876) +in the department of public works, he became successively +prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne (1885), and +then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior. +He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical +moment of President Grévy’s resignation. In the following +year he entered the chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne, +in opposition to General Boulanger, and joined the radical left. +He was under-secretary for home affairs in the Floquet ministry +of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889, being then returned to the +chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry, which succeeded, +he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on the 18th +of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet +of M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself +by the attention he had given to educational matters. In this +capacity he was responsible in 1890 for some important reforms +in secondary education. He retained his office in M. Loubet’s +cabinet in 1892, and was minister of justice under M. Ribot at +the end of that year, when the Panama scandals were making the +office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically pressed the +Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having +put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in +order to procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in +March 1893, but again took office, and only retired with the rest +of the Freycinet ministry. In November 1895 he himself formed +a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type, the main interest of +which was attached to its fall, as the result of a constitutional +crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate to vote +supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that +popular opinion would enable them to override what they claimed +to be an unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house; +but the public was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The +blow was undoubtedly damaging to M. Bourgeois’s career as an +<i>homme de gouvernement</i>. As minister of public instruction in the +Brisson cabinet of 1898 he organized courses for adults in primary +education. After this short ministry he represented his country +with dignity and effect at the Hague peace congress, and in 1903 +was nominated a member of the permanent court of arbitration. +He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of the +Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably +in foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected +president of the chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due +d’Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for the department of Marne, +and in May 1906 became minister of foreign affairs in the +Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of French +diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a +<i>bourg</i> or borough in France; later the term came to have the +wider significance of the whole class lying between the <i>ouvriers</i> +or workmen and the nobility, and is now used generally of the +trading middle-class of any country. In printing, the word +(pronounced burjoice′) is used of a type coming in size between +longprimer and brevier; the derivation is supposed to be from +the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURGES,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a city of central France, chief town of the department +of Cher, 144 m. S. of Paris on the Orléans railway between +Vierzon and Nevers. Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune, +44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat and marshy country on an +eminence limited on three sides by the waters of the Canal Of +Berry, the Yèvre, the Auron, and other smaller streams with +which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with +its narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and +east of which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing +nurseries and market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground +to the north and north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the +Roman ramparts of the 4th century, which are for the most part +built into the houses of the old quarter. They measure considerably +less in circumference than the fortifications of the 13th +century, remains of which in the shape of ruined walls and towers +are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on which the city is +built is crowned by the cathedral of St Étienne, one of the most +important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century, +it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period +belong the northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking +the façade and two of its five elaborately sculptured portals. +The interior, which has double aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable +height, and no transepts, contains, among many other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span> +works of art, magnificent stained glass of the 13th century. +Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque construction, +where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two +lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The +Jardin de l’Archevêché, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the +choir of the cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The +hôtel Lallemant and the hôtel Cujas (now occupied by the +museum) are of the Renaissance period. The hôtel de Jacques +Cœur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII. and now used +as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it has been +doubted whether Jacques Cœur himself inhabited it. The mansion +is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman +fortifications were utilized in the construction of the south-western +façade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings +surround a courtyard into which three staircase turrets project; +one of these leads to a chapel, the ceiling of which is decorated by +fine frescoes.</p> + +<p>Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a +court of assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the +VIII. army corps. It has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of +commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational +institutions include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée for boys, +and a college for girls, training colleges, and a school of industrial +art. The industrial activity of Bourges depends primarily on +its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its cannon-foundry +and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the government, +and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics, +and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb +of Mazières has large iron and engineering works, and there are +manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods, +oil-cloth, boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works, +breweries, distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The +town has a port on the canal of Berry, and does a considerable +trade in grain, wine, vegetables, hemp and fruit.</p> + +<p>Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of <i>Avaricum</i>, +capital of the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most +important of all Gaul. In 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, during the war with Vercingetorix, +it was completely destroyed by the Roman conqueror, +but under Augustus it rose again into importance, and was made +the capital of Aquitania Prima. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250 it became the +seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being Ursinus. +Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their possession +till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of +Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th +century it became the residence of Charles VII., who thus +acquired the popular title of “king of Bourges.” In 1463 a +university was founded in the city by Louis XI., which continued +for centuries to be one of the most famous in France, especially +in the department of jurisprudence. On many occasions Bourges +was the seat of ecclesiastical councils—the most important being +the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of the +Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the +Lutheran doctrines were condemned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1852-  ), French +novelist and critic, was born at Amiens on the 2nd of September +1852. His father, a professor of mathematics, was afterwards +appointed to a post in the college at Clermont-Ferrand. Here +Bourget received his early education. He afterwards studied +at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and at the École des Hautes Études. +In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, <i>Au bord de la mer</i>, +which was followed by others, the last, <i>Les Aveux</i>, appearing in +1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism, +and in 1883 he published <i>Essais de psychologic contemporaine</i>, +studies of eminent writers first printed in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>, +and now brought together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit +to England, and there wrote his first published story (<i>L’Irréparable</i>). +<i>Cruelle Énigme</i> followed in 1885; and <i>André Cornelis</i> +(1886) and <i>Mensonges</i> (1887) were received with much favour. +<i>Le Disciple</i> (1889) showed the novelist in a graver attitude; while +in 1891 <i>Sensations d’Italie</i>, notes of a tour in that country, +revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year appeared +the novel <i>Cœur de femme</i>, and <i>Nouveaux Pastels</i>, types of the +characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types +(<i>Pastels</i>, 1890). His later novels include <i>La Terre promise</i> (1892); +<i>Cosmopolis</i> (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background; +<i>Une Idylle tragique</i> (1896); <i>La Duchesse bleue</i> (1897); +<i>Le Fantôme</i> (1901); <i>Les Deux Sœurs</i> (1905); and some volumes of +shorter stories—<i>Complications sentimentales</i> (1896), the powerful +<i>Drames de famille</i> (1898), <i>Un Homme fort</i> (1900), <i>L’Étape</i> (1902), +a study of the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the +peasant class to adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful +study of contemporary manners was followed by <i>Un Divorce</i> (1904), +a defence of the Roman Catholic position that divorce is +a violation of natural laws, any breach of which inevitably +entails disaster. <i>Études et portraits</i>, first published in 1888, +contains impressions of Bourget’s stay in England and Ireland, +especially reminiscences of the months which he spent at Oxford; +and <i>Outre-Mer</i> (1895), a book in two volumes, is his critical +journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was admitted +to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an +officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration +of the order ten years before.</p> + +<p>As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and +his poems, which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are +chiefly interesting for the light which they throw upon his +mature method and the later products of his art. It was in +criticism that his genius first found its true bent. The habit of +close scientific analysis which he derived from his father, the +sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a classical +education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms, the +taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not +less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to +be learned on the <i>boulevard</i>—all these combined to provide him +with a most uncommon equipment for the critic’s task. It is not +surprising that the <i>Sensations d’ltalie</i> (1891), and the various +psychological studies, are in their different ways scarcely surpassed +throughout the whole range of literature. Bourget’s reputation +as a novelist has long been assured. Deeply impressed +by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal), he struck out +on a new course at a moment when the realist school reigned +without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover, +had a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific +basis, and aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable +to, that of the writers who were depicting with an astonishing +faithfulness the environment and the actions of a person or a +society. With Bourget observation was mainly directed to the +secret springs of human character. At first his purpose seemed +to be purely artistic, but when <i>Le Disciple</i> appeared, in 1889, the +preface to that remarkable story revealed in him an unsuspected +fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he has varied between his +earlier and his later manner, but his work in general has been +more seriously conceived. From first to last he has painted with +a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women, whether +wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not +less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those +young men of France to whom he makes special appeal.</p> + +<p>Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue +delineation of one social class. The first charge can hardly be +sustained. The lights in his books are usually low; there is a +certain lack of gaiety, and the characters move in a world of +disenchantment. But there is no despair in his own outlook +upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other indictment, +the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere framework +of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of complicated +affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which +the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured +and leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of +humbler men and women. The style of all Bourget’s writings is +singularly graceful. His knowledge of the literature of other +lands gives it a greater flexibility and a finer allusiveness than +most of his contemporaries can achieve. The precision by which +it is not less distinguished, though responsible for a certain +over-refinement, and for some dull pages of the novels, is an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span> +almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a critic, indeed, +either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be desired. If he is +not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books display more +ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous creation, +it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have +rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also C. Lecigne, <i>L’Évolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul +Bourget</i> (1903); Sargeret, <i>Les Grands Convertis</i> (1906). His <i>Oeuvres +complètes</i> began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1616-1680), Flemish mystic, +was born at Lille on the 13th of January 1616. From an early +age she was under the influence of religion, which took in course +of time a mystical turn. Undertaking the work of a reformer, +she visited France, Holland, England and Scotland. Her religious +enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard of all sects +raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her +death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she +left a large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly +away; but in the early 18th century her influence revived in +Scotland sufficiently to call forth several denunciations of her +doctrines in the various Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701, +1709 and 1710. So far as appears from her writings and contemporary +records, she was a visionary of the ordinary type, +distinguished only by the audacity and persistency of her +pretensions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions +and opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols., +Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679). +For a critical account see Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897), +and <i>Étude sur Antoinette Bourignon</i>, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three +of her works at least have been translated into English:— +<i>An Abridgment of the Light of the World</i> (London, 1786); <i>A +Treatise of Solid Virtue</i> (1699); <i>The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit</i> +(1707)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURKE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town of Cowper county, New South Wales, +Australia, 503 m. by rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614. +It is situated on the south bank, and at the head of the ordinary +winter navigation, of the Darling river. Very rich copper ore +exists in the district in great abundance. Bourke is the centre +of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual agricultural show +is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of the Darling, +3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at Pera, +10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de Ghaisne +de</span> (1773-1846), marshal of France, entered the <i>Gardes Françaises</i> +of the royal army shortly before the Revolution, emigrated in +1789, and served with Condé and the army of the <i>émigrés</i> in the +campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently serving as chief of +staff to Scépeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil war in lower +Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of +April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having +been made by Louis XVIII. a <i>maréchal de camp</i> and a knight of +St Louis, he headed a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary +successes collapsed (1799-1800). He then made his +submission to the First Consul, married, and lived in Paris; but +his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a few months later, +and he remained a prisoner for more than three years, finally +escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army +under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered +his services to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division. +He returned to France with Junot after the convention of +Cintra, and was promptly re-arrested. He was soon released, +however, on Junot’s demand, and was commissioned as an officer +in the imperial army. He served in Italy for a time, then went +on the staff of the viceroy Eugène (Beauharnais), whom he +accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner +in the retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French +army. His conspicuous courage at the battle of Lützen in 1813 +led Napoleon to promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his +splendid defence of Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank +of general of division. At the first Restoration Bourmont was +naturally employed by the Bourbons, to whose service he had +devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his return from +Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent +request of Count Gérard, he was given a divisional command in +the army of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign +Bourmont went over to the enemy. It is not probable that he +gave information of French movements to the allies, but the best +that can be said in exculpation of his treachery is that his old +friends and comrades, the royalists of Anjou, were again in +insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead them. He made +no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser of +Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division +of the royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position +in the army which, under the command of the duc d’Angoulême, +invaded Spain. He commanded the whole army in Spain for a +time in 1824, became minister of war in 1829, and in 1830 was +placed in command of the Algiers expedition. The landing of +the French and the capture of Algiers were directed by him with +complete success, and he was rewarded with the <i>bâton</i> of marshal. +But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his command, and, +refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced to +resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of +the duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal. +Here, as always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the +army of Dom Miguel during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after +the victory of the constitutional party he retired to Rome. +At the amnesty of 1840 he returned to France. He died at the +château of Bourmont on the 27th of October 1846.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets +in vindication of his father’s career.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURNE, VINCENT<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1695-1747), English classical scholar, +familiarly known as “Vinny” Bourne, was born at Westminster +in 1695. In 1710 he became a scholar at Westminster school, +and in 1714 entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated +in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years later. Of his afterlife +exceedingly little is known. It is certain that he passed the +greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He died on; +the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published +three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a +very handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne’s pieces, but +also some that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are +remarkable not only for perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties, +but for graceful expression and genuine poetic feeling. A number +of them are translations of English poems, and it is not too much +to say that the Latin versions almost invariably surpass the +originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne’s, Beattie and Lamb +have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin +versification.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See an edition (1840) of his <i>Poemata</i>, with a memoir by John +Mitford.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURNE,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bourn</span>, a market town in the S. Kesteven or +Stamford parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; +lying in a fenny district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 4361. The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the +Great Northern railway here crosses the Saxby-Lynn joint line +of the Great Northern and Midland companies. The church of +St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with later +insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a foundation +of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings +have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural. +Bourne is famous through its connexion with the +ardent opponent of William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake. +Of his castle very slight traces remain. Bourne was also the +birthplace of the Elizabethan statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley. +The Red Hall, which now forms part of the railway station +buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom Sir +Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with +the Gunpowder Plot.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURNE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (southern form of burn, Teutonic <i>born, brun, burna</i>), +an intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country +where the rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly +drains away until the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases. +A heavy rainfall will cause streams to run in winter from the +saturated soil. These are the winter bournes that have given +name to several settlements upon Salisbury Plain, such as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span> +Winterbourne Gunning. The “bourne” may also be a permanent +“burn,” but the word is usually applied to an intermittent +stream. (2) (From the Fr. <i>borne</i>), a boundary; the first use of +the word in English is in Lord Ferrers’ translation of Forrest, +1523; the figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination +comes from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, “the undiscovered country, +from whose bourne no traveller returns.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURNEMOUTH,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a municipal and county borough and +watering-place of Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary +borough of Christchurch, 107½ m. S.W. by W. from London +by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 59,762. +It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay. Considerable sandstone +cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored with deep picturesque +dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about the valley +of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable +winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a +national sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by +subscription; a pier was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway +communication was afforded. The climate is remarkably +equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool in summer; +the average temperature in July is 61.7° F., and in January 40.3°. +The town contains numerous handsome buildings, including +municipal buildings, churches, various places of entertainment, +sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science and art +school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front, +and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome +have attracted a large number of wealthy residents. There are +piers at the town itself and at Boscombe, and the bathing is +excellent. The parks, gardens and drives are extensive and +pleasant. A service of electric tramways is maintained, notable +as being the first system installed in England with a combination +of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying current. There +are golf links in Meyrick and Queen’s parks, both laid out by the +corporation, which has in other ways studied the entertainment +of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and West, +and through communications with the north are maintained by +the Somerset & Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and +Great Central railways. The town, which is of wholly modern +and remarkably rapid growth (for in the middle of the 19th +century the population was less than 1000), was incorporated in +1890, and became a county borough in 1900. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33 councillors. Area, +5769 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURNONITE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead +and copper with the formula PbCuSbS<span class="su">3</span>. It is of some interest +on account of the twinning and the beautiful development of its +crystals. It was first mentioned by Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as +“an ore of antimony,” and was more completely described by the +comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was named: the name +given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since used in +the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the +mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are +generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the +basal pinacoid (<i>c</i>); numerous smooth bright faces are often +developed on the edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned +crystal is represented in fig. 1. Usually, however, the +crystals are twinned, the twin-plane being a face of the prism (<i>m</i>); +the angle between the faces of this prism being nearly a right +angle (86° 20′), the twinning gives rise to cruciform groups (fig. 2), +and when it is often repeated the group has the appearance of a +cog-wheel, hence the name <i>Rädelerz</i> (wheel-ore) of the Kapnik +miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae, +which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the +massive material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant +metallic lustre with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2½, and +the specific gravity 5.8.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:466px; height:198px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Crystal of Bournonite.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Twinned Crystal<br />of Bournonite.</td></tr></table> + +<p>At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion +in Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and +chalybite. Later, still better crystals were found in another +Cornish mine, namely, Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which +was worked for argentiferous galena. Fine crystals of large size +have been found with quartz and chalybite in the mines at +Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and tetrahedrite at +Kapnik-Bánya near Nagy-Bánya in Hungary. A few other +localities are known for this mineral.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURRÉE,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a French name for a dance common in Auvergne +and in Biscay in Spain; also a term for a musical composition +or a dance-movement in a suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in +quick time with two beats to the bar.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1769-1834), +French diplomatist, was born at Sens on the 9th of July +1769. He was educated at the military school of Brienne in +Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte; and although the +solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult, the two +youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however, +be added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in +Bourrienne’s memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in +1787, and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded +to Vienna. He was pursuing legal and diplomatic +studies there and afterwards at Leipzig, when the French +Revolution broke out and went through its first phases. Not +until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at +Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a +Bohemian life together, and among other incidents of that exciting +time, they witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the +Tuileries (June 20) and the overthrow of the Swiss Guards +at the same spot (August 10). Bourrienne next obtained a +diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon his name was +placed on the list of political <i>émigrés</i>, from which it was not +removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of +13th Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and +renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second +in command of the Army of the Interior and soon received the +command of the Army of Italy. Bourrienne did not proceed +with him into Italy, but was called thither by the victorious +general at the time of the long negotiations with Austria +(May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy +was of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of +Campo Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied +Bonaparte to Egypt as his private secretary, and left a +vivid, if not very trustworthy, account of the expedition in his +memoirs. He also accompanied him on the adventurous return +voyage to Fréjus (September-October 1799), and was of some +help in the affairs which led up to the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire +(November) 1799. He remained by the side of the First Consul +in his former capacity, but in the autumn of 1802 incurred his +displeasure owing to his very questionable financial dealings. +In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free city +of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of +commercial war against England, known as the Continental +System; but it is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical +measures with disgust, but secretly relaxed them in favour +of those merchants who plied him with <i>douceurs</i>. In the early +spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon to order a large +number of military cloaks for the army, then in East Prussia, +he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously +was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune +while at Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at +the close of 1810. In 1814 he embraced the royal cause, and +during the Hundred Days (1815) accompanied Louis XVIII. to +Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful; he died at Caen on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span> +the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a mental malady +for two years.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his +original works, which are insignificant, but upon his <i>Mémoires</i>, +edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which +have been frequently republished and translated. The best English +edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London, +1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols., +Paris, 1899-1900). See <i>Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et involontaires</i> +(Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c., for +a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also <i>Napoléon et ses +détracteurs</i>, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London, +1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1739-1819), Swiss traveller +and writer, came of a family which was of French origin but had +taken refuge at Geneva for reasons connected with religion. +His father was a watchmaker there, and he himself was educated +in his native city. He was a good artist and etcher, and also a +pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love of music he was +made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the former +cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself +to the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a +great passion ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near +Geneva. In 1775 he made the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.) +by the now usual route from the Pierre à Bérard, on which the +great flat rock known as the <i>Table au Chantre</i> still preserves his +memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the +ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then +nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. On the +other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Géant +(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also +among the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c. +He received a pension from Louis XVI., and was named the +<i>historiographe des Alpes</i> by the emperor Joseph II., who visited +him at Geneva. His last visit to Chamonix was in 1812. His +writings are composed in a naïve, sentimental and rather +pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love +for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific +study. His chief works are the <i>Description des glacières de +Savoye</i>, 1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the +<i>Description des Alpes pennines et rhétiennes</i> (2 vols., 1781) +(reprinted in 1783 under the title of <i>Nouvelle Description des +vallées de glace</i>, and in 1785, with additions, in 3 vols., under the +name of <i>Nouvelle Description des glacières</i>), and the <i>Descriptions +des cols ou passages des Alpes</i>, (2 vols., 1803), while his <i>Itinéraire +de Genève, Lausanne et Chamouni</i>, first published in 1791, went +through several editions in his lifetime.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURSAULT, EDME<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1638-1701), French dramatist and +miscellaneous writer, was born at Mussy l’Évêque, now Mussy-sur-Seine +(Aube), in October 1638. On his first arrival in Paris +in 1651 his language was limited to a Burgundian patois, but +within a year he produced his first comedy, <i>Le Mort vivant</i>. +This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him +distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Molière +in the <i>École des femmes</i>. Boursault was persuaded that the +“Lysidas” of that play was a caricature of himself, and attacked +Molière in <i>Le Portrait du peintre ou la contre-critique de l’École +des femmes</i> (1663). Molière retaliated in <i>L’Impromptu de +Versailles</i>, and Boileau attacked Boursault in Satires 7 and 9. +Boursault replied to Boileau in his <i>Satire des satires</i> (1669), +but was afterwards reconciled with him, when Boileau on his +side erased his name from his satires. Boursault obtained +a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which +was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and +the editor was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition +of Condé. In 1671 he produced a work of edification in <i>Ad usum +Delphini: la véritable étude des souverains</i>, which so pleased +the court that its author was about to be made assistant tutor +to the dauphin when it was found that he was ignorant of +Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre Huet. Perhaps +in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at Mont-luçon +about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688. +Among his best-known plays are <i>Le Mercure galant</i>, the title +of which was changed to <i>La Comédie sans titre</i> (1683); <i>La Princesse +de Clèves</i> (1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished +with fresh names by its author, succeeded as <i>Germanicus; +Ésope à la ville</i> (1690); and <i>Ésope à la cour</i> (1701). His lack of +dramatic instinct could hardly be better indicated than by the +scheme of his <i>Ésope</i>, which allows the fabulist to come on the +stage in each scene and recite a fable. Boursault died in Paris +on the 15th of September 1701.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> of Boursault were published in 1811, and +a sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-René Taillandier’s <i>Études +littéraires</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURSE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (from the Med. Lat. <i>bursa</i>, a purse), the French +equivalent of the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris +Exchange, or of any foreign money-market. The English form +“burse,” as in Sir Thomas Gresham’s building, which was known +as “Britain’s Burse,” went out of use in the 18th century. +The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from any +connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of +a purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family +de Bursa is said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to +have had three purses as a sign on the front.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOURSSE, ESAIAS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born +in Amsterdam. He was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose +manner he worked for many years in his native town; then he +took service with the Dutch East India Company, and died +on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare, perhaps +because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of +them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de +Hooch. Two of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears +the false signature) at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now +recognized as being the work of Boursse. His subjects are +interiors with figures, painted with great precision and with +exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection has his +masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle, +almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting +something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced. +Other important examples are at the Ryks museum +and at Aix-la-Chapelle. Boursse’s “Boy blowing Soap Bubbles,” +in the Berlin museum, was until lately attributed to Vermeer +of Delft. More than one picture bearing the false signature +of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> +(1802-1887), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of +February 1802. After studying at the school of mines at Saint-Étienne +he went, when little more than twenty years old, to +South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an English +company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he +was attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled +widely in the northern parts of the continent. Returning to +France he became professor of chemistry at Lyons, and in +1839 was appointed to the chair of agricultural and analytical +chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. +In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where he sat +as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed +from his professorship on account of his political opinions, but +so much resentment at this action was shown by scientific men +in general, and especially by his colleagues, who threatened +to resign in a body, that he was reinstated. He died in Paris +on the 11th of May 1887. His first papers were concerned with +mining topics, and his sojourn in South America yielded a number +of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of goitre in the Cordilleras, +the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes, tropical rain, &c., which won +the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From 1836 he devoted +himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and +vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral +chemistry. His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen +in different foods, the amount of gluten in different wheats, +investigations on the question whether plants can assimilate free +nitrogen from the atmosphere (which he answered in the negative), +the respiration of plants, the function of their leaves, the action +and value of manures, and other similar subjects. Through +his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in Alsace, +where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span> +collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an <i>Essai de statique +chimique des ètres organisés</i> (1841), and was the author of <i>Traité +d’économic rurale</i> (1844), which was remodelled as <i>Agronomie, +chimie agricole, et physiologie</i> (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., +1884), and of <i>Études sur la transformation du fer en acier</i> +(1875).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1766-1828), German philosopher +and critic, was born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and +studied law at Göttingen. From 1790, however, he became +a disciple of Kant, published <i>Aphorismen nach Kants Lehre +vorgelegt</i> (1793), and became professor of philosophy at Göttingen +(1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a +philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of +the “thing-in-itself” (<i>Ding-an-sich</i>). For the pure reason, as +described in the <i>Kritik</i>, the “thing-in-itself” can be only an +inconceivable “something-in-general”; any statement about +it involves the predication of Reality, Unity and Plurality, +which belong not to the absolute thing but to phenomena. +On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of will, +and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing +is the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative +knowledge. This doctrine has since been described as absolute +Virtualism. Following this train of thought, Bouterwek left +the Kantian position through his opposition to its formalism. +In later life he inclined to the views of F.H. Jacobi, whose letters +to him (published at Göttingen, 1868) shed much light on the +development of his thought. His chief philosophical works are +<i>Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik</i> (Göttingen and Halle, 1799); +<i>Aesthetik</i> (Leipzig, 1806; Göttingen, 1815 and 1824); <i>Lehrbuch +der philos. Vorkenntnisse</i> (Göttingen, 1810 and 1820); <i>Lehrbuch +der philos. Wissenschaften</i> (Göttingen, 1813 and 1820). In these +works he dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His +chief critical work was the <i>Geschichte der neuern Poesie und +Beredsamkeit</i> (Göttingen, 12 vols., 1801-1819), of which the +history of Spanish literature has been published separately +in French, Spanish and English. The <i>Geschichte</i> is a work of +wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of +equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, <i>Paulus +Septimus</i> (Halle, 1795), <i>Graf Donamar</i> (Göttingen, 1791) and +<i>Ramiro</i> (Leipzig, 1804), and published a collection of poems +(Göttingen, 1802).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Fouilletourte</span> (1581-1652), +French statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he +was councillor in the parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became +councillor of state and a secretary to the queen-mother, Marie +de’ Medici. The connexion of his father, Denis Bouthillier +(d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for him the title of +secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain on good +terms with both Marie de’ Medici and Richelieu, in spite of their +rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But +his great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on +many diplomatic missions, and the success of his foreign policy +was due in no small degree to Bouthillier’s ability and devotion. +In 1630 he had taken part at Regensburg in arranging the +abortive treaty between the emperor and France. From 1633 +to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions in +Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph. +Following Richelieu’s instructions, he negotiated the alliances +which brought France into the Thirty Years’ War. Meanwhile, +at home, his tact and amiable disposition, as well as his reputation +for straightforwardness, had secured for him a unique position +of influence in a court torn by jealousies and intrigues. Trusted +by the king, the confidant of Richelieu, the friend of Marie de’ +Medici, and through his son, Léon Bouthillier, who was appointed +in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d’Orléans, able to bring his influence +to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable mediator; and the +personal influence thus exercised, combined with the fact that +he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy +of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful +man in the kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will, +and Louis XIII. named him a member of the council of regency +which he intended should govern the kingdom after his death. +But the king’s last plans were not carried out, and Bouthillier +was obliged to retire into private life, giving up his office of +superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris on +the 13th of March 1652.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Léon Bouthillier</span> (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny, +was early associated with his father, who took him with him +from 1629 to 1632 to all the great courts of Europe, instructing +him in diplomacy. In 1632 he was named secretary of state +and seconded his father’s work, so that it is not easy always to +distinguish their respective parts. After the death of Louis XIII. +he had to give up his office; but was sent as plenipotentiary to +the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself incapable, +however, giving himself up to pleasure and fêtes, and returned +to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during +the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin’s +exile (April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which +came to nothing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUTS-RIMÉS,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> literally (from the French) “rhymed ends,” +the name given in all literatures to a kind of verses of which +no better definition can be found than was made by Addison, in +the Spectator, when he described them as “lists of words that +rhyme to one another, drawn up by another hand, and given to +a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the same +order that they were placed upon the list.” The more odd and +perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to +give a semblance of common-sense to the production. For +instance, the rhymes <i>breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant, +please, hope, pope</i> are submitted, and the following stanza is +the result:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90"> +<p>Escaping from the Indian <i>breeze</i>,</p> +<p>The vast, sententious <i>elephant</i></p> +<p>Through groves of sandal loves to <i>squeeze</i></p> +<p>And in their fragrant shade to <i>pant</i>;</p> +<p>Although the shelter there be <i>scant</i>,</p> +<p>The vivid odours soothe and <i>please</i>,</p> +<p>And while he yields to dreams of <i>hope</i>,</p> +<p>Adoring beasts surround their <i>Pope</i>.</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p>The invention of bouts-rimés is attributed to a minor French +poet of the 17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered. +According to the <i>Menagiana</i>, about the year 1648, Dulot was +complaining one day that he had been robbed of a number of +valuable papers, and, in particular, of three hundred sonnets. +Surprise being expressed at his having written so many, Dulot +explained that they were all “blank sonnets,” that is to say, that +he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck +every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was +taken up as a jest. Bouts-rimés became the fashion, and in 1654 +no less a person than Sarrasin composed a satire against them, +entitled <i>La Défaite des bouts-rimés</i>, which enjoyed a great success. +Nevertheless, they continued to be abundantly composed in +France throughout the 17th century and a great part of the 18th +century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans (d. 1716) published a +collection of serious sonnets, all written to rhymes selected for +him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor Marmontel, +nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in the +19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident, +however, in the history of bouts-rimés is the fact that the elder +Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection. +He issued an invitation to all the poets of France to display their +skill by composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose +by the poet, Joseph Méry (1798-1866). No fewer than 350 +writers responded to the appeal, and Dumas published the +result, as a volume, in 1865.</p> + +<p>W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G. +Rossetti’s <i>Collected Works</i> (1886), mentions that, especially in +1848 and 1849, he and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly +practised their pens in writing sonnets to <i>bouts-rimés</i>, each giving +the other the rhymes for a sonnet, and Dante Gabriel writing off +these exercises in verse-making at the rate of a sonnet in five or +eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti’s poems in <i>The Germ</i> +were <i>bouts-rimés</i> experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel’s, a little +touched up, remained in his brother’s possession, but were not +included in the <i>Collected Works</i>.</p> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1818-1905), American +statesman, was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th +of January 1818. He was reared on a farm, and at an early age +began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass. There he studied +law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not begin +practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850 +he served in the state house of representatives, and became +the recognized leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice +defeated for Congress, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate +for governor. In 1851, however, by means of “Free-Soil” +votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected by the +same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active +part in the state constitutional convention. He became a +member of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853, +and as its secretary in 1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and +rendered much service to the state’s school system. The passage +of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854 had finally alienated him +from the Democratic party, and he became one of the founders +of the new Republican party in the state. He played an influential +part in the Republican national convention in 1860, +and in 1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was +appointed by President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal +revenue, which department he organized. From 1863 to 1869 +he was a representative in Congress, taking an influential part +in debate, and acting as one of the managers of President +Johnson’s impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was secretary +of the treasury in President Grant’s cabinet, and from 1873 until +1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under +an appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second +edition of the <i>United States Revised Statutes</i> (1878). In 1880 he +represented the United States before the commission appointed +in accordance with the treaty of that year, between France and +the United States, to decide the claims brought by French +citizens against the United States for acts of the American +authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of American +citizens against France for acts of French authorities during the +war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and +the Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States +of the Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic +League, and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic) +ticket in 1900. He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on +the 28th of February 1905. He published various volumes, +including <i>The Constitution of the United States at the End of the +First Century</i> (1895), and <i>Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public +Affairs</i> (2 vols., New York, 1902).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUVARDIA,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse +shrubs, belonging to the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of +tropical America. The flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered +clusters; the corolla has a large tube and a spreading +four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms include a number of +hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings taken off in +April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame with a +close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly +into 3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth +leaf-mould and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature +of 70° by night and 80° during the day; shade when required; +syringe overhead in the afternoon and close the house +with sun-heat. The plants should be topped to ensure a bushy +habit, and as they grow must be shifted into 6-in. or 7-in. pots. +After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may remain till +the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space. +They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants +put at once in a temperature of about 70° at night, with a few +degrees higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others +are moved into heat to supply flowers in succession through the +winter and spring.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1753-1832), French admiral, +son of a captain in the service of the French East India Company, +was born on the 23rd of April 1753. He went to sea at the age of +twelve with his father. Bouvet served in the East Indies in the +famous campaign of 1781-83 under the command of Suffren, +but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of the French +Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side. Murder +and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the +monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet’s experience were +valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command +of the “Audacieux” (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic. +In the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral, +and he commanded a division in the fleet which fought the battle +of the 1st of June 1794 against Lord Howe. Until the close of +1796 he continued in command of a squadron in the French +Channel fleet. In the December of that year he was entrusted +with the van division of the fleet which was sent from Brest to +attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in +the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the +French as soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence +which he had not been designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found +himself at daybreak on the 17th of December separated with +nine sail of the line from the rest of the fleet, opened his secret +orders, and found that he was to make his way to Mizen Head. +He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers, and on +the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of +the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of +December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry +Bay. On the 24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his +fleet. The continued storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and +the awkwardness of the French crews, made it impossible to land +the troops he had with him. On the evening of the 25th the storm +increased to such a pitch of violence that the frigate in which +Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea. The wind +moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of +the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage, +steered for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797. +His fortune had been very much that of his colleagues in this +storm-tossed expedition, and on the whole he had shown more +energy than most of them. He was wrong, however, in thinking +that all his squadron had failed to keep their anchorage in Bantry +Bay. The government, displeased by his precipitate return to +Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards. He was +compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon +restored him to the service, and he commanded the squadron +sent to occupy Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he +had no further service, and lived in obscurity till his death on +the 21st of July 1832.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Tronde, <i>Batailles navales de la France</i>, vols. ii. and iii., and James, +<i>Naval History</i>, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of June and the +expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the expedition +in Tronde’s <i>English in Ireland</i>, and it is dealt with in Admiral +Colomb’s <i>Naval Warfare</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUVIER, JOHN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in +Codogno, France, in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers +(his mother was a member of the well-known Benezet family), +emigrated to America and settled in Philadelphia, and after +varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop and as a country +editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having become a +citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing +in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from +1838 until his death was an associate justice of the court of +criminal sessions in that city. He is best known for his able +legal writings. His <i>Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution +and Laws of the United States of America and of the Several States of +the American Union</i> (1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis +Rawle, under the title of <i>Bouvier’s Law Dictionary</i>, 2 vols., 1897) +has always been a standard. He published also an edition of <i>Bacon’s +Abridgement of the Law</i> (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of +American law entitled <i>The Institutes of American Law</i> (4 vols., 1851; +new ed. 2 vols., 1876).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOUVINES,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a village on the French-Belgian frontier between +Lille and Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the +middle ages, fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces +of Philip Augustus, king of France, and those of the coalition +formed against him, of which the principal members were the +emperor and King John of England. The plan of campaign +seems to have been designed by King John, who was the soul of +the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span> +the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the +princes of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should +at the right moment march upon Paris from the north. John’s +part in the general strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in +the north moved slowly. While John, after two inroads, turned +back to his Guienne possessions on the 3rd of July, it was not +until three weeks later that the emperor concentrated his forces at +Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip Augustus had countermarched +northward and concentrated an army at Péronne. +Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to +get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle +(July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque— +the same plain on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of +Willems was fought. The imperial army accepted the challenge +and drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy +cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre, +supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The +total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot. +The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took +ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation, +cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the <i>milice des communes</i>, +in the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme +in rear of the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry +fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knightly +gallantry were more noticeable than any attempt at combined +action. The fighting was more serious between the two centres; +the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost +the best in existence, drove in the French; Philip led the cavalry +reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long +and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and +narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings. +In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had +thoroughly defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and +William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, the leader of this corps, +was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the warlike bishop of +Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the other wing, where +the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Count +Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the +centre the battle was now between the two mounted reserves led +respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here too +the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved +only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day +was already decided in favour of the French when their wings +began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. +The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of +Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of +seven hundred Brabançon pikemen, and not only defied every +attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges +or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long +after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron +was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand +men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the <i>mêlée</i>; and the +prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William +Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. +The killed amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, +and many thousands of foot on either side, of whom no accurate +account can be given.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Oman, <i>History of the Art of War</i>, vii. pp. 457-480; also +Köhler, <i>Kriegsgeschichte, &c</i>., i. 140, and Delpech, <i>Tactique au +XIII siècle</i>, 127.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOVEY BEDS,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and +lignite, 200-300 ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from +Bovey Tracey to Newton Abbot in Devonshire, England. +The deposit is evidently the result of the degradation of the +neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt laid down +in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains +from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same +geological horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland. +Starkie Gardiner, however, who subsequently examined the +flora, showed that it bore a close resemblance to that of the +Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in this view he is supported +by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made for the +extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery and +similar purposes. The lignite or “Bovey Coal” has at times +been burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen’s +cottages, but it is not economical.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Gardiner, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and +O. Heer, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1862; C. Reid, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> lii., 1896, p. 490, +and <i>loc. cit.</i> liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is given +by A.W. Clayden, <i>The History of Devonshire Scenery</i> (London, 1906), +pp. 159-168.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOVIANUM,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1) +<span class="sc">Undecimanorum</span> [<i>Boiano</i>], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites, +9 m. N.W. of Saepinum and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the +important road from Beneventum to Corfinium, which connected +the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The original city occupied +the height (Civita) above the modern town, where remains of +Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably +founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat +of the Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the +name <i>Undecimanorum</i> when Vespasian settled the veterans +of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its remains have been covered +by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the mountains. Comparatively +few inscriptions have been discovered. (2) <span class="sc">Vetus</span> +(near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of +Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (<i>Corpus Inscrip. +Lat.</i> ix. Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni. +It lay in a remote situation among the mountains, and where +Bovianum is mentioned the reference is generally to Bovianum +Undecimanorum. Remains of fortifications and lower down of +a temple and a theatre (cf. <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1903, 154)— +the latter remarkable for the fine preservation of the stone seats +of the three lowest rows of the auditorium—are to be seen. No +less than eight Oscan inscriptions have been found.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOVIDAE,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant +mammals typified by the common ox (<i>Bos taurus</i>), and specially +characterized by the presence on the skulls of the males or of +both sexes of a pair of bony projections, or cores, covered in life +with hollow sheaths of horn, which are never branched, and at all +events after a very early stage of existence are permanently +retained. From this, which is alone sufficient for diagnostic +purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For other +characteristics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pecora</a></span>. The <i>Bovidae</i> comprise a great +number of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep, +goats, antelopes and certain other kinds which come under +neither of these designations. In stature they range from the +size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and their horns vary +in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of the oribi +and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped structures +borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu +and other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the +<i>Bovidae</i> present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or +<i>Cervidae</i>. Both of these families are distributed over the whole +of the northern hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent +from Africa south of the Sahara and well represented in South +America, the Bovidae are unknown in the latter area, but are +extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither group is represented +in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of the <i>Bovidae</i>. +The present family doubtless originated in the northern half of +the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the +Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been +but poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.</p> + +<p>The <i>Bovidae</i> are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies, +each of which is briefly noticed in the present article, +while fuller mention of some of the more important representatives +of these is made in other articles.</p> + +<p>The first section is that of the <i>Bovinae</i>, which includes buffaloes, +bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built +ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle +broad, moist and naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands, +and a large dewlap often developed in the males; while the tail +is long and generally tufted, although in one instance longhaired +throughout. The horns are of nearly equal size in both +sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull, and may +be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span> +less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous +knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface. +The tall upper molars have inner columns. The group is represented +throughout the Old World as far east as Celebes, and has +one living North American representative. All the species may +be included in the genus <i>Bos</i>, with several subgeneric divisions +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anoa</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurochs</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bantin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bison</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buffalo</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaur</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gayal</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ox</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yak</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The second group, or <i>Caprinae</i>, includes the sheep and goats, +which are smaller animals than most of the <i>Bovidae</i>, generally +with horns in both sexes, but those of the females small. In +the males the horns are usually compressed and triangular, +with transverse ridges or knobs, and either curving backwards +or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and when face-glands +are present these are small and insignificant; while +the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the <i>Bovinae</i>, there are +frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ +from those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack +a distinct inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull +it is small. The genera are <i>Ovis</i> (sheep), <i>Capra</i> (goats) and +<i>Hemitragus</i> (tahr). Sheep and goats are very nearly related, +but the former never have a beard on the chin of the males, +which are devoid of a strong odour; and their horns are typically +of a different type. There are, however, several more or less +transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats. The group +is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in +the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance +south into the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Udad</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argali</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goat</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouflon</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tahr</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The musk-ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>) alone represents the family +<i>Ovibovinae</i>, which is probably most nearly related to the next +group (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Musk-ox</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Next come the <i>Rupicaprinae</i>, which include several genera +of mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European +chamois (<i>Rupicapra</i>); the other genera being the Asiatic serow, +goral and takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain +goat. These ruminants are best described as goat-like antelopes. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamois</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goral</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rocky Mountain Goat</a></span>, +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serow</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Takin</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Under the indefinable term “antelope” (<i>q.v.</i>) may be included +the seven remaining sections, namely <i>Tragelaphinae</i> (kudu and +eland), <i>Hippotraginae</i> (sable antelope and oryx), <i>Antilopinae</i> +(black-buck, gazelles, &c.), <i>Cervicaprinae</i> (reedbuck and waterbuck), +<i>Neotraginae</i> (klipspringer and steinbok), <i>Cephalophinae</i> +(duikers and four-horned antelopes) and <i>Bubalinae</i> (hartebeests +and gnus).</p> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), English judge, a +younger son of Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at +All-hallows, Barking, on the 26th of May 1814. On leaving +school he was articled to a firm of solicitors, but entering the +Middle Temple he practised for a short time as a special pleader +below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the home circuit. +His special training in a solicitor’s office, and its resulting connexion, +combined with a thorough knowledge of the details of +engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing +firm in the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive +patent and commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in +1857 was elected M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons +he was very zealous for legal reform, and the Partnership Law +Amendment Act 1865, which he helped to pass, is always referred +to as Bovill’s Act. In 1866 he was appointed solicitor-general, +an office which he vacated on becoming chief justice of the +common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in November of the +same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of November +1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable +knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the +bench his painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as +well as his great patience and courtesy, gained for him the +respect and affection of the profession.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOVILLAE,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via +Appia (which in 293 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was already paved up to this point), +11 m. S.E. of Rome. It was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears +as one of the thirty cities of the Latin league; after the destruction +of Alba Longa the <i>sacra</i> were, it was held, transferred to +Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in inscriptions <i>virgines +Vestales Albanae</i> are mentioned, and the inhabitants of Bovillae +are always spoken of as <i>Albani Longani Bovillenses</i>) and that of +the <i>gens Iulia</i>. The existence of this hereditary worship led to an +increase in its importance when the Julian house rose to the +highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus’s dead +body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 16 the shrine of +the family worship was dedicated anew,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and yearly games in the +circus instituted, probably under the charge of the <i>sodales +Augustales</i>, whose official calendar has been found here. In +history Bovillae appears as the scene of the quarrel between +Milo and Clodius, in which the latter, whose villa lay above the +town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed. The site is not +naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications cannot be +traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa as +a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which +would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak +position. Remains of buildings of the imperial period—the +circus, a small theatre, and edifices probably connected with the +post-station—may still be seen on the south-west edge of the +Via Appia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Canina, <i>Via Appia</i> (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby +in <i>Mélanges de l’école française de Rome</i> (1903), p. 395.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOW <a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>(pronounced “bō”), a common Teutonic word for +anything bent<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (O. Eng. <i>boƺa</i>; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. <i>bogo</i>, +M.H.G. <i>boge</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>bogen</i>; from O. Teut. stem <i>bug</i>- of +<i>beugan</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>biegen</i>, to bend). Thus it is found in English +compound words, <i>e.g.</i> “elbow,” “rainbow,” “bow-net,” “bow-window,” +“bow-knot,” “saddle-bow,” and by itself as the +designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English use +of “bow,” or stone-bow, for “arch,” now obsolete, survives in +certain names of churches and places, <i>e.g.</i> Bow church (St +Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the +“Stratford-atte-Bowe” of Chaucer). “Bow,” however, is still +the designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting +arrows (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archery</a></span>), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (<i>i.e.</i> a +double-looped knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (<i>e.g.</i> the bow +of a watch), certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent +piece of wood with the ends drawn together by a string, used for +drilling, turning, &c., in various crafts, and the stick strung +with horsehair by means of which the strings of instruments of +the violin family are set in vibration. It is with this last that +the present article is solely concerned.</p> + +<p><i>Bow in Music</i>.—The modern bow (Fr. <i>archet</i>; Ger. <i>Bogen</i>; +Ital. <i>arco</i>) consists of five parts, <i>i.e.</i> the “stick,” the screw or +“ferrule,” the “nut,” the “hair” and the “head.” The stick, +in high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (<i>Caesalpinia +brasiliensis</i>), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity +and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American +oak is used, and for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich +in colouring matter and straight in the grain is selected, and +the stick is usually cut from a templet so as to obtain the +accurate taper, which begins about 4¼ in. from the nut, decreasing +according to regular proportions from <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. at the screw to <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> at +the back of the head. The stick is cut absolutely straight and +parallel along its whole length with the fibre of the wood; it +is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the hair and +has assumed the elegant <i>cambrure</i> first given to it by François +Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care, for +if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual +resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span> +straight line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks +are now of either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped +or covered with gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the +nut in order to afford a firm grip. The length of the stick was +definitely and finally fixed by François Tourte at 29.34 to +29.528 in.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at +19 cm. (7½ to 7¾ in.) from the nut;<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in the violoncello bow the hair +measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of gravity +is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7¼ in.) from the nut. In consequence +of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it necessary to readjust +the proportions and relative height of head and nut, in order +to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the stick, and at the +necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to avoid contact +between stick and strings in bowing. In order to counterbalance +the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep the centre +of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with metal inlays +or ornamental designs.</p> + +<p>The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the +hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of +the hair. This screw, about 3¼ in. long, hidden within the stick, runs +through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which is +firmly embedded in the nut.</p> + +<p>The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original +purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the +stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole +nut slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw, +thus tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a +little cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is +firmly fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought +out and flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the +pressure of a flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along +a mortised groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut. +Bows having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte +at the instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were +known as <i>archets à recouvrements</i>.</p> + +<p>The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the +150 to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the +bow must be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the +pound, and must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one +hair in ten is perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade +bow. Experience determines the right number of hairs, for if the +ribbon be too thick it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin +the friction is not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fétis +gives 175 to 250 as the number used in the modern bow,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and Julius +Rühlmann 110 to 120.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Tourte attached the greatest importance +to the hairing of the bow, and bestowed quite as much attention +upon it as upon the stick. He subjected the hair to the following +process of cleansing: first it was thoroughly scoured with soap and +water to remove all grease, then steeped in bran-water, freed from +all heterogeneous matter still adhering to it, and finally rinsed in +pure water slightly blued. When passed between the fingers in +the direction from root to tip, the hair glides smoothly and offers +no resistance, but passed in the opposite direction it feels rough, +suggesting a regular succession of minute projections. The outer +epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of minute scales which +produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when the hair is drawn +across the strings; the force and uniformity of these shocks, which +produce series of vibrations of equal persistency, is considerably +heightened by the application of rosin to the hair. The particles +of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus accentuating the +projections and the energy of the attack or “bite” upon the strings. +With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and then no matter +how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit musical sounds— +it is then “played out” and must be re-haired. The organic construction +of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the bow, to lay +the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down strokes may +be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is wound +round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is afterwards +covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a solid mass.</p> + +<p>The head, 1 in. long and <span class="spp">7</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. wide at the plate, is cut in one piece +with the stick, an operation which requires delicate workmanship; +otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during a <i>sforzando</i> +passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance similar +to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is immovably +fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a metal or +ivory plate.</p> + +<p>The model bow here described, elaborated by François Tourte as +long ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fétis,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> or between +1785 and 1790 according to Vidal,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has not since been surpassed.</p> +</div> + +<p>That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole +becomes evident when we consider the history of the forerunners +of the viol family: without the bow the ancestor of the violin +would have remained a guitar; the bow would not have reached +its present state of perfection had it been required only for instruments +of the <i>rebec</i> and <i>vielle</i> type. As soon as the possibilities +of the violin were realized, as a solo instrument capable, through the +agency of the bow, of expressing the emotions of the performer, +the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in earnest until it was +capable of responding to every shade of delicate thought and +feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted development +of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had +been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of +Tourte until more than a century and a half after the Cremona +master had given us the violin.</p> + +<p>The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of +conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have +coincided with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th +century, and the consequent impetus their superior culture gave +to arts and sciences in the south-west of Europe. We have, +however, no well-authenticated representation of the bow before +the 9th century in Europe; the earliest is the bow illustrated +along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin Gerbert<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a>, the +representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery of St Blaise, +dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other hand, +Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> reveals acquaintance +with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary +specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from +the East, and was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia +Minor and the Arabs from a common source—probably India, by +way of Persia. The earliest representation of a bow yet +discovered is to be found among the fine frescoes in one of the +chapels of the monastery of Bawit<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> in Egypt. The mural +paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering +a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject +depicted is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean +Clédat to some date not later than the 8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but more +probably the work of a 6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an +instrument, which appears to be a rebab, against his chin, in the +act of bowing and stopping the strings. The bow is similar in +shape to one shown in the Psalter of Labeo Notker, Leipzig, +10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian sculptures of +the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist <i>stupas</i> of +Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the Yusafzai +district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which +stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has +remained a primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu +tradition assigns its invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon, +and the instrument for which it was invented was called <i>ravanastron</i>; +a primitive instrument of that name is still in use in +Hindustan<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a>. F.J. Fétis<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a>, Antoine Vidal<a name="fa12k" id="fa12k" href="#ft12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a>, Edward +Heron-Allen<a name="fa13k" id="fa13k" href="#ft13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a>, and others have given the question some consideration, +and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther are referred +to their works.</p> + +<p>There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow +in primitive times. The earliest bow known in Europe was +associated with the rebab (<i>q.v.</i>), the most widely used bowed +instrument until the 12th century. The development of this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span> +instrument can be traced with some degree of certainty, but it is +quite impossible to decide at what date or in what place the use +of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly in +Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied +to the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only +from the time when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar +(<i>q.v.</i>), which then became the guitar fiddle (<i>q.v.</i>), the immediate +forerunner of the viols.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:498px" src="images/img340a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">Drawn from the ivory cover of the <i>Lothair Psalter</i>, +by permission of Sir Thomas Brooke.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Earliest Bow of the Crémaillère Type (<i>c.</i> 11th century).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to +provide some sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or +string of the bow, such as is shown in +the MS. translation of the Psalms by +Labeo Notker, late 10th century, in +the University library, Leipzig.<a name="fa14k" id="fa14k" href="#ft14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The +length of the handle was often greatly +exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of +the artist. Another handle (see Bodleian +Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th century) +was in the form of a hilt +with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in +which the arched stick and the hair +were both fixed. The first development +of importance influencing the +technique of stringed instruments +was the attempt to find some device +for controlling the tension of the +hair. The contrivance known as +<i>crémaillère</i>, which was the first step +in this direction, seems to have been +foreshadowed in the bows drawn in +a quaint MS. of the 14th century +in the British Museum (Sloane 3983, +fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming +an obtuse angle with the handle +of the bow is a contrivance shaped +like a spear-head which presumably +served some useful purpose; if it +had notches (which would be too +small to show in the drawing), and +the hair of the bow was finished with +a loop, then we have here an early +example of a device for controlling the tension. Another bow in +the same MS. has two round knobs on the stick which may be +assumed to have served the same purpose.</p> + +<p>A very early example of the <i>crémaillère</i> bow (fig. 1) occurs on +a carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian +MS. Psalter of Lothair (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825), for some time known +as the Ellis and White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir +Thomas Brooke at Armitage Bridge House. The carved figure +of King David, assigned from its characteristic pose and the +treatment of the drapery to the 11th century, holds a stringed +instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which occurs twice in other +Carolingian MSS.<a name="fa15k" id="fa15k" href="#ft15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> of the 9th century, but copied here without +understanding, as though it were a lyre with many strings. +The artist has added a bow with <i>crémaillère</i> attachment, which +is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th century. +The earliest representation of a <i>crémaillère</i> bow, with this +exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc, +who merely states that it was copied from a painting.<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Fétis +(op. cit. p. 117) figures a <i>crémaillère</i> bow which he styles +“Bassani, 1680.” Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a <i>tromba marina</i>, +with the hair and stick bound together with waxed cord. The +hair appears to be kept more or less tense by means of a wedge +of wood or other material forced in between stick and hair, the +latter bulging slightly at this point like the string of an archery +bow when the arrow is in position; this contrivance may be +due to the fancy of the artist.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:920px; height:168px" src="images/img340b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill & Sons.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed +to the elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the +best authority (Vuillaume and Fétis), it might be imagined +that some of the bows figured by Mersenne,<a name="fa17k" id="fa17k" href="#ft17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> the bass viol +bow KL (p. 184), and another KLM (p. 192), had a movable +nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn astride the stick as in +the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the construction of the bow, +which consists of three parts: the <i>bois, bâton</i> or <i>brin</i>, +the <i>soye</i>, and the <i>demi-roüe</i> or <i>hausse</i>. The term +“half-wheel” clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round +so as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such +ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer +that the drawing is misleading and that the very decided button +was only meant for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are +informed further that <i>la soye</i> was in reality hairs from the horse +or some other animal, of which from 80 to 100 were used for each +bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used on the weak beats, 2, 4, +6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats, 1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185). +The same practice prevailed in England in 1667, when Christopher +Simpson wrote the <i>Division Viol</i>. He gives information +concerning the construction of the bow in these words: “the +viol-bow for division should be stiff but not heavy. The length +(betwixt the two places where the hairs are fastened at each +end) about seven-and-twenty inches. The nut should be short, +the height of it about a finger’s breadth or a little more” (p. 2).</p> + +<p>As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of +the technique of the violin, marked modifications in the +construction of the bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began +during the second decade of the 18th century to gauge the +capabilities of the bow, introduced further improvements, +such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight contour, and a +shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The Tourtes, +father and son, accomplished the rest.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed: +J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered +an inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific +basis the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all +his bows to conform to strict ratio;<a name="fa18k" id="fa18k" href="#ft18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Dominique Peccate, +apprenticed to J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his +name and “Paris” on the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur, +1760-1832; François Lupot, 1774-1837, the first to line the angular +cutting of the nut, where it slides along the stick, with a plate of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span> +metal; Simon, born 1808, who also signs his bows on the stick near +the nut; John Dodd of Richmond, the greatest English bow-maker, +who was especially renowned for his violoncello bows, though his +violin bows had the defect of being rather short.</p> + +<p>The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin +and viola, and the head and nut are deeper.</p> + +<p>The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning +of the 19th century were the <i>Dragonetti</i>, maintaining the arch +of the medieval bows, and the <i>Bottesini</i>, shaped and held like the +violin bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining +towards the bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire +under Habeneck about 1830; the great artist himself sent over +the model from London. Illustrations of both bows are given by +Vidal (<i>op. cit.</i> pl. xviii.).</p> + +<p>Messrs W.E. Hill & Sons probably possess the finest and most +representative collection of bows in the world.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> “Bow,” the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from +this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way, +as “bough,” an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common +Teutonic word, seen in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>, Ger. <i>Bug</i>, shoulder, and is +cognate with Gr. <span class="grk" title="paechus">πῆχυς</span>, forearm. The sense of “shoulder” of +a ship is not found in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>. but was probably borrowed +from Dutch or Danish. “Bow,” an inclination of the head or body, +though pronounced as “bough,” is of the same origin as “bow,” to +bend.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See F.J. Fétis, <i>Antoine Stradivari</i>, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 123.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> J. Rühlmann, <i>Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i> (Brunswick, +1882), p. 143.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 119.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Antoine Vidal, <i>Les Instruments à archet</i> (Paris, 1876-1878), +tome i. p. 269</p> + +<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>De Cantu et Musica Sacra</i> (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18; the +MS. has since perished by fire.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the +sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand +Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, <i>Gallerie Nazionali Italiane</i>, iii. +(Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and <i>Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum</i>, +Greek Psalter, dated 1066.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Jean Clédat, “Le Monastère et la nécropole de Baouît,” +in <i>Mém. de l’Inst. franç. d’archéol. orient. du Caire</i>, vol. xii. +(1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, +<i>Dict. d’archéol. chrétienne, s.v.</i> “Baouît.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For an illustration, see Sonnerat, <i>Voyage aux Indes orientales</i> +(Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> pp. 4-10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13k" id="ft13k" href="#fa13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Edward Heron-Allen, <i>Violin-making as it was and is</i> (London, 1884), +pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14k" id="ft14k" href="#fa14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele, +<i>Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau</i> (Neuburg-a-D., 1874), +pl. 5, No. 7.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15k" id="ft15k" href="#fa15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crowd</a></span> for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and +also King David in the Bible of St Paul <i>extra muros</i>, Rome +(photographic facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).</p> + +<p><a name="ft16k" id="ft16k" href="#fa16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français</i> (Paris, 1871), +vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.</p> + +<p><a name="ft17k" id="ft17k" href="#fa17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Marin Mersenne, <i>L’Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637), +pp. 184 and 192.</p> + +<p><a name="ft18k" id="ft18k" href="#fa18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Vuillaume’s diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fétis, +op. cit. pp. 125-128.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1790-1824), English +traveller and author, was born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814, +through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith, governor of the British Gold +Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership in the service of +the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape Coast. +In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a +mission to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful +diplomacy the mission succeeded in its object of securing +British control over the coast natives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +In 1818 Bowdich returned to England, and in 1819 published +an account of his mission and of the study he had made of the +barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled <i>Mission from Cape Coast +Castle to Ashantee, &c.</i> (London, 1819). His African collections +he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly attacked +the management of the African committee, and his strictures +were instrumental in leading the British government to assume +direct control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich +lived in Paris, studying mathematics and the natural sciences, +and was on intimate terms with Cuvier, Humboldt and other +savants. During his stay in France he edited several works +on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In 1822, accompanied +by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of historic +MSS., he published <i>An Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese +in ... Angola and Mozambique</i> (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich +and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape +Verde Islands, arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia, +intending to go to Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior. +But at Bathurst Bowdich died on the 10th of January 1824. +His widow published an account of his last journey, entitled +<i>Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to which is added.... A +Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its Completion, +&c.</i> (London, 1825). Bowdich’s daughter, Mrs Hutchinson Hale, +republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father’s +<i>Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1773-1838), American mathematician, +was born at Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to +his father’s business as a cooper, and afterwards apprenticed +to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics early developed +itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study Newton’s +<i>Principia</i>. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796, 1798, +1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent +navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing +his crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two +editions of Hamilton Moore’s <i>Navigation</i>, and in 1802 published +a valuable work, <i>New American Practical Navigator</i>, founded on +the earlier treatise by Moore. In 1804 he became president of a +Salem insurance company. In the midst of his active career he +undertook a translation of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> of P.S. Laplace, +with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He was offered, but +declined, the professorship of mathematics and astronomy at +Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics’ +Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts +and Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll +Bowditch (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839) +of the translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a +separate biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch +(1808-1892), a famous Boston physician.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWDLER, THOMAS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1754-1825), editor of the “family” +Shakespeare, younger son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of +independent fortune, was born at Ashley, near Bath, on the +11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the universities +of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After +four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where +he became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned +ladies. In 1800 he left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and +later on he removed to South Wales. He was an energetic +philanthropist, and carried on John Howard’s work in the +prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published <i>The Family +Shakespeare</i> “in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to +the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted +which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family.” Criticisms +of this edition appeared in the <i>British Critic</i> of April 1822. +Bowdler also expurgated Edward Gibbon’s <i>History of the Decline +and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (published posthumously, 1826); +and he issued a selection from the Old Testament for the use of +children. He died at Rhyddings, near Swansea, on the 24th of +February 1825.</p> + +<p>From Bowdler’s name we have the word to “bowdlerize,” +first known to occur in General Perronet Thompson’s <i>Letters +of a Representative to his Constituents during the Session of 1836</i>, +printed in Thompson’s <i>Exercises</i>, iv. 126. The official interpretation +is “to expurgate (a book or writing) by omitting or modifying +words or passages considered indelicate or offensive.” Both the +word and its derivatives, however, are associated with false +squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the name of Bowdler +it is worth noting that Swinburne in “Social Verse” (<i>Studies +in Prose and Poetry</i>, 1894, p. 98) said of him that “no man ever +did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it +possible to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative +children,” and stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as +“nauseous and foolish cant.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWDOIN, JAMES<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1726-1790), American political leader, +was born of French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts, +on the 7th of August 1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745, +and was a member of the lower house of the general court of +Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757 to 1774 of the Massachusetts +council, in which, according to Governor Thomas +Hutchinson, he “was without a rival,” and, on the approach +of the War of Independence, was “the principal supporter +of the opposition to the government.” From August 1775 +until the summer of 1777 he was the president of the council, +which had then become to a greater extent than formerly an +executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was +president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts, +also serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft +of the constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was +a member of a commission appointed “to revise the laws in force +in the state; to select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to +be accommodated to the present government.” From 1785 to +1787 he was governor of Massachusetts, suppressing with much +vigour Shays’ Rebellion, and failing to be re-elected largely +because it was believed that he would punish the insurrectionists +with more severity than would his competitor, John Hancock. +Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in +February 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, +his son being also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th +of November 1790. He took much interest in natural philosophy, +and presented various papers before the American Academy of +Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the founders and, from +1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College was named in +his honour.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Bowdoin</span> (1752-1811), was born in Boston +on the 22nd of September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771, +and served, at various times, as a representative, senator and +councillor of the state. From 1805 until 1808 he was the minister +plenipotentiary of the United States in Spain. He died on +Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the 11th of +October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and +apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee, +bequeathing to it his collection of paintings and drawings, +then considered the finest in the country.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1823-  ), Canadian politician, +son of John Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall, +England, on the 27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved +with his family to Belleville, Canada, where he finally became +editor and proprietor of the <i>Intelligencer</i>. He was elected grand +master of the Orange Association of British America, and was +long the exponent in the Canadian parliament of the claims +of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North Hastings +in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878 +till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John +Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership +of Sir John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From +December 1894 till April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and +endeavoured to enforce remedial legislation in the question +of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was unsuccessful, and +he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he led +the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided +over the colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was +created K.C.M.G.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> +(1835-1894), English judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835, +at Woolaston in Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher +Bowen of Hollymount, Co. Mayo, being then curate of the +parish. He was educated at Lille, Blackheath and Rugby +schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol scholarship in 1853. +At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier youth, winning +the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his time. He was +made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to +London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1861, +and while studying law he wrote regularly for the <i>Saturday +Renew</i>, and also later for the <i>Spectator</i>. For a time he had little +success at the bar, and came near to exchanging it for the career +of a college tutor, but he was induced by his friends, who recognized +his talents, to persevere. Soon after he had begun to make +his mark he was briefed against the claimant in the famous +“Tichborne Case.” Bowen’s services to his leader, Sir John +Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior +counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did +while the trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general +to that of attorney-general; and from this time his practice +became a very large one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne +trials had been great, so that his physical health became unequal +to the tasks which his zeal for work imposed upon it, and in 1879 +his acceptance of a judgeship in the queen’s bench division, on +the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him the opportunity +of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen’s intellect +hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge; +but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice +Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice +of appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and +his courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of +failing health he was able to sit more or less regularly until +August 1893, when, on the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was +made a lord of appeal in ordinary, and a baron for life, with +the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this time, however, +his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law lord +to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his +last public service consisted in presiding over the commission +which sat in October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots. +He died on the 10th of April 1894.</p> + +<p>Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who +knew him either professionally or privately. He had a polished +and graceful wit, of which many instances might be given, +although such anecdotes lose force in print. For example, when +it was suggested on the occasion of an address to Queen Victoria, +to be presented by her judges, that a passage in it, “conscious as +we are of our shortcomings,” suggested too great humility, he +proposed the emendation “conscious as we are of one another’s +shortcomings”; and on another occasion he defined a jurist +as “a person who knows a little about the laws of every country +except his own.” Lord Bowen’s judicial reputation will rest +upon the series of judgments delivered by him in the court of +appeal, which are remarkable for their lucid interpretation +of legal principles as applied to the facts and business of life. +Among good examples of his judgment may be cited that given +in advising the House of Lords in <i>Angus</i> v. <i>Dalton</i> (6 App. Cas. +740), and those delivered in <i>Abrath</i> v. <i>North Eastern Railway</i> +(11 Q.B.D. 440); <i>Thomas</i> v. <i>Quartermaine</i> (18 Q.B.D. 685); +<i>Vagliano</i> v. <i>Bank of England</i> (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared +the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be +wrong in its conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords); +and the <i>Mogul Steamship Company</i> v. <i>M’Gregor</i> (23 Q.B.D. 598). +Of Lord Bowen’s literary works besides those already indicated +may be mentioned his translation of Virgil’s <i>Eclogues</i>, and +<i>Aeneid</i>, books i.-vi., and his pamphlet, <i>The Alabama Claim and +Arbitration considered from a Legal Point of View.</i> Lord Bowen +married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest daughter of James +Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a +daughter.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Lord Bowen</i>, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, FRANCIS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1811-1890), American philosophical +writer and educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, +on the 8th of September 1811. He graduated at +Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at Phillips Exeter +Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and instructor +at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he settled +in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor +of the <i>North American Review</i> from 1843 to 1854. In 1850 +he was appointed professor of history at Harvard; but his +appointment was disapproved by the board of overseers on +account of reactionary political opinions he had expressed in a +controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning the +Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford +professor of natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity +was approved, and he occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he +was a member of the Federal commission appointed to consider +currency reform, and wrote (1877) the minority report, in which +he opposed the restoration of the double standard and the remonetization +of silver. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, on the +22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives of Sir William +Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin Lincoln +in Jared Sparks’ “Library of American Biography”; <i>Critical +Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative +Philosophy</i> (1842); <i>Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical +and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion</i> (1849); +<i>The Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition, +Resources and Institutions of the American People</i> (1856); <i>A +Treatise on Logic</i> (1864); <i>American Political Economy</i> (1870); +<i>Modern Philosophy from Descartes to Schopenhauer and Hartmann</i> +(1877); and <i>Gleanings from a Literary Life, 1838-1880</i> (1880).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1821-1899), British +colonial governor, eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards +rector of Taughboyne, Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of +November 1821. Educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity +College, Oxford, he took a first class in classics in 1844, and was +elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he was chosen president +of the university of Corfu. Having served as secretary of government +in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859 the first +governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated +from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of +Queensland and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but +incurred some unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of +inconvertible paper money during the financial crisis of 1866. +In 1867 he was made governor of New Zealand, in which position +he was successful in reconciling the Maoris to the English rule, +and saw the end of the struggle between the colonists and the +natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen endeavoured +to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became +governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of +governor of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He +was made a K.C.M.G. in 1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and +received honorary degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge. In +December 1887 he was appointed chief of the royal commission +which was sent to Malta with regard to the new constitution for +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span> +the island, and all the recommendations made by him were +adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899, +having been married twice, and having had a family of one son +and four daughters. Bowen wrote <i>Ithaca in 1850</i> (London, +1854), translated into Greek in 1859; and <i>Mount Athos, +Thessaly and Epirus</i> (London, 1852); and he was the author +of Murray’s <i>Handbook for Greece</i> (London, 1854).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A selection of his letters and despatches, <i>Thirty Years of Colonial +Government</i> (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWER, WALTER<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born +about 1385 at Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the +Firth of Forth) from 1418, was one of the commissioners for the +collection of the ransom of James I., king of Scots, in 1423 and +1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to Paris on the business of +the marriage of the king’s daughter to the dauphin. He played +an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in the defence of +Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged on his +work the <i>Scotichronicon</i>, on which his reputation now chiefly rests. +This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir +David Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the <i>Chronica +Gentis Scotorum</i> of Fordun. The completed work, in its original +form, consisted of sixteen books, of which the first five and a +portion of the sixth (to 1163) are Fordun’s—or mainly his, for +Bower added to them at places. In the later books, down to the +reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by Fordun’s <i>Gesta Annalia</i>, +but from that point to the close the work is original and of +contemporary importance, especially for James I., with whose +death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining +years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or “abridgment” +of this work, which is known as the <i>Book of Cupar</i>, and is +preserved in the Advocates’ library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7). +Other abridgments, not by Bower, were made about the same +time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick Russell, a Carthusian of +Perth) preserved in the Advocates’ library (MS. 35. 6. 7) and +another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in the +same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the +<i>Scotichronicon</i>, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in +the British Museum, in <i>The Black Book of Paisley</i>, and in Harl. +MS. 712; one in the Advocates’ library, from which Walter +Goodall printed his edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library +of Corpus Christi, Cambridge.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Goodall’s is the only complete modern edition of Bower’s text. +See also W.F. Skene’s edition of Fordun in the series of <i>Historians +of Scotland</i> (1871). Personal references are to be found in the +<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, iii. and iv. The best recent account is +that by T.A. Archer in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biog.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1797-1877), English naturalist +and palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the +14th of July 1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother +to his father’s distillery, in which he was actively engaged until +1847. In early years astronomy and natural history, especially +botany, engaged much of his attention; he became an enthusiastic +worker at the microscope, studying the structure of shells, +corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also formed an extensive +collection of fossils. The organic remains of the London Clay +attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he and six +other workers founded “The London Clay Club”—the members +comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875), +author of <i>The Eocene Mollusca</i> (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V. +Wood, John Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell, +surgeon of Highgate (1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In +1840 Bowerbank published <i>A History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds +of the London Clay</i>, and two years later he was elected F.R.S. In +1847 he suggested the establishment of a society for the publication +of undescribed British Fossils, and thus originated the +Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he did much +to encourage a love of natural science by being “at home” every +Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and +afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his +museum, his microscopes, and his personal assistance were at +the service of every earnest student. In the study of sponges he +became specially interested, and he was author of <i>A Monograph +of the British Spongiadae</i> in 4 vols., published by the Ray Society, +1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St Leonards, where he died on +the 8th of March 1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWIE, JAMES<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in +Logan county, Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about +1802, and in 1818-1820 was engaged with his brothers, John J. +and Rezin P., in smuggling negro slaves into the United States +from the headquarters of the pirates led by Jean Lafitte on +Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and took a +prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the +battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass +Fight (1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see +<span class="sc">San Antonio</span>), but was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final +assault on the 6th of March 1836, and was among the last to be +butchered. Bowie’s name is now perpetuated by a county in +north-eastern Texas, and by its association with that of the +famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did not +invent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOW-LEG<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (<i>Genu Varum</i>), a deformity characterized by separation +of the knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there +is an outward curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times +an interior bend of the latter bone. At birth all children are +more or less bandy-legged. The child lies on its nurse’s knee +with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibiae and +femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended, +although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space +between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual +change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; +the femora slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints; +the tibiae become straight; and the sole of the foot +faces almost directly downwards. While these changes are +occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage, +are gradually becoming ossified, and in a normal child by the +time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared, both by their +general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form +them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child +attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement +to walk before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the +result will necessarily be either an arrest in the development +of the limbs or an increase of the bandy condition. If the child +is weakly, either rachitic or suffering from any ailment which +prevents the due ossification of the bones, or is improperly fed, +the bandy condition may remain persistent. Thus the chief +cause of this deformity is rickets (<i>q.v.</i>). The remaining causes +are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism, +the condition being very likely to supervene after accidents +involving the condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the +most important thing is to treat the constitutional disease, at +the same time instructing the mother never to place the child +on its feet. In many cases this is quite sufficient in itself to effect +a cure, but matters can be hastened somewhat by applying +splints. When in older patients the deformity arises either +from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that of +operation.</p> + +<p>A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known +as <i>knock-knee</i> (or <i>Genu Valgum</i>). In this condition there is close +approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the +feet, the patient being unable to bring the feet together when +standing. Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the +double form is the more common. There are two varieties of +this deformity: (i.) that due to rickets and occurring in young +children (the rachitic form), and (ii.) that met with in adolescents +and known as the static form. In young children it is practically +always due to rickets, and the constitutional disease must be +most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially in these +cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases the body +weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if +quite young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated +several times a day. Where the child is a little older and it is more +difficult to keep him off his feet, long splints should be applied +from the axilla or waist to a point several inches below the level +of the foot. It is only by making the splints sufficiently long +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span> +that a naturally active child can be kept at rest. The little +patient should live in the open air as much as possible.</p> + +<p>The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young +adolescents, especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers, +and young people who have outgrown their strength, yet have +to carry heavy weights. Normally in the erect posture the weight +of the body is passed through the outer condyle of the femur +rather than the inner, and this latter is lengthened to keep the +plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws considerable +strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and +after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles +of the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus +the ligament gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue +mobility from side to side. If the condition be not attended to, +the outer condyle becomes gradually atrophied, owing to the +increased weight transmitted through it, and the inner condyle +becomes lengthened. These changes are the direct outcome +of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure results in +increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth. +The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth +that takes place in the child that is confined to bed during +a prolonged illness. The distorted, stunted, shortened and +fashionable foot of the Chinese lady is an example of the latter. +Flat-foot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Club-Foot</a></span>) and lateral curvature of the spine, +scoliosis, are often associated with this form of Genu Valgum, +the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the latter being +compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg, though +often found merely in association with the more common bilateral +variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general +health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But +in the more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This +usually consists of an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee, +attached above to a pelvic band and below to the heel of the +boot. By the gradual tightening of padded straps passing round +the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees into a more +natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age +that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of +operation.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, SAMUEL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1826-1878), American journalist, was +born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826. +He was the son of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city, +who had established the weekly <i>Springfield Republican</i> in 1824. +The daily issue was begun in 1844, as an evening newspaper, +afterwards becoming a morning journal. To its service Samuel +Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception of a brief +period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston), +and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour, +incisiveness and independence of its editorial utterances, and +the concise and convenient arrangement of its local and general +news-matter. During the controversies affecting slavery and +resulting in the Civil War, Bowles supported, in general, the Whig +and Republican parties, but in the period of Reconstruction +under President Grant his paper represented anti-administration +or “Liberal Republican” opinions, while in the disputed election +of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and subsequently +became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield +on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently, +the <i>Republican</i> office was a sort of school for young +journalists, especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness +of style, one of his maxims being “put it all in the first paragraph.” +Bowles published two books of travel, <i>Across the +Continent</i> (1865) and <i>The Switzerland of America</i> (1869), which +were combined into one volume under the title <i>Our New West</i> +(1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief of +the <i>Republican</i> by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A eulogistic <i>Life and Times of Samuel Bowles</i> (2 vols., New York, +1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American +political movements after the compromise of 1850.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1762-1850), English poet and +critic, was born at King’s Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which +his father was vicar, on the 24th of September 1762. At the age +of fourteen he entered Winchester school, the head-master at +the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he left as captain +of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where +he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the chancellor’s +prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small +quarto volume, <i>Fourteen Sonnets</i>, which met with considerable +favour at the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and +his young contemporaries. The <i>Sonnets</i> even in form were a +revival, a return to the older and purer poetic style, and by their +grace of expression, melodious versification, tender tone of feeling +and vivid appreciation of the life and beauty of nature, stood +out in strong contrast to the elaborated commonplaces which +at that time formed the bulk of English poetry. After taking +his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was appointed +in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he +received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and +in 1804 was presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire. +In the same year he was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal +stall in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1818 he was made +chaplain to the prince regent, and in 1828 he was elected +residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at Salisbury on the +7th of April 1850, aged 88.</p> + +<p>The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high +standard, though all are distinguished by purity of imagination, +cultured and graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling. +The most extensive were <i>The Spirit of Discovery</i> (1804), which was +mercilessly ridiculed by Byron; <i>The Missionary of the Andes</i> +(1815); <i>The Grave of the Last Saxon</i> (1822); and <i>St John in +Patmos</i> (1833). Bowles is perhaps more celebrated as a critic +of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an edition of +Pope’s works with notes and an essay on the poetical character +of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to poetic +imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since +recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the +time with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his +style. The “Pope and Bowles” controversy brought into +sharp contrast the opposing views of poetry, which may be +roughly described as the natural and the artificial. Bowles +maintained that images drawn from nature are poetically finer +than those drawn from art; and that in the highest kinds of +poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general +or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society. +These positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell, +Roscoe and others of less note, while for a time Bowles was +almost solitary. Hazlitt and the <i>Blackwood</i> critics, however, +came to his assistance, and on the whole Bowles had reason +to congratulate himself on having established certain principles +which might serve as the basis of a true method of poetical +criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by +example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose +works from his prolific pen was a <i>Life of Bishop Ken</i> (2 vols., +1830-1831).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Poetical Works</i> were collected in 1855, with a memoir by +G. Gilfillan.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLINE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (a word found in most Teutonic languages, +probably connected with the “bow” of a ship), a nautical +term for a rope leading from the edge of a sail to the bows, +for the purpose of steadying the sail when sailing close to the +wind—“on a bowline.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLING<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bulla</i>, a globe, through O. Fr. <i>boule</i>, ball), +an indoor game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine +or ten wooden pins. It has been played for centuries in Germany +and the Low Countries, where it is still in high favour, but attains +its greatest popularity in the United States, whence it was +introduced in colonial times from Holland. The Dutch inhabitants +of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted +to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the +principal resort of the bowlers being the square just north of +the Battery still called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys +were made of hardened clay or of slate, but those in vogue at +present are built up of alternate strips of pine and maple wood, +about 1 × 3 in. in size, set on edge, and fastened together and +to the bed of the alley with the nicest art of the cabinet-maker. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span> +The width of the alley is 4l½ in., and its whole length about +80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line, over which +the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance is +60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. “gutter” to catch +any balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the +diamond form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th +century the game of “nine-pins” was prohibited by law, on +account of the excessive betting connected with it. This ordinance, +however, was soon evaded by the addition of a tenth +pin, resulting in the game of “ten-pins,” the pastime in vogue +to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley in the +form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the back, +then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is +placed 3 in. from the alley’s edge, back of which is the pin-pit, +10 in. deep and about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded +(often with a heavy, swinging cushion), and there are safety +corners for the pin-boys, who set up the pins, call the scores +and place the balls in the sloping “railway” which returns +them to the players’ end of the alley. The pins are made of hard +maple and are 15 in. high, 2¼ in. in diameter at their base and +15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, which +are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be +of any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16½ ℔ in +weight. They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle +finger. As many may play on a side as please, five being the +number for championship teams, though this sometimes varies. +Each player rolls three balls, called a <i>frame</i>, and ten frames +constitute a game, unless otherwise agreed upon. In first-class +matches two balls only are rolled. If all ten pins are knocked +down by the first ball the player makes a <i>strike</i>, which counts +him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls of +his next frame. If, however, he should then make another +strike, 10 more are added to his score, making 20, to which are +added the pins he may knock down with his first ball of the third +frame. This may also score a strike, making 30 as the score +of the first frame, and, should the player keep up this high +average, he will score the maximum, 300, in his ten frames. +If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is called a +<i>spare</i>, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball +of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring +is comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are +used. Of course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is +scored, but the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens +of thousands of bowling clubs in the United States and Canada +are under the jurisdiction of the American Bowling Congress, +which meets once a year to revise the rules and hold contests +for the national championships.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the +most in vogue being “Cocked Hat,” which is played with three pins, +one in the head-pin position and the others on either corner of the +back row. The pins are usually a little larger than those used in the +regular game, and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is +90, and all balls, even those going into the gutter, are in play. +“Cocked hat and Feather” is similar, except that a fourth pin is added, +placed in the centre. Other variations of bowling are “Quintet,” +in which five pins, set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler, +are used; the “Battle Game,” in which 12 can be scored by +knocking down all but the centre, or king, pin; “Head Pin and +Four Back,” in which five pins are used, one in the head-pin position +and the rest on the back line; “Four Back”; “Five Back”; +“Duck Pin”; “Head Pin,” with nine pins set up in the old-fashioned +way, and “Candle Pin,” in which thin pins tapering +towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar +to those of the regular game.</p> + +<p>The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great +Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned +game of nine-pins (<i>Kegelspiel</i>) with solid balls and the pins +set up diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made +with less care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or +marble.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Warren +county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by +W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7803; (1900) 8226, of whom +2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is served by the +Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops +here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized +or gravel roads also radiate from it to all parts of the +surrounding country, a rich agricultural and live-stock raising +region, in which there are deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural +gas, asphalt and building stone. The city is the seat of Potter +College (for girls; non-sectarian, opened 1889); of Ogden +College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary school, endowed by +the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of the +West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern +Normal School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and +removed to Bowling Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green +Business University, formerly a part of the Southern Normal +School and Business College. Bowling Green has two parks, +a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other live-stock, +tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour, lumber, +tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates +the water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green +was incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War +Bowling Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate +defence in the West, and was for some time the headquarters +of General Albert Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned, +however, after the capture by the Federals of Forts Henry +and Donelson.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wood +county, Ohio, U.S.A., 20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a +residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born); +(1910) 5222. Bowling Green is served by the Cincinnati, +Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio Central railways, and +by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake Erie, Bowling +Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from +Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region +which abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences +and business places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately +owned central hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures +are cut glass, stoves and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns, +thread-cutting machines, brooms and agricultural implements. +Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was incorporated as a +town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWLS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery, +still in vogue. It has been traced certainly to the 13th, and +conjecturally to the 12th century. William Fitzstephen +(d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket, +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing +of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on +holidays they were “exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling, +Casting of Stones [<i>in jactu lapidum</i>], and Throwing of Javelins +fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling +before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men.” +It is commonly supposed that by <i>jactus lapidum</i> Fitzstephen +meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round +stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety +of the game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used, +though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,—nevertheless +the inference seems unwarranted. The <i>jactus +lapidum</i> of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern +“putting the weight,” once even called “putting the stone.” +It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a +rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS. +of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), +contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small +cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of +the same century has a picture—crude, but spirited—which +brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures +are introduced and a jack. The first player’s bowl has come +to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his +bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric +contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first +player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, +as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player +is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century +MS. <i>Book of Prayers</i> in the Francis Douce collection in the +Bodleian library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two +persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (<i>Sports +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span> +and Pastimes</i>) suggests that the first player’s bowl may have +been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in +that case it is not clear what was the first player’s target. In +these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting +that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in +delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it +is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first +he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the +upright and the kneeling position.</p> + +<p>As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king +and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of +archery, then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it +and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III., +Richard II. and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of +gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a +weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit +attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455, +probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many +of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the +dissolute and gamesters. The word “bowls” occurs for the first +time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed +previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further +act of 1541—which was not repealed until 1845—artificers, +labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to +play bowls at any time save Christmas, and then only in their +master’s house and presence. It was further enjoined that any +one playing bowls outside of his own garden or orchard was liable +to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly +value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private +greens. But though the same statute absolutely prohibited +bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own +pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when +he played. In Mary’s reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn, +the queen or her advisers deeming the game an excuse for +“unlawful assemblies, conventicles, seditions and conspiracies.” +The scandals of the bowling alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan +London, and Stephen Gosson in his <i>School of Abuse</i> (1579) says, +“Common bowling alleys are privy moths that eat up the credit +of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are not able to weigh +down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from maintaining +their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread, +and go to bed supperless often in the year.”</p> + +<p>Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. “A little +altering of the one side,” says Robert Recorde, the mathematician, +in his <i>Castle of Knowledge</i> (1556), “maketh the bowl +to run biasse waies.” And Shakespeare (<i>Richard II</i>., Act. III. +Sc. 4) causes the queen to remonstrate, in reply to her lady’s +suggestion of a game at bowls to relieve her ennui, “’Twill make +me think the world is full of rubs, and that my fortune runs +against the bias.” This passage is interesting also as showing +that women were accustomed to play the game in those days. +It is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar +story of Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the +Armada was beating up Channel, and finishing his game before +tackling the Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as +a legitimate amusement for Sundays,—as, indeed, were many +other sports. When John Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one +Sunday, it is said that he discovered him engaged in a game; +and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of London, enjoyed +a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language +“as justly exposed his character to reproach.” The pastime +found favour with the Stuarts. In the <i>Book of Sports</i> (1618), +James I. recommended a moderate indulgence to his son, Prince +Henry, and Charles I. was an enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately +encouraging by example wagering and playing for high stakes, +habits that ultimately brought the green into as general disrepute +as the alley. It is recorded that the king occasionally visited +Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a beautiful green +at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were £1000. +He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium +of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring +Heath in Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with +couplets reciting how his majesty “drank from the bowl, and +bowl’d for what he drank.” During his stay at the Northamptonshire +village of Holdenby or Holmby—where Sir Thomas +Herbert complains the green was not well kept—Charles frequently +rode over to Lord Vaux’s place at Harrowden, or to +Lord Spencer’s at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one +account, was actually playing on the latter green when Cornet +Joyce came to Holmby to remove him to other quarters. During +this period gambling had become a mania. John Aubrey, the +antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir John Suckling, the +courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in Piccadilly, +crying, “for fear he should lose all their portions.” If the +Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay +asserts, one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans +could not suppress betting. So eminently respectable a person +as John Evelyn thought no harm in bowling for stakes, and once +played at the Durdans, near Epsom, for £10, winning match and +money, as he triumphantly notes in his <i>Diary</i> for the 14th of +August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions finding great +people “at bowles.” But in time the excesses attending the +game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it +became practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens, +like the alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and +gardens attached to taverns.</p> + +<p>After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat +unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue +of curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf, +the Scottish national game, it was not until well into the 19th +century that the pastime acquired popularity in that country. +It had been known in Scotland since the close of the 16th century +(the Glasgow kirk session fulminated an edict against Sunday +bowls in 1595), but greens were few and far between. There is +record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom Bicket’s green +in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and Gallowgate, +Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the grounds +of Heriot’s hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in +Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared +with the Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299, +which still uses the green on which it has played for centuries +and possesses the quaint custom of describing its master, or +president, as “sir,” and are younger even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne +club established in 1657. But the earlier clubs did nothing +towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849, however, when +many clubs had come into existence in the west and south of +Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in +Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting +a national association. This was regarded, by many, as +impracticable, but a decision of final importance was reached +when a consultative committee was appointed to draft a uniform +code of laws to govern the game. This body delegated its +functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell (1803-1884), who +prepared a code that was immediately adopted in Scotland as the +standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish bowlers saved +the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down level +greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown +grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and +found it answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set +an example of active interest which many magnates emulated. +Himself a keen bowler, he offered for competition, in 1854, a +silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all +to be played for annually. These trophies excited healthy +rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm as well +as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at +length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider +the question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover, +Scottish emigrants introduced the game wherever they +went, and colonists in Australia and New Zealand established +many clubs which, in the main, adopted Mitchell’s laws; while +clubs were also started in Canada and in the United States, in +South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan (Kobe, Yokohama, +Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took +root very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span> +intercourse with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are +strong in numbers and play.</p> + +<p>On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be +played on scientific principles. It has existed in France since +the 17th century. When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644 +he saw it played in the gardens of the Luxembourg Palace. +In the south of France it is rather popular with artisans, who, +however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and use +round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging +in a preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion +of a bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in +Italy, and, as we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva, +where John Evelyn also noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of +its vogue in Holland in the 17th century, for the painting by +David Teniers (1610-1690), in the Scottish National Gallery at +Edinburgh, is wrongly described as “Peasants playing at Skittles.” +In this picture three men are represented as having played a +bowl, while the fourth is in the act of delivering his bowl. The +game is obviously bowls, the sole difference being that an upright +peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a jack,—recalling, in +this respect, the old English form of the game already mentioned.</p> + +<p>Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last +quarter of the 19th century, but this time the lead came from +Australia. The Bowling Associations of Victoria and New +South Wales were established in 1880, and it was not until 1892 +that the Scottish Bowling Association was founded. Then in +rapid succession came several independent bodies—the Midland +Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties (1896), +the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh +(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of +regularizing the game within the territories indicated by their +titles, but it soon appeared that the multiplicity of associations +was likely to prove a hindrance rather than a help, and with +a view, therefore, to reducing the number of clashing jurisdictions +and bringing about the establishment of a single legislative +authority, the Imperial amalgamated with the English B.A. in +1905. The visits to the United Kingdom of properly organized +teams of bowlers from Australia and New Zealand in 1901 and +from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had gained +enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated +by the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial +Bowling Association (and now the property of the English B.A.) +by Mr Charles Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association. +An accredited team of bowlers from the mother country +visited Canada in 1906, and was accorded a royal welcome. +Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls is a true <i>Volksspiel</i> +is to be found in the fact that it has become municipalized. +In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in +London (through the county council), Newcastle and other +English towns, the corporations have laid down greens in public +parks and open spaces. In Scotland the public greens are +self-supporting, from a charge, which includes the use of bowls, of +one penny an hour for each player; in London the upkeep of the +greens falls on the rates, but players must provide their own bowls.</p> + +<p>There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown. +The crown has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in. +all round from the centre to the sides. This type of +green is confined almost wholly to certain of the northern +<span class="sidenote">The game.</span> +and midland counties of England, where it is popular for +single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the crown-green +game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of bowls +of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of +skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green +that constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the +rule as to the shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown +(25 yds.), there is no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds. +square forms an ideal green. The Queen’s Park and Titwood +clubs in Glasgow have each three greens, and as they can quite +comfortably play six rinks on each, it is not uncommon to see +144 players making their game simultaneously. An undersized +lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing +from corner to corner instead of up and down—the orthodox +direction. For the scientific construction of a green, the whole +ground must be excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and +thoroughly drained, and layers of different materials (gravel, +cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down before the final covering +of turf, 2½ or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is the best. It wears +longest and keeps its “spring” to the last. Surrounding the +green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not quite +on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side +next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed +with wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch +are banks generally laid with turf. A green is divided into +spaces usually from 18 to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled +“rinks”—a word which also designates each set of players—and +these are numbered in sequence on a plate fixed in the bank +at each end opposite the centre of the space. The end ditch +within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish laws, +regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices +the general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space +is further marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely +fastened flush with the turf.</p> + +<p>Every player uses four <i>lignum vitae</i> bowls in single-handed +games and (as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches. +Every bowl must have a certain amount of bias, which was +formerly obtained by loading one side with lead, but is now +imparted by the turner making one side more convex than the +other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No bowl must +have less than No. 3 bias—that is, it should draw about 6 ft. to +a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior +green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to +allow for a narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter +of the bowl shall not be less than 4½ in. nor more than 5¼ in., +and that its weight must not exceed 3½ ℔ The jack or kitty, +as the white earthenware ball to which the bowler bowls is called, +is round and 2½ to 2¾ in. in diameter. On crown-greens it is +customary to use a small biased wooden jack to give the bowler +some clue to the run of the green. The bowler delivers his bowl +with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber or cocoa-nut +fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 by 16 +in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian +clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep +both feet on the mat in the act of delivery.</p> + +<p>In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the +player being to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to +the jack than his opponent’s, or to protect a well-placed bowl, +or to dislodge a better bowl than his own. But in practice there +is every opportunity for skill. On all good greens the game is +played in rinks of four a side, there being, however, on the part +of many English clubs still an adherence to the old-fashioned +method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a match team +consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men in +all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second +player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director), +and their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable. +Great responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice +of his players, who are selected for well-defined reasons. The +leader has to place the mat, to throw the jack, to count the game, +and to call the result of each end or head to the skip who is at +the other end of the green. He is picked for his skill in playing +to the jack. It is, therefore, his business to “be up.” There is +no excuse for short play on his part, and his bowls would be better +off the green than obstructing the path of subsequent bowls. +So he will endeavour to be “on the jack,” the ideal position +being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The +skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being +played to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played +in the second place (the “soft second”). Most frequently he +will be required either to protect a good bowl or to rectify a +possible error of the leader. His official duty is to mark the game +on the scoring card when the leader announces the result. He +keeps a record of the play of both sides. The third player, who +does any measuring that may be necessary to determine which +bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span> +a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever +the skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will +already be understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack +to play, he must observe the situation of the bowls of both sides. +It may be that he has to draw a shot with the utmost nicety +to save the end, or even the match, or to lay a cunningly contrived +block, or to “fire”—that is, to deliver his bowl almost +dead straight at the object, with enough force to kill the bias +for the moment. The score having been counted, the leader +then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where +the jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack +in the opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play, +for obvious reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The +players play in couples—the first on both sides, then the second +and so on. The leader having played his first bowl, the opposing +leader will play his first and so on. As a rule, a match consists +of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a few more, by agreement).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:920px; height:366px" src="images/img348.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Drawing.  </td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Guarding.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">   Figs.</span> 3.—Trailing.   </td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 4.—Driving.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="4">(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack, +the leader is bound to throw (<i>i.e.</i> roll) a legal jack. A legal jack +must travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest +within 2 yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far +beyond this as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run +within 2 yds. of the end ditch or either side boundary. In English +practice the leader is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a +legal jack at his first attempt; should he fail again, the right to +throw passes to his opponent, but not the right of playing first. +On Scottish greens the leader has only a single throw. A legal jack +should not be interfered with except by the course of play. Should +the jack be driven towards the side boundary, it is legitimate for a +player to cause his bowl to draw outside of the dividing string, +provided that when it has ceased running it shall have come to rest +entirely within his own space. If it stop on the string, or outside +of it, the bowl is “dead” and must be removed to the bank. A +“toucher” bowl is a characteristic of the Scottish game to which +great exception is taken by many English clubs. Should a bowl running +jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it is called a toucher +and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross as soon as it +is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is finished wherever it +may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if it run into the ditch +or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet count as alive. A bowl, +however, that is forced on to the jack by another is not a toucher. +The feat of hitting the jack is so common that it really calls for +no special reward. Difference of opinion prevails as to the condition +of the jack after it has been driven into the ditch. According to +Scottish rules, unless it has been forced clean out of bounds, such +a jack is still alive. On most English greens it is a “dead” jack and +the end void. Every bowler should learn both forehand and backhand +play. In forehand play the bowl as it courses to the jack +describes its segment of a circle on the right, in backhand play +on the left. In both styles the biased side must always be the inner.</p> + +<p>In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May +day till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close +the green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches +re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand.</p> + +<p>On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but +it is rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect +the proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper. +There are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding, +trailing and driving. In <i>drawing</i> (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near +as possible to the jack, the player’s bowl passing outside of two other +bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack, +without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl +come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and one +point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked around +the jack for convenience sake. In <i>guarding</i> (fig. 2), two jacks are +laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical line. A +thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of this +thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in. apart +from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line, or +within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two points, +and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In <i>trailing</i> (fig. 3), two bowls are laid +on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked from bowl to +bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is then deposited +equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the front line. +A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius of 9 ft. +from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails the +jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them itself. +If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself cross the first; +or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the first, two points are +awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and either of the stationary +bowls, and passing over the back line; or touching the jack, yet +not trailing it past the first line, but itself crossing the back line; +or trailing the jack over the front line without crossing it itself, +receives one point. In no case must the stationary bowls be touched, +or the semicircle crossed by the trailed jack or played bowls. In +<i>driving</i> (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2 ft. apart, and then a jack +is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart from each, and occupying the +position of the apex of an inverted pyramid. The player who drives +the jack into the ditch between the two bowls scores three. If he +moves the jack, but does not carry it through to the ditch, he scores +two. If he pass between the jack and either bowl he scores one, +although it is not easy to see what driving he has done. The played +bowl must itself run into the ditch without touching either of the +stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points game demands an +ideally perfect green.</p> + +<p>See W.W. Mitchell, <i>Manual of Bowl-playing</i> (Glasgow, 1880); +<i>Laws of the Game issued by the Scottish B.A.</i> (1893, et sqq.); H.J. +Dingley, <i>Touchers and Rubs</i> (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, <i>The +Gentle Art of Bowling</i>, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A. +Manson, <i>The Bowler’s Handbook</i> (London, 1906).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> an urban district in the +Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, on the +east shore of Windermere, 1¼ m. S.W. of Windermere station on +the London & North-Western railway. Together with the town +of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop. 5061 in 1901), but +the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation is fine, +the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the lake +narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills +are richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon +them. Bowness lies at the head of a small bay, is served by +the lake-steamers of the Furness Railway Company, and is a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span> +favourite yachting, boating, fishing and tourist centre. The +church of St Martin is ancient, and contains stained glass from +Cartmel priory in Furness. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Windermere</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWRING, SIR JOHN<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1792-1872), English linguist, political +economist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the +17th of October 1792, of an old Puritan family. In early life he +came under the influence of Jeremy Bentham. He did not, +however, share his master’s contempt for <i>belles-lettres</i>, but was a +diligent student of literature and foreign languages, especially +those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked with Mezzofanti +and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The +first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in <i>Specimens +of the Russian Poets</i> (1821-1823). These were speedily followed +by <i>Batavian Anthology</i> (1824), <i>Ancient Poetry and Romances of +Spain</i> (1824), <i>Specimens of the Polish Poets</i>, and <i>Servian Popular +Poetry</i>, both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute +to the newly founded <i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he was +appointed editor in 1825. By his contributions to the <i>Review</i> +he obtained considerable reputation as political economist and +parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its pages the cause +of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard Cobden +and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary +reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education. +In 1828 he visited Holland, where the university of Groningen +conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. In the following +year he was in Denmark, preparing for the publication of a collection +of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who had been the trusted +friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed his literary +executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a collected +edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843. +Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member +for Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed +head of a government commission to be sent to France to inquire +into the actual state of commerce between the two countries. +He was engaged in similar investigations in Switzerland, Italy, +Syria and some of the German states. The results of these +missions appeared in a series of reports laid before the House of +Commons. After a retirement of four years he sat in parliament +from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this busy +period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a +translation of the <i>Manuscript of the Queen’s Court</i>, a collection of +old Bohemian lyrics, &c. In 1849 he was appointed British +consul at Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post +which he held for four years. After his return he distinguished +himself as an advocate of the decimal system, and published +a work entitled <i>The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins and +Accounts</i> (1854). The introduction of the florin as a preparatory +step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he was +again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested +with the supreme military and naval power. It was during his +governorship that a dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the +irritation caused by his “spirited” or high-handed policy led +to the second war with China. In 1855 he visited Siam, and +negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce. After the usual +five years of service he retired and received a pension. His last +employment by the English government was as a commissioner +to Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with +the new kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted +the appointment of minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary +from the Hawaiian government to the courts of Europe, +and in this capacity negotiated treaties with Belgium, Holland, +Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In addition to the works already +named he published—<i>Poetry of the Magyars</i> (1830); +<i>Cheskian Anthology</i> (1832); <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i> (1857); +a translation of <i>Peter Schlemihl</i> (1824); +translations from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petöfi (1866); and various pamphlets. +He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations +of several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont, +near Exeter, on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable +collection of coleoptera was presented to the British Museum by +his second son, Lewin Bowring, a well-known Anglo-Indian +administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring, member of +parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the +literary world as an able translator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sir John Bowring’s <i>Recollections</i> were edited by Lewin Bowring +(d. 1910) in 1877.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWTELL,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a medieval term in architecture for a round or +corniced moulding; the word is a variant of “boltel,” which is +probably the diminutive of “bolt,” the shaft of an arrow or +javelin. A “roving” bowtell is one which passes up the side of a +bench end and round a finial, the term “roving” being applied to +that which follows the line of a curve.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOWYER, WILLIAM<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1663-1737), English printer, was born +in 1663, apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the +Stationers’ Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the +twenty printers allowed by the Star Chamber. He was burned +out in the great fire of 1712, but his loss was partly made good by +the subscription of friends and fellow craftsmen, as recorded on a +tablet in Stationers’ Hall, and in 1713 he returned to his Whitefriars +shop and became the leading printer of his day. He died on +the 27th of December 1737.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">William Bowyer</span> (1699-1777), was born in London +on the 19th of December 1699. He was educated at St John’s +College, Cambridge, and in 1722 became a partner in his father’s +business. In 1729 he was appointed printer of the votes of the +House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the Society of Antiquaries, +of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In 1737 he +took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor +and biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal +Society, and in 1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and +the journals of the House of Commons. He died on the 13th of +November 1777, leaving unfinished a number of large works and +among them the reprint of Domesday Book. He wrote a great +many tracts and pamphlets, edited, arranged and published a +host of books, but perhaps his principal work was an edition of +the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous bequests +in favour of his own profession are administered by the Stationers’ +Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in whose +hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was +known as “the learned printer.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOX<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="puxos">πύξος</span>, Lat. <i>buxus</i>, box-wood; cf. <span class="grk" title="puxis">πύξις</span>, a pyx), +the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong, +round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens +by raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened +by a catch, hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the +material of which it is fashioned, it is the direct descendant +of the chest, one of the most ancient articles of domestic furniture. +Its uses are infinite, and the name, preceded by a qualifying +adjective, has been given to many objects of artistic or antiquarian +interest.</p> + +<p>Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their +immediate purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest. +It is usually fitted with a tray divided into many small compartments, +for needles, reels of silk and cotton and other +necessaries of stitchery. The date of its introduction is in considerable +doubt, but 17th-century examples have come down +to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned with +embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her +work-box, and, especially in the second half of that period, +much taste and elaborate pains were expended upon the case, +which was often exceedingly dainty and elegant. These boxes +are ordinarily portable, but sometimes form the top of a table.</p> + +<p>But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its +most distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is +now little more than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice, +was throughout the larger part of the 18th century the indispensable +companion of every man of birth and breeding. It +long survived his sword, and was in frequent use until nearly +the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the enameller +and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as +often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great +personages possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more +ordinary, their selection being regulated by their dress and by +the relative splendour of the occasion. From the cheapest wood +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span> +that was suitable—at one time potato-pulp was extensively +used—to a frame of gold encased with diamonds, a great variety +of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was a favourite, +and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly effective. +Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its natural +state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with +enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes +the lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette, +or a tiny miniature, often some choice work by an old master. +After snuff-taking had ceased to be general it lingered for some +time among diplomatists, either because—as Talleyrand explained—they +found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to +reflection in a business interview, or because monarchs retained +the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other +intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other +way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking +that we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution +of decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch’s +snuff-box was a distinction almost equivalent to having one’s +ear pulled by Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of +England, Messrs Rundell & Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid +£8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign ministers. Now that the snuff-box +is no longer used it is collected by wealthy amateurs or deposited +in museums, and especially artistic examples command +large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), possessed +an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by +auction after his death for £2000.</p> + +<p>A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very +modest form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may +reach the monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which +were made for Marie Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor, +and another at Versailles, the work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker, +Degault as miniature-painter, and Thomire as chaser.</p> + +<p>A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities. +Its place has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those +which have survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the +Bodleian library, possess locks with an extremely elaborate +mechanism contrived in the under-side of the lid.</p> + +<p>The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces +of furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical +ingenuity of the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of +the 18th century. Some of the most elegant were the work of +Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. Occasionally flat-topped +boxes, they were most frequently either vase-shaped, or tall and +narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a series of raised stages +for exhibiting the handles of knives and the bowls of spoons. +Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently employed, +and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie +or edged with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist +in large numbers; they are often converted into stationery +cabinets.</p> + +<p>The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again +more ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it +was of a size to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or +incised lid.</p> + +<p>The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles +for the powder and the patches of the 18th century; +the former was the direct ancestor of the puff-box of the modern +dressing-table.</p> + +<p>The <i>étui</i> is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials, +often of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials +or small articles of feminine use. It was worn on the châtelaine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOXING<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (M.E. <i>box</i>, a blow, probably from Dan. <i>bask</i>, a buffet), +the art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded +gloves, as distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists, +or some kind of light gloves affording little moderation of the +blow, are employed. The ancient Greeks used a sort of glove +in practice, but, although far less formidable than the terrible +caestus worn in serious encounters, it was by no means so mild +an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the invention of which +is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton (1705-1789), “the +father of British pugilism.” In any case gloves were first used +in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being decided +with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion +of England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were +for many years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the +newly invented gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the +young aristocrats of his day. The most popular teacher of the +art was, however, John Jackson (1769-1845), called “Gentleman +Jackson,” who was champion from 1795 to 1800, and who is +credited with imparting to boxing its scientific principles, such +as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting, and +agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his <i>Memoirs</i>, +asserted that Jackson “made more than a thousand a year +by teaching sparring.” Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who, +when chided for keeping company with a pugilist, insisted that +Jackson’s manners were “infinitely superior to those of the +fellows of the college whom I meet at the high table,” and +referred to him in the following lines in <i>Hints from Horace</i>:—</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr"> +<p>“And men unpractised in exchanging knocks</p> +<p class="i05">Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box.”</p> +</div> </td></tr></table> + +<p class="noind">His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and +distinction, and when the allied monarchs visited London he +was entrusted with the management of a boxing carnival with +which they were vastly pleased. In 1814 the Pugilistic Club, +the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting element, was +formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing +had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout +the country considerable interest continued to be manifested +in prize-fighting.</p> + +<p>The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism, +may be said to date from the year 1866, when the public had +become disgusted with the brutality and unfair practices of the +professional “bruisers,” and the laws against prize-fighting +began to be more rigidly enforced. In that year the “Amateur +Athletic Club” was founded, principally through the efforts +of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with the +8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known +as the Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in +Great Britain, and were also authoritative in America until +the adoption of the boxing rules of the Amateur Athletic Union +of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry presented cups for the +British amateur championships at the recognized weights.</p> + +<p>For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account +of modern prize-fighting see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>. At present two kinds +of boxing contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of +rounds (as in the amateur championships) and that for endurance, +in which the one who cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance +contests, which contain the essential element of the old prize-fights, +are now indulged in only by professionals. Among +amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once was, owing to +the importance placed upon brute strength, and the prevailing +ambition of the modern boxer to “knock out” his opponent, +<i>i.e.</i> reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round +matches between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is +therefore no need to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless +a common practice to strike a dazed and reeling adversary +a heavy blow with a view to ending the battle at once. During +the annual boxing competitions between Oxford and Cambridge +more than half the bouts have been known to end in this manner. +Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient +in the art indulge in a practice bout—or “sparring.”</p> + +<p>Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers +face each other just out of reach and balanced equally on both +feet, the left from 10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left +foot is planted flat on the floor, while the right heel is raised +slightly from it. The left side of the body is turned a little +towards the opponent and the right shoulder slightly depressed. +When the hands are clenched inside the gloves the thumb is +doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a sprain when +hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of individual +taste. In the “crouch,” affected by many American +professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent +over towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span> +out to keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however, +teaches a beginner any other than the upright position. +Some boxers stand with the right foot forward, a practice +common in the 18th century, which gives freer play with the +right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should stand lightly +on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant, using short +steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating with the +right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks +consist in straight leads, <i>i.e.</i> blows aimed with or without preliminary +feints, at some part of the opponent’s body or head. +All other attacks are either “counters” or returns after a guard +or “block.” A counter is a lead carried out just as one is +attacked, the object being to block (parry) the blow and land on +the opponent at the same time. Counters are often carried out +in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In hitting, a +boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of impact. +Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the +body behind them (“straight from the shouder” hits); jabs, +short blows (usually with the left hand when at close quarters); +hooks, or side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging +blows from beneath to the adversary’s chin); chops (short blows +from above); punches (usually at close quarters, with the +right hand); or swings (round-arm blows, usually delivered +with a partial twist of the body to augment the force of the +blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a knockout, +or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may +be mentioned:—on the pit of the stomach, called the solar +plexus, from the sensitive network of nerves situated there; a +blow on the point of the chin, having a tendency slightly to +paralyse the brain; a blow under the ear, painful and often +resulting in partial helplessness; and one directly over the heart, +kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten seconds after being +knocked down in which to rise, an experienced ring-fighter will +drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in that +position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.</p> + +<p>Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut. +If a blow is caught or stopped short it is called <i>blocking</i>, but +a blow may also be shoved aside, or avoided altogether by +<i>slipping, i.e.</i> moving the head quickly to one side, or by ducking +and allowing the adversary’s swing to pass harmlessly over +the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow without +guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to +escape the opponent’s glove.</p> + +<p>The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884) +contain the following provisions. “An amateur is one who has +never competed for a money prize or staked bet with or against a +professional for any prize, except with the express sanction of the +A.B.A., and who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the +practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood.” +The ring shall be roped and between 12 and 24 ft. square. +No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided into the +following classes by weight:—Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb +(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not +exceeding 10 st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 ℔ (158 +lb); and Heavy, any weight above. There shall be two judges, +a referee and a timekeeper. The votes of the judges decide the +winner of a bout, unless they disagree, in which case the referee +has the deciding vote. In case of doubt he may order an extra +round of two minutes’ duration. Each match is for three rounds, +the first two lasting three minutes and the third four, with one +minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to come +up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws +a bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen +by the judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second) +only, and no advice or coaching during the progress of a round is +permitted. Unless one competitor is unable to respond to the +call of time, or is obliged to stop before the match is over, the +judges decide the winner by <i>points</i>, which are for attack, comprising +successful hits cleanly delivered, and defence, comprising +guarding, slipping, ducking, counter-hitting and getting away in +time to avoid a return. When the points are equal the decision +is given in favour of the boxer who has done the most leading, <i>i.e.</i> +has been the more aggressive. Fouls are hitting below the +belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of the hand, +the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or “roughing” on the +ropes, <i>i.e.</i> unnecessary shouldering and jostling.</p> + +<p>The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association +differ slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must +be from 16 to 24 ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than +8 oz. in weight. The recognized classes by weight are: Bantam, +105 ℔ and under; Feather, 115 ℔ and under; Light, 135 lb +and under; Welter, 145 ℔ and under; Middle, 158 ℔ and under; +and Heavy, over 158 ℔ The rules for officials and rounds are +identical with the British, except that only in final bouts does the +last round last four minutes. Two “seconds” are allowed. The +rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The amateur +rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing +contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership +in the Athletic Association.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Glossary</i> of terms not mentioned above:—<i>Break away</i>, to get away +from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the +men clinch. <i>Break ground</i>, retire diagonally to right or left. <i>Catch-weight</i>, +any weight. <i>Corners</i>, the opposite angles of the square +“ring,” in which the boxers rest between the rounds. <i>Cross-counter</i>, +a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of the adversary +as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round that of the +opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. <i>Clinching</i>, +grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from a clinch +one tries to pin the adversary’s hands in order to prevent his hitting +at close quarters. <i>Drawing</i> an opponent, enticing him by leaving +an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter is +prepared. <i>Fiddling</i>, forward and back movements of the arms at +the beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. <i>Footwork</i>, +the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. <i>In-fighting</i>, boxing +at very close quarters. <i>Mark</i>, the pit of the stomach. <i>Side-step</i>, +springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being +usually followed up by a counter attack. <i>Timing</i>, a blow delivered +on the enemy’s preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.</p> + +<p>See <i>Boxing</i>, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897); +<i>Boxing</i>, by Wm. Elder (Spalding’s Athletic Library, New York, 1902) +(these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing). +The article “Boxing,” by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the +<i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>Boxing</i>, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series, +London, 1896); <i>Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling</i>, in the Badminton +Library (London, 1892).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">French Boxing</span> (<i>la boxe française</i>) dates from about 1830. +It is more like the ancient Greek <i>pankration</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>) than is +British boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking +with the feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed. +It is a development of the old sport of <i>savate</i>, in which the feet, +and not the hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate, +which was practised especially by roughs, were usually given in +some low resort, and there were no respectable teachers. While +Paris was restricted to savate, another sport, called <i>chausson</i> or +<i>jeu marseillais</i>, was practised in the south of France, especially +among the soldiers, in which blows of the fist as well as kicks were +exchanged, and the kicks were given higher than in savate, in +the stomach or even the face. It was an excellent exercise, but +could hardly be reckoned a serious means of defence, for the +high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of the fist +could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows +of the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas <i>père</i> says that Charles +Lecour first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with +savate. For this purpose he went to England, and took lessons +of Adams and Smith, the London boxers. He then returned +to Paris, about 1852, and opened a school to teach the sport +since called <i>la boxe française</i>. Around him, and two provincial +instructors who came to Paris about this time with similar ideas, +there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between 1845 +and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development. +Among others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour’s brother +Hubert, who although rather undersized, was quick as lightning, +and had an English blow and a French kick that were truly +terrible. Charles Ducros was another whose style of boxing, +more in the English fashion, but with low kicks about +his opponent’s shins, made a name for himself. Later came +Vigneron, a “strong man,” whose style, though slow, was +severe in its punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in +these fights, and Lecour and Vigneron had to cease giving public +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span> +exhibitions and devote themselves to teaching. Towards 1862 +a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not only very clever with his +fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and the author of a +treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may be +said to have created <i>la boxe française</i>, which, for defence <i>at +equal weights</i>, the French claim to be better than the English.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>L’Art de la boxe française et de la canne</i>, by J. Charlemont +(Paris, 1899); <i>The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence</i>, +by Georges d’Amoric (London, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOXWOOD,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> the wood obtained from the genus <i>Buxus</i>, the +principal species being the well-known tree or shrub, <i>B. sempervirens</i>, +the common box, in general use for borders of garden +walks, ornamental parterres, &c. The other source of the +ordinary boxwood of commerce is <i>B. balearica</i>, which yields the +variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is grown +throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of +the south of England), in the southern part of the European +continent generally, and extends through Persia into India, +where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. +There has been much discussion as to whether it is a true native +of Britain. Writing more than 200 years ago, John Ray, the +author of the important <i>Historia Plantarum</i>, says, “The Box +grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also at Boxwell, on the +Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in Kent.... +It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable.” On the +other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the +north of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows +and near cultivation, and it may have been one of the many +introductions owed to the Romans. Only a very small proportion +of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great +Britain. The box is a very slow-growing plant, adding not more +than 1½ or 2 in. to its diameter in twenty years, and on an average +attaining only a height of 16 ft., with a mean diameter of 10½ in. +The leaves of this species are small, oval, leathery in texture and +of a deep glossy green colour. <i>B. balearica</i> is a tree of considerable +size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with leaves three times +larger than those of the common box. It is a native of the islands +of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor, and +around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the +chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce +by way of Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses +a delicate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and +has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the +purposes of the wood-engraver. A large amount is used in the +manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instruments, +flutes and other musical instruments, as well as for turning +into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a favourite +wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and +musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYACÁ,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bojacá</span>, an inland department of Colombia, +bounded by the departments of Santander and Cundinamarca +on the N., W. and S., and the republic of Venezuela on the E., +and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., including the Casanare +territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The department is +very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. The +famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of +Boyacá. The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in +the Eastern Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool, +temperate climate, though only 5½° N. of the equator. It was +an important place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one +of the Indian towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired +a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of +America. Other towns of note in the department are Chiquinquira +(20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and +Boyacá (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated +the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYAR<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (Russ. <i>boyarin</i>, plur. <i>boyare</i>), a dignity of Old Russia +conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the +boyars were the intimate friends and confidential advisers of +the Russian prince, the superior members of his <i>druzhina</i> or +bodyguard, his comrades and champions. They were divided +into classes according to rank, most generally determined by +personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the “oldest,” +“elder” and the “younger” boyars. At first the dignity +seems to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably, +hereditary. At a later day the boyars were the chief members +of the prince’s <i>duma</i>, or council, like the <i>senatores</i> of Poland +and Lithuania. Their further designation of <i>luchshie lyudi</i> or +“the best people” proves that they were generally richer than +their fellow subjects. So long as the princes, in their interminable +struggles with the barbarians of the Steppe, needed the assistance +of the towns, “the best people” of the cities and of the <i>druzhina</i> +proper mingled freely together both in war and commerce; but +after Yaroslav’s crushing victory over the Petchenegs in 1036 +beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart, +and a political and economical difference between the members +of the princely <i>druzhina</i> and the aristocracy of the towns becomes +discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more +exclusively to commerce, while the <i>druzhina</i> asserts the privileges +of an exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the +land. Still later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes +were established, the boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown +court aristocracy with the exclusive privilege of possessing +land and serfs. Hence their title of <i>dvoryane</i> (courtiers), first used +in the 12th century. On the other hand there was no distinction, +as in Germany, between the <i>Dienst Adel</i> (nobility of service) +and the simple <i>Adel</i>. The Russian boyardom had no corporate +or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely local +(the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity +of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration +from one prince to another at will, which prevented the +formation of a settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not +determine but only facilitated the attainment of high rank, <i>e.g.</i> +the son of a boyar was not a boyar born, but could more easily attain +to boyardom, if of superior personal merit. It was reserved +for Peter the Great to transform the <i>boyarstvo</i> or boyardom into +something more nearly resembling the aristocracy of the West.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Alexander Markevich, <i>The History of Rank-priority in the +Realm of Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries</i> (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888); +V. Klyuchevsky, <i>The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia</i> (Russ.) (Moscow, +1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOY-BISHOP,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> the name given to the “bishop of the boys” +(<i>episcopus puerorum</i> or <i>innocentium</i>, sometimes <i>episcopus +scholariorum</i> or <i>chorestarum</i>), who, according to a custom very +wide-spread in the middle ages, was chosen in connexion with +the festival of Holy Innocents. For the origin of the curious +authority of the boy-bishop and of the rites over which he +presided, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fools, Feast of</a></span>. In England the boy-bishop +was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the patron +of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents’ day +(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full +bishop’s robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades +dressed as priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people. +At Salisbury the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical +patronage during his episcopate, and could make valid +appointments. The boy and his colleagues took possession of +the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and offices +except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to the cathedrals, +the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several ecclesiastical +councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the +abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council +of Basel in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily +suppressed. In England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in +1542, revived by Mary in 1552 and finally abolished by Elizabeth. +On the continent it survived longest in Germany, in the so-called +<i>Gregoriusfest</i>, said to have been founded by Gregory IV. in 828 +in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A school-boy +was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two boy-deacons +and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church, +where, after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he +preached. At Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Brand, <i>Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain</i> (1905); Gasquet, +<i>Parish Life in Medieval England</i> (1906); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i> +(London, 1884), <i>s.v.</i> “Episcopus puerorum.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOYCE, WILLIAM<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1710-1779), English musical composer, +the son of a cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of +February 1710. As a chorister in St Paul’s he received his early +musical education from Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene, +and he afterwards studied the theory of music under Dr Pepusch. +In 1734, having become organist of Oxford chapel, Vere Street, +Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne’s masque of <i>Peleus +and Thetis</i> to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was +appointed organist of St Michael’s church, Cornhill, and in the +same year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote +the music for John Lockman’s oratorio <i>David’s Lamentation +over Saul and Jonathan</i>. In 1737 he was appointed to conduct +the meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and +Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata <i>Solomon</i>, in which +occurs the favourite song “Softly rise, O southern breeze.” +In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the +university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit +of his setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry +Pelham, duke of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he +became organist of All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street. +A musical setting to <i>The Chaplet</i>, an entertainment by Moses +Mendez, was Boyce’s most successful achievement in this +year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden’s <i>Secular Masque</i> +and in 1751 set another piece (<i>The Shepherd’s Lottery</i>) by +Mendez. He became master of the king’s band in succession +to Greene in 1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal +organist to the chapel royal. As an ecclesiastical composer +Boyce ranks among the best representatives of the English +school. His two church services and his anthems, of which the +best specimens are <i>By the Waters of Babylon</i> and <i>O, Where shall +Wisdom be found</i>, are frequently performed. It should also +be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and +choruses for Purcell’s <i>Te Deum</i> and <i>Jubilate</i>, which the earlier +musician had composed for the St Cecilia’s day of 1694. +Boyce did this in his capacity of conductor at the annual +festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St Paul’s cathedral, an +office which he had taken in succession to Greene. His twelve +trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. One of +his most valuable services to musical art was his publication +in three volumes quarto of a work on <i>Cathedral Music</i>. +The collection had been begun by Greene, but it was mainly +the work of Boyce. The first volume appeared in 1760 and +the last in 1778. On the 7th of February 1779 Boyce died +from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of St +Paul’s cathedral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYCOTT,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the refusal and incitement to refusal to have +commercial or social dealings with any one on whom it is wished +to bring pressure. As merely a form of “sending to Coventry” +or (in W.E. Gladstone’s phrase) “exclusive dealing,” boycotting +may be, from a legal point of view, unassailable, and as such +has frequently been justified by its original political inventors. +But in practice it has usually taken the form of what is undoubtedly +an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property +or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all +and sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse. +The word was first used in Ireland, and was derived +from the name of Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897), +agent for the estates of the earl of Erne in Co. Mayo. +For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants, +Captain Boycott had his life threatened, his servants compelled +to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters intercepted and his +food supplies interfered with. It took a force of 900 soldiers +to protect the Ulster Orangemen (“Emergency Men”) who +succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and +mobbed in the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The +system of boycotting was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist +“Plan of Campaign,” and was dealt with under the Crimes +Act of 1887. The term soon came into common English use, +and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, Dutch and +Russians. In the United States this method of “persuasion” +was taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who +refused their demands being brought to terms by a combination +to refuse to buy his product or do his work, or to deal with any +who did. Various cases have occurred in America in which +labour organizations have pronounced such a boycott against a +firm; and its illegal nature has been established in the law-courts, +notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company <i>v</i>. The American +Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district +of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters’ Union (February +1908) in the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held +by the U.S. Supreme Court to be a violation of the Sherman +Anti-Trust law.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1825-1899), +Scottish author and divine, was born at Auchinleck manse in +Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He studied at King’s +College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the idea of +practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however, +he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the +Scottish ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery +of Ayr. He served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr, +Kirkpatrick-Irongray near Dumfries, St Bernard’s, Edinburgh, +and finally, in 1865, became minister of the first charge at St +Andrews. Here he advocated an improved ritual in the Scottish +church, his action resulting in the appointment by the general +assembly of a committee, with Boyd as convener, to prepare +a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of the +general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with +admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the +1st of March 1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and +talker, and his desultory essays have very much of the charm of +his conversation. Among his numerous publications may be +specially mentioned the two works (each in three series), <i>Recreations +of a Country Parson</i> (1859, 1861 and 1878), and <i>Graver +Thoughts of a Country Parson</i> (1862-1865 and 1875); he also +wrote <i>Twenty-five Years at St Andrews</i> (1892), and <i>St Andrews +and Elsewhere</i> (1894). He was familiarly known to the public +as a writer by his initials “A.K.H.B.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman, +was a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old +and distinguished family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, +had fought with Wallace and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was +created a peer about 1454, was one of the regents of Scotland +during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, with some +associates he secured the person of the young king and was +appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental +in reforming some religious foundations; he arranged +the marriage between James III. and Margaret, daughter of +Christian I., king of Denmark and Norway, and secured the +cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. However, when in +1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and justiciary for +himself, and the hand of the king’s sister Mary, with the title +of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became +too strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and +sentenced to death. He escaped to England, and the date of +his death is unknown. His brother and assistant, Sir Alexander +Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of November 1469.</p> + +<p>Boyd’s son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his +father was overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that +of bringing the king’s bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then, +warned by his wife, escaped to the continent of Europe. He is +mentioned very eulogistically in one of the Paston Letters, +but practically nothing is known of his subsequent history.</p> + +<p>Lord Boyd’s grandson Robert (d. <i>c</i>. 1550), a son of Alexander +Boyd, was confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours +of his grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the +3rd Lord Boyd. His son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590), +took a prominent part in Scottish politics during the troubled +time which followed the death of James V. in 1542. At first +he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his views +changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary, +queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside +in 1568. During the queen’s captivity he was often employed +on diplomatic errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her +favour, and he was suspected of participation in the murder +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span> +of the regent Murray. He enjoyed a high and influential position +under the regent James Douglas, earl of Morton, but was banished +in 1583 for his share in the seizure of King James VI., a plot +known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to France, but +was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd +of January 1590.</p> + +<p>William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of +Kilmarnock in 1661, and this nobleman’s grandson William, +the 3rd earl (d. 1717), was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and +fought for George I. during the rising of 1715. His son William, +the 4th earl (1704-1746), was educated in the same principles, +but in 1745, owing either to a personal affront or to the influence +of his wife or to his straitened circumstances he deserted George II. +and joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. The 4th earl +fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he was made prisoner, and +was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The title of earl of +Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ZACHARY<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated +at the universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for +many years a teacher in the Protestant college of Saumur in +France, but returned to Scotland in 1621, to escape the Huguenot +persecution. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony +church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the university in 1634, +1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the half of his +fortune, a sum amounting to £20,000 Scots, besides his library +and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though +often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that +he made the printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and +other Biblical narratives a condition of the reception of his grant +to the university is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch +Covenanter, and though for a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell, +afterwards became friendly with him. His best-known works +are <i>The Battel of the Soul in Death</i> (1629), of which a new edition, +with a biography by G. Neil, was published in Glasgow in 1831; +<i>Zion’s Flowers</i>—often called “Boyd’s Bible” (1644); <i>Four +Letters of Comfort</i> (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYDELL, JOHN<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher, +was born at Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one +came to London and was apprenticed for seven years to an +engraver. In 1746 he published a volume of views in England +and Wales, and started in business as a print-seller. By his good +taste and liberality he managed to secure the services of the best +artists, and his engravings were executed with such skill that his +business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in his +plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the +most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were +exhibited publicly for many years. The engravings from these +paintings form a splendid companion volume to his large illustrated +edition of Shakespeare’s works. Towards the close of his +life Boydell sustained severe losses through the French Revolution, +and was compelled to dispose of his Shakespeare gallery +by lottery. Boydell had previously become an alderman, and +rose to be lord mayor of London.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYER, ALEXIS<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on +the 1st of March 1757 at Uzerches (Corrèze). The son of a +tailor, he obtained his first medical knowledge in the shop of a +barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he had the good fortune to +attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792) and P.J. +Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill +and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at +the age of thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second +surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the +École de Santé he gained the chair of operative surgery, but soon +exchanged it for the chair of clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon +nominated him imperial family surgeon, and, after the brilliant +campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him the legion of honour, +with the title of baron of the empire and a salary of 25,000 francs. +On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured him the +favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was consulting +surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. +In 1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief +to the Hôpital de la Charité, and was chosen a member of +the Institute. He died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833. +Perhaps no French surgeon of his time thought or wrote with +greater clearness and good sense than Boyer; and while his +natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, and +somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as +judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating, +as he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases. +His two great works are:—<i>Traité complet de l’anatomie</i> (in 4 vols., +1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and +<i>Traité des maladies chirurgicales et des opérations qui leur conviennent</i> +(in 11 vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols. +was published in 1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe +Boyer (1801-1858).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1776-1850), president of the republic +of Haiti, a mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the +28th of February 1776. He received a good education in France, +and, returning to St Domingo, joined the army in 1792. In 1794 +he was already in command of a battalion, and fought with +distinction under General Rigaud against the English. The +negro insurrection under Toussaint l’Ouverture, which was directed +against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced him +to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon, +and in 1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc’s expedition. +Being opposed to the reinstitution of slavery, he turned against +the French and succeeded in producing an alliance between +the negroes and mulattoes by which they were driven from +the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king, but his +cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with +A.A.S. Pétion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806). +Christophe now seized the supreme power, but Pétion set up an +independent republic in the southern part of the island, with +Boyer as commander-in-chief. Christophe’s efforts to crush this +state were defeated by Boyer’s gallant defence of Port-au-Prince, +and a series of brilliant victories, which, on Pétion’s death +in 1818, led to Boyer’s election as president. Two years later +the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he gained +almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his +presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration +in order, and to encourage the arts and sciences, +and in 1825 obtained French recognition of the independence of +Haiti, in return for a payment of 150,000 francs. The weight +of this debt excited the greatest discontent in Haiti. Boyer +was able to carry on his government for some years longer, +but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his +power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He +resided there till 1848, when he removed to Paris, where he +died in 1850.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Wallez, <i>Précis historique des négociations entre la France et +Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le général Boyer</i> +(Paris, 1826).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, JOHN J.<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1851-  ), American sculptor, was born +in New York City. He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy +of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and in the École des Beaux Arts, +Paris. He is particularly successful in the portrayal of Indians. +Among his principal works are: “Stone Age,” Fairmount Park, +Philadelphia; “The Alarm,” Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a +third study in primitive culture, the two groups, “The Savage +Age” at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also +includes the seated “Franklin,” in Philadelphia; and “Bacon” +and “Plato” in the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, ROBERT<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1627-1691), English natural philosopher, +seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great +earl of Cork, was born at Lismore Castle, in the province of +Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of January 1627. While still +a child he learned to speak Latin and French, and he was only +eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his father’s +friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over +three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French +tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy +in 1641, he remained during the winter of that year in Florence, +studying the “paradoxes of the great star-gazer” Galileo, who +died within a league of the city early in 1642. Returning to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span> +England in 1644 he found that his father was dead and had left +him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire, together with estates +in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to study and +scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band +of inquirers, known as the “Invisible College,” who devoted +themselves to the cultivation of the “new philosophy.” They +met frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of +the members also had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle +went to reside in 1654. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke’s +air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke +to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result, +the “machina Boyleana” or “Pneumatical Engine,” finished +in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of +air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was +published in 1660 under the title <i>New Experiments Physico-Mechanical +touching the spring of air and its effects</i>. Among the +critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus +Linus (1595-1675), and it was while answering his objections +that Boyle enunciated the law that the volume of a gas +varies inversely as the pressure, which among English-speaking +peoples is usually called after his name, though on the continent +of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish +it till 1676. In 1663 the “Invisible College” became the +“Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge,” +and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. named +Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president +of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about +oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided +at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall. About +1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and +he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing +his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his +desire to be excused from receiving guests, “unless upon occasions +very extraordinary,” on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and +Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained +he wished to “recruit his spirits, range his papers,” and prepare +some important chemical investigations which he proposed to +leave “as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples +of that art,” but of which he did not make known the nature. +His health became still worse in 1691, and his death occurred +on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of +the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. +He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin’s in the Fields, +his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.</p> + +<p>Boyle’s great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried +out the principles which Bacon preached in the <i>Novum Organum</i>. +Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of +any other teacher: on several occasions he mentions that in +order to keep his judgment as unprepossessed as might be with +any of the modern theories of philosophy, till he was “provided of +experiments” to help him judge of them, he refrained from any +study of the Atomical and the Cartesian systems, and even of +the <i>Novum Organum</i> itself, though he admits to “transiently +consulting” them about a few particulars. Nothing was more +alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses. +He regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself, +and in consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of +scientific inquiry than had been enjoyed by his predecessors +for many centuries. This, however, did not mean that he paid +no attention to the practical application of science nor that he +despised knowledge which tended to use. He himself was an +alchemist; and believing the transmutation of metals to be a +possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of effecting +it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689, +of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver. +With all the important work he accomplished in physics—the +enunciation of Boyle’s law, the discovery of the part taken by +air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the expansive +force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive +powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, +&c.—chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first +book on the subject was <i>The Sceptical Chemist</i>, published in 1661, +in which he criticized the “experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists +are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and +Mercury to be the true Principles of Things.” For him chemistry +was the science of the composition of substances, not merely an +adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He +advanced towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable +constituents of material bodies; and understanding +the distinction between mixtures and compounds, he made +considerable progress in the technique of detecting their ingredients, +a process which he designated by the term “analysis.” +He further supposed that the elements were ultimately composed +of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however, +they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied +chemistry had to thank him for improved methods and for an +extended knowledge of individual substances. He also studied +the chemistry of combustion and of respiration, and made +experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered +by the “tenderness of his nature” which kept him from anatomical +dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew +them to be “most instructing.”</p> + +<p>Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted +much time to theology, showing a very decided leaning to the +practical side and an indifference to controversial polemics. +At the Restoration he was favourably received at court, and +in 1665 would have received the provostship of Eton, if he would +have taken orders; but this he refused to do, on the ground +that his writings on religious subjects would have greater weight +coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church. He +spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity, contributing +liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses +of translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages. +By his will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian +religion against “notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans, +Jews and Mahommedans,” with the proviso that controversies +between Christians were not to be mentioned.</p> + +<p>In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance. +His constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he +suffered from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific +work procured him an extraordinary reputation among his +contemporaries, his private character and virtues, the charm +of his social manners, his wit and powers of conversation, endeared +him to a large circle of personal friends. He was never +married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous, and his +style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are the more important of his works in addition to +the two already mentioned:—<i>Considerations touching the Usefulness +of Experimental Natural Philosophy</i> (1663), followed by a second +part in 1671; <i>Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with +Observations on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark</i> (1663); <i>New +Experiments and Observations upon Cold</i> (1665); <i>Hydrostatical +Paradoxes</i> (1666); <i>Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the +Corpuscular Philosophy</i> (1666); a continuation of his work on the +spring of air (1669); tracts about the <i>Cosmical Qualities of Things</i>, +the <i>Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions</i>, the +<i>Bottom of the Sea</i>, &c. with an <i>Introduction to the History of Particular +Qualities</i> (1670); <i>Origin and Virtues of Gems</i> (1672); <i>Essays of the +strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums</i> +(1673); two volumes of tracts on the <i>Saltness of the Sea</i>, the <i>Hidden +Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions on +Hobbes’s</i> Problemata de Vacuo (1674); <i>Experiments and Notes +about the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities</i>, +including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676); <i>Observations +upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any Preceding +Illustration</i> (1678); the <i>Aerial Noctiluca</i> (1680); <i>New Experiments +and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca</i> (1682); a further continuation +of his work on the air; <i>Memoirs for the Natural History of the +Human Blood</i> (1684); <i>Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental +History of Mineral Waters</i> (1685); <i>Medicina Hydrostatica</i> (1690); +and <i>Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae</i> (1691). Among his +religious and philosophical writings were:—<i>Seraphic Love</i>, written +in 1648, but not published till 1660; an <i>Essay upon the Style of +the Holy Scriptures</i> (1663); <i>Occasional Reflections upon Several +Subjects</i> (1665), which was ridiculed by Swift in <i>A Pious Meditation +upon a Broomstick</i>, and by Butler in <i>An Occasional Reflection on +Dr Charlton’s Feeling a Dog’s Pulse at Cresham College</i>; <i>Excellence +of Theology compared with Natural Philosophy</i> (1664); <i>Some Considerations +about the Reconcileableness of Reason and Religion</i>, with a +<i>Discourse about the Possibility of the Resurrection</i> (1675); <i>Discourse +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span> +of Things above Reason</i> (1681); <i>High Veneration Man owes to God</i> +(1685); <i>A Free Inquiry into the vulgarly received Notion of Nature</i> +(1686); and the <i>Christian Virtuoso</i> (1690). Several other works +appeared after his death, among them <i>The General History of the +Air designed and begun</i> (1692); a “collection of choice remedies,” +<i>Medicinal Experiments</i> (1692-1698); and <i>A Free Discourse against +Customary Swearing</i> (1695). An incomplete and unauthorized +edition of Boyle’s works was published at Geneva in 1677, but the +first complete edition was that of Thomas Birch, with a life, published +in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second edition appearing in +1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his natural history +collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses a portrait of +him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom (1632-1690).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYLE,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the +north parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland +Great Western railway, 106¼ m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and +28 m. S. by E. from Sligo. Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully +situated on both banks of the river Boyle, an affluent of the +Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three bridges connect +the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade in agricultural +produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive +ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains +of a cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman +and Transitional arcades with carving of very beautiful detail. +The offices of the monastery are well preserved, and an interesting +feature is seen in the names carved on the door of the lodge, +attributed in Cromwell’s soldier, who occupied the buildings. +Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church near Lough Key, +and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara. Boyle +was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to +the Irish parliament.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYNE,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen, +near Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly +direction, passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the +Irish Sea, 4 m. below the town last named. It is navigable for +barges to Navan, 19 m. from its mouth. Much of the scenery on +its banks is beautiful, though never grand. About 2 m. west of +Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks the spot where the +forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory over those of +James II., on the 1st of July<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 1690, known as the battle of the +Boyne.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was the “old style” date, which in the new style (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, <i>Hist, of +Ireland</i>, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by the +Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this +is a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the +old style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention +being to commemorate both.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOYS’ BRIGADE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> an organization founded in Glasgow by +Mr (afterwards Sir) W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian +manliness by the use of a semi-military discipline and order, +gymnastics, summer camps and religious services and classes. +There are about 2200 companies connected with different +churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British empire +and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A +similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the +Church Lads’ Brigade. Boys’ and girls’ life brigades are a more +recent movement; they teach young people how to save life from +fire and from water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and +elementary nursing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOZDAR,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually +associated with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera +Ghazi Khan. They are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali +and Las Bela, whilst the majority of the population are said to +live in the Punjab. They are usually graziers, and the name +Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the Persian name for goat. +Within the limits of their mountain home on the outer spurs of the +Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race, mustering +about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at +feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In +1857 their raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition +under Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The +Sangarh pass was captured and the Bozdars submitted. Since +Baluchistan has been taken over they have given but little +trouble.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOZRAH.<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12; +Is. xxxiv. 6, lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with <i>el-Buseireh</i>, S.E. of +the Dead Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here +are comparatively unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral +district, and its inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200, +are all shepherds. (2) A city in the <i>Mishor</i> or plain country of +Moab, denounced by Jeremiah (xlviii. 24). It has been identified +(also questionably) with a very extensive collection of ruins of +various ages, now called Bosrā (the Roman <i>Bostra</i>), situated in +the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus. The area within the +walls is about 1¼ m. in length, and nearly 1 m. in breadth, while +extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The principal +buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an +aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more +recent workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other +arches, three mosques, and what are known as the church and +convent of the monk Boheira. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 106 the city was beautified +and perhaps restored from ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital +of the new province of Arabia. In the reign of Alexander +Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a native of the place, +Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the time of Constantine +the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and not +long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of +the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and +it successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest +it from their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous +city, after which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited +by thirty or forty families only. Another suggested identification +is with Kusūr el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and +Aroer. This is perhaps the same as the Bezer mentioned in +Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical city and a city of refuge.</p> + +<p>In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora. +The latter is probably to be identified with Bosra, the former +perhaps with the present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner +of the Lejā.</p> +<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it +was united with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived +from Brabo, a semi-mythical Frankish chief.</p> + +<p>The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of +Lower Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>), which became in the course of the 11th +century split up into a number of small feudal states. The counts +of Hainaut, Namur, Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their +independence, and the territory of Liége passed to the bishops +of that city. The remnant of the duchy, united since 1100 with +the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106 by the +emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon +Godfrey (Godefroid) I., “the Bearded,” count of Louvain and +Brussels. His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg, +and for three generations the representatives of the rival houses +contested the possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine. +The issue was decided in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke +Godfrey III. in 1159. His son, Henry I., “the Warrior” (1183-1235), +abandoned the title of duke of Lower Lorraine and assumed +in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His successors were Henry II., +“the Magnanimous” (1235-1248), Henry III., “le Debonnair” +(1248-1261), and John I., “the Victorious” (1261-1294). +These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was +Louvain. John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg +from Adolf of Berg, and secured his acquisition by defeating +and slaying his competitor, Henry of Luxemburg, at the +battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son, John II., +“the Pacific” (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his subjects +by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation +of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (<i>beden</i>) +and taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution +was entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four +nobles, ten burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints +and to see that the conditions laid down by the charter +concerning the administration of justice and finance were not +infringed. He was succeeded by his son, John III., “the +Triumphant” (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining his +position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span> +and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but +he had a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of +fortune. He it was to whom Brabant owed the great charter of +its liberties, called <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, because it was granted on the +occasion of the marriage of his daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with +Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was proclaimed on +their state entry into Brussels (1356).</p> + +<p>Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in +1349, the ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the +above-named Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock +William IV., count of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg, +her second husband, assumed in right of his wife, and by +the sanction of the charter <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, the style of duke of +Brabant. Johanna’s title was, however, disputed by Louis II., +count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her sister Margaret. +The question had been compromised by the cession to Margaret in +1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war broke +out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis, +who upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities. +The democratic leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels +and Peter Coutercel at Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign +Wenzel was taken prisoner in 1371 by the duke of Gelderland, +and had to be ransomed by his subjects. After his death (1383) +his widow continued to rule over the two duchies for eighteen +years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house of +Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with +her neighbours, the dukes of Jülich and Gelderland. In 1390 +she revoked the deed which secured the succession to Brabant to +the house of Luxemburg, and appointed her niece, Margaret of +Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>), and her husband, Philip the Bold of Burgundy, +her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married (1) Philip I. de +Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the Bold, +(d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). Of +her three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to +Burgundy, and Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in +1406. Anthony was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and +was succeeded by his eldest son by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol, +John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly memorable for the excitement +caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba (<i>q.v.</i>), countess of +Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession passed to his +brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.</p> + +<p>On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant +became the inheritance of the elder branch of the house of +Burgundy, in the person of Philip III., “the Good,” of Burgundy, +II. of Brabant, son of John. His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482), +daughter and heiress of Charles I., “the Bold,” (d. 1477) married +the archduke Maximilian of Austria (afterwards emperor) and +so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian possessions to +the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant, Brussels, +became under the Habsburg régime the residence of the court +and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor +Charles V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland +states were linked with those of the Spanish monarchy. The +attempt of Philip II. of Spain to impose despotic rule upon the +Netherlands led to the outbreak of the Netherland revolt, 1568 +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In the course of the eighty years’ war of independence the +province of Brabant became separated into two portions. In +the southern and larger part Spanish rule was maintained, +and Brussels continued to be the seat of government. The +northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch under +Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured +’s Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637). +At the peace of Münster this portion, which now forms the Dutch +province of North Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United +Provinces and was known as Generality Land, and placed under +the direct government of the states-general. The southern +portion, now divided into the provinces of Antwerp and South +Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs +until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700. After +the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands +passed by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch +of the Habsburgs. During the whole period of Austrian rule +the province of Brabant succeeded in maintaining, to a very +large extent unimpaired, the immunities and privileges to which +it was entitled under the provisions of its ancient charter of +liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged attempt by the +emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe these +inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of +Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabançon revolt +of 1789-1790.</p> + +<p>Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant +is merged in that of Belgium (<i>q.v</i>.). The revolt against Dutch +rule in 1830 broke out at Brussels and was in its initial stages +largely a Brabançon movement. The important part played +by Brabant at this crisis of the history of the southern Netherlands +was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the ancient +Brabançon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of +Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke +of Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the +king of the Belgians.</p> +<div class="author">(G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> the central and metropolitan province of Belgium, +is formed out of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830, +that is to say, during the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands, +Belgian Brabant was distinguished from Dutch by the +employment of the geographical terms South and North. The +surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest points, some +400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St Jean. +The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known +for their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many +manufactures flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies, +as well as in the larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant +contains 820,740 acres or 1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are +Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal, Ottignies, and its three administrative +divisions are named after the first three of those towns. +They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344 communes. In +1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a proportion +of 1077 per sq. m.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRABANT, NORTH,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the largest province in Holland, bounded +S. by Belgium, W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht, +the Volkerak and the Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from +Zealand and South Holland, N. and N. E. by the Merwede and +Maas, which separate it from South Holland and Gelderland, +and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231 sq. m. +and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a +gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and +160 ft. in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil +is composed of diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel, +but giving place to sea-clay along the western boundary and +river-clay along the banks of the Maas and smaller rivers. +The watershed is formed by the north-eastern edge of the +Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a curved line drawn +through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The landscape +consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath, +occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys +of the Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen +called the Peel (“marshy land”). Deurne, a few miles east of +Helmond, the site of a prehistoric burial-ground, was an early +fen colony. The work of reclamation was removed farther +eastwards to Helenaveen in the second half of the 19th century. +Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the main industry, +generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands +wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western +corner of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the +beet sugar industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom, +Steenbergen and Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of +hops in the district north-west of ’s Hertogenbosch. The large +majority of the population is Roman Catholic. The earliest development +of towns and villages took place along the river Maas +and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman camps which were the +origin of many such afterwards developed in the hands of feudal +lords. The chief town of the province, ’s Hertogenbosch, may be +cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span> +Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda +is the next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom +had originally a more maritime importance. Rozendaal, +Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel) are important railway +junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an independent +barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in 1439. +The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious +position of the province on the borders of the country doubtless +militated against an earlier industrial development, but since +the separation from Belgium and the construction of roads, +railways and canals there has been a general improvement, +Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having risen into prominence +in modern times as industrial centres. Leather-tanning +and shoe-making are especially associated with the district +called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg +and ’s Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of +industrial villages along the course of the Old Maas.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACCIANO,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m. +N.W. of Rome by rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake +of Bracciano, 915 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is +chiefly remarkable for its fine castle (built by the Orsini in 1460, +and since 1696 the property of the Odescalchi) which has preserved +its medieval character. The beautiful lake is the ancient +<i>Lacus Sabatinus</i>, supposed to derive its name from an Etruscan +city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be +mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake +itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes, +the <i>tribus Sabatina</i>, founded in 387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (O. Cuntz in +<i>Jahreshefte des Österr. Arch. Instituts</i>, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m. +in area, 538 ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost +circular, but is held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result +of a volcanic subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from +it extend as far as Rome; various small craters surround it, +while the existence of warm springs in the district (especially +those of Vicarello, probably the ancient <i>Aquae Apollinares</i>) +may also be noted. Many remains of ancient villas may be seen +round the lake: above its west bank is the station of Forum +Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which +retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown +name. About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called +Ad Novas. The site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was +occupied by a Roman villa. The water of the lake partly +supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by Paul V. of the Aqua +Traiana.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1566-1645), Italian poet, was +born at Pistoia, of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to +Florence he was admitted into the academy there, and devoted +himself to literature. At Rome he entered the service of Cardinal +Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went to France. +After the death of Clement VIII. he returned to his own country; +and when his patron Barberini was elected pope, under the name +of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was made +secretary to the pope’s brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also +the honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms +of the Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards +known by the name of <i>Bracciolini dell’ Api</i>. During +Urban’s pontificate the poet lived at Rome in considerable +reputation, though at the same time he was censured for his +sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned to +Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of +poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which +Bracciolini did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his +mock-heroic poem <i>Lo Scherno degli Dei</i>, published in 1618, +similar but confessedly inferior to the contemporary work of +Tassoni, <i>Secchia Rapita</i>. Of his serious heroic poems the most +celebrated is <i>La Croce Racquistata</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poggio</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACE, CHARLES LORING<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1826-1890), American philanthropist, +was born on the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut. +He graduated at Yale in 1846, studied theology there +in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union Theological Seminary +in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his life to social +work among the poor of New York, and to Christian propaganda +among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a +social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold +“boys’ meetings,” and in 1853 helped to found the Children’s +Aid Society, establishing workshops, industrial schools and +lodging-houses for newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the +international prison congress which met in London. He died at +Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August 1890. He published +from time to time several volumes embodying his views on +practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of +social conditions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace</i> (New York, +1894), edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACE, JULIA<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was +born at Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In +her fifth year she became blind and deaf, and lost the power of +speech. At the age of eighteen she entered the asylum for the +deaf and dumb at Hartford. The study of blind deaf-mutes and +their scientific training was then in its infancy; but she learnt +to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a good memory. Dr +S.G. Howe’s experiments with her were interesting as leading to +his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington, +Conn., on the 12th of August 1884.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACE<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. <i>bracchium</i>, +the arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the +extended arms. From the original meaning of “the two arms” +comes that of something which secures, connects, tightens or +strengthens, found in numerous uses of the word, as a carpenter’s +tool with a crank handle and socket to hold a bit for boring; +a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any building or +machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support the +trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord +of a drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and +printing sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or +music; a nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming +the sails (cf. the corresponding French term <i>bras de vergue</i>). +As meaning “a couple” or “pair” the term was first applied +to dogs, probably from the leash by which they were coupled in +coursing. In architecture “brace mould” is the term for two +ressaunts or ogees united together like a brace in printing, +sometimes with a small bead between them.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1674-1748), English actress, is +said to have been placed under the care of Thomas Betterton +and his wife, and to have first appeared on the stage as the +page in <i>The Orphan</i> at its first performance at Dorset Garden +in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell’s <i>Squire of Alsatia</i> at the +Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar parts until, in 1693, +as Araminta in <i>The Old Bachelor</i>, she made her first appearance +in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her name +is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton +and the other seceders to Lincoln’s Inn Fields, where, on its +opening with Congreve’s <i>Love for Love</i>, she played Angelica. +This part, and those of Belinda in Vanbrugh’s <i>Provoked Wife</i>, +and Almira in Congreve’s <i>Mourning Bride</i>, were among her best +impersonations, but she also played the heroines of some of +Nicholas Rowe’s tragedies, and acted in the contemporary +versions of Shakespeare’s plays. In 1705 she followed Betterton +to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in +Mrs Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story +runs that it was left for the audience to determine which was the +better comedy actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle +in Betterton’s <i>Amorous Widow</i>, which was played alternately +by the two rivals on successive nights. When the popular vote +was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs Bracegirdle quitted +the stage, making only one reappearance at Betterton’s benefit +in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much discussion. +Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of “not being +unguarded in her private character,” while Macaulay does not +hesitate to call her “a cold, vain and interested coquette, who +perfectly understood how much the influence of her charms +was increased by the fame of a severity which cost her nothing.” +She was certainly the object of the adoration of many men, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span> +and she was the innocent cause of the killing of the actor William +Mountfort (<i>q.v.</i>), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun regarded +as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was suspected +of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress +she is also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate +friend, and left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation +for virtue was remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a +subscription list of 800 guineas, presented to her as a tribute to +her virtue. Her charity to the poor in Clare Market and around +Drury Lane was conspicuous, “insomuch that she would not +pass that neighbourhood without the thankful acclamations +of people of all degrees.” She died in 1748, and was buried in +the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Genest, <i>History of the Stage</i>; Colley Gibber, <i>Apology</i> (edited +by Bellchambers); Egerton, <i>Life of Anne Oldfield</i>; Downes, <i>Roscius +Anglicanus.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACELET,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Armlet</span>, a personal ornament for the arm or +wrist, made of different materials, according to the fashion of +the age and the rank of the wearer. The word is the French <i>bracelet</i>, +a diminutive of <i>bracel</i>, from <i>brac(c)hiale</i>, formed from +the Latin <i>bracchium</i>, the arm, on which it was usually worn. +By the Romans it was called <i>armilla, brachiale, occabus</i>; and +in the middle ages <i>bauga, armispatha</i>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:276px" src="images/img359a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie.</i></span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In the Bible there are three different words which the +authorized version renders by “bracelet.” These are—(1) הרעצא +<i>’eş‘adah</i>, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which +being used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the <i>armlet</i>; +(2) דימצ <i>şamīd</i>, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi. +50, Ezek. xvi. 11;—where these two words occur together (as in +Num. xxxi. 50) the first is rendered by “chain,” and the second by +“bracelet”; (3) תורש <i>sheroth</i>, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19. +The first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second, +bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men; and the +third a peculiar bracelet of chain-work worn only by women. +In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes the royal ornament which +the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead Saul, and brought +with the other regalia to David. There is little question that +this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as we +still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the +Ganges. The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets, +which were also worn by the Egyptian women. These, +however, are not jewelled, but of plain or enamelled metal, +as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews.</p> + +<p>In modern times the most celebrated +armlets are those which form part of the +regalia of the Persian kings and formerly +belonged to the Mogul emperors of India, +being part of the spoil carried to Persia +from Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are +of dazzling splendour, and the jewels in them are of such +large size and immense value that the pair have been +reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal stone +of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the +<i>Darya-i-nur</i>, “sea (or river) of light.” It weighs 186 carats, +and is considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world. +The principal jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat +inferior size (146 carats) and value, is renowned as the <i>Tāj-e-mah</i>, +“crown of the moon.” The imperial armlets, generally set +with jewels, may also be observed in most of the portraits of +the Indian emperors.</p> + +<p>Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric +nations, and the women frequently wear several on the same +arm. The finer kinds are of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver; +others of less value are made of plated steel, horn, brass, copper, +beads, &c. Chinese bracelets are sometimes cut out of single +pieces of jade.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:354px" src="images/img359b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.</td></tr></table> + +<p>This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common +in Europe from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the +Bronze Age were of either gold or bronze, silver being then +unknown. In shape they were oval and penannular with +expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an opening between +them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily slipped +over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered +rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often +chased with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets +of bronze, peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the +whole fore-arm, and were doubtless intended as much for defence +against a sword-stroke as for ornament. Among the nations +of classical antiquity, bracelets were worn by both sexes of +the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks, except in +orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn +by women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been +used during the empire by <i>nouveaux riches</i>, and by some of the +emperors. It should also be mentioned that bracelets were +conferred as a military decoration in the field.</p> + +<p>The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types, +both of which were also familiar to the Assyrians. The one +class were in the +form of coiled +spirals, usually in +the form of snakes, +a term which Pollux +gives as a synonym +for bracelet. +The other class +were stiff penannular +hoops, +capable of being +slightly opened. In +such examples the +terminals are finely +finished as rams’ +heads, lions’ heads, +or (as in the accompanying +figure +from a bracelet +found at Kuloba) +as enamelled +sphinxes. In late Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of +consecutive panels, as often in modern jewelry.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:699px; height:81px" src="images/img359c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From La Grande Encydopédie.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern +Europe, while silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited +and intertwisted strands of silver wire, and plain penannular +hoops, round or lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities, +became common towards the close of the pagan period. +The late Celtic period in Britain was characterized by serpent-shaped +bracelets and massive armlets, with projecting ornaments +of solid bronze and perforations filled with enamel. In the +middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in Europe, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span> +but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations +to the present time, and many of the types that were common +in Europe in prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A treatise, <i>De Armillis Veterum</i>, by Thomas Bartholinus, was +published at Amsterdam in 1676.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACHIOPODA,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> an important and well-defined but extremely +isolated class of invertebrates. The group may be defined as +follows: Sessile solitary <i>Coelomata</i> with bivalved shells usually +of unequal size and arranged dorso-ventrally. The head is +produced into ciliated arms bearing tentacles. They reproduce +sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of separate sexes.</p> + +<p>The name Brachiopod (<span class="grk" title="brachion">βραχίων</span>, an arm, and <span class="grk" title="pous, podos">πούς, ποδός</span>, a +foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by +A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively +adopted. The division of the group into <i>Ecardines</i> (<i>Inarticulata</i>), +with no hinge to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at +both ends, and <i>Testicardines</i> (<i>Articulata</i>), with a hinge between +the dorsal and ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed +by Owen and has been adopted by nearly all authors. In a +later scheme based on our increased knowledge of fossil forms, +the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary groups (orders). +This is given at the end of the article, but it must not be forgotten +that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ markedly +from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:605px" src="images/img360.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 1-11.—Various forms of Brachiopoda.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] +<i>cranium</i>. A, ventral, B, +dorsal valve.</p> +<p>2. <i>Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) +psittacea</i>.</p> +<p>3. and 4. <i>Thecidea</i>.</p> +<p>5. <i>Spirifer</i>. Dorsal valve, +showing calcareous spiral +coils.</p> +<p>6. <i>Orthis calligramma</i>.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>7. <i>Leptaena transversalis</i>. A, +ventral, B, dorsal valve.</p> +<p>8. <i>Productus horridus</i>.</p> +<p>9. <i>Lingula pyramidata</i> (after +Morse).</p> +<p>10. <i>Discinisca lamellosa</i>.</p> +<p>11. <i>Crania anomala</i> Interior of +dorsal valve, showing muscular +impressions and labial +appendages.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a +shell composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always, +except in cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved. +The valves are, consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is +not the case with the Lamellibranchiata,—so much so, that +certain Brachiopod shells were named <i>Lampades</i>, or lamp shells, +by some early naturalists; but while such may bear a kind of +resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger +number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most +beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species +it is thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally +the shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size, +but in certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something +less in length, as is the case with <i>Productus giganteus</i>. +The valves are also in some species very unequal in their respective +thickness, as may be seen in <i>Productus</i> (<i>Daviesiella</i>)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>llangollensis</i>, +<i>Davidsonia verneuilii</i>, &c., and while the space allotted to the +animal is very great in many species, as in <i>Terebratula sphaeroidalis</i>, +it is very small in others belonging to <i>Strophomena</i>, <i>Leptaena</i>, +<i>Chonetes</i>, &c. The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in +some forms is six or seven times as great as the opposite one. +The outer surface of many of the species presents likewise the +most exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant shades, or spots +of green, red, yellow and bluish black. Traces of the original +colour have also been preserved in some of the fossil forms; +radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in well-preserved +examples of <i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Dielasma</i>) <i>hastata</i>, <i>T</i>. (<i>Dielasma</i>) +<i>sacculus</i>, <i>T. communis</i>, <i>T. biplicata</i>, and of several others. +Some specimens of <i>T. carnea</i> are of a beautiful pale pink colour +when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps +has described the tint of several Jurassic species.</p> + +<p>The valves are distinguished as <i>dorsal</i> and <i>ventral</i>. The ventral +valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as <i>Terebratula</i> +and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, has a prominent beak or umbo, +with a circular or otherwise shaped foramen at or near its +extremity, partly bounded by one or two plates, termed a +deltidium. Through the foramen passes a peduncle, by which +the animal is in many species attached to submarine objects +during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no +indication of ever having been attached, while some that had +been moored by means of a peduncle during the early portion of +their existence have become detached at a more advanced stage +of life, the opening becoming gradually cicatrized, as is so often +seen in <i>Leptaena rhomboidalis</i>, <i>Orthisina anomala</i>, &c. Lastly, +some species adhere to submarine objects by a larger or smaller +portion of their ventral valve, as is the case with many forms of +<i>Crania</i>, <i>Thecidium</i>, <i>Davidsonia</i>, &c. Some <i>Cranias</i> are always +attached by the whole surface of their lower or ventral valve, +which models itself and fills up all the projections or depressions +existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it adhered. +These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the +upper or dorsal valve. Some species of <i>Strophalosia</i> and <i>Productus</i> +seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy +or muddy bottoms on which they lived, by the means of +tubular spines often of considerable length. The interior of +the shell varies very much according to families and genera. +On the inner surface of both valves several well-defined muscular, +vascular and ovarian impressions are observable; they form +either indentations of greater or less size and depth, or occur as +variously shaped projections. In the <i>Trimerellidae</i>, for example, +some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted platform +situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half +or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there +exists in the interior of the <i>dorsal</i> valve of some genera a variously +modified, thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support +of the ciliated arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of +the chief generic characters of both recent and extinct forms. +This brachial skeleton is more developed in some genera than +in others. In certain forms, as in <i>Terebratula</i> and <i>Terebratulina</i>, +it is short and simple, and attached to a small divided hinge-plate, +the two riband-shaped lamina being bent upwards in the +middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and on each +side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the loop +in <i>Terebratulina</i> becomes annular in the adult by the union of +its crural processes (fig. 16). In <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] it +is elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four +depressions, under which originates a median septum, which +extends more or less into the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span> +In <i>Terebratella</i> the loop is attached to the hinge-plate and to the +septum (fig. 17). In <i>Megerlia</i> it is three times attached, first to +the hinge-plate, and then to the septum by processes from the +diverging and reflected positions of the loop. In <i>Magas</i> the +brachial skeleton is composed of an elevated longitudinal septum +reaching from one valve to the other, to which are affixed +two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones riband-shaped; +attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards proceed by a +gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to the +sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both +sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of +two triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In <i>Bouchardia</i> +the septum only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped +lamellae. Many more modifications are observable in different +groups of which the great family <i>Terebratulidae</i> is composed. +In <i>Thecidium</i> (figs. 3,4) the interior of the dorsal valve is variously +furrowed to receive the lophophore folded in two or more lobes. +In the family <i>Spiriferidae</i> there are two conical spires directed +outwards, and nearly filling the cavity of the shell (fig. 5); +while in <i>Atrypa</i> the broad spirally coiled lamellae are vertical, +and directed toward the centre of the dorsal valve. In the +<i>Rhynchonellidae</i> there are two short slender curved laminae, +while in many genera and even families, such as the <i>Productidae, +Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae</i>, &c., there exists no +calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve +in many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth, +which fit into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so +that the valves cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:459px; height:627px" src="images/img361a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 12-18.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;"> +<p>12. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of ventral valve. +<i>f</i>, foramen; <i>d</i>, deltidium; <i>t</i>, teeth; <i>a</i>, adductor impressions +(=occlusors, <i>Hancock</i>); <i>c</i>, divaricator (=cardinal muscles, +<i>King</i>, = muscles diducteurs principaux, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>c’</i>, accessory +divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b</i>, +ventral adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du +pedoncule paire supérieure, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b’</i>, peduncular muscle.</p> +<p>13. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of dorsal valve. +<i>c, c’</i>, cardinal process; <i>b’, b’</i>, hinge-plate; <i>s</i>, dental sockets; +<i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>a, a’</i>, adductor impressions; <i>c</i>, accessory +divaricator; <i>b</i>, peduncle muscles; <i>ss</i>, septum.</p> +<p>14. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Longitudinal section of +valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; <i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>ss</i>, +septum; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p> +<p>15. <i>Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea</i>. Interior of dorsal valve. <i>l</i>, loop; +<i>b</i>, hinge-plate; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p> +<p>16. Loop of <i>Terebratulina caput serpentis</i>.</p> +<p>17. Longitudinal section of <i>Terebratella dorsata</i>. (References as in +fig. 14.)</p> +<p>18. Longitudinal section of <i>Magas pumilus</i>.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:326px" src="images/img361b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. +Interior of dorsal valve, to show the position +of the labial appendages. <i>v</i>, Mouth. +(A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show +the brachial membrane and a portion of the +spiral extremities of the arms.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:387px" src="images/img361c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. +Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>d</i>, <i>h</i>, Brachial appendages.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p> +<p><i>c</i>, c’, Divaricator muscles.</p> +<p><i>s</i>, Septum.</p> +<p><i>v</i>, Mouth.</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Exremity of alimentary tube.</p></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">The penduncular muscules have +been purposely omitted.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:652px" src="images/img362a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.—A diagram of the left half +of an <i>Argiope</i> (<i>Megathyris</i>), which has +been bisected in the median plane.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p> 1. The ventral valve.</p> +<p> 2. The dorsal valve.</p> +<p> 3. The pedicle.</p> +<p> 4. The mouth.</p> +<p> 5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore.</p> +<p> 6. Tentacles.</p> +<p> 7. Ovary in dorsal valve.</p> +<p> 8. Liver diverticula.</p> +<p> 9. Occlusor muscle—its double origin is shown.</p> +<p>10. Internal opening of left nephridium.</p> +<p>11. External opening of the same.</p> +<p>12. Ventral adjustor.</p> +<p>13. Divaricator muscle.</p> +<p>14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.</p> +<p>15. The heart.</p> +<p>16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.</p></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:516px" src="images/img362b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.—Diagrammatic section +through an arm of the lophophore of +<i>Crania</i>. Magnified; after Blochmann.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p> 1. The lip.</p> +<p> 2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line.</p> +<p> 3. Great arm-sinus.</p> +<p> 4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres.</p> +<p> 5. Tentacular canal.</p> +<p> 6. External tentacular muscle.</p> +<p> 7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the small arm-sinus.</p> +<p> 8. Chief arm-nerve.</p> +<p> 9. Secondary arm-nerve.</p> +<p>10. Under arm-nerve.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains +prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle +secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated +by calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite +surrounded by a cuticular +mesh work; the +whole is nourished and +kept alive by processes, +which in <i>Crania</i> are +branched; these perforate +the shell and +permit the access of the +coelomic fluid throughout +its substance. These +canals are closed externally +and are absent +in <i>Rhynchonella</i>, where +the amount of calcareous +deposit is small. +In <i>Lingula</i> the shell is +composed of alternate +layers of chitin and of +phosphate of lime. The +free edges of the mantle +often bear chitinous +bristles or setae which +project beyond the shell. +As in the case of the Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the +adult is not a direct derivative of the youngest shell of +the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species is +protected by an embryonic shell called the “protegulum,” +which sometimes persists in +the umbones of the adult +shells but is more usually +worn off. In all species it +has the same shape, a shape +which has been retained in +the adult by the Lower +Cambrian genus <i>Iphidea</i>.</p> + +<p>The body of the Brachiopod +usually occupies about the +posterior half of the space +within the shell. The anterior +half of this space is +lined by the inner wall of +the mantle and is called the +mantle cavity. This cavity +lodges the arms, which are +curved and coiled in different +ways in different genera. +The water which bears the +oxygen for respiration and +the minute organisms upon +which the Brachiopod feeds is +swept into the mantle cavity +by the action of the cilia +which cover the arms, and +the eggs and excreta pass out +into the same cavity. The +mouth lies in the centre of +the anterior wall of the +body. Its two lips fusing +together at the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called +arms. These arms, which together form the lophophore, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span> +may be, as in <i>Cistella</i>, applied flat to the inner surface of the +dorsal mantle fold, but more usually they are raised free from +the body like a pair of moustaches, and as they are usually far +too long to lie straight in the mantle cavity, they are folded or +coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in many cases supports +the arms has been mentioned above.</p> + +<p>A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it +consists of a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective +tissue not uncommon in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which +is traversed by certain canals whose nature is considered below +under the section (<i>The Body Cavity</i>) devoted to the coelom. +Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter, the pre-oral +rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral rim is +composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number +some thousands, and they +are usually bent over and +tend to form a closed +cylinder of the gutter. +Each of these tentacles +(fig. 22) is hollow, and it +contains a diverticulum +from the coelom, a branch +of the vascular system, +a nerve and some muscle-fibres. +Externally on two +sides and on the inner +surface the tentacles are +ciliated, and the cilia +are continued across the +gutter to the lip and even +on the outer surface of +the latter. These cilia +pass on any diatoms and +other minute organism +which come within their +range of action to the +capacious oval mouth, +which appears as a mere +deepening of the gutter +in the middle line. In +<i>Terebratulina, +Rhynchonella, Lingula</i>, and +possibly other genera, +the arms can be unrolled +and protruded from the +opened shell; in this case +the tentacles also +straighten themselves and +wave about in the water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Body Cavity.</i>—The +various internal organs of +the brachiopod body, the +alimentary canal and liver, +the excretory organs, the +heart, numerous muscles +and the reproductive +organs, are enclosed in a +cavity called the body +cavity, and since this cavity +(i.) is derived from the +archicoel and is from the +first surrounded by meroblast, +(ii.) communicates +with the exterior through +the nephridia or excretory +organs, and (iii.) gives rise +by the proliferation of the +cells which line it to the +ova and spermatoza, it is of +the nature of a true coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber +surrounding the alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally +into the sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial +cells lining the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated +fluid contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a +great tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic +cavity there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards +as coelomic, but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests +largely on histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation +is wanting. These spaces are as follows:—(i.) the great +arm-sinus; (ii.) the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus +and the peri-oesophageal sinus, and in <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, and, +to a less extent, in <i>Crania</i>, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of the +general body cavity which in <i>Crania</i> are separated off and contain +muscles, &c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists. The +great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the fold +or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated groove +in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off +from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic +space nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate +with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms +of the lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind +diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the +blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth +where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another +they open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and +partly walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This +sinus is continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal +sinus, and thus the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the +relations of the so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In <i>Crania</i> +it is completely shut off from the main coelom, but in <i>Lingula</i> it +communicates freely with this cavity. In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i> +there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which traverses +the supporting tissue +of the edge of the mantle +and contains muscle-fibres. +It opens into the peri-oesophageal +sinus. It is +better developed and more +spacious in <i>Lingula</i> than +in <i>Discinisca.</i> In <i>Crania</i>, +where only indications of the +lip-sinus occur, there are two +other closed spaces. The +posterior occlusor muscles +lie in a special closed +space which Blochmann also +regards as coelomic. The +posterior end of the intestine +is similarly surrounded by +a closed coelomic space +known as the peri-anal sinus +in which the rectum lies +freely, unsupported by +mesenteries. All these +spaces contain a similar +coagulable fluid with sparse +corpuscles, and all are lined +by ciliated cells. There is +further a great tendency for +the endothelial cells to form +muscles, and this is especially +pronounced in the small +arm-sinus, where a conspicuous +muscle is built up. +The mantle-sinuses which +form the chief spaces in the +mantle are diverticula of the +main coelomic cavity. In +<i>Discinisca</i> they are provided +with a muscular valve placed +at their point of origin. They +contain the same fluid as the +general coelom. The stalk +is an extension of the ventral +body-wall, and contains +a portion of the coelom +which, in <i>Discinisca</i> and +<i>Lingula</i>, remains in communication +with the general +body cavity.</p> + +<p><i>The Alimentary Canal</i>.— +The mouth, which is quite +devoid of armature, leads +imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus. +The latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the +broad ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes +into an intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short, +finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is +longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In +<i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> the anus lies to the right in the mantle-cavity, +but in <i>Crania</i> it opens medianly into a posterior extension of the +same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine caused by the +lateral position of the anus in the two genera just named, Brachiopods +are bilaterally symmetrical animals.</p> + +<p>The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad +duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which +may branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span> +the space in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes, +which may be found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a +large part of the digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach, +oesophagus and intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The +intestine is slung by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which +divides the body cavity into two symmetrically shaped halves; +it is “stayed” by two transverse septa, the anterior or gastroparietal +band running from the stomach to the body wall and the +posterior or ileoparietal band running from the intestine to the body +wall. None of these septa is complete, and the various parts of +the central body cavity freely communicate with one another. In +<i>Rhynchonella</i>, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the internal +opening of the anterior pair is supported by the gastroparietal band +and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal band. The latter +pair alone persists in all other genera.</p> + +<p>The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped +nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the +mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and +devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow +or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act +as ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.</p> + +<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>—The structures formerly regarded as pseudohearts +have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart +was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases +escaped the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884, +however, observed this organ in the living animal in species of the +following genera:—<i>Terebratulina, Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>], <i>Rhynchonella, +Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>), <i>Lingula</i>, and <i>Crania</i> (fig. 21). It +consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal side +of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations +of <i>Terebratulina</i> made by quickly removing the viscera and examining +them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the pulsations, +which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:280px; height:238px" src="images/img363a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.—<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>) +<i>psittacea.</i> Interior of dorsal +valve, <i>s</i>, Sockets; <i>b</i>, dental plates; +<i>V</i>, mouth; <i>de</i>, labial appendage in +its natural position; <i>d</i>, appendage +extended or unrolled.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A vessel—the dorsal vessel—runs forward from the heart +along the dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel +is nothing but a split between the right and left folds of the +mesentery, and its cavity is thus a remnant of the blastocoel. +A similar primitive arrangement is thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the +genital arteries. Anteriorly the dorsal vessel splits into a right +and a left half, which enter the small arm-sinus and, running +along it, give off a blind branch to each tentacle (fig. 21). The +right and left halves are connected ventrally to the oesophagus +by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in the immediate +neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular ring around +the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second +median vessel which divides almost at once +into a right and a left half, each of which again divides into two +vessels which run to the dorsal and ventral mantles respectively. +The dorsal branch sends a blind twig into each of the diverticula +of the dorsal mantle-sinus, the ventral branch supplies the nephridia +and neighbouring parts before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle. +Both dorsal and ventral branches supply the generative organs.</p> + +<p>The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles +is not yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is +a remarkable fact that in <i>Discinisca</i>, although the vessels to the +lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart +or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.</p> + +<p><i>Muscles.</i>—The number and position of the muscles differ materially +in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been +grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which +each division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist +who has written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed +different names for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising +is much to be regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus +<i>Terebratula</i> may be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles +are stated by A. Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected +with the opening and closing of the valves, or with their attachment +to or movements upon the peduncle. First of all, the adductors +or occlusors consist of two muscles, which, bifurcating near the +centre of the shell cavity, produce a large quadruple impression +on the internal surface of the small valve (fig. 13, <i>a</i>, <i>a’</i>), and a single +divided one towards the centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12, +<i>a</i>). The function of this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves. +Two other pairs have been termed <i>divaricators</i> by Hancock, or +<i>cardinal muscles</i> (“muscles diducteurs” of Gratiolet), and have +for function the opening of the valves. The divaricators proper are +stated by Hancock to arise from the ventral valve, one on each +side, a little in advance of and close to the adductors, and after +rapidly diminishing in size become attached to the cardinal process, +a space or prominence between the sockets in the dorsal valve. +The <i>accessory divaricators</i> are, according to the same authority, a +pair of small muscles which have their ends attached to the ventral +valve, one on each side of the median line, a little behind the united +basis of the adductors, and again to the extreme point of the cardinal +process. Two pairs of muscles, apparently connected with the +peduncle and its limited movements, have been minutely described +by Hancock as having one of their extremities attached to this organ. +The <i>dorsal adjusters</i> are fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle, +and are again inserted into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve. +The <i>ventral adjusters</i> are considered to pass from the inner extremity +of the peduncle, and to become attached by one pair of their extremities +to the ventral valve, one on each side and a little behind +the expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscles, +according to the same authority, is not only that of erecting the shell; +they serve also to attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect +the steadying of it upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting +they can cause a slight rotation of the animal in its stalk.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:444px; height:291px" src="images/img363b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.—<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Diagram showing +the muscular system. (After Hancock.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>M, Ventral,</p> +<p>N, Dorsal valve,</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Loop.</p> +<p>V, Mouth.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>Z, Extremity of intestine,</p> +<p><i>c</i>, Divaricators.</p> +<p><i>c′</i>, Accessory divaricators.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>b</i>, Ventral adjusters.</p> +<p><i>b′</i>, Peduncular muscles.</p> +<p><i>b″</i>, Dorsal adjusters.</p> +<p>P, Peduncle.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division +composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for +certain unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing +the different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong +and tight interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth +and sockets, many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves +but slightly. In some species, such as <i>Thecidea</i>, the animal could +raise its dorsal valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one +(fig. 4).</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:378px" src="images/img363c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 25, 26. <i>Lingula anatina.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>25, Interior of ventral valve.</p> +<p>26, Interior of dorsal valve.</p> +<p><i>g</i>, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves).</p> +<p><i>h</i>, Central muscles (close valves).</p> +<p><i>i</i>, Transmedial or sliding muscles.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>b</i>, Parietal band.</p> +<p><i>j, k, l</i>, Lateral muscles (<i>j</i>, anteriors; <i>k</i>, middles; <i>l</i>, +outsiders), enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other.</p> +<p><br />(After King.)</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:255px; height:579px" src="images/img364a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.—<i>Lingula anatina</i>. +Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The +letters indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Dorsal,</p> +<p>B, Ventral valve.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Peduncle.</p> +<p><i>e</i>, Heart.</p> +<p><i>a</i>, Alimentary tube.</p> +<p><i>z</i>, Anal aperture.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">In the Ecardines, of which <i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> may be quoted +as examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span> +or valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one, +and individualizes their respective functions as follows:—Three pairs +are <i>lateral</i>, having their members limited to the sides of the shell; +one pair are <i>transmedians</i>, each member passing across the middle +of the reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the +umbonal cavity. The <i>central</i> and <i>umbonal</i> muscles effect the direct +opening and closing of the shell, the <i>laterals</i> enable the valves to +move forward and backward on each other, and the <i>transmedians</i> +allow the similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from +each other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated, +that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long +a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves +sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually +observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the +animal perform the operation. They mention that it is never done +suddenly or by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one +side several times and back again on each other, at the same time +opening gradually in the transverse direction till they rest opposite +to one another and widely apart. Those who have not seen the +animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the valves +crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent to +appropriating any of its muscles +to that purpose, and consequently +attributed to all the lateral muscles +the simple function of keeping +the valves in an opposite position, +or holding them adjusted. +We have not only the observations +of Semper and Morse, but +the anatomical investigations of +King, to confirm the sliding +action or lateral divarication of +the valves of <i>Lingula</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Testicardines, where no +such sliding action of the valves +was necessary or possible, no +muscles for such an object were +required, consequently none took +rise from the lateral portions of +the valves as in <i>Lingula</i>; but +in an extinct group, the <i>Trimerellidae</i>, +which seems to be somewhat +intermediate in character +between the Ecardines and Testicardines, +have been found certain +scars, which appear to +have been produced by rudimentary +lateral muscles, but it is +doubtful (considering the shells +are furnished with teeth, though +but rudely developed) whether +such muscles enabled the valves, +as in <i>Lingula</i>, to move forward +and backward upon each other. +<i>Crania</i> in life opens its valves +by moving upon the straight +hinge, without sliding the valve.</p> + +<p>The <i>nervous system</i> of Brachiopods +has, as a rule, maintained +its primitive connexion with the +external epithelium. In a few +places it has sunk into the connective-tissue +supporting layer +beneath the ectoderm, but the +chief centres still remain in the +ectoderm, and the fibrils forming +the nerves are for the most +part at the base of the ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus +is a thin commissure which passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve. +This latter includes in its course numerous ganglion cells, +and forms, according to F. Blochmann, the immensely long drawn out +supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief arm-nerve traverses the lophophore, +being situated between the great arm-sinus and the base of the +lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a branch to each tentacle, and these +all anastomose at the base of the tentacles with the second nerve +of the arm, the so-called secondary arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve, +this strand runs through the lophophore, parallel indeed +with the former except near the middle line, where it passes ventrally +to the oesophagus. The lophophore is supplied by yet a third nerve, +the under arm-nerve, which is less clearly defined than the others, +and resembles a moderate aggregation of the nerve fibrils, which seem +everywhere to underlie the ectoderm, and which in a few cases are +gathered up into nerves. The under arm-nerve, which lies between +the small arm-sinus and the surface, supplies nerves to the muscles of +both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28). Medianly, it has its origin in the +sub-oesophageal ganglion, which, like the supra-oesophageal, is +drawn out laterally, though not to the same extent. In the middle +line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is small; the ganglion is in +fact drawn out into two halves placed on either side of the body. +From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia numerous nerves arise. +Passing from the middle line outwards they are—(i.) the median +pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle; (ii.) numerous +small nerves—the circum-oesophageal commissures—which pass +round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal +ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its +muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal +mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves +to the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the +various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round +the edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of +the nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another +concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:364px" src="images/img364b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.—Diagram of nervous +system of <i>Crania</i>; from the dorsal +side. The nerves running to the +dorsal parts are white, with black +edges; those running to the ventral +parts are solid black. Magnified. (After +Blochmann.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><p> 1. Oesophagus.</p> +<p> 2. Supra-oesophageal commisure.</p> +<p> 3. Circum-oesophageal commisure.</p> +<p> 4. Under arm-nerve.</p> +<p> 5. Great arm-sinus.</p> +<p> 6. Small arm-sinus.</p> +<p> 7. Tentacle.</p> +<p> 8. Lip of lophophore.</p> +<p> 9. Infra-oesophageal commisure.</p> +<p>10. Chief arm-nerve.</p> +<p>11. Secondary arm-nerve.</p> +<p>12. Nerves to tentacles.</p> +<p>13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.</p> +<p>14. Dorsal lateral nerve.</p> +<p>15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve.</p> +<p>16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle.</p> +<p>17. Anterior occlusor muscle.</p> +<p>18. Posterior occlusor muscle.</p> +<p>19. Obliquus superior muscle.</p> +<p>20. Levator brachii muscle.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The above account applies more particularly to <i>Crania</i>, but in the +main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been investigated. +In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, however, the sub-oesophageal +ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives off two +posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in <i>Lingula</i> unite and +form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the adult. +The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very specialized +sense organs are found in the adult.</p> + +<p>The <i>histology</i> of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many +primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has +especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus +of nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places +gathered up into nerves, and the great development of connective +tissue, are worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of +hyaline supporting tissue, +embedded in which are +scattered cells and fibres. +The lophophore and stalk +are largely composed of this +tissue. The ectodermal cells +are large, ciliated, and +amongst the ciliated cells +glandular cells are scattered. +The chitinous chaetae have +their origin in special ectodermal +pits, at the base of +which is one large cell which +is thought to secrete the +chaeta, as in Chaetopods. +These pits are not isolated, +but are connected by an +ectodermal ridge, which +grows in at the margin of +the mantle and forms a continuous +band somewhat resembling +the ectodermal +primordium of vertebrate +teeth.</p> + +<p>The ovary and testes are +heaped-up masses of red or +yellow cells due to a proliferation +of the cells lining +the coelom. There are four +of such masses, two dorsal +and two ventral, and as a +rule they extend between +the outer and inner layer of +the mantle lining the shells. +The ova and the spermatozoa +dehisce into the body cavity +and pass to the exterior +through the nephridia. Fertilization +takes place outside +the body, and in +some species the early stages +of development take place +in a brood-pouch which is +essentially a more or less +deep depression of the body-wall +median in <i>Thecidea</i>, +while in <i>Cistella</i> (? <i>Argiope</i>) +there is one such pouch on +each side, just below the +base of the arms, and into +these the nephridia open. +The developing ova are +attached by little stalks to +the walls of these pouches. +In spite of some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods +which have been carefully investigated have been found to be male +or female. Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:605px; height:267px" src="images/img365a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.—Three larvae stages of <i>Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>). A, Larva which has +just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a somewhat later stage; +C, the fully formed embryo just before fixing—the neo-embryo of Beecher. +Highly magnified.<br /><br /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>1. Anterior segment.</p> +<p>2. Second or mantle-forming segment.</p> +<p>3. Third or stalk-forming segment.</p> +<p>4. Eye-spots.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>5. Setae.</p> +<p>6. Nerve mass (?).</p> +<p>7. Alimentary canal.</p> +<p>8. Muscles.</p></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:218px" src="images/img365b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.—Stages in the fixing and +metamorphosis of <i>Terebratulina</i>. Highly +magnified. (From Morse.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to +rest.</p> +<p>B, C, D, Stages showing the turning +forward of the second or mantle segment.</p> +<p>E, Completion of this.</p> +<p>F, Young Brachiopod.</p> +<p>1, 2, 3, The first, second and third +segments.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2"><i>Embryology.</i>—With the exception of Yatsu’s article on the development +of <i>Lingula</i> (<i>J. Coll. Sci., Japan</i>, xvii., 1901-1903) and E.G. +Conklin’s on “Terebratulina septentrionalis” (<i>P. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i> +xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge of +the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky’s +researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on <i>Megathyris</i> +(<i>Argiope</i>) and Yatsu’s just mentioned are the most complete as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span> +regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula +is formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two +coelomic sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial +segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three +segments. The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to +muscles which enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one +another (fig. 29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch, +which is a lateral or median cavity in the body of the female, +and lead a free swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment +broadens and becomes umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of +cilia round the rim and smaller cilia on the general surface. By the +aid of these cilia the larva swims actively, but owing to its minute +size it covers very little distance, and this probably accounts for the +fact that where brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many +in one spot. The head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually +testing the ground (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards +like a skirt surrounding the third segment, which is destined +to form the stalk. It bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced +chaetae. After a certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to +some stone or rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward +over the head and forms the mantle. What goes on within the +mantle is unknown, but presumably the head is absorbed. The +chaetae drop off, and the lophophore is believed to arise from +thickenings which appear in the dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton +Expedition brought back, and H. Simroth (<i>Ergeb. Plankton Expedition</i>, +ii., 1897) has described, a few larval brachiopods of undetermined +genera, two of which at least were pelagic, or at any rate taken +far from the coast. These +larvae, which resemble +those described by Fritz +Müller (<i>Arch. Naturg.</i>, +1861-1862), have their +mantle turned over their +head and the larval shell +well developed. No stalk +has been seen by Simroth +or Fritz Müller, but in +other respects the larva +resembles the stages in the +development of <i>Megathyris</i> +and <i>Terebratulina</i> which +immediately precede fixation. +The cirri or tentacles, +of which three or four +pairs are present, are capable +of being protruded, +and the minute larva +swims by means of the +ciliary action they produce. +It can retract the tentacles, +shut its shell, and sink to +the bottom.</p> + +<p>C.E.E. Beecher (<i>Amer. +Jour. Sci.</i> ser. 3, xli. and +xliv.) has classified with +appropriate names the various stages through which Brachiopod +larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the +second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the +Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops +a larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed +the larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have +disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the +lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal +mantle lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost +all the families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout +the group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian +genus <i>Iphidea</i> [<i>Paterina</i>], and the Phylembryo is +frequently referred to as the <i>Paterina</i> stage. In some +orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an <i>Obolella</i> +stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not +universal. The larva now assumes specific characters +and is practically adult.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:315px; height:293px" src="images/img365c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.—Shell of larval Brachiopod. +Phylembryo stage. (From Simroth.)<br /> +1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Classification</i>.—Beecher’s division of the Brachiopoda +into four orders is based largely on the character of +the aperture through which the stalk or pedicle leaves +the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it is necessary +to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are +not used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular +pedicle-opening seen in <i>Orthis</i>, &c., has been +named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke the delthyrium. +In some less primitive genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Terebratula</i>, that +type of opening is found in the young stages only; later +it becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out +from the sides of the delthyrium. These plates are +secreted by the ventral lobe of the mantle, and were +named by von Buch in 1834 the “deltidium.” The +form of the deltidium varies in different genera. The +two plates may meet in the middle line, and leave only +a small oval opening near the centre for the pedicle, +as in <i>Rhynchonella</i>; or they may meet only near the +base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of +the circular pedicle-opening, as in <i>Terebratula</i>; or the +right plate may remain quite distinct from the left +plate, as in <i>Terebratella</i>. The pro-deltidium, a term introduced +by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small embryonic plate originating +on the dorsal side of the body. It subsequently becomes attached +to the ventral valve, and +develops into the pseudo-deltidium, +in the Neotremata +and the Protremata. +The pseudo-deltidium (so +named by Bronn in 1862) +is a single plate which +grows from the apex of +the delthyrium downwards, +and may completely +close the +aperture. The pseudo-deltidium +is sometimes +reabsorbed in the adult. +In the Telotremata +neither pro-deltidium nor +pseudo-deltidium is +known. In the Atremata +the pro-deltidium does +not become fixed to the +ventral valve, and does +not develop into a pseudo-deltidium. +The American +use of the term deltidium for the structure which Europeans call +the pseudo-deltidium makes for confusion. The development +of the brachial supports has been studied by Friele, Fischer and +Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by Beecher (<i>Trans. +Connect. Acad.</i> ix., 1893; reprinted in <i>Studies in Evolution</i>, 1901).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:190px" src="images/img365d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.—Diagram of the +pedicle-opening of <i>Rhynchonella</i>. +Magnified.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p>1. Umbo of ventral valve.</p> +<p>2. Deltidium.</p> +<p>3. Margin of delthyrium.</p> +<p>4. Pedicle-opening.</p> +<p>5. Dorsal valve.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped +together, as the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines—the Tretenterata +of Davidson—and the orders Protremata and Telotremata, +as the Articulata or Testicardines— +the Clistenterata of Davidson. The +following scheme of classification is +based on Beecher’s and Schubert’s. +Recent families are printed in italic +type.</p> + +<p class="center pt2">Class I. <span class="sc">Ecardines (Inarticulata)</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">ORDER I. Atremata</span> (Beecher).—Inarticulate +Brachiopoda, with the +pedicle passing out between the umbones, +the opening being shared by +both valves. Pro-deltidium attached +to dorsal valves. FAMILIES.—<span class="sc">Paterinidae, +Obolidae, Trimerellidae, +Lingulellidae, <i>Lingulidae</i>, +Ligulasmatidae.</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">ORDER II. Neotremata</span> (Beecher).—More +or less circular, cone-shaped, +inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle +passes out at right angles to the plane +of junction of the valves of the shell; +the opening is confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form +of a slit, or may be closed by the development of a special plate +called the listrium, or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span> +to ventral valve. FAMILIES.—<span class="sc">Acrotretidae, Siphonotretidae, +Trematidae, <i>Discinidae, Craniidae</i>.</span></p> + +<p class="pt2 center">Class II. <span class="sc">Testicardines (Articulata)</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">ORDER III. Protremata</span> (Beecher).—Articulate Brachiopoda, +with pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open +at the hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium, +which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating +on the dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral +valve. FAMILIES.—<span class="sc">Kutorginidae, Eichwaldiidae, Billingsellidae, +Strophomenidae, <i>Thecidiidae</i>, Productidae, Richthofenidae, +Orthidae, Clitambonitidae, Syntrophiidae, Porambonitidae, Pentameridae.</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">ORDER IV. Telotremata</span> (Beecher).—Articulate Brachiopoda, +with the pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve, +and placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no +pro-deltidium. Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &c. +FAMILIES.—<span class="sc">Protorhynchidae, <i>Rhynchonellidae</i>, Centronellidae, +<i>Terebratulidae</i>, Stringocephalidae, Megalanteridae, +<i>Terebratellidae</i>, Atrypidae, Spiriferidae, Athyridae.</span></p> + +<p><i>Affinities</i>.—Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the +Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been +wanting. Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the +Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the +Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata. None of these +alliances has borne close scrutiny. The suggestion to place Brachiopods +with the Polyzoa, <i>Phoronis, Rhabdopleura</i> and <i>Cephalodiscus</i>, +in the Phylum Podaxonia made in <i>Ency. Brit.</i> (vol. xix, ninth edition, +pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and until we have a fuller +account of the embryology of some one form, preferably an +Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very isolated one. +It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to belong +to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with three +segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in several +of the larger groups.</p> + +<p><i>Distribution.</i>—Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian, +and reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which +upwards of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous +in the Devonian period; at present they are represented by some +140 recent species. The following have been found in the British +area, as defined by A.M. Norman, <i>Terebratulina caput-serpentis</i> L., +<i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Gwynia</i>) <i>capsula</i> Jeff., +<i>Magellania</i> (<i>Macandrevia</i>) <i>cranium</i> Müll., +<i>M. septigera</i> Lovén, +<i>Terebratella spitzbergenensis</i> Dav., +<i>Megathyris decollata</i> Chemn., +<i>Cistella cistellula</i> S. Wood, +<i>Cryptopora gnomon</i> Jeff., +<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>) <i>psittacea</i> Gmel., +<i>Crania anomala</i> Müll., +and <i>Discinisca atlantica</i> King. About one-half +the 120 existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line. Below +150 fathoms they are rare, but a few such as <i>Terebratulina wyvillei</i> are +found down to 2000 fathoms. <i>Lingula</i> is essentially a very shallow +water form. As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ +from those of the southern. A large number of specimens of a +species are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading +is during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously +can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried +some little distance by currents.</p> + +<p>Undue stress is often laid on the fact that <i>Lingula</i> has come down to +us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst <i>Crania</i>, and forms +very closely resembling <i>Discina</i> and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, are +found from the Ordovician strata onwards. The former statement +is, however, true of animals from other classes at least as highly +organized as Brachiopods, <i>e.g.</i> the Gasteropod <i>Capulus</i>, whilst most +of the invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by +forms which do not differ from their existing representatives in any +important respect.</p> + +<p>A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be +found in Davidson’s Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods, +<i>Pal. Soc. Mon.</i> vi., 1886. The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda, +by the same author, <i>Tr. Linn. Soc. London</i>, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv., +1886-1888, must on no account be omitted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACHISTOCHRONE<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachistos">βράχιστος</span>, shortest, and +<span class="grk" title="chronos">χρόνος</span>, time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694 +to denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed +point to another in the shortest time. When the directive force +is constant, the curve is a cycloid (<i>q.v.</i>); under other conditions, +spirals and other curves are described (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACHYCEPHALIC<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Gr. for short-headed), a term invented +by Andreas Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width +from side to side was little less than the length from front to +back, their ratio being as 80 to 100, as in those of the Mongolian +type. Thus taking the length as 100, if the width exceeds 80, +the skull is to be classed as brachycephalic. The prevailing form +of the head of civilized races is brachycephalic. It is supposed +that a brachycephalic race inhabited Europe before the Celts. +Among those peoples whose heads show marked brachycephaly +are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians, Bavarians, +Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Craniometry</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKYLOGUS<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachys">βραχύς</span>, short, and <span class="grk" title="logos">λόγος</span>, word), +title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work containing +a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some +writers have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian, +and others have treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th +century. The earliest extant edition of this work was published +at Lyons in 1549, under the title of <i>Corpus Legum per modum +Institutionum</i>; and the title <i>Brachylogus totius Juris Civilis</i> +appears for the first time in an edition published at Lyons in +1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great +probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence +that it was composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le +Débonnaire (778-840), as it contains a Lombard law of that +king’s, which forbids the testimony of a clerk to be received +against a layman. On the other hand its style and reasoning +is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and 11th +centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author +has not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of +the Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion +that he wrote before that school became dominant at Bologna. +Savigny, who traced the history of the <i>Brachylogus</i> with great +care, is disposed to think that it is the work of Irnerius himself +(<i>Geschichte des röm. Rechts im Mittelalter</i>). Its value is chiefly +historical, as it furnishes evidence that a knowledge of Justinian’s +legislation was always maintained in northern Italy. The author +of the work has adopted the <i>Institutes</i> of Justinian as the basis +of it, and draws largely on the <i>Digest</i>, the <i>Code</i> and the +<i>Novels</i>; while certain passages, evidently taken from the +<i>Sententiae Receptae</i> of Julius Paulus, imply that the author +was also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled +by order of Alaric II.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under +the title of <i>Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis</i>. See also +H. Fitting, <i>Über die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten +Brachylogus</i> (Berlin, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKET,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> in architecture and carpentering, a projecting +feature either in wood or metal for holding things together or +supporting a shelf. The same feature in stone is called a “console” +(<i>q.v.</i>). In furniture it is a small ornamental shelf for a +wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks, china or other bric-à-brac. +The word has been referred to “brace,” clamp, Lat. <i>bracchium</i>, +arm, but the earliest form “bragget” (1580) points to the true +derivation from the Fr. <i>braguette</i>, or Span. <i>bragueta</i> +(Lat. <i>bracae</i>, breeches), used both of the front part of a pair +of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development is +not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed +connexion with “brace.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKET-FUNGI.<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> The term “bracket” has been given +to those hard, woody fungi that grow on trees or timber in +the form of semicircular brackets. They belong to the order +<i>Polyporeae</i>, distinguished by the layer of tubes or pores on +the under surface within which the spores are borne. The +mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues +of the tree, and often destroys it; the “bracket” represents +the fruiting stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain +entrance to other trees by some wound or cut surface; hence +the need of careful forestry. Many of these woody fungi persist +for several years, and a new layer of pores is superposed on +the previous season’s growth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKLESHAM BEDS,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> in geology, a series of clays and +marls, with sandy and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of +the Hampshire Basin, England. They are well developed in +the Isle of Wight and on the mainland opposite; and receive +their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in Sussex. +The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil mollusca +are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the +<i>Palaeophis</i>, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera +also occur. The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay +above and the Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below. +In the London Basin these beds are represented only by thin +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span> +sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group. In the Paris Basin +the “Calcaire grossier” lies upon the same geological horizon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Dixon, <i>Geology of Sussex</i> (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards +and S.V. Wood, “Monograph of Eocene Mollusca,” <i>Palaeontographical Soc.</i> +vol. i. (1847-1877); “Geology of the Isle of Wight,” <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i> +(2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, “The Geology of the Country around Southampton,” +<i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1617), +English lord chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton +of Ridley, Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded, +but, according to Wood,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when he became a commoner at Brasenose +College, Oxford, in 1556, he was about seventeen. He entered +Lincoln’s Inn in 1559, and was called to the bar in 1572, being +chosen a governor of the society in 1580, Lent reader in 1582, +and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained legal renown and a large +practice, and tradition relates that his skilful conduct of a case +against the crown gained the notice of Elizabeth, who is reported +to have declared: “In my troth he shall never plead against me +again.” Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was made +solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments +of 1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended +in the House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons +desired that he should return to their house, the Lords refusing +on the ground that he was called by the queen’s writ to attend in +the Lords before his election by the House of Commons.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He took +part in the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that +in her indictment she should only be styled “commonly called +queen of Scots,” to avoid scruples about judging a sovereign. +He conducted several other state prosecutions. On the 2nd of +June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted +and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April +1594 he became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596 +lord keeper of the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining, +however, a commoner as Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in +the Lords as such during the whole reign of Elizabeth. He kept +in addition the mastership of the rolls, the whole work of the +chancery during this period falling on his shoulders and sometimes +causing inconvenience to suitors<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a>. His promotion was welcomed +from all quarters. “I think no man,” wrote a contemporary to +Essex, “ever came to this dignity with more applause than this +worthy gentleman.”<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Egerton became one of the queen’s most trusted advisers and +one of the greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was +a leading member of the numerous special commissions, including +the ecclesiastical commission, and was the queen’s interpreter +in her communications to parliament. In 1598 he was employed +as a commissioner for negotiating with the Dutch, obtaining +great credit by the treaty then effected, and in 1600 in the same +capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of his unlawful +marriage with his second wife, in a private house without banns, +the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and +was obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +He was a firm friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate +Essex. He sought to moderate his violence and rashness, and +after the scene in the council in July 1598, when the queen struck +Essex and bade him go and be hanged, he endeavoured to reconcile +him to the queen in an admirable letter which has often been +printed.<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the arrival of Essex in London without leave from +Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported the queen’s +just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity to +the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House +from the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the +lord keeper used his influence to recover for him the queen’s +favour and gave him kindly warnings concerning the necessity +for caution in his conduct. On the 5th of June 1600 he presided +over the court held at his house, which deprived Essex of his +offices except that of master of the horse, treating him with +leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only that of +disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he +attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to +bring Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601, +the day fixed for the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers +of state visited Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of +the tumultuous assemblage. His efforts to persuade Essex to +speak with him privately and explain his “griefs,” and to refrain +from violence, and his appeal to the company to depart peacefully +on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and he was imprisoned by +Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill him and to throw +the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he abandoned +all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his trial. +On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber, +exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of +Thomas Lea to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In +July 1602, a few months before her death, Elizabeth visited the +lord keeper at his house at Harefield in Middlesex, and he was +one of those present during her last hours who received her +faltering intimation as to her successor.</p> + +<p>On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed +lord keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in +May 1603, and the chamberlainship of Chester in August. On +the 21st of July he was created Baron Ellesmere, and on the +24th lord chancellor. His support of the king’s prerogative was +too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of the harsh +penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the +legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the +prisoner “might be his last work to conclude his services.”<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +In May 1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet +for questioning the authority of the earl marshal’s court. In +1604 he came into collision with the House of Commons. Sir +Francis Goodwin, an outlaw, having been elected for Buckinghamshire +contrary to the king’s proclamation, the chancellor +cancelled the return when made according to custom into +chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons, +however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin +to his seat, and though the matter was in the present instance +compromised by the choice of a third party, they secured for +the future the right of judging in their own elections. He was +at one with James in desiring to effect the union between +England and Scotland, and served on the commission in 1604; +and the English merchants who opposed the union and community +of trade with the Scots were “roundly shaken by him.” +In 1608, in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the +assistance of the fourteen judges, that those born after the +accession of James I. to the throne of England were English +subjects and capable of holding lands in England; and he +compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle Thomas, +whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not, +however, always show obedience to the king’s wishes. He opposed +the latter’s Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of +James’s most peremptory commands and threats, refused to put +the great seal to the pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated +as high steward in the trial of the latter and his countess +for the murder of Overbury. He was a rigid churchman, hostile +to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics. He fully approved +of the king’s unfriendly attitude towards the former, +adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared, +in admiration of James’s theological reasoning on this occasion, +that he had never understood before the meaning of the legal +maxim, <i>Rex est mixta persona cum sacerdote</i>. In 1605 he opposed +the petition for the restitution of deprived Puritan ministers, +and obtained an opinion from the judges that the petition was +illegal. He supported the party of Abbot against Laud at +Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness of the latter +to be president of St John’s College. In 1605 he directed the +judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.</p> + +<p>His vigorous and active public career closed with a great +victory gained over the common law and his formidable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span> +antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The chancellor’s court of equity +had originated in the necessity for a tribunal to decide cases not +served by the common law, and to relax and correct the rigidity +and insufficiency of the latter’s procedure. The two jurisdictions +had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar complaining +of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor, and +the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of +justice in the courts of common law. The disputes between the +courts, concerning which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated +with the chancellor and Sir Edward Coke,<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> the lord chief justice, +came to a crisis in 1616, when the court of chancery granted relief +against judgments at common law in the cases of <i>Heath v. Rydley</i> +and <i>Courtney v. Granvil</i>. This relief was declared +by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be illegal, and a +counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against the +parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury, +however, refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite +of Coke’s threats and assurances that the chancellor was dead, +and the dispute was referred to the king himself, who after +consulting his counsel and on Bacon’s advice decided in favour +of equity. The chancellor’s triumph was a great one, and from +this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was +unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his +dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the <i>commendams</i>, +agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge’s duty to communicate +with the king, before giving judgments in which his interests +were concerned, and in November warned the new lord chief +justice against imitating the errors of his predecessor and +especially his love of “popularity.”<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Writing in 1609 to +Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had long +been a thorn in his flesh) as a “frantic, turbulent and idle +broken brayned fellow,” apologizing for so often troubling +Salisbury on this subject, “no fit exercise for a chancellor and a +treasurer.”<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> He now summoned Coke before him and communicated +to him the king’s dissatisfaction with his <i>Reports</i>, +desiring, however, to be spared further service in his disgracing. +After several petitions for leave to retire through failing health, +he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617, delivered up to James the +great seal, which he had held continuously for the unprecedented +term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of November 1616 +he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took +place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his +decease James sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper, +with the gift of an earldom, and the presidentship of the council +with a pension of £3000 a year, which the dying man declined +as earthly vanities with which he had no more concern. He was +buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.</p> + +<p>As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the +long line of illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive +or improper use of his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous +case which precipitated the contest between the courts was a +clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly fit for the chancellor’s +intervention. He refused to answer any communications from +suitors in his court,<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and it was doubtless to Ellesmere (as +weeding out the “enormous sin” of judicial corruption)<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> that +John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire. +He gained Camden’s admiration, who records an anagram on his +name, “Gestat Honorem.” Bacon, whose merit he had early +recognized, and whose claims to the office of solicitor-general +he had unavailingly supported both in 1594 and 1606, calls him +“a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the state,” and speaks +with gratitude of his “fatherly kindness.” Ben Jonson, among +the poets, extolled in an epigram his “wing’d judgements,” +“purest hands,” and constancy. Though endowed with considerable +oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition +and affected to despise eloquence as “not decorum for judges, +that ought to respect the Matter and not the Humours of the +Hearers.”<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Like others of his day he hoped to see a codification +of the laws,<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and appears to have had greater faith in judge-made +law than in statutes of the realm, advising the parliament +(October 27, 1601) “that laws in force might be revised and +explained and no new laws made,” and describing the Statute +of Wills passed in Henry VIII.’s reign as the “ruin of ancient +families” and “the nurse of forgeries.” In the thirty-eighth +year of Elizabeth he drew up rules for procedure in the Star +Chamber,<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> restricting the fees, and in the eighth of James I. +ordinances for remedying abuses in the court of chancery. In +1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post Nati, +which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship. +The following have been ascribed to him:—<i>The Privileges and +Prerogatives of the High Court of Chancery</i> (1641); +<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of the Lord Chancellor</i> +(1651)—denied by Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in +<i>A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the Rolls</i> +(1728) to be Lord Ellesmere’s work; +<i>Observations on Lord Coke’s Reports</i>, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710), +the only evidence of his authorship being apparently that the MS. +was in his handwriting; four MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. <i>The +Prerogative Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery</i> +and <i>The Power of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on +Magna Charta, &c.</i>, Sept. 1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and +<i>An Abridgment of Lord Coke’s Reports</i> +(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of +<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor</i>, +Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also <i>Life of Egerton</i>, p. 80, note T, +catalogue of Harleian collection, +and Walpole’s <i>Royal and Noble Authors</i>, 1806, ii. 170).</p> + +<p>He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter +of Thomas Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons +and a daughter. The elder son, Thomas, predeceased him, +leaving three daughters. The younger, John, succeeded his +father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was created earl of Bridgewater, +and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley (daughter of his +father’s third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby), was the +ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (<i>q.v.</i>), whose male +line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and +Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere +(<i>q.v.</i>), descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and +co-heir of the 1st duke of Bridgewater.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written, +for which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very +scantily calendared in <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24, and +app. pt. vii. p. 126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of +personal and family matters intended for a separate projected <i>Life</i> +which was never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the +Camden Society in 1840.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 197.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> D’Ewes’s <i>Parliaments of Elizabeth</i>, 441, 442.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1601-1603, p. 191.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Birch’s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, i. 479.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> T. Birch’s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, ii. 384.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>State Trials</i>, ii. 909.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 381.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 407.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Lansdowne MS.</i> 91, f. 41.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> app. pt. vii. p. 156.</p> + +<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Life of Donne</i>, by E. Gosse, i. 43.</p> + +<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Judgment on the Post Nati.</p> + +<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.</p> + +<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Harleian MS.</i> 2310, f. i.; +Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of England</i>, ix. 56.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the +southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, +59 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Central railway; +served also by a branch of the London & North-Western railway. +Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St Peter, the body of which +is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful Early English +tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by William +of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his +great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th +century, called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman +and Early English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on. +The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. +Area, 3489 acres.</p> + +<p>Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl +Alberie, from whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence +to the families of De Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments +were held in 1249 and 1267, and others were prohibited in 1222 +and 1244. The market, formerly held on Sunday, was changed +in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of <i>Quo Warranto</i> +Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a fair +on St Andrew’s day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary +granted two fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span> +James II. incorporated the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen, +and 26 burgesses, granted three new fairs and confirmed the +old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four fairs to the earl +of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new charter of +incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors +under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (<i>Brit.</i> +p. 430) says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for +wool. It first sent members to parliament in 1547, and continued +to send two representatives till disfranchised by the Reform +Act of 1832. The town formerly had a considerable woollen +and lace-making trade.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1833-  ), French painter and etcher, +was born in Paris. He was trained in early youth as a +trade lithographer, until Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him +to his studio. His portrait of his grandmother, painted by him +at the age of nineteen, attracted Théophile Gautier’s attention +at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and etching about +1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the revival of +the etcher’s art in France. Altogether he has produced over eight +hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of +contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations +of other artists’ paintings, especially those of Meissonier, +Gustave Moreau and Corot. After having been attached +to the Sèvres porcelain factory in 1870, he accepted a post as art +manager of the Paris <i>atelier</i> of the firm of Haviland of Limoges. +He was connected by a link of firm friendship with Manet, Whistler, +and all the other fighters in the impressionist cause, and received +all the honours that await the successful artist in France, +including the grade of officer of the Legion of Honour in 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRACTON, HENRY DE<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (d. 1268), English judge and writer +on English law. His real name was Bratton, and in all +probability he derived it either from Bratton Fleming or from +Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in Devonshire. It is +only after his death that his name appears as “Bracton.” He +seems to have entered the king’s service as a clerk under the +patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal +justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to +appear as a justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268 +he was steadily employed as a justice of assize in the +south-western counties, especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. +During the earlier part of this period he was also sitting as a +judge in the king’s central court, and was there hearing those +pleas which “followed the king”; in other words, he was a +member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon +to be distinguished as the king’s bench. From this position +he retired or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly +before the meeting of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. +Whether his disappearance is to be connected with the political +events of this turbulent time is uncertain. He continued to take +the assizes in the south-west, and in 1267 he was a member of +a commission of prelates, barons and judges appointed to hear +the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon de Montfort. +In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261 rector +of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having +resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral; +he also held a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham. +Already in 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to +hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He died in 1268 and was +buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a chantry for his +soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of Thorverton.</p> + +<p>His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of +England which is sufficiently described elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English +Law</a></span>). The main part of it seems to have been compiled between +1250 and 1256; but apparently it is an unfinished work. This +may be due to the fact that when he ceased to be a member +of the king’s central court Bracton was ordered to surrender +certain judicial records which he had been using as raw material. +Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best +work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This +text was reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English +translation was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are +numerous, and a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton’s +<i>Note-Book</i> (ed. Maitland, 1887); <i>Bracton and Azo</i> (Selden Society, +1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADAWL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (from “brad,” a flat nail, and “awl,” a piercing +tool), a small tool used for boring holes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1695?-1755), British general, was +born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of +Major-General Edward Braddock (d. 1725), and joined the +Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a lieutenant-colonel +he served under the prince of Orange in Holland during the siege +of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy of the +14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed +shortly afterwards to command against the French in +America, he landed in Virginia in February 1755. After some +months of preparation, in which he was hampered by administrative +confusion and want of resources, he took the field with +a picked column, in which George Washington served as a +volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg, +Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of +July and almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade +of French and Indians. The troops were completely surprised +and routed, and Braddock, rallying his men time after time, +fell at last mortally wounded. He was carried off the field +with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was buried at Great +Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its retreat +to reorganize. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years’ War</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. +Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900) 15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born; +(1910 census) 19,357. Braddock is served by the Pennsylvania, +the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg & Lake +Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of steel—especially +steel rails; among its other manufactures are pig-iron, +wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and +electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the +borough’s factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a +Carnegie library. Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular +resort. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. +Braddock was named in honour of the English general Edward +Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site of +the present borough at the hands of a force of French and +Indians. The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th +century, and was incorporated in 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (1837-  ), English +novelist, daughter of Henry Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon +Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward Braddon, prime +minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She began at +an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced +her first novel, <i>The Trail of the Serpent</i>. In the same year +appeared <i>Garibaldi</i>, accompanied by <i>Olivia</i>, and other poems, +chiefly narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving +more notice than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a +novelist was made by a favourable review in <i>The Times of Lady +Audley’s Secret</i>. <i>Aurora Floyd</i>, a novel with a strong affinity +to <i>Madame Bovary</i>, followed, and achieved equal success. Its +immediate successors, <i>Eleanor’s Victory, John Marchmont’s +Legacy, Henry Dunbar</i>, remain with her former works the best-known +of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a +large and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body +of readers of fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic +in plot and character, conventional in their views of life, they are +yet distinguished by constructive skill and opulence of invention. +For a considerable time Miss Braddon conducted <i>Belgravia</i>, +in which several of her novels appeared. In 1874 she married +Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B. Maxwell, afterwards +becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper correspondent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, JOHN<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr, +was born at Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry +VIII., and educated at the local grammar school. Being a good +penman and accountant, he became secretary to Sir John +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span> +Harrington, paymaster of the English forces in France. Bradford +at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to support +his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the +money entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution. +In April 1547 he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began +to study law; but finding divinity more congenial, he removed, +in the following year, to St Catharine’s Hall, Cambridge, where +he studied with such assiduity that in little more than a year +he was admitted by special grace to the degree of master of arts, +and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke Hall, the fellowship +being “worth seven pound a year.” One of his pupils was John +Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the +see of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain. +In 1553 he was also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became +one of the most popular preachers in the kingdom, earning high +praise from John Knox. Soon after the accession of Mary he +was arrested on a charge of sedition, and confined in the Tower +and the king’s bench prison for a year and a half. During this +time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in various +parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January +1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as +chief, and, refusing to retract his principles, was condemned +as a heretic and burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st +of July 1555.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts, +letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker +Society (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 33698-h.htm or 33698-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/9/33698/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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