43 files changed, 55057 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/33698-8.txt b/33698-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..949226e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,17654 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3
+       "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BOROUGH: "In London in the 13th century there was a regular
+      system for the admission of new members to the borough..." 'London'
+      amended from 'Londom'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IV, SLICE III
+
+     Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BORGIA, LUCREZIA                 BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE
+  BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL          BOULTON, MATTHEW
+  BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO             BOUND
+  BORGO SAN DONNINO                BOUNDS, BEATING THE
+  BORGU                            BOUNTY
+  BORIC ACID                       BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER
+  BORING                           BOURBON
+  BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV         BOURBON, CHARLES
+  BORISOGLYEBSK                    BOURBON-LANCY
+  BORKU                            BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT
+  BORKUM                           BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS
+  BORLASE, WILLIAM                 BOURCHIER, ARTHUR
+  BORMIO                           BOURCHIER, THOMAS
+  BORN, IGNAZ                      BOURDALOUE, LOUIS
+  BORNA                            BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS
+  BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG               BOURG-EN-BRESSE
+  BORNEO                           BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE
+  BORNHOLM                         BOURGEOIS
+  BORNIER, HENRI                   BOURGES
+  BORNU                            BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH
+  BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH  BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE
+  BORODINO                         BOURKE
+  BOROLANITE                       BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR
+  BORON                            BOURNE, VINCENT
+  BOROUGH, STEVEN                  BOURNE (town)
+  BOROUGH                          BOURNE (stream)
+  BOROUGHBRIDGE                    BOURNEMOUTH
+  BOROUGH ENGLISH                  BOURNONITE
+  BORROMEAN ISLANDS                BOURRÉE
+  BORROMEO, CARLO                  BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE
+  BORROMINI, FRANCESCO             BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE
+  BORROW, GEORGE HENRY             BOURSAULT, EDME
+  BORSIPPA                         BOURSE
+  BORT                             BOURSSE, ESAIAS
+  BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN      BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  BORZHOM                          BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH
+  BOS, LAMBERT                     BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE
+  BOSA                             BOUTS-RIMÉS
+  BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA   BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL
+  BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME   BOUVARDIA
+  BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN           BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH
+  BOSCASTLE                        BOUVIER, JOHN
+  BOSCAWEN, EDWARD                 BOUVINES
+  BOSCH, JEROM                     BOVEY BEDS
+  BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH          BOVIANUM
+  BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA           BOVIDAE
+  BOSPORUS                         BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM
+  BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS               BOVILLAE
+  BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH  BOW
+  BOSS                             BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD
+  BOSSI, GIUSEPPE                  BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL
+  BOSSU, RENÉ LE                   BOWDLER, THOMAS
+  BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE          BOWDOIN, JAMES
+  BOSTANAI                         BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE
+  BOSTON, THOMAS                   BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN
+  BOSTON (Lincolnshire, England)   BOWEN, FRANCIS
+  BOSTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)   BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON
+  BOSTON (game of cards)           BOWER, WALTER
+  BOSTONITE                        BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT
+  BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB       BOWIE, JAMES
+  BOSWELL, JAMES                   BOW-LEG
+  BOSWORTH, JOSEPH                 BOWLES, SAMUEL
+  BOTANY                           BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE
+  BOTANY BAY                       BOWLINE
+  BOTHA, LOUIS                     BOWLING
+  BOTHNIA, GULF OF                 BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.)
+  BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN          BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  BOTHWELL (town)                  BOWLS
+  BOTOCUDOS                        BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE
+  BOTORI                           BOWRING, SIR JOHN
+  BOTOSHANI                        BOWTELL
+  BO-TREE                          BOWYER, WILLIAM
+  BOTRYTIS                         BOX
+  BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO  BOXING
+  BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI              BOXWOOD
+  BOTTICELLI, SANDRO               BOYACÁ
+  BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST            BOYAR
+  BOTTLE                           BOY-BISHOP
+  BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS              BOYCE, WILLIAM
+  BOTTLENOSE WHALE                 BOYCOTT
+  BOTTOMRY                         BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON
+  BOTZARIS, MARCO                  BOYD, ROBERT BOYD
+  BOTZEN                           BOYD, ZACHARY
+  BOUCHARDON, EDME                 BOYDELL, JOHN
+  BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS                BOYER, ALEXIS
+  BOUCHER, JONATHAN                BOYER, JEAN PIERRE
+  BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR, JACQUES    BOYLE, JOHN J.
+  BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE                 BOYLE, ROBERT
+  BOUCHOR, MAURICE                 BOYLE (town)
+  BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL    BOYNE
+  BOUCICAULT, DION                 BOYS' BRIGADE
+  BOUCICAUT, JEAN                  BOZDAR
+  BOUDIN, EUGÈNE                   BOZRAH
+  BOUDINOT, ELIAS                  BRABANT (duchy)
+  BOUÉ, AMI                        BRABANT (Belgium)
+  BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS        BRABANT, NORTH
+  BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN        BRACCIANO
+  BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE   BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO
+  BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY           BRACE, CHARLES LORING
+  BOUGIE                           BRACE, JULIA
+  BOUGUER, PIERRE                  BRACE
+  BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM      BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE
+  BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE              BRACELET
+  BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE        BRACHIOPODA
+  BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR   BRACHISTOCHRONE
+  BOUILLON                         BRACHYCEPHALIC
+  BOUILLOTTE                       BRACKYLOGUS
+  BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS            BRACKET
+  BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI           BRACKET-FUNGI
+  BOULANGER                        BRACKLESHAM BEDS
+  BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST         BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON
+  BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH     BRACKLEY
+  BOULDER (Colorado, U.S.A.)       BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX
+  BOULDER (large stone)            BRACTON, HENRY DE
+  BOULDER CLAY                     BRADAWL
+  BOULE                            BRADDOCK, EDWARD
+  BOULEVARD                        BRADDOCK
+  BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES            BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH
+  BOULOGNE                         BRADFORD, JOHN
+  BOULOGNE-SUR-MER
+
+
+
+
+BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Cardinal
+Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. (q.v.), by his mistress
+Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at Rome in 1480. Her early years were
+spent at her mother's house near her father's splendid palace; but later
+she was given over to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of
+Cardinal Borgia and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his
+mistresses. Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of
+Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music, embroidery,
+painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and charm, but the corrupt
+court of Rome in which she was brought up was not conducive to a good
+moral education. Her father at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for
+her, and at the age of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de
+Centelles, a Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost
+immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another Spaniard, Don
+Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa. On the death of Innocent
+VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI., and,
+contemplating a yet more ambitious marriage for his daughter, he
+annulled the union with Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed
+to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now
+in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when the
+pope's policy changed and he became friendly to the king of Naples, the
+enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the subjugation of the vassal
+lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling his position insecure, left Rome
+for Pesaro with his wife. By Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the
+pope had all his children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a
+series of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with
+Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband's
+impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with Naples, he
+married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of Bisceglie, a handsome
+youth of eighteen, related to the Neapolitan king. But he too realized
+the fickleness of the Borgias' favour when Alexander backed up Louis
+XII. of France in the latter's schemes for the conquest of Naples.
+Bisceglie fled from Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent
+Lucrezia to receive the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On
+her return to Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was
+induced to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the order
+of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie, Lucrezia retired to
+Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where she acted for a time as regent
+during Alexander's absence. The latter now was anxious for a union
+between his daughter and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d'Este, duke
+of Ferrara. The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither
+Alphonso nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of
+Borgia, and Lucrezia's own reputation was not unblemished. However, by
+bribes and threats the opposition was overcome, and in September 1501
+the marriage was celebrated by proxy with great magnificence in Rome. On
+Lucrezia's arrival at Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her
+youthful charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth she
+led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath of scandal.
+On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became duke, and she
+gathered many learned men, poets and artists at her court, among whom
+were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus Manutius the printer, and the
+painters Titian and Dosso Dossi. She devoted herself to the education of
+her children and to charitable works; the only tragedy connected with
+this period of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to
+have admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso's jealousy. She died on
+the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter by the duke of
+Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke of Bisceglie, and possibly
+another of doubtful paternity. She seems to have been a woman of very
+mediocre talents, and only played a part in history because she was the
+daughter of Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was
+in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women around
+her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of incest with her
+father and brothers which were brought against her by the
+scandal-mongers of the time.
+
+  See the bibliographies for ALEXANDER VI. and BORGIA, CESARE; and
+  especially F. Gregorovius's _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), the
+  standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert's _Lucrezia Borgia,
+  Duchess of Ferrara_ (London, 1869), which, while containing much
+  information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori's "Una
+  Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia," in the _Nuova Antologia_
+  (August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868-   ), American sculptor, was born in
+Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868, the son of a Danish
+wood-carver. He studied under Louis F. Rebisso in the Cincinnati art
+school in 1895-1897, and under Frémiet in Paris. He took as his chief
+subjects incidents of western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he
+was familiar from his years on the ranch; notably "Lassoing Wild
+Horses," "Stampeding Wild Horses," "Last Round-up," "On the Border of
+White Man's Land," and "Burial on the Plains." His elder brother, Gutzon
+Borglum (b. 1867), also showed himself an artist of some originality.
+
+
+
+
+BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter of the Milanese
+school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano, was
+approximately contemporary with Leonardo da Vinci, but represented, at
+least during a great part of his career, the tendencies of Lombard art
+anterior to the arrival of that master--the tendencies which he had
+adopted and perfected from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and
+Zenale. We are not precisely informed of the dates either of the death
+or the birth of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and
+whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian
+school. His fame is principally associated with that of one great
+building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the Carthusians at
+Pavia, for which he worked much and in many different ways. It is
+certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the tradition which
+represents him as having designed, in 1473, the celebrated façade of the
+Certosa itself. His residence there appears to have been of eight years'
+duration, from 1486, when he furnished the designs of the figures of the
+virgin, saints and apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in _tarsia_
+or inlaid wood work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to
+Milan. Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San
+Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his career
+earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to Milan he worked at
+the church of San Satiro in that city. From 1497 he was engaged for some
+time in decorating with paintings the church of the Incoronata in the
+neighbouring town at Lodi. Our notices of him thenceforth are few and
+far between. In 1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his
+signature appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524--and this is
+our last authentic record--he painted a series of frescoes illustrating
+the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan.
+Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty, Borgognone
+is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an interesting place in
+the most interesting period of Italian art. The National Gallery,
+London, has two fair examples of his work --the separate fragments of a
+silk banner painted for the Certosa, and containing the heads of two
+kneeling groups severally of men and women; and a large altar-piece of
+the marriage of St Catherine, painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near
+Pavia. But to judge of his real powers and peculiar ideals--his system
+of faint and clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his
+somewhat slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us
+of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their
+Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive love
+of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed energy in
+figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in the matter of
+storied and minutely diversified backgrounds--to judge of these
+qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary to study first the
+great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at the Certosa, and next
+those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces at Milan and Lodi, in
+which we find the influence of Leonardo and of the new time mingling
+with, but not expelling, his first predilections.
+
+
+
+
+BORGO SAN DONNINO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the
+province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Parma. Pop. (1901)
+town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It occupies the site of the ancient
+Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no doubt, as its name shows, of Roman
+origin. Here M. Lucullus defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 B.C. It
+was independent under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village
+dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom of S.
+Domninus under Maximian in A.D. 304. The cathedral, erected in honour of
+this saint, is one of the finest and best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque
+churches of the 11th-13th centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the
+façade is incomplete, but the lower, with its three portals and
+sculptures, is very fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned,
+and has not been spoilt by restorations. For the _bénitier_, a work of
+the early 11th century, see _Rassegna d'Arte_, 1905, 180. Not far from
+the town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century
+structure in brick (_ib_., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale, in the
+Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century. Borgo S. Donnino is
+an important centre for the produce and cattle of Emilia.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BORGU, or BARBA, an inland country of West Africa. The western part is
+included in the French colony of Dahomey (q.v.); the eastern division
+forms the Borgu province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu
+is bounded N.E. and E. by the Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by
+Gurma. The country consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers
+draining north or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger
+basin and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east and
+south-west near the western frontier. In about 10° N., below the town of
+Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger, navigable up to that point
+from the sea. The soil is mostly fertile, and is fairly cultivated,
+producing in abundance millet, yams, plantains and limes. The acacia
+tree is common, and from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From
+the nut of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are
+numerous and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is
+inhabited by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were
+dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the country,
+the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king of Bussa was
+another more or less powerful potentate. In the early years of the 19th
+century Borgu was invaded by the Fula (q.v.), but the Bariba (as the
+people are called collectively) maintained their independence. In 1894
+Borgu became the object of rivalry between France and England. The Royal
+Niger Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection with
+the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D. Lugard to
+negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other chiefs, and Lugard
+succeeded in doing so a few days before the arrival of French
+expeditions from the west. Disregarding the British treaties, French
+officers concluded others with various chiefs, invaded Bussa and
+established themselves at various points on the Niger. To defend British
+interests, the West African Frontier Force was raised locally under
+Lugard's command, and a period of great tension ensued, British and
+French troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was,
+however, averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western part of
+Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the French
+withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.
+
+The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m. Up to
+the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria little or
+nothing was known of the country, though there were interesting legends
+of the antiquity of its history. The population was entirely
+independent, and resisted with success not only the Fula from the north
+but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi from the south and west.
+Travellers who attempted to penetrate this country had never returned.
+Since 1898 the country has been opened, and from being the most lawless
+and truculent of people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and
+law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little
+crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced by civil
+police. The assessment of taxes under British administration was
+successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected without
+trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but not industrious
+or inclined for trade. In the north there are some pastoral settlements
+of Fula. The Bariba themselves remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been
+constructed between the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural
+resources of Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the
+cessation of war and by immigration the country should show marked
+development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are still to be found in
+the fifty-mile strip of forest land which stretches between the Niger
+and the interior of the province. The forest contains valuable sylvan
+products, and there are great possibilities for the cultivation of
+rubber. There are also extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton,
+with the waterway of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought
+from Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally
+started. (See NIGERIA and BUSSA.)
+
+
+
+
+BORIC ACID, or BORACIC ACID, H3BO3, an acid obtained by dissolving boron
+trioxide in water. It was first prepared by Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715)
+from borax, by the action of mineral acids, and was given the name _sal
+sedativum Hombergi_. The presence of boric acid or its salts has been
+noted in sea-water, whilst it is also said to exist in plants and
+especially in almost all fruits (A.H. Allen, _Analyst_, 1904, 301). The
+free acid is found native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany,
+the Lipari Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures
+in the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals
+(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).
+
+The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the Maremma of
+Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country over which jets of
+vapour and heated gases (_soffioni_) and springs of boiling water spurt
+out from chasms and fissures. In some places the fissures open directly
+into the air, but in other parts of the district they are covered by
+small muddy lakes (_lagoni_). The soffioni contain a small quantity of
+boric acid (usually less than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of
+ammoniacal vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is
+constructed over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the passage
+of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into the highest
+basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon brought into a state
+of ebullition; after remaining in this basin for about a day, it is run
+off into the second one and is treated there in a similar manner. The
+operation is carried on through the entire series, until the liquor in
+the last basin contains about 2% of boric acid. It is then run into
+settling tanks, from which it next passes into the evaporating pans,
+which are shallow lead-lined pans heated by the gases of the soffioni.
+These pans are worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first
+being concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is
+sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified by
+recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes prepared
+by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached, and the water
+so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated with boric acid to
+be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also obtained from
+boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric acid, followed by the
+evaporation of the solution so obtained. The residue is then heated in a
+current of superheated steam, in which the boric acid volatilizes and
+distils over. It may also be obtained by the decomposition of boracite
+with hot hydrochloric acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by
+the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution
+of borax.
+
+  Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O = Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3.
+
+  Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae belonging
+  to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold water, but
+  dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the "weak" acids, its
+  dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, _Jour. of Chem.
+  Soc._, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably
+  hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus to a
+  claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a turmeric
+  paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown, the colour
+  becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the addition of sodium
+  or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black. Boric acid is easily
+  soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution be inflamed it
+  burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The acid on being
+  heated to 100° C. loses water and is converted into _metaboric acid_,
+  HBO3; at 140° C., _pyroboric acid_, H2B4O7, is produced; at still
+  higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of the normal
+  or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric acid,
+  however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily converted,
+  even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid. That orthoboric
+  acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of ethyl orthoborate
+  on esterification, the vapour density of which corresponds to the
+  molecular formula B(OC2H5)3; the molecular formula of the acid must
+  consequently be B(OH)3 or H3BO3. The metallic borates are generally
+  obtained in the hydrated condition, and with the exception of those of
+  the alkali metals, are insoluble in water. The most important of the
+  borates is sodium pyroborate or borax (q.v.).
+
+  Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence they
+  may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and butter (see
+  ADULTERATION). In medicine boracic acid is used in solution to relieve
+  itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic to impregnate lint
+  or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too feeble to be relied
+  upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics, such as mercuric
+  chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been already employed,
+  boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous and non-irritant)
+  may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic or non-bacterial
+  condition which they have obtained. Borax taken internally is of some
+  value in irritability of the bladder, but as a urinary antiseptic it
+  is now surpassed by several recently introduced drugs, such as
+  urotropine.
+
+
+
+
+BORING. The operations of deep boring are resorted to for ascertaining
+the nature, thickness and extent of the various geological formations
+underlying the surface of the earth. Among the purposes for which boring
+is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting or searching for mineral
+deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas, artesian or salt wells;
+(3) determining the depth below the surface of bed-rock or other firm
+substratum, together with the character of the overlying materials,
+preparatory to mining or civil engineering operations; (4) carrying on
+geological or other scientific explorations.
+
+Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of
+mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least
+not highly inclined; e.g. deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide,
+flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of
+points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the
+thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map
+may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral
+are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While
+boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply
+inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less
+trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually
+misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally,
+bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the
+valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit.
+Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in
+estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the
+development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells,
+boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also
+for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in
+many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock
+salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing
+water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The
+sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are
+often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St
+Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft.
+
+Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as
+exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring
+veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated
+workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk
+for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote
+from a shaft.
+
+Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in
+connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the
+depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and
+designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the
+cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock.
+
+Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological
+exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth in the
+earth's crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about 6700 ft.
+deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 5532
+ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last
+mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of
+the bituminous coal and oil-bearing formations.
+
+There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers, (2) drive
+pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope system, in
+which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The first two
+methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others are for
+rock.
+
+  1. _Earth augers_ comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary spiral
+  auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is
+  attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections of
+  rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by means
+  of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod--by hand for holes of small
+  diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse power.
+  Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily bored;
+  stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is
+  intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the
+  soil clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually
+  bored by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive
+  soils, the auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron
+  cylinder to prevent the soil from falling out.
+
+  Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common form
+  (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the rod
+  rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through a few
+  revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied. For
+  boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates.
+  Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter
+  earth augers are handled with the aid of a light derrick.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Pod Auger.]
+
+  2. _Drive pipes_ are widely used, both for testing the depth and
+  character of soft material overlying solid rock and as a necessary
+  preliminary to rock boring, when some thickness of surface soil must
+  first be passed through. In its simplest form the drive pipe consists
+  of one or more lengths of wrought iron pipe, open at both ends and
+  from ½ in. to 6 in. diameter. When of small size the pipe is driven by
+  a heavy hammer; for deep and large holes, a light pile-driver becomes
+  necessary. The lower end of the pipe is provided with an annular steel
+  shoe; the upper end has a drivehead for receiving the blows of the
+  hammer. Successive lengths are screwed on as required. For shallow
+  holes the pipe is cleaned out by a "bailer" or "sand-pump"--a cylinder
+  4 to 6 ft. long, with a valve in the lower end. It is lowered at
+  intervals, filled by being dashed up and down, and then raised and
+  emptied. If, after reaching some depth, the external frictional
+  resistance prevents the pipe from sinking farther, another pipe of
+  small diameter may be inserted and the driving continued. Drive pipes
+  are often sunk by applying weights at the surface and slowly rotating
+  by a lever. Two pipes are then used, one inside the other. Water is
+  pumped down the inner pipe, thus loosening the soil, raising the
+  debris and increasing the speed of driving. The "driven well" for
+  water supply is an adaptation of the drive pipe and put down in the
+  same way.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3. Drill Bit.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4. Rod Joint.]
+
+  3. _Drill and Rods._--This method has long been used in Europe and
+  elsewhere for deep boring. In the United States it is rarely employed
+  for depths greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual form of cutting tool
+  or drill is shown in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to 2 in. square,
+  in long lengths with screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are
+  occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is done
+  by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod. The men
+  alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly walking around
+  and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole true. The cuttings
+  are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.
+
+  In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached, on
+  account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper a
+  "spring-pole" may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft. long
+  and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests in an inclined
+  position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft. from the butt, the latter being
+  firmly fixed. The rods are suspended from the end of the pole, which
+  extends at a height of several feet over the mouth of the hole. With
+  the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes are produced by a slight
+  effort on the part of the driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per
+  10 hours are easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5. Sliding Link.]
+
+  For deep boring the rod system requires a more elaborate plant. The
+  rods are suspended from a heavy "walking beam" or lever, usually
+  oscillated by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device, the
+  rods, which are rotated slightly after every stroke, are gradually fed
+  down as the hole is deepened, length after length being added. A tall
+  derrick carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and tools are
+  manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached rigidly to the rods as
+  in shallow boring, because the momentum of the heavy moving parts,
+  transmitted directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause
+  excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary, therefore, to
+  introduce a sliding-link joint between the rods and bit. One form of
+  link is shown in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest,
+  while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper
+  member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up stroke
+  the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow.
+  For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 lb., length
+  of stroke 2½ to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. Kind Free-Falling Tool.]
+
+  By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the rods may
+  be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension. To deliver
+  a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop with a quick
+  stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the operating machinery. For
+  overcoming this difficulty, various "free-falling tools" have been
+  devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall by gravity; the rod
+  follows on its measured down stroke, and picks up the bit.
+  Free-falling tools are of two classes: (1) those by which the bit is
+  released automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist imparted
+  to the rod by the drillman. One of the best known of the first class
+  is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6). The shank of the bit is gripped and
+  released by the jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements
+  of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward stroke, the resistance
+  of the water in the hole slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and
+  releasing the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end of the
+  stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the bit and raise it for
+  delivering another blow. The Fabian free-fall may be noted as an
+  example of the second class (see Köhler, _Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde_,
+  p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an annular groove in the
+  bottom of the hole, and raising to the surface the core so formed, for
+  observing the character of the rock.
+
+  4. _Rope and Drop Tools._--This method was long ago used in China.
+  Because of its extensive application in the oil-fields it is generally
+  designated in the United States as the "oil-well system." In its
+  various modifications it is often employed also in general prospecting
+  of mineral deposits and in sinking artesian, natural gas and salt
+  wells. One of its forms is known in England as the Mather & Platt
+  system.
+
+  The chief point of difference from rod-boring is the substitution of
+  rope for the jointed rods. For deep boring it possesses the advantage
+  of saving the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering
+  the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or a
+  dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down by means
+  of the rope with which they are operated while drilling. The speed of
+  rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase of depth,
+  while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest form the
+  so-called "string of tools," suspended from the rope, is composed of
+  the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair of sliding
+  links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a different
+  purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward stroke, as the
+  jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend to stick fast
+  in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally inserted between
+  the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow. The weight of
+  another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope taut. The
+  length of stroke and feed are regulated by the "temper-screw" (fig.
+  7), a feed device resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped to it
+  is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals, as the hole is
+  deepened. The bits usually range from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed
+  of boring being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24 hours,
+  according to the kind of rock. A great variety of special "fishing
+  tools" are made, for use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or
+  other accident.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7. Temper Screw.]
+
+  5. _Diamond Drill._--The methods described above are capable of boring
+  holes vertically downward only. By the diamond drill, holes can be
+  bored in any direction, from vertically downward to vertically upward.
+  It has the further advantage of making an annular hole from which is
+  obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete cross-section of
+  the strata penetrated; the thickness and character of each stratum are
+  shown, together with its depth below the surface. Thus, the diamond
+  drill is peculiarly well adapted for prospecting mineral deposits from
+  which samples are desired. The first practical application of diamonds
+  for drilling in rock was made in 1863 by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a
+  civil engineer of Paris.
+
+  The apparatus consists essentially of a line of hollow rods, coupled
+  by screw joints, an annular steel bit or crown, set with diamonds,
+  being attached to the lower end. By means of a small engine on the
+  surface the rods are rapidly rotated and fed down automatically as the
+  hole deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions
+  per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter of the
+  bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the hollow rods by
+  a pump, passing back to the surface through the annular space between
+  the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The cuttings are thus
+  carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole clean and
+  unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the bit and
+  diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This is
+  done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Little Champion Rock Drill.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1-9/16 to
+  2¾ in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1-15/16 in. diameter, and are
+  capable of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. They
+  require from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore
+  shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating in
+  underground workings of mines, small and compact machines are
+  sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1¼ to 1-9/16 in.
+  holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being 7/8 to 1 in. diameter.
+  Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields
+  several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been
+  successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate
+  depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour, including ordinary
+  delays, though in favourable rock much higher speeds are often
+  attained. In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of time consumed
+  in raising and lowering the rods. If no core is desired a "solid bit"
+  is used. The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only necessary to
+  raise the rods occasionally, for examining the condition of the bit.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10. Diamond Drill Bit.]
+
+  The driving engine has two inclined cylinders, coupled to a
+  crank-shaft, by which, through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The
+  rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For
+  producing the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw
+  and hydraulic cylinder. For the _differential feed_ (fig. 9) the
+  engine has a hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods
+  are coupled. This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is
+  supported by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared
+  to the screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly proportioning
+  the number of teeth in the system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is
+  caused to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft, so that the
+  drill-rod is fed downward a small fraction of an inch for each
+  revolution. To vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different rocks,
+  three pairs of gears with different ratios of teeth are provided. The
+  screw-shaft and gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which can be
+  rotated in a vertical plane, for boring holes at an angle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11. Core Lifter and Barrel.]
+
+  The _hydraulic feed_ is an improvement on the above, in that the rate
+  of feed is independent of the rotative speed of the rods and can be
+  adjusted with the utmost nicety. There are either one or two feed
+  cylinders, supplied with water from the pump. The rod, while rotating
+  freely, is supported by the feed cylinder piston and caused to move
+  slowly downward by allowing the water to pass from the lower to the
+  upper part of the cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of the water
+  and hence the rate of feed.
+
+  The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft steel, set with six to
+  eight or more diamonds according to its diameter. The diamonds,
+  usually from 1½ to 2½ carats in size, are carefully set in the bit,
+  projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds are
+  used, "carbons" and "borts." The carbons are opaque, dark in colour,
+  tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes. They are
+  therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are rough,
+  imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks. As the
+  bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The wear of
+  carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable. Above
+  the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter (fig. 11,
+  A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and raising it
+  to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in the hole
+  and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water and debris.
+  It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole straight, partly
+  for holding and protecting the core.
+
+  Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock, as
+  the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their
+  settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond bit
+  may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for
+  core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an
+  annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for soft
+  rock, a toothed bit is used.
+
+  Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate
+  considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very deep
+  holes have been found to vary as much as 45° and even 60° from their
+  true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do not fit
+  closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to occur in
+  drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different degrees
+  of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel the
+  liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented.
+  Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the
+  sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should therefore
+  always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole instruments
+  for observing at a number of successive points the direction and
+  degree of deviation.[1] If accurately surveyed a crooked hole may be
+  quite as useful as a straight one.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For further information on boring see _Trans. Amer.
+  Inst. Mining Engs._ vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C. le Neve
+  Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, chap. iii.; _Glückauf_,
+  9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905; _Scientific American_, 21st
+  August 1886; _Engineering and Mining Jour._ vol. lviii. p. 268, vol.
+  lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920; _Trans. Inst. Mining Engs._, England,
+  vol. xxiii. p. 685; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N. Y., vol. xvi. p.
+  1; _Zeitschr. für Berg- Hütten- und Salinenwesen_, vol. xxv. p. 29;
+  Denny, "Diamond Drilling," _Mines and Minerals_, vol. xx., August
+  1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241; _Mining Jour._, 26th January
+  1901; _Mining and Scientific Press_, 28th November 1903, p. 353; _Öst.
+  Zeitschr. für Berg- und Hüttenwesen_, 21st May, 4th June 1904; _Trans.
+  Inst. Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xii. p. 301; _Engineering
+  Magazine_, March 1896, p. 1075.     (R. P.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Brough, _Mine Surveying_, pp. 276-278; Marriott, _Trans. Inst.
+    Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xiv. p. 255.
+
+
+
+
+BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV, tsar of Muscovy (c. 1551-1605), the most
+famous member of an ancient, now extinct, Russian family of Tatar
+origin, which migrated from the Horde to Muscovy in the 14th century.
+Boris' career of service began at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is
+mentioned in 1570 as taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the
+archers of the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by
+his marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan's abominable favourite
+Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of Boris, to
+be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which occasion Boris was
+promoted to the rank of _boyar_. On his deathbed Ivan appointed Boris
+one of the guardians of his son and successor; for Theodore, despite his
+seven-and-twenty years, was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of
+Theodore began with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich
+Demetrius, the son of Ivan's fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion
+resulting in the banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her
+relations, to their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar's
+coronation (May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches, yet
+he held but the second place in the regency during the lifetime of his
+co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in August, he was left
+without any serious rival. A conspiracy against him of all the other
+great boyars and the metropolitan Dionysy, which sought to break Boris'
+power by divorcing the tsar from Godunov's childless sister, only ended
+in the banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov
+was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into his hands,
+and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal. His policy was
+generally pacific, but always most prudent. In 1595 he recovered from
+Sweden the towns lost during the former reign. Five years previously he
+had defeated a Tatar raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the
+title of _sluga_, an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar.
+Towards Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an
+anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor with
+subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov encouraged English
+merchants to trade with Russia by exempting them from tolls. He
+civilized the north-eastern and south-eastern borders of Muscovy by
+building numerous towns and fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic
+tribes in order. Samara, Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of
+lesser towns derive from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had
+been slipping from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new
+settlements, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during
+his government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate,
+which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches and
+emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan of Kiev. Boris'
+most important domestic reform was the _ukaz_ (1587) forbidding the
+peasantry to transfer themselves from one landowner to another, thus
+binding them to the soil. The object of this ordinance was to secure
+revenue, but it led to the institution of serfdom in its most grinding
+form. The sudden death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15,
+1591) has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his way
+to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was personally
+concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the many, often
+absurd, accusations subsequently brought against him by jealous rivals
+or ignorant contemporaries who hated Godunov's reforms as novelties.
+
+On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598),
+self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to seize
+the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a monastery would
+have been his lightest fate. His election was proposed by the patriarch
+Job, who acted on the conviction that Boris was the one man capable of
+coping with the extraordinary difficulties of an unexampled situation.
+Boris, however, would only accept the throne from a _Zemsky Sobor_, or
+national assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously
+elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly crowned
+tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both popular and
+prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well. Enlightened as he
+was, he fully recognized the intellectual inferiority of Russia as
+compared with the West, and did his utmost to bring about a better state
+of things. He was the first tsar to import foreign teachers on a great
+scale, the first to send young Russians abroad to be educated, the first
+to allow Lutheran churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the
+necessity of a Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by
+diplomatic means. He cultivated friendly relations with the
+Scandinavians, in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal
+houses, so as to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was
+one of the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But
+his great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness,
+which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about him.
+His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as to forbid
+the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged informers and
+persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. The Romanov family
+in especial suffered severely from these delations. Boris died suddenly
+(April 13, 1605), leaving one son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a
+few months and then was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs.
+
+  See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, _On the Historical Significance of the
+  Reign of Boris Godunov_ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850); Sergyei Mikhailivich
+  Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St
+  Petersburg, 1897).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BORISOGLYEBSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 100 m.
+S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51° 22' N. lat. and 43° 4' E. long.
+It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern frontiers of Muscovy
+against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was surrounded by wooden
+fortifications. The principal industries are the preparation of wool,
+iron-casting, soap-boiling, tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there
+is an active trade in grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two
+important annual fairs. Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370.
+
+
+
+
+BORKU, or BORGU, a region of Central Africa between 17° and 19° N. and
+18° and 21° E., forming part of the transitional zone between the arid
+wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of the central Sudan. It is
+bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains, and is in great measure occupied by
+lesser elevations belonging to the same system. These hills to the south
+and east merge into the plains of Wadai and Darfur. South-west, in the
+direction of Lake Chad, is the Bodele basin. The drainage of the country
+is to the lake, but the numerous khors with which its surface is scored
+are mostly dry or contain water for brief periods only. A considerable
+part of the soil is light sand drifted about by the wind. The irrigated
+and fertile portions consist mainly of a number of valleys separated
+from each other by low and irregular limestone rocks. They furnish
+excellent dates. Barley is also cultivated. The northern valleys are
+inhabited by a settled population of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and
+by colonies of negroes; the others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber
+and Arab tribes. The inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses.
+
+A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through Borku to
+Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to Europeans. Gustav
+Nachtigal spent some time in it in the year 1871, and gave a valuable
+account of the region and its inhabitants in his book, _Sahara und
+Sudan_ (Berlin, 1879-1889). In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great
+Britain, was assigned to the French sphere of influence. The country,
+which had formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs,
+was then governed by the Senussi (q.v.), who had placed garrisons in the
+chief centres of population. From it raids were made on French
+territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem entered Borku, but after
+capturing Ain Galakka, the principal Senussi station, retired. Borku is
+also called Borgu, but must not be confounded with the Borgu (q.v.) west
+of the Niger.
+
+  A summary of Nachtigal's writing on Borku will be found in section 28
+  of _Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan_ (1 vol.),
+  arranged by Albert Fränkel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an article (with
+  map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in _La Géographie_, Oct. 1908.
+
+
+
+
+BORKUM, an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging to the
+Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the East Frisian chain,
+lying between the east and west arms of the estuary of the Ems, and
+opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about 2500. The island is 5 m. long and 2½
+m. broad, is a favourite summer resort, and is visited annually by about
+20,000 persons. There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, Leer and
+Hamburg during the summer months. The island affords pasture for cattle,
+and a breeding-place for sea-birds.
+
+
+
+
+BORLASE, WILLIAM (1695-1772), English antiquary and naturalist, was born
+at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient family, on the 2nd of February
+1695. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was
+ordained. In 1722 he was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in
+1732 he obtained in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish.
+In the parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with mineral
+and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and thus was led to
+study somewhat minutely the natural history of the county. In 1750 he
+was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1754 he published, at
+Oxford, his _Antiquities of Cornwall_ (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next
+publication was _Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the
+Islands of Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain_
+(Oxford, 1756). In 1758 appeared his _Natural History of Cornwall_. He
+presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils and
+antiquities, which he had described in his works, and received the
+thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D. He died on the 31st of
+August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted with most of the leading
+literary men of the time, particularly with Alexander Pope, with whom he
+kept up a long correspondence, and for whose grotto at Twickenham he
+furnished the greater part of the fossils and minerals.
+
+  Borlase's letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill
+  several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and a
+  complete unpublished treatise _Concerning the Creation and Deluge_.
+  Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given in the
+  _Quarterly Review_, October 1875. Borlase's memoirs of his own life
+  were published in Nichol's _Literary Anecdotes_, vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+BORMIO (Ger. _Worms_), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Sondrio, 41½ m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop. (1901) 1814. It is
+situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the Adda), 4020 ft. above
+sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass, and, owing to its position,
+was of some military importance in the middle ages. It contains
+interesting churches and picturesque towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman
+date was discovered at Bormio in 1820.
+
+The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned by Pliny
+and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are much frequented.
+
+
+
+
+BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist and
+metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg, in Transylvania,
+on the 26th of December 1742. Educated in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he
+was for sixteen months a member of the order, but left it and studied
+law at Prague. Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and
+France, studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered
+the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed by Maria
+Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna, where he was nominated
+to the council of mines and the mint, and continued to reside until his
+death on the 24th of July 1791. He introduced a method of extracting
+metals by amalgamation (_Über das Anquicken der Erze_, 1786), and other
+improvements in mining and other technical processes. His publications
+also include _Lithophylacium Bornianum_ (1772-1775) and _Bergbaukunde_
+(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born attempted satire
+with no great success. _Die Staatsperücke_, a tale published without his
+knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king's
+astronomer at Vienna, are two of his satirical works. Part of a satire,
+entitled _Monachologia_, in which the monks are described in the
+technical language of natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born
+was well acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of
+Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately connected with
+metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active part in the political
+changes in Hungary. After the death of the emperor Joseph II., the diet
+of the states of Hungary rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and
+conferred the rights of denizen on several persons who had been
+favourable to the cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von
+Born. At the time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a
+work entitled _Fasti Leopoldini_, probably relating to the prudent
+conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.
+
+
+
+
+BORNA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Wyhra at its
+junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting, iron foundries, organ,
+pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.
+
+
+
+
+BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786-1837), German political writer and satirist,
+was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main, where his father,
+Jakob Baruch, carried on the business of a banker. He received his early
+education at Giessen, but as Jews were ineligible at that time for
+public appointments in Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study
+medicine at Berlin under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he
+resided. Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron's wife, the
+talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave vent to his
+adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of medical science,
+which he had subsequently pursued at Halle, he studied constitutional
+law and political science at Heidelberg and Giessen, and in 1811 took
+his doctor's degree at the latter university. On his return to
+Frankfort, now constituted as a grand duchy under the sovereignty of the
+prince bishop Karl von Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of
+police actuary in that city. The old conditions, however, returned in
+1814 and he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the
+oppression under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in
+journalism, and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers,
+_Staatsristretto_ and _Die Zeitschwingen_. In 1818 he became a convert
+to Lutheran protestantism, changing his name from Löb Baruch to Ludwig
+Börne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than, as in
+the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve his social
+standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited _Die Wage_, a paper distinguished
+by its lively political articles and its powerful but sarcastic
+theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed by the police
+authorities, and in 1821 Börne quitted for a while the field of
+publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg and
+Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he hurried to Paris,
+expecting to find the newly-constituted state of society somewhat in
+accordance with his own ideas of freedom. Although to some extent
+disappointed in his hopes, he was not disposed to look any more kindly
+on the political condition of Germany; this lent additional zest to the
+brilliant satirical letters (_Briefe aus Paris_, 1830-1833, published
+Paris, 1834), which he began to publish in his last literary venture,
+_La Balance_, a revival under its French name of _Die Wage_. The _Briefe
+aus Paris_ was Börne's most important publication, and a landmark in the
+history of German journalism. Its appearance led him to be regarded as
+one of the leaders of the new literary party of "Young Germany." He died
+at Paris on the 12th of February 1837.
+
+Börne's works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a thorough
+French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found in his
+_Denkrede auf Jean Paul_ (1826), a writer for whom he had warm sympathy
+and admiration, in his _Dramaturgische Blätter_ (1829-1834), and the
+witty satire, _Menzel der Franzosenfresser_ (1837). He also wrote a
+number of short stories and sketches, of which the best known are the
+_Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke_ (1829) and _Der Esskünstler_
+(1822).
+
+  The first edition of his _Gesammelte Schriften_ appeared at Hamburg
+  (1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of _Nachgelassene
+  Schriften_ (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition in 12
+  volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently. The
+  latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar (8 vols., Leipzig,
+  1900). For further biographical matter see K. Gutzkow, _Börnes Leben_
+  (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann, _L. Börne, sein Leben und sein
+  Wirken_ (Berlin, 1888). _Börnes Briefe an Henriette Herz_ (1802-1807),
+  first published in 1861, have been re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg,
+  1905), who has also published Börne's _Berliner Briefe_ (1828)
+  (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine's witty attack on Börne (_Werke_, ed.
+  Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus' essay in his _Historiche Schriften_
+  (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters in G. Brandes, _Hovedströmninger i
+  det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur_ vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German
+  trans. 1891; English trans. 1905), and in J. Proelss, _Das junge
+  Deutschland_ (Stuttgart, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+BORNEO, a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending from 7° N. to
+4° 20' S., and from 108° 53' to 119° 22' E. It is 830 m. long from N.E.
+to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth. Its area according to the
+calculations of the Topographical Bureau of Batavia (1894) comprises
+293,496 sq. m. These figures are admittedly approximate, and Meyer, who
+is generally accurate, gives the area of Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is
+roughly, however, five times as large as England and Wales. Politically
+Borneo is divided into four portions: (1) British North Borneo, the
+territory exploited and administered by the Chartered British North
+Borneo Company, to which a separate section of this article is devoted;
+(2) Brunei (q.v.), a Malayan sultanate under British protection; (3)
+Sarawak (q.v.), the large territory ruled by raja Brooke, and under
+British protection in so far as its foreign relations are concerned; and
+(4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises the remainder and by far the largest
+and most valuable portion of the island.
+
+_Physical Features_.--The general character of the country is
+mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great elevation,
+and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is situated near its
+north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above sea-level. There is no
+proper nucleus of mountains whence chains ramify in different
+directions. The central and west central parts of the island, however,
+are occupied by three mountain chains and a plateau. These chains are:
+(1) the folded chain of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western
+division of Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains
+near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.; (2)
+the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits range from 3000
+to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit Raja, a plateau which
+divides the waters of the Kapuas from the rivers of southern Borneo; and
+(3) the Müller chain, between the eastern parts of the Madi plateau
+(presently to be mentioned) and the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region
+presenting heights, such as Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once
+active but are now long extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between
+the Kapuas and the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft.,
+and it is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are
+homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera, but
+of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern end of the Kapuas
+mountains there are further to be observed: (1) A chain running
+north-north-east, which forms the boundary between Sarawak and Dutch
+Borneo, the highest peak of which, Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft.
+This chain can hardly be said to extend continuously to the extreme
+north of the island, but it carries on the line of elevation towards the
+mountains of Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to
+the north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The
+mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in the
+portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2) A chain
+which runs eastward from the central mountains and terminates in the
+great promontory of the east coast, known variously as Cape Kanior or
+Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked chain running in a south-easterly direction
+among the congeries of hills that extend south-eastward from the central
+mountains, and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast,
+heights up to and exceeding 6000 ft.
+
+_Coasts._--Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth, the coasts
+of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low alluvial lands, of a
+marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy character. In places the sands are
+fringed by long lines of _Casuarina_, trees; in others, and more
+especially in the neighbourhood of some of the river mouths, there are
+deep banks of black mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast
+presents to the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue,
+sparsely clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of
+rank grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a
+maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers few
+accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a rule at or
+near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded too efficiently
+by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the long coast-line of Dutch
+Borneo there are only seven ports of call, which are habitually made use
+of by the ships of the Dutch Packet Company. They are Pontianak,
+Banjermasin, Kota Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The
+islands off the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial
+formation at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the
+shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the principal
+islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern extremity, Labuan
+(q.v.), a British colony off the west coast of the territory of North
+Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the south-west coast. On Great
+Karimata is situated the village of Palembang with a population of about
+500 souls employed in fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest
+produce.
+
+[Illustration: BORNEO]
+
+_Rivers_.--The rivers play a very important part in the economy of
+Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the main arteries
+of population. Hydrographically the island may be divided into five
+principal versants. Of these the shortest embraces the north-western
+slope, north of the Kapuas range, and discharges its waters into the
+China Sea. The most important of its rivers are the Sarawak, the
+Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.),
+the Baram, the Limbang or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of
+British North Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and
+of scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range
+here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs parallel.
+In the south-western versant the largest river is the Kapuas, which,
+rising near the centre of the island, falls into the sea between Mampawa
+and Sukadana after a long and winding course. This river, of volume
+varying with the tide and the amount of rainfall, is normally navigable
+by small steamers and native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for
+300 to 400 m., that is to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence
+as far as Benut. The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow
+than the lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes
+which extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its
+considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi with its
+affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several channels in a
+wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the Kapuas, is navigable in its
+lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft. Rivers lying to the south of the
+Kapuas, but of less importance in the way of size, commerce and
+navigation, are the Simpang, Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood
+of whose mouths, or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native
+villages are situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal
+river of the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and
+falls into the Java Sea in 114° 30' E. Its upper reaches are greatly
+impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower part of its
+course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district, much of which
+is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two rivers of considerable size
+towards the west, the Kapuas Murung or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or
+Great Dyak. The Katingan or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and
+the Kota Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west.
+The rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage, the
+basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000 sq. m., and
+the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are navigable for
+two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size, but in many cases
+the bars at their mouths present considerable difficulties to ships
+drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the larger affluents of the
+Barito are also navigable throughout the greater part of their courses.
+The south-eastern like the north-western corner of the island is watered
+by a considerable number of short mountain streams. The one great river
+of the eastern versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the
+central mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by
+numerous mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from
+its mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical
+features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan or
+Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that calls for
+mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant are comparatively
+small, as the island narrows into a kind of promontory. Of these the
+Kinabatangan in the territory of British North Borneo is the most
+important. Lakes are neither numerous nor very large. In most cases they
+are more fittingly described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper
+Kapuas, of which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar,
+and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the basins
+of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine natural harbour in
+the island of which any use has been made is that of Sandakan, the
+principal settlement of the North Borneo Company on the north coast.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known. The
+  mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch possessions,
+  and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island, consists chiefly
+  of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones and
+  limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The
+  sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but
+  Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable
+  that several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar
+  rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and
+  possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Müller range, the Madi
+  plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist chiefly of
+  almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. The
+  low-lying country between the mountain ranges is covered for the most
+  part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, but Cretaceous beds occur at
+  several localities. Some of the older rocks of the mountain regions
+  have been referred to the Devonian, but the evidence cannot be
+  considered conclusive. _Vertebraria_ and _Phyllotheca_, plants
+  characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series, have been recorded in
+  Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those of the lower part of the
+  Australian Carboniferous system, are stated to occur in the limestone
+  of north Borneo. _Pseudomonotis salinaria_, a Triassic form, has been
+  noted from the schists of the west of Borneo. In the Kapoewas district
+  radiolarian cherts supposed to be of Jurassic age are met with.
+  Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging to several horizons, have been
+  described from west Borneo and Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which
+  have long been known in west Borneo, are comparatively little
+  disturbed. They consist for the most part of marls with _Orbitolina
+  concava_, and are referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of
+  somewhat later date are found in the Marpapura district in south-east
+  Borneo. The Tertiary system includes conglomerates, sandstones,
+  limestones and marls, which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and
+  Miocene age. They contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds
+  generally lie nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the
+  Madi plateau and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several
+  thousand feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are
+  extensively developed, especially in the Müller Mountains. The whole
+  of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west
+  and rhyolites and dacites in the east.
+
+_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied. It
+includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a somewhat
+yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper, iron, tin, antimony,
+mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and coal. The exploitation of
+the mines suffers in many cases from the difficulties and expense of
+transport, the high duties payable in Dutch Borneo to the native
+princes, the competition among the rival companies, and often the
+limited quantities of the minerals found in the mines. The districts of
+Sambas and Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys
+of the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest
+quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from alluvial
+washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working gold-mines in the
+upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the prospects of the enterprise,
+which is conducted on a fairly extensive scale, are known to be
+encouraging. Diamonds are also found widely distributed and mainly in
+the same regions as the gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the
+largest quantity, and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of
+export. Considerable progress has been made in the development of the
+oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the _Nederlandsch Indische Industrie en
+Handel Maatschappij_, the Dutch business of the Shell Transport and
+Trading Company, increased its output from 123,592 tons in 1901 to
+285,720 tons in 1904, and showed further satisfactory increase
+thereafter. This company owns extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and
+Sanga-Sanga. The quality of the oil varies in a remarkable way according
+to the depth. The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft.,
+and yields a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next
+source is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much
+lighter in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the
+refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis,
+whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable
+percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very high,
+owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the natural pressure
+of the gas. There is every reason to believe that the oil-fields of
+Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal mines have, in many instances,
+been opened and abandoned, failure being due to the difficulty of
+production. Coal of good quality has been found in Pengaron and
+elsewhere in the Banjermasin district, but most Borneo coal is
+considerably below this average of excellence. It has also been found in
+fair quantities at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak.
+The coalmines of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success has
+never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under 130 tons a
+day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the raja of Sarawak,
+yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent coal. The discovery that
+Borneo produced antimony was made in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the
+orientalist, who learned in that year that a quantity had been brought
+to Singapore by a native trader as ballast. The supply is practically
+unlimited and widely distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in
+Sarawak.
+
+_Climate and Health_.--As is to be anticipated, having regard to its
+insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through the
+very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very damp. In
+the hills and in the interior regions are found which may almost be
+described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere is dense, humid
+and oppressive. Throughout the average temperature is from 78° to 80°
+F., but the thermometer rarely falls below 70°, except in the hills, and
+occasionally on exceptional days mounts as high as 96° in the shade. The
+rainy westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the meteorological
+stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind. Even at
+Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west wind brings annually a
+rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain carried by the south-east
+wind. The difference between the seasons is not rigidly marked. The
+climate is practically unchanging all the year round, the atmosphere
+being uniformly moist, and though days of continuous downpour are rare,
+comparatively few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls between
+November and May, and at this season the torrents are tremendous while
+they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and violent, almost
+invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an extensive area there is,
+of course, great variety in the climatic character of different
+districts, especially when viewed in relation to health. Some places,
+such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance, are notoriously unhealthy; but
+from the statistics of the Dutch government, and the records of Sarawak
+and British North Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo
+has in general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java, or
+in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula. Among the native
+races the prevailing diseases, apart from those of a malarial origin,
+are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient food, from
+intemperance, and from want of cleanliness. The habit of allowing their
+meat to putrefy before regarding it as fit for food, and of encouraging
+children of tender age to drink to intoxication, accounts for absence of
+old folk and the heavy mortality which are to be observed among the
+Muruts of British North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes
+of the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus are
+common among the natives throughout the country and especially in the
+interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with on the coast. Smallpox,
+dysentery and fevers, frequently of a bilious character, are endemic and
+occasionally epidemic. Cholera breaks out from time to time and works
+great havoc, as was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak's
+punitive expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by
+boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast could be
+regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will attack whole tribes.
+About one sixth of the native population of the interior, and a smaller
+proportion of those living on the coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm
+called _kurap_, which also prevails almost universally among the Sakai
+and Semang, the aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The
+disease is believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is
+not uncommon.
+
+_Fauna_.--The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of species, many
+of which are numerically of great importance. Among the quadrupeds the
+most remarkable is the orang-utan (Malay, _ôrang ûtan_, i.e. jungle
+man), as the huge ape, called _mias_ or _mâyas_ by the natives, is named
+by Europeans. Numerous species of monkey are found in Borneo, including
+the wahwah, a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance
+and habits than the orang-utan, and several _Semnopitheci_, such as the
+long-nosed ape and the golden-black or _chrysomelas_. The large-eyed
+_Stenops tardigradus_ also deserves mention. The larger beasts of prey
+are not met with, and little check is therefore put on the natural
+fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small panther and the clouded
+tiger (so called)--_Felis macroscelis_--are the largest animals of the
+cat kind that occur in Borneo. The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay
+or honey-bear is very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur
+in the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare, and
+in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution of quadrupeds
+as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsula is somewhat
+peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious. Many quadrupeds, such as the
+honey-bear and the rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is
+common both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur
+in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found in
+Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so plentiful in parts
+of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never been discovered in the Malay
+Peninsula. It has been suggested, but with very scant measure of
+probability, that the existence of elephants in Borneo, whose
+confinement to a single district is remarkable and unexplained, is due
+to importation; and the fact is on record that when Magellan's ships
+visited Brunei in 1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the
+sultan of Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way
+confounded with the Malayan _seladang_ or gaur, are rare, but the whole
+country swarms with wild swine, and the _babirusa_, a pig with curious
+horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators are found in most of the
+rivers, and the gavial is less frequently met with. Three or four
+species of deer are common, including the mouse-deer, or _plandok_, an
+animal of remarkable grace and beauty, about the size of a hare but
+considerably less heavy. Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines,
+civet-cats, rats, bats, flying-foxes and lizards are found in great
+variety; snakes of various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are
+abundant, while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes
+with horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered by
+Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some quarters. The
+most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons, owls, horn-bills,
+cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back and peacock-pheasants),
+partridges, ravens, crows, parrots, pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe,
+quail and swallows. Of most of these birds several varieties are met
+with. The _Cypselus esculentus_, or edible-nest swift, is very common,
+and the nests, which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed
+the best in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief
+insect pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds
+of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to beasts.
+There are also two kinds of ants, the semut âpi ("fire ant") and the
+_semut lâda_ ("pepper ant"), whose bites are peculiarly painful.
+Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties abound. The honey and the wax
+of the wild bee are collected by the natives. Butterflies and moths are
+remarkable for their number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no
+less numerously represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly
+wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding
+seas, swarm with fish. The _siawan_ is a species of fish found in the
+rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted. The natives are expert
+and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang and pearl-shell are of some
+commercial importance.
+
+The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not very
+obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo, a smaller
+breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula, and in some districts
+bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small horses, are the principal
+domestic animals. The character of the country and the nomadic habits of
+many of the natives of the interior, who rarely occupy their villages
+for more than a few years in succession, have not proved favourable to
+pastoral modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture,
+but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the saddle.
+Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by the wealthier classes,
+are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak. In British North Borneo, and
+especially in the district of Tempasuk on the north-west coast, Borneo
+ponies, bred originally, it is supposed, from the stock which is
+indigenous to the Sulu archipelago, are common.
+
+_Flora_.--The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion of the
+surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation. The king of
+the forest is the _tapan_, which, rising to a great height without fork
+or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage. The official seats
+of some of the chiefs are constructed from the wood of this tree.
+Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of its timber, is abundant; it
+is used by the natives for the pillars of their homes and forms an
+article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong. It is rivalled in hardness by
+the _kâyu tembesu_. In all, about sixty kinds of timber of marketable
+quality are furnished in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of
+extraction, even in the regions situated in close proximity to the large
+waterways, renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will
+attain to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of
+supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in great variety,
+including the _nîpah_, which is much used for thatching, the cabbage,
+fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two furnish large supplies of
+food to the natives, some copra is exported, and sago factories, mostly
+in the hands of Chinese, prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets.
+Gutta-percha (_getah percha_ in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon,
+cloves, nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in
+the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the
+much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian, a large
+fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed of stout
+pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a tall tree and
+occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries upon passers-by.
+Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers,
+pineapples, bananas and mangosteens are cultivated, as also are a large
+number of other fruits. Rice is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers
+and in the swamps, and also in rude clearings in the interior;
+sugar-cane of superior quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes
+exported in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of
+the Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of cigars,
+in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for native consumption,
+which is of small commercial importance, is cultivated in most parts of
+the island. Indigo, coffee and pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in
+the western division of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the
+flowering plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants--the
+latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the northern
+districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very common, many that
+are usually independent assuming here the parasitic character; the
+_Vanda lowii_, for example, grows on the lower branches of trees, and
+its strange pendent flower-stalks often hang down so as almost to reach
+the ground. Ferns are abundant, but not so varied as in Java.
+
+_Population._--The population of Borneo is not known with any approach
+to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it
+is estimated as follows:--
+
+  Dutch Borneo             1,130,000
+  British North Borneo       200,000
+  Sarawak                    500,000
+  Brunei                      20,000
+
+No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and vast
+areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain unexplored, and
+free from any practical authority or control. In Sarawak, owing to the
+high administrative genius of the first raja and his successor, the
+natives have been brought far more completely under control, but the
+raja has never found occasion to utilize the machinery of his government
+for the accurate enumeration of his subjects.
+
+Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two divisions,
+the western and the south and eastern respectively. Of the two, the
+former is under the more complete and effective control. The estimated
+population in the western division is 413,000 and in the south and
+eastern 717,000. Europeans number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and
+Chinese, mainly in the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions
+there is an average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The
+sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is due to a
+variety of causes--to the physical character of the country, which for
+the most part restricts the area of population to the near neighbourhood
+of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to which the majority
+of the natives have attained and the consequent disregard of sanitation
+and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting, the last of which has not
+even yet been effectually checked among some of the tribes of the
+interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in earlier times of
+Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives, more especially of
+the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a life of spasmodic
+nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an incredible improvidence
+which induces them to convert into intoxicating liquor a large portion
+of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious character which are
+invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies, and certain
+superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of abortion,
+have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas, Montrado
+and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the population is
+due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of mines, the
+navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the concentration
+of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths of rivers and
+the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western division,
+Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000; Montrado,
+Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the south and
+eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000 inhabitants;
+Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with populations of
+from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and Martapura early
+Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the influence still are
+manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided by navigable
+rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population to a degree
+which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the interior parts
+of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only a very small
+proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by agriculture and
+industry, the great majority of them being officials. The Arabs and
+Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and agriculture. Of the
+natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which, however, is for the most
+part of a somewhat primitive description. The industries of the natives
+are confined to such crafts as spinning and weaving and dyeing, the
+manufacture of iron weapons and implements, boat- and shipbuilding, &c.
+More particularly in the south-eastern division, and especially in the
+districts of Negara, Banjermasin, Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding,
+iron forging, gold- and silversmith's work, and the polishing of
+diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger centres of
+population.
+
+_Races._--The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable variety of
+races, of different origin and degrees of civilization. The most
+important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and Muruts of the
+interior, the Malays, among whom must be counted such Malayan tribes as
+the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &c., the Bugis, who were originally immigrants from
+Celebes, and the Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs,
+are of importance on account of their political influence in Dutch
+Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance in
+Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the Malays, Dyaks and
+Bugis are given under their several headings, and some information
+concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will be found in the section below,
+which deals with British North Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with
+Borneo calls for notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized
+people who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion of
+the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted. The
+Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la on the
+north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century, and later
+documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th century. The
+traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm the statements, and
+many of the leading families of Brunei in north-west Borneo claim to
+have Chinese blood in their veins, while the annals of Sulu record an
+extensive Chinese immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is
+certain that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th
+centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and to trade
+with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable Chinese
+population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most part in planting and
+exporting pepper, but the consistent oppression of the native rajas
+destroyed their industry and led eventually to the practical extirpation
+of the Chinese. The Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged
+immigration from China with a view to developing the mineral resources
+of their territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found
+in considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere.
+They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or agriculture, to
+carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder. About 1779 the
+Dutch acquired immediate authority over all strangers, and thus assumed
+responsibility for the control of the Chinese, who presently proved
+themselves somewhat troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and
+were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search of fresh
+mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages with the
+Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives. They brought with them from
+China their aptitude for the organization of secret societies which,
+almost from the first, assumed the guise of political associations.
+These secret societies furnished them with a machinery whereby
+collective action was rendered easy, and under astute leaders they
+offered a formidable opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when
+driven into the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they
+cost the first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were at
+last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the Chinese are
+now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day the Chinaman forms
+perhaps the most valuable element in the civilization and development of
+the island, just as does his fellow in the mining states of the Malayan
+Peninsula. They are industrious, frugal and intelligent; the richer
+among them are excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in
+their dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own
+script, and the second generation acquires an education of an European
+type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping, trading and
+mining industries, so long as the mining is of an alluvial character, is
+in Chinese hands. The greater part of the Chinese on the west coast are
+originally drawn from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They
+are called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those which
+furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the Malay Peninsula.
+They are a rough and hardy people, and are apt at times to be
+turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes mostly from Fuh-kien and the
+coast districts of Amoy. They are known to the Borneans as Ollohs.
+
+_History._--As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political unity,
+and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact unappreciated by
+the vast majority of its native inhabitants. The name of Kalamantan has
+been given by some Europeans (on what original authority it is not
+possible now to ascertain) as the native name for the island of Borneo
+considered as a whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of
+the island itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To
+this day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak of
+going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may be, but make
+use of no term which recognizes that these localities are part of a
+single whole. The only archaeological remains are a few Hindu temples,
+and it is probable that the early settlement of the south-eastern
+portion of the island by Hindus dates from some time during the first
+six centuries of our era. There exist, however, no data, not even any
+trustworthy tradition, from which to reconstruct the early history of
+Borneo. Borneo began to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca
+in 1511, when Alphonso d'Albuquerque despatched Antonio d'Abreu with
+three ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions
+to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he might
+encounter on his way. D'Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly direction
+from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern coast of Borneo and
+laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island near the south-western
+extremity of Ceram. He returned to Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his
+captains, Francisco Serrano, at Ternate, where Magellan's followers
+found him in 1521. After Magellan's death, his comrades sailed from the
+Moluccas across the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white
+men who are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of
+Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting
+account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers by the
+sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the principal objective
+of European traders, and the route followed by Magellan's ships being
+frequently used, Borneo was often touched at during the remainder of the
+16th century, and trade relations with Brunei were successfully
+established by the Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat
+unsuccessfully to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until
+1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance and by
+their agency was restored to his own, that they attained their object.
+Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful intercourse with Brunei,
+varied by not infrequent hostilities, and in 1645 a punitive expedition
+on a larger scale than heretofore was sent to chastise Brunei for
+persistent acts of piracy. No attempt at annexation followed upon this
+action, commerce rather than territory being at this period the prime
+object of both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon
+the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only effort at
+proselytizing of which we have record came to an untimely end in the
+death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia, who had been its
+originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and British East India Companies had
+been formed, had destroyed the monopoly so long enjoyed by the
+Portuguese, and to a less extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the
+Malayan Archipelago, and had gained a footing in Borneo. The
+establishment of Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates
+from 1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman, sailed
+from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession of the
+Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was appointed Dutch
+resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana. The first appearance
+of the British in Borneo dates from 1609, and by 1698 they had an
+important settlement at Banjermasin, whence they were subsequently
+expelled by the influence of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the
+sultan a trading monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the
+predominant European race throughout the Malay Archipelago, defeating
+the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the trading-posts all
+along the western and southern coasts of Borneo were presently their
+exclusive possessions, the sultan of Bantam, who was the overlord of
+these districts, ceding his rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile
+had turned their attention to the north of the island, over which the
+sultan of Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759,
+Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of Balambangan,
+and the whole of the north-eastern promontory. A military post was
+established, but it was destroyed in 1775 by the natives under the
+_dâto'_, or vassal chiefs, who resented the cession of their territory.
+This mishap rendered a treaty, which had been concluded in 1774 with the
+sultan of Brunei, practically a dead letter, and by the end of the
+century British influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at
+an end. The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered
+from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809 to order
+the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the coasts of Borneo,
+assisted and stimulated by immigrants from the neighbouring islands to
+the north, devoted themselves more and more to organized piracy, and
+putting to sea in great fleets manned by two and three thousand men on
+cruises that lasted for two and even three years, they terrorized the
+neighbouring seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost
+impossible for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the
+British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by the sultan
+of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811 Alexander Hare was
+despatched thither as commissioner and resident. He not only obtained
+for his government an advantageous treaty, but secured for himself a
+grant of a district which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About
+the same time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a
+post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the Dutch
+in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the Dutch government
+was left in undisputed possession of the field. An energetic policy was
+soon after adopted, and about half the kingdom of Banjermasin was
+surrendered to the Dutch by its sultan in 1823, further concessions
+being made two years later. Meanwhile, George Müller, while exploring
+the east coast, obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of
+Dutch authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the
+enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak of
+war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected by the Dutch for
+a considerable period, and no effective check was imposed upon the
+natives with a view to stopping piracy, which was annually becoming more
+and more unendurable. On the rise of Singapore direct trade had been
+established with Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to
+British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir James
+Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned to the state of
+affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for Borneo, determined, if
+possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he had obtained from the sultan of
+Brunei the grant of supreme authority over Sarawak, in which state, on
+the sultan's behalf, he had waged a successful war, and before many
+years had elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government,
+succeeded in suppressing piracy (see BROOKE, SIR JAMES; and SARAWAK). In
+1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no cession of territory to any
+nation or individual without the consent of Great Britain. Since then
+more and more territory has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the
+raja of Sarawak and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest
+remnant of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of
+the sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the hopes
+which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole island in their
+dominions, but it served also to stimulate their efforts to consolidate
+their power within the sphere already subjected to their influence.
+Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and Bulungan had made nominal submission to them
+in 1834, and in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their
+protectorate, a treaty of a similar character being concluded about the
+same time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo were
+finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June 1891. In spite
+of this, however, large areas in the interior, both in Dutch Borneo and
+in the territory owned by the British North Borneo Company, are still
+only nominally under European control, and have experienced few direct
+effects of European administration.
+
+
+BRITISH NORTH BORNEO OR SABAH
+
+Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions of the
+territory situated on the north-western coast of the island, and
+originally in no way included the remainder of the country now owned by
+the British North Borneo Company. It has become customary, however, for
+the name to be used by Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the
+company's territory, and little by little the more educated natives are
+insensibly adopting the practice.
+
+_History._--As has been seen, the British connexion with northern and
+north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century, nor was it
+resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for Brunei and Sarawak. The
+island of Labuan (q.v.) was occupied by the British as a crown colony in
+1848, and this may be taken as the starting-point of renewed British
+relations with that portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the
+north of Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established in
+Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which was subsequently
+the capital of the North Borneo Company's territory. In 1878, through
+the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of
+Sulu was induced to transfer to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck
+and Mr Dent, all his rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen,
+he had been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters of
+this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon. Sir Harry
+Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had rendered great
+assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the suppression of piracy,
+and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881 the British North Borneo
+Provisional Association, Limited, was formed to take over the concession
+which had been obtained from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that
+year a petition was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal
+charter. This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo
+Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of some
+diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish governments,
+all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by the original grants,
+and proceeded under its charter to organize the administration of the
+territory. The company subsequently acquired further sovereign and
+territorial rights from the sultan of Brunei and his chiefs in addition
+to some which had already been obtained at the time of the formation of
+the company. The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas
+district, including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same
+year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani islands in
+April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the "State of North Borneo,"
+the territory of the company was made a British protectorate, but its
+administration remained entirely in the hands of the company, the crown
+reserving only control of its foreign relations, and the appointment of
+its governors being required to receive the formal sanction of the
+secretary of state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government
+placed the colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the
+governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal
+commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission from the
+company. This arrangement held good until 1905, when, in answer to the
+frequently and strongly expressed desire of the colonists, Labuan was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the company and attached to the colony
+of the Straits Settlements. In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby
+the sultan of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and
+territorial rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas
+river which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the
+effect of rounding off the company's territories, and had the additional
+advantage of doing away with the various no-man's lands which had long
+been used by the discontented among the natives as so many Caves of
+Adullam. The company's acquisition of territory was viewed with
+considerable dissatisfaction by many of the natives, and this found
+expression in frequent acts of violence. The most noted and the most
+successful of the native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet
+Saleh), who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his
+regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation. In 1898 a
+composition was made with him, the terms of which were unfortunately not
+defined with sufficient clearness, and he retired into the Tambunan
+country, to the east of the range which runs parallel with the west
+coast, where for a period he lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes
+of the valley. In 1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his
+acts of aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and
+this time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of
+January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of his
+defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town of Kudat on
+Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused more panic than damage,
+and little by little during the next years the last smouldering embers
+of rebellion were extinguished. At the present time, though effective
+administration of the more inaccessible districts of the interior cannot
+be said to have been established even yet, the pacification of the
+native population is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan
+district, the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled.
+It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of perhaps
+12,000.
+
+_Geography._--The state of North Borneo may roughly be said to form a
+pentagon of which three sides, the north-west, north-east and east are
+washed by the sea, while the remaining two sides, the south-west and the
+south, are bordered respectively by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and
+by the territories of the raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government.
+The boundary between the company's territory and the Dutch government is
+defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention has
+already been made.
+
+The total area of the company's territory is estimated at about 31,000
+sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater portion is
+exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the interior consists
+almost entirely of highlands with here and there open valleys and
+plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the west coast the mountain
+range, as already noted, runs parallel with the seashore at a distance
+from it of about 15 m. Of this range the central feature is the mountain
+of Kinabalu, which is composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks
+and attains to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to
+the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of the
+Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country and falls into
+the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated to be 11,000 ft. above
+sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is itself for the most part from
+1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea, forming a string of small plateaus
+marking the sites of former lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the
+eastern coast the country consists of huddled hills broken here and
+there by regions of a more mountainous character. The principal plateaus
+are in the Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan,
+and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu. Similar
+plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted about the interior.
+The proximity of the mountain range to the seashore causes the rivers of
+the west coast, with the single exception of the Padas, to be rapid,
+boulder-obstructed, shallow streams of little value as means of
+communication for a distance of more than half a dozen miles from their
+mouths. The Padas is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and
+native boats for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller
+craft can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at this
+point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids, which are of
+such a character that nothing can even be brought down them. Even below
+Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult and occasionally dangerous by
+similar obstructions. The other principal rivers of the west coast are
+the Kalias, Kimanis, Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman,
+Mengkabong, Tampasuk and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any
+great importance as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of
+pony raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis
+waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the volume
+of water is not great. Here also are the principal Bajau settlements.
+Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the words _Bâjau_ and _perômpak_
+(pirate) are still used as synonymous terms. At the northern extremity
+of the island Marudu Bay receives the waters of the Marudu which rises
+on the western side of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal
+rivers are the Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu
+and forms its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk,
+which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay; and the
+Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in the territory,
+which is believed to have its rise eastward of the range of which Trus
+Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable by steamer for a
+considerable distance and by native boats for a distance of over 100 m.
+from its mouth. Some valuable tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat
+liable to flood, and some remarkable burial-caves are found in the
+valley of the Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are
+the Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the
+Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it as a whole,
+the company's territory is much less generously watered than are other
+parts of Borneo, which again compares unfavourably in this respect with
+the Malayan states of the peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially
+those of the west coast, are obstructed by bars at their mouths that
+render them difficult of access. Several of the natural harbours of
+North Borneo, on the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious.
+Sandakan Harbour, on the north-east coast (5° 40' N., 118° 10' E.), runs
+inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by the mouths
+of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only 2 m. across, is split
+into two channels by the little, high, bluff-like island of Barhala. The
+depth in the main entrance varies from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels
+drawing 20 ft. can advance half-way up the bay. The principal town in
+the territory, and the seat of government (though an attempt has been
+unsuccessfully made to transfer this to Jesselton on the west coast), is
+Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the Sarwaka inlet. At Silam,
+on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and Kudat in Marudu Bay, first
+surveyed by Commander Johnstone of H.M.S. "Nigeria" in 1881, is a small
+but useful harbour.
+
+_Climate and Population._--The climate of North Borneo is tropical, hot,
+damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and not usually excessive.
+The shade temperature at Sandakan ordinarily ranges from 72° to 94° F.
+The population of the company's territory is not known with any approach
+to accuracy, but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to 175,000,
+including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are found in
+the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the country bordering
+closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly by Dusuns, by Kadayans,
+by Bajaus and Ilanuns--both Malayan tribes--and by Brunei Malays. The
+east coast is very sparsely populated and its inhabitants are mostly
+Bajaus and settlers from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. The interior
+is dotted with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or by Muruts, a
+village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided up into
+cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a common
+verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe are festooned. It
+has been customary to speak of these tribes as belonging to the Dyak
+group, but the Muruts would certainly seem to be the representatives of
+the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, and there is much reason to
+think that the Dusuns also must be classed as distinct from the Dyaks.
+The Dusun language, it is interesting to note, presents very curious
+grammatical complications and refinements such as are not to be found
+among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples of the Malayan
+Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern Asia. Dusuns and Muruts
+alike are in a very low state of civilization, and both indulge
+inordinately in the use of intoxicating liquors of their own
+manufacture.
+
+_Settlements and Communication._--The company possesses a number of
+small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan, with a population of
+9 500, is the most important. The remainder which call for separate
+mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu
+Bay and Jesselton on Gaya Bay on the west coast. A railway of
+indifferent construction runs along the west coast from Jesselton to
+Weston on Brunei Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to
+Tenom above the rapids. It was originally intended that this should
+eventually be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko
+Bay) on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties
+which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse population of
+the territory, and the failure of the existing line to justify the
+expectations entertained by its designers, combine to render the
+prosecution of any such project highly improbable. Sandakan is connected
+by telegraph with Mempakul on the west coast whence a cable runs to
+Labuan and so gives telegraphic communication with Singapore. The
+overland line from Mempakul to Sandakan, however, passes through
+forest-clad and very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is
+therefore subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic
+communication between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been
+established and is more regularly and successfully maintained. The only
+roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate vicinity of the
+company's principal stations. The Sabah Steamship Company, subsidized by
+the Chartered Company, runs steamers along the coast, calling at all the
+company's stations at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm
+runs vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore to
+Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at Jesselton and
+Kudat _en route_. There is also fairly frequent communication between
+Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey of four days' steaming.
+
+_Products and Trade._--The capabilities of the company's territory are
+only dimly known. Coal has been found in the neighbourhood of Cowie
+Harbour and elsewhere, but though its quality is believed to be as good
+as that exported from Dutch Borneo, it is not yet known whether it
+exists in payable quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits
+on the banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the
+quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a whole
+has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and no opinion can at
+present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth or poverty of the company's
+property. Traces of mineral oil, iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony
+have been found, but the wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its
+jungle produce. It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but
+the difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry
+within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans, mangrove-bark,
+edible nuts, guano, edible birds'-nests, &c., are all valuable articles
+of export. The principal cultivated produce is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts,
+coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes. Of these the tobacco and the
+sago are the most important. Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the
+tobacco crop increased from £471 to £200,000.
+
+As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North Borneo is
+largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send their agents inland
+to attend the _Tamus_ (Malay, _temu_, to meet) or fairs, which are the
+recognized scenes of barter between the natives of the interior and
+those of the coast. At Sandakan there is a Chinese population of over
+2000.
+
+_Administration._--For administrative purposes the territory is divided
+into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the north; Keppel on the
+west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh, Mayne and Elphinstone on the east
+coast; and Dent and Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these
+provinces, however, are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The
+form of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted in the
+Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of their
+administration by British residents. The government is vested primarily
+in the court of directors appointed under the company's charter, which
+may be compared to the colonial office in its relation to a British
+colony, though the court of directors interests itself far more closely
+than does the colonial department in the smaller details of local
+administration. The supreme authority on the spot is represented by the
+governor, under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel,
+officers who occupy much the same position as that usually known by the
+title of magistrate and collector. The less important districts are
+administered by district magistrates, who also collect the taxes. The
+principal departments, whose chiefs reside at the capital, are the
+treasury, the land and survey, the public works, the constabulary, the
+medical and the judicial. The secretariat is under the charge of a
+government secretary who ranks next in precedence to the governor.
+Legislation is by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a
+council, meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads
+of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The public service
+is recruited by nomination by the court of directors. The governor is
+the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a judge who is subordinate
+to him takes all ordinary supreme court cases. The laws are the Indian
+Penal and Civil Procedure Codes and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few
+local laws promulgated by proclamation. There is an Imam's court for the
+trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession, &c. The
+native chiefs are responsible to the government for the preservation of
+law and order in their districts. They have restricted judicial powers.
+The constabulary numbers some 600 men and consists of a mixed force of
+Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a
+few Europeans. There is a Protestant mission which supports a
+church--the only stone building in the territory--and a school at
+Sandakan, with branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman
+Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at
+Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points on the
+west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters are at Kuching
+in Sarawak. The Chinese have their joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few
+small mosques, but the vast majority of the native inhabitants are
+pagans who have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.
+
+_Finance and Money._--The principal sources of revenue are the licences
+granted for the importation and retailing of opium, wine and spirits,
+which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs duty of 5% on imports; an
+export tax of 5% on jungle produce; a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient
+native custom; and a stamp duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale
+of government lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &c. Judicial
+fees bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and
+revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The people of
+the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large number of the natives
+of the interior escaping all payment of dues to the company, the revenue
+being for the most part contributed by the more civilized members of the
+community residing in the neighbourhood of the company's stations. There
+are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking business
+when required. The state, which has adopted the penny postage, is in the
+Postal Union, and money orders on North Borneo are issued in the United
+Kingdom and in most British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the
+principal banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900.
+There is also a government note issue issued by the company for use
+within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and British
+dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin--viz. cents and half
+cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the Straits Settlements,
+and measures have been taken with a view to the accomplishment of this.
+In the interior the principal medium of exchange among the natives is
+the large earthenware jars, imported originally, it is believed, from
+China, which form the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals.
+     (H. Cl.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert,
+  _Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear 1609_;
+  _Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en Atchin in het
+  jaar 1691_; Beeckman, _Visit to Borneo_, 1718, in J. Pinkerton's
+  _General Collections_ (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in _Ond en Nieuw Oost
+  Indiën_ (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel, _Expedition to
+  Borneo of H.M.S. "Dido"_ (London, 1846); R. Mundy, _Narrative of
+  Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London, 1848); F.S. Marryat,
+  _Borneo_, &c. (1848); P.J. Veth, _Borneo's Westerafdeeling_
+  (Zalt-Bommel, 1854 and 1856); S. Müller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in
+  den Indischen Archipel_ (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, _Head-hunters of
+  Borneo_ (London, 1881), and _Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo_ (The Hague,
+  1887); J. Hatton, _The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North Borneo_
+  (London, 1882); F. Hatton, _North Borneo_ (London, 1885); T. Posewitz,
+  _Borneo... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien_ (Berlin, 1889), Eng.
+  trans., _Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources_ (London, 1892); J.
+  Whitehead, _Exploration of Mount Kini Balu_ (London, 1893); Mrs W.B.
+  Pryor, _A Decade in Borneo_ (London, 1894); H. Ling Roth, _The Natives
+  of Sarawak and North Borneo_ (London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf,
+  _Geologische Verkinningstochten in Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden, 1900,
+  Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden,
+  1901), and _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leiden, 1904), &c.; W.H. Furness,
+  _Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (London, 1902); O. Beccari, _Nelle
+  Foreste di Borneo_ (Florence, 1902), Eng. trans., _Wanderings in the
+  Great Forests of Borneo_ (London, 1904); D. Cator, _Everyday Life
+  among the Head-hunters_ (London, 1905). For geology, besides the works
+  of Posewitz and Molengraaf already cited, see R.B. Newton in _Geol.
+  Mag_., 1897, pp. 407-415, and _Proc. Malac. Soc_., London, vol. v.
+  (1902-1903), pp. 403-409. A series of papers on the palaeontology of
+  the island will be found in the several volumes of the _Samml. Geol_.
+  R. Mus., Leiden.
+
+
+
+
+BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the Swedish coast,
+belonging to Denmark, lying on 15° E., and between 55° and 55° 18' N.,
+and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to N.W. and 19 (extreme) from E. to W.
+Pop. (1901) 40,889. The surface is generally hilly; the scenery is fine
+in the north, where the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and the
+granite hill of Helligdomsklipper dominates the island. Besides
+freestone, exported for building, limestone, blue marble, and
+porcelain-clay are worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but
+it is not of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The
+inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing, distillation
+and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving and clock-making are also
+carried on to some extent. The capital is Rönne (115 m. by sea from
+Copenhagen), and there are five other small towns on the
+island--Svanike, Neksö, Hasle, Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects
+Rönne with Neksö (22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N.
+Madvig, the philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch's
+Hotel, 10 m. N. of Rönne, is the most favoured resort on the island,
+which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast are the ruins of
+the castle of Hammershus, which was built in 1158, and long served as a
+state prison; while another old castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684,
+and important as commanding the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on
+Christiansö, one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island
+of Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was long the
+independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th century it became a
+fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it was captured by the Hanseatic
+League, in 1522 it came under Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made
+directly subject to the city of Lübeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by
+storm, and their possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde
+in 1658; but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a
+popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces, the
+island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.
+
+
+
+
+BORNIER, HENRI, VICOMTE DE (1825-1901) French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Lunel (Hérault) on the 25th of December 1825. He came to Paris
+in 1845 With the object of studying law, but in that year he published a
+volume of verse, _Les Premières Feuilles_, and the Comédie Francaise
+accepted a play of his entitled _Le Mariage de Luther_. He was given a
+post in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century,
+becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Théâtre Français
+his heroic drama in verse, _La Fille de Roland_. The action of the play
+turns on the love of Gérald, son of the traitor Ganelon, for the
+daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and the nobility of the
+character of Gérald, who renounces Berthe when he learns his real
+origin, procured for the piece a great success. The conflict between
+honour and love and the grandiose sentiment of the play inevitably
+provoked comparison with Corneille. The piece would indeed be a
+masterpiece if, as its critics were not slow to point out, the verse had
+been quite equal to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de
+Bornier should be mentioned: _Dimitri_ (1876), libretto of an opera by
+M.V. de Jonciêres; and the dramas, _Les Noces d'Allila_ (1880) and
+_Mahomet_ (1888). The production of this last piece was forbidden in
+deference to the representations of the Turkish ambassador. Henri de
+Bornier was critic of the _Nouvelle Revue_ from 1879 to 1887. His
+_Poésies complètes_ were published in 1894. He died in January 1901.
+
+
+
+
+BORNU, a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of Lake Chad. It
+is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and N. by the Sahara. Formerly
+an independent Mahommedan sultanate it has been divided between Great
+Britain, Germany and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern
+Bornu and also Zinder (q.v.), a tributary state to the north-west, while
+the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of Cameroon.
+Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m., forms part of the
+British protectorate of Nigeria.
+
+Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping
+gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much larger area
+than it now occupies. The Komadugu (i.e. river) Waube--generally known
+as the Yo--and its tributaries rise in the highlands which, beyond the
+western border of Bornu, form the watershed between the Niger and Chad
+systems, and flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo
+in its last few miles marking the frontier between the French and
+British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains to the
+Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern Bornu is
+obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great depth. The vast
+plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare outcrops of ironstone, and
+consists of the porous fissured black earth called "cotton soil" in
+India, alternating with, or more probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout
+the flat country water is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54
+ft., corresponding to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the
+north-west the country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the
+south limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola tributary
+of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked acacia, yielding the
+species of gum most valuable in the market, extends from the Gongola to
+Gujba. Immense baobabs (_Adansonia digitata_), fine tamarinds and a few
+trees of the genus _Ficus_ are met with in the south. North of Maifoni
+(latitude 12° N.) the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive
+plantations have been made, and its place is taken by the _Kigelia_ and
+also by a very handsome species of _Diospyros_. North of Kuka is a dense
+belt of _Hyphaene_ palm with fine tamarinds and figs. Cotton and indigo
+grow wild, and afford the materials for the cloths, finely dyed with
+blue stripes, which form the staple fabric of the country. On the shores
+of Lake Chad the cotton grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and
+wheat of excellent quality are raised, but in small quantities, the
+staple food being a species of millet called _gussub_, which is made
+into a kind of paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams,
+sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers, onions,
+water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees the country
+possesses the lime and fig.
+
+Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover in the
+extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes, elephants,
+hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles and ostriches are
+found. The horse, the camel and the ox are the chief domestic animals;
+all are used as beasts of burden. The country abounds with bees, and
+honey forms one of the chief Bornuese delicacies.
+
+The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively
+hot, rising sometimes to 105° and 107°, and even during most of the
+night not falling much below 100°. In May the wet season begins, with
+violent storms of thunder and lightning. In the end of June the rivers
+and lakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rains,
+accompanied with sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants
+at this season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate;
+cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several
+months the climate is healthy and agreeable.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, of whom the great majority profess
+Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of mixed blood, i.e.
+Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing. The total population of
+British Bornu is estimated at 500,000. The dominant tribe, called
+Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a Negro race with an infusion of Berber
+blood, have black skins, large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but
+good teeth and high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty
+by extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo, and dye
+their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The law allows
+polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more than two or three wives.
+The marriage ceremonies last for a whole week, the first three days
+being spent in feasting on the favourite national dishes, and the others
+appropriated to certain symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the
+watching of wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess,
+played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite occupation.
+
+The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the Shuwas, who
+are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved dialect of Arabic. Of the
+date of their immigration from the East there is no record; but they
+were in the country as early as the middle of the 17th century. They are
+divided into numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist
+of rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form. Another
+tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile islands in Lake
+Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable channels.
+
+The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the horses, as well
+as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail. The Shuwas, however,
+are clad only in a light shirt, and the Kanembu spearmen go almost
+naked, and fight with shield and spear. It is indispensable to a chief
+of rank that he should possess a huge belly, and when high feeding
+cannot produce this, padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding
+the heat of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the
+number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise is enclosed
+in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in Bornu is the Kanuri. It
+has no affinity, according to Heinrich Barth, with the great Berber
+family. A grammar was published in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a
+volume of tales and fables, with a translation and vocabulary.
+
+The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from 10,000 to 50,000
+or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft. in height and 20 ft. in
+thickness, having at each of the four corners a triple gate, composed of
+strong planks of wood, with bars of iron. The abodes of the principal
+inhabitants form an enclosed square, in which are separate houses for
+each of the wives; the chief's palace consists of turrets connected
+together by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly
+polished, so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed
+only of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908
+became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial town
+some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former capital, Kuka (q.v.), and
+Ngornu (the town of "blessing"), are near the shores of Lake Chad. On
+the Yo are still to be seen extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and
+Gambarou or Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809.
+Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the German part
+of Bornu.
+
+_History._--The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century A.D., but
+its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious. The first dynasty
+known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants of Sef, which came to the
+throne in the person of Dugu or Duku, and had its capital at Njimiye
+(Jima) in Kanem on the north-east shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of
+Berber origin, the descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being
+mythical. From this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or
+Ba-Berberche, applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu.
+Mahommedanism was adopted towards the end of the 11th century, and has
+since continued the religion of the country. From 1194 to 1220 reigned
+Selma II., under whom the power of the kingdom was greatly extended; and
+Dunama II., his successor was also a powerful and warlike prince. In
+the following reigns the prosperity of the country began to diminish,
+and about 1386 the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek
+refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the
+Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni, rendered
+his country once more redoubtable and strong. His successor, Idris II.,
+completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated Kanem; and under
+Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu reached its highest pitch of
+greatness. At this period Zinder became a tributary state. A series of
+for the most part peaceful reigns succeeded till about the middle of the
+18th century, when Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with
+the Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the kingdom
+began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already conquered the Hausa
+country. Expelled from his capital by the invaders, Ahmed was only
+restored by the assistance of the fakir Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who,
+pretending to a celestial mission, hoisted the green flag of the
+Prophet, and undertook the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear
+to have been taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely
+out of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient
+kings with all the appearance of sovereignty--reserving for himself,
+however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The court of the
+sultan (_shehu_) was established at New Bornu, or Birni, which was made
+the capital, the old city having been destroyed during the Fula
+invasion; while the sheik, in military state, took up his residence at
+the new city of Kuka. Fairly established, he ruled the country with a
+rod of iron, and at the same time inspired his subjects with a
+superstitious notion of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed
+against moral or religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women,
+as talking too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the
+offender liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited
+with the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself.
+Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar, who
+altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.
+
+During Omar's reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu was visited
+by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and the Sahara. The first
+to enter the country were Walter Oudney, Hugh Clapperton and Dixon
+Denham (1823). They were followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later
+travellers included Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All
+these travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the
+middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by Barth;
+and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by King William of
+Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik's kindness to many German
+explorers, writes thus in December 1872:
+
+  "The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable fact.
+  It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless
+  weakness of Sheik Omar--otherwise so worthy and brave a man--must bear
+  almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder the provinces in
+  an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse are almost at a
+  standstill; good faith and confidence exist no more. The indolence of
+  the court avoids military expeditions, and anarchy and a lack of
+  security on the routes are the consequences.... Thus the sheik and the
+  land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and
+  lower."
+
+After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no European
+traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil resided for a time at
+Kuka during his great journey from the Senegal to Tripoli. The French
+traveller noticed many signs of decadence, the energy of the people
+being sapped by luxury, while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to
+rivalries and intrigues among members of the royal family. The chief of
+Zinder had ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough
+to exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening from the
+south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once a slave of Zobeir
+Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi. After making himself master
+of the fortified town of Manifa, Rabah proceeded against Bornu,
+defeating the army of the sultan Ahsem in two pitched battles. In
+December 1893 Ahsem fled from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon
+afterwards destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the
+south-east of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the trade
+between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route via Bilma. Rabah
+had raised a large, well-drilled army, and proved a formidable opponent
+to the French in their advance on Lake Chad from the south. However in
+1900 he was killed at Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined
+forces of three French expeditions which had been converging from the
+Congo, the Sahara and the Niger.
+
+By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of Zinder in
+the north had been included in the French sphere, and after the defeat
+of Rabah French military expeditions occupied both the German and
+British portions of Bornu, but in 1902 on the appearance of British and
+German expeditions the French withdrew to their own country east of the
+Shari. The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a
+descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as the
+capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been under
+administrative control. It has been divided into East and West Bornu,
+the line of division being fixed approximately at longitude 12°, and
+placed under the administration of a resident. Maifoni and Kuka were
+selected for British stations in the east, and Damjiri and Gujba in the
+west. Garrisons are quartered at these points. The province has been
+mapped, and a network of tracks available for wheeled transport has been
+made through it. Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been
+opened through the Gongola river. The _shehu_, who took the oath of
+allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his formal
+installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local dignity as a
+native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British administration.
+Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British occupation, and it is
+estimated that the population has increased by immigration to about 50%
+more than it was in 1902. The people are industrious. Extensive areas
+are being brought under cultivation, and taxes are collected without
+difficulty. Owing to its increasing commercial importance, the native
+capital was in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also NIGERIA:
+_History;_ and RABAH).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Heinrich Barth's _Travels in North and Central Africa_
+  (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture of the state
+  in the period (c. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier _Travels_ of
+  Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be consulted, as well as
+  Rohlfs, _Land und Volk in Afrika_ (Bremen, 1870); Nachtigal, _Sahara
+  und Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil, _de St.-Louis à
+  Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895). For later information consult
+  Lady Lugard's _A Tropical Dependency_ (London, 1905), and the _Annual
+  Reports_, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria, issued by the
+  Colonial Office, London.     (F. L. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH (1834-1887), Russian musical composer,
+natural son of a Russian prince, was born in St Petersburg on the 12th
+of November 1834. He was brought up to the medical profession, and in
+1862 was appointed assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg
+academy of medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a
+leading part in advocating women's education, helping to found the
+school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872 till his
+death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest in music was
+indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship with Balakirev,
+and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady who was an accomplished
+pianist; but in his earlier years he had been proficient both in playing
+the piano, violin, 'cello and other instruments, and also in composing;
+and during life he did his best to pursue his studies in both music and
+chemistry with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed
+much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony was written
+in 1862-1867; his opera _Prince Igor_, begun in 1869, was left
+unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and
+Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, "In the Steppes" (1880) is,
+however, his best-known work. Borodin also wrote a second symphony
+(1871-1877), part of a third (orchestrated after his death by
+Glazounov), and a few string quartets and some fine songs. His music is
+characteristically Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died
+suddenly at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.
+
+
+
+
+BORODINO, a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow, on the
+Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the scene of a
+great battle between the army of Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusov
+on the 7th of September 1812. Though the battle is remembered chiefly
+for the terrible losses incurred by both sides, in many respects it is
+an excellent example of Napoleon's tactical methods. After preliminary
+fighting on the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the
+6th, Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in his
+resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason the French
+right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians from their
+position, was designedly weakened. The Russian right, bent back at an
+angle and strongly posted, was also neglected, for Napoleon intended to
+make a direct frontal attack. The enemy's right centre near the village
+of Borodino was to be attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was
+afterwards to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called
+"great redoubt," which was to be attacked directly from the front by Ney
+and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout was to attack frontally a
+group of field works on which the Russian left centre was formed; and
+the extreme right of the French army was composed of the weak corps of
+Poniatowski. The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders
+named, and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more
+than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard. When
+the Russians closed on their centre they were even more densely massed,
+and their reserves were subjected to an effective fire from the French
+field guns. At 6 A.M. on the 7th of September the French attack began.
+By 8 A.M. the Russian centre was driven in, and though a furious
+counter-attack enabled Prince Bagration's troops to win back their
+original line, fresh French troops under Davout and Ney drove them back
+again. But the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung
+to the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was
+suspended by Napoleon's order, owing to a cavalry attack by the Russians
+on Eugene's extreme left. When this alarm was ended the advance was
+resumed. Napoleon had now collected a sufficient target for his guns. A
+terrific bombardment by the artillery was followed by the decisive
+charge of the battle, made by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen,
+followed by the infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in
+two, and the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt
+just as Eugene's infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful _mêlée_ the
+Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The defenders
+were now dislodged from their main line and the battle was practically
+at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not using the Guard, which
+was intact, to complete the victory. There is, however, no evidence that
+any further expenditure of men would have had good results. Napoleon had
+imposed his will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of
+Moscow without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the
+Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national spirit of
+the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon. Had it not
+been for this spirit, Borodino would have been decisive of the war
+without'the final blow of the Guard. As it was, the Russians lost about
+42,000 men out of 121,000; Napoleon's army (of which one-half consisted
+of the contingents of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland,
+Holland, &c.) 32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, _Zahl im Kriege_). On the
+side of the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken,
+and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at the head of
+his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who took Montbrun's place
+and fell in the _mêlée_ in the redoubt. The Russians lost 22 generals,
+amongst them Prince Bagration, who died of his wounds after the battle,
+and to whose memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the
+tsar Nicholas I.
+
+
+
+
+BOROLANITE, one of the most remarkable rocks of the British Isles, found
+on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire, after which it has
+been named. In this locality there is a considerable area of granite
+rich in red alkali felspar, and passing, by diminution in the amount of
+its quartz, into quartz-syenites (nordmarkites) and syenites. At the
+margins of the outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the
+nepheline is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the
+other ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and aegirine.
+The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous rocks, though some
+syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites resemble borolanite in
+this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite assumes the form of a dark
+rock with large rounded white spots. These last consist of an
+intermixture of nepheline or sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the
+analogy of certain leucite-syenites which are known in Arkansas, it is
+very probable that these spots represent original leucites which have
+been changed into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble
+leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have its
+crystalline outlines. The "pseudo-leucites," as they have been called,
+measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch across. The dark matrix
+consists of biotite, aegirine-augite and melanite. Connected with the
+borolanite there are other types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In
+Finland, melanite-bearing nepheline rocks have been found and described
+as Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite is
+Magnet Cove in Arkansas.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BORON (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic elements,
+occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid, and in various
+borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite and boracite. It was
+isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thénard in 1808 by heating boron
+trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube. It was also isolated at about
+the same time by Sir H. Davy, from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a
+dark brown amorphous powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the
+roughly powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot
+crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried common
+salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all the sodium has been
+used up, the mass is thrown into dilute hydrochloric acid, when the
+soluble sodium salts go into solution, and the insoluble boron remains
+as a brown powder, which may by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan
+(_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1895, 6, p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide
+with one part of magnesium powder. The dark product obtained is washed
+with water, hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally
+calcined again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air
+during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous boron is a
+chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45; it sublimes in the
+electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at ordinary temperatures, and
+burns on strong ignition with production of the oxide B2O3 and the
+nitride BN. It combines directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature,
+and with chlorine, bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react
+with the alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat to
+form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated
+temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead monoxide and
+cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat. Heated with sulphuric
+acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized to boric acid, whilst on fusion
+with alkaline carbonates and hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali
+metal. Like silicon and carbon, very varying values had been given for
+its specific heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat
+increases rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a
+mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the air by a
+layer of charcoal, F. Wöhler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville obtained a
+grey product, from which, on dissolving out the aluminium with sodium
+hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline product, which they thought to be
+a modification of boron, but which was shown later to be a mixture of
+aluminium borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten
+aluminium, and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals are
+obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near that of
+the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kühne (D.R.P. 147,871) described a process in
+which external heating is not necessary, a mixture of aluminium
+turnings, sulphur and boric acid being ignited by a hot iron rod, the
+resulting aluminium sulphide, formed as a by-product, being decomposed
+by water.
+
+  Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition;
+  on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium boride
+  Mg3B2 is obtained, and if this be decomposed with dilute hydrochloric
+  acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a mixture of hydrogen and
+  boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture burns with a green flame
+  forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is deposited on passing the gas
+  mixture through a hot tube, or on depressing a cold surface in the gas
+  flame. By cooling it with liquid air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield
+  obtained from it a gas of composition B3H3. The mixture probably
+  contained also some BH3 (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, _Proc. Chem.
+  Soc._, 17, p. 152). Boron fluoride BF3 was first prepared in 1808 by
+  Gay Lussac and L. Thénard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of
+  the trioxide and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a
+  colourless pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes
+  strongly in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the
+  elements of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged
+  into the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it
+  support combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a
+  colourless, oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time
+  decomposes, with separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric
+  acid HF·BF3 in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free
+  condition, but many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also
+  combines with ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a
+  white crystalline solid of composition BF3·NH3; with excess of ammonia
+  gas, colourless liquids BF3·2NH3 and BF3·3NH3 are produced, which on
+  heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.
+
+  Boron chloride BCl3 results when amorphous boron is heated in chlorine
+  gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over a heated
+  mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product being
+  condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is a
+  colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18° C, and is readily
+  decomposed by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It
+  unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid of
+  composition 2BCl3·3NH3.
+
+  Boron bromide BBr3 can be formed by direct union of the two elements,
+  but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation of the
+  chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5° C. With
+  water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as the
+  chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous
+  hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide, BI3,
+  which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and hydriodic
+  acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white crystalline solid
+  of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210° C., and it can be distilled
+  without decomposition. It is decomposed by water, and with a solution
+  of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives a red powder of
+  composition PBI2, which sublimes _in vacuo_ at 210° C. to red
+  crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen loses its iodine
+  and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.
+
+  Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either in air or in
+  nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating to redness in a
+  platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous borax with two
+  parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion, the melt is well washed
+  with dilute hydrochloric acid and then with water, the nitride
+  remaining as a white powder. It can also be prepared by heating
+  borimide B2(NH)3; or by heating boron trioxide with a metallic
+  cyanide. It is insoluble in water and unaffected by most reagents, but
+  when heated in a current of steam or boiled for some time with a
+  caustic alkali, slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the
+  formation of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly
+  in hydrofluoric acid.
+
+  Borimide B2(NH)3 is obtained on long heating of the compound B2S3·6NH2
+  in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120° C. It is a white
+  solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride and ammonia.
+  Long-continued heating with water also decomposes it slowly.
+
+  Boron sulphide B2S3 can be obtained by the direct union of the two
+  elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at 440°
+  C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the
+  trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It forms
+  slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable
+  smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation of boric
+  acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B2S5 is prepared, in
+  an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur in carbon
+  bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline powder
+  which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur,
+  sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.
+
+  Boron trioxide B2O3 is the only known oxide of boron; and may be
+  prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by strongly
+  igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a transparent
+  vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form boric acid
+  (q.v.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing in moist
+  air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation of boric
+  acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is not volatile
+  below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with salts of more
+  volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from such salts; for
+  example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron trioxide, sulphur
+  trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed. It also possesses
+  the power of combining with most metallic oxides at high
+  temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show characteristic
+  colours. Many organic compounds of boron are known; thus, from the
+  action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol or on methyl alcohol, ethyl
+  borate B(OC2H5)3 and methyl borate B(OCH3)3 are obtained. These are
+  colourless liquids boiling at 119° C. and 72° C. respectively, and
+  both are readily decomposed by water. By the action of zinc methyl on
+  ethyl borate, in the requisite proportions, boron trimethyl is
+  obtained, thus:--2B(OC2H5)2 + 6Zn(CH3)2 = 2B(CH3)3 +
+
+         / CH3
+  + 6Zn <
+         \ OC2H5
+
+  as a colourless spontaneously inflammable gas of unbearable smell.
+  Boron triethyl B(C2H5)3 is obtained in the same manner, by using zinc
+  ethyl. It is a colourless spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling
+  point 95° C. By the action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two
+  molecules of zinc ethyl, the compound B(C2H5)2·OC2H5 diethylboron
+  ethoxide is obtained as a colourless liquid boiling at 102° C. By the
+  action of water it is converted into B(C2H5)2·OH, and this latter
+  compound on exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the
+  compound B·C2H5·OC2H5·OH, which, with water, gives B(C2H5)·(OH)2. From
+  the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule of
+  zinc ethyl the compound B2·C2H5·(OC2H5)5 is obtained as a colourless
+  liquid of boiling point. 112° C. Boron triethyl and boron trimethyl
+  both combine with ammonia.
+
+  The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating the water
+  content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion of anhydrous
+  borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston) and from analysis
+  of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville); the values
+  obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be estimated by
+  precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble in a mixture
+  of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose only boric acid or
+  its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure this, the borate can
+  be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl alcohol and the volatile
+  ester absorbed in potash.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525-1584), English
+navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire on the 25th of September
+1525. In 1553 he took part in the expedition which was despatched from
+the Thames under Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to
+Cathay and India, serving as master of the "Edward Bonaventure," on
+which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated by a storm
+from the "Bona Esperanza" and the "Bona Confidentia," the other two
+ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded on his voyage alone, and
+sailing into the White Sea, in the words of his epitaph, "discouered
+Moscouia by the Northerne sea passage to St Nicholas" (Archangel). In a
+second expedition, made in the "Serchthrift" in 1556, he discovered Kara
+Strait, between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was in
+charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in 1558, he also
+made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563 he was appointed chief
+pilot and one of the four masters of the queen's ships in the Medway,
+and in this office he spent the rest of his life. He died on the 12th of
+July 1584, and was buried at Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough,
+wrote a description of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the
+White Sea to the Caspian and back.
+
+His younger brother, WILLIAM BOROUGH, born in 1536, also at Northam,
+served as an ordinary seaman in the "Edward Bonaventure" on her voyage
+to Russia in 1553, and subsequently made many voyages to St Nicholas.
+Later he transferred his services from the merchant adventurers to the
+crown. As commander of the "Lion" he accompanied Sir Francis Drake in
+his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble by
+presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom of the attack
+on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of _A Discourse of the
+Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle_ (1581), and some of the
+charts he made are preserved at the British Museum and Hatfield.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH (A.S. nominative _burh_, dative _byrig_, which produces some of
+the place-names ending in _bury_, a sheltered or fortified place, the
+camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; of. Ger.
+_Burg_, Fr. _bor_, _borc_, _bourg_), the term for a town, considered as
+a unit of local government.
+
+_History of the English Borough._--After the early English settlement,
+when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations, their
+colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders to form tribal
+strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of Roman colonies show no
+continuity with Roman municipal organization. The resettlement of the
+Roman Durovernum as the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed
+name, the name "burh of the men of Kent," Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury),
+illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was
+Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other _ceasters_ mark
+the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early English burh. The
+tribal burh was protected by an earthen wall, and a general obligation
+to build and maintain burhs at the royal command was enforced by
+Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in disturbance of the peace of the burh were
+punished by higher fines than breaches of the peace of the "ham" or
+ordinary dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the
+asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary of
+the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony, and hence
+the long retention of a processional perambulation. Possibly the "hedge"
+or "wall" of the borough gave it, besides safety, a sanctity analogous
+to that enjoyed by the Germanic assembly while gathered within its
+"hedge," which the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered,
+and removed when it was over. While the "peace" of the Germanic assembly
+was essentially temporary, the "peace" of the burh was sacred all the
+year round. Its "hedge" was never removed. The sanctity of the burh was
+enjoyed by all the dwellings of the king, at first perhaps only during
+his term of residence. Neither in the early English language nor in the
+contemporary Latin was there any fixed usage differentiating the various
+words descriptive of the several forms of human settlement, and the
+tribal refuges cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages
+or the strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test. It is
+not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to draw a
+distinction between the burhs that served as military strongholds for
+national defence and the royal vills which served no such purpose. Some
+of the royal vills eventually entered the class of boroughs, but by
+another route, and for the present the private stronghold and the royal
+dwelling may be neglected. It was the public stronghold and the
+administrative centre of a dependent district which was the source of
+the main features peculiar to the borough.
+
+Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the boroughs built
+for national defence. They were placed where artificial defence was most
+needed, at the junction of roads, in the plains, on the rivers, at the
+centres naturally marked out for trade, seldom where hills or marshes
+formed a sufficient natural defence. The burhs drew commerce by every
+channel; the camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the
+ecclesiastical centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in
+its chief burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The
+burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and exchangers,
+with an authorized scale for weights and measures. Mercantile
+transactions in the burhs or _ports_, as they were called when their
+commercial rather than their military importance was accentuated, were
+placed by law under special legal privileges in order no doubt to secure
+the king's hold upon his toll. Over the burh or port was set a reeve, a
+royal officer answerable to the king for his dues from the burh, his
+rents for lands and houses, his customs on commerce, his share of the
+profits from judicial fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had
+a "moot" or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter
+of speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should meet
+three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies at which
+attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the burghal district, when
+pleas concerning life and liberty and land were held, and men were
+compelled to find pledges answerable for their good conduct. At these
+great meetings the borough reeve (_gerefa_) presided, declaring the law
+and guiding the judgments given by the suitors of the court. The reeve
+was supported by a group of assistants, called in Devon the "witan," in
+the boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve) "lawmen,"
+in other towns probably by a group of aldermen, senior burgesses, with
+military and police authority, whose office was in some cases
+hereditary. These persons assisted the reeve at the great meetings of
+the full court, and sat with him as judges at the subordinate meetings
+which were held to settle the unfinished causes and minor causes. There
+was no compulsion on those not specially summoned to attend these extra
+meetings. At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in
+public, and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all
+the _burh-wara_, other business concerning borough administration was
+decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies that the
+origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed. In the larger
+towns the division into wards, with a separate police system, can be
+traced at an early time, appearing as a unit of military organization,
+answerable for the defence of a gate of the town. The police system of
+London is described in detail in a record of 930-940. Here the free
+people were grouped in associations of ten, each under the
+superintendence of a headman. The bishops and reeves who belonged to the
+"court of London" appear as the directors of the system, and in them we
+may see the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word
+_bertha_ for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London wardmoot
+at a later time was used for the frankpledge system as well as for the
+organization of the muster, point to a connexion between the military
+and the police systems in the towns. At the end of the 9th and beginning
+of the 10th century there is evidence of a systematic "timbering" of new
+burhs, with the object of providing strongholds for the defence of
+Wessex against the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts
+were charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a "haw,"
+or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by charter as if it
+were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood with which it was
+conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded to lands in the county
+succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs, for a close association
+existed between the "thegns" of the shire and the shirestow, an
+association partly perhaps of duty and also of privilege. The king
+granted borough "haws" as places of refuge in Kent, and in London he
+gave them with commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been
+called the "heterogeneous" tenure of the shirestow, one of the most
+conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough, was
+further increased by the liberty which some burgesses enjoyed to
+"commend" themselves to a lord of their own choosing, promising to that
+lord suit and service and perhaps rent in return for protection. Over
+these burgesses the lords could claim jurisdictional rights, and these
+were in some cases increased by royal grants of special rights within
+certain "sokes." The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or
+areas of seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve's
+authority was greatly restricted while that of the lord's reeve took
+precedence. Even the haws, being "burhs" or strongholds within a
+stronghold, enjoyed a local "peace" which protected from official
+intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction in the
+borough, there was also heterogeneity of status; there were burh-thegns
+and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of various kinds, the three groups
+representing perhaps military, commercial and agricultural elements. The
+burh generally shows signs of having been originally a village
+settlement, surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary
+before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule eventually
+the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some evidence pointing to the
+fact that the restriction of the borough authority to this area is not
+ancient, but due to the Norman settlement. The wide districts over which
+the boroughs had had authority were placed under the control of the
+Norman castle which was itself built by means of the old English levy of
+"burh-work." The borough court was allowed to continue its work only
+within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict, the castle
+was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in the national
+scheme of defence, the burgess "cnihts" made commerce their principal
+object under the encouragement of the old privileges of the walled
+place.
+
+Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords had
+burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord. In many
+cases boroughs of this "seignorial" type were created upon the royal
+estates. Out of the king's vill, as a rule the jurisdictional centre of
+a hundred, there was sometimes created a borough. The lines of division
+before Domesday Book are obscure, but it is probable that in some cases,
+by a royal grant of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal
+vill, where a hundred court for the district was already held, were
+authorized to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their
+disputes, distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs of
+this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the king's
+estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in 1086 they were
+probably already numerous. A borough was usually, though perhaps not
+invariably, the companion of a Norman castle. In some cases a French
+"bourg" was created by the side of an English borough, and the two
+remained for many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in
+other cases a French "bourg" was settled by the side of an English
+village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords had been
+almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country, and lost none of
+their burghal privileges by the migration. Every castle needed for its
+maintenance a group of skilled artisans, and the lords wished to draw to
+the castle gates all kinds of commodities for the castle's provision.
+The strength of the garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a
+place of danger to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to
+invite to its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar
+to those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed to those
+who would build on the plots which were offered to colonists. A low
+fixed rental, release from the renders required of villeins, release
+from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the creation of a separate
+borough jurisdiction, with or without the right to choose their own
+officers, rules fixing the maximum of fees and fines, or promising
+assessment of the fines by the burgesses themselves, the cancelling of
+all the castellan's rights, especially the right to take a forced levy
+of food for the castle from all within the area of his jurisdiction,
+freedom from arbitrary tallage, freedom of movement, the right to
+alienate property and devise land, these and many other privileges named
+in the early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman _liber
+burgus_ of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were enjoyed by
+all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial rights accompanied
+the lord's charter which created a borough and made burgesses out of
+villeins. However liberal the grant, the lord or his reeve still
+remained in close personal relation with the burgesses of such places,
+and this character, together with the uniformity of their tenure,
+continued to hold them apart from the boroughs of the old English type,
+where all varieties of personal relationship between the lords and their
+groups of tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right
+to retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into the old
+boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of the king took
+precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the king's consent was
+legal. By these means the lords' position was weakened, and other
+seignorial claims were later evaded or contested. The rights which the
+lords failed to keep were divided between the king and the municipality;
+in London, for instance, the king obtained all escheats, while the
+borough court secured the right of wardship of burgess orphans.
+
+From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs was as a rule
+included in the general "farm" rendered for the county by the sheriff;
+sometimes it was rendered by a royal farmer apart from the county-farm.
+The king generally accepted a composition for all the various items due
+from the borough. The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep
+that composition unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of the
+right amount at the right time for fear that it should be increased by
+way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent arrear, and the distraints
+for debt due, which were obtained through the borough court, were a
+matter of interest to the burgesses of the court, and first taught the
+burgesses co-operative action. Money was raised, possibly by order of
+the borough court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to
+choose officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not
+through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases also
+the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe the English
+boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous enough to make him an
+officer specially obnoxious to the boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave
+the London citizens the right to choose their own sheriffs and a
+justiciar answerable for keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the
+Lincoln citizens paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the
+end of the 12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves,
+and John's charters began to make rules as to the freedom of choice to
+be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and as to the royal
+power of dismissal. In Richard I.'s reign London imitated the French
+communes in styling the chief officer a mayor; in 1208 Winchester also
+had a mayor, and the title soon became no rarity. The chartered right to
+choose two or more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many
+boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position of the
+London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable
+modifications which Henry II.'s systematization of the criminal law had
+introduced. Burgesses who had gone for criminal and civil justice to
+their own court in disputes between themselves, or between themselves
+and strangers who were in their town, secured confirmation of this right
+by charter, not to exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt
+themselves from the necessity of pleading in a distant court. The
+burgess, whether plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and
+could claim in this respect a "benefit" somewhat similar to the benefit
+of clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own
+officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the farming
+of his rents and a large number of rights which would eventually prove
+to be sources of great profit.
+
+No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings at the time
+of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that the communities in
+the 12th century became alive to the possibilities of their new
+position, that trade received a new impulse, and the vague
+constitutional powers of the borough court acquired a new need for
+definition. At first the selection of officers who were to treat with
+the exchequer and to keep the royal pleas was almost certainly
+restricted to a few rich persons who could find the necessary
+securities. Nominated probably in one of the smaller judicial
+assemblies, the choice was announced at the great Michaelmas assembly of
+the whole community, and it is not till the next century that we hear of
+any attempt of the "vulgus" to make a different selection from that of
+the magnates. The "vulgus" were able to take effective action by means
+of the several craft organizations, and first found the necessity to do
+so when taxation was heavy or when questions of trade legislation were
+mooted (see GILDS). The taxation of the boroughs in the reign of Henry
+II. was assessed by the king's justices, who fixed the sums due _per
+capita_; but if the borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was
+made by the burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the
+magnates. In the levy _per communam_ the assessment was made through the
+wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer class. In Henry
+II.'s reign London was taxed by both methods, the _barones majores_ by
+head, the _barones minores_ through the wardmoot. The pressure of
+taxation led in the 13th century to a closer definition of the burghal
+constitutions; the commons sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in
+London) not only to hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end
+of the century London had definitely established two councils, that of
+the mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and a common
+council, representing the voice of the commonalty, as expressed through
+the city wards. The choice of councillors in the wards rested probably
+with the aldermen and the ward jury summoned by them to make the
+presentments. In some cases juries were summoned not to represent
+different areas but different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in
+1272 juries of the rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by
+authority from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the
+several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds all-powerful
+agencies for organizing joint action among classes of commons united by
+a trade interest, and the history of the towns becomes the history of
+the struggle between the gilds which captured control of the council
+and the gilds which were excluded therefrom. Many municipal revolutions
+took place, and a large number of constitutional experiments were tried
+all over the country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which
+directed a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose
+more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom, found
+much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like the London plan, of
+two companies, alderman and council, was widely favoured in the 14th
+century, perhaps in imitation of the Houses of Lords and Commons. The
+mayor was sometimes styled the "sovereign" and was given many
+prerogatives. Great respect was paid to the "ancients," those, namely,
+who had already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were
+orderly arrangements for counting "voices" arrived at in a few of the
+most highly developed towns, and these were used only in the small
+assemblies of the governing body, not in the large electoral assemblies
+of the people.
+
+In London in the 13th century there was a regular system for the
+admission of new members to the borough "franchise," which was at first
+regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage but as a means to secure
+a privileged position in the borough court and in the trade of the
+borough. Admission could be obtained by inheritance, by purchase or
+gift, in some places by marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by
+a municipal register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for
+his privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the
+burdens of taxation, control, &c., which fell upon burgesses. Personal
+service was not always necessary, and in some towns there were many
+non-resident burgesses. When in later times admission to this freedom
+came to be used as means to secure the parliamentary franchise, the
+freedom of the borough was freely sold and given. The elections in which
+the commons of the boroughs first took interest were those of the
+borough magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in asserting
+their right to take part in borough elections they were rarely able to
+keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their power was feared, but
+sometimes because of the riotous proceedings which ensued. These led to
+government interference, which no party in the borough desired. The
+possibility of a forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the
+burgesses on the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London
+repeatedly was "taken into the king's hand," subjected to heavy fines
+and put under the constable of the Tower. In the 15th century
+disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new constitutions, some
+of which were the outcome of royal charters, others the result of
+parliamentary legislation. The development of the law of corporations
+also at this time compelled the boroughs to seek new charters which
+should satisfy the now exacting demands of the law. The charters of
+incorporation were issued at a time when the state was looking more and
+more to the borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial
+staff, and thus the government was closely interested in the manner of
+their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way as to
+narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed under a council
+and in a number of cases popular control was excluded altogether, the
+whole system being made one of co-optation. The absence of popular
+protest may be ascribed in part to the fact that the old popular control
+had been more nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two
+councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy burden of
+taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences, paying _per capita_
+like the magnates of the 12th century, and for a time there is on the
+whole little evidence of friction between the governors and the
+governed. Throughout, popular opinion in the closest of corporations had
+a means of expression, though none of execution, in the presentments of
+the leet juries and sessions juries. By means of their "verdicts" they
+could use threats against the governing body, express their resentment
+against acts of the council which benefited the governing body rather
+than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize where the
+members of the governing body were suspected of fraud. Elizabeth
+repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations "because of the
+abuses committed by their head rulers," but in her reign they were
+fairly easily controlled by the privy council, which directed their
+choice of members of parliament and secured supporters of the government
+policy to fill vacancies on the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and
+Stuart charters of specifying by name the members of the governing body
+and holders of special offices opened the way to a "purging" of the
+hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were also rather
+vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal of officers for
+misconduct, though as a rule the appointments were for life. When under
+the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth political and religious feeling
+ran high in the boroughs, use was made of these clauses both by the
+majority on the council and by the central government to mould the
+character of the council by a drastic "purging." Another means of
+control first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various
+acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal office to
+the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there was no improvement in
+the methods used by the central government to control the boroughs. All
+opponents of the ruling policy were disfranchised and disqualified for
+office by act of parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were
+to be tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals
+gave them opportunity to control the borough policy. Few Commonwealth
+charters have been preserved, though several were issued in response to
+the requests of the corporations.
+
+In some cases the charters used words which appeared to point to an
+opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where a usage of election
+by the town council had been established. In 1598 the judges gave an
+opinion that the town councils could by by-law determine laws for the
+government of the town regardless of the terms of the charter. In the
+18th century the judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage
+of popular election was established, there were means of controlling the
+result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations, though their
+right to choose a member of parliament might be doubtful, had the sole
+right to admit new burgesses, and in order to determine parliamentary
+elections they enfranchised non-residents. Where conflicts arose over
+the choice of a member, and two selections were made, the matter came
+before the House of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in
+favour of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the
+town council, on the general principle that neither the royal charter
+nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise. But as each case
+was separately determined by a body swayed by the dominant political
+party, no one principle was steadily adhered to in the trial of election
+petitions. The royal right to create boroughs was freely used by
+Elizabeth and James I. as a means of securing a submissive parliament.
+The later Stuarts abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made
+by the Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the
+later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence, not
+to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration decided
+to exercise a strict control of the close corporations in order to
+secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a pliant executive
+among the borough justices, and pliant juries, which were impanelled at
+the selection of the borough officers. In 1660 it was made a rule that
+all future charters should reserve expressly to the crown the first
+nomination of the aldermen, recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso
+should be entered placing with the common council the return of the
+member of parliament. The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal
+commissioners to settle the composition of the town councils, and to
+remove all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or were
+suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take the
+necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive juries
+was again so great in 1682 that a general attack on the borough
+franchises was begun by the crown. A London jury having returned a
+verdict hostile to the crown, after various attempts to bend the city to
+his will, Charles II. issued a _quo warranto_ against the mayor and
+commonalty in order to charge the citizens with illegal encroachments
+upon their chartered rights. The want of a sound philosophical
+principle in the laws which were intended to regulate the actions of
+organized groups of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws
+in the legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it
+possible for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken
+against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a "body politic invisible";
+that the indictment lay only against every particular member of the
+governing body; and that the corporation as a corporation was incapable
+of suffering a forfeiture or of making a surrender. The judges gave a
+judgment for the king, the charters were forfeited and the government
+placed with a court of aldermen of the king's own choosing. Until James
+II. yielded, there was no common council in London. The novelty of the
+proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon of the
+_quo warranto_ systematically to ensure a general revocation of
+charters. The new charters which were then granted required the king's
+consent for the more important appointments, and gave him power to
+remove officers without reason given. Under James II. in 1687 six
+commissioners were appointed to "regulate" the corporations and remove
+from them all persons who were opposed to the abolition of the penal
+laws against Catholics. The new appointments were made under a writ
+which ran, "We will and require you to elect" (a named person). When
+James II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a
+proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their ancient
+charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many boroughs, though not
+in all, was the charter which had established a close corporation, and
+from this time on to 1835 the boroughs made no progress in
+constitutional growth. The tendency for the close corporation to treat
+the members of the governing body as the only corporators, and to
+repudiate the idea that the corporation was answerable to the
+inhabitants of the borough if the corporate property was squandered,
+became more and more manifest as the history of the past slipped into
+oblivion. The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a
+club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the same
+among themselves whensoever such a division should seem profitable. Even
+where the constitution of the corporation was not close by charter, the
+franchise tended to become restricted to an ever-dwindling electorate,
+as the old methods for the extension of the municipal franchise by other
+means than inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the "freemen"
+numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate was
+increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to the freedom of
+voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation at parliamentary
+elections. The growth of corruption in the boroughs continued unchecked
+until the era of the Reform Bill. Several boroughs had by that time
+become insolvent, and some had recourse to their member of parliament to
+eke out their revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town
+revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however, heavy charges
+fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era dissatisfaction with the
+corporations was mainly shown by the number of local acts of parliament
+which placed under the authority of special commissioners a variety of
+administrative details, which if the corporation had not been suspected
+would certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered
+another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some towns
+out of the trust was developed a system of municipal administration
+where there was no recognized corporation. Thus at Peterborough the
+feoffees who had succeeded to the control of certain ancient charities
+constituted a form of town council with very restricted powers. In the
+17th century Sheffield was brought under the act "to redress the
+misemployment of lands given to charitable uses," and the municipal
+administration of what had been a borough passed into the hands of the
+trustees of the Burgery or town trust.
+
+The many special authorities created under act of parliament led to much
+confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased the need for a
+general reform. The reform of the boroughs was treated as part of the
+question of parliamentary reform. In 1832 the exclusive privileges of
+the corporations in parliamentary elections having been abolished and
+male occupiers enfranchised, the question of the municipal franchise was
+next dealt with. In 1833 a commission inquired into the administration
+of the municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the
+Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal franchise to
+the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations dealt with by the act,
+the town council was to consist of a mayor, aldermen and councillors,
+and the councils were given like powers, being divided into those with
+and those without a commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open
+to the inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required.
+The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were
+restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The system of
+police, which in some places was still medieval in character, was placed
+under the control of the council. The various privileged areas within
+the bounds of a borough were with few exceptions made part of the
+borough. The powers of the council to alienate corporate property were
+closely restricted. The operations of the act were extended by later
+legislation, and the divers amendments and enactments which followed
+were consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882.     (M. Bat.)
+
+_Irish Boroughs._--In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life are
+connected with the maritime settlements on the southern and eastern
+coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these Ostman ports with
+Anglo-Norman communities, who brought with them, or afterwards obtained,
+municipal charters of a favourable kind. The English settlement
+obviously depended on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over
+the native population outside. Quite different from these were the new
+close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster James I. introduced
+from England. The conquest was by this time completed, and by a rigorous
+enforcement of the Supremacy and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties
+of the older boroughs were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules
+published (in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672
+resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither this
+regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth, marriage and
+apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free and vigorous
+municipalities. The corrupt admission of non-resident freemen, in order
+to outvote the ancient freeholders in parliamentary elections, and the
+systematic exclusion of Roman Catholics, soon divorced the "commonalty"
+from true local interests, and made the corporations, which elected
+themselves or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.
+
+_Scottish Boroughs._--In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided into
+royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony. The first were
+erected by royal charter, and every burgess held direct of the crown. It
+was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the burgh lands,--a distinction
+still traceable in modern conveyancing. Where perhaps no charter ever
+existed, the law on proof of immemorial possession of the privileges of
+a royal burgh has presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The
+charter gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long
+exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council to be
+chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates by both
+councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which was specially
+reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable jurisdictions, was
+originally cumulative with, and as large as, that of the sheriff. It is
+now confined to police offences, summary ejections, orders for _interim_
+aliment (for prisoners), payment of burgh dues and delivery of title
+deeds. Three head courts were held in the year, at which all burgesses
+were obliged to attend, and at which public business was done and
+private transactions were ratified. There were three classes of
+burgesses--burgesses _in sua arte_, members of one or other of the
+corporations; burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses.
+The Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable
+inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of admission was
+required, at which the applicant swore fealty and promised to watch and
+ward for the community, and to pay his "maill" to the king. These
+borough maills, or rents, and the great and small customs of burghs,
+formed a large part of the royal revenue, and, although frequently
+leased or feued out for a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I.
+annexed to the crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in
+the peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable; they
+are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the usual
+privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or tribute, and
+that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess's own debts. There
+was also the usual strife between the gildry and the craftsmen, who were
+generally prohibited from trading, and of whom dyers, fleshers and
+shoemakers were forbidden to enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and
+visitors were appointed by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed
+by the magistrates. The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated,
+not by royal charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh,
+by seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the free
+burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of importing and
+exporting merchandise was confined to freemen, burgesses and their
+factors. Ships were directed to trade to the king's free burghs, there
+to pay the customs, and to receive their _cocquets_ or custom-house
+seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling outside burghs were forbidden to
+"use any merchandise," or to sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633,
+erroneously called a _Ratification_ of the privileges of burghs,
+extended these privileges of buying and selling to retail as well as
+wholesale trade, but restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs.
+Accordingly, in 1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to
+the freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk,
+dyeing materials, &c., permitting generally to all persons the export of
+native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses of barony and
+regality to export their own manufactures, and such goods as they may
+buy in "markets," and to import against these consignments certain
+materials for tillage, building, or for use in their own manufactures,
+with a general permission to retail all commodities. This extraordinary
+system was again changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen
+of royal burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by
+sea or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything
+which was not native raw material, which might be freely exported by
+land. The gentry were always allowed to import for their personal
+consumption and to export an equal quantity of commodities. The act
+mentions that the royal burghs as an estate of the kingdom contributed
+one-sixth part of all public impositions, and were obliged to build and
+maintain prison-houses. Some of these trade privileges were not
+abolished till 1846.
+
+In the north of Scotland there was an association of free burghs called
+the Hanse or _Ansus_; and the lord chamberlain, by his _Iter_, or
+circuit of visitation, maintained a common standard of right and duties
+in all burghs, and examined the state of the "common good," the accounts
+of which in 1535 were appointed to be laid before the auditors in
+exchequer. The chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor
+Burgorum (Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made
+regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right (e.g.
+succession), according to the varying customs of burghs. This court
+frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed at Edinburgh. The
+more modern convention of royal burghs (which appeared as a judicial
+_persona_ in the Court of Session so late as 1839) probably dates from
+the act of James III. (1487, c. 111), which appointed the commissioners
+of burghs, both north and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing "to
+treat of the welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the
+common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the skaith and
+injuries sustained within the burghs." Among the more important
+functions of this body (on whose decrees at one time summary diligence
+proceeded) were the prohibition of undue exactions within burghs, the
+revisal of the "set" or mode of municipal election, and the _pro rata_
+division among the burghs of the parliamentary subsidy required from the
+third estate. The reform of the municipalities, and the complete
+representation of the mercantile interests in the united parliament,
+deprived this body of any importance.
+
+Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some great
+lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory or in
+practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction in civil and
+criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of the baron or the
+lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the right of nominating
+magistrates. Powers to hold markets and to levy customs were likewise
+given to these burghs.
+
+The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance. In 1295
+the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement for the marriage of
+Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized as a third estate,
+granting a tenth penny on all rents for the king's life, if he should
+apply it for the public good. The commissioners of burghs received from
+the exchequer their costages or expenses of attending parliament. The
+burghs were represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee
+on articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the
+Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown, and
+the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion of general
+taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly preserved by
+act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners, of course, fluctuated
+from time to time. Cromwell assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs
+in the second parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice
+until 1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two
+members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention of burghs)
+certain groups of burghs returned one member, Edinburgh returning two.
+Under art. 22 of the treaty of Union the number of members for royal
+burghs was fixed at fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the
+magistrates and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates
+chosen ad hoc.     (W. C. S.)
+
+  See C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal History_ (1897),
+  which contains all needful references up to that date; F.W. Maitland,
+  _Township and Borough_ (1898); A. Ballard, _Domesday Boroughs_ (1904);
+  M. Bateson, _Borough Customs_ (1904-1906); S. and B. Webb, _English
+  Local Government_ (3 vols., 1906-1908). For the character of the
+  modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson, _Local Government in
+  Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1904), where other works are mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGHBRIDGE, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W. of York on a branch of the
+North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 830. It lies in the central plain of
+Yorkshire, on the river Ure near its confluence with the Swale. It is in
+the parish of Aldborough, the village of that name (q.v.), celebrated
+for its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east.
+
+  About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three upright
+  stones called the Devil's Arrows, which are of uncertain origin but
+  probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge, then called
+  Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and passed to William the
+  Conqueror, but suffered so much from the ravages of his soldiers that
+  by 1086 it had decreased in value from £10 to 55 s. When the site of
+  the Great North Road was altered, towards the end of the 11th century,
+  a bridge was built across the Ure, about half a mile above the Roman
+  bridge at Aldborough, and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This
+  caused a village to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as
+  to become a market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor
+  of Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited a few
+  years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham. It then
+  remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several citizens
+  of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands to the present
+  owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the early 14th century
+  centres round the war with Scotland, and culminates with the battle
+  fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the Scots invaded England, they
+  penetrated as far south as Boroughbridge and burnt the town.
+  Boroughbridge was evidently a borough by prescription, and as such was
+  called upon to return two members to parliament in 1299. It was not
+  represented again until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town
+  was finally disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants
+  of Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in
+  1670 created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the
+  5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis
+  Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH ENGLISH, a custom prevailing in certain ancient English
+boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where the lands are held in
+socage), and also in certain copyhold manors (chiefly in Surrey,
+Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in general lands descend to the
+youngest son, to the exclusion of all the other children, of the person
+dying seised and intestate. Descent to the youngest brother to the
+exclusion of all other collaterals, where there is no issue, is
+sometimes included in the general definition, but this is really a
+special custom to be proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from
+local reputation--a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest
+sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart from
+specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not including
+collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the distinct custom
+that the widow shall take as dower the whole and not merely one-third of
+her husband's lands.
+
+The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much disputed.
+Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin, there is no direct
+evidence of such being the case. The first mention of the custom in
+England occurs in Glanvil, without, however, any explanation as to its
+origin. Littleton's explanation, which is the more usually accepted, is
+that custom casts the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the
+death of his parents he is least able to support himself, and more
+likely to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived
+Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons
+migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household. C.I.
+Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It was referred to
+by the Normans as "the custom of the English towns." In the Yearbook of
+22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described as the custom of Nottingham,
+which is made clear by the report of a trial in the first year of Edward
+III. where it was found that in Nottingham there were two districts, the
+one the _Burgh-Fraunçoyes_, the other the _Burgh-Engloyes_, where
+descent was to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has
+derived its name. On the European continent the custom of junior-rights
+is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and it has by some been
+ascribed to the _jus primae noctis_ (q.v.). It is also said to exist
+amongst the Mongols.
+
+  See also GAVELKIND; INHERITANCE; PRIMOGENITURE; TENURE; Blackstone's
+  _Commentaries_; Coke's _Institutes_; Comyn's _Digest of the Law_;
+  Elton's _Origin of English History_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of
+  English Law_.
+
+
+
+
+BORROMEAN ISLANDS, a group of four islands on the W. side of Lago
+Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost, the Isola Bella, is
+famous for its château and terraced gardens, constructed by Count
+Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690). To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori,
+containing a fishing village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre,
+the largest of the group, with a château and garden; and to the N.
+again, off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.
+
+
+
+
+BORROMEO, CARLO (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic
+Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of Arona, and Margarita de'
+Medici, was born at the castle of Arona on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of
+October 1538. When he was about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo
+resigned to him an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in
+charity to the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In
+1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother, Count
+Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the management of their
+domestic affairs. After a time, however, he resumed his studies, and in
+1559 he took his doctor's degree. In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de'
+Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made
+prothonotary, entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the
+ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration of
+Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the Franciscans,
+the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was thus at the age of
+twenty-two practically the leading statesman of the papal court. Soon
+after he was raised to the archbishopric of Milan. In compliance with
+the pope's desire, he lived in great splendour; yet his own temperance
+and humility were never brought into question. He established an academy
+of learned persons, and published their memoirs as the _Noctes
+Vaticanae_. About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at
+Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On the death of
+his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit the church and
+marry, that his family might not become extinct. He declined the
+proposal, however, and became henceforward still more fervent in
+exercises of piety, and more zealous for the welfare of the church.
+Owing to his influence over Pius IV., he was able to facilitate the
+final deliberations of the council of Trent, and he took a large share
+in the drawing up of the Tridentine catechism (_Catechismus Romanus_).
+
+On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of Borromeo
+contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of the conclave.
+Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his
+diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory condition owing to
+the prolonged absences of its previous archbishops. He made a series of
+pastoral visits, and restored decency and dignity to divine service. In
+conformity with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the
+cathedral of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing
+not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the nave of the
+church into two compartments for the separation of the sexes. He
+extended his reforms to the collegiate churches (even to the
+fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St John the Baptist),
+and to the monasteries. The great abuses which had overrun the church at
+this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo,
+therefore, established seminaries, colleges and communities for the
+education of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,
+of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society whose
+members were pledged to give aid to the church when and where it might
+be required. He further paved the way for the "Golden" or "Borromean"
+league formed in 1586 by the Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland to
+expel heretics if necessary by armed force.
+
+In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about giving
+directions for accommodating the sick and burying the dead, avoiding no
+danger and sparing no expense. He visited all the neighbouring parishes
+where the contagion raged, distributing money, providing accommodation
+for the sick, and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were
+remiss in discharging their duties. He met with much opposition to his
+reforms. The governor of the province, and many of the senators,
+apprehensive that the cardinal's ordinances and proceedings would
+encroach upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and
+complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had more
+formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition
+of several religious orders, particularly that of the Humiliati
+(Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society formed a conspiracy
+against his life, and a shot was fired at him in the archiepiscopal
+chapel under circumstances which led to the belief that his escape was
+miraculous. The number of his enemies was increased by his successful
+attack on his Jesuit confessor Ribera, who with other members of the
+college of Milan was found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His
+manifold labours and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He
+was seized with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of
+November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is celebrated on
+the 4th of November.
+
+Besides the _Nodes Vaticanae_, to which he appears to have contributed,
+the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous reformer are some
+homilies, discourses and sermons, with a collection of letters. His
+sermons, which have little literary merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5
+vols., Milan, 1747-1748), and have been translated into many languages.
+The record of his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the
+_Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis_ (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last
+wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well as a
+statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers who regarded
+him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.
+
+His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop of Milan from
+1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library in that city.
+
+  See G.P. Giussano, _Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo_ (1610, Eng. ed. by H.E.
+  Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, _Documenti circa la vita e la gesta
+  di Borromeo_ (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain, _Histoire
+  de St Charles Borromée_ (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono, _Un grande
+  riformatore del secolo XVI_ (Florence, 1904); article "Borromäus" in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (Leipzig, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BORROMINI, FRANCESCO (1599-1667), Italian architect, was born at Bissone
+in 1599. He was the chief representative of the style known in
+architecture as "baroque," which marked a fearless and often reckless
+departure from the traditional laws of the Renaissance, and often
+obtained originality only at the cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the
+main opponents of this style was Barocchio (q.v.). Borromini was much
+employed in the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works
+are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La Sapienza
+in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the church of the
+Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of San Giovanni in Laterano.
+He died by his own hand at Rome in 1667. Engravings of his chief
+compositions are to be found in the posthumous work, _Francisci
+Borromini opus Architectonicum_ (1727).
+
+
+
+
+BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (1803-1881), English traveller, linguist and
+author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 5th of July 1803, of a
+middle-class Cornish family. His father was a recruiting officer, and
+his mother a Norfolk lady of French extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow
+attended, with no very great profit, the grammar school at Norwich.
+After leaving school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors,
+where he neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention
+to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William Taylor, the
+friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in 1824 he went to London
+to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer. In 1826 he published a
+volume of _Romantic Ballads_ translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir
+Richard Phillips, the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages,
+his experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last
+became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton's doom, he must leave
+London and either return to Norwich and share his mother's narrow
+income, or turn to account in some way the magnificent physical strength
+with which nature had endowed him. Determining on the latter of these
+courses, he left London on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6
+ft. in height, was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of
+extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty--Greek in type
+with a dash of the Hebrew--we may assume that there had never before
+appeared on the English high-roads so majestic-looking a tramp as he
+who, on an afternoon in May, left his squalid lodging with bundle and
+stick to begin life on the roads. Shaping his course to the south-west,
+he soon found himself on Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary
+adventures began. After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and
+it was while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance of
+the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse, whom he has
+immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners. He was now brought much
+into contact with the gipsies, and this fact gave him the most important
+subject-matter for his writings. For picturesque as is Borrow's style,
+it is this subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain,
+which--if his pictures of that world are true--will keep his writings
+alive. Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to
+America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow's pictures of them
+are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate that no one
+who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers with whom he
+associated, and whom he depicted, has ever written about him and them.
+Full of "documents" as is Dr Knapp's painstaking biography, it cannot be
+said to give a vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this
+most interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of
+gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was brought into
+contact, and he can only refer, in justification of Borrow's
+descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own, where the
+whole question is discussed at length, and where he has set out to prove
+that Borrow's pictures of the section of the English gipsies he knew are
+not idealized. But there is one great blemish in _all_ Borrow's dramatic
+scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever they may be laid. This was pointed
+out by the gentleman who "read" _Zincali_ for Mr Murray, the
+publisher:--
+
+  "The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in several
+  of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who are in
+  humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of
+  character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be very
+  advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference to this
+  point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and introducing a
+  few contractions--_don'ts, can'ts_, &c. This would improve them
+  greatly."
+
+It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The reader has
+only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given in that photographic
+study of Romany life, _In Gipsy Tents_, by F.H. Groome, with the
+dialogues in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_, to see how the illusion in
+Borrow's narrative is disturbed by the uncolloquial locutions of the
+speakers. It is true, no doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps
+the English and Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding
+words, and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the
+Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language to the
+archduke Joseph, often called the "Gipsy Archduke." But after all
+allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow's presentation of
+it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs Petulengro, Ursula, and
+the rest, to find them using complex sentences and bookish words which,
+even among English people, are rarely heard in conversation. As to the
+deep impression that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly
+explained by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of
+all countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The
+silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained to the
+last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of his hairless
+face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange look "not a bit
+like a Gorgio's," to use the words of one of his gipsy friends.
+Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which Borrow assumed in the
+company of his social equals left him entirely when he was with the
+gipsies. The result of this was that these wanderers knew him better
+than did his own countrymen.
+
+Seven years after the events recorded in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_
+Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible Society, in which
+capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835) (where he published
+_Targum_, a collection of translations), and Spain, Portugal and Morocco
+(1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he acted as correspondent to the _Morning
+Herald_. The result of these travels and adventures was the publication,
+in 1841, of _Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain_, the original MS. of
+which, in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was
+Borrow's method of work. In 1843 appeared _The Bible in Spain_, when
+suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book glows with
+freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840 he married Mary Clarke,
+the widow of a naval officer, and permanently settled at Oulton Broad,
+near Lowestoft, with her and her daughter. Here he began to write again.
+Very likely Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond
+life in England as a hedge-smith had not _The Bible in Spain_ made him
+famous as a wanderer. _Lavengro_ appeared in 1851 with a success which,
+compared with that of _The Bible in Spain_, was only partial. He was
+much chagrined at this, and although _Lavengro_ broke off in the midst
+of a scene in the Dingle, and only broke off there because the three
+volumes would hold no more, it was not until 1857 that he published the
+sequel, _The Romany Rye_. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe,
+and in 1854 he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he
+described in _Wild Wales_, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought out a
+volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue, _Romano
+Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language_, a book which has been
+exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John Sampson. In the summer
+of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to Mr Murray and a few friends, and
+returned to Oulton. On the 26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his
+house at Oulton, in his seventy-ninth year.
+
+Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though he was not
+a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his attainments is shown
+by his translation of the Church of England _Homilies_ into Manchu, of
+the Gospel of St Luke into the Git dialect of the Gitanos, of _The
+Sleeping Bard_ from the Cambrian-British, and of _Bluebeard_ into
+Turkish. But it is not Borrow's linguistic accomplishments that have
+kept his name fresh, and will continue to keep it fresh for many a
+generation to come. It is his character, his unique character as
+expressed, or partially expressed, in his books. Among all the
+"remarkable individuals" (to use his favourite expression) who during
+the middle of the 19th century figured in the world of letters, Borrow
+was surely the most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the
+most extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled any
+other writer of his time. With regard to _Lavengro_ and _The Romany
+Rye_, there has been very much discussion as to how much _Dichtung_ is
+mingled with the _Wahrheit_ in those fascinating books. Had it not been
+for the amazingly clumsy pieces of fiction which he threw into the
+narrative, few readers would have doubted the autobiographical nature of
+the two books. Such incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of
+unreality over the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never
+created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the times and
+Borrow's writings the originals are easily recognizable. This is true,
+no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at Norwich, and indeed
+generally as regards those he knew before the period of his gipsy
+wanderings. It must not be supposed, however, that such a character as
+the man who "touched" to avert the evil chance is in any sense a
+portrait of an individual with whom he had been brought into contact.
+The character has so many of Borrow's own eccentricities that it might
+rather be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow
+strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which he seems
+to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects along his path in
+order to save himself from the evil chance. He never conquered the
+superstition. In walking through Richmond Park with the present writer
+he would step out of his way constantly to touch a tree, and he was
+offended if the friend he was with seemed to observe it. Many of the
+peculiarities of the man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract
+his mind from painful thoughts were also Borrow's own. (T. W.-D.)
+
+
+
+
+BORSIPPA (_Barsip_ in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions; _Borsif_
+in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the Greek name of an ancient
+city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and 10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr
+Hindieh, or Hindieh canal, formerly known as "the Euphrates of
+Borsippa," and even during the Arabic period called "the river of Birs."
+Borsippa was the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the
+inscriptions Babylon II., also the "city without equal." Its patron god
+was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in the oldest
+inscriptions, but comes into importance first after Khammurabi had made
+Babylon the capital of the whole land, somewhere before 2000 B.C. He
+built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida at this place, dedicating it,
+however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach). But although Khammurabi himself does
+not seem to have honoured Nebo (q.v.), subsequent kings recognized him
+as the deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (q.v.). Each new
+year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who in his
+turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second in wealth and
+importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk in Babylon. As with
+Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of Nebuchadrezzar was the period of
+its greatest prosperity. In general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon,
+falling into decay after the time of Alexander, and finally in the
+middle ages into ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by
+two large ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the
+two, but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil, from
+a _ziara_, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which stands on its
+highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on Jewish legends, at
+this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham into a fiery furnace, from
+which he was saved by the grace of God. Excavations were first conducted
+here by the French Expédition Scientifique en Mésopotamie in 1852, with
+small result. In 1879 and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive,
+although unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a
+considerable quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the
+British Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains
+unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is probably the
+most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On the top of a hill
+over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified brick split down the
+centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge masses of vitrified
+brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and also single enamelled
+bricks, generally bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, twisted,
+curled and broken, apparently by great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition
+makes this the Tower of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed
+by lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1854
+showed it to be the stage tower or _ziggurat_, called the "house of the
+seven divisions of heaven and earth," of E-Zida, the temple of Nebo. On
+a large platform rose seven solid terraces, each smaller than the one
+below it, the lowest being 272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these
+terraces was faced with bricks of a different colour. The approach to
+this _ziggurat_ was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the
+principal rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms
+were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its final form
+this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar, but from the clay
+cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in two of the corners of the
+tower it appears that he restored an incomplete _ziggurat_ of a former
+king, "which was long since fallen into decay." Some of the best
+authorities believe that it was this ambitious but incomplete and
+ruinous _ziggurat_, existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which
+gave occasion to or afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of
+the Tower of Babel.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H.C. Rawlinson, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_
+  (1860); J. Oppert, _Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie_ (Paris,
+  1863); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (Leipzig, 1881); J.P.
+  Peters, _Nippur_ (New York and London, 1896); H. Rassam, _Asshur and
+  the Land of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897); M. Jastrow, _Religion
+  of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898); see also BABYLON, BABEL.
+       (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+BORT, or BOART, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for cutting but
+useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort occurs in small spherical
+masses, of greyish colour, rough or drusy on the surface, and showing on
+fracture a radiate crystalline structure. These masses, known in Brazil
+as bolas, are often called "shot bort" or "round bort." Much of the bort
+consists of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the
+term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and crystalline
+fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A large proportion of the
+output of some of the South African mines consists of such material.
+This bort is crushed in steel mortars to form diamond powder, which is
+largely used in lapidaries' work.
+
+
+
+
+BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE (1780-1846), French
+naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780. He was sent as naturalist with
+Captain Nicholas Baudin's expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the
+vessel at Mauritius, and spent two years in exploring Réunion and other
+islands. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles
+of Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal Soult. His
+attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike to the Bourbons were
+shown in various ways during 1815, and his name was consequently placed
+on the list of the proscribed; but after wandering in disguise from
+place to place he was allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In
+1829 he was placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea,
+and in 1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on the
+23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the _Dictionnaire classique
+d'histoire naturelle_, and among his separate productions were:--_Essais
+sur les Îles Fortunées_ (1802); _Voyage dans les Îles d'Afrique_ (1803);
+_Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau de Saint-Pierre de
+Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes_ (1821); _L'Homme, essai zoologique
+sur le genre humain_ (1827); _Résumé de la géographie de la Péninsule_
+(1838).
+
+
+
+
+BORZHOM, a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of
+Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800.
+It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft. in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow
+rift in the Little Caucasus mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm
+climate, its two hot springs (71½°-82° Fahr.) and its beautiful parks
+make it a favourite summer resort, and give it its popular name of "the
+pearl of Caucasus." The bottled mineral waters are very extensively
+exported.
+
+
+
+
+BOS, LAMBERT (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Workum
+in Friesland, where his father was headmaster of the school. He went to
+the university of Franeker (suppressed by Napoleon in 1811), and was
+appointed professor of Greek there in 1704; after an uneventful life he
+died at Franeker in 1717. His most famous work, _Ellipses Graecae_
+(1702), was translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his
+_Antiquitates Graecae_ (1714) passed through several editions. He also
+published _Vetus Testamentum_, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709);
+notes on Thomas Magister (1698); _Exercitationes Philologicae_ (1700);
+_Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos_ (1715); and two small
+treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.
+
+
+
+
+BOSA, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia, in the
+province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 6846. The
+height above the town is crowned by a castle of the Malaspina family.
+The cathedral, founded in the 12th century, restored in the 15th, and
+rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There are some tanneries, and the fishing
+industry is important, but the coral production of Sicily has entirely
+destroyed that of Bosa since 1887. The district produces oil and wine.
+The present town of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1½ m.
+from the site of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a
+well-preserved church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but
+is only mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the
+coast-road in the Itineraries (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ x. 7939 seq.). One of
+the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records the erection of
+four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife Faustina and their two
+sons.
+
+
+
+
+BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA (1812-1886), Dutch novelist,
+was born at Alkmaar in north Holland on the 16th of September 1812. Her
+father, named Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a
+fair education, and at an early period of her career she developed a
+taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced indoor
+life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the Dutch painter,
+Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter was known as Mrs
+Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance, _Almagro_, appeared in 1837,
+followed by the _Graaf van Devonshire_ (_The Earl of Devonshire_) in
+1838; the _Engelschen te Rome_ (_The English at Rome_) in 1840, and _Het
+Huis Lauernesse (The House of Lauernesse_) in 1841, an episode of the
+Reformation, translated into many European languages. These stories,
+mainly founded upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch
+history, betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined
+with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her style is
+sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten years (1840-1850) were
+mainly devoted to further studies, the result of which was revealed in
+1851-1854, when her _Leycester in Nederland_ (3 vols.), _Vrouwen van het
+Leycestersche Tydperk (Women of Leicester's Epoch_, 3 vols.), and
+_Gideon Florensz_ (3 vols.) appeared, a series dealing with Robert
+Dudley's adventures in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs
+Bosboom-Toussaint abandoned historical romance for the modern society
+novel, but her _Delftsche Wonderdokter (The Necromancer of Delft_, 1871,
+3 vols.) and _Majoor Frans_ (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the success
+of her earlier works. _Major Frank_ has been translated into English
+(1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of April 1886. Her novels have
+been published there in a collected edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME (1759-1828), French naturalist, was born
+at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He was educated at the college of
+Dijon, where he showed a taste for botany, and he followed up his
+studies in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes, where he made the
+acquaintance of Mme M.J.P. Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a
+government appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in
+the postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792 he also
+held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent outbreaks of
+1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to take refuge in flight.
+For some months he lay concealed at Sainte-Radégonde, in the forest of
+Montmorency, barely subsisting on roots and vegetables. He was enabled
+to return to Paris on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title
+_Appel à l'impartiale postérité par la citoyenne Roland_ published a
+manuscript Mme Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon
+afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the natural
+riches of that country. The immense materials he gathered were never
+published in a complete form, but much went to enrich the works of
+B.G.E. de Lacépède, P.A. Latreille and others. After his return, on the
+establishment of the Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of
+this he was again deprived by the _coup d'état_ of 1799, and for a time
+he was in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to
+scientific literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the
+foundations of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new
+_Dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle_, and on the _Encyclopédie
+méthodique_, he edited the _Dictionnaire raisonné et universel
+d'agriculture_, and was one of the editors of the _Annales de
+l'agriculture française_. He was made inspector of the gardens at
+Versailles, and of the public nurseries belonging to the ministry of the
+interior. The last years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work
+on the vine, for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials,
+but his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its
+completion.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN (1490?-1542), Spanish poet, was born about the
+close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan of patrician birth, and,
+after some years of military service, became tutor to the duke of Alva.
+His poems were published in 1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are
+divided into sections which mark the stages of Boscán's poetical
+evolution. The first book contains poems in the old Castilian metres,
+written in his youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted
+with the Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt
+Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscán's activity.
+The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the Italian manner,
+the longest of these being _Hero y Leander_, a poem in blank verse,
+based on Musaeus. Boscán's best effort, the _Octava Rima_, is a skilful
+imitation of Petrarch and Bembo. Boscán also published in 1534 an
+admirable translation of Castiglione's _Il Cortegiano_. Italian measures
+had been introduced into Spanish literature by Santillana and
+Villalpando; it is Boscán's distinction to have naturalized these forms
+definitively, and to have founded a poetic school.
+
+  The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by W.J.
+  Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco Flamini,
+  _Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera_ (Livorno, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+BOSCASTLE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston
+parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N. of Camelford
+station on the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (civil parish of
+Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises steeply above a very narrow cove
+on the north coast, sheltered, but difficult of access, vessels having
+to be warped into it by means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the
+harbour marks the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St
+Symphorian, Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from
+Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition that a
+ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the harbour, and
+that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath the waves, has
+been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish poet Robert Stephen Hawker,
+vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast scenery near Boscastle is severely
+beautiful, with abrupt cliffs fully exposed to the sea, and broken only
+by a few picturesque inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove.
+Inland are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCAWEN, EDWARD (1711-1761), British admiral, was born on the 19th of
+August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh, 1st Viscount Falmouth. He
+early entered the navy, and in 1739 distinguished himself at the taking
+of Porto Bello. At the siege of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of
+a party of seamen, he took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while
+exposed to the fire of another fort. On his return to England in the
+following year he married, and entered parliament as member for Truro.
+In 1744 he captured the French frigate "Médée," commanded by M. de
+Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he signalized
+himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the
+shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart again became his prisoner, and the
+French ships, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made
+rear-admiral and commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East
+Indies. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David's, and
+soon after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and
+the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege. Soon
+afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to
+him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in England, and was the next
+year made one of the lords of the Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother
+of the Trinity House. In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral,
+and in April he intercepted the French squadron bound to North America,
+and took the "Alcide" and "Lys" of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart became
+his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen returned to Spithead with
+his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For this exploit, he received the thanks
+of parliament. In 1758 he was appointed admiral of the blue and
+commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in
+conjunction with General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and
+the island of Cape Breton--services for which he again received the
+thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in
+the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet, commanded by M. de la
+Clue, and after a sharp engagement in Lagos Bay took three large ships
+and burnt two, returning to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners.
+The victory defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in
+Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he was appointed
+general of the marines, with a salary of £3000 per annum, and was also
+sworn a member of the privy council. He died at his seat near Guildford
+on the 10th of January 1761.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCH (or Bos), JEROM (c. 1460-1518), the name generally given, from his
+birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van Aeken, the Dutch painter. He
+was probably a pupil of Albert Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel
+of the 15th century, for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre
+types, _diableries_, and scenes of the kind generally associated with
+Breughel, whose art is to a great extent based on Bosch's. He was a
+satirist much in advance of his time, and one of the most original and
+ingenious artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on
+Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works were much
+admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose court Bosch painted
+for some time. One of his chief works is the "Last Judgment" at the
+Berlin gallery, which also owns a little "St Jerome in the Desert." "The
+Fall of the Rebellious Angels" and the "St Anthony" triptych are in the
+Brussels museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.
+The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important "Adoration of
+the Magi," the Antwerp museum a "Passion," and a practically unknown
+painting from his brush is at the Naples museum.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician and natural
+philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign _savants_ to adopt Newton's
+gravitation theory, was born at Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May
+1711, according to the usual account, but ten years earlier according to
+Lalande (_Éloge_, 1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through
+the usual elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On
+completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied
+mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so brilliant was
+his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was appointed professor
+of mathematics in the college. For this post he was especially fitted by
+his acquaintance with recent advances in science, and by his skill in a
+classical severity of demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the
+works of the Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment
+he had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem to find
+the sun's equator and determine the period of its rotation by
+observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the arduous
+duties of his professorship he found time for investigation in all the
+fields of physical science; and he published a very large number of
+dissertations, some of them of considerable length, on a wide variety of
+subjects. Among these subjects were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora
+Borealis, the figure of the earth, the observation of the fixed stars,
+the inequalities in terrestrial gravitation, the application of
+mathematics to the theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in
+astronomical observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the
+cycloid, the logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of
+continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of
+spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with other men of
+science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the best means of securing
+the stability of the dome of St Peter's, Rome, in which a crack had been
+discovered. His suggestion was adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take
+part in the Portuguese expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the
+measurement of a degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent
+request of the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a
+similar task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,
+an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between Rome and
+Rimini. The operations were begun towards the close of 1750, and were
+completed in about two years. An account of them was published in 1755,
+entitled _De Litteraria expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad
+dimetiendos duos meridiani gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich_. The value
+of this work was increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of
+the Church. A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having
+arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of Lucca with
+respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent, in 1757, as agent
+of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing about a satisfactory
+arrangement of the matter. In the following year he published at Vienna
+his famous work, _Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem
+virium in natura existentium_, containing his atomic theory (see
+MOLECULE). Another occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic ability
+soon after presented itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of
+the British government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port
+of Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of Ragusa
+had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to undertake an embassy
+to London (1760), to vindicate the character of his native place and
+satisfy the government. This mission he discharged successfully, with
+credit to himself and satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in
+England he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid
+this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem, entitled
+_De Solis et Lunae Defectibus_ (London, 1764). This prolix composition,
+one of a class which at that time was much in vogue--metrical epitomes
+of the facts of science--contains in about five thousand lines,
+illustrated by voluminous notes, a compendium of astronomy. It was for
+the most part written on horseback, during the author's rides in the
+country while engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is
+characterized by G.B.J. Delambre as "uninstructive to an astronomer and
+unintelligible to any one else."
+
+On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but ill-health
+compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was called to the
+chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia, and this post he held,
+together with the directorship of the observatory of Brera, for six
+years. He was invited by the Royal Society of London to undertake an
+expedition to California to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but
+this was prevented by the recent decree of the Spanish government for
+the expulsion of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and
+petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many enemies, so
+that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent change of residence.
+About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he continued to teach and to hold
+the directorship of the observatory of Brera; but being deprived of his
+post by the intrigues of his associates he was about to retire to his
+native place, when the news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his
+order in Italy. Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an
+invitation from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized
+and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office
+instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained there ten
+years, but his position became irksome, and at length intolerable. He
+continued, however, to devote himself diligently to the pursuits of
+science, and published many remarkable memoirs. Among them were an
+elegant solution of the problem to determine the orbit of a comet from
+three observations, and memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic
+telescopes. In 1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at
+Bassano, where he occupied himself with the publication of his _Opera
+pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &c._, which appeared in 1785 in
+five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to the convent of
+Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his literary labours. But his
+health was failing, his reputation was on the wane, his works did not
+sell, and he gradually sank a prey to illness and disappointment. He
+fell into melancholy, imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid
+intervals, and died at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In
+addition to the works already mentioned Boscovich published _Elementa
+universae matheseos_ (1754), the substance of the course of study
+prepared for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled
+_Giornale di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia_, of which several
+editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour was the
+editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay on the philosophy
+of Descartes, with scientific annotations and supplements.
+     (W. L. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, two provinces formerly
+included in European Turkey, which now, together with Dalmatia, form the
+southernmost territories of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name
+_Herzegovina_ is also written _Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina_ or, in
+Croatian, _Hercegovina_. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral
+triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an area of
+19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. They are
+bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by Dalmatia; S.E.
+by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; and N.E. by Servia. Opposite
+to the promontory of Sabbioncello, and at the entrance to the Bocche di
+Cattaro, the frontier of Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but
+these two strips of coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend
+only for a total distance of 14½ m. Bosnia is altogether an inland
+territory.
+
+1. _Physical Features._--Along the Dalmatian border, and through the
+centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric Alps, which attain
+their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near Travnik, Serajevo and
+Mostar. There are numerous high valleys shut in among the mountains of
+this range; the most noteworthy being the plain of Livno, which lies
+parallel to the Dalmatian border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea.
+The zone of highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean
+altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur
+frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of
+mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins, which
+finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vale of the Save,
+forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian Alföld. Bosnia belongs
+wholly to the watershed of the Save, and its rivers to the Danubian
+system, no large stream finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows
+eastward along the northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four
+main tributaries, the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed
+on the Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and Piva;
+curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for 102 m. with
+Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, after a total
+course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many springs near Serajevo, and
+winds for 107 m. northward, through a succession of fertile glens,
+reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a
+channel through the Dinaric Alps, and, after passing Jajce and
+Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m. from its own headwaters. The Una rises
+on the Croatian border, and, after skirting the Pljesevica Planina, in
+Croatia, turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream
+for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is 98 m. At
+Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.
+
+Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram defined by
+Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an irregular line drawn from
+a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar to the bend of the river
+Narenta, differs in many respects from the larger territory. Its
+mountains, which belong to the Adriatic watershed, and form a
+continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, are less rounded and more
+dolomitic in character. They descend in parallel ridges of grey Karst
+limestone, south-westwards to the sea; their last summits reappear in
+the multitude of rocky islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the
+peaks of Orjen, Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often
+exceeds 6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered
+with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they
+present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their monotony
+is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and _poljes_, or upland
+hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are grouped; the districts
+or cantons thus formed are walled round by a natural rampart of
+limestone. These _poljes_ may be described as oases in what is otherwise
+a desert expanse of mountains. The surface of some, as notably the
+_Mostarsko Blato_, lying west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms
+a lake; others are watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes
+of the rock, and make their way by underground channels either to the
+sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these is the
+Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in Popovopolye, and
+after making its way by a subterranean passage through a range of
+mountains, wells up in the mighty source of Ombla near Ragusa, and
+hurries in undiminished volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva,
+is the one large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground
+throughout its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the
+Lebrsnik mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric
+Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, and falls
+into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m. North of
+Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated Narenta defile, a
+narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by mountains which rise on either
+side and culminate in Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica
+(7205 ft.) on the west.
+
+2. _Geology and Minerals._--Geologically, the highlands of Bosnia and
+Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their orographic and tectonic
+character, as a continuation of the South Alpine calcareous belt. Along
+the west frontier there appear broad and strongly marked zones of
+Cretaceous limestone, alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by
+a strip of Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of
+Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly direction, are
+the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up the greatest part of the
+north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of flysch intermingled with several
+strips of eruptive rock. In the south-east of Bosnia the predominant
+formations are Triassic and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and
+quartzite. Along the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the
+fluvial and Karst valleys (_poljes_), are found diluvial and alluvial
+formations, interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer.
+Bosnia is rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome,
+manganese, cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent
+building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were worked by the
+Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining
+Company of Bosnia began to develop the coal and iron fields; and from
+1886 its operations were continued by the government. Valuable salt is
+obtained from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of
+Herzegovina yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound, and
+those of Ilidze, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the days of
+the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at the beginning of
+the 20th century.
+
+3. _Climate._--In climate Bosnia differs considerably from Herzegovina.
+In both alike the _scirocco_, bringing rain from the south-west, is a
+prevalent wind, as well as the _bora_, the fearful north-north-easter of
+Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral valleys of the Dinaric Alps,
+overwhelms everything in its path. The snow-fall is slight, and, except
+on a few of the loftier peaks, the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the
+weather resembles that of the south Austrian highlands, generally mild,
+though apt to be bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual
+temperature is 50° Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the Dalmatian
+mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often rises
+beyond 110° Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region show that it
+belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.
+
+4. _Fauna._--In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_) were
+taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, a discovery
+without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. Of existing species the bear,
+wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and chamois may occasionally be seen in the
+remotest wilds of mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last
+red-deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.
+Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks of the
+Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and wild-goose are
+fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (_Gypaëtus barbatus_) had almost
+become extinct in 1900; but several varieties of eagle and falcon are
+left. Falconry was long a pastime of the Moslem landlords. The
+destruction of game, recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is
+prevented by the laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close
+time, and rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles
+includes the venomous _Vipera ammodytes_ and _Pelias berus_, while
+scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In the
+museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, including
+the remarkable _Pogonus anophthalmus_, from the underground Karst caves.
+The caves are rich in curious kinds of fish, _Paraphoxinus Gethaldii_,
+which is unknown elsewhere, _Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus
+alepidatus_ and others, which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In
+Herzegovina, although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,
+the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value.
+Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of
+both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon, sturgeon
+and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.
+
+
+  Forests.
+
+5. _Flora._--Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian flora,
+representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare _Veronica crinita,
+Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica_ and _Daphne Blagayana_. About 50% of
+the occupied territory is clothed with forest. "Bosnia begins with the
+forest," says a native proverb, "Herzegovina with the rock"; and this
+account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst is as
+bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, where only the
+hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes a belt of large timber,
+including many giant trees, 200 ft. high, and 20 ft. in girth at the
+level of a man's shoulder. Dense brushwood prevails on the foothills.
+There are three main zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges
+of northern Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the
+shadier by beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely
+mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm, ash,
+fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized by the
+predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other conifers. In
+all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow (especially _Salix
+laurea_), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and yew; while the mountain
+ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and other wild fruit trees are found at
+rarer intervals. Until 1878 the forests were almost neglected;
+afterwards, the government was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats,
+owing to the damage they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the
+popular rights of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These
+measures were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves
+was discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.
+
+6. _Agriculture._--In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, the
+surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:--
+
+                         Acres.
+  Plough-land.         2,355,499
+  Garden-ground.         103,040
+  Meadow.                739,200
+  Vineyards.              12,598
+  Pasture.             1,875,840
+  Forest.              5,670,619
+  Unproductive.          210,998
+
+Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted for
+the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,
+mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice and
+tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered portions of
+Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state sugar-refinery, for
+which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. _Pyrethrum
+cinerariaefolium_ is exported for the manufacture of insect-powder, and
+sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained in their seeds. The
+plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish prunes and a spirit called
+_slivovica, shlivovitsa_ or _sliwowitz_. This district is the
+headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs. Poultry, bees and silkworms
+are commonly kept. On the whole agriculture is backward, despite the
+richness of the soil; for the cultivators are a very conservative race,
+and prefer the methods and implements of their ancestors. Many
+improvements were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after
+1878. Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were
+made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Gacko, on the
+Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; a model
+poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; a school of
+agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidze; and another school at Modric,
+near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain number of village
+schoolmasters are annually trained, for six weeks, in practical
+husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural machinery lent, by the
+government. To better the breeds of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened
+near Serajevo, and foreign horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are
+imported.
+
+7. _Land Tenure._--The _zadruga_, or household community, more common in
+Servia (q.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia and Herzegovina;
+but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles the system called
+_métayage_. At the time of the Austrian occupation (1878) it was
+regulated by a Turkish enactment[1] of the 12th of September 1859. Apart
+from gardens and house-property, all land was, according to this
+enactment, owned by the state; in practice, it was held by the Moslem
+_begs_ or _beys_ (nobles) and _agas_ (landlords), who let it to the
+peasantry. The landlord received from his tenant (_kmet_) a fixed
+percentage, usually one third (_tretina_), of the annual produce; and,
+of the remaining two thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth
+(_desetina_) went to the state. The amount of the _desetina_ was always
+fixed first, and served as a basis for the assessment of the _tretina_,
+which, however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could
+relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing to pay
+his _tretina_, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage done to it.
+The landlord was bound to keep his tenants' dwellings and outhouses in
+repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the right of pre-emption
+belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to the neighbours. Thus foreign
+speculators in land were excluded, while a class of peasant proprietors
+was created; its numbers being increased by the custom that, if any man
+reclaimed a piece of waste land, it became his own property after ten
+years. The Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire
+period of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,
+satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants farming
+their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One conspicuous feature of
+the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem _Vakuf_, or ecclesiastical
+property, consisting of estates dedicated to such charitable purposes as
+poor-relief, and the endowment of mosques, schools, hospitals,
+cemeteries and baths. It is administered by a central board of Moslem
+officials, who meet in Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income
+rose to £25,000 in 1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The
+_Vakuf_ tenants were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent
+had been fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year's
+harvest, and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their
+holdings.
+
+8. _Industries and Commerce._--Beside agriculture, which employed over
+88% of the whole population in 1895, the other industries are
+insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and leather and metal work,
+carried on by the workmen in their own houses. There are also government
+workshops, opened with a view to a higher technical and artistic
+development of the house industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid
+metallic wares, _bez_ (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive
+government support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there
+were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an
+annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several
+blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the larger
+private establishments there existed in the same year seven breweries,
+one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle factories, two
+building and furniture works, a factory for spinning thread, one iron
+and steel works, one paper and one ammonia and soda factory, and one
+mineral-oil refinery.
+
+In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 included
+in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary, to the
+extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 special statistics
+have been drawn up respecting their trade also with Austria and Hungary.
+According to these statistics the most important articles of export are
+coal and turf, fruit, minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other
+articles of export are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco,
+sugar-beet and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food
+stuffs, building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats,
+clothes, wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.
+
+There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a hypothecary
+credit business and manages the wholesale trade of the tobacco
+factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, Bjelina and Brcka.
+
+9. _Communications._--The construction of carriage-roads, wholly
+neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale by the
+Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion with the Hungarian
+state system. One crosses the Una at Kostajnica, and, after skirting the
+right bank of that river as far as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka.
+The other, a narrow-gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and
+follows the Bosna to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond
+Dolnja Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces through
+the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the Narenta valley, and
+runs almost parallel with the coast to Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche
+di Cattaro. Up to this point the railways of the occupied territory were
+complete in 1901. A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of
+Servia and Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of
+railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and Una, but
+the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like the Vrbas, too
+full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta only begins to be
+navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the railway lines, like the
+postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, are state property. In many
+of the principal towns there are also government hotels.
+
+Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of the
+combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar (17,010), the
+capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja Tuzla (11,034),
+Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Foca (4217), Jajce (3929)
+and Trebinje (2966). All these are described in separate articles.
+
+10. _Population and National Characteristics._--In 1895 the population,
+which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance of males over
+females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element is small, consisting
+chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies, Italians and Jews. Spanish is a
+comomon language of the Jews, whose ancestors fled hither, during the
+16th century, to escape the Inquisition. The natives are officially
+described as Bosniaks, but classify themselves according to religion.
+Thus the Roman Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins;
+the Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong to the
+Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all speak a language
+almost identical with Servian, though written by the Roman Catholics in
+Latin instead of Cyrillic letters. A full account of this language, and
+its literature, is given under SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid
+offending either "Serbs" or "Croats," it is officially designated
+"Bosnisch." In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical
+type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The Bosnians or
+Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both appearance and
+character. They have the same love for poetry, music and romance; the
+same intense pride in their race and history; many of the same
+superstitions and customs. The Christians retain the Servian costume,
+modified in detail, as by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The
+"Turkish" women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in others
+they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy is almost
+unknown, possibly because many of the "Turks" are descended from the
+austere Bogomils, who were, in most cases, converted to Islam, but more
+probably because the "Turks" are as a rule too poor to provide for more
+than one wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the
+people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting
+chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their houses
+are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the Karst
+region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family ties are strong,
+and the women are not ill-treated, although they share in all kinds of
+manual labour.
+
+11. _Government._--At the time of the Austrian annexation in 1908, the
+only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that the foreign consuls
+received their _exequatur_ from Turkey, instead of Austria; otherwise
+the government of the country was conducted in the name of the Austrian
+emperor, through the imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who
+controlled the civil service for the occupied territory. Its central
+bureau, with departments of the interior, religion and education,
+finance and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were
+largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better able than
+the Germans to comprehend the local customs and language. A consultative
+assembly, composed of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, together
+with 12 popular representatives, also met at Serajevo. For
+administrative purposes the country was divided into 6 districts or
+prefectures (_kreise_), which were subdivided into 49 subprefectures
+(_bezirke_).
+
+Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed by the
+government, and a town council, of whom one third are similarly
+appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a proportionate number of
+councillors representing each religious community. To ensure economy,
+the decisions of this body are supervised by a government commissioner.
+The commune is preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with
+modified powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are
+tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from the
+leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges, and three
+votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants and witnesses are
+German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. An appeal, on points of law
+alone, may be carried to the supreme court in Serajevo, and there tried
+by five judges without assessors. In cases not involving a sum greater
+than 300 florins (£25), no appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins
+(£4:3:4) are in question, the case is summarily decided at the
+_Bagatelle Gericht_, or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers
+admitted to practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the
+Turkish law was retained during the period of occupation; all cases
+between Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,
+against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided by
+assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their 21st
+year, for 3 years' service with the colours, and 9 years in the reserve.
+The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, and there are 7100
+native troops. The principal military stations are Bjelina, Zvornik,
+Visegrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek, Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern
+frontier; Mostar and Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac
+in the north.
+
+12. _Religion._--In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox Christians,
+35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The patriarch of Constantinople is
+the nominal head of the Orthodox priesthood; but by an arrangement
+concluded in 1879, his authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor,
+in exchange for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the
+clergy of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate of
+Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and Mostar
+require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the communes chose their
+own parish priests, but this right is now vested in the government. The
+Roman Catholics have an archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and
+an apostolic administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of
+the Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or
+_reis-el-ulema_, who with his council is nominated and paid by the
+government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends from the
+_Vakuf_. Considerable bitterness prevails between the rival confessions,
+each aiming at political ascendancy, but the government favours none. In
+order to conciliate even the Moslems, who include the bulk of the great
+landholders and of the urban population, its representatives visit the
+mosques in state on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage;
+and even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the state.
+
+13. _Education._--Education for boys and girls between the ages of seven
+and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The state supports primary
+schools (352 in 1905), where reading, writing, arithmetic and history
+are taught; and separate instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman
+Catholic, Jewish and Moslem clergy. There are also various private
+schools, belonging to the different religious communities. These receive
+a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages all parents
+to send their children to its own schools. One of the earliest and
+best-known private schools is the orphanage at Serajevo, founded in 1869
+by two English ladies, Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem
+schools, which, in 1905, comprised 855 _mektebs_ or primary schools, and
+41 _madrasas_ or high schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish
+or Arabic; while in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic
+characters.
+
+For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school at
+Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers' training-college at
+Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem law-students,
+called _scheriatschule_ from the _sheri_ or Turkish code; and various
+theological, commercial and art institutes. Promising pupils are
+frequently sent to Vienna University, with scholarships, which may be
+forfeited if the holders engage in political agitation.
+
+14. _Antiquities._--Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man had been
+discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many later prehistoric remains
+are preserved in Serajevo museum. The neolithic station of Butmir, near
+Ilidze, was probably a lake-dwellers' colony, and has yielded numerous
+stone and horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off,
+similar relics were found at Sobunar, Zlatiste and Debelobrdo; iron and
+bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate design, occur
+in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the cemetery of Jezerine,
+where they are associated with objects in silver, tin, amber, glass, &c.
+Among the numerous finds made in other districts may be mentioned the
+discovery, at Vrankamer, near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of
+which dates from 300 B.C. Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as
+roads, mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such
+remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and Serajevo;
+and especially near the sources of the Drina. The period between the
+downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th century, and the growth of a
+Bosnian state, in the 11th, is poorer in antiquities. The later middle
+ages are represented by several monasteries, and many castles, such as
+those of Dervent, Doboj, Maglaj, Zepce and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihac,
+on the Una; Prijedor and Kljuc, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,
+Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the Narenta, at
+Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A group of signs carved
+on some rocks near Visegrad have been regarded as cuneiform writing, but
+are probably medieval masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the
+Begova Dzamia at Serajevo, the Foca mosques and the Mostar bridge, the
+buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit. More
+remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. in length, 3 in
+height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed to mark the graves of
+the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite unadorned, a few only being
+decorated with rude has-reliefs of animals, plants, weapons, the
+crescent and star, or, very rarely, the cross.
+
+
+  Formation of the Banate.
+
+15. _History._--Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate name or history,
+and until the great Slavonic immigration of 636 it remained an
+undifferentiated part of Illyria (q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of
+authoritative documents, it is impossible to describe in detail the
+events of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia became the
+generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna (ancient
+_Basanius_); and subsequently for several outlying and tributary
+principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla; Usora, along
+the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, the later Krajina,
+Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; and Rama, the modern
+district of Livno. The old Illyrian population was rapidly absorbed or
+expelled, its Latin institutions being replaced by the autonomous tribal
+divisions, or _Zupanates_, of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and
+Byzantium gradually welded these isolated social units into a single
+nation, whose ruler was known as the Ban (q.v.). But the central power
+remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural frontiers. It
+seems probable that the bans were originally viceroys of the Croatian
+kings, who resumed their sovereignty over Bosnia from 958 to 1010.
+Thenceforward, until 1180, the bans continued subject to the Eastern
+empire or Hungary, with brief intervals of independence. The territory
+now called Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It
+comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its capital
+at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this region as it was in
+the 10th century.[2]
+
+
+  Religious controversies.
+
+The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left Bosnia divided
+between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early in the 12th century a new
+religion, that of the Bogomils (q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as
+heretical. Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian nobles
+and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign was long proverbial for its
+prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture,
+and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans. An
+unusually able ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian
+dynasty of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,[3] Kulin
+perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects and
+Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong pressure from Pope
+Innocent III. and Béla III. of Hungary; but, despite all efforts,
+Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. In 1232 Stephen, the successor of
+Kulin, was dethroned by the native magnates, who chose instead Matthew
+Ninoslav, a Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant
+characteristics of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the
+corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by the lack of
+any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme influence of religion.
+Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a crusade, Ninoslav was baptized,
+only to abjure Christianity in 1233. For six years he withstood the
+Hungarian crusaders, led by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar
+invasion of Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was
+concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal of the
+crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. entered into
+friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country was for the moment an
+independent and formidable state. The importance attached to its
+conversion is well attested by the correspondence of Pope Gregory IX.
+with Ninoslav and various Bosnian ecclesiastics.[4]
+
+
+  Period of Hungarian supremacy.
+
+On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made to
+exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Béla IV., who appeared
+as the champion of Roman Catholicism, secured the election of his
+nominee Prijesda to the banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until
+1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their former power. From 1299
+to 1322 the country was ruled by the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen
+Subic, who, though vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper
+and Lower Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the
+growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native magnates in
+1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, Stephen Kotromanic, last
+and greatest of the Bosnian bans.
+
+
+  Stephen Kotromanic.
+
+At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith; Hungary,
+governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of Anjou, was striving to
+crush the insurgent magnates of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial
+interests were imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the
+balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic to aid Hungary. In
+an unsuccessful war against the Croats (1322-26), from which Venice
+derived the sole advantage, the ban appears to have learned the value of
+sea-power; immediately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum
+and the Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta. Ragusa
+furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for a guarantee of
+protection; commercial treaties with Venice further strengthened his
+position; and the Vatican, which had instigated the Croats to invade the
+dominions of their heretical neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his
+conversion to Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,
+and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I. of
+Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344. Four years later
+his influence brought about a truce between Hungary and the Venetians,
+who had agreed with Bosnia for mutual support against the Croats; and in
+1353, the year of his death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King
+Louis.
+
+
+  Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.
+
+Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanic, was a minor, and
+for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent. Confronted by
+civil war, and deprived of Hlum by the Hungarians, she was compelled to
+acknowledge the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards of Louis.
+But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition at home, and forthwith
+embarked on a career of conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of
+Dalmatia. The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire
+defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies; and to win
+help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to Tvrtko a large tract of
+territory, including the principality of Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was
+crowned as "Stephen I., king of Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,"
+although Lazar retained his own title and a diminished authority. The
+death of Louis in 1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh
+outbreak in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor's designs
+by establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested from
+Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and Cattaro, except
+the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his kingdom at the moment when
+Servia was lost through the Ottoman victory of Kossovo (1389). At his
+coronation he had proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian
+empire; in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;
+and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which should
+extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster of Kossovo,
+though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately react on Bosnia
+itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his kingdom was still at the
+summit of its prosperity.
+
+
+  Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.
+
+Kotromanic and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate their
+turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under Dabisa (Stephen
+II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko. Sigismond of Hungary profited by
+the disorder that ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 the
+Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,[5] overran Bosnia. Ostoja (Stephen III.,
+1398-1418), an illegitimate son of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands
+of Hrvoje Vukcic, duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranic,[6] and other leaders
+of the aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the
+Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant to the
+throne in Tvrtkovic, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all took sides in
+the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman Catholics. During the
+reigns of Ostojic (Stephen IV., 1418-1421) and Tvrtkovic (Stephen V.,
+1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a
+yearly tribute, after again ravaging the country, and carrying off many
+thousands of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.
+
+
+  Turkish conquest.
+
+The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi János, and the attempt to
+organize a defensive league among the neighbouring Christian lands,
+temporarily averted the ruin of Bosnia under Thomas Ostojic (Stephen
+VI., 1444-1461). Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican, Ostojic
+renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former co-religionists, until
+the menace of an insurrection forced him to grant an amnesty. His
+position was endangered by the growing power of his father-in-law,
+Stephen Vukcic, an ardent Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into
+a single principality. Vukcic--or _Cosaccia_, as he is frequently called
+by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac--was the
+first and last holder of the title "Duke of St Sava," conferred on him
+by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and from this title is derived
+the name _Herzegovina_, or "the Duchy." Hardly had the king become
+reconciled with this formidable antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of
+Hunyadi, and the fall of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against
+the Turks. In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were
+unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while the Croats
+proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and his successor
+Tomasevic (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered to the Turks and was
+beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vukcic offered a desperate resistance, held
+out until 1483; but apart from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts
+of the Bosnians were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining
+the enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted to the
+Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were occupied by
+Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate "banate" or "kingdom of
+Bosnia," until 1526, when the Hungarian power was broken at Mohács. In
+1528 Jajce surrendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish
+armies for 65 years.
+
+The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest. It was
+followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. Many of
+the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia and south Hungary,
+where they ultimately fell again under Ottoman dominion. Others found
+shelter in Rome or Venice, and a large number settled in Ragusa, where
+they doubtless contributed to the remarkable literary development of the
+16th and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was a
+characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged war on
+their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards from Zengg in
+maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious pirate community of
+the Uskoks (q.v.). There was less inducement for the Orthodox
+inhabitants to emigrate, because almost all the neighbouring lands were
+governed by Moslems or Roman Catholics; and at home the peasants were
+permitted to retain their creed and communal organization. Judged by its
+influence on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively
+unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent growth is
+perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek Church, as the
+representative of Christianity in Turkey. The Christian aristocracy lost
+its privileges, but its ancient titles of duke (_vojvod_) and count
+(_knez_) did not disappear. The first was retained by the leaders who
+still carried on the struggle for liberty in Montenegro; the second was
+transferred to the headmen of the communes. Many of the Franciscans
+refused to abandon their work, and in 1463 they received a charter from
+the sultan Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of
+Fojnica, near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it
+did not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic
+of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of Trappist monks
+was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.
+
+
+  Bosnia under Turkish rule.
+
+The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, who
+thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the destinies of their
+country for more than three centuries. Bosnia was regarded by successive
+sultans as the gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians and their
+religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. Thus the desire for
+vengeance and the prospect of a brilliant military career impelled the
+Bogomil magnates to adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity,
+presented some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal
+governor of the country was the Turkish _vali_, who resided at Banjaluka
+or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if the taxes were
+duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted Moslem aristocracy, who
+adopted the dress, titles and etiquette of the Turkish court, without
+relinquishing their language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in
+fortified towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on
+sufferance for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate
+military caste, headed by 48 _kapetans_--landholders exercising
+unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs, but
+bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops for the service
+of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were fighting, either
+against a common enemy or among themselves, hunting, hawking and
+listening to the minstrels who celebrated their exploits. Their yearly
+visits to Serajevo assumed in time the character of an informal
+parliament, for the discussion of national questions; and their rights
+tended always to increase, and to become hereditary, in fact, though not
+in law. In every important campaign of the Turkish armies, these
+descendants of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable
+wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high military and
+administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha, a native of
+Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was succeeded by the
+distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian.
+Below the feudal nobility and their Moslem soldiers came the Christian
+serfs, tillers of the soil and taxpayers, whose lives and property were
+at the mercy of their lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all,
+the system by which the strongest of their sons were carried off as
+recruits for the corps of janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to
+brigandage, and occasionally to open revolt.
+
+
+  External history 1528-1821.
+
+These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile the
+country was involved in the series of wars waged by the Turks against
+Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the Krajina and all along the
+Montenegrin frontier, Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless
+feud, irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; while the
+Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant occupation for the nobles
+during a large part of the 16th and 17th centuries. But after the
+Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of
+extending the foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard
+pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the
+Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was still
+officially styled the "vali of Hungary," removed his headquarters from
+Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and therefore a safer capital.
+Two years later, the imperial troops reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired
+with 3000 Roman Catholic emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by
+Eugene of Savoy, who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties
+of Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of all the
+Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow enclaves of Klek
+and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan dominions from those of
+Venice. At the same time a strip of territory in northern Bosnia was
+ceded to Austria, which was thus able to control both banks of the Save.
+This territory was restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of
+Belgrade;[7] but in 1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally,
+in 1791, the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una
+as the Bosnian frontier.
+
+
+  Moslem rebellions.
+
+The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the sultan Mahmud
+II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia, where Turkish prestige
+had already been weakened by the establishment of Servian autonomy under
+Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married and settled on the land,
+forming a strongly conservative and fanatical caste, friendly to the
+Moslem nobles, who now dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges.
+Their opportunity came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress
+the insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian
+revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the massacre of
+the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed in 1827. After the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further attempt at reform was initiated
+by the sultan and his grand vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a
+most formidable outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam,
+and the Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march on
+Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the true faith. A
+holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein Aga Berberli, a brilliant
+soldier and orator, who called himself _Zmaj Bosanski_, the "Dragon of
+Bosnia," and was regarded by his followers as a saint. The Moslems of
+Herzegovina, under Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte,
+but in Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo he
+was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha Pasha; and
+within a few weeks the united armies occupied the whole of Bulgaria, and
+a large part of Macedonia. Their career was checked by Reshid Pasha, who
+persuaded the two victorious commanders to intrigue against one another,
+secured the division of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn.
+The rout of the Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at
+Scutari were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate
+defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his appeal for
+pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished for life to Tribizond.
+The power of the Bosnian nobles, though shaken by their defeat, remained
+unbroken; and they resisted vigorously when their kapetanates were
+abolished in 1837; and again when a measure of equality before the law
+was conceded to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha
+Rizvanbegovic reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to
+tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. In 1840
+he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac to wage war upon the
+vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and simultaneously to suppress a
+Christian rising. Peace was arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was
+rumoured that Ali had concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro,
+hoping to shake off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an
+entirely independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge,
+but during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate
+policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons at
+Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the Christians, who
+had again revolted; and he supported the Bosnian nobles against reforms
+imposed by the vali. At last, in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to
+restore quiet. Ali Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but
+secretly sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved
+everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their commander Omer
+or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was shortly afterwards
+assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish officials should
+restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his captor (March 1851).
+
+
+  Condition of the serfs.
+
+The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important
+administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the commercial
+centre of the country, and the jealously guarded stronghold of the
+nobles, superseded Travnik as the official capital, and the residence of
+the vali. A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization of
+Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who governed the
+country until 1860. But as the administration grew stronger, the
+position of the peasantry became worse. They had now to satisfy the
+imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, as well as their feudal lords. The
+begs and agas continued to exact their forced labour and one-third of
+their produce; the central government imposed a tithe which had become
+an eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption from
+military service, levied on every newborn male, forced labour on the
+roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on grapes and tobacco, and
+a variety of lesser taxes combined to burden the Christian serfs; but
+even more galling than the amount was the manner in which these dues
+were exacted--the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen,
+the brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant
+villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian
+independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public
+bankruptcy of Turkey.
+
+
+  Christian rising of 1875.
+
+Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the Bosnian
+Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers of Nevesinje,
+which gives its name to a mountain range east of Mostar, rose against
+the Turks. Within a few weeks the whole country was involved. The
+Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovic, Socica, Ljubibratic,
+and others, held out for a year against all the forces that Turkey could
+despatch against them.[8] In July 1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the
+struggle, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.
+
+
+  Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.
+
+The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of July 1878 by
+the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not easily effected; and,
+owing to the difficulty of military operations among the mountains, it
+was necessary to employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the native
+leader, was supported by a body of Albanians and mutinous Turkish
+troops, while the whole Moslem population bitterly resented the proposed
+change. The losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those who
+fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under martial law.
+But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, the Austrian
+general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on the 19th of August, and ended
+the campaign on the 20th of September, by the capture of Bihac in the
+north-west, and of Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country
+was then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the
+bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von Hoffmann and
+Joseph de Szlávy, resulted only in the insurrection of 1881-82. Order
+was restored in June 1882, when the administration was entrusted to
+Benjamin von Kállay (q.v.), as imperial minister of finance. Kállay
+retained this position until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he
+was succeeded by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life
+and property were rendered secure, and great progress was achieved, on
+the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient civil service,
+harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, promoting commerce, carrying
+out important public works, and reorganizing the fiscal and educational
+systems. All classes and creeds were treated impartially; and, although
+the administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and
+undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics have also
+urged that Kállay fostered the desire for material welfare at the cost
+of every other national ideal; that, despite his own popularity, he
+never secured the goodwill of the people for Austria-Hungary; that he
+left the agrarian difficulty unsolved, and the hostile religious
+factions unreconciled. These charges are not wholly unfounded; but the
+chief social and political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced
+to historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian
+occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival
+churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kállay, it is only
+necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 and Bosnia in
+1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin entailed by four centuries of
+misrule were transformed into a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in
+south-eastern Europe.
+
+
+  Austrian annexation.
+
+It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish to end the
+anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, by incorporating
+Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy. The treaty had
+contemplated the evacuation of the occupied provinces after the
+restoration of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly
+stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
+plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition of Turkish assent to the
+provisions of the treaty. But the Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed
+to promise a revival of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled
+the Turks to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the
+ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms in Turkey
+certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants of the occupied
+territory to petition the emperor for the grant of a constitution
+similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria proper. But the
+Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by the weakness of Russia after
+the war with Japan, and aware that the proclamation of Bulgarian
+independence was imminent, had already decided to annex Bosnia and
+Herzegovina, in spite of the pledges given at Berlin, and although the
+proposal was unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being
+communicated to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of
+Berlin, in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis
+Joseph, was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial rescript
+published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and Moslem delegates, who
+had started on the same day for Budapest, to present their petition to
+the emperor, learned from the rescript that the government intended to
+concede to their compatriots "a share in the legislation and
+administration of provincial affairs, and equal protection for all
+religious beliefs, languages and racial distinctions." The separate
+administration was, however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not
+promise that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative
+assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Capus, _A travers la Bosnie et l'Herzégovine_
+  (Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the
+  combined provinces, their resources and population. J. Asbóth, _An
+  Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina_ (London, 1890) is
+  valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: A.
+  Bordeaux, _La Bosnie populaire_ (Paris, 1904) for social life and
+  mining. Much information is also contained in the works by Lamouche,
+  Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and Laveleye, cited
+  under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, _Bosnien
+  und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der österreich-ungarischen
+  Monarchie_ (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, _Auf dem Rade durch
+  Kroatien und Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1903). The best map is that of the
+  Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic,
+  _Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1900); F.
+  Katzer, _Geologischer Führer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Serajevo,
+  1903); P. Ballif, _Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna,
+  1896). Sport: "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ (London, 1897).
+  Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, and the
+  official _Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen_ (1879 and 1895), and
+  _Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (1899). The chief official
+  publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, _Through
+  Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1900); A.J. Evans,
+  _Illyrian Letters_ (London, 1878); W. Radimsky, _Die neolithische
+  Station von Butmir_ (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, _Römische Strassen
+  in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history
+  of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief
+  materials for such a work are contained in the following books:--A.
+  Theiner, _Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_
+  (Rome, 1860) and _Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium_ (1. Rome,
+  1863; 2. Agram, 1875),--these are collections of Latin documents from
+  the Vatican library; V. Makushev, _Monumenta historica Slavorum
+  Meridionalium_ (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti
+  spectantia ad historiam Serborum_, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862); F.
+  Miklosich, _Monumenta Serbica_ (Vienna, 1858). Other important
+  authorities are G. Lucio, _De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_ (Amsterdam,
+  1666); M. Orbini, _Regno degli Slavi_ (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and
+  others, _Illyricum Sacrum_ (Venice, 1751-1819); C. du Fresne du Cange,
+  _Illyricum vetus et novum_ (1746); M. Simek, _Politische Geschichte
+  des Königreiches Bosnien und Rama_ (Vienna, 1787). The best modern
+  history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P.
+  Coquelle, _Histoire du Monténégro et de la Bosnie_ (Paris, 1895). See
+  also V. Klaic, _Geschichte Bosniens_ (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaïkovitch
+  (Spalajkovic), in _La Bosnie et l'Herzégovine_ (Paris, 1897), give a
+  critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration.
+       (K. G. J.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance,
+    were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years
+    allowed by Turkish law.
+
+  [2] _De Administrando Imperio_, 33 and 34. The names of _Chulmia_ and
+    _Chelmo_, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian
+    chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.
+
+  [3] For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia,
+    see L. Villari, _The Republic of Ragusa_ (London, 1904).
+
+  [4] Given by Theiner, _Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia_,
+    173-185.
+
+  [5] This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The
+    Slavs were probably Bogomils.
+
+  [6] These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of
+    south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the
+    Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti_, &c.
+
+  [7] For details of these events see Umar Effendi, _History of the War
+    in Bosnia_ (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).
+
+  [8] For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans,
+    _Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot_ (London, 1876); and W.J.
+    Stillman, _Herzegovina and the Late Uprising_ (London, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. [Greek: Bosporos] = ox-ford, traditionally
+connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer,
+crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings). By the ancients this
+name, signifying a strait, was especially applied to the _Bosporus
+Cimmerius_ (see below), and the _Bosporus Thracius_; but when used
+without any adjective it now denotes the latter, which unites the Black
+Sea with the Sea of Marmora and forms part of the boundary between
+Europe and Asia. The channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at
+the northern entrance of 2¾ m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds., and
+a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In the centre there
+is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmora, but a
+counter-current sets in the opposite direction below the surface and
+along the shores. The surface current varies in speed, but averages
+nearly 3 m. an hour; though at narrow places it may run at double this
+pace. The strait is very rarely frozen over, though history records a
+few instances; and the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which
+Constantinople lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in
+modern times. The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern
+portion of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and
+trachyte; but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing
+formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls, quartzose
+conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various kinds. The scenery on
+both sides is of the most varied and beautiful description, many
+villages lining each well-wooded shore, while on the European side are
+numerous fine residences of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The
+Bosporus is under Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by
+the treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other
+than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the Dardanelles)
+without the countenance of the Porte. (See also CONSTANTINOPLE.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits of Kerch or
+Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; the Cimmerii
+(q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The straits are about 25 m. long
+and 2½ m. broad at the narrowest, and are formed by an eastern extension
+of the Crimea and the peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the
+Caucasus. This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands
+intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various sounds now
+silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek cities; on the west
+side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of all, often itself called
+Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on the east Phanagoria (Sênnája),
+Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus, Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly
+settled by Milesians, Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th
+century B.C., but Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a colony of Teos, and
+Nymphaeum had some connexion with Athens--at least it appears to have
+been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left hardly any
+architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous barrows in their
+neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful objects now mostly preserved
+in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. They comprise especially gold work,
+vases exported from Athens, textiles and specimens of carpentry and
+marquetry. The numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.
+
+According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was governed from
+480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family, who
+gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431 B.C.), apparently a Thracian.
+He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 B.C. The
+Spartocids have left many inscriptions which tell us that the earlier
+members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of
+various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and
+other branches of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the
+inscriptions and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a
+complete list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus,
+established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his
+dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial
+rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct proximity to the
+cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon
+(387-347) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons
+conjointly, Spartocus II. and Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his
+brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war in which
+Eumelus (310-303) was successful. His successor was Spartocus III.
+(303-283) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the
+family names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know only
+that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway against the
+power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, general of
+Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to hand over his
+kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian Saumacus who led a
+rebellion against him. The house of Spartocus was well known as a line
+of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny
+that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as
+dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best
+customers for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the
+staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special
+privileges. We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In
+return the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up decrees
+in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great entrusted the
+Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, however, deserted to the
+Romans. But even when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey,
+Mithradates was strong enough to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and
+Machares slew himself. Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt
+under Pharnaces, another of the old king's sons. After the death of
+Mithradates (B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to
+Pompey, but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was
+defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain by a
+pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of
+Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, until 16 B.C. After
+his death Dynamis was compelled to marry an adventurer Scribonius, but
+the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon (14-8) in his place.
+To him succeeded Aspurgus (8 B.C.-A.D. 38?), son of Asander, who founded
+a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341.
+These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, Rhescuporis,
+Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, claimed descent from
+Mithradates the Great, and used the Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.)
+introduced by him, regularly placing dates upon their coins and
+inscriptions. Hence we know their names and dates fairly well, though
+scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered
+the eastern half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended
+along the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the
+Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on a
+perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by
+their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrison and
+fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose and probably
+produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (A.D. 255) the
+Goths and Borani were enabled to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the
+shores of Asia Minor. With the last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D.
+341, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to
+an end. The kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the
+neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have been revived
+under Byzantine protection, and from time to time Byzantine officers
+built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which was
+constituted an archbishopric. They also held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic
+side of the strait, a town which in the 10th and 11th centuries became
+the seat of the Russian principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn
+gave place to Tatar domination.
+
+The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic state, the
+first, that is to say, in which a mixed population adopted the Greek
+language and civilization. It depended for its prosperity upon the
+export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this commerce supported a class
+whose wealth and vulgarity are exemplified by the contents of the
+numerous tombs to which reference has been made. In later times a Jewish
+element was added to the population, and under its influence were
+developed in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies
+of "worshippers of the highest God," apparently professing a monotheism
+which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian was purer than any
+found among the inhabitants of the Empire.
+
+We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other cities from
+the 5th century B.C. The gold _staters_ of Panticapaeum bearing Pan's
+head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their weight and fine
+workmanship. We have also coins with the names of the later Spartocids
+and a singularly complete series of dated _solidi_ issued by the later
+or Achaemenian dynasty; in them may be noticed the swift degeneration of
+the gold _solidus_ through silver and potin to bronze (see also
+NUMISMATICS).
+
+  See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, _Inscrr. orae
+  Septent. Ponti Euxini_, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art.
+  "Bosporus" (2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._ vol.
+  iii. 757 (Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_
+  (Cambridge, 1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv.
+  (St Petersburg, 1901). Coins: B. Koehne, _Musée Kotschoubey_ (St
+  Petersburg, 1855). Religious Societies: E. Schürer in _Sitzber. d. k.
+  pr. Akad. d. Wissenschaft zu Berlin_ (1897), i. pp. 200-227.
+  Excavations: _Antiquités du Bosphore cimmérien_ (St Petersburg, 1854,
+  repr. Paris, 1892) and _Compte rendu_ and _Bulletin de la Commission
+  Imp. Archéologique de St. Pétersbourg_.     (E. H. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1810-1861), French marshal, entered the
+artillery in 1833, and a year later went to Algeria. Here he soon did
+good service, and made himself remarkable not only for technical skill
+but the moral qualities indispensable for high command. Becoming captain
+in 1839, he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar
+and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command of a battalion
+of native _tirailleurs_, and in 1843 was thanked in general orders for
+his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In 1845 he became
+lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a French line regiment. In
+the following year he was in charge of the Oran district, where his
+swift suppression of an insurrection won him further promotion to the
+grade of general of brigade, in which rank he went through the campaign
+of Kabulia, receiving a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France
+after nineteen years' absence, a general of division. Bosquet was
+amongst the earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the
+battle of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the
+Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet's corps of
+two divisions protected them against interruption. His timely
+intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854) secured the victory for the
+allies. During 1855 Bosquet's corps occupied the right wing of the
+besieging armies opposite the Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his
+corps at the storming of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault
+of the 8th of September he was in command of the whole of the storming
+troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another serious
+wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the foremost
+soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of France, but his
+health was broken, and he lived only a few years longer. He had the
+grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and
+the Medjidieh of the 1st class.
+
+
+
+
+BOSS. (1) (From the O. Eng. _boce_, a swelling, cf. Ital. _bozza_, and
+Fr. _bosse_, possibly connected with the O. Ger. _bozan_, to beat), a
+round protuberance; the projecting centre or "umbo" of a buckler; in
+geology a projection of rock through strata of another species; in
+architecture, the projecting keystone of the ribs of a vault which masks
+their junction; the term is also applied to similar projecting blocks at
+every intersection. The boss was often richly carved, generally with
+conventional foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque
+figures. The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the
+15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2) (From the
+Dutch _baas_, a word used by the Dutch settlers in New York for
+"master," and so generally used by the Kaffirs in South Africa;
+connected with the Ger. _Base_, cousin, meaning a "chief kinsman," the
+head of a household or family), a colloquial term, first used in
+America, for an employer, a foreman, and generally any one who gives
+orders, especially in American political slang for the manager of a
+party organization.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSI, GIUSEPPE (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer on art, was born
+at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan. He was educated at the
+college of Monza; and his early fondness for drawing was fostered by the
+director of the college, who supplied him with prints after the works of
+Agostino Caracci for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at
+Milan, and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate
+friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became assistant
+secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine Arts. He rendered
+important service in the organization of this new institution. In 1804,
+in conjunction with Oriani, he drew up the rules of the three academies
+of art of Bologna, Venice and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with
+the decoration of the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of
+Napoleon I. to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last
+Judgment of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night,
+Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command of Prince
+Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a copy of the Last
+Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated, for the purpose of getting
+it rendered in mosaic. The drawing was made from the remains of the
+original with the aid of copies and the best prints. The mosaic was
+executed by Raffaelli, and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna.
+Bossi made another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera.
+This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great works of
+sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence. Bossi devoted a large
+part of his life to the study of the works of Leonardo; and his last
+work was a series of drawings in monochrome representing incidents in
+the life of that great master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in
+black chalk of the Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the
+Magdalene. In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled
+_Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci_, which had the merit of greatly
+interesting Goethe. His other works are _Delle Opinioni di Leonardo
+intorno alla simmetria de' corpi umani_ (1811), and _Del Tipo dell' arte
+della pittura_ (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December 1816.
+A monument by Canova was erected to his memory in the Ambrosian library,
+and a bust was placed in the Brera.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSU, RENÉ LE (1631-1680), French critic, was born in Paris on the 16th
+of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and in 1649 became one of the
+regular canons of Sainte-Geneviève. He wrote _Parallèle des principes de
+la physique d'Aristote et de celle de René Descartes_ (1674), and a
+_Traité du poème épique_, highly praised by Boileau, the leading
+doctrine of which was that the subject should be chosen before the
+characters, and that the action should be arranged without reference to
+the personages who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of
+March 1680.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE (1627-1704), French divine, orator and writer,
+was born at Dijon on the 27th of September 1627. He came of a family of
+prosperous Burgundian lawyers; his father was a judge of the parliament
+(a provincial high court) at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent
+to school with the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the
+college of Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious
+mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his natural
+vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for hard work;
+fellow-students nicknamed him _Bos suetus aratro_--an ox broken in to
+the plough. But his abilities became known beyond the college walls. He
+was taken up by the Hôtel de Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic
+culture and the original home of the _Précieuses_. Here he became the
+subject of a celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about
+extempore preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to
+deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well as in more
+conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant degree in
+divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years he spent at
+Metz, where his father's influence had got him a canonry at the early
+age of thirteen; to this was now added the more important office of
+archdeacon. He was plunged at once into the thick of controversy; for
+nearly half Metz was Protestant, and Bossuet's first appearance in print
+was a refutation of the Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile
+the Protestants with the Roman Church became the great object of his
+dreams; and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the
+pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where political
+assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers scarcely born. Not
+that he reached perfection at a bound. His youthful imagination was
+unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into a kind of paradoxical subtlety,
+redolent of the divinity school. But these blemishes vanished when he
+settled in Paris (1659), and three years later mounted the pulpit of the
+Chapel Royal.
+
+In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical logic or
+clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear, he must manage
+to address them in terms they would agree to consider sensible and
+well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too much of their good opinion.
+Having very stern ideas of the dignity of a priest, he refused to
+descend to the usual devices for arousing popular interest. The
+narrative element in his sermons grows shorter with each year. He never
+drew satirical pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not
+write out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart: of
+the two hundred printed in his _Works_ all but a fraction are rough
+drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sévigné forsook him, when
+Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669; though Fénelon and La
+Bruyère, two much sounder critics, refused to follow their example.
+Bossuet possessed the full equipment of the orator, voice, language,
+flexibility and strength. He never needed to strain for effect; his
+genius struck out at a single blow the thought, the feeling and the
+word. What he said of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he
+could "fling his fury into theses," and thus unite the dry light of
+argument with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their
+highest point in the _Oraisons funèbres_. Bossuet was always best when
+at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious scruples
+intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought to the artistic
+side of his subject. For the _Oraison_, as its name betokened, stood
+midway between the sermon proper and what would nowadays be called a
+biographical sketch. At least, that was what Bossuet made it; for on
+this field he stood not merely first, but alone. His three great
+masterpieces were delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of
+Charles I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670),
+and the great soldier Condé (1687).
+
+Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in a Paris
+pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop of Condom in
+Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being appointed tutor to the
+dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and now a boy of nine (1670). The
+choice was scarcely fortunate. Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but
+his genius was by no means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child;
+and the dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a
+merely genealogical incident at his father's court. Probably no one was
+happier than the tutor, when his charge's sixteenth birthday came round,
+and he was promptly married off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine
+years at court were by no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published
+nothing, except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his
+pupil's instruction--or rather, to fit himself to give that
+instruction--a remarkable trilogy. First came the _Traité de la
+connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même_, then the _Discours sur l'histoire
+universelle_, lastly the _Politique tirée de l'Écriture Sainte_. The
+three books fit into each other. The _Traité_ is a general sketch of the
+nature of God and the nature of man. The _Discours_ is a history of
+God's dealings with humanity in the past. The _Politique_ is a code of
+rights and duties drawn up in the light thrown by those dealings. Not
+that Bossuet literally supposed that the last word of political wisdom
+had been said by the Old Testament. His conclusions are only "drawn from
+Holy Scripture," because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction
+for the institutions of his country--to hallow the France of Louis XIV.
+by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel of Solomon. Then, too,
+the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him to speak out more boldly than
+court-etiquette would have otherwise allowed, to remind the son of Louis
+XIV. that kings have duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten
+these duties, but Louis' son would bear them in mind. The tutor's
+imagination looked forward to a time when France would blossom into
+Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is what made
+him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its forms: _"le roi,
+Jésus-Christ et l'Église, Dieu en ces trois noms"_, he says in a
+characteristic letter. And the object of his books is to provide
+authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet's worship of authority by
+no means killed his confidence in reason; what it did was to make him
+doubt the honesty of those who reasoned otherwise than himself. The
+whole chain of argument seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy
+proved that a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of
+human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the most
+part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations, as
+well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit obedience as
+the immediate representatives of God. Thus all revolt, whether civil or
+religious, is a direct defiance of the Almighty. Cromwell becomes a
+moral monster, and the revocation of the edict of Nantes is "the
+greatest achievement of the second Constantine." Not that Bossuet
+glorified the _status quo_ simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his
+youth had known the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France
+of his manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had
+suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient Rome. Why
+not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation at bay and prolong that
+splendour for all time? Bossuet's own _Discours sur l'histoire
+universelle_ might have furnished an answer, for there the fall of many
+empires is detailed. But then the _Discours_ was composed under a single
+preoccupation. To Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one
+point of real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet
+and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome he only
+touched in so far as they formed part of the _Praeparatio Evangelica_.
+And yet his _Discours_ is far more than a theological pamphlet. Pascal,
+in utter scorn for science, might refer the rise and fall of empires to
+Providence or chance--the nose of Cleopatra, or "a little grain of sand"
+in the English lord protector's veins. Bossuet held fast to his
+principle that God works through secondary causes. "It is His will that
+every great change should have its roots in the ages that went before
+it." Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple with origins
+and causes, and in this way his book deserves its place as one of the
+very first of philosophic histories.
+
+From writing history he turned to history in the making. In 1681 he was
+gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he could take possession of his
+see, he was drawn into a violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope
+(see GALLICANISM). Here he found himself between two fires. To support
+the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated their casuists and
+_dévotion aisée_ almost as much as Pascal himself. To oppose the pope
+was to play into the hands of Louis, who was frankly anxious to humble
+the Church before the State. So Bossuet steered a middle course. Before
+the general assembly of the French clergy he preached a great sermon on
+the unity of the Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise.
+As Louis insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration,
+Bossuet got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could.
+And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on a
+gigantic _Defensio Cleri Gallicani_, only published after his death.
+
+The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project very
+near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had been busy with
+schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman Church. In 1668 he
+converted Turenne; in 1670 he published an _Exposition de la foi
+catholique_, so moderate in tone that adversaries were driven to accuse
+him of having fraudulently watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a
+Protestant taste. Finally in 1688 appeared his great _Histoire des
+variations des églises protestantes_, perhaps the most brilliant of all
+his works. Few writers could have made the Justification controversy
+interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough. Without
+rules an organized society cannot hold together, and rules require an
+authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches had thrown over this
+interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble in showing that, the longer
+they lived, the more they varied on increasingly important points. For
+the moment the Protestants were pulverized; but before long they began
+to ask whether variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691
+and 1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion, but
+negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual Roman
+doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept, but he flatly
+refused to guarantee that they would necessarily believe to-morrow what
+they believe to-day. "We prefer," he said, "a church eternally variable
+and for ever moving forwards." Next, Protestant writers began to
+accumulate some startling proofs of Rome's own variations; and here they
+were backed up by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the
+father of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine,
+Bossuet's own special master, of having corrupted the primitive doctrine
+of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a _Défense de la tradition_, but Simon
+calmly went on to raise issues graver still. Under a veil of politely
+ironical circumlocutions, such as did not deceive the bishop of Meaux,
+he claimed his right to interpret the Bible like any other book. Bossuet
+denounced him again and again; Simon told his friends he would wait
+until "the old fellow" was no more. Another Oratorian proved more
+dangerous still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay
+rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether. It was
+blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of nature would break
+through a reign of law He had Himself established. Bossuet might
+scribble _nova, mira, falsa_, in the margins of his book and urge on
+Fénelon to attack them; Malebranche politely met his threats by saying
+that to be refuted by such a pen would do him too much honour. These
+repeated checks soured Bossuet's temper. In his earlier controversies he
+had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot ministers he
+refuted found him a kindly advocate at court. Even his approval of the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes stopped far short of approving
+dragonades within his diocese of Meaux. But now his patience was wearing
+out. A dissertation by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk,
+became his excuse for writing certain violent _Maximes sur la comédie_
+(1694) wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Molière,
+dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling with
+Fénelon over the love of God, and employing methods of controversy at
+least as odious as Fénelon's own (1697-1699). All that can be said in
+his defence is that Fénelon, four-and-twenty years his junior, was an
+old pupil, who had suddenly grown into a rival; and that on the matter
+of principle most authorities thought him right.
+
+Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet's life came slowly to an end. Till
+he was over seventy he had scarcely known what illness was; but in 1702
+he was attacked by the stone. Two years later he was a hopeless invalid,
+and on the 12th of April 1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private
+life there is little to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted
+bishop, much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring
+occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was kindly and
+affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until he was over forty, he
+had lived among purely ecclesiastical surroundings; and it was probably
+want of self-confidence, more than want of moral courage, that made him
+shut his eyes a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.'s
+private life. After all, he was not the king's confessor; and to
+"reform" Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down,
+would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his books
+Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the attacks on Simon,
+breathe an air of masculine belief in reason, rare enough among the
+apologists of any age. Bossuet would willingly have undertaken, as
+Malebranche actually undertook, to make an intelligent Chinaman accept
+all his ideas, if only he could be induced to lend them his attention.
+But his best praise is to have brought all the powers of language to
+paint an undying picture of a vanished world, where religion and
+letters, laws and science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable
+planets, circling for ever round one central Sun.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The best edition of Bossuet's sermons is the _OEuvres
+  oratoires de Bossuet_, edited by Abbé Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris,
+  1890-1896). His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols.
+  (Paris, 1862-1864). A complete list of the innumerable works relating
+  to him will be found in the _Bossuet_ number of the _Bibliothèque des
+  bibliographies critiques_, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and
+  published by the Société des Études Historiques (Paris, 1900). The
+  general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of
+  M. Rebelliau, _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1900), and M. Gustave Lanson,
+  _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1901). In English there is a modest _Bossuet_ by Mrs
+  Sidney Lear (London, 1874), and two remarkable studies by Sir J.
+  Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume of his _Horae Sabbaticae_
+  (London, 1892).     (St. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSTANAI, the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan rule, in the
+middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their seat in Persia, and
+were practically the secular heads of the Jewish community in the
+Orient.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at Duns on the
+17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and his mother, Alison
+Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was educated at Edinburgh, and
+licensed in 1697 by the presbytery of Chirnside. In 1699 he became
+minister of the small parish of Simprin, where there were in all "not
+more than 90 examinable persons." In 1704 he found, while visiting a
+member of his flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a
+commonwealth soldier. This was the famous _Marrow of Modern Divinity_,
+by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading Reformation
+divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the Gospel. Its object
+was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness of the Gospel. It cleared
+away such conditions as repentance, or some degree of outward or inward
+reformation, and argued that where Christ is heartily received, full
+repentance and a new life follow. On Boston's recommendation, Hog of
+Carnock reprinted _The Marrow_ in 1718; and Boston also published an
+edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked from the
+standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard of a far-reaching
+movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The "Marrow men" were marked by
+the zeal of their service and the effect of their preaching. As they
+remained Calvinists they could not preach a universal atonement; they
+were in fact extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was
+translated to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only member
+of the assembly who entered a protest against what he deemed the
+inadequate sentence passed on John Simson, professor of divinity at
+Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox teaching on the Incarnation. He
+died on the 20th of May 1732. His books, _The Fourfold State, The Crook
+in the Lot_, and his _Body of Divinity_ and _Miscellanies_, long
+exercised a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry.
+
+  His _Memoirs_ were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908). An edition
+  of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport of
+Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its mouth in the
+Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901)
+15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural fen district, drained by numerous
+cuts, some of which are navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb
+Decorated building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in
+the kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was restored
+to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in 1857, in
+memory of the connexion of that city with the English town. The western
+tower, commonly known as Boston Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its
+foundations were the first to be laid of the present church (which is on
+the site of an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the
+Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent example.
+It somewhat resembles the completed tower of Antwerp cathedral, and is
+crowned by a graceful octagonal lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft.
+in height. The church of Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively
+restored, retains good Early English details. Other buildings of
+interest are the guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick;
+Shodfriars Hall, a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a
+Dominican priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine
+gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St Botolph's
+church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a mansion of the 16th
+century. Public institutions include a people's park and large municipal
+buildings (1904).
+
+As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th century the
+river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels exceeding about 50
+tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in extent was constructed, with
+an entrance lock giving access to the quay sides for vessels of 3000
+tons. The bed of the river was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the
+town, and a new cut of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An
+iron swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway.
+There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons. Imports,
+principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased owing to these
+improvements from £116,179 in 1881 to £816,698 in 1899; and exports
+(coal, machinery and manufactured goods) from £83,000 in 1883 to
+£261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and coastal fisheries are important.
+Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco, sail and rope works are the principal
+industries in the town. Boston returns one member to parliament. The
+parliamentary borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of
+the county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 2727 acres.
+
+  Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph's Town) derives its name from
+  St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was destroyed
+  by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday, Boston was
+  probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of Brittany. The
+  excellent commercial position of the town at the mouth of the Witham
+  explains its speedy rise into importance. King John by charter of 1204
+  granted the bailiff of Boston sole jurisdiction in the town. By the
+  13th century it was a great commercial centre second only to London in
+  paying £780 for two years to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward
+  III. made it a staple port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish
+  merchants largely increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of
+  the Hanseatic League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system
+  Boston's prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained
+  almost without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free
+  borough by Henry VIII.'s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI. in
+  1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of admiralty)
+  in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent members to the
+  great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from 1552 to 1885 two
+  members were returned to each parliament. The Redistribution Act 1885
+  reduced the representation to one member. In 1257 a market was granted
+  to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308 to John, earl of Brittany. The
+  great annual mart was held before 1218 and attended by many German and
+  other merchants. Two annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted
+  by Henry VIII.'s charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives
+  only in the Beast Mart held on the 11th of December.
+
+  See Pishey Thompson, _History and Antiquities of Boston and the
+  Hundred of Skirbeck_ (Boston, 1856); George Jebb, _Guide to the Church
+  of St Botolph, with Notes on the History of Boston; Victoria County
+  History: Lincolnshire_.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A., in Suffolk
+county; lat. 42° 21' 27.6" N., long. 71° 3' 30" W. Pop. (1900) 560,892,
+(197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census) 595,580; (1910),
+670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston & Albany (New York
+Central), the Old Colony system of the New York, New Haven & Hartford,
+and the Boston & Maine railway systems, each of which controls several
+minor roads once independent. The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on
+what was once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a
+narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water. On the north is
+the Charles river, which widens here into a broad, originally much
+broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface of the peninsula was
+very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was deeply indented with coves,
+and there were salt marshes that fringed the neck and the river-channel
+and were left oozy by the ebbing tides. Until after the War of
+Independence the primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was
+afterwards subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site
+of any other American city. The area of the original Boston was only 783
+acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804) this was
+increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate Boston of the
+present day--including the annexed territories of South Boston (1804),
+Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester, Brighton and West Roxbury
+(1874)--comprehends almost 43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the
+finest residential quarter of the city--the Back Bay, so called from
+that inner harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)--stand
+on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and fairest
+portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries of granite,
+and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water margins,
+constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming flats, and
+furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings. At the edge of
+the Common, which is now well within the city, the British troops in
+1775 took their boats on the eve of the battle of Lexington; and the
+post-office, now in the very heart of the business section of the city,
+stands on the original shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and
+excellently drained. The original territory still preserves to a large
+degree its irregularity of surface, but its hills have been much
+degraded or wholly razed. Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as
+a signal warning station, is still the most conspicuous topographical
+feature of the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque
+eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it became
+possible, in the reconstruction of the business district, to widen and
+straighten its streets and create squares, and so provide for the
+traffic that had long outgrown the narrow, crooked ways of the older
+city. Atlantic Avenue, along the harbour front, was created, and
+Washington Street, the chief business artery, was largely remade after
+1866. It is probable that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger
+outlay of labour, material and money, in reducing, levelling and
+reclaiming territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares[1]
+in Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all the other
+chief cities of the United States together. Washington Street, still
+narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested thoroughfare in
+America. The finest residence streets are in the Back Bay, which is laid
+out, in sharp contrast with the older quarters, in a regular,
+rectangular arrangement. The North End, the original city and afterwards
+the fashionable quarter, is now given over to the Jews and foreign
+colonies.
+
+The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the United States
+for the purpose of fortification, are numerous, and render the
+navigation of the shipping channels difficult and easily guarded. Though
+tortuous of access, the channels afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft.
+since great improvements were undertaken by the national government in
+1892, 1899, 1902 and 1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It
+affords nearly 60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of
+early reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been. The
+islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part heavily wooded
+when first occupied. It has been found impossible to afforest them on
+account of the roughness of the sea-air, and the wash from their bluffs
+into the harbour has involved large expense in the erection of
+sea-walls. Castle Island has been fortified since the earliest days;
+Fort Independence, on this island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on
+neighbouring islands, constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad
+watercourses around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges,
+East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the navy-yard at
+Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by the electric subway
+under the harbour. At the Charlestown navy-yard (1800) there are docks,
+manufactories, foundries, machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks,
+furnaces, casting-pits, timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &c.
+The famous frigate "Independence" was launched here in 1814, the more
+famous "Constitution" having been launched while the yard was still
+private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles, to Charlestown, was
+opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic merit is the Cambridge
+Bridge (1908), which replaced the old West Boston Bridge, and is one
+feature of improvements long projected for the beautifying of the
+Charles river basin.
+
+Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by time and
+the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries remain
+intact--King's chapel burying ground, with the graves of John Winthrop
+and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground in the heart of the city,
+where Samuel Sewall, the parents of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis
+and Samuel Adams are buried; and Copp's Hill burial ground, containing
+the tombs of the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of
+the city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul
+Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South church
+(1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882), and Faneuil Hall
+(1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898) are rich in memorable
+associations of the period preceding the War of Independence. The second
+was the seat of the royal government of Massachusetts during the
+provincial period, and within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions
+of colonial dependence or independence probably first came into evident
+conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was, for
+instance, the meeting-place of the people after the "Boston Massacre" of
+1770, when they demanded the removal of the British troops from the
+city; and here, too, were held the meetings that led up to the "Boston
+Tea Party" of 1773. Faneuil Hall (the original hall of the name was
+given to the city by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is
+associated, like the Old South, with the patriotic oratory of
+revolutionary days and is called "the cradle of American liberty." Its
+association with reform movements and great public issues of later times
+is not less close and interesting.[2] The adjoining Quincy market may be
+mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to open six new
+streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks and wharf rights--all
+without laying tax or debt upon the city. The original King's chapel
+(1688, present building 1749-1754) was the first Episcopal church of
+Boston, which bitterly resented the action of the royal governor in 1687
+in using the Old South for the services of the Church of England. The
+new state house, the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles
+Bulfinch) was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again
+by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to 1900).
+Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity with the
+style of the original portion; and its gilded dome is a conspicuous
+landmark. Other buildings of local importance are the city hall (1865);
+the United States government building (1871-1878, cost about
+$6,000,000); the county court-house (1887-1893, $2,250,000); the
+custom-house (1837-1848); and the chamber of commerce (1892).
+
+Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a group of
+exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum of Fine Arts, the
+public library and the new Old South church. Trinity (1877, cost
+$800,000), in yellowish granite with dark sandstone trimmings, the
+masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built in the Romanesque style of
+southern France; it is a Latin cross surmounted by a massive central
+tower, with smaller towers and an adjacent chapel reached by open
+cloisters that distribute the balance (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig.
+137). It has windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and
+others.
+
+The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site, given
+by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of
+pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance,
+suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior (see
+ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court, and notable
+decorative features and embellishments, including bronze doors by D.C.
+French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by Macmonnies, a fine staircase in
+Siena marble, some characteristic decorative panels by Puvis de
+Chavannes (illustrating the history of science and literature), and
+other notable decorative paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of
+religion), Edwin A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old
+Museum of Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic
+style, with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old South
+(the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum) is a handsome
+structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine campanile. The dignified
+buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are near. In
+Huntington Avenue, at its junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another
+group of handsome new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony
+Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music. In the Back Bay
+Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L. Olmsted, still other groups
+have formed--among others those of the marble buildings of the Harvard
+medical school; Fenway Court, a building in the style, internally, of a
+Venetian palace, that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner,
+and Simmons College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum
+of Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is being
+made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.
+
+Boston compares favourably with other American cities in the character
+of its public and private architecture. The height of buildings in the
+business section is limited to 125 ft., and in some places to 90 ft.
+
+One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for electric
+trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in part with two,
+constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000 up to 1905. The
+branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath the harbour bed and
+extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to Maverick Square, East Boston; it
+was the first all-cement tunnel (diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The
+subway was built by the city, but leased and operated by a private
+company on such terms as to repay its cost in forty years. Another
+tunnel has been added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow
+streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented
+difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional
+efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the surface
+cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the subway. All the
+various roads--surface, elevated (about 7 m., built 1896-1901), and
+subway--are controlled, almost wholly, by one company. They all connect
+and interchange passengers freely; so that the ordinary American
+five-cent fare enables a passenger to travel between almost any two
+points over an area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of
+the Boston & Maine and the Boston & Albany systems also deserve mention.
+The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers 9 acres and has 23
+tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898), one of the largest
+stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has 32 tracks, and is used by
+the Boston & Albany and by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways.
+
+A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water service was begun
+in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir at Clinton, on the Nashua river.
+The basin here excavated by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above
+high-tide level of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average
+depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of water. It
+is the largest municipal reservoir in the world[3], yet it is only part
+of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan area.
+
+The park system is quite unique among American cities. The Common, a
+park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has been a public
+reservation since 1634, and no city park in the world is cherished more
+affectionately for historical associations. Adjoining it is the Public
+Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the made area of the city.
+Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back Bay streets running from the foot
+of the Public Garden, is one of the finest residence streets of the
+country. It is 240 ft. wide, with four rows of trees shading the parking
+of its central mall, and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the
+beautiful outer park system. The park system consists of two concentric
+rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the
+metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in co-operation with
+the city. The former has been laid out since 1875, and includes upwards
+of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m. of walks, drives and rides. Its
+central ornament is Franklin Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system,
+which extends around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in
+1893. It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation
+(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts, a
+beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as Middlesex Fells,
+two large beach bath reservations on the harbour at Revere and Hull
+(Nantasket), and the boating section of the Charles river. At the end of
+1907 more than $13,000,000 had been expended on the system. Including
+the local parks of the cities and towns of the metropolitan district
+there are over 17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan
+park district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in the
+establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement, planned for
+many years, was brought nearer by the completion of the new Cambridge
+Bridge. This improvement was projected to include the damming of the
+Charles river, and the creation of a great freshwater basin, with
+drive-ways of reclaimed land along the shores, and other adornments,
+somewhat after the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.
+
+_Art and Literature._--The Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870
+(though there were art exhibits collected from 1826 onward) and its
+present building was erected in 1908. It has one of the finest
+collections of casts in existence, a number of original pieces of Greek
+statuary, the second-best collection in the world of Aretine ware, the
+finest collection of Japanese pottery, and probably the largest and
+finest of Japanese paintings in existence. Among the memorials to men of
+Massachusetts (a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by
+monuments in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state
+house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are statues
+of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew by Thomas Ball; of
+Generals Joseph Hooker and William F. Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by
+Daniel C. French; of W.L. Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner;
+of Samuel Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin Franklin
+by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story), Colonel W. Prescott
+(Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel Webster (H. Powers), W.E.
+Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks (H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St
+Gaudens), and J.B. O'Reilly (D.C. French).
+
+Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A. Ward
+commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic properties of ether,
+made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General Hospital by Dr W.T.G.
+Morton; an emancipation group of Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of
+Lincoln; a fine equestrian statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington,
+one of the best works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument
+in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil War; another
+(1888) recording the death of those who fell in the Boston Massacre of
+1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut (H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson
+(Anne Whitney), and Alexander Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent
+bronze bas-relief (1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the
+departure from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment
+of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art department
+of the city government, under unpaid commissioners, appointed by the
+mayor from candidates named by local art and literary institutions; and
+without their approval no work of art can now become the property of the
+city.
+
+The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January 1908, is the
+second library of the country in size, and is the largest free
+circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111 volumes).
+There was a public municipal library in Boston before 1674--probably in
+1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was apparently never replaced. The
+present library (antedated by several circulating, social and
+professional collections) may justly be said to have had its origin in
+the efforts of the Parisian, Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830
+on, to foster international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged
+gifts from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes, and
+a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated in 1849
+with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private citizens) was the
+nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal foundation dates from
+1848. Among the special collections are the George Ticknor library of
+Spanish and Portuguese books (6393 vols.), very full sets of United
+States and British public documents, the Bowditch mathematical library
+(7090 vols.), the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193
+vols.), the Barton library, including one of the finest existing
+collections of Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general
+library), the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full
+collection on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than
+100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and literature of
+the United States. The library is supported almost entirely by municipal
+appropriations, though holding also considerable trust funds ($388,742
+in 1905). The other notable book-collections of the city include those
+of the Athenaeum, founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets),
+the Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the Boston
+medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New England
+Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750 volumes and 34,150
+pamphlets), the state library (founded 1826; 140,000), the American
+Academy of Arts and Sciences (founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society
+of Natural History (founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000
+pamphlets).
+
+The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts Institute of
+Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical school in the
+country, opened to students (including women) in 1865, four years after
+the granting of a charter to Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president;
+Boston University (chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal;
+co-educational); the New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational;
+private; 1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States,
+having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy
+(1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School (1873); the School of
+Drawing and Painting (1876) of the Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College
+(1860), Roman Catholic, under the Society of Jesus; St John's
+Theological Seminary (1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for
+women, and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute of
+Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range of its
+instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a pioneer in
+introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory instruction in
+physics, mechanics and mining. The architects of the United States navy
+are sent here for instruction in their most advanced courses. Boston
+University was endowed by Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston
+fish-merchant, Lee Claflin (1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a
+benefactor of Wesleyan University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob
+Sleeper. It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of
+theology--founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical Institute; in
+1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871 the Boston Theological
+Seminary--law, music, medicine, liberal arts and agriculture (at
+Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts Agricultural College),
+all antedate 1876. The funds for Simmons College were left by John
+Simmons in 1870, who wished to found a school to teach the professions
+and "branches of art, science and industry best calculated to enable the
+scholars to acquire an independent livelihood." The Lowell Institute
+(q.v.), established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed
+$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public
+lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading scholars
+of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a series of public
+lectures on American history is delivered in the Old South meeting
+house. The public schools, particularly the secondary schools, enjoy a
+very high reputation. The new English High and Latin school, founded in
+1635, is the oldest school of the country. A girls' Latin school, with
+the same standards as the boys' school, was established in 1878 (an
+outcome of the same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are
+large numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.
+
+In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American centres.
+The Federal Street theatre--the first regular theatre--was established
+in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its natural influence in
+keeping Boston behind New York and Philadelphia in this respect. The
+dramatic history of the city is largely associated with the Boston
+Museum, built in 1841 by Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in
+1846 and 1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical
+performances were given (see an interesting article in the _New England
+Magazine_, June 1903), in later years under the management of R.
+Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum was swept away,
+as other interesting old places of entertainment (the old Federal Street
+theatre, the Tremont theatre, &c.) had been, in the course of further
+building changes. The Boston theatre dates from 1854, and there were
+seventeen theatres altogether in 1900.
+
+As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical organizations
+may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society (1815), the Harvard
+Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic (1880) and the Symphony
+Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the generosity of Henry Lee Higginson.
+This orchestra has done much for music not only in Boston but in the
+United States generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was
+incorporated, and an opera house has been erected on the north side of
+Huntington Avenue.
+
+Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until the later
+decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable and
+important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy was identical
+with the long predominance of the New England literary school, who lived
+in Boston or in the country round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no
+longer so) that still hold an exceptional position in periodical
+literature, the _North American Review_ (1815) and the _Atlantic
+Monthly_ (1857), date from this period. The great majority of names in
+the long list of worthies of the commonwealth--writers, statesmen,
+orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are
+intimately connected with Boston. Among the city's daily newspapers the
+_Boston Herald_ (1846), the _Boston Globe_, the _Evening Transcript_
+(1830), the _Advertiser_ (1813) and the _Post_ (1831) are the most
+important.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--Boston is fringed with wharves. Commercial
+interests are largely concentrated in East Boston. Railway connexion
+with Worcester, Lowell and Providence was opened in 1835; with Albany,
+N.Y., and thereby with various lines of interior communication, in 1841
+(double track, 1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was
+completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston was selected
+as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the first regular line of
+trans-Atlantic steamers. The following decade was the most active of the
+city's history as regards the ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to
+all parts of the globe. The Cunard arrangement was the first of various
+measures that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New
+England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty of
+1854, and Boston's interests are foremost to-day in demanding a return
+to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the commerce of the
+port greatly declined. The Cunard service has not been continuous. In
+1869 there was not one vessel steaming directly for Europe; in 1900
+there were 973 for foreign ports. Great improvements of the harbour were
+undertaken in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the
+creation of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been
+a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like New York,
+complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia, Baltimore, New
+Orleans and Galveston. Boston also feels the competition of Montreal and
+Portland; the Canadian roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight
+differentials. Boston is the second import port of the United States,
+but its exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of
+Galveston, or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade
+entering and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year
+9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston. The value
+of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively $123,414,168 and
+$104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses, wool, hides and skins,
+cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their manufactures, chemicals, coal,
+and leather and its manufactures are the leading imports; provisions,
+leather and its manufactures, cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs,
+iron and steel and their manufactures are the leading exports. In the
+exportation of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products
+classed as provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the
+largest wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being in
+each second in the world to London only.
+
+Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as was commerce
+in colonial times. The value of all manufactured products from
+establishments under the "factory system" in 1900 was $162,764,523; in
+1905 it was $184,351,163. Among the leading and more distinctive items
+were printing and publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses
+refining ($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because of
+the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men's clothing (in
+1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women's clothing (in 1900,
+$3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655,
+in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445);
+malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668, in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery
+(in 1900, $4,455,184, in 1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900,
+$3,504,603, in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in
+1905); other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780);
+rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323);
+steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in 1905,
+$3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &c. Art tiles and pottery are
+manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries early became
+of great importance. The Waltham watch and the Singer sewing-machine had
+their beginning in Boston in 1850. The making of the Chickering pianos
+goes back to 1823, and of Mason & Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are
+to-day very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The
+ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.
+
+_Government._--Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630, when it
+was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation before 1822;
+although the uncertain boundaries between the powers of colony and
+township prompted repeated petitions to the legislature for
+incorporation, beginning as early as 1650. In 1822 Boston became a city.
+Thus for nearly two centuries it preserved intact its old "town"
+government, disposing of all its affairs in the "town-meeting" of its
+citizens. Excellent political training such a government unquestionably
+offered; but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition
+increased, as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822) became
+greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous in blood. All
+the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary ordinary business seldom
+drew out more than a hundred voters, and often a mere handful. From very
+early days executive officers known as "select-men," constables, clerks
+of markets, hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &c., were chosen; and
+the select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the
+freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could control the
+business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and boisterousness
+marred its democractic excellence in exciting times. Large sums were
+voted loosely, and expended by executive boards without any budgetary
+control. The whole system was full of looseness, complexity and
+makeshifts. But the tenacity with which it was clung to, proved that it
+was suited to the community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was
+not inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity. Various
+other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown older, have been
+similarly compelled to abandon their old form of government. The powers
+of the old township were much more extensive than those of the present
+city of Boston, including as they did the determination of the residence
+of strangers, the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the
+fixing of wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a
+voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised in 1854,
+and again reconstructed in important particulars by laws of 1885
+separating the executive and legislative powers, and by subsequent acts.
+A complete alteration of the government has indeed been effected since
+1885. Boston proper is only the centre of a large metropolitan area,
+closely settled, with interests in large part common. This metropolitan
+area, within a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house,
+contained in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last
+two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this greater
+city some general government, fully consolidated or of limited powers,
+was a standing question of expediency. The commonwealth has four times
+recognized a community of metropolitan interests in creating state
+commissions since 1882 for the union of such interests, beginning with a
+metropolitan health district in that year. The metropolitan water
+district (1895) included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or
+townships in its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889)
+twenty four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment was
+firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of the state
+commissions, independent of the city's control, but able to commit the
+city indefinitely by undertaking expensive works and new debt, was
+resented. Independence is further curtailed by other state boards
+semi-independent of the city--the police commission of three members
+from 1885 to 1906, and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed
+by the governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the
+governor; the transit commission, &c. There are, further, county offices
+(Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop),
+generally independent of the city, though the latter pays practically
+all the bills.
+
+A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for municipal
+elections in January; for the election of a mayor for four years; for
+his recall at the end of two years if a majority of the registered
+voters so vote in the state election in November in the second year of
+his term; for the summary removal for cause by the mayor of any
+department head or other of his appointees, for a city council of one
+chamber of nine members, elected at large each for three years; for
+nomination by petition; for a permanent finance commission appointed by
+the governor; for the confirmation of the mayor's appointments by the
+state civil service commission; for the mayor's preparation of the
+annual budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the
+council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except for school
+use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously) appoint the
+superintendent and supervisors of schools. The number of members of the
+school-board was in 1905 reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by
+the city at large, and serving for one, two or three years; at the same
+time power was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of
+schools. Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal
+administration. The city's work is done under an eight-hour law.
+
+An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899 showed
+that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice of a
+president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a governor, the
+determination of liquor-license questions by referendum, and the
+settlement of other referenda. On 21 referenda, 10 being questions of
+license, the ratio of actual to registered voters ranged on the latter
+from 57.00 to 75.38% (mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to
+33.40 (mean 61.39),--the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two
+presidential votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means for
+mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36 and 84.73,
+61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to 65% actually register.
+Women vote for school committee-men (categories as above, 95.18, 59.62,
+76.49%). On a referendum in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal
+suffrage to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered voted,
+and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be registered.
+
+Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory and penal
+institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and other charitable
+or philanthropic organizations, private and public, number several
+hundreds. The Associated Charities is an incorporated organization for
+systematizing the various charities of the city. The Massachusetts
+general hospital (1811-1821)--with a branch for mental and nervous
+diseases, McLean hospital (1816), in the township of Belmont
+(post-office, Waverley) about 6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins
+Institution and Massachusetts school for the blind (1832), famous for
+its conduct by Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman
+and Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded
+children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye and ear infirmary
+(1824), all receive financial aid from the commonwealth, which has
+representation in their management. The city hospital dates from 1864. A
+floating hospital for women and children in the summer months, with
+permanent and transient wards, has been maintained since 1894
+(incorporated 1901). Boston was one of the first municipalities of the
+country to make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile
+offenders; in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People's Palace
+dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing baths,
+gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an employment
+bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &c., was opened in 1906. Simmons
+College and Harvard University maintain the Boston school for social
+workers (1904). Beneficent social work out of the more usual type is
+directed by the music and bath departments of the city government. In
+the provision of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the
+pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced. The beach
+reservations of the metropolitan park system at Revere and Nantasket,
+and several smaller city beaches are a special feature of this service.
+Benjamin Franklin, who was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left
+£1000 to the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and
+constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring class of the
+city.
+
+  Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been the
+  most expensively governed of American cities. The average yearly
+  expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416, exclusive of
+  payments on funded and floating debts. The running expenses
+  _per-capita_ in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the average of 86
+  leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92; Chicago, $11.62).
+  Schools, police, charities, water, streets and parks are the items of
+  heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools for the five years from
+  1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937, of which $7,057,895.42 was for
+  new buildings; the cost of the police department was $11,387,314.66
+  for the six years 1902-1907; and of the water department $4,941,343.37
+  for the six years 1902-1907; of charities and social work a much
+  larger sum. The remaking of the city was enormously expensive,
+  especially the alteration of the streets after 1866, when the city
+  received power to make such alterations and assess a part of the
+  improvements upon abutting estates. The creation of the city
+  water-system has also been excessively costly, and the total cost up
+  to the 31st of January 1908 of the works remaining to the city after
+  the creation of the metropolitan board in 1898 was about $17,000,000.
+  The metropolitan water board--of whose expenditures Boston bears only
+  a share--expended from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was
+  planned to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city
+  park system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the
+  metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are no
+  municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the city
+  depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control
+  of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the
+  contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues
+  were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were
+  used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently,
+  but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in
+  1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in 1907,
+  $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)--this included the debt of
+  Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects for
+  which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of dollars:
+  highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05, rapid
+  transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907 36% of all
+  state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively of the
+  assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and water
+  services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or for
+  Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited control. The
+  improvement of the Back Bay and of the South Boston flats was in
+  considerable measure forced upon the city by the commonwealth. The
+  debt per capita is as high as the cost of current administration
+  relatively to other cities. The average interest rate on the city
+  obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The city's tax valuation in 1907
+  was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200; in 1850, $180,000,500), of
+  which only $242,606,856 represented personalty; although in the
+  judgment of the city board of trade such property cannot by any
+  possibility be inferior in value to realty.
+
+_Population._--Up to the War of Independence the population was not only
+American, but it was in its ideas and standards essentially Puritan;
+modern liberalism, however, has introduced new standards of social life.
+In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or
+in part of foreign parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian,
+English and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population
+these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0, 6.7 and
+5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but unmixing nations,
+divide among themselves a large part of the city, and give to its life a
+cosmopolitan colour of varied speech, opinion, habits, traditions,
+social relations and religions. Most remarkable of all, the Roman
+Catholic churches, in this stronghold of exiled Puritanism where
+Catholics were so long under the heavy ban of law, outnumber those of
+any single Protestant denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the
+politics of the city, and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned
+against each other on the question of the control of the public schools.
+Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism of the
+city remains strikingly predominant. The population of Boston at the end
+of each decennial period since 1790 was as follows:--(1790), 18,320;
+(1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820), 43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840),
+93,383; (1850), 136,881; (1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880),
+362,839; (1890), 448,477; (1900), 560,892.
+
+_History._--John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it was
+explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were various attempts
+to settle about its borders in the following years before John Endecott
+in 1628 landed at Salem as governor of the colony of Massachusetts bay,
+within which Boston was included. In June 1630 John Winthrop's company
+reached Charlestown. At that time a "bookish recluse," William Blaxton
+(Blackstone), one of the several "old planters" scattered about the bay,
+had for several years been living on Boston peninsula. The location
+seemed one suitable for commerce and defence, and the Winthrop party
+chose it for their settlement. The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of
+which no trace remains to-day (or possibly a reference to the three
+hills of the then peninsula, Beacon, Copp's and Fort) led to the
+adoption of the name Trimountaine for the peninsula,--a name perpetuated
+variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont; but on the
+17th of September 1630, the date adopted for anniversary celebrations,
+it was ordered that "Trimountaine shall be called Boston," after the
+borough of that name in Lincolnshire, England, of which several of the
+leading settlers had formerly been prominent citizens.[4]
+
+For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge, Charlestown or
+Boston should be the capital of the colony, but in 1632 the General
+Court agreed "by general consent, that Boston is the fittest place for
+public meetings of any place in the Bay." It rapidly became the
+wealthiest and most populous. Throughout the 17th century its history is
+so largely that of Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable.
+Theological systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this
+epoch --the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions,
+the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in Boston, in 1648,
+1651, 1656, 1688) &c.--are referred to in the article MASSACHUSETTS
+(q.v.). In 1692 the first permanent and successful printing press was
+established; in 1704 the first newspaper in America, the _Boston
+News-Letter_, which was published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily
+mellowed under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry
+was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half of the 17th
+century was growing material prosperity, and there were those who
+thought their fellows unduly willing to relax church tests of fellowship
+when good trade was in question. There was an unpleasant Englishman who
+declared in 1699 that he found "Money Their God, and Large Possessions
+the only Heaven they Covet." Prices were low, foreign commerce was
+already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the
+official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston "town" was
+drawing society from the "country." Of the two-score or so of families
+most prominent in the first century hardly one retained place in the
+similar list for the early years of the second. Boston was a prosperous,
+thrifty, English country town, one traveller thought. Another, Daniel
+Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation "as polite as in most of the
+cities and towns in England, many of their merchants having the
+advantage of a free conversation with travellers; so that a gentleman
+from London would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he
+observes the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their
+tables, their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and
+showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London."
+
+The population, which was almost stationary through much of the century,
+was about 20,000 in the years immediately before the War of
+Independence. At this time Boston was the most flourishing town of North
+America. It built ships as cheaply as any place in the world, it carried
+goods for other colonies, it traded--often evading British laws--with
+Europe, Guinea, Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The
+merchant princes and social leaders of the time are painted with
+elaborate show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English
+writers of Queen Anne's reign seem to have been but little known in the
+colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat in character,
+showed but scant improvement. About the middle of the century
+restrictions upon the press began to disappear. At the same time
+questions of trade, of local politics, finally of colonial autonomy, of
+imperial policy, had gradually, but already long since, replaced
+theology in leading interest. In the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most
+frequently recurring and most important name in British colonial
+history. Sentiments of limited independence of the British government
+had been developing since the very beginning of the settlement (see
+MASSACHUSETTS), and their strength in 1689 had been strikingly exhibited
+in the local revolution of that year, when the royal governor, Sir
+Edmund Andros, and other high officials, were frightened into surrender
+and were imprisoned. This movement, it should be noted, was a popular
+rising, and not the work of a few leaders.
+
+The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence need
+barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures of the British
+government for taxing and oppressing the colonies began in Boston. The
+argument of Otis on the writs of assistance was in 1760-1761. The Stamp
+Act, passed in 1765, was repealed in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a
+surprising show of determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were
+first quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March, in a
+street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded by the
+soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry. This
+incident is known as the "Boston Massacre." The Tea Act of 1773 was
+defied by the emptying into the harbour of three cargoes of tea on the
+16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens disguised as Indians,
+after the people in town-meeting had exhausted every effort, through a
+period of weeks, to procure the return of the tea-ships to England. To
+this act Great Britain replied by various penal regulations and
+reconstructive acts of government. She quartered troops in Boston; she
+made the juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the
+royal officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia
+or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to abolish
+town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called "Boston Port Bill," she
+closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774. Not even a ferry, a
+scow or other boat could move in the harbour. Marblehead and Salem were
+made ports of entry, and Salem was made the capital. But they would not
+profit by Boston's misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British
+goods and to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours and
+from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement. In October
+1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the Massachusetts general
+court at Salem, the members adjourned to Concord as the first provincial
+congress. Finally came war, with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and
+beleaguerment by the colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the
+British were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With them
+went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest families of
+the city and province. The evacuation closed the heroic period of
+Boston's history. War did not again approach the city.
+
+The years from 1776 to the end of "town" government in 1822 were marked
+by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce and manufactures alike took
+great impetus. Direct trade with the East Indies began about 1785, with
+Russia in 1787. A Boston vessel, the "Columbia" (Captain Robert Gray),
+opened trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first
+American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In 1805 Boston
+began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which was gradually extended
+to Cuba, to ports of the southern states, and finally to Rio de Janeiro
+and Calcutta (1833), declining only after the Civil War; it enabled
+Boston to control the American trade of Calcutta against New York
+throughout the entire period. But of course it was far less important
+than various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of
+commerce. It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the
+embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson. In
+manufactures the foundation was laid of the city's wealth. In politics
+the period is characterized by Boston's connexion with the fortunes of
+the Federalist party. The city was warmly in favour of the adoption of
+the federal constitution of 1787; even Samuel Adams was rejected for
+Congress because he was backward in its support. It was the losses
+entailed upon her commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson's
+administration that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican
+party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition to its
+policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War of 1812, and in
+the Hartford Convention of 1814.
+
+Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement. Unitarian
+tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old Congregational churches
+were plainly evident about 1750, and it is said by Andrew P. Peabody
+(1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly all the Congregational pulpits around
+Boston were filled by Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates
+from 1785. In 1782 King's chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in
+1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard. But
+the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of Channing, was
+very different from that of to-day. Theodore Parker and Channing have
+been the greatest leaders. The American Unitarian Association, organized
+in 1825, has always retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological
+and philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th century
+were characterized by the transcendental movement (see MASSACHUSETTS).
+
+In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the most
+striking feature of Boston's annals. Garrison established the Liberator
+in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the cause of abolition in 1835,
+and Wendell Phillips a little later. In 1835 a mob, composed in part of
+wealthy and high-standing citizens, attacked a city-building, and
+dragged Garrison through the streets until the mayor secured his safety
+by putting him in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given
+in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader, George
+Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians in 1835
+precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court House was
+surrounded with chains to prevent the "rescue" of a slave (Sims) held
+for rendition under the Fugitive Slave Law; another slave (Shadrach) was
+released this same year, and in 1854 there was a riot and intense
+excitement over the rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since
+taken her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the
+rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as in the years
+before the War of Independence.
+
+Later events of importance have already been indicated in essentials. On
+the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire swept the business part of
+the city, destroying hundreds of buildings of brick and granite, and
+inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000. Within two years the whole area,
+solidly rebuilt and with widened and straightened streets, showed no
+traces of the ruin except an appearance superior in all respects to that
+presented before the fire. The expense of this re-creation probably
+duplicated, at least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time
+there has been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not
+upon material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration.
+It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions,
+its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre of
+American culture.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See the annual _City Documents_; also Justin Winsor
+  (ed.) _The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk County ...
+  1630-1880_ (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that covers every
+  phase of the city's growth, history and life; S.A. Drake, _The History
+  and Antiquities of ... Boston_ (2 vols., Boston, 1854; and later
+  editions), and _Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston_
+  (Boston, 1873, and later editions); Josiah Quincy, _A Municipal
+  History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830_ (Boston, 1852); C.W. Ernst,
+  _Constitutional History of Boston_ (Boston, 1894); H.H. Sprague, _City
+  Government in Boston--its Rise and Development_ (Boston, 1890); E.E.
+  Hale, _Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood_ (New York, 1898), and L.
+  Swift, _Literary Landmarks of Boston_ (Boston, 1903). A great mass of
+  original historical documents have been published by the registry
+  department of the city government since 1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston
+  has been described in many works of fiction, and the reader may be
+  referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner, to L. Maria Childs' _The
+  Rebels_, to J.F. Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_, to the early novels of
+  W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates), to O.W. Holmes' _Poet_ and
+  _Autocrat_, and Hawthorne's _Scarlet Letter_, as pictures of Boston
+  life at various periods since early colonial days.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended from
+    1822 to 1880.
+
+  [2] Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable
+    Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of the
+    country, organized in 1638.
+
+  [3] The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft., only
+    750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to rock.
+    The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock, sand or
+    mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected with the
+    reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m. covered
+    masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for the near
+    future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons, reservoirs
+    holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts capable of
+    carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily supply of
+    173,000,000 gallons.
+
+  [4] In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that
+    city's seals, framed in oak from St Botolph's church, of which John
+    Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been
+    vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of
+    Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett, and
+    also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west
+    chapel of St Botolph's church, and to erect in it a memorial tablet
+    to Cotton's memory. The total amount raised by subscription for this
+    purpose was £673.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, a game of cards invented during the last quarter of the 18th
+century. It is said to have originated in Boston, Massachusetts, during
+the siege by the British. It seems to have been invented by the officers
+of the French fleet which lay for a time off the town of Marblehead, and
+the name of the two small islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from
+the period of the American Revolution, been called Great and Little
+Misery, correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor, in
+his _Letters on the Eastern States_, published in 1821, states somewhat
+differently that "A game of cards was invented in Versailles and called
+in honour of the town, Boston; the points of the game are allusive,
+'great independence,' 'little independence,' 'great misery,' 'little
+misery,' &c. It is composed partly of whist and partly of quadrille,
+though partaking mostly of the former." The game enjoyed an
+extraordinary vogue in high French society, where it was the fashion at
+that time to admire all things American. "The ladies... filled my
+pockets with bon-bons, and ... called me _'le pétit Bostonien.'_ It was
+indeed by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in France
+then. The war having broken out in Boston and the first great battle
+fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name universal celebrity. A
+game invented at that time, played with cards, was called 'Boston,' and
+is to this day (1830) exceedingly fashionable at Paris by that
+appellation" (_Recollections of Samuel Breck_, Philadelphia, 1877).
+There was a tradition that Dr Franklin was fond of the game and even
+that he had a hand in its invention. At the middle of the 19th century
+it was still popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its
+favour has steadily declined since then.
+
+  The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ
+  somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former, two
+  packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting
+  and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no
+  partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values,
+  and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first
+  pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for
+  the trump, the suit of the card turned being "first preference," the
+  other suit of the same colour "second preference" or "colour," while
+  the two remaining suits are "plain suits." The eldest hand then
+  announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided he may
+  name the trump, or lose a certain number without trumps. The different
+  bids are called by various names, but the usual ones are as
+  follows:--To win five tricks, "Boston." (To win) "six tricks." (To
+  win) "seven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card
+  that is not shown, "little _misère_." (To win) "eight tricks." (To
+  win) "nine tricks." To lose every trick, "grand _misère_." (To win)
+  "ten tricks." (To win) "eleven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after
+  discarding one card that is not shown, the remaining twelve cards
+  being exposed on the table but not liable to be called, "little
+  spread." (To win) "twelve tricks." To lose every trick with exposed
+  cards, "grand spread." To win thirteen tricks, "grand slam." If a
+  player does not care to bid he may pass, and the next player bids.
+  Succeeding players may "overcall," _i.e_. overbid, previous bidders.
+  Players passing may thereafter bid only "_misères_." If a player bids
+  seven but makes ten he is paid for the three extra tricks, but on a
+  lower scale than if he had bid ten. If no bid should be made, a
+  "_misère partout_" (general poverty) is often played, the trump being
+  turned down and each player striving to take as few tricks as
+  possible. Payments are made by each loser according to the value of
+  the winner's bid and the overtricks he has scored. There are regular
+  tables of payments. In America overtricks are not usually paid for. In
+  French Boston the knave of diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other
+  cards, even trumps. The names of the different bids remind one of the
+  period of the American Revolution, including "Independence,"
+  "Philadelphia," "Souveraine," "Concordia," &c. Other variations of the
+  game are _Boston de Fontainebleau_ and Russian Boston.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTONITE, in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey or pinkish
+rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar (orthoclase,
+microperthite, &c.). Some of them contain a small amount of interstitial
+quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a small percentage of lime,
+which occasions the presence of a plagioclase felspar (maenite,
+gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other minerals, except apatite, zircon and
+magnetite, are typically absent. They have very much the same
+composition as the trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been
+grouped with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as
+dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite; and
+they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain types of
+lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite. Though nowhere very
+common they have a wide distribution, being known from Scotland, Wales,
+Massachusetts, Montreal, Portugal, Bohemia, &c. The lindoites and
+quartz-lindoites of Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB (1797-1866), Swedish philosopher, was born at
+Piteå and studied at Upsala, where from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of
+practical philosophy. His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a
+thoroughgoing rational idealism founded on the principle that the only
+true reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence
+is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space. Thus
+Boström protests not only against empiricism but also against those
+doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to him to picture God as
+something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics the highest aim is the
+direction of actions by reason in harmony with the Divine; so the
+state, like the individual, exists solely in God, and in its most
+perfect form consists in the harmonious obedience of all its members to
+a constitutional monarch; the perfection of mankind as a whole is to be
+sought in a rational orderly system of such states in obedience to
+Universal Reason. This system differs from Platonism in that the "ideas"
+of God are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.
+
+  Boström's writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala, 1883).
+  For his school see SWEDEN: _Literature_; also H. Höffding, _Filosofien
+  i Sverig_ (German trans. in _Philos. Monatsheften_, 1879), and
+  _History of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg,
+  _Hist. of Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, _Om den Boströmske
+  filosofien_ (Lund, 1883), and _Karakteristik af den Boströmska
+  filosofien_ (Lund, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the biographer of
+Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the 29th of October 1740. His
+grandfather was in good practice at the Scottish bar, and his father,
+Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, was also a noted advocate, who, on his
+elevation to the supreme court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire
+property as Lord Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful
+evidence to have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was
+killed at Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its
+position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots nobility. In
+contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian Whig, James was "a
+fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed for King James until his
+uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to pray for King George, which he
+accordingly did" ("Whigs of all ages are made in the same way" was
+Johnson's comment). He met one or two English boys, and acquired a
+"tincture of polite letters" at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L.
+Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors at the
+Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father. At the
+university, where he was constrained for a season to study civil law, he
+met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and correspondent. The
+letters of Boswell to his "Atticus" were first published by Bentley in
+1857. One winter he spent at Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who
+was then lecturing on moral philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+In 1760 he was first brought into contact with "the elegance, the
+refinement and the liberality" of London society, for which he had long
+sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to Newmarket and introduced
+him into the society of "the great, the gay and the ingenious." He wrote
+a poem called "The Cub at Newmarket," published by Dodsley in 1762, and
+had visions of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by
+his father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived to
+alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing his
+acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the northern
+capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume and Sir David
+Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the Northern Circuit he
+kept a brief journal. Boswell had already realized his vocation, the
+exercise of which was to give a new word to the language. He had begun
+to Boswellize. He was already on the track of bigger game--the biggest
+available in the Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came
+to a composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit of
+a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition that
+his father would allow him to study civil law on the continent. He set
+out in April 1763 by "the best road in Scotland" with a servant, on
+horseback like himself, in "a cocked hat, a brown wig, brown coat made
+in the court fashion, red vest, corduroy small clothes and long military
+boots." On Monday, the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies
+the bookseller, No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first
+met "Dictionary Johnson," the great man of his dreams, and was severely
+buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday, the 24th of May, Boswell
+boldly called on Mr Johnson at his chambers on the first floor of No. 1
+Inner Temple Lane. On this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the
+13th of June he said, "Come to me as often as you can"; on the 25th of
+June Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and
+Johnson exclaimed with warmth, "Give me your hand; I have taken a
+liking to you." Boswell experienced a variety of sensations, among which
+exultation was predominant. Some one asked, "Who is this Scotch cur at
+Johnson's heels?" "He is not a cur," replied Goldsmith, "he is only a
+bur. Tom Davies flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of
+sticking." Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell twenty-three.
+After June 1763 they met on something like 270 subsequent days. These
+meetings formed the memorable part of Boswell's life, and they are told
+inimitably in his famous biography of his friend.
+
+The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies, and
+one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole banquet of letters, was not
+so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately maintained. Boswell's
+freshness at the table of conversation gave a new zest to every maxim
+that Johnson enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for
+interpreting the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so
+unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding the task-work
+of life. Johnson's favourite indulgence was to talk; Boswell's great
+idea of success to elicit memorable conversation. Boswell is almost
+equally admirable as a reporter and as an interviewer, as a collector
+and as a researcher. He prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared
+topics for him, he drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a
+copy of his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost
+verbatim report of Johnson's interview with the king, he frequented the
+tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old scholar on lengthy
+peregrinations in the Highlands and in the midlands. "Sir," said Johnson
+to his follower, "you appear to have only two subjects, yourself and me,
+and I am sick of both." Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset,
+and admirable as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far
+too volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that
+was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and notoriety. He
+would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol Wilkes, or Chatham, or
+Voltaire, or even the great Frederick himself. As it was, during his
+continental tour he managed in the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with
+Pasquale di Paoli, the leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise
+struggle against Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to
+London in February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost
+cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he was
+now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his return to the law
+by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled _The Essence of the Douglas Cause_
+(November 1767), in which he vigorously repelled the charge of imposture
+from the youthful claimant. In the same year he issued a little book
+called _Dorando_, containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise
+of a Spanish tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph
+of Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published extracts
+while the case was still _sub judice_ were censured severely by the
+court of session; but though his identity was notorious the author
+himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768 Boswell published through
+the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his _Account of Corsica, Journal of a
+Tour to that Island, and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli_. The liveliness of
+personal impression which he managed to communicate to all his books
+gained for this one a deserved success, and the _Tour_ was promptly
+translated into French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others,
+jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli Boswell or
+Paoli's Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of identifying him at
+the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the trouble to insert a placard
+in his hat bearing the legend "Corsica Boswell." The amazing costume of
+"a Corsican chief" which he wore on this occasion was described at
+length in the magazines.
+
+On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland undertaken
+to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson's emphatic direction), Boswell
+married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some
+years henceforth his visits to London were brief, but on the 30th of
+April 1773 he was present at his admission to the Literary Club, for
+which honour he had been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn
+of this year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited
+the Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell's father nor his wife shared
+his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck remarked that
+Jamie was "gane clean gyte ... And whose tail do ye think he has pinned
+himself to now, man? A dominie, an auld dominie, that keepit a schule
+and ca'd it an academy!" Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might
+have objected to Johnson's habit of turning lighted candles upside down
+when in the parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a
+bear. Boswell's _Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides_ was written for the
+most part during the journey, but was not published until the spring of
+1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the public, and Boswell's
+indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in him by the neat ladies'
+maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of drunkenness which he exhibited
+at Corrichatachin, created a literary sensation and sent the _Tour_
+through three editions in one year. In the meantime his pecuniary and
+other difficulties at home were great; he made hardly more than £100 a
+year by his profession, and his relations with his father were
+chronically strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple
+and managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John Wilkes
+he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous dinner at Dilly's
+on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August 1782 his father died,
+leaving him an estate worth £1600 a year. On the 30th of June 1784,
+Boswell met Johnson for the last time at a dinner at Sir Joshua
+Reynolds's. He accompanied him back in the coach from Leicester Square
+to Bolt Court. "We bade adieu to each other affectionately in the
+carriage. When he had got down upon the foot pavement he called out
+'Fare you well'; and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of
+pathetic briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to
+indicate a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a
+foreboding of our long, long separation." Johnson died that year, and
+two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs Boswell died,
+leaving five children. She had been an excellent mother and a good wife,
+despite the infidelities and drunkenness of her husband, and from her
+death Boswell relapsed into worse excesses, grievously aggravated by
+hypochondria. He died of a complication of disorders at his house in
+Great Poland Street on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight
+later at Auchinleck.
+
+Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his magnum
+opus, _The Life of Samuel Johnson_, which was in process of
+crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in two
+quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May 1791. He
+was preparing a third edition when he died; this was completed by his
+friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth edition in 1807. That of
+James Boswell junior (the editor of Malone's _Variorum Shakespeare_,
+1821) appeared in 1811.
+
+The _Life of Johnson_ was written on a scale practically unknown to
+biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the blotches
+and pimples revealed ("I will not make my tiger a cat to please
+anybody," wrote "Bozzy"). It may be overmuch an exhibition of oddities,
+but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer application of the
+experimental method to the determination of human character. Its size
+and lack of divisions (to divide it into chapters was an original device
+of Croker's) are a drawback, and have prevented Boswell's _Life_ from
+that assured triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various
+English classics such as _Robinson Crusoe_ or _Gulliver's Travels_. But
+wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred book and
+has pervaded English life and thought in the same way, that the Bible,
+Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell has successfully (to use his
+own phrase) "Johnsonized" Britain, but has not yet Johnsonized the
+planet. The model originally proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason's
+_Life of Gray_, but he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model.
+The fashion that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the
+neutral tints of _oratio obliqua_ but in full _oratio recta_ was a
+stroke of genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical
+transmitter of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of
+the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates a
+certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell exaggerates
+the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson for some of his own
+tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the best judges are of opinion that
+Boswell's accuracy is exceptional, as it is undoubtedly seconded by a
+power of observation of a singular retentiveness and intensity. The
+difficulty of dramatic description can only be realized, as Jowett well
+pointed out, by those who have attempted it, and it is not until we
+compare Boswell's reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can
+appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation is
+extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling touches. The
+result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early days of his
+poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature, but in the fulness
+of fame and competence of fortune from 1763 to 1784, is better known to
+us than any other man in history. The old theory to explain such a
+marvel (originally propounded by Gray when the _Tour in Corsica_
+appeared) that "any fool may write a valuable book by chance" is now
+regarded as untenable. If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his
+folly was at times transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not
+in despite of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact,
+that he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his
+opportunities just as he prepared his transitions and introduced those
+inimitable glosses by which Johnson's motives are explained, his state
+of mind upon particular occasions indicated, and the general feeling of
+his company conveyed. This remarkable literary faculty, however, was but
+a fraction of the total make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece
+as the _Life_. There is a touch of genius, too, in the naïf and
+imperturbable good nature and persistency ("Sir, I will not be baited
+with 'what' and 'why.' 'Why is a cow's tail long?' 'Why is a fox's tail
+bushy?'"), and even in the abnegation of all personal dignity, with
+which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself said of Goldsmith, "He had
+sagacity enough to cultivate assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson,
+and his faculties were gradually enlarged." Character, the vital
+principle of the individual, is the _ignis fatuus_ of the mechanical
+biographer. Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means--witness
+Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude--but it has never been
+attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell in his _Life of
+Johnson_. The more we study Boswell, the more we compare him with other
+biographers, the greater his work appears.
+
+  The eleventh edition of Boswell's _Johnson_ was brought out by John
+  Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded by
+  numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep in
+  annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and mutually
+  corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value as an
+  unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before the last
+  links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been adequately
+  recognized. A new edition of the original text was issued in 1874 by
+  Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful life of James Boswell
+  in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition, including the _Tour_
+  and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev. Alexander Napier in 1884;
+  the definitive edition is that by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887,
+  with copious annotations and a model index. A generously illustrated
+  edition was completed in 1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen,
+  and reprints of value have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with
+  woodcuts), A. Birrell, Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin
+  Dobson. A short biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith
+  Leask. Boswell's commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the
+  title of _Boswelliana_, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers.
+       (T. Se.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in
+Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton, whence he proceeded to Aberdeen
+University, he became in 1817 vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire,
+and devoted his spare time to literature and particularly to the study
+of Anglo-Saxon. In 1823 appeared his _Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+In 1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam and
+then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840, working there on
+his _Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language_ (1838), his best-known
+work. In 1857 he became rector of Water Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and
+in the following year was appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon
+at Oxford. He gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 £10,000 for
+the establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the
+27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on the
+Anglo-Saxon charters.
+
+
+
+
+BOTANY (from Gr. [Greek: botanae], plant; [Greek: bodkein], to graze),
+the science which includes everything relating to the vegetable kingdom,
+whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a consideration of
+the external forms of plants--of their anatomical structure, however
+minute--of the functions which they perform --of their arrangement and
+classification--of their distribution over the globe at the present and
+at former epochs--and of the uses to which they are subservient. It
+examines the plant in its earliest state of development, and follows it
+through all its stages of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a
+comprehensive view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the
+minutest organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the
+most gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which
+subsist between all members of the plant world, including those between
+existing groups and those which are known only from their fossilized
+remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here with the history and
+evolution of the science.
+
+The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries must
+necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest
+times. The science that treats of them dates back to the days of
+Solomon, who "spake of trees, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop on
+the wall." The Chaldaeans, Egyptians and Greeks were the early
+cultivators of science, and botany was not neglected, although the study
+of it was mixed up with crude speculations as to vegetable life, and as
+to the change of plants into animals. About 300 years before Christ
+Theophrastus wrote a _History of Plants_, and described about 500
+species used for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer,
+who appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work on
+Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand plants, many
+of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic and Arabian writers
+also took up this subject. Little, however, was done in the science of
+botany, properly so called, until the 16th century of the Christian era,
+when the revival of learning dispelled the darkness which had long hung
+over Europe. Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as
+the restorer of the science in Europe. In his _Herbarium_, printed at
+Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number of
+plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful
+woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,--Leonhard Fuchs, whose
+_Historia Stirpium_ (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note for its
+excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose _Kreutter Buch_ appeared in
+1539; and William Turner, "The Father of English Botany," the first part
+of whose _New Herbal_, printed in English, was issued in 1551. The
+descriptions in these early works were encumbered with much medicinal
+detail, including speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which
+were strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first
+little attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on
+the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was gradually
+evolved, and is well illustrated in the _Herbal_, issued in 1597 by John
+Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who had a garden in Holborn, and
+was a keen student of British plants.
+
+One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of plants was
+made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603), who is called by
+Linnaeus _primus verus systematicus_. In his work _De Plantis_,
+published at Florence in 1583, he distributed the 1520 plants then known
+into fifteen classes, the distinguishing characters being taken from the
+fruit.
+
+John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of botany, and was
+also a good zoologist. He promulgated a system which may be considered
+as the dawn of the "natural system" of the present day (Ray, _Methodus
+Plantarum_, 1682). He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and
+divided the former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or
+"classes") were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the
+affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in his
+enlightened views of arrangement.
+
+About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison[1] (1620-1683), the first
+professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic arrangement of
+plants, largely on the lines previously suggested by Caesalpinus. He
+divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing plants according as
+they were woody or herbaceous, and taking into account the nature of the
+flowers and fruit. In 1690 Rivinus[2] promulgated a classification
+founded chiefly on the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort[3]
+(1656-1708), who about the same time took up the subject of vegetable
+taxonomy, was long at the head of the French school of botany, and
+published a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about 8000
+species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two classes, chiefly
+according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing herbs and
+under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on the other. The
+system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted on the continent, but
+was ultimately displaced by that of Carl von Linné, or Linnaeus (q.v.;
+1707-1778).
+
+The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived from the
+stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the flower, and
+hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an artificial method,
+because it takes into account only a few marked characters in plants,
+and does not propose to unite them by natural affinities. It is an index
+to a department of the book of nature, and as such is useful to the
+student. It does not aspire to any higher character, and although it
+cannot be looked upon as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it
+has a certain facility of application which at once commended it. It
+does not of itself give the student a view of the true relations of
+plants, and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is
+only a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself claimed
+nothing higher for it. He says--"Methodi Naturalis fragmenta studiose
+inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc in botanicis desideratum est.
+Natura non facit saltus. Plantae omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant,
+uti territorium in mappa geographica." Accordingly, besides his
+artificial index, he also promulgated fragments of a natural method of
+arrangement.
+
+The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James Edward Smith
+(1759-1828), who adopted it in his _English Flora_, and who also became
+possessor of the Linnean collection. The system was for a long time the
+only one taught in the schools of Britain, even after it had been
+discarded by those in France and in other continental countries.
+
+The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th centuries did
+much in the way of advancing botany. They were at first appropriated
+chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants. This was especially the
+case at universities, where medical schools existed. The first botanic
+garden was established at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of
+Pisa. The garden at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579.
+Gardens also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier
+garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg in
+1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin des Plantes at
+Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala garden in 1627. The
+botanic garden at Oxford was founded in 1632. The garden at Edinburgh
+was founded by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and,
+under the name of the Physic Garden, was placed under the
+superintendence of James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in
+the university. The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when Frederick,
+prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House and its gardens from
+the Capel family. After his death in 1751 his widow, Princess Augusta of
+Saxe-Gotha, showed great interest in their scientific development, and
+in 1759 engaged William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden
+of the Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796; that of
+Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow in 1818. The
+Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of Coimbra from 1773. Jean
+Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician and botanist, states that at the
+end of the 18th century there were 1600 botanic gardens in Europe.
+
+A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of Antoine
+Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de Jussieu, had
+adopted the principles of Linnaeus's _Fragmenta_ in his arrangement of
+the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon. At an early age Antoine
+became botanical demonstrator in the Jardin des Plantes, and was thus
+led to devote his time to the science of botany. Being called upon to
+arrange the plants in the garden, he necessarily had to consider the
+best method of doing so, and, following the lines already suggested by
+his uncle, adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray,
+in which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted the
+simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the natural
+affinities of plants. His _Genera Plantarum_, begun in 1778, and finally
+published in 1789, was an important advance, and formed the basis of all
+natural classifications. One of the early supporters of this natural
+method was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813
+published his _Théorie élémentaire de la botanique_, in which he showed
+that the affinities of plants are to be sought by the comparative study
+of the form and development of organs (morphology), not of their
+functions (physiology). His _Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni
+Vegetabilis_ was intended to embrace an arrangement and description of
+all known plants. The work was continued after his death, by his son
+Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent botanists, and
+embraces descriptions of the genera and species of the orders of
+Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by de Candolle is a
+modification of that of Jussieu.
+
+In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require to have a
+thorough knowledge of structural and morphological botany, and hence we
+find that the advances made in these departments have materially aided
+the efforts of systematic botanists.
+
+Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to support and
+advocate the natural system of classification. The publication of his
+_Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae_ (in 1810), according to the natural
+method, led the way to the adoption of that method in the universities
+and schools of Britain. In 1827 Brown announced his important discovery
+of the distinction between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the
+philosophical character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him
+as "Botanicorum facile princeps." In 1830 John Lindley published the
+first edition of his _Introduction to the Natural System_, embodying a
+slight modification of de Candolle's system. From the year 1832 up to
+1859 great advances were made in systematic botany, both in Britain and
+on the continent of Europe. The _Enchiridion_ and _Genera Plantarum_ of
+S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849), the _Prodromus_ of de Candolle, and the
+_Vegetable Kingdom_ (1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic
+botany, according to the natural system.
+
+The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned with
+the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with the higher or
+flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development of the compound
+microscope rendered possible the accurate study of their life-histories;
+and the publication in 1851 of the results of Wilhelm Hofmeister's
+researches on the comparative embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed
+a flood of light on their relationships to each other and to the higher
+plants, and supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups
+Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last named
+including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.
+
+A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are
+frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has been much
+used in Great Britain and in America, is that of Bentham and Hooker,
+whose _Genera Plantarum_ (1862-1883) is a descriptive account of all the
+genera of flowering plants, based on their careful examination. The
+arrangement is a modification of that adopted by the de Candolles.
+Another system differing somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler
+(Berlin, 1883), a modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf
+Engler of Berlin, the principal editor of _Die natrürliche
+Pflanzenfamilien_.
+
+The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not keep pace with
+the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew and his contemporary
+Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers in the department of
+plant anatomy. Both authors laid an account of the results of their
+study of plant structure before the Royal Society of London almost at
+the same time in 1671. Malpighi's complete work, _Anatome Plantarum_,
+appeared in 1675 and Grew's _Anatomy of Plants_ in 1682. For more than a
+hundred years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802
+appeared the _Traité d'anatomie et de physiologie végétale_ of C.F.B. de
+Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other publications by
+Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864), and others. In 1812 J.J.
+P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by maceration of tissues in water. The
+work of F.J.F. Meyen and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century
+placed the study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference
+must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger
+(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nägeli's investigations on molecular
+structure and the growth of the cell membrane we recognize the origin of
+modern methods of the study of cell-structure included under cytology
+(q.v.). The work of Karl Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the
+structure and development of tissues, while A. de Bary's _Comparative
+Anatomy of the Phanerogams and Ferns_ (1877) supplied an admirable
+presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work has been
+carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and others, who have
+sought to correlate the large mass of facts and to find some general
+underlying principles (see PLANTS: _Anatomy of_).
+
+The subject of fertilization was one which early excited attention. The
+idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants was entertained in
+early times, long before separate male and female organs had been
+demonstrated. The production of dates in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of
+flowers into contact, proves that in very remote periods some notions
+were entertained on the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated,
+and wild ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them.
+Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that there were
+male and female date-trees, and that the female required the concurrence
+of the male to become fertile. This fact was also known to the
+Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other nations of Asia and Africa. The
+Babylonians suspended male clusters from wild dates over the females;
+but they seem to have supposed that the fertility thus produced depended
+on the presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by
+entering the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process
+was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle in his
+school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the sexes of plants,
+but he does not appear to have determined the organs of reproduction.
+Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian, speaks particularly of a male and
+female palm, but his statements were not founded on any real knowledge
+of the organs. From Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome
+in 1603, there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the
+reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention directed to
+the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation from the male
+plants causing fertility in the female.
+
+Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a paper on
+the _Anatomy of Plants_, read before the Royal Society in November 1676,
+the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up to this period all was
+vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the _attire_, or the stamens, as being
+the male parts, and refers to conversations with Sir Thomas Millington,
+Sedleian professor at Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory
+seems really to belong. Grew says that "when the attire or apices break
+or open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus, and
+touches it with a prolific virtue." Ray adopted Grew's views, and states
+various arguments to prove their correctness in the preface to his work
+on European plants, published in 1694. In 1694 R.J. Camerarius,
+professor of botany and medicine at Tübingen, published a letter on the
+sexes of plants, in which he refers to the stamens and pistils as the
+organs of reproduction, and states the difficulties he had encountered
+in determining the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland,
+in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina
+(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be conveyed
+into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific. In this
+remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the discoveries
+afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly the peculiar
+views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711 E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir
+presented to the Royal Academy at Paris, supported the views of Grew and
+others as to the sexes of plants. He states that the germ is never to be
+seen in the seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if
+the stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either not
+ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments made by
+him to prove this--one by cutting off the staminal flowers in Maize, and
+the other by rearing the female plant of Mercurialis apart from the
+male. In these instances most of the flowers were abortive, but a few
+were fertile, which he attributes to the dust of the apices having been
+wafted by the wind from other plants.
+
+Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual system.
+He first published his views in 1736, and he thus writes--"Antheras et
+stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio,
+Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo, Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio,
+Bradleyo, Royeno, Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili
+assumptum; nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae
+flores, latere potest." He divided plants into sexual and asexual, the
+former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter Cryptogamous or
+flowerless. In the latter division of plants he could not detect stamens
+and pistils, and he did not investigate the mode in which their germs
+were produced. He was no physiologist, and did not promulgate any views
+as to the embryogenic process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the
+arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive botany
+made great advances the physiological department of the science was
+neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at once by all, for we
+find Charles Alston stating arguments against them in his _Dissertation
+on the Sexes of Plants_. Alston's observations were founded on what
+occurred in certain unisexual plants, such as Mercurialis, Spinach,
+Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The conclusion at which he arrives is that the
+pollen is not in all flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for
+fertile seeds can be produced without its influence. He supports
+parthenogenesis in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of
+Linnaeus's method of classification, the attention of botanists was
+directed to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of
+Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses made its
+appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point out the existence
+of certain cellular bodies in these plants which appeared to perform the
+functions of reproductive organs, and to them the names of antheridia
+and pistillidia were given. This opened up a new field of research, and
+led the way in the study of Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since
+been much advanced by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The
+interesting observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been
+neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he had
+pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know that the
+scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application to the
+stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect seed, but the
+stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored. The matter
+seemed involved in mystery, and no one attempted to raise the veil which
+hung over the subject of embryogeny. The general view was, that the
+embryo originated in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner
+fertilized by the pollen.
+
+In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused the
+attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but although he
+made valuable researches, he did not add much in the way of new
+information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the existence of pollen
+tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart and R. Brown. The latter
+traced the tubes as far as the nucleus of the ovule. These important
+discoveries mark a new epoch in embryology, and may be said to be the
+foundation of the views now entertained, which were materially aided by
+the subsequent elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or
+cell-development, by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole
+subject of fertilization and development of the embryo has been more
+recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards both
+cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must be sought in the
+various special articles. The observations of Darwin as to the
+fertilization of orchids, _Primula, Linum_ and _Lythrum_, and other
+plants, and the part which insects take in this function, gave an
+explanation of the observations of Christian Konrad Sprengel, made at
+the close of the 18th century, and opened up a new phase in the study of
+botany, which has been followed by Hermann Müller, Federico Delpino and
+others, and more recently by Paul Knuth.
+
+One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen Hales. In
+his _Statical Essays_ (1727) he gave an account of numerous experiments
+and observations which he had made on the nutrition of plants and the
+movement of sap in them. He showed that the gaseous constituents of the
+air contribute largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves
+are the organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in
+nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short account
+of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical work. The birth
+of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley and Lavoisier, at the
+close of the 18th century, made possible the scientific study of
+plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in 1779 discovered that plants
+incessantly give out carbonic acid gas, but that the green leaves and
+shoots only exhale oxygen in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby
+indicating the distinction between assimilation of carbonic acid gas
+(photosynthesis) and respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave
+precision to the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative
+methods. The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further
+studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century, and
+Liebig's application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology put
+beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere and the soil in the
+nutrition of plants.
+
+The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted the
+attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements of the leaf of
+Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature. Linnaeus also studied
+the periodical movements of flowers and leaves, and referred to the
+assumption of the night-position as the sleep-movement. Early in the
+19th century Andrew Knight showed by experiment that the vertical growth
+of stems and roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made
+other observations on the relation between the position assumed by plant
+organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet, H. von Mohl
+and others contributed to the advance of this phase of plant physiology.
+Darwin's experiments in reference to the movements of climbing and
+twining plants, and of leaves in insectivorous plants, have opened up a
+wide field of inquiry as to the relation between plants and the various
+external factors, which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of
+Julius Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a
+scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of plants,
+for the development of which reference may be made to the article
+PLANTS: _Physiology_. The study of form and development has advanced
+under the name "morphology," with the progress of which are associated
+the names of K. Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while
+more recently, as cytology (q.v.), the intimate study of the cell and
+its contents has attracted considerable attention.
+
+The department of geographical botany made rapid advance by means of the
+various scientific expeditions which have been sent to all quarters of
+the globe, as well as by individual effort (see PLANTS: _Distribution_)
+since the time of A. von Humboldt. The question of the mode in which the
+floras of islands and of continents have been formed gave rise to
+important speculations by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles
+Darwin, Sir J.D. Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion
+between climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently
+under the name of "Ecology" or "Oecology" the study of plants in
+relation to each other and to their environment has become the subject
+of systematic investigation.
+
+The subject of palaeontological botany (see PALAEOBOTANY) has been
+advanced by the researches of both botanists and geologists. The nature
+of the climate at different epochs of the earth's history has also been
+determined from the character of the flora. The works of A.T.
+Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and W.P. Schimper advanced this department of
+science. Among others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may
+be noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the Miocene
+flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta (1823-1895), who
+examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson and Leo Lesquereux, and
+others who reported on the Canadian and American fossil plants. In Great
+Britain also W.C. Williamson, by his study of the structure of the
+plants of the coal-measures, opened up a new line of research which has
+been followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and others,
+and has led to important discoveries on the nature of extinct groups of
+plants and also on the phylogeny of existing groups.
+
+Botany may be divided into the following departments:--
+
+1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of the various
+parts, including (a) Morphology, the study of the general form of the
+organs and their development--this will be treated in a series of
+articles dealing with the great subdivisions of plants (see ANGIOSPERMS,
+GYMNOSPERMS, PTERIDOPHYTA, BRYOPHYTA, ALGAE, LICHENS, FUNGI and
+BACTERIOLOGY) and the more important organs (see STEM, LEAF, ROOT,
+FLOWER, FRUIT); (b) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including
+minute anatomy or histology (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_).
+
+2. Cytology (q.v.), the intimate structure and behaviour of the cell and
+its contents--protoplasm, nucleus, &c.
+
+3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire plant and
+its organs (see PLANTS: _Physiology_).
+
+4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants (see PLANTS:
+_Classification_).
+
+5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of the
+distribution of plants on the earth's surface (see PLANTS:
+_Distribution_).
+
+6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various strata
+of which the earth is composed (see PALAEOBOTANY).
+
+7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each other
+and to their environment (see PLANTS: _Ecology_).
+
+Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science, there are
+various applications of botany, such as forestry (see FORESTS AND
+FORESTRY), agriculture (q.v.), horticulture (q.v.), and materia medica
+(for use in medicine; see the separate articles on each plant).
+     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Morison, _Pradudia Botanica_ (1672); _Plantarum Historia
+    Universalis_ (1680).
+
+  [2] Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann, _Introductio
+    genetatis in Rem Herbariam_ (Lipsiae, 1690).
+
+  [3] Tournefort, _Élémens de botanique_ (1694); _Institutiones Rei
+    Herbariae_ (1700).
+
+
+
+
+BOTANY BAY, an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney. On its shore is the
+township of Botany, forming a suburb of Sydney, with which it is
+connected by a tramway. It was first visited by Captain Cook in 1770,
+who landed at a spot marked by a monument, and took possession of the
+territory for the crown. The bay received its name from Joseph Banks,
+the botanist of the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora.
+When, on the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict
+establishments in America were no longer available (see DEPORTATION and
+NEW SOUTH WALES), the attention of the British government, then under
+the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay; and in 1787 Commodore
+Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form a penal settlement there.
+Finding, on his arrival, however, that the locality was ill suited for
+such a purpose, he removed northwards to the site of the present city of
+Sydney. The name of Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy,
+and continued to be used in a general way for any convict establishment
+in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South Wales was
+discontinued in 1840.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHA, LOUIS (1862-   ), Boer general and statesman, was the son of one
+of the "Voortrekkers," and was born on the 27th of September 1862 at
+Greytown (Natal). He saw active service in savage warfare, and in 1887
+served as a field-cornet. Subsequently he settled in the Vryheid
+district, which he represented in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of
+1899 he served at first under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon
+rose to higher commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles
+of Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great a
+reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made
+commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was again
+demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August 23-28, 1900),
+and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the Boer resistance with a
+view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In this task, and in the subsequent
+operations of the war, he was aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey
+and de Wet. The success of his measures was seen in the steady
+resistance offered by the Boers to the very close of the three years'
+war. He was the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace
+negotiations of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited
+Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their
+former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British rule,
+General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of the Boer
+people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating always measures
+which he considered as tending to the maintenance of peace and good
+order and the re-establishment of prosperity in the Transvaal. After the
+grant of self-government to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was
+called upon by Lord Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of
+the same year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held
+in London. During his visit to England on this occasion General Botha
+declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to the British
+empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of the country
+regardless of racial differences. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+BOTHNIA, GULF OF, the northern part of the Baltic Sea (q.v.). The name
+is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of which the western
+part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in Finland.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, 4TH EARL OF, duke of Orkney and Shetland (c.
+1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of
+Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about
+1536. His father, Patrick, the 3rd earl (c. 1512-1556), was the only son
+of Adam, the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of
+Patrick (d. c. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell. It was
+this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes. Having
+fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488, he
+was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with the earldom of Bothwell,
+the office of lord high admiral and other dignities. He also received
+many grants of land, including the lordship of Bothwell, which had been
+taken from John Ramsay, Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James
+III.
+
+James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father's titles, lands and
+hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of Scotland.
+Though a Protestant, he supported the government of Mary of Guise,
+showed himself violently anti-English, and led a raid into England,
+subsequently in 1559 meeting the English commissioners and signing
+articles for peace on the border. The same year he seized £1000 secretly
+sent by Elizabeth to the lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran
+occupied and stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in
+November sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December
+he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560 was
+despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on the way, where he
+either married or seduced Anne, daughter of Christopher Thorssen, whom
+he afterwards deserted, and who came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain
+redress. He joined Mary at Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by
+her as a commissioner to summon the parliament; in February he arrived
+in Edinburgh and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September.
+He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his various
+rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan disorders, and was
+ordered in December to leave the city. In March 1562, having made up his
+quarrel with Arran, he was accused of having proposed to the latter a
+project for seizing the queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh
+castle, whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the
+23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray's influence,
+however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for France, but was
+driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he was detained, and was
+subsequently, on the 18th of January 1564, seized at Berwick and sent by
+Elizabeth to the Tower, whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to
+France. After these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565,
+but withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents to
+France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to aid in the
+suppression of Murray's rebellion, successfully eluding the ships of
+Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the Marches he was
+employed in settling disputes on the border, but used his power to
+instigate thieving and disorders, and is described by Cecil's
+correspondents as "as naughty a man as liveth and much given to the most
+detestable vices," "as false as a devil," "one that the godly of this
+whole nation hath a cause to curse for ever."[1] In February 1566
+Bothwell, in spite of his previous matrimonial engagements--and he had
+also been united by "handfasting" to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun
+Riddell--married Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly.
+Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the fact that
+he was the "stoutest" in refusing mass, he became one of her chief
+advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her mind and affections dates
+from the murder of Rizzio on the 9th of March 1566. The queen required a
+protector, whom she found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the
+leaders of the factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever
+been a stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party and
+English influence. In Bothwell also, "the glorious, rash and hazardous
+young man," romantic, handsome, charming even in his guilt, Mary gained
+what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He now stood forth as her
+champion; Mary took refuge with him at Dunbar, presented him, among
+other estates, with the castle there and the chief lands of the earldom
+of March, and made him the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland.
+Her partiality for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley
+became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was dangerously wounded,
+and the queen showed her anxiety for his safety by riding 40 miles to
+visit him, incurring a severe illness. In November she visited him at
+Dunbar, and in December took place the conference at Craigmillar at
+which both were present, and at which the disposal of Darnley was
+arranged, Bothwell with some others subsequently signing the bond to
+accomplish his murder. He himself superintended all the preparations,
+visiting Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of
+February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood for the
+ball, and riding back to Kirk o' Field to carry out the crime. After the
+explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and feigned surprise at the
+receipt of the news half an hour later, ascribing the catastrophe to
+"the strangest accident that ever chancit, to wit, the fouder
+(lightning) came out of the luft (sky) and had burnt the king's
+house."[2]
+
+Bothwell's power was now greater, and the queen's affection for him more
+ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that she cared not to
+lose France, England and her own country for him, and would go with him
+to the world's end in a white petticoat ere she left him.[3] He was
+gratified with further rewards, and his success was clouded by no stings
+of conscience or remorse. According to Melville he had designs on the
+life of the young prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley's father,
+Bothwell was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been
+forbidden to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused to
+attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen's intention to
+marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret before the issue of
+the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of April he obtained the
+consent and support of the Protestant lords, who signed a bond in his
+favour. On the 24th he seized Mary's willing person near Edinburgh, and
+carried her to his castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell's
+divorce from his wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of
+his adultery with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic
+court on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who
+now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation for
+the marriage,[4] and in consequence it is extremely doubtful whether
+according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell and Mary were ever husband
+and wife. On the 12th Bothwell was created duke of Orkney and Shetland
+and the marriage took place on the 15th according to the Protestant
+usage, the Roman Catholic rite being performed, according to some
+accounts, afterwards in addition.[5]
+
+Bothwell's triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles, both Protestant
+and Roman Catholic, now immediately united to effect his destruction. In
+June Mary and Bothwell fled from Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence
+Bothwell, on the place being surrounded by Morton and his followers,
+escaped to Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched
+with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the 15th of
+June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the nobles to single
+combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the challenge. Meanwhile,
+during the negotiations, the queen's troops had been deserting; a
+surrender became inevitable, and Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting
+from Mary for ever. Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north,
+visited Orkney and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a
+band of pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived
+at Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first wife or
+victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the gift of a ship
+and promises of an annuity, and on his identity becoming known he was
+sent by the authorities to Copenhagen, where he arrived on the 30th of
+September. He wrote _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_, exhibiting
+himself as the victim of the malice of his enemies, and gained King
+Frederick II.'s goodwill by an offer to restore the Orkneys and
+Shetlands to Denmark. In consequence the king allowed him to remain at
+Copenhagen, and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568
+he was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently with
+Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration, and a new
+suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary demanded a divorce, on
+pleas which recall those of Henry VIII. in the matter of Catherine of
+Aragon. The divorce was finally granted by the pope in September 1570 on
+the ground of her prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,[6] and met with no
+opposition from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell's good
+treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was removed to
+the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand. Here the close and
+solitary confinement, and the dreary and hopeless inactivity to which he
+was condemned, proved a terrible punishment for the full-blooded,
+energetic and masterful Bothwell. He sank into insanity, and died on the
+14th of April 1578. He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a
+coffin, doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait
+was taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum of
+the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called death-bed
+confession is not genuine.
+
+He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, FRANCIS STEWART HEPBURN,
+who, through his father, John Stewart, prior of Coldingham, was a
+grandson of King James V., and was thus related to Mary, queen of Scots,
+and the regent Murray, was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord
+high admiral of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the
+court of James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants
+was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart's death should be
+avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he suffered a short
+imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this time he had completely
+lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned, this time on a charge of
+witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in 1591, and was deprived by
+parliament of his lands and titles; as an outlaw his career was one of
+extraordinary lawlessness. In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood
+palace, and in 1593 he captured the king, forcing from him a promise of
+pardon. But almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life,
+and, although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take
+refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July 1614. This
+earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and
+  authorities; _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_ (written January 1568,
+  publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829); "Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell," in
+  G. Chalmers's _Life of Mary, Queen of Scots_ (1818); _Life of
+  Bothwell_, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880); _Pièces et documents relatifs
+  au comte de Bothwell_, by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856); _Appendix to the
+  Hist. of Scotland_, by G. Buchanan (1721); _Sir James Melville's
+  Memoirs_ (Bannatyne Club, 1827); _A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary,
+  Queen of Scots_, by J. Stuart (1874); J.H. Burton's _Hist. of
+  Scotland_ (1873); A. Lang's _Hist. of Scotland_, ii. (1902);
+  _Archaeologia_, xxxviii. 308; _Cal. of State Papers, Foreign,
+  Scottish, Venetian_, vii; _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, xix. and xx.,
+  _Domestic, Border Papers_; _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of
+  Salisbury_, i. ii. See also MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679._
+
+  [2] _Sir James Melville's Mem. 174._
+
+  [3] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568_, p. 212.
+
+  [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ Rep. ii. p. 177.
+
+  [5] _Cal. of State Pap., Scottish_, ii. 333.
+
+  [6] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571_, p. 372.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHWELL, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town (1901) 3015; of
+parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right bank of the Clyde, 9 m.
+E. S. E. of Glasgow by the North British and Caledonian railways. Owing
+to its pleasant situation it has become a residential quarter of
+Glasgow. The choir of the old Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end
+of the 19th century) forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna
+Baillie, the poetess, was born in the manse, and a memorial has been
+erected in her honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as
+well as the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the
+battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke of
+Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500 men and 1000
+prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level north-eastern bank, is
+the castle that once belonged to James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl.
+1566-1580), the assassin of the regent Murray; and near the present
+farmhouse the South Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque
+ruins of Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of
+the river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as
+Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray, who fell at
+Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the Douglases. The lordship
+was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of
+Bothwell, who resigned it in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th
+earl of Angus. It thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the
+earl of Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic, and
+mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the south side
+by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of the chapel. A
+dungeon bears the nickname of "Wallace's Beef Barrel." The unpretending
+mansion near by was built by Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar
+(1653-1712). The parish of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns
+and villages, all owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron
+and oil-shale. The principal places, most of which have stations on the
+North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park, Carfin,
+Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend, Newarthill,
+Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace, Colliery Rows and
+Tennochside.
+
+
+
+
+BOTOCUDOS (from Port. _botoque_, a plug, in allusion to the wooden disks
+or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign name for a tribe of
+South American Indians of eastern Brazil, also known as the Aimores or
+Aimbores. They appear to have no collective tribal name for themselves.
+Some are called Nac-nanuk or Nac-poruk, "sons of the soil." The name
+Botocudos cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince
+Maximilian von Neuwied (_Reise nach Bresilien_, Frankfort-On-Main,
+1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando Coutinho reached
+the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a fort at the head of
+Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against "the Aimores and other
+tribes." The original home of the tribe comprised most of the present
+province of Espirito Santo, and reached inland to the headwaters of Rio
+Grande (Belmonte) and Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do
+Espinhacao, but the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country
+between Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond Serra
+dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter district that at the
+close of the 18th century they came into collision with the whites, who
+were attracted thither by the diamond fields.
+
+The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and living on
+forest products. They are below the medium height, but broad-shouldered
+and remarkable for the muscular development and depth of their chests.
+Their arms and legs are, however, soft and fleshy, and their feet and
+hands small. Their features, which vary individually almost as much as
+those of Europeans, are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high
+cheek-bones, small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection
+of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse, black and
+lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown, sometimes almost
+approaching white. The general yellow tint emphasizes their Mongolic
+appearance, which all travellers have noticed. The Botocudos were
+themselves greatly struck by the Chinese coolies, whom they met in
+Brazilian seaports, and whom they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri
+Hollard, _De l'homme et des races humaines_, Paris, 1853).[1] Some few
+Botocudos have settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them,
+numbering between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest of
+savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every effort was
+made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the Portuguese as no
+better than wild beasts. Smallpox was deliberately spread among them;
+poisoned food was scattered in the forests; by such infamous means the
+coast districts about Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one
+Portuguese commander boasted that he had either slain with his own hands
+or ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements and
+domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are reed spears
+and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough shelters of leaf and
+bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the language of the Botocudos is
+known, it would appear that they have no means of expressing the
+numerals higher than one. Their only musical instrument is a small
+bamboo nose-flute. They attribute all the blessings of life to the
+"day-fire" (sun) and all evil to "night-fire" (moon). At the graves of
+the dead they keep fires burning for some days to scare away evil
+spirits, and during storms and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to
+drive away demons.
+
+The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the _tembeitera_, or
+wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip and the lobe of the
+ear. This disk, made of the specially light and carefully dried wood of
+the barriguda tree (_Chorisia ventricosa_), is called by the natives
+themselves _emburé_, whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable
+derivation of their name Aimbore (_Voyages dans l'intérieur du Brésil
+1816-1821_, Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly
+by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing the lip
+begins often as early as the eighth year, when an initial boring is made
+by a hard pointed stick, and gradually extended by the insertion of
+larger and larger disks or plugs, sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in
+diameter. Notwithstanding the lightness of the wood the _tembeitera_
+weighs down the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last
+becomes a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn, of
+such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders. Ear-ornaments of
+like nature are common in south and even central America, at least as
+far north as Honduras. When Columbus discovered this latter country
+during his fourth voyage (1502) he named part of the seaboard _Costa de
+la Oreja_, from the conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early
+Spanish explorers also gave the name _Orejones_ or "big-eared" to
+several Amazon tribes.
+
+  See A.R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon_ (1853-1900); H.H. Bancroft,
+  _Hist. of Pacific States_ (San Francisco, 1882), vol. i. p. 211; A.H.
+  Keane, "On the Botocudos" in _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ vol. xiii.
+  (1884); J.R. Peixoto, _Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds_
+  (Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography
+  of Brazil_ (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who
+    formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian revolt
+    of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the Zeklars and
+    other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.
+
+
+
+
+BOTORI, a Japanese game played at the naval, military and other schools,
+by two sides of equal number, usually about one hundred, each of which
+defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly set in the ground, the poles
+being about 200 yds. distant from each other. The object of each party
+is to overthrow the adversaries' pole while keeping their own upright.
+Pulling, hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking.
+The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive at the
+enemies' pole, and frequently succeed in passing over their heads and
+shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus enabled to reach the pole
+and bear it down unless pulled off in time by its defenders. A game
+similar in character is played by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of
+Amherst College (Massachusetts), called the "Flag-rush." It was
+instituted at the instance of the faculty to take the place of the
+traditional "Cane-rush," a general _mêlée_ between the two classes for
+the ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became so rough
+that students were frequently seriously injured. In the "Flag-rush" a
+small flag is set upon a padded post about 6 ft. high, and is defended
+by one class while the other endeavours, as at Botori, to overthrow it.
+If the flag is not captured or torn down within a certain time the
+defending side wins.
+
+
+
+
+BOTOSHANI (_Botosani_), the capital of the department of Botoshani,
+Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia, and in one of the
+richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the north Moldavian hills.
+Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is commercially important as the town
+through which goods from Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the
+south; being situated on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the
+main line from Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour
+mills; and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being
+largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani owes its
+name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of Jenghiz Khan, who
+occupied the country in the 13th century. There are large colonies of
+Armenians and Jews.
+
+
+
+
+BO-TREE, or BODHI-TREE, the name given by the Buddhists of India and
+Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (_Ficus religiosa_). It is
+regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each temple. These
+are traditionally supposed to be derived from the original one, the
+Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath which the Buddha is traditionally
+supposed to have attained perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined
+city of Anuradhapura, 80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the
+parent-tree sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century
+B.C., is said to have been planted in 288 B.C., and is to this day
+worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to pray before
+it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the Kandy priests.
+
+
+
+
+BOTRYTIS, a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey mould on
+decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under a hand-lens it is seen
+to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks which are branched at the
+tips, each branchlet being crowned with a naked head of pale-coloured
+spores. It is a very common fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in
+greenhouses, and can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad
+record as a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the
+higher plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them
+to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other cultivated
+plants are subject to attack by _Botrytis_, Some of the species exist in
+two other growth-forms, so different in appearance from the _Botrytis_
+that they have been regarded as distinct plants:--a sclerotium, which is
+a hard compact mass of fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain
+its vitality for a considerable time in a resting condition; and a
+stalked _Peziza_, or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The
+latter is the perfect form of fruit. The _Botrytis_ mould is known as
+the conidial form.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO (1766-1837), Italian historian, was born
+at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont. He studied medicine at the
+university of Turin, and obtained his doctor's degree when about twenty
+years of age. Having rendered himself obnoxious to the government during
+the political commotions that followed the French Revolution, he was
+imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795 he withdrew to
+France, only to return to his native country as a surgeon in the French
+army, whose progress he followed as far as Venice. Here he joined the
+expedition to Corfu, from which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At
+first he favoured French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation
+of Piedmont by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he
+afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the union of
+all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control. After the
+separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired into private life,
+but, fearing persecution at home, became a French citizen. In 1817 he
+was appointed rector of the university of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed
+owing to clerical influence. Amid all the vicissitudes of his early
+manhood Botta had never allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the
+political quiet that followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more
+exclusively to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from
+1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he himself
+had been an eyewitness of many of the events described. His continuation
+of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards encouraged to undertake, is a
+careful and laborious work, but is not based on original authorities and
+is of small value. Though living in Paris he was in both these works the
+ardent exponent of that recoil against everything French which took
+place throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a
+reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the marked
+features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned and
+eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate. Botta
+died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty, but in the
+enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation.
+
+His son, Paul Émile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished traveller and
+Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at Khorsabad (1843) were among
+the first efforts in the line of investigation afterwards pursued by
+Layard.
+
+  The works of Carlo Botta are _Storia naturale e medica dell' Isola di
+  Corfu_ (1798); an Italian translation of Born's _Joannis Physiophili
+  specimen monachologiae_ (1801); _Souvenirs d'un voyage en Dalmatie_
+  (1802); _Storia della guerra dell' Independenza d'America_ (1809);
+  _Camillo_, a poem (1815); _Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814_ (1824,
+  new ed., Prato, 1862); _Storia d'ltalia in continuazione al
+  Guicciardini_ (1832, new ed., Milan, 1878). See C. Dionisiotti, _Vita
+  di Carlo Botta_ (Turin, 1867); C. Pavesio, _Carlo Botta e le sue opere
+  storiche_ (Florence, 1874); Scipione Botta, _Vita privata di Carlo
+  Botta_ (Florence, 1877); A. d'Ancona c O. Bacci, _Manuela della
+  Letteratura Italiana_ (Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist and musical
+composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the 24th of December 1823. He
+studied music at the Milan Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to
+the double-bass, an instrument with which his name is principally
+associated. On leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also
+occupied the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana.
+Here his first opera, _Cristoforo Colombo_, was produced in 1847. In
+1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass solos
+at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he made frequent visits
+to England, and his extraordinary command of his unwieldy instrument
+gained him great popularity in London and the provinces. Apart from his
+triumphs as an executant, Bottesini was a conductor of European
+reputation, and earned some success as a composer, though his work had
+not sufficient individuality to survive the changes of taste and
+fashion. He was conductor at the Théâtre des Italiens in Paris from 1855
+to 1857, where his second opera, _L'Assedio di Firenze_, was produced
+in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising the
+production of his opera _Marion Delorme_ in 1862, and in 1863 at
+Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of conducting by
+repeated concert tours through the principal countries of Europe. In
+1871 he conducted a season of Italian opera at the Lyceum theatre in
+London, during which his opera _Ali Baba_ was produced, and at the close
+of the year he was chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of
+_Aïda_, which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote
+three operas besides those already mentioned: _Il Diavolo della Notte_
+(Milan, 1859); _Vinciguerra_ (Paris, 1870); and _Ero e Leandro_ (Turin,
+1880), the last named to a libretto by Arrigo Boito, which was
+subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also wrote _The Garden of Olivet_, a
+devotional oratorio (libretto by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at
+the Norwich festival in 1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and
+numerous songs, and minor instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma
+on the 7th of July 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, properly ALESSANDRO DI MARIANO DEI FILIPEPI
+(1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at Florence in 1444, in a
+house in the Via Nuova, Borg' Ognissanti. This was the home of his
+father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi, a struggling tanner. Sandro, the
+youngest child but one of his parents, derived the name Botticelli, by
+which he was commonly known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith
+to whom he was apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a
+prosperous broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who
+for some reason bore the nickname _Botticello_ or Little Barrel. A
+return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as aged thirteen,
+weak in health, and still at school (if the words _sta al legare_ are to
+be taken as a misspelling of _sta al leggere_, otherwise they might
+perhaps mean that he was apprenticed either to a jeweller or a
+bookbinder). One of his elder brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a
+bookseller, was at this time in business as a goldsmith and
+gold-leaf-beater, and with him Sandro was very probably first put to
+work. Having shown an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was
+apprenticed in 1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he
+remained as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to
+carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the cathedral
+church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years Sandro was no doubt
+employed with other pupils upon the great series of frescoes in the
+choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which his master was for long
+intermittently engaged. The later among these frescoes in many respects
+anticipate, by charm of sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic
+flutter of draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro's
+own style. One of Sandro's earliest extant pictures, the oblong
+"Adoration of the Magi" at the National Gallery, London (No. 592, long
+ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost entirely under the
+influence of his first master. Left in Florence on Fra Filippo's
+departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually developing his
+individuality under various influences, among which that of the
+realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some time the strongest. From
+that school he acquired a knowledge of bodily structure and movement,
+and a searching and expressive precision of linear draughtsmanship,
+which he could never have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo
+influence dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio,
+in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was painted by
+Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one of a series of the
+seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems, were executed by Piero
+Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother Antonio. The same influence
+is again very manifest in the two brilliant little pictures at the
+Uffizi in which the youthful Botticelli has illustrated the story of
+Judith and Holofernes; in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal
+of Cosimo de' Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized "St
+Sebastian" at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church
+of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence seem also
+to point to Botticelli's having occasionally helped, in his earliest or
+Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the school of engravings in
+Florence which had been founded by the goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.
+
+Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while the
+much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the "Fortitude" is the only
+authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio influence is really
+much apparent; the various other pictures on which this opinion is
+founded, chiefly Madonnas dispersed among the museums of Naples,
+Florence, Paris and elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability
+the work not of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced
+partly by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been
+endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico di
+Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli stood in
+friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio's workshop,
+particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the many "Madonnas" which
+bear Botticelli's name in galleries public and private, the earliest
+which carries the unmistakable stamp of his own hand and invention is
+that which passed from the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs
+Gardner at Boston. At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement
+to work at Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the
+Incoronata in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city
+abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his preserved
+works comes probably the much-injured round of the "Adoration of the
+Magi" in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long ascribed in error, like
+the earlier oblong panel of the same subject, to Filippino Lippi. (To
+about this date is assigned by some the well-known "Assumption of the
+Virgin surrounded with the heavenly hierarchies," formerly at Hamilton
+Palace and now in the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism
+has proved that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari's time has
+ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the work
+of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco Botticini.)
+
+A more mature and more celebrated "Adoration of the Magi" than either of
+those in the National Gallery is that now in the Uffizi, which
+Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in 1477, and which was
+originally placed over an altar against the front wall of the church of
+Sta Maria Novella to the right inside the main entrance. The scene is
+here less crowded than in some other of the master's representations of
+the subject, the conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of
+those elements of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which
+he was sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated;
+the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover, special
+interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the chief members
+of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of his time in
+Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the patronage of
+this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in the Via Larga he
+painted a decorative piece of Pallas with lance and shield (not to be
+confounded with the banner painted with a similar allegoric device of
+Pallas by Verrocchio, to be carried by Giuliano de' Medici in the famous
+tournament in 1475 in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta,
+the wife of his friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now
+lost, as are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded
+to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475 and
+Lorenzo's death in 1492. But Sandro's more especial patron, for whom
+were executed several of his most important still extant works, was
+another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de' Medici, grandson of a
+natural brother of Cosimo _Pater Patriae_, and inheritor of a vast share
+of the family estates and interests. For the villa of this younger
+Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted about 1477-1478 the famous
+picture of "Primavera" or Spring now in the Academy at Florence. The
+design, inspired by Poliziano's poem the "Giostra," with reminiscences
+of Lucretius and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested,
+of the late Latin "Mythologikon" of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an
+enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential spirit of
+the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully draped, with Cupid
+hovering above her, stands in a grove of orange and myrtle and welcomes
+the approach of Spring, who enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and
+Zephyrus gently urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later
+"Birth of Venus," the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the
+little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly and
+freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of bodily
+structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which something of
+the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages is intimately and
+exquisitely blended with the newly awakened spirit of naturalism and the
+revived pagan delight in bodily form and movement and richness of linear
+rhythm. In connexion with this and other classic and allegoric pictures
+by the master, much romantic speculation has been idly spent on the
+supposition that the chief personages were figured in the likeness of
+Giuliano de' Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact
+died in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance which
+has been spun about their names in modern days is quite unsubstantial;
+and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli should have introduced
+the likenesses of these two supposed lovers (for it is not even certain
+that they were lovers at all) in pictures all of which were demonstrably
+painted after the death of one and most of them after the death of both.
+
+The tragedy of Giuliano's assassination by the Pazzi conspirators in
+1478 was a public event which certainly brought employment to
+Botticelli. After the capture and execution of the criminals he was
+commissioned to paint their effigies hanging by the neck on the walls of
+the Palazzo del Podestà, above the entrance of what was formerly the
+Dogana. In the course of Florentine history public buildings had on
+several previous occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last
+had been when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging
+by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the return
+of Cosimo de' Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi commission may
+be dated the evidences which are found in some of Botticelli's work of a
+closer study than heretofore of the virile methods and energetic types
+of Castagno. His frescoes of the hanged conspirators held their place
+for sixteen years only, and were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of
+another revolution in the city's politics. Two years later (1480) he
+painted in rivalry with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on
+the choir screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the
+church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his contributing
+designs to the workshops of the "fine-manner" engravers in the shape of
+a beautiful print of the triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an
+antique sarcophagus (the only example known is in the British Museum),
+as well as in nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with
+the commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo della
+Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after canto xix., perhaps
+because of the material difficulties involved by the use of line
+engravings for the decoration of a printed page, perhaps because the
+artist was at this time called away to Rome to undertake the most
+important commission of his life. Due possibly to the same call is the
+unfinished condition of a much-damaged, crowded "Adoration of the Magi"
+by Botticelli preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have
+influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in like manner
+remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also at the Uffizi.
+
+The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to take part with
+other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli,
+Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration of Sixtus IV.'s chapel at
+the Vatican, the ceiling of which was afterwards destined to be the
+field of Michelangelo's noblest labours. Internal evidence shows that
+Sandro and his assistants bore a chief share in the series of papal
+portraits which decorate the niches between the windows. His share in
+the decoration of the walls with subjects from the Old and the New
+Testament consists of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of
+Moses (several episodes of his early life arranged in a single
+composition); another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a
+third the temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is
+relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an
+animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a
+leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a year and
+a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken as the central
+and most important productions of his career, though they are far from
+being the best-known, and from their situation on the dimmed and stained
+walls of the chapel are by no means easy of inspection. Skill in the
+interlinking of complicated groups; in the principal actors energy of
+dramatic action and expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in
+the artist's later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the
+personages of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women
+an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar strain
+of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist's own; the most
+expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship, the richest and
+most inventive charm in fanciful costume and decorative colouring, all
+combine to distinguish them. During this time of his stay in Rome
+(1481-1482) Botticelli is recorded also to have painted another
+"Adoration of the Magi," his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same
+subject; this has been identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now
+in the Hermitage gallery at St Petersburg.
+
+Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli worked there
+for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492,
+with but slight variations in manner and sentiment, in the now formed
+manner of his middle life. Some of the recorded works of this time have
+perished; but a good many have been preserved, and except in the few
+cases where the dates of commission and payment can be established by
+existing records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal
+evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken with other
+artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico came to nothing
+(1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes carried out by him in the
+vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra
+in 1484 has been destroyed by the effects first of damp and then of
+fire. To 1482-1483 belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a
+Madonna and Child with six saints and four angels), now in the academy
+at Florence. Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and
+most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of his
+works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels in the
+Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book, as the
+"Magnificat." Somewhere near this must be placed the beautiful and
+highly finished drawing of "Abundance," which has passed through the
+Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm collections into the British Museum, as
+well as a small Madonna in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and
+the fine full-faced portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or
+apprentice in the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the
+marriage of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed,
+and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and dramatic
+set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio's tale of Nastagio
+degl'Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of Mr Barker and are
+now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly preserved altar-piece of
+the Madonna between the two saints John, now in the Berlin gallery, was
+painted for the Bardi chapel in the church of San Spirito in 1486. In
+the same year he helped to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni
+with Giovanna degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes,
+the remains of which, after they had been brought to light from under a
+coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were removed in 1882
+to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same date (1485-1488) should
+apparently be placed that second masterpiece of fanciful classicism done
+for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's villa at Castello, the "Birth of Venus,"
+now in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly
+inspired by the "Stanze" of Poliziano, perhaps also by the _Pervigilium
+Veneris_; together with the scarcely less admirable "Mars and Venus" of
+the National Gallery, conceived in the master's peculiar vein of virile
+sanity mingled with exquisite caprice; and the most beautiful and
+characteristic of all his Madonnas, the round of the "Virgin with the
+Pomegranate" (Uffizi). The fine picture of "Pallas and the Centaur,"
+rediscovered after an occultation of many years in the private
+apartments of the Pitti Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and
+to celebrate the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the
+spirit of tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo
+(1488-1490). "The Annunciation" from the convent of Cestello, now in the
+Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and expressive, in its
+bending movements and vehement gestures, of that agitation of spirit the
+signs of which become increasingly perceptible in Botticelli's work from
+about this time until the end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with
+its _predelle_, commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished
+in 1490, with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels
+encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of
+Botticelli's altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date
+probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small
+painting of the "Last Communion of St Jerome" belonging to the Marchese
+Farinola.
+
+In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a
+consultation as to the completion of the façade of the Duomo, and to
+bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the mosaic
+decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same church. The death
+of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the accession to chief power of his
+worthless son Piero, soon plunged Florence into political troubles, to
+which were by and by added the profound spiritual agitation consequent
+upon the preaching and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco
+de' Medici, who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political
+rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage of
+Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between the years
+1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute a set of drawings in
+illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate and ambitious plan than
+the little designs for the engraver which had been interrupted in 1481.
+Eighty-five of these drawings are in the famous manuscript acquired for
+the Berlin museum at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882,
+and eleven more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the
+most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master;
+revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with the text;
+full of Botticelli's characteristic poetic yearning and vehemence of
+expression, his half-childish intensity of vision; exquisite in
+lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of linear
+composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the whole to the
+illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the poem, and in the
+fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and inadequacy of
+invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory Botticelli maintains a
+careful adherence to the text, illustrating the several progressive
+incidents of each canto on a single page in the old-fashioned way. In
+the Paradise he gives a freer rein to his invention, and his designs
+become less a literal illustration of the text than an imaginative
+commentary on it. Almost all interest is centred on the persons of Dante
+and Beatrice, who are shown us again and again in various phases of
+ascending progress and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a
+bare symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them.
+Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light preliminary
+sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably intended to be finished
+in colour, as a few actually are. To the period of these drawings
+(1492-1497) would seem to belong the fine and finely preserved small
+round of the "Virgin and Child with Angels" at the Ambrosiana, Milan,
+and the famous "Calumny of Apelles" at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by
+some contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally
+remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and
+composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution and
+detail. Probably the small "St Augustine" in the Uffizi, the injured
+"Judith with the head of Holofernes" in the Kaufmann collection at
+Berlin, and the "Virgin and Child with St John," belonging to Mr
+Heseltine in London, are works of the same period.
+
+Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at Naples,
+returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro's home in the Via Nuova.
+He soon became a devoted follower of Savonarola, and has left a
+manuscript chronicle which is one of the best sources for the history of
+the friar and of his movement. Sandro himself seems to have remained
+aloof from the movement almost until the date of the execution of
+Savonarola and his two followers in 1498. At least there is clear
+evidence of his being in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di
+Pierfrancesco so late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have
+been had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni. It
+was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence in 1497
+that brought to a premature end the master's great undertaking on the
+illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo's return, following on the
+overthrow and death of Savonarola in 1498, we find no trace of any
+further relations between him and Botticelli, who by that time would
+seem to have become a declared devotee of the friar's memory and an
+adherent, like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of
+swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents give
+some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery of Monticelli
+a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the winter of the same
+year as bound over to keep the peace with, a neighbour living next to
+the small suburban villa which Sandro held jointly with his brother
+Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro; in 1499 as paying belated
+matriculation fees to the gild of doctors and druggists (of which the
+painters were a branch); and again in 1499 as carrying out some
+decorative paintings for a member of the Vespucci family. It has been
+suggested, probably with reason, that portions of these decorations are
+to be recognized in two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history,
+one illustrating the story of Virginia, which has passed with the
+collection of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a
+history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham, which passed
+into Mrs Gardner's collection at Boston. These and the few works still
+remaining to be mentioned are all strongly marked by the strained
+vehemence of design and feeling characteristic of the master's later
+years, when he dramatizes his own high-strung emotions in figures flung
+forward and swaying out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with
+looks cast agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild
+yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small Pietà
+at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary copy of one which
+the master is recorded to have painted for the Panciatichi chapel in the
+church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they are present to a degree even of
+caricature in the larger and coarser painting of the same subject which
+bears the master's name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a
+work of his school. The mystic vein of religious and political
+speculation into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest
+illustration in the beautiful symbolic "Nativity" which passed in
+succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller Maitland
+collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with the apocalyptic
+inscription in Greek which the master has added to make his meaning
+clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is a much-injured symbolic
+"Magdalene at the foot of the Cross" in private possession at Lyons.
+Among extant pictures those which from internal evidence we must put
+latest in the master's career are three panels illustrating the story of
+St Zenobius, of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the
+collection of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after
+1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence of Isabella
+d'Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by Ugolino Verino. In
+1503-1504 he served on the committee of artists appointed to decide
+where the colossal David of Michelangelo should be placed. In these and
+the following years we find him paying fees to the company of St Luke,
+and the next thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial
+in the Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May 1510.
+
+The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination in
+Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the capacity for
+religious conviction and emotional conversion which made of him an
+ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola, coexisted in him, according
+to all records, with a strong vein of the laughing humour and love of
+rough practical and verbal jesting which belonged to the Florentine
+character in his age. His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been
+the resort, not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to
+have been at all times working for him, but of a company of more or less
+idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues always wagging.
+Vasari's account of the straits into which he was led by his absorption
+in the study of Dante and his adhesion to the sect of Savonarola are
+evidently much exaggerated, since there is proof that he lived and died,
+not rich indeed, but possessed of property enough to keep him from any
+real pinch of distress. The story of his work and life, after having
+been the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and
+speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work of Mr H.P.
+Horne cited below,--a masterpiece of documentary research and critical
+exposition.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vasari, _Le Opere_ (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.;
+  Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _Hist. of Painting in Italy_, vol. ii.; Fr.
+  Lippmann, _Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Göttlicher Komödie_; Dr
+  Karl Woermann, "Sandro Botticelli" (in Dohme, _Kunst u. Künstler_); Dr
+  Hermann Ulmann, _Sandro Botticelli_; Dr E. Steinmann, _Sandro
+  Botticelli_ (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author's
+  elucidation of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, _Sandro
+  Botticelli_; Bernhard Berenson, _The Drawings of Florentine Painters;
+  The Florentine Painters of the Renaissance_ (2nd ed.); _The Study and
+  Criticism of Italian Art_; papers in the _Burlington Magazine_, the
+  _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (to this critic is due the first systematic
+  attempt to discriminate between the original work of Botticelli and
+  that of his various pupils); J. Mesnil, _Miscellanea d'Arte_ and
+  papers in the _Rivista d'Arte_, &c.; W. Warburg, _Sandro Botticelli's
+  "Geburt der Venus" and "Frühling"_; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), _The
+  Life and Art of Sandro Botticelli_ (1904); F. Wickhoff in the
+  _Jahrbuch der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen_ (1906); Herbert P.
+  Horne, _Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli_ (1908);
+  this last authority practically supersedes all others.     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST (1760-1835), German archaeologist, was born at
+Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He was educated at the school of
+Pforta, and the university of Leipzig. After holding minor educational
+posts, he obtained in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the
+appointment of rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into
+a circle of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He
+published in 1803 a learned work, _Sabina, oder Morgenszenen im
+Putzzimmer einer reichen Römerin_, a description of a wealthy Roman
+lady's toilette, and a work on ancient art, _Griechische Vasengemälde_.
+At the same time he assisted in editing the _Journal des Luxus und der
+Moden_, the _Deutsche Merkur_, and the _London and Paris_. In 1804 he
+was called to Dresden as superintendent of the studies of the court
+pages, and received the rank of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made
+director of studies at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of
+Antiquities. He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief
+works are:--_Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei_, i. (1811) (no more
+published); _Kunstmythologie_ (1811); _Vorlesungen und Aufsätze zur
+Alterthumskunde_ (1817); _Amalthea_ (1821-1825); _Ideen zur
+Kunstmythologie_ (1826-1836). The _Opuscula et Carmina Latina_ were
+published separately in 1837; with a collection of his smaller pieces,
+_Kleine Schriften_ (1837-1838), including a complete list of his works
+(56 pages). His biography was written by his son Karl Wilhelm Böttiger
+(1790-1862), for some time professor of history at Erlangen, and author
+of several valuable histories (_History of Germany_, _History of
+Saxony_, _History of Bavaria_, _Universal History of Biographies_).
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. _butta_, a flask;
+cf. Eng. "butt"), a vessel for containing liquids, generally as opposed
+to one for drinking from (though this probably is not excluded), and
+with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and pouring. The first bottles
+were probably made of the skins of animals. In the _Iliad_ (iii. 247)
+the attendants are represented as bearing wine for use in a bottle made
+of goat's skin. The ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and
+from the language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a
+bottle was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection of
+the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed [Greek:
+podeon]. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin bottles
+of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The Greeks and Romans also
+were accustomed to use bottles made of skins; and in the southern parts
+Europe they are still used for the transport of wine. The first of
+explicit reference to bottles of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix.
+4), where it is said that the Gibeonites took "old sacks upon their
+asses, and wine-bottles _old and rent and bound up_." The objection to
+putting "new wine into old bottles" (Matt. ix. 17) is that the skin,
+already stretched and weakened by use, is liable to burst under the
+pressure of the gas from new wine. Skins are still most extensively used
+throughout western Asia for the conveyance and storage of water. It is
+an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as being made
+exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet speaks of "a potter's
+earthen vessel." The Egyptians (see EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_)
+possessed vases and bottles of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory,
+bone, porcelain, bronze, silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or
+common earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass
+(q.v.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry has
+attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer, &c., or mineral
+waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling the bottles has been
+introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering, for labelling and for
+washing them.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens at Pompeii and
+Herculaneum.]
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS, a genus of Australian plants, known botanically as
+_Callistemon_, and belongiug to the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). They take
+their name from the resemblance of the head of flowers to a
+bottle-brush. They are well known in cultivation as greenhouse shrubs;
+the flower owes its beauty to the numerous long thread-like stamens
+which far exceed the small petals. _Callistemon salignus_ is a valuable
+hard wood.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLENOSE WHALE (_Hyperoödon rostratus_), a member of the sperm-whale
+family, which is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic, passing the summer
+in the Spitzbergen seas and going farther south in winter. It resembles
+the sperm-whale in possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of
+the head, which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and
+also for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost
+indistinguishable from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a
+regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length these
+whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from black on the
+upper surface in the young to light brown in old animals, the
+under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch between the flukes,
+as in other whales, but the hinder part of the tail is rounded.
+Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills, and are practically
+toothless; the only teeth which exist in the adult being a small pair at
+the front of the lower jaw, concealed beneath the gum during life.
+Examples have frequently been recorded on the British coasts. In
+November 1904 a female, 24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven
+ashore at Whitstable. (See CETACEA.)
+
+
+
+
+BOTTOMRY, a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom) is
+hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses incurred in the
+course of her voyage, under the condition that if she arrive at her
+destination the ship shall be liable for repayment of the loan, together
+with such premium thereon as may have been agreed for; but that if the
+ship be lost, the lender shall have no claim against the borrower either
+for the sum advanced or for the premium. The freight may be pledged as
+well as the ship, and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the
+personal obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is
+borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken up
+at _respondentia_; but it is now only in rare and exceptional cases
+that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the cargo, except
+under a general bottomry obligation, along with the ship and freight. In
+consideration of the risks assumed by the lender, the bottomry premium
+(sometimes termed _maritime interest_) is usually high, varying of
+course with the nature of the risk and the difficulty of procuring
+funds.
+
+A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which sufficiently
+shows the conditions agreed on between the parties; but it is usually
+drawn up in the form of a _bond_ which confers a maritime lien (q.v.).
+The document must show, either by express terms or from its general
+tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed by the lender,--this being the
+consideration for which the high premium is conceded. The lender may
+transfer the bond by indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of
+exchange or bill of lading, and the right to recover its value becomes
+vested in the indorsees. (See BOND.)
+
+According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains in force so
+long as the ship exists _in the form of a ship_, whatever amount of
+damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the "constructive total
+loss" which is recognized in marine insurance, when the ship is damaged
+to such an extent that she is not worth repairing, is not recognized in
+reference to bottomry, and will not absolve the borrower from his
+obligation. But if the ship go to pieces, the borrower is freed from all
+liability under the bottomry contract; and the lender is not entitled to
+receive any share of the proceeds of such of the ship's stores or
+materials as may have been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on
+bottomry is not liable in England for general average losses. If the
+ship should _deviate_ from the voyage for which the funds were advanced,
+her subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower
+under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all on her
+intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover the bottomry
+premium in addition to his advance, but only the ordinary rate of
+interest for the temporary loan. As the bottomry premium is presumed, in
+every case, to cover the risks incurred by the lender, he is not
+entitled to charge the borrower with the premium which he may pay for
+_insurance_ of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the
+bond.
+
+The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the custom of
+permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign country, to pledge
+the ship in order to raise money for repairs, or other extraordinary
+expenditures rendered necessary in the course of the voyage.
+Circumstances often arise, in which, without the exercise of this power
+on the part of the master, it would be impossible to provide means for
+accomplishing the voyage; and it is better that the master should have
+authority to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo
+also, in security for the money which has become requisite, than that
+the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But the right
+of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always be created by
+necessity; if exercised without necessity the contract will be void.
+Accordingly, the master of a British ship has no power to grant a
+bottomry bond at a British port, or at any foreign port where he might
+raise funds on the personal credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any
+power to pledge the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only
+for such supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage.
+And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the owners
+of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before pledging their
+property ("The Bonaparte," 1853, 8 Moo. P.C. 473; "The Staffordshire,"
+1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased facility of communication, by
+telegraph and otherwise, has given additional stringency to this rule,
+and caused a decline in the practice of giving bottomry bonds.
+
+The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain that a
+real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to see to the
+application of the money advanced. If the lender has originally advanced
+the funds on the personal credit of the owner he is not entitled to
+require a bottomry obligation. A bond procured from the shipmaster by
+improper compulsion would be void.
+
+The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon there being
+some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so doing. He has no
+such power except in virtue of circumstances which may oblige him to
+assume the character of _agent for the cargo_, in the absence of any
+other party authorized to act on its behalf. Under ordinary
+circumstances he is not at liberty to pledge the cargo for repairs to
+the ship. If indeed the goods be of a perishable nature, and if it be
+impossible to get the ship repaired in sufficient time to obviate
+serious loss on them by delay, without including them under the bottomry
+contract, he has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in
+the case supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure.
+The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo, with a
+reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under the whole
+circumstances of the case. When he does this his proceedings will be
+sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice the interests of the cargo
+by including it under bottomry for the mere purpose of relieving the
+ship, or of earning the freight, the owners of the cargo will not be
+bound by the bottomry contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be
+good in part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted
+_within_ or _beyond_ the scope of his legitimate authority in granting
+it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different stages
+of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient to
+discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of payment, as
+having furnished the means of preserving the ship, and thereby
+preventing the total loss of the security for the previous bonds.
+
+When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight and cargo is
+not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be taken by the
+bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the sale of the ship; and
+should the proceeds of these be insufficient to discharge the claim, a
+judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted to. As a general rule the
+value of the ship and freight must be exhausted before recourse can be
+taken against the cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders
+against the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability
+under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged, whether
+the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond or not. But the
+owners of the ship, though not liable to the bondholder for more than
+the value of the ship and freight, may be further liable to the
+proprietors of the cargo for any sum in excess of the cargo's proper
+share of the expenses, taken by the bondholder out of the proceeds of
+the cargo to satisfy the bond after the ship and freight have been
+exhausted.
+
+The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties for whose
+benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on the final
+adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of destination.
+
+  The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was common
+  among the ancient Greeks, being known as [Greek: ekdosis] or [Greek:
+  daneion] (see Demosthenes' speeches _Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum_
+  and _In Dionysodorum_); it passed into Roman law as _foenus nauticum_
+  or _usura maritima_.
+
+  See also LIEN: _Maritime_; and generally Abbott on _Shipping_ (14th
+  ed., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BOTZARIS [BOZZARIS], MARCO (c. 1788-1823), leader in the War of Greek
+Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the second son of Kitzo
+Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803,
+after the capture of Suli by Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the
+Suliots, crossed over to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took
+service in an Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the
+Greek patriotic society known as the _Hetairia Philike_, and in 1820,
+with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina against the
+Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he distinguished himself
+by his courage, tenacity and skill as a partisan leader in the fighting
+in western Hellas, and was conspicuous in the defence of Missolonghi
+during the first siege (1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August
+1823 he led the celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000
+Albanians who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha
+was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks was
+complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still celebrated in
+popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris's brother Kosta (Constantine),
+who fought at Karpenisi and completed the victory, lived to become a
+general and senator in the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th
+of November 1853. Marco's son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three
+times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He died at Athens
+on the 17th of August 1870.
+
+
+
+
+BOTZEN, or BOZEN (Ital. _Bolzano_), a town in the Austrian province of
+Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with the Eisak, and a
+short way above the junction of the latter with the Adige or Etsch. It
+is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a station on the Brenner
+railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it
+had a population of 13,632, Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though
+the Italian element is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town
+amid Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old
+Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, opposite
+which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of the famous
+_Minnesänger_, Walther von der Vogelweide, who, according to some
+accounts, was born (c. 1170) at a farm above Waidbruck, to the north of
+Botzen. Botzen is the busiest commercial town in the German-speaking
+portion of Tirol, being admirably situated at the junction of the
+Brenner route from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the
+Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has always
+been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually), while the
+local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century. Lately its
+prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour as a winter resort
+of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the Talfer, and now
+practically a suburb of Botzen.
+
+The _pons Drusi_ (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen) is
+mentioned in the 4th century by the _Peutinger Table_. In the 7th to 8th
+centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian counts. But in 1027,
+with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it was given by the emperor
+Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent. From 1028 onwards it was ruled by
+local counts, the vassals of the bishops, but after Tirol fell into the
+hands of the Habsburgers (1363) their power grew at the expense of that
+of the bishops. In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of
+having a town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of
+jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later history
+is merged in that of Tirol.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHARDON, EDME (1698-1762), French sculptor, was esteemed in his day
+the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at Chaumont, he became the pupil
+of Guillaume Coustou and gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1722. Resisting
+the tendency of the day he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste,
+always correct, charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the
+finish that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained at
+Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict XIII. (1730). In
+1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece, "Cupid fashioning a
+Bow out of the Club of Hercules," perfect in its grace, but cold in the
+purity of its classic design. His two other leading _chefs-d'oeuvre_ are
+the fountain in the rue de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which
+had been finished and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of
+Louis XV., a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which,
+when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of its kind
+ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to finish, but left its
+completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during the Revolution.
+
+  Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are _Vie d'Edme
+  Bouchardon_, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); _Notice sur Edme
+  Bouchardon, sculpteur_, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837); _Notice
+  historique sur Edme Bouchardon_, by J. Carnandet (Paris, 1855); and
+  _French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century_, by Lady Dilke
+  (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS (1703-1770), French painter, was born in Paris, and at
+first was employed by Jean François Cars (1670-1739), the engraver,
+father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771), to make designs and
+illustrations for books. In 1727, however, he went to Italy, and at
+Rome became well known as a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and
+soon became a favourite in society. His picture "Rinaldo and Armida"
+(1734) is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins
+factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by Madame de
+Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute various decorative
+works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like style and graceful
+voluptuousness gave him the title of the Anacreon of painting, but his
+repute declined until recent years. The Wallace collection, at Hertford
+House, has some of his finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings
+were also numerous and masterly.
+
+  See Antoine Bret's notice in the _Nécrologe des hommes célèbres_ for
+  1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul Mantz.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER, JONATHAN (1738-1804), English divine and philologist, was born
+in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton, Cumberland, on the 12th of March
+1738. He was educated at the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went
+to Virginia, where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia
+planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son of
+George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate friendship.
+Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop of London in March
+1762, and at once sailed again for America, where he remained until 1775
+as rector of various Virginia and Maryland parishes, including Hanover,
+King George's county, Virginia, and St Anne's at Annapolis, Maryland. He
+was widely known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments
+won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest scholars in
+the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he vigorously opposed the
+"vestry act," by which the powers and emoluments of the Maryland pastors
+were greatly diminished. When the struggle between the colonies and the
+mother country began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his
+opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other
+measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a breach
+between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell discourse preached
+after the opening of hostilities he declared that no power on earth
+should prevent him from praying and shouting "God save the King." In the
+succeeding autumn he returned to England, where his loyalism was
+rewarded by a government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in
+Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April 1804,
+becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of his day. He was
+an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed largely to William
+Hutchinson's _History of the County of Cumberland_ (2 vols., 1704 seq.),
+and published _A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American
+Revolution_ (1797), dedicated to George Washington, and consisting of
+thirteen discourses delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His
+philological studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were
+devoted, resulted in the compilation of "A Glossary of Provincial and
+Archaic Words," intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson's _Dictionary_,
+but never published except in part, which finally in 1831 passed into
+the hands of the English compilers of Webster's _Dictionary_, by whom it
+was utilized.
+
+His son, BARTON BOUCHER (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill Bishops,
+Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of religious tracts,
+hymns and novels.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES (1788-1868), French geologist
+and antiquary, was born on the 10th of September 1788 at Rethel,
+Ardennes, France. He was the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume
+Boucher de Crèvecoeur, botanist and customs officer, and of
+Étienne-Jeanne-Marie de Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by
+royal decree in 1818 to assume in addition to his father's). In 1802 he
+entered government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him
+for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid
+promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825) to succeed his
+father as director of the _douane_ at Abbeville, where he remained for
+the rest of his life, being superannuated in January 1853, and dying on
+the 5th of August 1868. His leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of
+what was afterwards called the Stone Age, "antediluvian man," as he
+expressed it. About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the
+Somme valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human
+handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make public the
+important discovery of a worked flint implement with remains of
+elephant, rhinoceros, &c., in the gravels of Menchecourt. This was in
+1846. A few years later he commenced the issue of his monumental work,
+_Antiquités celtiques et an édiluviennes_ (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a
+work in which he was the first to establish the existence of man in the
+Pleistocene or early Quaternary period. His views met with little
+approval, partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding
+the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly because the
+figures in his book were badly executed and they included drawings of
+flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship. In 1855 Dr Jean Paul
+Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens, strongly advocated the authenticity of
+the flint implements; but it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer
+(q.v.) saw the collection at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (q.v.) in
+the following year to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely
+agreed that the flint implements were the work of man, and that they
+occurred in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct
+mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together with worked
+flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near Abbeville seemed to
+vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely; but doubt was thrown on the
+antiquity of the human remains (owing to the possibility of interment),
+though not on the good faith of the discoverer, who was the same year
+made an officer of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his
+champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many other
+directions. For more than thirty years he filled the presidential chair
+of the Société d'Émulation at Abbeville, to the publications of which he
+contributed articles on a wide range of subjects. He was the author of
+several tragedies, two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a
+number of books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his
+scientific books may be added _De l'homme antédilumen et de ses oeuvres_
+(Paris, 1860).
+
+  See Alcius Ledien, _Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses oeuvres, sa
+  correspondence_ (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, "Recollections of
+  M. Boucher de Perthes" (with portrait) in _Essays Descriptive and
+  Biographical_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE, a maritime department of south-eastern France situated
+at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed
+in 1790 from western Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which
+it is separated by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the
+Mediterranean, along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m. The
+western portion consists of the Camargue (q.v.), a low and marshy plain
+enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhône, and comprising the Rhone
+delta. A large portion of its surface is covered by lagoons and pools
+(étangs), the largest of which is the Étang de Vaccarès; to the east of
+the Camargue is situated the remarkable stretch of country called the
+Crau, which is strewn with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east
+and north there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation
+belonging to the Alpine system. The Étang de Berre, a lagoon covering an
+area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea to the south-east of
+the Crau. A few small tributaries of the Rhone and the Durance, a number
+of streams, such as the Arc and the Touloubre, which flow into the Étang
+de Berre, and the Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are
+the only rivers that properly belong to the department.
+
+Bouches-du-Rhône enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean
+coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy north-west wind
+blowing from the central plateau of France. The proportion of arable
+land is small, though the quantity has been considerably increased by
+artificial irrigation and by the draining of marshland. Cereals, of
+which wheat and oats are the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and
+the plain of Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree,
+which is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the
+oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method of
+submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera. In the cantons
+of the north-west large quantities of early vegetables are produced. Of
+live-stock, sheep alone are raised to any extent. Almonds, figs, capers,
+mulberry trees and silkworms are sources of considerable profit. Iron is
+worked, but the most important mines are those of lignite, in which
+between 2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces
+bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand and gravel and
+marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen, and the amount of sea-salt
+obtained exceeds in quantity the produce of any other department in
+France. Marseilles, the capital, is by far the most important industrial
+town. In its oil-works, soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding
+works, distilleries, flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering
+and machinery works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved
+foods and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated
+most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these must be
+added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne, the silk-works in
+the north-west cantons, and various paper and cardboard manufactories,
+while several of the industries of Marseilles, such as the distilling of
+oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding and soap-making, are common to the
+whole of Bouches-du-Rhône. Fishing is also an important industry.
+Cereals, flour, silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils,
+soap, sugar and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and
+brandy, raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &c., are
+imported. The foreign commerce of the department, which is principally
+carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most part concentrated
+in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues, Cassis and La Ciotat.
+Internal trade is facilitated by the canal from Aries to Port-de-Bouc
+and two smaller canals, in all about 35 m. in length. The Rhone and the
+Petit-Rhône are both navigable within the department.
+
+Bouches-du-Rhône is divided into the three arrondissements of
+Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It belongs to the
+archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of the XV. army corps, the
+headquarters of which are at Marseilles, and to the _académie_
+(educational division) of Aix. Its court of appeal is at Aix.
+Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues, Salon, Les Saintes-Maries,
+St Rémy, Les Baux and Tarascon, the principal places, are separately
+noticed. Objects of interest elsewhere may be mentioned. Near
+Saint-Chamas there is a remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre,
+which probably dates from the 1st century B.C. and is thus the oldest in
+France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has triumphal
+arches at either end. At Vernègues there are remains of a Roman temple
+known as the "Maison-Basse." The famous abbey of Montmajour, of which
+the oldest parts are the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2½ m. from
+Arles. At Orgon there are the ruins of a château of the 15th century,
+and near La Roque d'Anthéron the church and other buildings of the
+Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHOR, MAURICE (1855-   ), French poet, was born on the 15th of
+December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession _Chansons joyeuses_
+(1874), _Poèmes de l'amour et de la mer_ (1875), _Le Faust moderne_
+(1878) in prose and verse, and _Les Contes parisiens_ (1880) in verse.
+His _Aurore_ (1883) showed a tendency to religious mysticism, which
+reached its fullest expression in _Les Symboles_ (1888; new series,
+1895), the most interesting of his works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph
+Félix Bouchor, b. 1853, became well known as an artist) was a sculptor
+as well as a poet, and he designed and worked the figures used in his
+charming pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by
+himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas on
+religious subjects, _Tobie_ (1889), _Noël_ (1890) and _Sainte Cécile_
+(1892), were produced in Paris at the Théâtre des Marionnettes. A
+one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noël, was played at the Théâtre
+Français in 1895, but _Dieu le veut_ (1888) was not produced. In
+conjunction with the musician Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts
+for the preservation of the French folk-songs, and published _Chants
+populaires pour les écoles_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL (1754-1840), French minister, was born at
+Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At the outbreak of the Revolution he
+was a captain of cavalry, and his zeal led to his being made colonel and
+given the command at Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the
+Austrians the minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April
+1793, Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by the
+Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the 31st of
+March 1794. The predominant rôle of the Committee of Public Safety
+during that period did not leave much scope for the new minister, yet he
+rendered some services in the organization of the republican armies, and
+chose his officers with insight, among them Kléber, Masséna, Moreau and
+Bonaparte. During the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his
+incontestable honesty, he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was
+tried by the tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he
+withdrew from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the
+8th of June 1840.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCICAULT, DION (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright, was born in
+Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a French refugee and an
+Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was fortunate enough to make an
+immediate success as a dramatist with _London Assurance_, produced at
+Covent Garden on the 4th of March 1841, with a cast that included
+Charles Matthews, William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He
+rapidly followed this with a number of other plays, among the most
+successful of the early ones being _Old Heads and Young Hearts_, _Louis
+XI_., and _The Corsican Brothers_. In June 1852 he made his first
+appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled _The Vampire_
+at the Princess's theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he was in the United
+States, where he was always a popular favourite. On his return to
+England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic adaptation of Gerald
+Griffin's novel, _The Collegians_, entitled _The Colleen Bawn_. This
+play, one of the most successful of modern times, was performed in
+almost every city of the United Kingdom and the United States, and made
+its author a handsome fortune, which he lost in the management of
+various London theatres. It was followed by _The Octoroon_ (1861), the
+popularity of which was almost as great. Boucicault's next marked
+success was at the Princess's theatre in 1865 with _Arrah-na-Pogue_, in
+which he played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable
+creation of Con in his play _The Shaughraun_ (first produced at Drury
+Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best stage Irishman
+of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York City and finally made his
+home there, but he paid occasional visits to London, where his last
+appearance was made in his play, _The Jilt_, in 1886. _The Streets of
+London_ and _After Dark_ were two of his late successes as a dramatist.
+He died in New York on the 18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice
+married, his first wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of
+Charles Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children,
+Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished in
+the profession.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCICAUT, JEAN [JEAN LE MEINGRE, called BOUCICAUT] (c. 1366-1421),
+marshal of France, was the son of another Jean le Meingre, also known as
+Boucicaut, marshal of France, who died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.).
+At a very early age he became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in
+Flanders and in Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of
+Roosebeke in 1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to
+the Holy Land. Boucicaut's great desire appears to have been to fight
+the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers who marched to
+the defence of Hungary and shared in the Christian defeat at Nicopolis,
+where he narrowly escaped death. After remaining for some months a
+captive in the hands of the sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned
+to France; then in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the
+Eastern emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut
+drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and returned to
+France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding again to eastern
+Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa, who in 1396 had placed
+herself under the dominion of France. Here he was successful in
+restoring order and in making the French occupation effective, and he
+was soon able to turn his attention to the defence of the Genoese
+possessions in the Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this
+direction involved him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus,
+but led also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off
+Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been claimed
+by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with the republic, and
+then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on a campaign in northern
+Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke, and Boucicaut, unable to reduce
+her again to submission, retired to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt,
+where he was taken prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was
+very skilful in the tournament, founded the order of the _Dame blanche à
+l'écu vert_, a society the object of which was to defend the wives and
+daughters of absent knights.
+
+  There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut's life and
+  adventures, entitled _Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le Meingre
+  dit Boucicaut_, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy in 1620.
+  See J. Delaville le Roulx, _La France en Orient: expéditions du
+  maréchal Boucicaut_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+BOUDIN, EUGÈNE (1824-1898), French painter of the _paysage de mer_, was
+the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy for a while on
+board the rickety steamer that plied between Havre and Honfleur across
+the estuary of the Seine. But before old age came on him, Boudin's
+father abandoned seafaring, and the son gave it up too, having of course
+no real vocation for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a
+sailor's character,--frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin
+the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker; this
+time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugène helped in the
+little business, and, in stolen hours, produced certain drawings. That
+was a time at which the romantic outlines of the Norman coast engaged
+Isabey, and the green wide valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon;
+and Troyon and Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young
+Boudin found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence;
+his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the young
+man resulted in his being granted for a short term of years by the town
+of his adoption a pension, that he might study painting. He studied
+partly in Paris; but whatever individuality he possessed in those years
+was hidden and covered, rather than disclosed. An instance of tiresome,
+elaborate labour--good enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of
+keeping with what at least was the popular taste of that day--is his
+"Pardon of Sainte Anne de la Palud," a Breton scene, of 1858, in which
+he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately to become his
+wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture hangs in the museum of
+Havre, along with a hundred later, fresher, thoroughly individual
+studies and sketches, the gift of Boudin's brother, Louis Boudin, after
+the painter's death. Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and
+poor. But his work gained character and added, to merely academic
+correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be himself by 1864
+or 1865--that was the first of such periods of his as may be accounted
+good--and, though not at that time so fully a master of transient
+effects of weather as he became later, he began then to paint with a
+success genuinely artistic the scenes of the harbour and the estuary,
+which no longer lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious
+completeness. The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for
+then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously conceived
+canvases and panels, which record the impressions of a precursor of the
+Impressionists in presence of the Channel waters, and of those autumn
+skies, or skies of summer, now radiant, now uncertain, which hung over
+the small ports and the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the
+watering-places, Trouville, Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with
+_port_ and _avant-port_ and _bassin_, of Dunkirk, of Havre. In the war
+time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About
+1875-1876 he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird's-eye
+vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from these years,
+and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion of Jongkind, with
+whom he had so much in common, but whose work, like his, free and
+fearless and unconventional, can never be said with accuracy to have
+seriously influenced his own. Doing excellent things continually through
+all the 'seventies, when he was in late middle age--gaining scope in
+colour, having now so many notes--faithful no longer wholly to his
+amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery, now nobly
+deep--sending to the Salon great canvases, and to the few enlightened
+people who would buy them of him the _toile_ or panel of most moderate
+size on which he best of all expressed himself--Boudin was yet not
+acceptable to the public or to the fashionable dealer. The late
+'eighties had to come and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale
+for his work at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly
+speaking his work in those very 'eighties was not so good as the labour,
+essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier, nor had
+it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances of some years
+later, when the inspired sketch was the thing that he generally stopped
+at. Old age found him strong and receptive. Only in the very last year
+of his life was there perceptible a positive deterioration. Not very
+long before it, Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions
+of Venice for which much more was to be said than that they were not
+Ziem's. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the sunshine
+blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly at Antibes and
+Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again as a refuge from
+ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief it could give him was
+almost spent, he resolved that it should not be for him, in the words of
+Maurice Barrès, a "_tombe fleurie_," and he returned, hastily, weak and
+sinking, to his home at Deauville, that he might at least die within
+sight of Channel waters and under Channel skies. As a "marine
+painter"--more properly as a painter of subjects in which water must
+have some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that
+goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks of tidal
+rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined Parisienne noted
+as ably as the sailor-folk--Boudin stands alone. Beside him others are
+apt to seem rather theatrical--or if they do not romance they appear,
+perhaps, to chronicle dully. The pastels of Boudin--summary and economic
+even in the 'sixties, at a time when his painted work was less
+free--obtained the splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other
+than Corot who, before his pictures, said to him: "You are the master of
+the sky."
+
+  See also Gustave Cahen, _Eugène Boudin_ (Paris, 1899); Arsène
+  Alexandre, _Essais_; Frederick Wedmore, _Whistler and Others_ (1906).
+      (F. We.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUDINOT, ELIAS (1740-1821), American revolutionary leader, was born at
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot descent, on the 2nd of May 1740.
+He studied law at Princeton, New Jersey, in the office of Richard
+Stockton, whose sister Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760
+he was licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards
+practising at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of
+Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs. He was a
+deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from May to August 1775,
+and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the commissary-general of
+prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in the continental army. He was one
+of the New Jersey members of the continental congress in 1778 and again
+from 1781 until 1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was
+president of that body, acting also for a short time, after the
+resignation of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs.
+From 1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of
+Representatives, and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the
+United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part in the
+founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which he became the
+first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor of the college of New
+Jersey (afterwards Princeton University). In reply to Thomas Paine's
+_Age of Reason_, he published the _Age of Revelation_ (1790); he also
+published a volume entitled _A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to
+Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel_ (1816), in which he
+endeavours to prove that the American Indians may be the ten lost
+tribes. Boudinot died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October
+1821.
+
+  See _The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias
+  Boudinot_, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BOUÉ, AMI (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at Hamburg on the
+16th of March 1794, and received his early education there and in Geneva
+and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh to study medicine at the university,
+he came under the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in
+geology and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boué was thus led to
+make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and the
+Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he settled for
+some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his _Essai géologique sur
+l'Écosse_, in which the eruptive rocks in particular were carefully
+described. He travelled much in Germany, Austria and southern Europe,
+studying various geological formations, and becoming one of the pioneers
+in geological research; he was one of the founders of the Société
+Géologique de France in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he
+settled in Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the
+21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna he
+communicated important papers on the geology of the Balkan States
+(1859-1870), and he also published _Mémoires géologiques et
+paléontologiques_ (Paris, 1832) and _La Turquie d'Europe; observations
+sur la géographie, la géologie, l'histoire naturelle, &c._ (Paris,
+1840).
+
+
+
+
+BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS, DUC DE, comte de Cagny (1644-1711), marshal
+of France, was born on the 10th of January 1644. He entered the army and
+saw service in 1663 at the siege of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of
+dragoons. In the conquest of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de
+Créqui. In Holland he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing
+himself by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a
+cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the retreat of
+the French army. He was already a brigadier, and in 1677 he became
+_maréchal de camp_. He served throughout the campaigns of the time with
+increasing distinction, and in 1681 became lieutenant-general. He
+commanded the French army on the Moselle, which opened the War of the
+League of Augsburg with a series of victories; then he led a corps to
+the Sambre, and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of
+Fleurus. In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in
+person; and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack on
+the town. He was present with the king at the siege of Namur in 1692,
+and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For his services he was
+raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of France, and in 1694 was made a
+duke. In 1694 he was appointed governor of French Flanders and of the
+town of Lille. By a skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in
+1695, and only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of
+his 13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace of
+Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war, when Lille
+was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and Eugene, Boufflers was
+appointed to the command, and made a most gallant resistance of three
+months. He was rewarded and honoured by the king for his defence of
+Lille, as if he had been victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph;
+his enemy, appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms
+of capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709, when the
+affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent danger, Boufflers
+offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and was with him at the
+battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed the highest skill, and after
+Villars was wounded he conducted the retreat of the French army without
+losing either cannon or prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd
+of August 1711.
+
+  See F...., _Vie du Mal. de Boufflers_ (Lille, 1852), and Père
+  Delarue's and Père Poisson's _Oraisons funèbres du Mal. B._ (1712).
+
+
+
+
+
+BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN, CHEVALIER DE (1737-1815), French statesman
+and man of letters, was born near Nancy on the 31st of May 1738. He was
+the son of Louis François, marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie
+Catherine de Beauveau Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski,
+and the boy was brought up at the court of Lunéville. He spent six
+months in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during
+his residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely
+popular, _Aline, reine de Golconde_. Boufflers did not, however, take
+the vows, as his ambitions were military. He entered the order of the
+Knights of Malta, so that he might be able to follow the career of arms
+without sacrificing the revenues of a benefice he had received in
+Lorraine from King Stanislas. After serving in various campaigns he
+reached the grade of _maréchal de camp_ in 1784, and in the next year
+was sent to West Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent
+administrator, and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of the
+slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the material
+resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787 was regarded as a
+real calamity by both colonists and negroes. The _Mémoires secrets_ of
+Bachaumont give the current opinion that Boufflers was sent to Senegal
+because he was in disgrace at court; but the real reason appears to have
+been a desire to pay his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran,
+which took place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted
+to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of the
+states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum with Prince
+Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration he was made
+joint-librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine. His wit and his skill in
+light verse had won him a great reputation, and he was one of the idols
+of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical character was described in an
+epigram attributed to Antoine de Rivarol, "_abbé libertin, militaire
+philosophe, diplomate chansonnier, émigré patriote, républicain
+courtisan_." He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1815.
+
+  His _OEuvres complètes_ were published under his own supervision in
+  1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by
+  Eugène Asse in 1878; his _Poésies_ by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the
+  _Correspondance inédite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de
+  Boufflers_ (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE (1729-1811), French navigator, was born
+at Paris on the 11th of November 1729. He was the son of a notary, and
+in early life studied law, but soon abandoned the profession, and in
+1753 entered the army in the corps of musketeers. At the age of
+twenty-five he published a treatise on the integral calculus, as a
+supplement to De l'Hôpital's treatise, _Des infiniment petits_. In 1755
+he was sent to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made a
+member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as captain of
+dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm; and having
+distinguished himself in the war against England, was rewarded with the
+rank of colonel and the cross of St Louis. He afterwards served in the
+Seven Years' War from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French
+government conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands,
+Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the settlement
+having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the French government gave
+it up to them, on condition of their indemnifying Bougainville. He was
+then appointed to the command of the frigate "La Boudeuse" and the
+transport "L'Etoile," and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of
+discovery round the world. Having executed his commission of delivering
+up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville proceeded on his
+expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires. Passing through the Straits of
+Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu archipelago, and Tahiti, where the
+English navigator Wallis had touched eight months before. He proceeded
+across the Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named the
+Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon Islands. His men
+now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels requiring refitting, he
+anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas, where the governor of the Dutch
+settlement supplied his wants. It was the beginning of September, and
+the expedition took advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried
+them to Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with
+the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville's account
+of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity and some humour.
+After an interval of several years, he again accepted a naval command
+and saw much active service between 1779 and 1782. In the memorable
+engagement of the 12th of April 1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte
+de Grasse, near Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the "Auguste,"
+succeeded in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them
+safely into St Eustace. He was created _chef d'escadre_, and on
+re-entering the army, was given the rank of _maréchal de camp_. After
+the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of associate of
+the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery towards the north pole,
+but this did not meet with support from the French government.
+Bougainville obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792,
+having escaped almost miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he
+retired to his estate in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the
+Institute at its formation, and returning to Paris became a member of
+the Board of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator,
+count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He died at
+Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and had three sons, who
+served in the French army.
+
+Bougainville's name is given to the largest member of the Solomon
+Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait which divides it
+from the British island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait
+between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo Islands of the New Hebrides group,
+and the South American climbing plant _Bougainvillea_, often cultivated
+in greenhouses, is named after him.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY (1834-1905), Anglo-American painter, was born in
+England, but his parents went to the United States in 1839, and he was
+brought up at Albany, N.Y. He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and
+subsequently lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick
+Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made his
+reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in 1896, and a
+member of the National Academy of Design in New York in 1871. His
+pictures of Dutch life and scenery were especially characteristic; and
+his subject-pictures, such as the "Return of the Mayflower" and "The
+Scarlet Letter," were very popular in America.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGIE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement in the
+department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The town, which is
+defended by a wall built since the French occupation, and by detached
+forts, is beautifully situated on the slope of Mount Guraya. Behind it
+are the heights of Mounts Babor and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and
+crowned with forests of pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting
+buildings in the town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and
+Abd-el-Kader, and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by
+bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was built
+by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist, and
+considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in the 11th
+century. The streets are very steep, and many are ascended by stairs.
+The harbour, sheltered from the east by a breakwater, was enlarged in
+1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft.
+Bougie is the natural port of Kabylia, and under the French rule its
+commerce--chiefly in oils, wools, hides and minerals--has greatly
+developed; a branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from
+Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the commune,
+17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight communes, 37,711.
+
+Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the Romans, is
+a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its origin to the
+Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric the Vandal surrounded
+it with walls and for some time made it his capital. En-Nasr
+(1062-1088), the most powerful of the Berber dynasty of Hammad, made
+Bougie the seat of his government, and it became the greatest commercial
+centre of the North African coast, attaining a high degree of
+civilization. From an old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the
+heliograph was in common use, special towers, with mirrors properly
+arranged, being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian
+merchants of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the
+city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of the 13th
+century Bougie passed under the dominion of the Hafsides, and in the
+15th century it became one of the strongholds of the Barbary pirates. It
+enjoyed partial independence under amirs of Hafside origin, but in
+January 1510 was captured by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The
+Spaniards strongly fortified the place and held it against two attacks
+by the corsairs Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah
+Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his _Africae descriptio_,
+speaks of the "magnificence" of the temples, palaces and other buildings
+of the city in his day (c. 1525), but it appears to have fallen into
+decay not long afterwards. When the French took the town from the
+Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little more than a few fortifications
+and ruins. It is said that the French word for a candle is derived from
+the name of the town, candles being first made of wax imported from
+Bougie.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGUER, PIERRE (1698-1758), French mathematician, was born on the 16th
+of February 1698. His father, John Bouguer, one of the best
+hydrographers of his time, was regius professor of hydrography at
+Croisic in lower Brittany, and author of a treatise on navigation. In
+1713 he was appointed to succeed his father as professor of hydrography.
+In 1727 he gained the prize given by the Académie des Sciences for his
+paper "On the best manner of forming and distributing the masts of
+ships"; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation "On the best
+method of observing the altitude of stars at sea," the other for his
+paper "On the best method of observing the variation of the compass at
+sea." These were published in the _Prix de l'Académie des Sciences_. In
+1729 he published _Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumière_, the
+object of which is to define the quantity of light lost by passing
+through a given extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun
+to be 300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made some
+of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he was made
+professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded P.L.M. de Maupertuis as
+associate geometer of the Académie des Sciences. He also invented a
+heliometer, afterwards perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards
+promoted in the Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside
+in Paris. In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in
+order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator. Ten years
+were spent in this operation, a full account of which was published by
+Bouguer in 1749, _Figure de la terre déterminée_. His later writings
+were nearly all upon the theory of navigation. He died on the 15th of
+August 1758.
+
+  The following is a list of his principal works:--_Traité d'optique sur
+  la gradation de la lumière_ (1729 and 1760); _Entretiens sur la cause
+  d'inclinaison des orbites des planètes_ (1734); _Traité de navire,
+  &c._ (1746, 4to); _La Figure de la terre déterminée, &c._ (1749), 4to;
+  _Nouveau traité de navigation, contenant la théorie et la pratique du
+  pilotage_ (1753); _Solution des principaux problèmes sur la manoeuvre
+  des vaisseaux_ (1757); _Opérations faites pour la vérification du
+  degré du méridien entre Paris et Amiens_, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus,
+  Cassini et Pingré(1757).
+
+  See J.E. Montucla, _Histoire des mathématiques_ (1802).
+
+
+
+
+BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905), French painter, was born at La
+Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825. From 1843 till 1850 he went
+through the course of training at the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850
+divided the Grand Prix de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set
+being "Zenobia on the banks of the Araxes." On his return from Rome in
+1855 he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences,
+deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at Pompeii and
+Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his "Idyll" (1853). He also
+began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at the Salon. "The Martyr's Triumph,"
+the body of St Cecilia borne to the catacombs, was placed in the
+Luxembourg after being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in
+the same year he exhibited "Fraternal Love," a "Portrait" and a
+"Study." The state subsequently commissioned him to paint the emperor's
+visit to the sufferers by the inundations at Tarascon. In 1857
+Bouguereau received a first prize medal. Nine of his panels executed in
+wax-painting for the mansion of M. Bartholomy were much
+discussed--"Love," "Friendship," "Fortune," "Spring," "Summer,"
+"Dancing," "Arion on a Sea-horse," a "Bacchante" and the "Four Divisions
+of the Day." He also exhibited at the Salon "The Return of Tobit" (now
+in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed much grace of
+design, in his "Napoleon," a work of evident labour, he betrayed a lack
+of ease in the treatment of modern costume. Bouguereau subsequently
+exhibited "Love Wounded" (1859), "The Day of the Dead" (at Bordeaux),
+"The First Discord" (1861, in the Club at Limoges), "The Return from the
+Fields" (a picture in which Théophile Gautier recognized "a pure feeling
+for the antique"), "A Fawn and Bacchante" and "Peace"; in 1863 a "Holy
+Family," "Remorse," "A Bacchante teasing a Goat" (in the Bordeaux
+gallery); in 1864 "A Bather" (at Ghent), and "Sleep"; in 1865 "An
+Indigent Family," and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 "A First
+Cause," and "Covetousness," with "Philomela and Procne"; and some
+decorative work for M. Montlun at La Rochelle, for M. Emile Péreire in
+Paris, and for the churches of St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866
+the large painting of "Apollo and the Muses on Olympus," in the Great
+Theatre at Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned
+"Between Love and Riches" (1869), "A Girl Bathing" (1870), "In Harvest
+Time" (1872), "Nymphs and Satyrs" (1873), "Charity" and "Homer and his
+Guide" (1874), "Virgin and Child," "Jesus and John the Baptist," "Return
+of Spring" (which was purchased by an American collector, and was
+destroyed by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a "Pietà" (1876), "A
+Girl defending herself from Love" (1880), "Night" (1883), "The Youth of
+Bacchus" (1884), "Biblis" (1885), "Love Disarmed" (1886), "Love
+Victorious" (1887), "The Holy Women at the Sepulchre" and "The Little
+Beggar Girls" (1890), "Love in a Shower" and "First Jewels" (1891). To
+the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau's best-known
+pictures. Most of his works, especially "The Triumph of Venus" (1856)
+and "Charity," are popularly known through engravings. "Prayer," "The
+Invocation" and "Sappho" have been engraved by M. Thirion, "The Golden
+Age" by M. Annetombe. Bouguereau's pictures, highly appreciated by the
+general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of a
+freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with being too
+content to revive the formulas and subjects of the antique. At the Paris
+Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a third-class medal, in 1878 a medal
+of honour, and the same again in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the
+Society of French Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled
+with much energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856,
+an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of July
+1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute, 8th of
+January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.
+
+  See Ch. Vendryes, _Catalogue illustré des oeuvres de Bouguereau_
+  (Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_
+  (Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, _French Painters; Artistes modernes:
+  dictionnaire illustré des beaux-arts_ (1885); "W. Bouguereau,"
+  _Portfolio_ (1875); Émile Bayard, "William Bouguereau," _Monde
+  moderne_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702), French critic, was born in Paris in
+1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and was
+appointed to read lectures on literature in the college of Clermont at
+Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours. He afterwards became private tutor to
+the two sons of the duke of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the
+Romanist refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary
+occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he returned to
+Paris, and published in 1671 _Les Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugène_, a
+critical work on the French language, printed five times at Paris, twice
+at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons, Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c.
+The chief of his other works are _La Manière de bien penser sur les
+ouvrages d'esprit_ (1687), _Doutes sur la langue française_ (1674), _Vie
+de Saint Ignace de Loyola_ (1679), _Vie de Saint François Xavier_
+(1682), and a translation of the New Testament into French (1697). His
+practice of publishing secular books and works of devotion alternately
+led to the _mot_, _"qu'il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre."_
+Bouhours died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.
+
+  See Georges Doucieux, _Un Jésuite homme de lettres au dix-septième
+  siècle: Le père Bouhours_ (1886). For a list of Bouhours' works see
+  Backer and Sommervogel, _Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus_, i.
+  pp. 1886 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE (1822-1869), French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Cany, Seine Inférieure, on the 27th of May 1822. He was a
+schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to whom he dedicated his first work,
+_Méloenis_ (1851), a narrative poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman
+manners under the emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled
+_Fossiles_ attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt
+therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were
+included also in _Festons et astragales_ (1859). As a dramatist he
+secured a success with his first play, _Madame de Montarcy_ (1856),
+which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odéon; and _Hélène Peyron_
+(1858) and _L'Oncle Million_ (1860) were also favourably received. But
+of his other plays, some of them of real merit, only the _Conjuration
+d'Amboise_ (1866) met with any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th
+of July 1869, at Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a
+notice of the author, in 1872.
+
+  See also Maxime du Camp, _Souvenirs littéraires_ (1882); and H. de la
+  Ville de Mirmont, _Le Poète Louis Bouilhet_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR, MARQUIS DE (1739-1800), French general.
+He served in the Seven Years' War, and as governor in the Antilles
+conducted operations against the English in the War of American
+Independence. On his return to France he was named governor of the Three
+Bishoprics, of Alsace and of Franche-Comté. Hostile to the Revolution,
+he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and brutally
+suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy, which had been
+provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble officers. Then he
+proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a frontier town where an appeal
+could be made to other nations against the revolutionists. When this
+project failed as a result of Louis XVI.'s arrest at Varennes, Bouillé
+went to Russia to induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the
+king, and then to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in
+various royalist attempts on France. He left _Mémoires sur la Révolution
+française depuis son origine jusqu'à la retraite du duc de Brunswick_
+(Paris, 1801).
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLON, formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes, now a small
+town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 2721. It is most
+picturesquely situated in the valley under the rocky ridge on which are
+still the very well preserved remains of the castle of Godfrey of
+Bouillon (q.v.), the leader of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft.
+above the sea, but lying in a basin, skirts both banks of the river
+Semois which is crossed by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round
+and almost encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of
+the sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The whole
+effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant woods
+makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In the 8th and 9th
+centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the counts of Ardenne and
+Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries the family took the higher
+titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the
+name of Godfrey (Godefroy) and the fifth of them was the great crusader.
+He was the son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many
+commentators into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was born
+at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle of Baisy
+near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida d'Ardenne, sister of the
+fourth Godfrey ("the Hunchback"), and the successful defence of the
+castle when a mere youth of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat
+of arms of the future conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress,
+strong by art as well as position before the invention of modern
+artillery, has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake
+the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince bishop of
+Liége, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the appendage of the
+bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The bishops appointed
+"châtelains," one of whom was the celebrated "Wild Boar of the
+Ardennes," William de la Marck. His descendants made themselves
+quasi-independent and called themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of
+Bouillon, and they were even recognized by the king of France. The
+possession of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife
+until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of Nijmwegen.
+From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested in the French family of La
+Tour d'Auvergne, one of whom (Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of
+France) had married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race.
+In 1676 the duke of Créquy seized it in the name of Louis XIV., who in
+1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne, whose descendants
+continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon remained French till 1814,
+and Vauban called it "the key of the Ardennes." In 1760 the elder
+Rousseau established here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In
+1814-1815, before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an
+extraordinary attempt was made by Philippe d'Auvergne of the British
+navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to revive the ancient
+duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon freely recognized him, and
+Louis XVIII. was well pleased with the arrangement, but the congress
+assigned Bouillon to the Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to
+Germany after Sedan slept one night in the little town, which is a
+convenient centre for visiting that battlefield.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLOTTE, a French game of cards, very popular during the Revolution,
+and again for some years from 1830. Five, four or three persons may
+play; a piquet pack is used, from which, in case five play, the sevens,
+when four the knaves, and when three the queens also, are omitted.
+Counters or chips, as in poker, are used. Before the deal each player
+"antes" one counter, after which each, the "age" passing, may "raise"
+the pot; those not "seeing the raise" being obliged to drop out. Three
+cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth, called the _retourne_,
+when four play, turned up. Each player must then bet, call, raise or
+drop out. When a call is made the hands are shown and the best hand
+wins. The hands rank as follows: _brélan carré_, four of a kind, one
+being the _retourne_; _simple brélan_, three of a kind, ace being high;
+_brélan favori_, three of a kind, one being the _retourne_. When no
+player holds a _brélan_ the hand holding the greatest number of pips
+wins, ace counting 11, and court cards 10.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS (1763-1842), French author, was born near Tours on
+the 24th of January 1763. At the outbreak of the Revolution he held
+office under the new government, and had a considerable share in the
+organization of primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life
+to devote himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical
+comedy, _Pierre le Grand_ (1790), for Grétry's music, and the opera,
+_Les Deux Journées_ (1800), music by Cherubini; also _L'Abbé de l'épée_
+(1800), and some other plays; and _Causeries d'un vieillard_ (1807),
+_Contes à ma fille_ (1809), and _Les Adieux du vieux conteur_ (1835).
+His _Léonore_ (1798) formed the basis of the libretto of the _Fidelio_
+of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris on the 14th of April 1842.
+
+  See Bouilly, _Mes récapitulations_ (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouvé,
+  _Soixante ans de souvenir_ (lère partie, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI, COMTE DE (1658-1722), French political writer,
+was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He was educated at the college
+of Juilly, and served in the army until 1697. He wrote a number of
+historical works (published after his death), of which the most
+important were the following: _Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de la
+France_ (La Haye, 1727); _État de la France, avec des mémoires sur
+l'ancien gouvernement_ (London, 1727); _Histoire de la pairie de France_
+(London, 1753); _Histoire des Arabes_ (1731). His writings are
+characterized by an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was
+an aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute monarchy
+on the one hand and popular government on the other. He was at great
+pains to prove the pretensions of his own family to ancient nobility,
+and maintained that the government should be entrusted solely to men of
+his class. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.
+
+
+
+
+BOULANGER, the name of several French artists:--JEAN (1606-1660), a
+pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an academy at Modena; his cousin
+JEAN (1607-1680), a celebrated line-engraver; the latter's son MATTHIEU,
+another engraver; LOUIS (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of
+Victor Hugo, and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the
+best-known, GUSTAVE RODOLPHE CLARENCE (1824-1888), a pupil of Paul
+Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and Roman subjects,
+and a member of the Institute (1882); and CLÉMENT (1805-1842), a pupil
+of Ingres.
+
+
+
+
+BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891), French general, was
+born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837. He entered the army in 1856,
+and served in Algeria, Italy, Cochin-China and the Franco-German War,
+earning the reputation of being a smart soldier. He was made a
+brigadier-general in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d'Aumale,
+then commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger's expressions of
+gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered against him
+afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet's cabinet, he erased
+the name of the due d'Aumale from the army list, as part of the
+republican campaign against the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes. In
+1882 his appointment as director of infantry at the war office enabled
+him to make himself conspicuous as a military reformer; and in 1884 he
+was appointed to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled
+owing to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political
+resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in politics under
+the aegis of M. Clémenceau and the Radical party; and in January 1886,
+when M. Freycinet was brought into power by the support of the Radical
+leader, Boulanger was given the post of war minister.
+
+By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and common
+soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity in the most
+pronounced fashion--notably by his fire-eating attitude towards Germany
+in April 1887 in connexion with the Schnaebele frontier
+incident--Boulanger came to be accepted by the mob as the man destined
+to give France her revenge for the disasters of 1870, and to be used
+simultaneously as a tool by all the anti-Republican intriguers. His
+action with regard to the royal princes has already been referred to,
+but it should be added that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his
+ingratitude to the duc d'Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the
+words alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published, and
+the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel with the baron
+de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at the moment in
+dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet's defeat in December 1886 he
+was retained by M. Goblet at the war office. M. Clémenceau, however, had
+by this time abandoned his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so
+inconveniently prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to
+get rid of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their "brav'
+général," but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined to take
+him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand to
+command an army corps. A Boulangist "movement" was now in full swing.
+The Bonapartists had attached themselves to the general, and even the
+comte de Paris encouraged his followers to support him, to the dismay of
+those old-fashioned Royalists who resented Boulanger's treatment of the
+duc d'Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the
+moment--"C'est Boulanger qu'il nous faut"; the general and his black
+horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and he was urged to play
+the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the presidency.
+
+The general's vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after various
+symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he was deprived of
+his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris without leave, and finally
+on the recommendation of a council of inquiry composed of five generals,
+his name was removed from the army list. He was, however, almost at once
+elected to the chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a
+demand for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a
+minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see what
+his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly directed to
+keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular hero survives many
+deficiencies, and neither his failure as an orator nor the humiliation
+of a discomfiture in a duel with M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian,
+sufficed to check the enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his
+personality was the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he
+resigned his seat as a protest against the reception given by the
+chamber to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one
+another in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January
+1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority. He had now
+become an open menace to the parliamentary Republic. Had Boulanger
+immediately placed himself at the head of a revolt he might at this
+moment have effected the _coup d'état_ which the intriguers had worked
+for, and might not improbably have made himself master of France; but
+the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M. Constans as
+minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its measures for
+bringing a prosecution against him, and within two months a warrant was
+signed for his arrest. To the astonishment of his friends, on the 1st of
+April he fled from Paris before it could be executed, going first to
+Brussels and then to London. It was the end of the political danger,
+though Boulangist echoes continued for a little while to reverberate at
+the polls during 1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and
+condemned _in absentia_ for treason, in October 1889 went to live in
+Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings. The world was
+startled, however, on the 30th of September 1891 by hearing that he had
+committed suicide in a cemetery at Brussels by blowing out his brains on
+the grave of his mistress, Madame de Bonnemains (_née_ Marguerite
+Crouzet), who had died in the preceding July.
+
+  See also the article FRANCE: History; and Verly, _Le Général Boulanger
+  et la conspiration monarchique_ (Paris, 1893).     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH, COMTE (1761-1840),
+French politician and magistrate, son of an agricultural labourer, was
+born at Chamousey (Vosges) on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the
+bar at Nancy in 1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly
+acquired a reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the
+revolutionary cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and
+Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate principles
+brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he had to go into
+hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council of Five Hundred, of
+which he was twice president, but his views developed steadily in the
+conservative direction. Fearing a possible renewal of the Terror, he
+became an active member of the plot for the overthrow of the Directory
+in November 1799. He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative
+commission formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as
+president of the legislative section of the council of state he examined
+and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years of hard work as
+director of a special land commission he settled the titles of land
+acquired by the French nation at the Revolution, and placed on an
+unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors who had bought this
+land from the government. He received the grand cross of the Legion of
+Honour and the title of count, was a member of Napoleon's privy council,
+but was never in high favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain
+the recognition of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at
+Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He was allowed to
+return to France in 1819, but took no further active part in politics,
+although he presented himself unsuccessfully for parliamentary election
+in 1824 and 1827. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He
+published two books on English history--_Essai sur les causes qui, en
+1649, amenèrent en Angleterre l'établissement de la république_ (Paris,
+1799), and _Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II,
+derniers rois de la maison de Stuart_ (The Hague, 1818)--which contained
+much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration
+governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing his
+memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the _Théorie
+constitutionnelle de Sieyès_ (1836), remained unpublished.
+
+His elder son, Comte HENRI GEORGES BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE (1797-1858), was
+a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of Louis Napoleon to the
+presidency, was named (January 1849) vice-president of the republic. He
+zealously promoted popular education, and became in 1842 president of
+the society for elementary instruction.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER, a city and the county-seat of Boulder county, Colorado, U.S.A.,
+about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 3330; (1900) 6150 (693
+foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served by the Union Pacific, the
+Colorado & Southern, and the Denver, Boulder & Western railways; the
+last connects with the neighbouring mining camps, and affords fine views
+of mountain scenery. Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle
+Boulder Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its
+confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the valley
+at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado,
+established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in 1877; it
+includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine (1883), school of
+law (1892), college of engineering (1893), graduate school, college of
+commerce (1906), college of education (1908), and a summer school
+(1904), and has a library of about 42,000 volumes. There are a fine park
+of 2840 acres, the property of the city, and three beautiful cañons near
+Boulder. At the southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above
+the city, are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado
+Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with bronchial
+and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual temperature for eleven
+years ending with 1907 was 51° F. There are medicinal springs in the
+vicinity. The water-works are owned and operated by the city, the water
+being obtained from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in
+the Snowy Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is
+irrigated, and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There are
+ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil and natural gas
+abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries in the city; and in
+Boulder county, especially at Nederland, 18 m. south-west, and at
+Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the city, has been obtained since 1900
+most of the tungsten mined in the United States; the output in 1907 was
+valued at about $520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder
+was made in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an
+affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid out and
+organized in February 1859, and a city charter was secured in 1871 and
+another in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER (short for "boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed.
+_bullersten_, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a
+stream, from _bullra_, to make a loud noise), a large stone, weathered
+or water-worn; especially a geological term for a large mass of rock
+transported to a distance from the formation to which it belongs.
+Similarly, in mining, a mass of ore found at a distance from the lode.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER CLAY, in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of boulders,
+which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets wherever they are
+found, but is in a special sense the typical deposit of the Glacial
+Period in northern Europe and America. Boulder clay is variously known
+as "till" or "ground moraine" (Ger. _Blocklehme_, _Geschiebsmergel_ or
+_Grundmoräne_; Fr. _argile à blocaux_, _moraine profonde_; Swed.
+_Krosstenslera_). It is usually a stiff, tough clay devoid of
+stratification; though some varieties are distinctly laminated.
+Occasionally, within the boulder clay, there are irregular lenticular
+masses of more or less stratified sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder
+clay is the result of the abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older
+rocks over which the ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them;
+thus, in Britain, over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is
+red, over Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it
+may be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay
+may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much boulder clay
+is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it becomes brown upon
+being weathered.
+
+The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner, and they
+vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons in weight. Usually
+they are somewhat oblong, and often they possess a flat side or "sole";
+they may be angular, sub-angular, or well rounded, and, if they are hard
+rocks, they frequently bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with
+other rocks while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which
+they are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice has
+travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or sandstones; in
+others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &c.; indeed, they may
+consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the contained boulders it is
+often possible to trace the path along which a vanished ice-sheet moved;
+thus in the Glacial drift of the east coast of England many Scandinavian
+rocks can be recognized.
+
+With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in the boulder
+clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically unknown; but
+in some maritime districts marine shells have been incorporated with the
+clay. See GLACIAL PERIOD; and GLACIER.
+
+
+
+
+BOULE (Gr. [Greek: boulae], literally "will," "advice"; hence a
+"council"), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory council.
+In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies, there was a
+council of this kind, probably composed of the heads of families, i.e.
+of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually on the summons of the
+king for the purpose of consultation. Sometimes, however, it met on its
+own initiative, and laid suggestions before the king. It formed a means
+of communication between the king and the freemen assembled in the
+Agora. In Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was
+retained (for the Spartan Council of Elders see GEROUSIA). In Athens the
+ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of a
+democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for purposes of
+distinction, it was described as "the Boule on the Areopagus," or, more
+shortly, "the Areopagus" (q.v.). It must be clearly understood that the
+second, or Solonian Boule, was entirely different from the Areopagus
+which represented the Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian
+history, even after the "mutilation" carried out by Ephialtes. Further,
+it is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second Boule
+a "senate." There is no real analogy between the Roman senate and the
+Athenian council of Five Hundred.
+
+Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind of which
+we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary to mention
+that councils existed in other Greek states also, both oligarchic and
+democratic. A Boule was in the first place a necessary part of a Greek
+oligarchy; the transition from monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun
+by the gradual transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of
+nobles. Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule was
+equally essential. The general assembly of the people was utterly
+unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all their
+minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in almost all the
+states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that there was an oligarchic
+council of unknown numbers presided over by eight leaders (Nicol.
+Damasc. _Frag_. 60). It was probably like the old Homeric council,
+except that its constitution did not depend on a birth qualification,
+but on a high census. This was natural in Corinth where, according to
+Herodotus (ii. 167), mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an
+inscription we learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on
+Erythrae (about 450 B.C.), included a council analogous to their own.
+(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of ninety,
+which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred (471). (4)
+Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council of eighty and
+later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc. v. 47). Councils are
+also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis (democratic), (7) Corcyra
+(democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these seven the most instructive is
+that of Erythrae, which proves that in the 5th century the Council of
+Five Hundred was so efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed
+at Erythrae (and probably in the other tributary cities).
+
+_The Boule at Athens. History._--The origin of the second Boule, or
+Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in obscurity. In the
+Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ (c. 4), it is stated that Draco
+established a council of 401, and that he transferred to it some of the
+functions of the Council of Areopagus (q.v.). It is, however, generally
+held (see DRACO) that this statement is untrue, and that it was Solon
+who first established the council as a part of the constitution.
+Thirdly, it has been held that the council was not invented either by
+Draco or by Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has
+also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boule existed before
+Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view is the omission of any
+reference to the Boule in one of the earliest Athenian inscriptions,
+that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill, No. 4), where in place of the
+customary formula of a later age, [Greek: hedoxe tae boulae kai to
+daemo], we have the formula [Greek: edochsen to daemo]. This argument is
+far from conclusive, and it is clear from the _Constitution_ (c. 20)
+that the resistance of the Boule to Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior
+to the legislation of Cleisthenes (i.e. that the Boule in question was
+the Solonian and not the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to
+conclude that it was Solon who invented the Boule to act as a
+semi-democratic check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing
+at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the people in
+the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing is known of the
+operations of this council until the struggle between Isagoras and
+Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon's council had been based on the four
+Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes created the new ten tribes in order to
+destroy the local influence of dominant families and to give the country
+demes a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a body
+of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see below) was the
+keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and may be said in a sense to
+have embodied the principle of local representation. After Cleisthenes,
+the council remained unaltered till 306 B.C., when, on the addition of
+two new tribes named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes,
+its numbers were increased to 600. In A.D. 126-127 the old number of 500
+was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned in an inscription of
+the early 3rd century A.D., and about A.D. 400 the number of councillors
+had fallen to 300.
+
+
+  Solon's council.
+
+  Cleisthenes' council.
+
+_Constitution and Functions._--(a) Under Solon the council consisted of
+400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes. It is certain that
+all classes were eligible except the Thetes, but the method of
+appointment is not known. Three suggestions have been made, (1) that
+each tribe chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot
+from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method of
+selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates was
+employed. According to the passage in Plutarch's _Solon_ the functions
+of this body were from the first _probouleutic_ (i.e. it prepared the
+business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that this function was not
+assigned to it until the Cleisthenean reforms. When we consider,
+however, the double danger of leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and
+yet under the presidency of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable
+that the probouleutic functions were devised by Solon as a method of
+maintaining the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boule was from
+the first what it certainly was later, a _committee_ of the Ecclesia,
+i.e. not a "senate." It may be regarded as certain that the system of
+Prytaneis was the invention of Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (b) Under
+Cleisthenes the council reached its full development as a democratic
+representative body. Its actual organization is still uncertain, but it
+may be inferred that it became gradually a more strictly self-existent
+body than the Solonian council. Every full citizen of thirty years of
+age was eligible, and, unlike other civil offices, it was permissible to
+serve twice, but not more than twice (_Ath. Pol._ c. 62). It may be
+regarded as certain, although our evidence is derived from inscriptions
+which date from the 3rd century B.C., that from the first the Bouleutae
+were appointed by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the
+deme, and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed.
+For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in case of
+death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass before the old
+council an examination in which the whole of his private life was
+scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to take an oath that they
+(1) would act according to the laws, (2) would give the best advice in
+their power, and (3) would carry out the examination of their successors
+in an impartial spirit. As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they
+received payment originally at the rate of one drachma a day,[1] at the
+end of the 4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of
+office each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the
+council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within its own
+sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over its members by
+the device known as _Ecphyllophoria_; it could provisionally suspend a
+member, pending a formal trial before the whole council assembled _ad
+hoc_. The council had further a complete system of scribes or
+secretaries (_grammateis_), private treasury officials, and a paid
+herald who summoned the Boule and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place
+generally in the council hall (_Bouleuterion_), but on special occasions
+in the theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the
+Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being separated by a
+barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance the public was
+excluded.
+
+
+  Prytaneis.
+
+The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable to meet
+more than three or four times a month; the council, on the other hand,
+was in continuous session, except on feast days. It was impossible that
+the Five Hundred should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate
+the despatch of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced,
+probably by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten
+equal periods. During each of these periods the council was represented
+by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who acted as a
+committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the year. Each of
+these committees was led by a president (_Epistates_), who acted as
+chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also, and a third of its numbers
+lived permanently during their period of office in the Tholos (Dome) or
+Skias, a round building where they (with certain other officials and
+honoured citizens) dined at the public expense. In 378-377 B.C. (or
+perhaps in the archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the
+Ecclesia was transferred to the _Epistates of the Proedri_, the
+_Proedri_ being a body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the
+Prytaneis from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule
+(i.e. the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare all
+business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation
+([Greek: probouleuma]) was presented to the popular assembly (for
+procedure, see ECCLESIA), which either passed it as it stood or made
+amendments subject to certain conditions. It must be clearly understood
+that the recommendation of the council had no intrinsic force until by
+the votes of the Ecclesia it passed into law as a psephism. But in
+addition to this function, the Council of the Five Hundred had large
+administrative and judicial control. (1) It was before the council that
+the Poletae arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of
+tenders for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further,
+it dealt with defaulting collectors ([Greek: eklogeis]), exacted the
+debts of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual
+estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the Apodectae
+("Receivers") and the "Treasurers of the God." (3) From Demosthenes (_In
+Androt_.) it is clear that it had to arrange for the provision of so
+many triremes per annum and the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It
+arranged for the maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from
+the demes. (5) It heard certain cases of _eisangelia_ (impeachment) and
+had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case over to the
+Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly prosecutions for crimes
+against the state (e.g. treason, conspiracy, bribery). In later times it
+acted mainly as a court of first instance. Subsequently (_Ath. Pol._ c.
+45) its powers were limited and an appeal was allowed to the popular
+courts. (6) The council presided over the _dokimasia_ (consideration of
+fitness) of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally
+concerned with a candidate's moral and physical fitness, degenerated
+into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign affairs the
+council as the only body in permanent session naturally received foreign
+envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia. Further, the Boule, with
+the Strategi ("Generals"), took treaty oaths, after the Ecclesia had
+decided on the terms. The Xenophontic _Politeia_ states that the council
+of the 5th century was "concerned with war," but in the 4th century it
+chiefly supervised the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least
+the council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes (_De
+Fals. Leg._ p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers to send
+ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (_De Myst._ 14 foil.) states that
+it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation of the
+Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian Expedition.
+
+It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely essential to
+the working of the Athenian state. Without having any final legislative
+authority, it was a necessary part of the legislative machinery, and it
+may be regarded as certain that a large proportion of its
+recommendations were passed without alteration or even discussion by the
+Ecclesia. The Boule; was, therefore, in the strict sense a committee of
+the Ecclesia, and was immediately connected with a system of
+sub-committees which exercised executive functions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--With this article compare ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, ARCHON,
+  DRACO, SOLON, CLEISTHENES, where collateral information is given.
+  Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer &c.),
+  see Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans. by E.J. Brooks
+  and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (1900); A.H.J.
+  Greenidge _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_ (1896); J.E.
+  Sandys' edition of the _Constitution of Athens_; Boeckh, _Die
+  Staatshaushaltung der Athener_ (1886); Schumann, _Griechische
+  Altertümer_ (1897-1902); Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und
+  Rechtsaltertümer_ (1902). See also H. Swoboda, _Die griechischen
+  Volksbeschlüsse_ (1890); Szanto, _Das griechische Bürgerrecht_ (1892);
+  Perrot, _Essai sur le droit public d'Athènes_ (1869). It should be
+  observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless that
+  they are without the information contained in the _Constitution of
+  Athens_ (q.v.). See also GREEK LAW.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed
+    to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 B.C.
+    (Thuc. viii. 69; see PERICLES).
+
+
+
+
+BOULEVARD (a Fr. word, earlier _boulevart_, from Dutch or Ger.
+_Bollwerk_, cf. Eng. "bulwark"), originally, in fortification, an
+earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into use owing to
+the width of the gangways in medieval walls being insufficient for the
+mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard or bulwark was usually an
+earthen outwork mounting artillery, and so placed in advance as to
+prevent the guns of a besieger from battering the foot of the main
+walls. It was as a rule circular. Semicircular _demi-boulevards_ were
+often constructed round the bases of the old masonry towers with the
+same object. In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote
+a promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by
+analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.
+
+
+
+
+BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker, who gave his
+name to a fashion of inlaying known as Boulle or Buhl work. The son of
+Jean Boulle, a member of a family of _ébénistes_ who had already
+achieved distinction--Pierre Boulle, who died c. 1636, was for many
+years _tourneur et menuisier du roy des cabinets d'ébène_,--he became
+the most famous of his name and was, indeed, the second
+cabinet-maker--the first was Jean Macé--who has acquired individual
+renown. That must have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty
+he had already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of
+the Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the
+most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be admitted to
+these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark of royal favour,
+but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom from the trammels of the
+trade gilds. Boulle was given the deceased Jean Macé's own lodging in
+1672 by Louis XIV. upon the recommendation, of Colbert, who described
+him as "_le plus habile ébéniste de Paris_," but in the patent
+conferring this privilege he is described also as "chaser, gilder and
+maker of marqueterie." Boulle appears to have been originally a painter,
+since the first payment to him by the crown of which there is any record
+(1669) specifies "ouvrages de peinture." He was employed for many years
+at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of "wood mosaic,"
+the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in the Cabinet du
+Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable work. These rooms were long
+since dismantled and their contents dispersed, but Boulle's drawings for
+the work are in the Musée des Arts Décoratifs. His royal commissions
+were, indeed, innumerable, as we learn both from the _Comptes des
+bâtiments_ and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most
+magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the great nobles
+and financiers of his own country crowded him with commissions, and the
+_mot_ of the abbé de Marolles, "_Boulle y tourne en ovale_," has become
+a stock quotation in the literature of French cabinet-making. Yet
+despite his distinction, the facility with which he worked, the high
+prices he obtained, and his workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle
+appears to have been constantly short of money. He did not always pay
+his workmen, clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain
+the fine things they had ordered, more than one application was made for
+permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the courts within the
+asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the king giving him six
+months' protection from his creditors on condition that he used the time
+to regulate his affairs or "ce scra la derniére grâce que sa majesté lui
+fera là-dessus." Twenty years later one of his sons was arrested at
+Fontainebleau and kept in prison for debt until the king had him
+released. In 1720 his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire
+which, beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops
+and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances, models and
+finished work of which they were full. The salvage was sold and a
+petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent, the result of which
+does not appear. It would seem that Boulle was never a good man of
+business, but, according to his friend Mariette, many of his pecuniary
+difficulties were caused by his passion for collecting pictures,
+engravings and other objects of art--the inventory of his losses in the
+fire, which exceeded £40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters,
+including forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal
+kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings and
+engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases, and when
+the next sale took place, fresh expedients were devised for obtaining
+more money. Collecting was to Boulle a mania of which, says his friend,
+it was impossible to cure him. Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years
+and debts. He left four sons who followed in his footsteps in more
+senses than one--Jean Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745),
+Pierre Benoit (d. 1741), Charles André (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph
+(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their lives, and
+the three last are known to have died in debt.
+
+All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder Boulle
+was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He was born into a
+France which was just entering upon the most brilliant period of
+sumptuary magnificence which any nation has known in modern times. Louis
+XIV., so avid of the delights of the eye, by the reckless extravagance
+of his example turned the thoughts of his courtiers to domestic
+splendours which had hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which
+arose in his time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not
+only inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late
+Renaissance, but had _ébénisterie_ in his blood, arose, as some such man
+invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal pride and
+love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was by no means the
+first Frenchman to practise the delightful art of marqueterie, nor was
+he quite the inventor of the peculiar type of inlay which is chiefly
+associated with his name; but no artist, before or since, has used these
+motives with such astonishing skill, courage and surety. He produced
+pieces of monumental solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or
+gleaming with the sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and
+white metal. The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making
+furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying it
+with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints, ivory,
+tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods. Boulle improved upon
+this by inlaying brass devices into wood or tortoise-shell, which last
+he greatly used according to the design he had immediately in view,
+whether flowers, scenes, scrolls, &c.; to these he sometimes added
+enamelled metal. Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so
+characteristic that any furniture, however cheap and common, which has a
+reddish _fond_ that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now
+described as "Buhl"--the name is the invention of the British auctioneer
+and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like the
+ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the first instance
+the production of his work was costly, owing to the quantity of valuable
+material that was cut away and wasted, and, in addition, the labour lost
+in separately cutting for each article or copy of a pattern. By a
+subsequent improvement Boulle effected an economy by gluing together
+various sheets of material and sawing through the whole, so that an
+equal number of figures and matrices were produced at one operation.
+Boulle adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of
+his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under the
+tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased the
+brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the metal
+required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails, these were
+hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing. He also adopted, in
+relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets, edgings, and other
+ornaments of appropriate design, partly to protect the corners and edges
+of his work, and partly for decoration. He subsequently used other brass
+mountings, such as claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low
+relief, according to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in
+the pieces that undoubtedly come from Boulle's _atelier_ are nearly
+always of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the rough--the
+tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute finish,
+their jewel-like smoothness.
+
+Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to declare the
+authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in the manner of Boulle
+and to all appearance from his workshops. His sons unquestionably
+carried on the traditions for some years after his death, and his
+imitators were many and capable. A few of the more magnificent
+pedigree-pieces are among the world's mobiliary treasures. There are,
+for instance, the two famous _armoires_, which fetched £12,075 at the
+Hamilton Palace sale; the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze
+mounts, in the Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and
+tables in the Louvre, the Musée Cluny and the Mobilier National; the
+marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato collection.
+There are several fine authenticated pieces in the Wallace collection at
+Hertford House, together with others consummately imitated, probably in
+the Louis Seize period. On the rare occasions when a pedigree example
+comes into the auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but
+there can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous specimens
+of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the second and third classes
+of his work are perhaps becoming more numerous. The truth is that this
+wonderful work, with its engraved or inlaid designs of Bérain, its
+myriads of tiny pieces of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell,
+all kept together with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very
+often to a rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages
+of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat and
+humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than time and
+wear--such delicate things are rarely much used, and are protected from
+ordinary chances of deterioration. There is consequently reason to
+rejoice when a piece of real artistry in furniture finds its final home
+in a museum, where a degree of warmth is maintained which, however
+distressing it may be to the visitor, at least preserves the contents
+from one of the worst enemies of the collector.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE, the name of a family of French painters. Louis
+(1609-1674), who was one of the original members of the Academy of
+Painting and Sculpture (1648), became celebrated under Louis XIV. His
+traditions were continued by his children: GENEVIEVE (1645-1708), who
+married the sculptor Jacques Clerion; MADELEINE (1646-1710), whose work
+survives in the _Trophies d'armes_ at Versailles; BON (1649-1717), a
+successful teacher and decorative artist; and LOUIS the younger
+(1654-1733), who copied Raphael's cartoons for the Gobelins tapestry,
+and besides taking a high place as a painter was also a designer of
+medals.
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE-SUR-MER, a fortified seaport of northern France and chief town
+of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated on the shore of the
+English Channel at the mouth of the river Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris
+on the Northern railway, and 28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop.
+(1906) 49,636. Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of
+hills skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of
+Capécure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two bridges,
+while the river is also crossed by a double railway viaduct. The town
+consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and the Basse Ville. The former,
+situated on the top of the hill, is of comparatively small extent, and
+forms almost a parallelogram, surrounded by ramparts of the 13th
+century, and, outside them, by boulevards, and entered by ancient
+gateways. In this part are the law court, the château and the hotel de
+ville (built in the 18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and
+17th centuries is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the château (13th
+century) now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was confined
+after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance north-west
+stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known place of pilgrimage,
+erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old building destroyed in the
+Revolution, of which the extensive crypt still remains. The modern town
+stretches from the foot of the hill to the harbour, along which it
+extends, terminating in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers,
+and provided with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains
+several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep. A main
+street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas and Grande rue,
+extends from the bridge across the Liane to the promenade by the side of
+the ramparts. This is intersected first by the Quai Gambetta, and
+farther back by the rue Victor Hugo and the rue Nationale, which contain
+the principal shops. The public buildings include several modern
+churches, two hospitals and a museum with collections of antiquities,
+natural history, porcelain, &c. Connected with the museum is a public
+library with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts, many
+of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in the town, and
+numerous boarding-schools intended for English pupils. Boulogne is the
+seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a
+branch of the Bank of France. There are also communal colleges, a
+national school of music, and schools of hydrography, commerce and
+industry. Boulogne has for a long time been one of the most anglicized
+of French cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of
+English travellers reach the continent at this point.
+
+The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties enclose a
+channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal basin with a depth
+at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an extensive dock, and behind
+it an inner port. There is also a tidal basin opening off the entrance
+channel. The depth of water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at
+spring-tide and 24 ft. at neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the
+numbers are 29½ and 23½ respectively. The commerce of Boulogne consists
+chiefly in the importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk and wool
+skins, threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the exportation
+of wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other vegetables, skins,
+motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual value of the exports
+in the five years 1901-1905 was £10,953,000 (£11,704,000 in the years
+1896-1900), and of the imports £6,064,000 (£7,003,000 in the years
+1896-1900). From 1901 to 1905 the annual average of vessels entered,
+exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735, tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared
+2750, tonnage 1,748,297. The total number of passengers between
+Folkestone and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49% above the average for
+the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the steamers of the
+South-Eastern & Chatham railway company. The liners of the
+Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies also call at the
+port. In the extent and value of its fisheries Boulogne is exceeded by
+no seaport in France. The most important branch is the herring-fishery;
+next in value is the mackerel. Large quantities of fresh fish are
+transmitted to Paris by railway, but an abundant supply is reserved to
+the town itself. The fishermen live for the most part in a separate
+quarter called La Beurrière, situated in the upper part of the town. In
+1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village of Étaples
+employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value of the fish taken being
+estimated at £1,025,000. Among the numerous industrial establishments in
+Boulogne and its environs may be mentioned foundries, cement-factories,
+important steel-pen manufactories, oil-works, dye-works, fish-curing
+works, flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories of cloth, fireproof
+ware, chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. Shipbuilding is also carried
+on.
+
+Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the most remarkable
+is the Colonne de la Grande Armée, erected on the high ground above the
+town, in honour of Napoleon I., on occasion of the projected invasion of
+England, for which he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is
+of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue of the
+emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the monument was not
+completed till 1841. On the edge of the cliff to the east of the port
+are some rude brick remains of an old building called Tour d'Ordre, said
+to be the ruins of a tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended
+invasion of Britain.
+
+Boulogne is identified with the _Gessoriacum_ of the Romans, under whom
+it was an important harbour. It is suggested that it was the _Portus
+Itius_ where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet (see ITIUS PORTUS). At an
+early period it began to be known as _Bononia_, a name which has been
+gradually modified into the present form. The town was destroyed by the
+Normans in 882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period
+Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the subject
+of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the year 965 it belonged
+to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey of Bouillon, the first king
+of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of Blois, who became king of England
+in 1135, had married Mahaut, daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of
+Boulogne. Their daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and
+her daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this last
+marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of Philip Hurepel
+(d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her succeeded the house of
+Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne, sister of Ida, and wife of Henry
+I. of Brabant; and then the house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter
+of Henry I. of Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the
+possession of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke
+of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France
+reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving Lauraguais
+as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of Auvergne, heir of
+the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage to Mary of Burgundy,
+suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess of Artois, Louis XI declared the
+countship of Boulogne to be held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544
+Henry VIII.--more successful in this than Henry III. had been in
+1347--took the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550.
+From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat of a
+bishopric.
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of Paris and immediately
+outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906) 49,412. The town has a Gothic
+church of the 14th and 15th centuries (restored in 1863) founded in
+honour of Notre-Dame of Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name
+of the place, which was previously called Menus-lès-St Cloud. Laundrying
+is extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes,
+soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome residences. For
+the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see PARIS.
+
+
+
+
+BOULTON, MATTHEW (1728-1809), English manufacturer and engineer, was
+born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham, where his father,
+Matthew Boulton the elder, was a manufacturer of metal articles of
+various kinds. To this business he succeeded on his father's death in
+1759, and in consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from
+Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi. north
+of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of artistic objects in
+metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings by a mechanical
+process in which he was associated with Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who
+subsequently achieved a reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled
+glass. About 1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the
+motive power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt, who
+on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho works for the
+development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt's partner, Dr John
+Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and Boulton, to whom he owed
+£1200, accepted the two-thirds share in Watt's patent held by him in
+satisfaction of the debt. Three years later Boulton and Watt formally
+entered into partnership, and it was mainly through the energy and
+self-sacrifice of the former, who devoted all the capital he possessed
+or could borrow to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length
+made a commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an
+act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt's 1769 patent
+to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from the business, which they
+handed over to their sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt
+junior. In 1788 Boulton turned his attention to coining machinery, and
+erected at Soho a complete plant with which he struck coins for the
+Sierra Leone and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797
+produced a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a
+patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the hydraulic
+ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August 1809.
+
+
+
+
+BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. _bonde_, Med. Lat. _bodena_ or _butina_,
+a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or extent of
+land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a post, ditch,
+hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &c., though on the other hand it may have
+to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by measurement. In law, the
+exact boundary of land is always a matter of evidence; where no evidence
+is available, the court acts on presumption. For example, the boundary
+of land on opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is
+presumed to be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are
+separated by a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the
+hedge and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended
+upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes great care was
+taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish by perambulations from
+time to time. The confusion of local boundaries in England was the
+subject of several commissions and committees in the 19th century, and
+much information will be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873,
+1888). The Local Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for
+the alteration of local areas.
+
+
+
+
+BOUNDS, BEATING THE, an ancient custom still observed in many English
+parishes. In former times when maps were rare it was usual to make a
+formal perambulation of the parish boundaries on Ascension day or during
+Rogation week. The latter is in the north of England still called "Gang
+Week" or "Ganging Days" from this "ganging" or procession. The priest
+of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial officials headed
+a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs, beat with them the parish
+border-stones. Sometimes the boys were themselves whipped or even
+violently bumped on the boundary-stones to make them remember. The
+object of taking boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the
+boundaries should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is
+as old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and
+Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from the Roman
+Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of February in honour of
+Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom cakes and wine were offered,
+sports and dancing taking place at the boundaries. In England a
+parish-ale or feast was always held after the perambulation, which
+assured its popularity, and in Henry VIII.'s reign the occasion had
+become an excuse for so much revelry that it attracted the condemnation
+of a preacher who declared "these solemne and accustomable processions
+and supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable
+abuse." Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice which
+originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy being supposed to
+beseech (_rogare_) the divine blessing upon the parish lands for the
+ensuing harvest. This feature originated in the 5th century, when
+Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted special prayers and fasting and
+processions on these days. This clerical side of the parish
+bounds-beating was one of the religious functions prohibited by the
+Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the
+perambulation should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular
+function, so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &c. might be
+preserved (Gibson, _Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani_ (1761) pp.
+213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with bounds-beating.
+Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday, in accordance with the will
+of one Edward Wilkes, a London merchant who died in 1646, the trustees
+of his almshouses accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and
+plum rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that
+while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.
+
+
+
+
+BOUNTY (through O. Fr. _bontet_, from Lat. _bonitas_, goodness), a gift
+or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government to encourage
+some branch of production or industry, as in England in the case of the
+bounty on corn, first granted in 1688 and abolished in 1814, the
+herring-fishery bounties, the bounties on sail-cloth, linen and other
+goods. It is admitted that the giving of bounties is generally
+impolitic, though they may sometimes be justified as a measure of state.
+The most striking modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (q.v.).
+Somewhat akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (q.v.)
+by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be termed,
+grants are often given, more especially in new countries, for the
+destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and some other
+countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting; France has given
+bounties to encourage the Newfoundland fisheries.
+
+Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce men to enlist
+in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom, to the sum given on
+entering the militia reserve. During the American Civil War, many
+recruits joined solely for the sake of the bounty offered, and
+afterwards deserted; they were called "bounty-jumpers." The term bounty
+was also applied in the English navy to signify money payable to the
+officers and crew of a ship in respect of services on particular
+occasions.
+
+Queen Anne's Bounty (q.v.) is a fund applied for the augmentation of
+poor livings in the established church.
+
+King's Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal bounty to
+those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of three or more
+children at a birth.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER (1816-1897), French general, was born at
+Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a Greek colonel who died in
+the War of Independence in 1827. He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined
+the Zouaves, becoming lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and
+aide-de-camp to King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition
+that he first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves;
+1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st
+Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the Crimean War he
+commanded a portion of the Algerian troops; and at the Alma, Inkerman
+and Sevastopol Bourbaki's name became famous. In 1857 he was made
+general of division, commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war
+with Italy was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was
+proposed as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined the
+proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with the command of
+the Imperial Guard, and he played an important part in the fighting
+round Metz.
+
+A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with Bourbaki's
+name. A man who called himself Regnier,[1] about the 21st of September,
+appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview with the refugee empress
+Eugénie, and failing to obtain this he managed to get from the young
+prince imperial a signed photograph with a message to the emperor
+Napoleon. This he used, by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as
+credentials to Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz,
+telling him on the empress's alleged authority that peace was about to
+be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki was to
+go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went to England, with
+Prussian connivance, as though he had a recognized mission, only to
+discover from the empress at Hastings that a trick had been played on
+him; and as soon as he could manage he returned to France. He offered
+his services to Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army,
+but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the Army of
+the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and ill-equipped Army of
+the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to raise the siege of Belfort,
+which, after the victory of Villersexel, ended in the repulse of the
+French in the three days' battle of the Lisaine. Other German forces
+under Manteuffel now closed upon Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven
+over the Swiss frontier with the remnant of his forces (see
+FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). His troops were in the most desperate condition,
+owing to lack of food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started,
+only 84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki
+himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable surrender,
+on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions to General
+Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own head, but the
+bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was flattened against his
+skull and his life was saved. General Clinchant carried Bourbaki into
+Switzerland, and he recovered sufficiently to return to France. In July
+1871 he again took the command at Lyons, and subsequently became
+military governor. In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was
+placed on the retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for
+the senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic Frenchman
+and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like some other French
+generals of the Second Empire whose training had been obtained in
+Africa, was found wanting in the higher elements of command when the
+European conditions of 1870 were concerned.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself--who
+    on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on Lord
+    Granville (see the _Life of Lord Granville_, by Lord Fitzmaurice, ii.
+    61) of being a "swindler" but honestly wishing to serve the
+    empress--was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of 1902-1903;
+    he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in a pamphlet,
+    _Quel est votre nom?_ It has been suspected that on the part either
+    of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed intrigue was
+    on foot.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON. The noble family of Bourbon, from which so many European kings
+have sprung, took its name from Bourbon l'Archambault, chief town of a
+lordship which in the 10th century was one of the largest baronies of
+the kingdom of France. The limits of the lordship, which was called the
+Bourbonnais, were approximately those of the modern department of
+Allier, being on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and
+Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry. The first
+of the long line of Bourbons known in history was Adhémar or Aimar, who
+was invested with the barony towards the close of the 9th century.
+Matilda, heiress of the first house of Bourbon, brought this lordship to
+the family of Dampierre by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre,
+marshal of Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes of
+Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy, married Robert,
+count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St Louis) of France. The
+elder branches of the family had become extinct, and their son Louis
+became duke of Bourbon in 1327. In 1488 the line of his descendants
+ended with Jean II., who died in that year. The whole estates passed to
+Jean's brother Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne,
+daughter of Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter,
+Suzanne, who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the
+Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards constable
+of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on his marriage, was
+born in 1489, and at an early age was looked upon as one of the finest
+soldiers and gentlemen in France. With the constable ended the direct
+line from Pierre I., duke of Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in
+descent from Pierre's brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count
+of Vendôme and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal
+house of Bourbon and of the noble families of Condé, Conti and
+Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendôme was
+Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d'Albret, heiress of
+Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their son became king of
+France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII., who
+left two sons, Louis XIV., and Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the
+Orleans branch. Louis XIV.'s son, the dauphin, died before his father,
+and left three sons, one of whom died without issue. Of the others the
+elder, Louis of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son
+became Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king of
+Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon family. Louis XV.
+was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., who perished on the scaffold.
+At the restoration the throne of France was occupied by Louis XVIII.,
+brother of Louis XVI., who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles
+X. The second son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri
+Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d'Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and comte
+de Chambord (q.v.). From Louis XIV.'s brother, Philip, descended another
+claimant of the throne. Philip's son was the regent Orleans, whose
+great-grandson, "Philippe Égalité," perished on the scaffold in 1793.
+Égalité's son, Louis Philippe, was king of the French from 1830 to 1848;
+his grandson, Louis Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on
+the death of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the
+throne of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had a
+son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d'Orléans, called by his adherents
+Philip VIII.
+
+_Spanish Branch._--Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., became
+king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was succeeded in 1746 by his son
+Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759 without family, and was followed by his
+brother Charles III. Charles III.'s eldest son became Charles IV. of
+Spain in 1788, while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples
+in 1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his son,
+Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand was succeeded by
+his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated in favour of her son,
+Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso's posthumous son became king of Spain
+as Alphonso XIII. Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the
+throne in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged
+for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos, count de
+Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was defeated and
+compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of the latter, Don Carlos
+Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for some years carried on war in
+Spain with the object of attaining the rights contended for by the
+Carlist party.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON
+
+I. _The French Bourbons_
+
+                                                        Henry IV. (1553-1610)
+                                                                 |
+                                               +-----------------+-----------------------+
+                                               |                                         |
+                                          Louis XIII.                                 Gaston,
+                                          (1601-1643)                            duke of Orleans
+                                               |                                    (1608-1660)
+                                               |
+                                       +-------+--------------------------------------------------+
+                                       |                                                          |
+                                   Louis XIV.                                                 Philip I.
+                                  (1638-1715)                                              duke of Orleans
+                                       |                                                     (1640-1701)
+                                       |                                                          |
+                               Louis the Dauphin                                              Philip II.
+                                  (1661-1711)                                        duke of Orleans,[1] the regent
+                                       |                                                     (1674-1723)
+                    +------------------+---------------+                                          |
+                    |                  |               |                                          |
+                  Louis,           Charles,         Philip,                                     Louis,
+            duke of Burgundy    duke of Berry   duke of Anjou,                             duke of Orleans
+               (1682-1712)       (1686-1714)    king of Spain                                (1703-1752)
+                    |                            as Philip V.                                     |
+                    |                            (1683-1746)                                      |
+                 Louis XV.                                                                 Louis Philippe,
+               (1710-1774)                                                                 duke of Orleans
+                    |                                                                        (1725-1785)
+                    |                                                                             |
+            Louis the Dauphin                                                         Louis Philippe, "Egalité,"
+               (1729-1765)                                                                 duke of Orleans
+                    |                                                                        (1747-1793)
+       +------------+-------------+                                                               |
+       |            |             |                                                               |
+  Louis XVI.   Louis XVIII.   Charles X.                                                   Louis Philippe,
+  (1754-1793)  (1755-1824)   (1757-1836)                                                 king of the French
+       |                          |                                                          (1773-1850)
+       |               +----------+--------+                                                      |
+       |               |                   |                  +------------------+----------------+----+------------------+---------------+
+       |               |                   |                  |                  |                     |                  |               |
+  Louis XVII.        Louis,        Charles Ferdinand,     Ferdinand,          Francis,              Antony,             Henry,          Louis,
+  (1785-1795)  duke of Angoulême     duke of Berry     duke of Orleans   prince of Joinville   duke of Montpensier  duke of Aumale  duke of Nemours
+                  (1775-1844)          (1778-1820)       (1810-1842)        (1818-1900)            (1824-1890)        (1822-1897)      (1814-1896)
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                                  |
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                        +---------+-------+
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                        |                 |
+                                      Henry Charles,          |                Peter,               Antony,                  Gaston,           Ferdinand,
+                                  duke of Bordeaux and        |          duke of Penthièvre     duke of Galliera           count of Eu,     duke of Alençon
+                                    count of Chambord         |              (b. 1845)             (b. 1866)                (b. 1842)          (b. 1844)
+                                       (1820-1883)            |                                        |                        |                 |
+                                                              |                +-----------------------+              +---------+---------+       +-------+
+                                                              |                |                       |              |         |         |               |
+                                                              |            Alphonso             Louis Ferdinand     Peter      Louis    Antony         Emmanuel,
+                                                              |           (b. 1886)                (b. 1888)      (b. 1875)  (b. 1878) (b. 1881)    duke of Vendôme
+                                                              |                                                                                        (b. 1872)
+                                                              |                                                                                           |
+                                              +-------------------+-------------------+                                                                   |
+                                              |                                       |                                                                   |
+                                       Louis Philippe,                              Robert,                                                        Charles Philip,
+                                       count of Paris                           duke of Chartres                                                  duke of Nemours,
+                                         (1838-1894)                               (b. 1840)                                                          (b. 1905)
+                                              |                                       |
+                                       +------+------------+                 +--------+---------+
+                                       |                   |                 |                  |
+                                Louis Philippe,       Ferdinand,           Henry,             John,
+                                duke of Orleans  duke of Montpensier  prince of Orleans   duke of Guise
+                                   (b. 1869)          (b. 1884)         (1867-1901)         (b. 1874)
+
+
+II. The Spanish and Italian Bourbons.
+
+                                                                         Philip V., king of Spain (1683-1746)
+                                                                                          |
+                    +--------------+------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+                    |              |                                                                                                                                        |
+               Charles III.   Ferdinand VI.                                                                                                                              Philip,
+               (1716-1788)     (1713-1759)                                                                                                                               duke of
+                    |                                                                                                                                                     Parma
+                +---+--------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+                                                  (1715-1765)
+                |                                                                        |                          |                                                       |
+           Charles IV.                                                              Ferdinand I.,                Gabriel[3]                                             Ferdinand,
+           (1748-1819)                                                               king of the                (1752-1788)                                              duke of
+                |                                                                   Two Sicilies                                                                          Parma
+       +--------+------+------------------------+                                    (1751-1825)                                                                       (1765-1802)
+       |               |                        |                                        |                                                                                  |
+  Ferdinand VII.    Francis,                 Carlos,                                  Francis I.                                                                          Louis,
+  (1784-1833)       duke of                  duke of                                 (1777-1830)                                                                         king of
+       |             Cadiz                    Madrid                                     |                                                                               Erutrea
+       |           (d. 1865)                (1788-1855)                            +-----+--------+-------------+---------------------------+                         (c. 1786-1803)
+       |               |                          |                                |              |             |                           |                               |
+       |              +------------+           +--+-------------+             Ferdinand II.    Francis,      Leopold,                     Louis,                        Charles II,
+       |              |            |           |                |              (1810-1859)      count of     count of                    count of                         duke of
+  Isabella II. +   Francis       Henry,      Carlos,          Juan                 |            Trapani,     Syracuse                     Aquila                           Parma
+  (1830-1904)  | (1822-1902)     duke of     duke of       (1823-1887)             |          (1827-1892) (c. 1825-1860)                (1824-1897)                     (1799-1883)
+               |                Seville[2]   Madrid             |                  |                                                        |                               |
+               |               (1823-1870) (1818-1861)          |           +------------+-------------+----------+-----------+           +-+--------+                  Charles III,
+               |                                                |           |            |             |          |           |           |          |                    duke of
+           Alphonso XII.                        +---------------+       Francis II.    Alphonso,     Louis,    Gaëtan,      Pascal,     Louis      Philip                  Parma
+            (1857-1885)                         |               |       (1836-1894)    count of     count of   count of     count of   count of   (b. 1847)             (1823-1854)
+               |                              Carlos,         Alphonso                  Castera       Trani    Gergenti      Bari       Aquila                              |
+           Alphonso XIII.                     duke of         (b. 1849)                (b. 1841)  (1838-1886) (1846-1871) (1852-1904)  (b. 1845)             +--------------+-------+
+             (b. 1886)                        Madrid                                      |                                                                  |                      |
+               |                            (b. 1848)                           +---------+---+-----------+---------+----------+--------+----------+       Robert[4]              Henry
+        +------+---------+                      |                               |             |           |         |          |        |          |       duke of               count of
+        |                |                    Jaimé                         Ferdinand,     Charles     Gabriel   Francis    Philip    Rénier    Gennaro     Parma                 Bardi
+     Alphonso          Jaimé                (b. 1870)                        duke of       (b. 1870)  (b. 1897) (b. 1888)  (b. 1885) (b. 1883) (b. 1882)  (b. 1848)             (1851-1905)
+   prince of the     (b. 1908)                                               Calabria         |                                                               |
+     Asturias                                                                (b. 1869)     Alphonso                                                    +------+----+-----------+
+    (b. 1907)                                                                   |          (b. 1901)                                                   |           |           |
+                                                                              Roger                                                                  Henry       Joseph      Elias
+                                                                             duke of                                                               (b. 1873)    (b. 1875)  (b. 1880)
+                                                                               Noto                                                                                            |
+                                                                             (b. 1901)                                                                                      Charles
+                                                                                                                                                                           (b. 1905)
+_Neapolitan Branch._--The first Bourbon who wore the crown of Naples was
+Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to the Spanish throne in
+1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was
+deposed by Napoleon, but afterwards regained his throne, and took the
+title of Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was
+succeeded by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his
+son Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following year
+his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom, which was
+incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.
+
+_Duchies of Lucca and Parma._--In 1748 the duchy of Parma was conferred
+on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain. He was succeeded by his
+son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand's
+son Louis being made king of Etruria, but the French only took
+possession of the duchy after Ferdinand's death in 1802. Louis's son
+Charles Louis was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he
+was given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815. In 1847,
+on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon, who had received Parma
+and Piacenza in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Paris of
+1814, Charles Louis succeeded to the duchies as Charles II., at the same
+time surrendering Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of
+his son, Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and
+was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert. In 1860 the
+duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the new kingdom of Italy.
+
+_Bastard Branches._--There are numerous bastard branches of the family
+of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendôme branch, descended from
+Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and the Maine and Toulouse branches,
+descended from the two natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de
+Montespan.
+
+  See Coiffier de Moret, _Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons_ (2
+  vols., 1824); Berand, _Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon_ (1835);
+  Désormeaux, _Histoire de la maison de Bourbon_ (5 vols., 1782-1788);
+  Achaintre, _Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale
+  de Bourbon_ (2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, _Généalogie de la
+  maison de Bourbon_ (1872).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Philip married a natural daughter of Louis XIV., and in this way
+    the later princes of Orleans are descended from the Grand Monarque.
+
+  [2] Henry contracted a morganatic marriage, and consequently his son
+    Henry, who died in 1894, was ruled out of the succession. This branch
+    of the family is now extinct.
+
+  [3] The branch of the family descended from the infante Gabriel is
+    still flourishing, its head being Francis, duke of Marchena.
+
+  [4] By a second marriage Robert has a large family, including six
+    sons--Sixtus, Xavier, Felix, René, Louis and Gaëtan.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1490-1527), constable of France, second son
+of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin of Auvergne, was born on
+the 17th of February 1490, his mother being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he
+married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II., duke of Bourbon, by Anne of
+France, daughter of King Louis XI., and assumed the title of duke of
+Bourbon. The addition of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships
+and other fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother
+Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest noble in
+Europe. He gained his first military experience in the Italian campaigns
+of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression of the Genoese revolt
+(1507) and contributing to the victory over the Venetians at Agnadello
+(May 14, 1509). Shortly after the accession of Francis I. Bourbon
+received the office of constable of France, and for his brilliant
+services at the battle of Marignano (September 1515) he was made
+governor of the Milanese, which he succeeded in defending against an
+attack of the emperor Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis
+and the constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill
+suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and influence
+kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not of fear. The duke
+was recalled from the government of the Milanese; his official salary
+and the sums he had borrowed for war expenses remained unpaid; and in
+the campaign in the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the
+command of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the
+constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without surviving
+issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother of the king,
+Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and at the same time to
+revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted her love. A suit was
+instituted at her instance against the duke in the parlement of Paris,
+in which Louise, as grand-daughter of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d.
+1456), claimed the female and some of the male fiefs of the duchy of
+Bourbon, while the king claimed those fiefs which were originally
+appanages, as escheating to the crown, and other claims were put
+forward. Before the parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis
+handed over to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered
+the remainder to be sequestrated.
+
+Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time had been
+coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his negotiations with the
+emperor and Henry VIII. of England. It was agreed that the constable
+should raise in his own dominions an armed force to assist the emperor
+in an invasion of France, and should receive in return the hand of
+Eleonora, queen dowager of Portugal, or of another of the emperor's
+sisters, and an independent kingdom comprising his own lands together
+with Dauphiné and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity to
+Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon's plans were hampered by the
+presence of the French troops assembling for the invasion of Italy, and
+for this reason he was unable to effect a junction with the emperor's
+German troops from the east. News of the conspiracy soon reached the
+ears of Francis, who was on his way to take command of the Italian
+expedition. In an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured
+to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but without
+success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days, and after many
+vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint invasion of France by the
+emperor and his ally of England had failed signally, mainly through lack
+of money and defects of combination. In the spring of 1524, however,
+Bourbon at the head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French
+across the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded) and
+drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested Marseilles, but
+being unable to prevent the introduction of supplies by Andrea Doria,
+the Genoese admiral in the service of Francis, he was forced to raise
+the siege and retreat to the Milanese. He took part in the battle of
+Pavia (1525), where Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But
+Bourbon's troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to
+extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his kingdom and
+his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon had been offered
+the duchy of Milan by way of compensation. He now levied contributions
+from the townsmen, and demanded 20,000 ducats for the liberation of the
+chancellor Girolamo Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an
+attempt to realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But
+the sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527 Bourbon's
+army was joined by a body of German mercenaries, mostly Protestants, and
+the combined forces advanced towards the papal states. Refusing to
+recognize the truce which the viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope
+Clement VII., Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor's plan
+of attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the troops,
+starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and Spaniards and
+Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the 5th of May 1527 the
+imperial army appeared before the walls of Rome. On the following
+morning Bourbon attacked the Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling
+ladder fell mortally wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his
+_Life_ claims to have fired. After Bourbon's death his troops took and
+sacked Rome.
+
+  See E. Armstrong, _Charles V._ (London, 1902); _Cambridge Mod. Hist._
+  vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON-LANCY, a watering-place of east-central France in the department
+of Saône-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from the right bank of the Loire
+and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town,
+1896; commune, 4266. The town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in
+the Roman period, and ancient baths and other remains have been found.
+The waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking and
+bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature varies from 117°
+to 132° F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de Sévigné, James II. of England,
+and other celebrated persons visited the springs in the 17th and 18th
+centuries. The town has a well-equipped bathing establishment, a large
+hospital, and a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as an
+archaeological museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a
+hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of the 15th
+century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also remain. The
+industries of the town include the manufacture of farm implements.
+
+In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold and a fief
+of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member of which the suffix to
+its name is derived.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of
+Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The
+town has thermal springs known in Roman times, which are used in cases
+of scrofula and rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the
+state. A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle of
+the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a cylindrical
+keep, are of interest. There are a military and a civil hospital in the
+town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity. Bourbon (_Aquae Borvonis_ or
+_Bormonis_) was anciently the capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its
+name to the great Bourbon family. The affix Archambault is the name of
+one of its early lords.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of
+Haute-Marne, 35½ m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres. Pop. (1906) 3738. It is
+much frequented on account of its hot saline springs, which were known
+to the Romans under the name _Aquae Borvonis_. The heat of these springs
+varies from 110° to 156° F. The waters are used in cases of lymphatic
+affections, scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal buildings
+are a church of the 12th century, the state bathing-establishment and
+the military hospital; there are also the remains of a castle.
+Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried on in the town. In the
+neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated Cistercian abbey of
+Morimond.
+
+
+
+
+BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864-   ), English actor, was born in Berkshire in
+1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. At the university
+he became prominent as an amateur actor in connexion with the
+O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a
+professional. He also acted with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and
+was for a while in Daly's company in America. In 1894 he married the
+actress Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress
+Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading parts
+under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both as tragedian and
+comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the London stage, and his career
+as actor-manager was remarkable for the production of a number of
+successful modern plays, by Mr Sutro and others.
+
+
+
+
+BOURCHIER, THOMAS (c. 1404-1486), English archbishop, lord chancellor
+and cardinal, was a younger son of William Bourchier, count of Eu (d.
+1420), and through his mother, Anne, a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock,
+duke of Gloucester, was a descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers
+was Henry, earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord
+Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and then
+entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and after holding some
+minor appointments he became bishop of Worcester in 1434. In the same
+year he was chancellor of the university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was
+appointed bishop of Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of
+Canterbury, becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.
+Bourchier's short term of office as chancellor coincided with the
+opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong
+partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when Richard, duke
+of York, was deprived of power in October 1456. Afterwards, in 1458, he
+helped to reconcile the contending parties, but when the war was renewed
+in 1459 he appears as a decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June
+1461, and four years later he performed a similar service for the queen,
+Elizabeth Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial
+of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he was
+created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four arbitrators
+appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of Picquigny between
+England and France. After the death of Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier
+persuaded the queen to allow her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to
+share his brother's residence in the Tower of London; and although he
+had sworn to be faithful to Edward V. before his father's death, he
+crowned Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way implicated
+in the murder of the young princes, and he was probably a participant in
+the conspiracies against Richard. The third English king crowned by
+Bourchier was Henry VII., whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in
+January 1486. The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his
+residence, Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury
+cathedral.
+
+  See W.F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-1884).
+
+
+
+
+BOURDALOUE, LOUIS (1632-1704), French Jesuit and preacher, was born at
+Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At the age of sixteen he entered the
+Society of Jesus, and was appointed successively professor of rhetoric,
+philosophy and moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His
+success as a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call
+him to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of St
+Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in popular
+estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading figures of the
+most brilliant period of Louis XIV.'s reign. He preached at the court of
+Versailles during the Advent of 1670 and the Lent of 1672, and was
+subsequently called again to deliver the Lenten course of sermons in
+1674, 1675, 1680 and 1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and
+1693. This was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to
+call the same preacher more than three times to court. On the revocation
+of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to confirm the new
+converts in the Catholic faith, and he had extraordinary success in this
+delicate mission. Catholics and Protestants were unanimous in praising
+his fiery eloquence in the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier
+in 1686. Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to
+charitable institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic
+discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He died in
+Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay in his power of
+adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and throughout his public
+career he was highly appreciated by all classes of society. His
+influence was due as much to his saintly character and to the gentleness
+of his manners as to the force of his reasoning. Voltaire said that his
+sermons surpassed those of Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however,
+practically coincided with Bourdaloue's early pulpit utterances); and
+there is little doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the
+direct appeal which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a
+superiority over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may be
+with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators, and many of
+his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authoritative source for the Sermons is the
+  edition of Père Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed by
+  the _Pensées_, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy both as
+  to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition and as to
+  the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that the changes
+  confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal. Other editions not
+  based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed, are altogether
+  spurious (e.g. that of Abbé Sicard, 1810). Among critical works are:
+  Anatole Feugère, _Bourdaloue, sa prédication et son temps_ (Paris,
+  1874); Adrien Lézat, _Bourdaloue, théologien et orateur_ (Paris,
+  1874); P.M. Lauras, _Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols.,
+  Paris, 1881); Abbé Blampignon, _Étude sur Bourdaloue_ (Paris, 1886);
+  Henri Chérot, _Bourdaloue inconnu_ (Paris, 1898), and _Bourdaloue, sa
+  correspondance et ses correspondans_ (Paris, 1898-1904); L. Pauthe,
+  _Bourdaloue_ (_les maîtres de la chaire au XVII^e siècle_) (Paris,
+  1900); E. Griselle, _Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa prédication_
+  (2 vols., Paris, 1901), _Sermons inédits; bibliographie, &c._ (Paris,
+  1901), _Deux sermons inédits sur le royaume de Dieu_ (Lille and Paris,
+  1904); Ferdinand Castets, _Bourdaloue, la vie et la prédication d'un
+  religieux au XVII^e siècle_, and _La Revue Bourdaloue_ (Paris,
+  1902-1904); C.H. Brooke, _Great French Preachers_ (sermons of
+  Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904); F. Brunetière, "L'Éloquence de
+  Bourdaloue," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (August 1904), a general
+  inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general
+  characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS (d. 1797), known as BOURDON DE L'OISE, French
+revolutionist, was _procureur_ at the parlement of Paris. He ardently
+embraced the revolutionary doctrines and took an active part in the
+insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. Representing the department of
+the Oise in the Convention, he voted for the immediate death of the
+king. He accused the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned
+against Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for his
+conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of La Rochelle.
+On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies delegated to aid Barras
+to repress the insurrection made by the commune of Paris in favour of
+Robespierre. Bourbon then became a violent reactionary, attacking the
+former members of the Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against
+the rioters of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III.
+In the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of
+"Clichyens," composed of disguised royalists, against whom the directors
+made the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Fructidor. Bourdon was arrested and
+deported to French Guiana, where he died soon after his arrival.
+
+
+
+
+BOURG-EN-BRESSE, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
+Ain, and formerly capital of the province of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of
+Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune,
+20,045. Bourg is situated at the western base of the Jura, on the left
+bank of the Reyssouze, a tributary of the Saône. The chief of the older
+buildings is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the
+façade belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.
+In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other public
+buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. The hôtel de
+ville contains a library and the Lorin museum with a collection of
+pictures, while another museum has a collection of the old costumes and
+ornaments characteristic of Bresse. Among the statues in the town there
+is one of Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat
+of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first
+instance, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
+of France. Its educational establishments include lycées for boys and
+girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist of iron goods,
+mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware, and there are flour mills
+and breweries; and there is considerable trade in grain, cattle and
+poultry. The church of Brou, a suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic
+interest. Marguerite of Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had
+intended to found a monastery on the spot, but died before her intention
+could be carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the
+16th century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of
+Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The exterior,
+especially the façade, is richly ornamented, but the chief interest lies
+in the works of art in the interior, which date from 1532. The most
+important are the three mausoleums with the marble effigies of
+Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau, and Marguerite of Austria. All
+three are remarkable for perfection of sculpture and richness of
+ornamentation. The rood loft, the oak stalls, and the reredos in the
+chapel of the Virgin are masterpieces in a similar style.
+
+Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is known of its
+early history. Raised to the rank of a free town in 1250, it was at the
+beginning of the 15th century chosen by the dukes of Savoy as the chief
+city of the province of Bresse. In 1535 it passed to France, but was
+restored to Duke Philibert Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel,
+which afterwards withstood a six months' siege by the soldiers of Henry
+IV. The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the
+inhabitants, in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,
+offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to pillage.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE (1851-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was educated for the law. After
+holding a subordinate office (1876) in the department of public works, he
+became successively prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne
+(1885), and then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.
+He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical moment of
+President Grévy's resignation. In the following year he entered the
+chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne, in opposition to General
+Boulanger, and joined the radical left. He was under-secretary for home
+affairs in the Floquet ministry of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889,
+being then returned to the chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry,
+which succeeded, he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on
+the 18th of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet of
+M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself by the
+attention he had given to educational matters. In this capacity he was
+responsible in 1890 for some important reforms in secondary education. He
+retained his office in M. Loubet's cabinet in 1892, and was minister of
+justice under M. Ribot at the end of that year, when the Panama scandals
+were making the office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically
+pressed the Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having
+put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in order to
+procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in March 1893, but again
+took office, and only retired with the rest of the Freycinet ministry. In
+November 1895 he himself formed a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type,
+the main interest of which was attached to its fall, as the result of a
+constitutional crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate
+to vote supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that popular
+opinion would enable them to override what they claimed to be an
+unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house; but the public
+was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The blow was undoubtedly
+damaging to M. Bourgeois's career as an _homme de gouvernement_. As
+minister of public instruction in the Brisson cabinet of 1898 he
+organized courses for adults in primary education. After this short
+ministry he represented his country with dignity and effect at the Hague
+peace congress, and in 1903 was nominated a member of the permanent court
+of arbitration. He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of
+the Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably in
+foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected president of the
+chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for
+the department of Marne, and in May 1906 became minister of foreign
+affairs in the Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of
+French diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGEOIS, a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a _bourg_ or
+borough in France; later the term came to have the wider significance of
+the whole class lying between the _ouvriers_ or workmen and the
+nobility, and is now used generally of the trading middle-class of any
+country. In printing, the word (pronounced burjoice') is used of a type
+coming in size between longprimer and brevier; the derivation is
+supposed to be from the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGES, a city of central France, chief town of the department of Cher,
+144 m. S. of Paris on the Orléans railway between Vierzon and Nevers.
+Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune, 44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat
+and marshy country on an eminence limited on three sides by the waters
+of the Canal Of Berry, the Yèvre, the Auron, and other smaller streams
+with which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with its
+narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and east of
+which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing nurseries and
+market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground to the north and
+north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the Roman ramparts of the 4th
+century, which are for the most part built into the houses of the old
+quarter. They measure considerably less in circumference than the
+fortifications of the 13th century, remains of which in the shape of
+ruined walls and towers are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on
+which the city is built is crowned by the cathedral of St Étienne, one
+of the most important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century,
+it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period belong the
+northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking the façade and two of
+its five elaborately sculptured portals. The interior, which has double
+aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable height, and no transepts,
+contains, among many other works of art, magnificent stained glass of
+the 13th century. Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque
+construction, where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two
+lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The Jardin de
+l'Archevêché, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the choir of the
+cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The hôtel Lallemant and the
+hôtel Cujas (now occupied by the museum) are of the Renaissance period.
+The hôtel de Jacques Coeur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII.
+and now used as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it
+has been doubted whether Jacques Coeur himself inhabited it. The mansion
+is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman fortifications
+were utilized in the construction of the south-western façade (see
+HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings surround a courtyard into
+which three staircase turrets project; one of these leads to a chapel,
+the ceiling of which is decorated by fine frescoes.
+
+Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a court of
+assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the VIII. army corps.
+It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
+of France. Its educational institutions include an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a lycée for boys, and a college for girls, training colleges,
+and a school of industrial art. The industrial activity of Bourges
+depends primarily on its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its
+cannon-foundry and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the
+government, and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,
+and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb of
+Mazières has large iron and engineering works, and there are
+manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods, oil-cloth,
+boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works, breweries,
+distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The town has a port on
+the canal of Berry, and does a considerable trade in grain, wine,
+vegetables, hemp and fruit.
+
+Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of _Avaricum_, capital of
+the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most important of all
+Gaul. In 52 B.C., during the war with Vercingetorix, it was completely
+destroyed by the Roman conqueror, but under Augustus it rose again into
+importance, and was made the capital of Aquitania Prima. About A.D. 250
+it became the seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being
+Ursinus. Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their
+possession till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of
+Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th century it
+became the residence of Charles VII., who thus acquired the popular
+title of "king of Bourges." In 1463 a university was founded in the city
+by Louis XI., which continued for centuries to be one of the most famous
+in France, especially in the department of jurisprudence. On many
+occasions Bourges was the seat of ecclesiastical councils--the most
+important being the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of
+the Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the
+Lutheran doctrines were condemned.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852-   ), French novelist and critic, was
+born at Amiens on the 2nd of September 1852. His father, a professor of
+mathematics, was afterwards appointed to a post in the college at
+Clermont-Ferrand. Here Bourget received his early education. He
+afterwards studied at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and at the École des
+Hautes Études. In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, _Au bord de
+la mer_, which was followed by others, the last, _Les Aveux_, appearing
+in 1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism, and in
+1883 he published _Essais de psychologic contemporaine_, studies of
+eminent writers first printed in the _Nouvelle Revue_, and now brought
+together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit to England, and there wrote
+his first published story (_L'Irréparable_). _Cruelle Énigme_ followed
+in 1885; and _André Cornelis_ (1886) and _Mensonges_ (1887) were
+received with much favour. _Le Disciple_ (1889) showed the novelist in a
+graver attitude; while in 1891 _Sensations d'Italie_, notes of a tour in
+that country, revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year
+appeared the novel _Coeur de femme_, and _Nouveaux Pastels_, types of
+the characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types
+(_Pastels_, 1890). His later novels include _La Terre promise_ (1892);
+_Cosmopolis_ (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background;
+_Une Idylle tragique_ (1896); _La Duchesse bleue_ (1897); _Le Fantôme_
+(1901); _Les Deux Soeurs_ (1905); and some volumes of shorter
+stories--_Complications sentimentales_ (1896), the powerful _Drames de
+famille_ (1898), _Un Homme fort_ (1900), _L'Étape_ (1902), a study of
+the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the peasant class to
+adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful study of contemporary
+manners was followed by _Un Divorce_ (1904), a defence of the Roman
+Catholic position that divorce is a violation of natural laws, any
+breach of which inevitably entails disaster. _Études et portraits_,
+first published in 1888, contains impressions of Bourget's stay in
+England and Ireland, especially reminiscences of the months which he
+spent at Oxford; and _Outre-Mer_ (1895), a book in two volumes, is his
+critical journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was
+admitted to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an
+officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration of the
+order ten years before.
+
+As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and his poems,
+which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are chiefly interesting
+for the light which they throw upon his mature method and the later
+products of his art. It was in criticism that his genius first found its
+true bent. The habit of close scientific analysis which he derived from
+his father, the sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a
+classical education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms,
+the taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not
+less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to be
+learned on the _boulevard_--all these combined to provide him with a
+most uncommon equipment for the critic's task. It is not surprising that
+the _Sensations d'ltalie_ (1891), and the various psychological studies,
+are in their different ways scarcely surpassed throughout the whole
+range of literature. Bourget's reputation as a novelist has long been
+assured. Deeply impressed by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal),
+he struck out on a new course at a moment when the realist school
+reigned without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover, had
+a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific basis, and
+aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable to, that of the
+writers who were depicting with an astonishing faithfulness the
+environment and the actions of a person or a society. With Bourget
+observation was mainly directed to the secret springs of human
+character. At first his purpose seemed to be purely artistic, but when
+_Le Disciple_ appeared, in 1889, the preface to that remarkable story
+revealed in him an unsuspected fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he
+has varied between his earlier and his later manner, but his work in
+general has been more seriously conceived. From first to last he has
+painted with a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women,
+whether wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not
+less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those young men
+of France to whom he makes special appeal.
+
+Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue delineation of
+one social class. The first charge can hardly be sustained. The lights
+in his books are usually low; there is a certain lack of gaiety, and the
+characters move in a world of disenchantment. But there is no despair in
+his own outlook upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other
+indictment, the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere
+framework of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of
+complicated affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which
+the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured and
+leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of humbler men and
+women. The style of all Bourget's writings is singularly graceful. His
+knowledge of the literature of other lands gives it a greater
+flexibility and a finer allusiveness than most of his contemporaries can
+achieve. The precision by which it is not less distinguished, though
+responsible for a certain over-refinement, and for some dull pages of
+the novels, is an almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a
+critic, indeed, either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be
+desired. If he is not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books
+display more ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous
+creation, it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have
+rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.
+
+  See also C. Lecigne, _L'Évolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul
+  Bourget_ (1903); Sargeret, _Les Grands Convertis_ (1906). His _Oeuvres
+  complètes_ began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE (1616-1680), Flemish mystic, was born at Lille on
+the 13th of January 1616. From an early age she was under the influence
+of religion, which took in course of time a mystical turn. Undertaking
+the work of a reformer, she visited France, Holland, England and
+Scotland. Her religious enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard
+of all sects raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her
+death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she left a
+large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly away; but in
+the early 18th century her influence revived in Scotland sufficiently to
+call forth several denunciations of her doctrines in the various
+Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701, 1709 and 1710. So far as
+appears from her writings and contemporary records, she was a visionary
+of the ordinary type, distinguished only by the audacity and persistency
+of her pretensions.
+
+  Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions and
+  opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,
+  Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679).
+  For a critical account see Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (Leipzig, 1897),
+  and Étude sur Antoinette Bourignon_, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three
+  of her works at least have been translated into English:--_An
+  Abridgment of the Light of the World_ (London, 1786); _A Treatise of
+  Solid Virtue_ (1699); _The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit (1707)
+
+
+
+
+BOURKE, a town of Cowper county, New South Wales, Australia, 503 m. by
+rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614. It is situated on the south
+bank, and at the head of the ordinary winter navigation, of the Darling
+river. Very rich copper ore exists in the district in great abundance.
+Bourke is the centre of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual
+agricultural show is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of
+the Darling, 3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at
+Pera, 10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.
+
+
+
+
+BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE GHAISNE DE (1773-1846), marshal
+of France, entered the _Gardes Françaises_ of the royal army shortly
+before the Revolution, emigrated in 1789, and served with Condé and the
+army of the _émigrés_ in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently
+serving as chief of staff to Scépeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil
+war in lower Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of
+April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having been made
+by Louis XVIII. a _maréchal de camp_ and a knight of St Louis, he headed
+a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary successes collapsed
+(1799-1800). He then made his submission to the First Consul, married,
+and lived in Paris; but his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a
+few months later, and he remained a prisoner for more than three years,
+finally escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army
+under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered his services
+to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division. He returned to
+France with Junot after the convention of Cintra, and was promptly
+re-arrested. He was soon released, however, on Junot's demand, and was
+commissioned as an officer in the imperial army. He served in Italy for
+a time, then went on the staff of the viceroy Eugène (Beauharnais), whom
+he accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner in the
+retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French army. His
+conspicuous courage at the battle of Lützen in 1813 led Napoleon to
+promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his splendid defence of
+Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank of general of division. At the
+first Restoration Bourmont was naturally employed by the Bourbons, to
+whose service he had devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his
+return from Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent
+request of Count Gérard, he was given a divisional command in the army
+of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign Bourmont went
+over to the enemy. It is not probable that he gave information of French
+movements to the allies, but the best that can be said in exculpation of
+his treachery is that his old friends and comrades, the royalists of
+Anjou, were again in insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead
+them. He made no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser
+of Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division of the
+royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position in the army
+which, under the command of the duc d'Angoulême, invaded Spain. He
+commanded the whole army in Spain for a time in 1824, became minister of
+war in 1829, and in 1830 was placed in command of the Algiers
+expedition. The landing of the French and the capture of Algiers were
+directed by him with complete success, and he was rewarded with the
+_bâton_ of marshal. But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his
+command, and, refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced
+to resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of the
+duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal. Here, as
+always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the army of Dom Miguel
+during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after the victory of the
+constitutional party he retired to Rome. At the amnesty of 1840 he
+returned to France. He died at the château of Bourmont on the 27th of
+October 1846.
+
+  Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets in
+  vindication of his father's career.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE, VINCENT (1695-1747), English classical scholar, familiarly known
+as "Vinny" Bourne, was born at Westminster in 1695. In 1710 he became a
+scholar at Westminster school, and in 1714 entered Trinity College,
+Cambridge. He graduated in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years
+later. Of his afterlife exceedingly little is known. It is certain that
+he passed the greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He
+died on; the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published
+three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a very
+handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne's pieces, but also some
+that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are remarkable not only for
+perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties, but for graceful expression
+and genuine poetic feeling. A number of them are translations of English
+poems, and it is not too much to say that the Latin versions almost
+invariably surpass the originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne's,
+Beattie and Lamb have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin
+versification.
+
+  See an edition (1840) of his _Poemata_, with a memoir by John Mitford.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE, or BOURN, a market town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; lying in a fenny
+district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4361.
+The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the Great Northern railway here crosses
+the Saxby-Lynn joint line of the Great Northern and Midland companies.
+The church of St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with
+later insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a
+foundation of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings
+have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural.
+Bourne is famous through its connexion with the ardent opponent of
+William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake. Of his castle very slight
+traces remain. Bourne was also the birthplace of the Elizabethan
+statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley. The Red Hall, which now forms part of
+the railway station buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom
+Sir Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with the
+Gunpowder Plot.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE (southern form of burn, Teutonic _born, brun, burna_), an
+intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country where the
+rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly drains away until
+the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases. A heavy rainfall will
+cause streams to run in winter from the saturated soil. These are the
+winter bournes that have given name to several settlements upon
+Salisbury Plain, such as Winterbourne Gunning. The "bourne" may also be
+a permanent "burn," but the word is usually applied to an intermittent
+stream. (2) (From the Fr. _borne_), a boundary; the first use of the
+word in English is in Lord Ferrers' translation of Forrest, 1523; the
+figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination comes from
+Shakespeare's Hamlet, "the undiscovered country, from whose bourne no
+traveller returns."
+
+
+
+
+BOURNEMOUTH, a municipal and county borough and watering-place of
+Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary borough of Christchurch, 107½
+m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop.
+(1901) 59,762. It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay. Considerable
+sandstone cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored with deep
+picturesque dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about the
+valley of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable
+winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a national
+sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by subscription; a pier
+was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway communication was afforded. The
+climate is remarkably equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool
+in summer; the average temperature in July is 61.7° F., and in January
+40.3°. The town contains numerous handsome buildings, including
+municipal buildings, churches, various places of entertainment,
+sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science and art school.
+Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front, and the beautiful
+chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome have attracted a large number of
+wealthy residents. There are piers at the town itself and at Boscombe,
+and the bathing is excellent. The parks, gardens and drives are
+extensive and pleasant. A service of electric tramways is maintained,
+notable as being the first system installed in England with a
+combination of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying current.
+There are golf links in Meyrick and Queen's parks, both laid out by the
+corporation, which has in other ways studied the entertainment of
+visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and West, and through
+communications with the north are maintained by the Somerset & Dorset
+and Midland, and the Great Western and Great Central railways. The town,
+which is of wholly modern and remarkably rapid growth (for in the middle
+of the 19th century the population was less than 1000), was incorporated
+in 1890, and became a county borough in 1900. The corporation consists
+of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33 councillors. Area, 5769 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNONITE, a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead and copper with
+the formula PbCuSbS3. It is of some interest on account of the twinning
+and the beautiful development of its crystals. It was first mentioned by
+Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as "an ore of antimony," and was more
+completely described by the comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was
+named: the name given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since
+used in the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the
+mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are
+generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the basal
+pinacoid (c); numerous smooth bright faces are often developed on the
+edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned crystal is represented
+in fig. 1. Usually, however, the crystals are twinned, the twin-plane
+being a face of the prism (m); the angle between the faces of this prism
+being nearly a right angle (86° 20'), the twinning gives rise to
+cruciform groups (fig. 2), and when it is often repeated the group has
+the appearance of a cog-wheel, hence the name _Rädelerz_ (wheel-ore) of
+the Kapnik miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,
+which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the massive
+material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant metallic lustre
+with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity
+5.8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Crystal of Bournonite.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Twinned Crystal of Bournonite.]
+
+At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion in
+Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and chalybite.
+Later, still better crystals were found in another Cornish mine, namely,
+Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which was worked for argentiferous
+galena. Fine crystals of large size have been found with quartz and
+chalybite in the mines at Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and
+tetrahedrite at Kapnik-Bánya near Nagy-Bánya in Hungary. A few other
+localities are known for this mineral.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURRÉE, a French name for a dance common in Auvergne and in Biscay in
+Spain; also a term for a musical composition or a dance-movement in a
+suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in quick time with two beats to the
+bar.
+
+
+
+
+BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE (1769-1834), French diplomatist,
+was born at Sens on the 9th of July 1769. He was educated at the
+military school of Brienne in Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte;
+and although the solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult,
+the two youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however, be
+added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in
+Bourrienne's memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in 1787,
+and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded to Vienna.
+He was pursuing legal and diplomatic studies there and afterwards at
+Leipzig, when the French Revolution broke out and went through its first
+phases. Not until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at
+Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a Bohemian
+life together, and among other incidents of that exciting time, they
+witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the Tuileries (June 20) and
+the overthrow of the Swiss Guards at the same spot (August 10).
+Bourrienne next obtained a diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon
+his name was placed on the list of political _émigrés_, from which it
+was not removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of
+13th Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and renewed his
+acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second in command of the Army
+of the Interior and soon received the command of the Army of Italy.
+Bourrienne did not proceed with him into Italy, but was called thither
+by the victorious general at the time of the long negotiations with
+Austria (May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy was
+of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of Campo
+Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied Bonaparte to
+Egypt as his private secretary, and left a vivid, if not very
+trustworthy, account of the expedition in his memoirs. He also
+accompanied him on the adventurous return voyage to Fréjus
+(September-October 1799), and was of some help in the affairs which led
+up to the _coup d'état_ of Brumaire (November) 1799. He remained by the
+side of the First Consul in his former capacity, but in the autumn of
+1802 incurred his displeasure owing to his very questionable financial
+dealings. In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free
+city of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of
+commercial war against England, known as the Continental System; but it
+is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical measures with disgust,
+but secretly relaxed them in favour of those merchants who plied him
+with _douceurs_. In the early spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon
+to order a large number of military cloaks for the army, then in East
+Prussia, he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously
+was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune while at
+Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at the close of 1810. In
+1814 he embraced the royal cause, and during the Hundred Days (1815)
+accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful;
+he died at Caen on the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a
+mental malady for two years.
+
+  The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his
+  original works, which are insignificant, but upon his _Mémoires_,
+  edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which
+  have been frequently republished and translated. The best English
+  edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London,
+  1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,
+  Paris, 1899-1900). See _Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et
+  involontaires_ (Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c., for
+  a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also _Napoléon et ses
+  détracteurs_, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,
+  1888).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE (1739-1819), Swiss traveller and writer, came of
+a family which was of French origin but had taken refuge at Geneva for
+reasons connected with religion. His father was a watchmaker there, and
+he himself was educated in his native city. He was a good artist and
+etcher, and also a pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love
+of music he was made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the
+former cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself to
+the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a great passion
+ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near Geneva. In 1775 he made
+the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.) by the now usual route from
+the Pierre à Bérard, on which the great flat rock known as the _Table au
+Chantre_ still preserves his memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first
+traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786),
+but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit.
+On the other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Géant
+(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also among
+the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c. He received a
+pension from Louis XVI., and was named the _historiographe des Alpes_ by
+the emperor Joseph II., who visited him at Geneva. His last visit to
+Chamonix was in 1812. His writings are composed in a naïve, sentimental
+and rather pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love
+for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific
+study. His chief works are the _Description des glacières de Savoye_,
+1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the _Description des
+Alpes pennines et rhétiennes_ (2 vols., 1781) (reprinted in 1783 under
+the title of _Nouvelle Description des vallées de glace_, and in 1785,
+with additions, in 3 vols., under the name of _Nouvelle Description des
+glacières_), and the _Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes_, (2
+vols., 1803), while his _Itinéraire de Genève, Lausanne et Chamouni_,
+first published in 1791, went through several editions in his lifetime.
+    (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURSAULT, EDME (1638-1701), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Mussy l'Évêque, now Mussy-sur-Seine (Aube), in October 1638.
+On his first arrival in Paris in 1651 his language was limited to a
+Burgundian patois, but within a year he produced his first comedy, _Le
+Mort vivant_. This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him
+distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Molière in the
+_École des femmes_. Boursault was persuaded that the "Lysidas" of that
+play was a caricature of himself, and attacked Molière in _Le Portrait
+du peintre ou la contre-critique de l'École des femmes_ (1663). Molière
+retaliated in _L'Impromptu de Versailles_, and Boileau attacked
+Boursault in Satires 7 and 9. Boursault replied to Boileau in his
+_Satire des satires_ (1669), but was afterwards reconciled with him,
+when Boileau on his side erased his name from his satires. Boursault
+obtained a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which
+was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and the editor
+was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition of Condé. In 1671
+he produced a work of edification in _Ad usum Delphini: la véritable
+étude des souverains_, which so pleased the court that its author was
+about to be made assistant tutor to the dauphin when it was found that
+he was ignorant of Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre
+Huet. Perhaps in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at
+Mont-luçon about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688. Among
+his best-known plays are _Le Mercure galant_, the title of which was
+changed to _La Comédie sans titre_ (1683); _La Princesse de Clèves_
+(1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished with fresh names by
+its author, succeeded as _Germanicus; Ésope à la ville_ (1690); and
+_Ésope à la cour_ (1701). His lack of dramatic instinct could hardly be
+better indicated than by the scheme of his _Ésope_, which allows the
+fabulist to come on the stage in each scene and recite a fable.
+Boursault died in Paris on the 15th of September 1701.
+
+  The _Oeuvres choisies_ of Boursault were published in 1811, and a
+  sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-René Taillandier's _Études
+  littéraires_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BOURSE (from the Med. Lat. _bursa_, a purse), the French equivalent of
+the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris Exchange, or of any foreign
+money-market. The English form "burse," as in Sir Thomas Gresham's
+building, which was known as "Britain's Burse," went out of use in the
+18th century. The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from
+any connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of a
+purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family de Bursa is
+said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to have had three
+purses as a sign on the front.
+
+
+
+
+BOURSSE, ESAIAS (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born in Amsterdam. He
+was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose manner he worked for many
+years in his native town; then he took service with the Dutch East India
+Company, and died on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare,
+perhaps because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of
+them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de Hooch. Two
+of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears the false signature)
+at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now recognized as being the work of
+Boursse. His subjects are interiors with figures, painted with great
+precision and with exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection
+has his masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,
+almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting
+something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced. Other
+important examples are at the Ryks museum and at Aix-la-Chapelle.
+Boursse's "Boy blowing Soap Bubbles," in the Berlin museum, was until
+lately attributed to Vermeer of Delft. More than one picture bearing the
+false signature of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.
+
+
+
+
+BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ (1802-1887), French
+chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1802. After studying
+at the school of mines at Saint-Étienne he went, when little more than
+twenty years old, to South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an
+English company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he was
+attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled widely in the
+northern parts of the continent. Returning to France he became professor
+of chemistry at Lyons, and in 1839 was appointed to the chair of
+agricultural and analytical chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et
+Métiers in Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where
+he sat as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed from
+his professorship on account of his political opinions, but so much
+resentment at this action was shown by scientific men in general, and
+especially by his colleagues, who threatened to resign in a body, that
+he was reinstated. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1887. His first
+papers were concerned with mining topics, and his sojourn in South
+America yielded a number of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of
+goitre in the Cordilleras, the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes,
+tropical rain, &c., which won the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From
+1836 he devoted himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and
+vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral chemistry.
+His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen in different foods,
+the amount of gluten in different wheats, investigations on the question
+whether plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere (which
+he answered in the negative), the respiration of plants, the function of
+their leaves, the action and value of manures, and other similar
+subjects. Through his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in
+Alsace, where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He
+collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an _Essai de statique
+chimique des ètres organisés_ (1841), and was the author of _Traité
+d'économic rurale_ (1844), which was remodelled as _Agronomie, chimie
+agricole, et physiologie_ (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., 1884), and of
+_Études sur la transformation du fer en acier_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH (1766-1828), German philosopher and critic, was
+born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and studied law at Göttingen.
+From 1790, however, he became a disciple of Kant, published _Aphorismen
+nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt_ (1793), and became professor of philosophy
+at Göttingen (1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a
+philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the
+"thing-in-itself" (_Ding-an-sich_). For the pure reason, as described in
+the _Kritik_, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable
+"something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication
+of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing
+but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of
+will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is
+the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge.
+This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism. Following
+this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his
+opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of
+F.H. Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Göttingen, 1868) shed
+much light on the development of his thought. His chief philosophical
+works are _Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik_ (Göttingen and Halle,
+1799); _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1806; Göttingen, 1815 and 1824); _Lehrbuch
+der philos. Vorkenntnisse_ (Göttingen, 1810 and 1820); _Lehrbuch der
+philos. Wissenschaften_ (Göttingen, 1813 and 1820). In these works he
+dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was
+the _Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit_ (Göttingen, 12
+vols., 1801-1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been
+published separately in French, Spanish and English. The _Geschichte_ is
+a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
+equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, _Paulus Septimus_
+(Halle, 1795), _Graf Donamar_ (Göttingen, 1791) and _Ramiro_ (Leipzig,
+1804), and published a collection of poems (Göttingen, 1802).
+
+
+
+
+BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOUILLETOURTE (1581-1652), French
+statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he was councillor in the
+parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became councillor of state and a
+secretary to the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici. The connexion of his
+father, Denis Bouthillier (d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for
+him the title of secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain
+on good terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richelieu, in spite of
+their rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But his
+great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on many diplomatic
+missions, and the success of his foreign policy was due in no small
+degree to Bouthillier's ability and devotion. In 1630 he had taken part
+at Regensburg in arranging the abortive treaty between the emperor and
+France. From 1633 to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions
+in Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph. Following
+Richelieu's instructions, he negotiated the alliances which brought
+France into the Thirty Years' War. Meanwhile, at home, his tact and
+amiable disposition, as well as his reputation for straightforwardness,
+had secured for him a unique position of influence in a court torn by
+jealousies and intrigues. Trusted by the king, the confidant of
+Richelieu, the friend of Marie de' Medici, and through his son, Léon
+Bouthillier, who was appointed in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d'Orléans,
+able to bring his influence to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable
+mediator; and the personal influence thus exercised, combined with the
+fact that he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy
+of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful man in the
+kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will, and Louis XIII. named
+him a member of the council of regency which he intended should govern
+the kingdom after his death. But the king's last plans were not carried
+out, and Bouthillier was obliged to retire into private life, giving up
+his office of superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris
+on the 13th of March 1652.
+
+His son, LÉON BOUTHILLIER (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny, was early
+associated with his father, who took him with him from 1629 to 1632 to
+all the great courts of Europe, instructing him in diplomacy. In 1632 he
+was named secretary of state and seconded his father's work, so that it
+is not easy always to distinguish their respective parts. After the
+death of Louis XIII. he had to give up his office; but was sent as
+plenipotentiary to the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself
+incapable, however, giving himself up to pleasure and fêtes, and
+returned to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during
+the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin's exile
+(April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which came to
+nothing.
+
+
+
+
+BOUTS-RIMÉS, literally (from the French) "rhymed ends," the name given
+in all literatures to a kind of verses of which no better definition can
+be found than was made by Addison, in the Spectator, when he described
+them as "lists of words that rhyme to one another, drawn up by another
+hand, and given to a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the
+same order that they were placed upon the list." The more odd and
+perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to give a
+semblance of common-sense to the production. For instance, the rhymes
+_breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant, please, hope, pope_ are
+submitted, and the following stanza is the result:--
+
+  Escaping from the Indian _breeze_,
+  The vast, sententious _elephant_
+  Through groves of sandal loves to _squeeze_
+  And in their fragrant shade to _pant_;
+  Although the shelter there be _scant_,
+  The vivid odours soothe and _please_,
+  And while he yields to dreams of _hope_,
+  Adoring beasts surround their _Pope_.
+
+The invention of bouts-rimés is attributed to a minor French poet of the
+17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered. According to the
+_Menagiana_, about the year 1648, Dulot was complaining one day that he
+had been robbed of a number of valuable papers, and, in particular, of
+three hundred sonnets. Surprise being expressed at his having written so
+many, Dulot explained that they were all "blank sonnets," that is to
+say, that he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck
+every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was taken up as
+a jest. Bouts-rimés became the fashion, and in 1654 no less a person
+than Sarrasin composed a satire against them, entitled _La Défaite des
+bouts-rimés_, which enjoyed a great success. Nevertheless, they
+continued to be abundantly composed in France throughout the 17th
+century and a great part of the 18th century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans
+(d. 1716) published a collection of serious sonnets, all written to
+rhymes selected for him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor
+Marmontel, nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in
+the 19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,
+however, in the history of bouts-rimés is the fact that the elder
+Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection. He issued an
+invitation to all the poets of France to display their skill by
+composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose by the poet, Joseph
+Méry (1798-1866). No fewer than 350 writers responded to the appeal, and
+Dumas published the result, as a volume, in 1865.
+
+W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G. Rossetti's
+_Collected Works_ (1886), mentions that, especially in 1848 and 1849, he
+and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly practised their pens in writing
+sonnets to _bouts-rimés_, each giving the other the rhymes for a sonnet,
+and Dante Gabriel writing off these exercises in verse-making at the
+rate of a sonnet in five or eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti's poems
+in _The Germ_ were _bouts-rimés_ experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel's, a
+little touched up, remained in his brother's possession, but were not
+included in the _Collected Works_.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905), American statesman, was born in
+Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th of January 1818. He was reared on
+a farm, and at an early age began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass.
+There he studied law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not
+begin practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850 he
+served in the state house of representatives, and became the recognized
+leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice defeated for Congress, and
+was twice an unsuccessful candidate for governor. In 1851, however, by
+means of "Free-Soil" votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected
+by the same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active
+part in the state constitutional convention. He became a member of the
+Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853, and as its secretary in
+1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and rendered much service to the
+state's school system. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854
+had finally alienated him from the Democratic party, and he became one
+of the founders of the new Republican party in the state. He played an
+influential part in the Republican national convention in 1860, and in
+1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was appointed by
+President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal revenue, which
+department he organized. From 1863 to 1869 he was a representative in
+Congress, taking an influential part in debate, and acting as one of the
+managers of President Johnson's impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was
+secretary of the treasury in President Grant's cabinet, and from 1873
+until 1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under an
+appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second edition of the
+_United States Revised Statutes_ (1878). In 1880 he represented the
+United States before the commission appointed in accordance with the
+treaty of that year, between France and the United States, to decide the
+claims brought by French citizens against the United States for acts of
+the American authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of
+American citizens against France for acts of French authorities during
+the war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and the
+Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States of the
+Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic League,
+and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic) ticket in 1900.
+He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on the 28th of February 1905. He
+published various volumes, including _The Constitution of the United
+States at the End of the First Century_ (1895), and _Reminiscences of
+Sixty Years in Public Affairs_ (2 vols., New York, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+BOUVARDIA, a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse shrubs, belonging to
+the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of tropical America. The
+flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered clusters; the corolla
+has a large tube and a spreading four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms
+include a number of hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings
+taken off in April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame
+with a close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly into
+3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth leaf-mould
+and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature of 70° by night
+and 80° during the day; shade when required; syringe overhead in the
+afternoon and close the house with sun-heat. The plants should be topped
+to ensure a bushy habit, and as they grow must be shifted into 6-in. or
+7-in. pots. After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may remain
+till the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space. They
+should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants put at once in
+a temperature of about 70° at night, with a few degrees higher in the
+daytime, to bring them into flower. Others are moved into heat to supply
+flowers in succession through the winter and spring.
+
+
+
+
+BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH (1753-1832), French admiral, son of a captain in
+the service of the French East India Company, was born on the 23rd of
+April 1753. He went to sea at the age of twelve with his father. Bouvet
+served in the East Indies in the famous campaign of 1781-83 under the
+command of Suffren, but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of
+the French Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side.
+Murder and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the
+monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet's experience were
+valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command of the
+"Audacieux" (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic. In
+the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral, and he commanded a
+division in the fleet which fought the battle of the 1st of June 1794
+against Lord Howe. Until the close of 1796 he continued in command of a
+squadron in the French Channel fleet. In the December of that year he
+was entrusted with the van division of the fleet which was sent from
+Brest to attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in
+the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the French as
+soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence which he had not been
+designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found himself at daybreak on the 17th of
+December separated with nine sail of the line from the rest of the
+fleet, opened his secret orders, and found that he was to make his way
+to Mizen Head. He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers,
+and on the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of
+the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of
+December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry Bay. On the
+24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his fleet. The continued
+storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and the awkwardness of the French
+crews, made it impossible to land the troops he had with him. On the
+evening of the 25th the storm increased to such a pitch of violence that
+the frigate in which Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea.
+The wind moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of
+the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage, steered
+for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797. His fortune had
+been very much that of his colleagues in this storm-tossed expedition,
+and on the whole he had shown more energy than most of them. He was
+wrong, however, in thinking that all his squadron had failed to keep
+their anchorage in Bantry Bay. The government, displeased by his
+precipitate return to Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards.
+He was compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon restored
+him to the service, and he commanded the squadron sent to occupy
+Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he had no further service,
+and lived in obscurity till his death on the 21st of July 1832.
+
+  Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_, vols. ii. and iii., and
+  James, _Naval History_, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of
+  June and the expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the
+  expedition in Tronde's _English in Ireland_, and it is dealt with in
+  Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUVIER, JOHN (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in Codogno, France,
+in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers (his mother was a member
+of the well-known Benezet family), emigrated to America and settled in
+Philadelphia, and after varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop
+and as a country editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having
+become a citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing
+in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from 1838
+until his death was an associate justice of the court of criminal
+sessions in that city. He is best known for his able legal writings. His
+_Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United
+States of America and of the Several States of the American Union_
+(1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis Rawle, under the title
+of _Bouvier's Law Dictionary_, 2 vols., 1897) has always been a
+standard. He published also an edition of _Bacon's Abridgement of the
+Law_ (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of American law entitled
+_The Institutes of American Law_ (4 vols., 1851; new ed. 2 vols., 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BOUVINES, a village on the French-Belgian frontier between Lille and
+Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the middle ages,
+fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces of Philip Augustus,
+king of France, and those of the coalition formed against him, of which
+the principal members were the emperor and King John of England. The
+plan of campaign seems to have been designed by King John, who was the
+soul of the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to
+the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the princes
+of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should at the right
+moment march upon Paris from the north. John's part in the general
+strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in the north moved slowly.
+While John, after two inroads, turned back to his Guienne possessions on
+the 3rd of July, it was not until three weeks later that the emperor
+concentrated his forces at Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip
+Augustus had countermarched northward and concentrated an army at
+Péronne. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to
+get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July
+27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque--the same plain
+on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of Willems was fought. The
+imperial army accepted the challenge and drew up facing south-westward
+towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one
+great mass in the centre, supported by the cavalry corps under the
+emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and
+40,000 foot. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry)
+took ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,
+cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the _milice des communes_, in
+the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme in rear of
+the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French
+right, in which individual feats of knightly gallantry were more
+noticeable than any attempt at combined action. The fighting was more
+serious between the two centres; the infantry of the Low Countries, who
+were at this time almost the best in existence, drove in the French;
+Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the
+day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was
+unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.
+In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly
+defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and William Longsword, earl
+of Salisbury, the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner
+by the warlike bishop of Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the
+other wing, where the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and
+captured Count Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the
+coalition. In the centre the battle was now between the two mounted
+reserves led respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here
+too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only
+by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day was already
+decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards
+to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with
+the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King
+Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred Brabançon pikemen, and not
+only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made
+repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually,
+and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant
+schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand
+men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the _mêlée_; and the
+prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William
+Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed
+amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands
+of foot on either side, of whom no accurate account can be given.
+
+  See Oman, _History of the Art of War_, vii. pp. 457-480; also Köhler,
+  _Kriegsgeschichte, &c_., i. 140, and Delpech, _Tactique au XIII
+  siècle_, 127.
+
+
+
+
+BOVEY BEDS, in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and lignite, 200-300
+ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from Bovey Tracey to Newton
+Abbot in Devonshire, England. The deposit is evidently the result of the
+degradation of the neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt
+laid down in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains
+from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same geological
+horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland. Starkie Gardiner,
+however, who subsequently examined the flora, showed that it bore a
+close resemblance to that of the Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in
+this view he is supported by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made
+for the extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery
+and similar purposes. The lignite or "Bovey Coal" has at times been
+burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen's cottages,
+but it is not economical.
+
+  See S. Gardiner, _Q. J. G. S._ London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and O.
+  Heer, _Phil. Trans._, 1862; C. Reid, _Q. J. G. S._ lii., 1896, p. 490,
+  and _loc. cit._ liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is
+  given by A.W. Clayden, _The History of Devonshire Scenery_ (London,
+  1906), pp. 159-168.
+
+
+
+
+BOVIANUM, the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1) UNDECIMANORUM
+[_Boiano_], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites, 9 m. N.W. of Saepinum
+and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the important road from Beneventum to
+Corfinium, which connected the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The
+original city occupied the height (Civita) above the modern town, where
+remains of Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably
+founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat of the
+Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the name _Undecimanorum_
+when Vespasian settled the veterans of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its
+remains have been covered by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the
+mountains. Comparatively few inscriptions have been discovered. (2)
+VETUS (near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of
+Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (_Corpus Inscrip. Lat._ ix.
+Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni. It lay in a remote
+situation among the mountains, and where Bovianum is mentioned the
+reference is generally to Bovianum Undecimanorum. Remains of
+fortifications and lower down of a temple and a theatre (cf. _Römische
+Mitteilungen_, 1903, 154)--the latter remarkable for the fine
+preservation of the stone seats of the three lowest rows of the
+auditorium--are to be seen. No less than eight Oscan inscriptions have
+been found. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BOVIDAE, the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant mammals
+typified by the common ox (_Bos taurus_), and specially characterized by
+the presence on the skulls of the males or of both sexes of a pair of
+bony projections, or cores, covered in life with hollow sheaths of horn,
+which are never branched, and at all events after a very early stage of
+existence are permanently retained. From this, which is alone sufficient
+for diagnostic purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For
+other characteristics see PECORA. The _Bovidae_ comprise a great number
+of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes and
+certain other kinds which come under neither of these designations. In
+stature they range from the size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and
+their horns vary in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of
+the oribi and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped
+structures borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu and
+other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the _Bovidae_
+present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or _Cervidae_. Both of
+these families are distributed over the whole of the northern
+hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent from Africa south of the
+Sahara and well represented in South America, the Bovidae are unknown in
+the latter area, but are extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither
+group is represented in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of
+the _Bovidae_. The present family doubtless originated in the northern
+half of the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the
+Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been but
+poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.
+
+The _Bovidae_ are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies,
+each of which is briefly noticed in the present article, while fuller
+mention of some of the more important representatives of these is made
+in other articles.
+
+The first section is that of the _Bovinae_, which includes buffaloes,
+bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built
+ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle broad, moist and
+naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands, and a large dewlap often
+developed in the males; while the tail is long and generally tufted,
+although in one instance longhaired throughout. The horns are of nearly
+equal size in both sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull,
+and may be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or
+less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous
+knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface. The tall upper
+molars have inner columns. The group is represented throughout the Old
+World as far east as Celebes, and has one living North American
+representative. All the species may be included in the genus _Bos_, with
+several subgeneric divisions (see ANOA, AUROCHS, BANTIN, BISON, BUFFALO,
+GAUR, GAYAL, OX and YAK).
+
+The second group, or _Caprinae_, includes the sheep and goats, which are
+smaller animals than most of the _Bovidae_, generally with horns in both
+sexes, but those of the females small. In the males the horns are
+usually compressed and triangular, with transverse ridges or knobs, and
+either curving backwards or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and
+when face-glands are present these are small and insignificant; while
+the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the _Bovinae_, there are
+frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ from
+those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack a distinct
+inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull it is small. The
+genera are _Ovis_ (sheep), _Capra_ (goats) and _Hemitragus_ (tahr).
+Sheep and goats are very nearly related, but the former never have a
+beard on the chin of the males, which are devoid of a strong odour; and
+their horns are typically of a different type. There are, however,
+several more or less transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats.
+The group is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in
+the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance south into
+the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers. (See
+UDAD, ARGALI, GOAT, IBEX, MOUFLON, SHEEP and TAHR.)
+
+The musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_) alone represents the family
+_Ovibovinae_, which is probably most nearly related to the next group
+(see MUSK-OX).
+
+Next come the _Rupicaprinae_, which include several genera of
+mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European chamois
+(_Rupicapra_); the other genera being the Asiatic serow, goral and
+takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain goat. These ruminants are
+best described as goat-like antelopes. (See ANTELOPE, CHAMOIS, GORAL,
+ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT, SEROW and TAKIN.)
+
+Under the indefinable term "antelope" (q.v.) may be included the seven
+remaining sections, namely _Tragelaphinae_ (kudu and eland),
+_Hippotraginae_ (sable antelope and oryx), _Antilopinae_ (black-buck,
+gazelles, &c.), _Cervicaprinae_ (reedbuck and waterbuck), _Neotraginae_
+(klipspringer and steinbok), _Cephalophinae_ (duikers and four-horned
+antelopes) and _Bubalinae_ (hartebeests and gnus).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM (1814-1873), English judge, a younger son of
+Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at All-hallows, Barking, on the
+26th of May 1814. On leaving school he was articled to a firm of
+solicitors, but entering the Middle Temple he practised for a short time
+as a special pleader below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the
+home circuit. His special training in a solicitor's office, and its
+resulting connexion, combined with a thorough knowledge of the details
+of engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing firm in
+the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive patent and
+commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in 1857 was elected
+M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons he was very zealous for
+legal reform, and the Partnership Law Amendment Act 1865, which he
+helped to pass, is always referred to as Bovill's Act. In 1866 he was
+appointed solicitor-general, an office which he vacated on becoming
+chief justice of the common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in
+November of the same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of
+November 1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable
+knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the bench his
+painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as well as his great
+patience and courtesy, gained for him the respect and affection of the
+profession.
+
+
+
+
+BOVILLAE, an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via Appia (which
+in 293 B.C. was already paved up to this point), 11 m. S.E. of Rome. It
+was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears as one of the thirty cities of
+the Latin league; after the destruction of Alba Longa the _sacra_ were,
+it was held, transferred to Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in
+inscriptions _virgines Vestales Albanae_ are mentioned, and the
+inhabitants of Bovillae are always spoken of as _Albani Longani
+Bovillenses_) and that of the _gens Iulia_. The existence of this
+hereditary worship led to an increase in its importance when the Julian
+house rose to the highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus's
+dead body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in A.D. 16 the shrine of
+the family worship was dedicated anew,[1] and yearly games in the circus
+instituted, probably under the charge of the _sodales Augustales_, whose
+official calendar has been found here. In history Bovillae appears as
+the scene of the quarrel between Milo and Clodius, in which the latter,
+whose villa lay above the town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed.
+The site is not naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications
+cannot be traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa
+as a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which
+would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak position.
+Remains of buildings of the imperial period--the circus, a small
+theatre, and edifices probably connected with the post-station--may
+still be seen on the south-west edge of the Via Appia.
+
+  See L. Canina, _Via Appia_ (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby in
+  _Mélanges de l'école française de Rome_ (1903), p. 395.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.
+
+
+
+
+BOW (pronounced "bõ"), a common Teutonic word for anything bent[1] (O.
+Eng. _boezha_; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. _bogo_, M.H.G. _boge_, Mod. Ger.
+_bogen_; from O. Teut. stem _bug_- of _beugan_, Mod. Ger. _biegen_, to
+bend). Thus it is found in English compound words, e.g. "elbow,"
+"rainbow," "bow-net," "bow-window," "bow-knot," "saddle-bow," and by
+itself as the designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English
+use of "bow," or stone-bow, for "arch," now obsolete, survives in
+certain names of churches and places, e.g. Bow church (St
+Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the
+"Stratford-atte-Bowe" of Chaucer). "Bow," however, is still the
+designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting arrows
+(see ARCHERY), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (i.e. a double-looped
+knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (e.g. the bow of a watch),
+certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent piece of wood with the
+ends drawn together by a string, used for drilling, turning, &c., in
+various crafts, and the stick strung with horsehair by means of which
+the strings of instruments of the violin family are set in vibration. It
+is with this last that the present article is solely concerned.
+
+_Bow in Music_.--The modern bow (Fr. _archet_; Ger. _Bogen_; Ital.
+_arco_) consists of five parts, i.e. the "stick," the screw or
+"ferrule," the "nut," the "hair" and the "head." The stick, in
+high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (_Caesalpinia
+brasiliensis_), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity
+and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American oak is used, and
+for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich in colouring matter and
+straight in the grain is selected, and the stick is usually cut from a
+templet so as to obtain the accurate taper, which begins about 4¼ in.
+from the nut, decreasing according to regular proportions from 3/8 in.
+at the screw to 3/16 at the back of the head. The stick is cut
+absolutely straight and parallel along its whole length with the fibre
+of the wood; it is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the
+hair and has assumed the elegant _cambrure_ first given to it by
+François Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care,
+for if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual
+resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid straight
+line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks are now of
+either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped or covered with
+gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the nut in order to afford
+a firm grip. The length of the stick was definitely and finally fixed by
+François Tourte at 29.34 to 29.528 in.
+
+  The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at 19
+  cm. (7½ to 7¾ in.) from the nut;[2] in the violoncello bow the hair
+  measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of gravity
+  is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7¼ in.) from the nut. In consequence
+  of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it necessary to
+  readjust the proportions and relative height of head and nut, in order
+  to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the stick, and at the
+  necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to avoid contact
+  between stick and strings in bowing. In order to counterbalance the
+  consequent increased weight of the head and to keep the centre of
+  gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with metal inlays or
+  ornamental designs.
+
+  The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the
+  hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of the
+  hair. This screw, about 3¼ in. long, hidden within the stick, runs
+  through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which
+  is firmly embedded in the nut.
+
+  The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original
+  purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the
+  stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole nut
+  slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw, thus
+  tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a little
+  cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is firmly
+  fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought out and
+  flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the pressure of a
+  flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along a mortised
+  groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut. Bows
+  having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte at the
+  instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were known as
+  _archets à recouvrements_.
+
+  The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the 150
+  to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the bow must
+  be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the pound, and
+  must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one hair in ten is
+  perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade bow. Experience
+  determines the right number of hairs, for if the ribbon be too thick
+  it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin the friction is
+  not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fétis gives 175 to 250 as
+  the number used in the modern bow,[3] and Julius Rühlmann 110 to
+  120.[4] Tourte attached the greatest importance to the hairing of the
+  bow, and bestowed quite as much attention upon it as upon the stick.
+  He subjected the hair to the following process of cleansing: first it
+  was thoroughly scoured with soap and water to remove all grease, then
+  steeped in bran-water, freed from all heterogeneous matter still
+  adhering to it, and finally rinsed in pure water slightly blued. When
+  passed between the fingers in the direction from root to tip, the hair
+  glides smoothly and offers no resistance, but passed in the opposite
+  direction it feels rough, suggesting a regular succession of minute
+  projections. The outer epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of
+  minute scales which produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when
+  the hair is drawn across the strings; the force and uniformity of
+  these shocks, which produce series of vibrations of equal persistency,
+  is considerably heightened by the application of rosin to the hair.
+  The particles of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus
+  accentuating the projections and the energy of the attack or "bite"
+  upon the strings. With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and
+  then no matter how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit
+  musical sounds--it is then "played out" and must be re-haired. The
+  organic construction of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the
+  bow, to lay the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down
+  strokes may be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is
+  wound round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is
+  afterwards covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a
+  solid mass.
+
+  The head, 1 in. long and 7/16 in. wide at the plate, is cut in one
+  piece with the stick, an operation which requires delicate
+  workmanship; otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during
+  a _sforzando_ passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance
+  similar to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is
+  immovably fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a
+  metal or ivory plate.
+
+  The model bow here described, elaborated by François Tourte as long
+  ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fétis,[5] or between 1785
+  and 1790 according to Vidal,[6] has not since been surpassed.
+
+
+That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole becomes evident
+when we consider the history of the forerunners of the viol family:
+without the bow the ancestor of the violin would have remained a guitar;
+the bow would not have reached its present state of perfection had it
+been required only for instruments of the _rebec_ and _vielle_ type. As
+soon as the possibilities of the violin were realized, as a solo
+instrument capable, through the agency of the bow, of expressing the
+emotions of the performer, the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in
+earnest until it was capable of responding to every shade of delicate
+thought and feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted
+development of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had
+been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of Tourte
+until more than a century and a half after the Cremona master had given
+us the violin.
+
+The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of
+conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have coincided
+with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, and the
+consequent impetus their superior culture gave to arts and sciences in
+the south-west of Europe. We have, however, no well-authenticated
+representation of the bow before the 9th century in Europe; the earliest
+is the bow illustrated along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin
+Gerbert[7], the representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery
+of St Blaise, dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other
+hand, Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries[8] reveals
+acquaintance with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary
+specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from the East, and
+was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia Minor and the Arabs from a
+common source--probably India, by way of Persia. The earliest
+representation of a bow yet discovered is to be found among the fine
+frescoes in one of the chapels of the monastery of Bawit[9] in Egypt.
+The mural paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering
+a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject depicted
+is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean Clédat to some date
+not later than the 8th century A.D., but more probably the work of a
+6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an instrument, which appears to
+be a rebab, against his chin, in the act of bowing and stopping the
+strings. The bow is similar in shape to one shown in the Psalter of
+Labeo Notker, Leipzig, 10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian
+sculptures of the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist
+_stupas_ of Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the
+Yusafzai district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which
+stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has remained a
+primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu tradition assigns its
+invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon, and the instrument for which it
+was invented was called _ravanastron_; a primitive instrument of that
+name is still in use in Hindustan[10]. F.J. Fétis[11], Antoine
+Vidal[12], Edward Heron-Allen[13], and others have given the question
+some consideration, and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther
+are referred to their works.
+
+There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow in primitive
+times. The earliest bow known in Europe was associated with the rebab
+(q.v.), the most widely used bowed instrument until the 12th century.
+The development of this instrument can be traced with some degree of
+certainty, but it is quite impossible to decide at what date or in what
+place the use of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly
+in Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied to
+the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only from the time
+when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar (q.v.), which then
+became the guitar fiddle (q.v.), the immediate forerunner of the viols.
+
+[Illustration: Drawn from the ivory cover of the _Lothair Psalter_, by
+permission of Sir Thomas Brooke.
+
+FIG. 1.--Earliest Bow of the Crémaillère Type (c. 11th century).]
+
+The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to provide some
+sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or string of the bow,
+such as is shown in the MS. translation of the Psalms by Labeo Notker,
+late 10th century, in the University library, Leipzig.[14] The length of
+the handle was often greatly exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of the
+artist. Another handle (see Bodleian Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th
+century) was in the form of a hilt with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in
+which the arched stick and the hair were both fixed. The first
+development of importance influencing the technique of stringed
+instruments was the attempt to find some device for controlling the
+tension of the hair. The contrivance known as _crémaillère_, which was
+the first step in this direction, seems to have been foreshadowed in the
+bows drawn in a quaint MS. of the 14th century in the British Museum
+(Sloane 3983, fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming an obtuse angle with
+the handle of the bow is a contrivance shaped like a spear-head which
+presumably served some useful purpose; if it had notches (which would be
+too small to show in the drawing), and the hair of the bow was finished
+with a loop, then we have here an early example of a device for
+controlling the tension. Another bow in the same MS. has two round knobs
+on the stick which may be assumed to have served the same purpose.
+
+[Illustriation: Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill & Sons.
+
+FIG. 2.--A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.]
+
+A very early example of the _crémaillère_ bow (fig. 1) occurs on a
+carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian MS.
+Psalter of Lothair (A.D. 825), for some time known as the Ellis and
+White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir Thomas Brooke at Armitage
+Bridge House. The carved figure of King David, assigned from its
+characteristic pose and the treatment of the drapery to the 11th
+century, holds a stringed instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which
+occurs twice in other Carolingian MSS.[15] of the 9th century, but
+copied here without understanding, as though it were a lyre with many
+strings. The artist has added a bow with _crémaillère_ attachment,
+which is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th
+century. The earliest representation of a _crémaillère_ bow, with this
+exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc, who
+merely states that it was copied from a painting.[16] Fétis (op. cit. p.
+117) figures a _crémaillère_ bow which he styles "Bassani, 1680."
+Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a _tromba marina_, with the hair and
+stick bound together with waxed cord. The hair appears to be kept more
+or less tense by means of a wedge of wood or other material forced in
+between stick and hair, the latter bulging slightly at this point like
+the string of an archery bow when the arrow is in position; this
+contrivance may be due to the fancy of the artist.
+
+The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed to the
+elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the best authority
+(Vuillaume and Fétis), it might be imagined that some of the bows
+figured by Mersenne,[17] e.g. the bass viol bow KL (p. 184), and another
+KLM (p. 192), had a movable nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn
+astride the stick as in the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the
+construction of the bow, which consists of three parts: the _bois,
+bâton_ or _brin_, the _soye_, and the _demi-roüe_ or _hausse_. The term
+"half-wheel" clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round so
+as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such
+ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer that the
+drawing is misleading and that the very decided button was only meant
+for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are informed further that _la
+soye_ was in reality hairs from the horse or some other animal, of which
+from 80 to 100 were used for each bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used
+on the weak beats, 2, 4, 6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats,
+1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185). The same practice prevailed in England in 1667,
+when Christopher Simpson wrote the _Division Viol_. He gives information
+concerning the construction of the bow in these words: "the viol-bow for
+division should be stiff but not heavy. The length (betwixt the two
+places where the hairs are fastened at each end) about seven-and-twenty
+inches. The nut should be short, the height of it about a finger's
+breadth or a little more" (p. 2).
+
+As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of the
+technique of the violin, marked modifications in the construction of the
+bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began during the second decade of
+the 18th century to gauge the capabilities of the bow, introduced
+further improvements, such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight
+contour, and a shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The
+Tourtes, father and son, accomplished the rest.
+
+  After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed:
+  J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered an
+  inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific basis
+  the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all his
+  bows to conform to strict ratio;[18] Dominique Peccate, apprenticed to
+  J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his name and "Paris" on
+  the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur, 1760-1832; François Lupot,
+  1774-1837, the first to line the angular cutting of the nut, where it
+  slides along the stick, with a plate of metal; Simon, born 1808, who
+  also signs his bows on the stick near the nut; John Dodd of Richmond,
+  the greatest English bow-maker, who was especially renowned for his
+  violoncello bows, though his violin bows had the defect of being
+  rather short.
+
+  The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin and
+  viola, and the head and nut are deeper.
+
+  The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning of
+  the 19th century were the _Dragonetti_, maintaining the arch of the
+  medieval bows, and the _Bottesini_, shaped and held like the violin
+  bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining towards the
+  bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire under Habeneck
+  about 1830; the great artist himself sent over the model from London.
+  Illustrations of both bows are given by Vidal (_op. cit._ pl. xviii.).
+
+  Messrs W.E. Hill & Sons probably possess the finest and most
+  representative collection of bows in the world.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Bow," the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
+    this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way, as
+    "bough," an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common Teutonic
+    word, seen in O. Eng. _bog_, Ger. _Bug_, shoulder, and is cognate
+    with Gr. [Greek: paechus], forearm. The sense of "shoulder" of a ship
+    is not found in O. Eng. _bog_. but was probably borrowed from Dutch
+    or Danish. "Bow," an inclination of the head or body, though
+    pronounced as "bough," is of the same origin as "bow," to bend.
+
+  [2] See F.J. Fétis, _Antoine Stradivari_, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).
+
+  [3] Fétis, _op. cit._ p. 123.
+
+  [4] J. Rühlmann, _Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick,
+    1882), p. 143.
+
+  [5] Fétis, _op. cit._ p. 119.
+
+  [6] Antoine Vidal, _Les Instruments à archet_ (Paris, 1876-1878),
+    tome i. p. 269
+
+  [7] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18;
+    the MS. has since perished by fire.
+
+  [8] See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
+    sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
+    Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, _Gallerie Nazionali Italiane_, iii.
+    (Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and _Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum_,
+    Greek Psalter, dated 1066.
+
+  [9] See Jean Clédat, "Le Monastère et la nécropole de Baouît," in
+    _Mém. de l'Inst. franç. d'archéol. orient. du Caire_, vol. xii.
+    (1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, _Dict.
+    d'archéol. chrétienne, s.v._ "Baouît."
+
+  [10] For an illustration, see Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales_
+    (Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.
+
+  [11] _Op. cit._ pp. 4-10.
+
+  [12] _Op. cit._ vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.
+
+  [13] Edward Heron-Allen, _Violin-making as it was and is_ (London,
+    1884), pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.
+
+  [14] MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
+    _Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau_ (Neuburg-a-D., 1874), pl.
+    5, No. 7.
+
+  [15] See CROWD for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and also
+    King David in the Bible of St Paul _extra muros_, Rome (photographic
+    facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).
+
+  [16] See _Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français_ (Paris, 1871),
+    vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.
+
+  [17] Marin Mersenne, _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), pp.
+    184 and 192.
+
+  [18] Vuillaume's diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fétis, op.
+    cit. pp. 125-128.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD (1790-1824), English traveller and author, was
+born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814, through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith,
+governor of the British Gold Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership
+in the service of the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape
+Coast. In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a mission
+to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful diplomacy the
+mission succeeded in its object of securing British control over the
+coast natives (see ASHANTI: _History_). In 1818 Bowdich returned to
+England, and in 1819 published an account of his mission and of the
+study he had made of the barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled _Mission
+from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, &c._ (London, 1819). His African
+collections he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly
+attacked the management of the African committee, and his strictures
+were instrumental in leading the British government to assume direct
+control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich lived in Paris,
+studying mathematics and the natural sciences, and was on intimate terms
+with Cuvier, Humboldt and other savants. During his stay in France he
+edited several works on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In
+1822, accompanied by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of
+historic MSS., he published _An Account of the Discoveries of the
+Portuguese in ... Angola and Mozambique_ (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich
+and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape Verde Islands,
+arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia, intending to go to
+Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior. But at Bathurst Bowdich
+died on the 10th of January 1824. His widow published an account of his
+last journey, entitled _Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to
+which is added.... A Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its
+Completion, &c._ (London, 1825). Bowdich's daughter, Mrs Hutchinson
+Hale, republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father's
+_Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838), American mathematician, was born at
+Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to his father's business as a cooper,
+and afterwards apprenticed to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics
+early developed itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study
+Newton's _Principia_. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796,
+1798, 1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
+navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing his
+crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two editions of
+Hamilton Moore's _Navigation_, and in 1802 published a valuable work,
+_New American Practical Navigator_, founded on the earlier treatise by
+Moore. In 1804 he became president of a Salem insurance company. In the
+midst of his active career he undertook a translation of the _Mécanique
+céleste_ of P.S. Laplace, with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He
+was offered, but declined, the professorship of mathematics and
+astronomy at Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics'
+Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts and
+Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.
+
+  A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch
+  (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839) of the
+  translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a separate
+  biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch (1808-1892), a
+  famous Boston physician.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDLER, THOMAS (1754-1825), editor of the "family" Shakespeare, younger
+son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of independent fortune, was born at
+Ashley, near Bath, on the 11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the
+universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
+four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where he
+became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned ladies. In 1800 he
+left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and later on he removed to
+South Wales. He was an energetic philanthropist, and carried on John
+Howard's work in the prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published
+_The Family Shakespeare_ "in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
+the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted which
+cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Criticisms of this
+edition appeared in the _British Critic_ of April 1822. Bowdler also
+expurgated Edward Gibbon's _History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_ (published posthumously, 1826); and he issued a selection from
+the Old Testament for the use of children. He died at Rhyddings, near
+Swansea, on the 24th of February 1825.
+
+From Bowdler's name we have the word to "bowdlerize," first known to
+occur in General Perronet Thompson's _Letters of a Representative to his
+Constituents during the Session of 1836_, printed in Thompson's
+_Exercises_, iv. 126. The official interpretation is "to expurgate (a
+book or writing) by omitting or modifying words or passages considered
+indelicate or offensive." Both the word and its derivatives, however,
+are associated with false squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the
+name of Bowdler it is worth noting that Swinburne in "Social Verse"
+(_Studies in Prose and Poetry_, 1894, p. 98) said of him that "no man
+ever did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it possible
+to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative children," and
+stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as "nauseous and foolish
+cant."
+
+
+
+
+BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726-1790), American political leader, was born of
+French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 7th of August
+1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745, and was a member of the lower
+house of the general court of Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757
+to 1774 of the Massachusetts council, in which, according to Governor
+Thomas Hutchinson, he "was without a rival," and, on the approach of the
+War of Independence, was "the principal supporter of the opposition to
+the government." From August 1775 until the summer of 1777 he was the
+president of the council, which had then become to a greater extent than
+formerly an executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was
+president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts, also
+serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft of the
+constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was a member of a
+commission appointed "to revise the laws in force in the state; to
+select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to be accommodated to the
+present government." From 1785 to 1787 he was governor of Massachusetts,
+suppressing with much vigour Shays' Rebellion, and failing to be
+re-elected largely because it was believed that he would punish the
+insurrectionists with more severity than would his competitor, John
+Hancock. Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in February
+1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, his son being
+also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th of November 1790. He took
+much interest in natural philosophy, and presented various papers before
+the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the
+founders and, from 1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College
+was named in his honour.
+
+His son, JAMES BOWDOIN (1752-1811), was born in Boston on the 22nd of
+September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771, and served, at various
+times, as a representative, senator and councillor of the state. From
+1805 until 1808 he was the minister plenipotentiary of the United States
+in Spain. He died on Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the
+11th of October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
+apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee, bequeathing to
+it his collection of paintings and drawings, then considered the finest
+in the country.
+
+
+
+
+BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823-   ), Canadian politician, son of John
+Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall, England, on the
+27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved with his family to Belleville,
+Canada, where he finally became editor and proprietor of the
+_Intelligencer_. He was elected grand master of the Orange Association
+of British America, and was long the exponent in the Canadian parliament
+of the claims of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North
+Hastings in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
+till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
+Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership of Sir
+John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From December 1894 till
+April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and endeavoured to enforce remedial
+legislation in the question of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was
+unsuccessful, and he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he
+led the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided over the
+colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was created K.C.M.G.
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN, BARON (1835-1894), English
+judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835, at Woolaston in
+Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher Bowen of Hollymount,
+Co. Mayo, being then curate of the parish. He was educated at Lille,
+Blackheath and Rugby schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol
+scholarship in 1853. At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier
+youth, winning the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his
+time. He was made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
+London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861, and
+while studying law he wrote regularly for the _Saturday Renew_, and also
+later for the _Spectator_. For a time he had little success at the bar,
+and came near to exchanging it for the career of a college tutor, but he
+was induced by his friends, who recognized his talents, to persevere.
+Soon after he had begun to make his mark he was briefed against the
+claimant in the famous "Tichborne Case." Bowen's services to his leader,
+Sir John Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
+counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did while the
+trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general to that of
+attorney-general; and from this time his practice became a very large
+one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne trials had been great, so
+that his physical health became unequal to the tasks which his zeal for
+work imposed upon it, and in 1879 his acceptance of a judgeship in the
+queen's bench division, on the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him
+the opportunity of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen's
+intellect hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
+but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
+Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice of
+appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and his
+courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of failing health
+he was able to sit more or less regularly until August 1893, when, on
+the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary,
+and a baron for life, with the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this
+time, however, his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law
+lord to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his last
+public service consisted in presiding over the commission which sat in
+October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots. He died on the 10th
+of April 1894.
+
+Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who knew him either
+professionally or privately. He had a polished and graceful wit, of
+which many instances might be given, although such anecdotes lose force
+in print. For example, when it was suggested on the occasion of an
+address to Queen Victoria, to be presented by her judges, that a passage
+in it, "conscious as we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great
+humility, he proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one
+another's shortcomings"; and on another occasion he defined a jurist as
+"a person who knows a little about the laws of every country except his
+own." Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest upon the series of
+judgments delivered by him in the court of appeal, which are remarkable
+for their lucid interpretation of legal principles as applied to the
+facts and business of life. Among good examples of his judgment may be
+cited that given in advising the House of Lords in _Angus_ v. _Dalton_
+(6 App. Cas. 740), and those delivered in _Abrath_ v. _North Eastern
+Railway_ (11 Q.B.D. 440); _Thomas_ v. _Quartermaine_ (18 Q.B.D. 685);
+_Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared
+the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be wrong in its
+conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords); and the _Mogul
+Steamship Company_ v. _M'Gregor_ (23 Q.B.D. 598). Of Lord Bowen's
+literary works besides those already indicated may be mentioned his
+translation of Virgil's _Eclogues_, and _Aeneid_, books i.-vi., and his
+pamphlet, _The Alabama Claim and Arbitration considered from a Legal
+Point of View._ Lord Bowen married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest
+daughter of James Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
+daughter.
+
+  See _Lord Bowen_, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, FRANCIS (1811-1890), American philosophical writer and
+educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 8th of
+September 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at
+Phillips Exeter Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and
+instructor at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he
+settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor of
+the _North American Review_ from 1843 to 1854. In 1850 he was appointed
+professor of history at Harvard; but his appointment was disapproved by
+the board of overseers on account of reactionary political opinions he
+had expressed in a controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning
+the Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford professor of
+natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity was approved, and he
+occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he was a member of the Federal
+commission appointed to consider currency reform, and wrote (1877) the
+minority report, in which he opposed the restoration of the double
+standard and the remonetization of silver. He died in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives
+of Sir William Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin
+Lincoln in Jared Sparks' "Library of American Biography"; _Critical
+Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philosophy_
+(1842); _Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical
+Science to the Evidences of Religion_ (1849); _The Principles of
+Political Economy applied to the Condition, Resources and Institutions
+of the American People_ (1856); _A Treatise on Logic_ (1864); _American
+Political Economy_ (1870); _Modern Philosophy from Descartes to
+Schopenhauer and Hartmann_ (1877); and _Gleanings from a Literary Life,
+1838-1880_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON (1821-1899), British colonial governor,
+eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards rector of Taughboyne,
+Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of November 1821. Educated at
+Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Oxford, he took a first class
+in classics in 1844, and was elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he
+was chosen president of the university of Corfu. Having served as
+secretary of government in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859
+the first governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
+from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of Queensland
+and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but incurred some
+unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of inconvertible paper
+money during the financial crisis of 1866. In 1867 he was made governor
+of New Zealand, in which position he was successful in reconciling the
+Maoris to the English rule, and saw the end of the struggle between the
+colonists and the natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen
+endeavoured to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
+governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of governor
+of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He was made a K.C.M.G. in
+1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and received honorary degrees from
+both Oxford and Cambridge. In December 1887 he was appointed chief of
+the royal commission which was sent to Malta with regard to the new
+constitution for the island, and all the recommendations made by him
+were adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899, having
+been married twice, and having had a family of one son and four
+daughters. Bowen wrote _Ithaca in 1850_ (London, 1854), translated into
+Greek in 1859; and _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852);
+and he was the author of Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (London, 1854).
+
+  A selection of his letters and despatches, _Thirty Years of Colonial
+  Government_ (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.
+
+
+
+
+BOWER, WALTER (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born about 1385 at
+Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the Firth of Forth) from 1418,
+was one of the commissioners for the collection of the ransom of James
+I., king of Scots, in 1423 and 1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to
+Paris on the business of the marriage of the king's daughter to the
+dauphin. He played an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in
+the defence of Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged
+on his work the _Scotichronicon_, on which his reputation now chiefly
+rests. This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir David
+Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the _Chronica Gentis Scotorum_
+of Fordun. The completed work, in its original form, consisted of
+sixteen books, of which the first five and a portion of the sixth (to
+1163) are Fordun's--or mainly his, for Bower added to them at places. In
+the later books, down to the reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by
+Fordun's _Gesta Annalia_, but from that point to the close the work is
+original and of contemporary importance, especially for James I., with
+whose death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining
+years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or "abridgment" of this
+work, which is known as the _Book of Cupar_, and is preserved in the
+Advocates' library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7). Other abridgments, not by
+Bower, were made about the same time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick
+Russell, a Carthusian of Perth) preserved in the Advocates' library (MS.
+35. 6. 7) and another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in
+the same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the
+_Scotichronicon_, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in the
+British Museum, in _The Black Book of Paisley_, and in Harl. MS. 712;
+one in the Advocates' library, from which Walter Goodall printed his
+edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library of Corpus Christi,
+Cambridge.
+
+  Goodall's is the only complete modern edition of Bower's text. See
+  also W.F. Skene's edition of Fordun in the series of _Historians of
+  Scotland_ (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
+  _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
+  that by T.A. Archer in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._
+
+
+
+
+BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT (1797-1877), English naturalist and
+palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the 14th of July
+1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother to his father's
+distillery, in which he was actively engaged until 1847. In early years
+astronomy and natural history, especially botany, engaged much of his
+attention; he became an enthusiastic worker at the microscope, studying
+the structure of shells, corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also
+formed an extensive collection of fossils. The organic remains of the
+London Clay attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he
+and six other workers founded "The London Clay Club"--the members
+comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875), author of
+_The Eocene Mollusca_ (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V. Wood, John
+Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell, surgeon of Highgate
+(1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In 1840 Bowerbank published _A
+History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay_, and two
+years later he was elected F.R.S. In 1847 he suggested the establishment
+of a society for the publication of undescribed British Fossils, and
+thus originated the Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he
+did much to encourage a love of natural science by being "at home" every
+Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
+afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his museum, his
+microscopes, and his personal assistance were at the service of every
+earnest student. In the study of sponges he became specially interested,
+and he was author of _A Monograph of the British Spongiadae_ in 4
+vols., published by the Ray Society, 1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St
+Leonards, where he died on the 8th of March 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BOWIE, JAMES (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in Logan county,
+Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about 1802, and in 1818-1820 was
+engaged with his brothers, John J. and Rezin P., in smuggling negro
+slaves into the United States from the headquarters of the pirates led
+by Jean Lafitte on Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and
+took a prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
+battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass Fight
+(1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see SAN ANTONIO), but
+was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final assault on the 6th of
+March 1836, and was among the last to be butchered. Bowie's name is now
+perpetuated by a county in north-eastern Texas, and by its association
+with that of the famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did
+not invent.
+
+
+
+
+BOW-LEG (_Genu Varum_), a deformity characterized by separation of the
+knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there is an outward
+curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times an interior bend of the
+latter bone. At birth all children are more or less bandy-legged. The
+child lies on its nurse's knee with the soles of the feet facing one
+another; the tibiae and femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs
+are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct
+space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
+change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femora
+slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints; the tibiae become
+straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards.
+While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist
+principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified, and in a
+normal child by the time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared,
+both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which
+form them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
+attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement to walk
+before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the result will
+necessarily be either an arrest in the development of the limbs or an
+increase of the bandy condition. If the child is weakly, either rachitic
+or suffering from any ailment which prevents the due ossification of the
+bones, or is improperly fed, the bandy condition may remain persistent.
+Thus the chief cause of this deformity is rickets (q.v.). The remaining
+causes are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism, the
+condition being very likely to supervene after accidents involving the
+condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the most important thing is
+to treat the constitutional disease, at the same time instructing the
+mother never to place the child on its feet. In many cases this is quite
+sufficient in itself to effect a cure, but matters can be hastened
+somewhat by applying splints. When in older patients the deformity
+arises either from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that
+of operation.
+
+A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known as
+_knock-knee_ (or _Genu Valgum_). In this condition there is close
+approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the feet, the
+patient being unable to bring the feet together when standing.
+Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the double form is the
+more common. There are two varieties of this deformity: (i.) that due to
+rickets and occurring in young children (the rachitic form), and (ii.)
+that met with in adolescents and known as the static form. In young
+children it is practically always due to rickets, and the constitutional
+disease must be most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially
+in these cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases
+the body weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if quite
+young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated several times a
+day. Where the child is a little older and it is more difficult to keep
+him off his feet, long splints should be applied from the axilla or
+waist to a point several inches below the level of the foot. It is only
+by making the splints sufficiently long that a naturally active child
+can be kept at rest. The little patient should live in the open air as
+much as possible.
+
+The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young adolescents,
+especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers, and young people
+who have outgrown their strength, yet have to carry heavy weights.
+Normally in the erect posture the weight of the body is passed through
+the outer condyle of the femur rather than the inner, and this latter is
+lengthened to keep the plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws
+considerable strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint,
+and after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles of
+the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus the ligament
+gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue mobility from side to
+side. If the condition be not attended to, the outer condyle becomes
+gradually atrophied, owing to the increased weight transmitted through
+it, and the inner condyle becomes lengthened. These changes are the
+direct outcome of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure
+results in increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
+The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth that takes
+place in the child that is confined to bed during a prolonged illness.
+The distorted, stunted, shortened and fashionable foot of the Chinese
+lady is an example of the latter. Flat-foot (see CLUB-FOOT) and lateral
+curvature of the spine, scoliosis, are often associated with this form
+of Genu Valgum, the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the
+latter being compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg,
+though often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
+variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
+health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But in the
+more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This usually consists of
+an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee, attached above to a pelvic
+band and below to the heel of the boot. By the gradual tightening of
+padded straps passing round the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees
+into a more natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
+that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of operation.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLES, SAMUEL (1826-1878), American journalist, was born in
+Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826. He was the son
+of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city, who had established the
+weekly _Springfield Republican_ in 1824. The daily issue was begun in
+1844, as an evening newspaper, afterwards becoming a morning journal. To
+its service Samuel Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception
+of a brief period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
+and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour, incisiveness
+and independence of its editorial utterances, and the concise and
+convenient arrangement of its local and general news-matter. During the
+controversies affecting slavery and resulting in the Civil War, Bowles
+supported, in general, the Whig and Republican parties, but in the
+period of Reconstruction under President Grant his paper represented
+anti-administration or "Liberal Republican" opinions, while in the
+disputed election of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and
+subsequently became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
+on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently, the
+_Republican_ office was a sort of school for young journalists,
+especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness of style, one of
+his maxims being "put it all in the first paragraph." Bowles published
+two books of travel, _Across the Continent_ (1865) and _The Switzerland
+of America_ (1869), which were combined into one volume under the title
+_Our New West_ (1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief
+of the _Republican_ by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).
+
+  A eulogistic _Life and Times of Samuel Bowles_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
+  political movements after the compromise of 1850.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1850), English poet and critic, was born at
+King's Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which his father was vicar, on the
+24th of September 1762. At the age of fourteen he entered Winchester
+school, the head-master at the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he
+left as captain of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford,
+where he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the
+chancellor's prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
+quarto volume, _Fourteen Sonnets_, which met with considerable favour at
+the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and his young
+contemporaries. The _Sonnets_ even in form were a revival, a return to
+the older and purer poetic style, and by their grace of expression,
+melodious versification, tender tone of feeling and vivid appreciation
+of the life and beauty of nature, stood out in strong contrast to the
+elaborated commonplaces which at that time formed the bulk of English
+poetry. After taking his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was
+appointed in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
+received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and in 1804 was
+presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire. In the same year he
+was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal stall in the cathedral of
+Salisbury. In 1818 he was made chaplain to the prince regent, and in
+1828 he was elected residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at
+Salisbury on the 7th of April 1850, aged 88.
+
+The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high standard,
+though all are distinguished by purity of imagination, cultured and
+graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling. The most extensive
+were _The Spirit of Discovery_ (1804), which was mercilessly ridiculed
+by Byron; _The Missionary of the Andes_ (1815); _The Grave of the Last
+Saxon_ (1822); and _St John in Patmos_ (1833). Bowles is perhaps more
+celebrated as a critic of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an
+edition of Pope's works with notes and an essay on the poetical
+character of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to
+poetic imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
+recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the time
+with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his style. The "Pope
+and Bowles" controversy brought into sharp contrast the opposing views
+of poetry, which may be roughly described as the natural and the
+artificial. Bowles maintained that images drawn from nature are
+poetically finer than those drawn from art; and that in the highest
+kinds of poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
+or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society. These
+positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell, Roscoe and others
+of less note, while for a time Bowles was almost solitary. Hazlitt and
+the _Blackwood_ critics, however, came to his assistance, and on the
+whole Bowles had reason to congratulate himself on having established
+certain principles which might serve as the basis of a true method of
+poetical criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
+example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose works from his
+prolific pen was a _Life of Bishop Ken_ (2 vols., 1830-1831).
+
+  His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1855, with a memoir by G.
+  Gilfillan.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLINE (a word found in most Teutonic languages, probably connected
+with the "bow" of a ship), a nautical term for a rope leading from the
+edge of a sail to the bows, for the purpose of steadying the sail when
+sailing close to the wind--"on a bowline."
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING (Lat. _bulla_, a globe, through O. Fr. _boule_, ball), an indoor
+game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine or ten wooden pins.
+It has been played for centuries in Germany and the Low Countries, where
+it is still in high favour, but attains its greatest popularity in the
+United States, whence it was introduced in colonial times from Holland.
+The Dutch inhabitants of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
+to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the principal
+resort of the bowlers being the square just north of the Battery still
+called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys were made of hardened
+clay or of slate, but those in vogue at present are built up of
+alternate strips of pine and maple wood, about 1 × 3 in. in size, set on
+edge, and fastened together and to the bed of the alley with the nicest
+art of the cabinet-maker. The width of the alley is 4l½ in., and its
+whole length about 80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line,
+over which the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance
+is 60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. "gutter" to catch any
+balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the diamond
+form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th century the game
+of "nine-pins" was prohibited by law, on account of the excessive
+betting connected with it. This ordinance, however, was soon evaded by
+the addition of a tenth pin, resulting in the game of "ten-pins," the
+pastime in vogue to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley
+in the form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the
+back, then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is placed 3
+in. from the alley's edge, back of which is the pin-pit, 10 in. deep and
+about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded (often with a heavy,
+swinging cushion), and there are safety corners for the pin-boys, who
+set up the pins, call the scores and place the balls in the sloping
+"railway" which returns them to the players' end of the alley. The pins
+are made of hard maple and are 15 in. high, 2¼ in. in diameter at their
+base and 15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, which
+are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be of any
+size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16½ lb. in weight. They
+are provided with holes for the thumb and middle finger. As many may
+play on a side as please, five being the number for championship teams,
+though this sometimes varies. Each player rolls three balls, called a
+_frame_, and ten frames constitute a game, unless otherwise agreed upon.
+In first-class matches two balls only are rolled. If all ten pins are
+knocked down by the first ball the player makes a _strike_, which counts
+him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls of his next
+frame. If, however, he should then make another strike, 10 more are
+added to his score, making 20, to which are added the pins he may knock
+down with his first ball of the third frame. This may also score a
+strike, making 30 as the score of the first frame, and, should the
+player keep up this high average, he will score the maximum, 300, in his
+ten frames. If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is called
+a _spare_, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball of his
+second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring is
+comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are used. Of
+course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is scored, but
+the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens of thousands of
+bowling clubs in the United States and Canada are under the jurisdiction
+of the American Bowling Congress, which meets once a year to revise the
+rules and hold contests for the national championships.
+
+  Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the most in
+  vogue being "Cocked Hat," which is played with three pins, one in the
+  head-pin position and the others on either corner of the back row. The
+  pins are usually a little larger than those used in the regular game,
+  and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is 90, and all balls,
+  even those going into the gutter, are in play. "Cocked hat and
+  Feather" is similar, except that a fourth pin is added, placed in the
+  centre. Other variations of bowling are "Quintet," in which five pins,
+  set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler, are used; the "Battle
+  Game," in which 12 can be scored by knocking down all but the centre,
+  or king, pin; "Head Pin and Four Back," in which five pins are used,
+  one in the head-pin position and the rest on the back line; "Four
+  Back"; "Five Back"; "Duck Pin"; "Head Pin," with nine pins set up in
+  the old-fashioned way, and "Candle Pin," in which thin pins tapering
+  towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar to
+  those of the regular game.
+
+  The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
+  Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned
+  game of nine-pins (_Kegelspiel_) with solid balls and the pins set up
+  diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made with less
+  care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or marble.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890)
+7803; (1900) 8226, of whom 2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is
+served by the Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
+here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized or gravel
+roads also radiate from it to all parts of the surrounding country, a
+rich agricultural and live-stock raising region, in which there are
+deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas, asphalt and building
+stone. The city is the seat of Potter College (for girls; non-sectarian,
+opened 1889); of Ogden College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary
+school, endowed by the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of
+the West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern Normal
+School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and removed to Bowling
+Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green Business University, formerly a
+part of the Southern Normal School and Business College. Bowling Green
+has two parks, a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other
+live-stock, tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour,
+lumber, tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green was
+incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War Bowling
+Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate defence in
+the West, and was for some time the headquarters of General Albert
+Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned, however, after the capture by the
+Federals of Forts Henry and Donelson.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop.
+(1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born); (1910) 5222. Bowling Green
+is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio
+Central railways, and by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake
+Erie, Bowling Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
+Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region which
+abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences and business
+places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately owned central
+hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures are cut glass, stoves
+and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns, thread-cutting machines, brooms and
+agricultural implements. Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was
+incorporated as a town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLS,
+
+  History.
+
+the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery, still in vogue. It
+has been traced certainly to the 13th, and conjecturally to the 12th
+century. William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas
+Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of
+the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were
+"exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling, Casting of Stones [_in jactu
+lapidum_], and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose,
+which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like
+fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by _jactus lapidum_
+Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that
+round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the
+game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much
+later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,--nevertheless the inference
+seems unwarranted. The _jactus lapidum_ of which he speaks was probably
+more akin to the modern "putting the weight," once even called "putting
+the stone." It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in
+a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS. of that period
+in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing
+representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an
+earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of the same century has a
+picture--crude, but spirited--which brings us into close touch with the
+existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first
+player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has
+delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric
+contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player
+meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the
+bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the
+act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century MS. _Book of Prayers_ in the
+Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian library at Oxford contains a
+drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt
+(_Sports and Pastimes_) suggests that the first player's bowl may have
+been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that
+case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three
+earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each
+player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as
+various five or six hundred years ago as it is to-day. In the third he
+stands almost upright; in the first he kneels; in the second he stoops,
+halfway between the upright and the kneeling position.
+
+As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king and
+parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of archery,
+then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it and other sports
+were enacted in the reigns of Edward III., Richard II. and other
+monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow
+had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was
+continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established
+in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive
+legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns
+frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. The word "bowls" occurs for
+the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed
+previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act of
+1541--which was not repealed until 1845--artificers, labourers,
+apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any
+time save Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence.
+It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside of his own
+garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those
+possessed of lands of the yearly value of £100 might obtain licences to
+play on their own private greens. But though the same statute absolutely
+prohibited bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own
+pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when he
+played. In Mary's reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn, the queen or
+her advisers deeming the game an excuse for "unlawful assemblies,
+conventicles, seditions and conspiracies." The scandals of the bowling
+alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan London, and Stephen Gosson in his
+_School of Abuse_ (1579) says, "Common bowling alleys are privy moths
+that eat up the credit of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are
+not able to weigh down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from
+maintaining their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread,
+and go to bed supperless often in the year."
+
+Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. "A little altering of
+the one side," says Robert Recorde, the mathematician, in his _Castle of
+Knowledge_ (1556), "maketh the bowl to run biasse waies." And
+Shakespeare (_Richard II_., Act. III. Sc. 4) causes the queen to
+remonstrate, in reply to her lady's suggestion of a game at bowls to
+relieve her ennui, "'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs, and
+that my fortune runs against the bias." This passage is interesting also
+as showing that women were accustomed to play the game in those days. It
+is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar story of
+Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the Armada was
+beating up Channel, and finishing his game before tackling the
+Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as a legitimate
+amusement for Sundays,--as, indeed, were many other sports. When John
+Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one Sunday, it is said that he discovered
+him engaged in a game; and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of
+London, enjoyed a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language "as
+justly exposed his character to reproach." The pastime found favour with
+the Stuarts. In the _Book of Sports_ (1618), James I. recommended a
+moderate indulgence to his son, Prince Henry, and Charles I. was an
+enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately encouraging by example wagering and
+playing for high stakes, habits that ultimately brought the green into
+as general disrepute as the alley. It is recorded that the king
+occasionally visited Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a
+beautiful green at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were
+£1000. He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium
+of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring Heath in
+Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with couplets reciting how
+his majesty "drank from the bowl, and bowl'd for what he drank." During
+his stay at the Northamptonshire village of Holdenby or Holmby--where
+Sir Thomas Herbert complains the green was not well kept--Charles
+frequently rode over to Lord Vaux's place at Harrowden, or to Lord
+Spencer's at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one account, was
+actually playing on the latter green when Cornet Joyce came to Holmby to
+remove him to other quarters. During this period gambling had become a
+mania. John Aubrey, the antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir
+John Suckling, the courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in
+Piccadilly, crying, "for fear he should lose all their portions." If the
+Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay asserts,
+one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans could not suppress
+betting. So eminently respectable a person as John Evelyn thought no
+harm in bowling for stakes, and once played at the Durdans, near Epsom,
+for £10, winning match and money, as he triumphantly notes in his
+_Diary_ for the 14th of August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions
+finding great people "at bowles." But in time the excesses attending the
+game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it became
+practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens, like the
+alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and gardens attached to
+taverns.
+
+After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat
+unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue of
+curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf, the Scottish
+national game, it was not until well into the 19th century that the
+pastime acquired popularity in that country. It had been known in
+Scotland since the close of the 16th century (the Glasgow kirk session
+fulminated an edict against Sunday bowls in 1595), but greens were few
+and far between. There is record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom
+Bicket's green in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and
+Gallowgate, Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the
+grounds of Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in
+Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared with the
+Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299, which still uses the
+green on which it has played for centuries and possesses the quaint
+custom of describing its master, or president, as "sir," and are younger
+even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne club established in 1657. But the
+earlier clubs did nothing towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849,
+however, when many clubs had come into existence in the west and south
+of Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in
+Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting a
+national association. This was regarded, by many, as impracticable, but
+a decision of final importance was reached when a consultative committee
+was appointed to draft a uniform code of laws to govern the game. This
+body delegated its functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell
+(1803-1884), who prepared a code that was immediately adopted in
+Scotland as the standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish
+bowlers saved the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down
+level greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown
+grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and found it
+answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set an example of
+active interest which many magnates emulated. Himself a keen bowler, he
+offered for competition, in 1854, a silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold
+bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all to be played for annually. These trophies
+excited healthy rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm
+as well as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at
+length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider the
+question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover, Scottish
+emigrants introduced the game wherever they went, and colonists in
+Australia and New Zealand established many clubs which, in the main,
+adopted Mitchell's laws; while clubs were also started in Canada and in
+the United States, in South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan
+(Kobe, Yokohama, Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took root
+very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant intercourse
+with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are strong in numbers and
+play.
+
+On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be played on
+scientific principles. It has existed in France since the 17th century.
+When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644 he saw it played in the gardens of
+the Luxembourg Palace. In the south of France it is rather popular with
+artisans, who, however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and
+use round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging in a
+preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion of a
+bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in Italy, and, as
+we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva, where John Evelyn also
+noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of its vogue in Holland in the
+17th century, for the painting by David Teniers (1610-1690), in the
+Scottish National Gallery at Edinburgh, is wrongly described as
+"Peasants playing at Skittles." In this picture three men are
+represented as having played a bowl, while the fourth is in the act of
+delivering his bowl. The game is obviously bowls, the sole difference
+being that an upright peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a
+jack,--recalling, in this respect, the old English form of the game
+already mentioned.
+
+Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last quarter of
+the 19th century, but this time the lead came from Australia. The
+Bowling Associations of Victoria and New South Wales were established in
+1880, and it was not until 1892 that the Scottish Bowling Association
+was founded. Then in rapid succession came several independent
+bodies--the Midland Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties
+(1896), the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh
+(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of regularizing
+the game within the territories indicated by their titles, but it soon
+appeared that the multiplicity of associations was likely to prove a
+hindrance rather than a help, and with a view, therefore, to reducing
+the number of clashing jurisdictions and bringing about the
+establishment of a single legislative authority, the Imperial
+amalgamated with the English B.A. in 1905. The visits to the United
+Kingdom of properly organized teams of bowlers from Australia and New
+Zealand in 1901 and from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had
+gained enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated by
+the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial Bowling
+Association (and now the property of the English B.A.) by Mr Charles
+Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association. An accredited team
+of bowlers from the mother country visited Canada in 1906, and was
+accorded a royal welcome. Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls
+is a true _Volksspiel_ is to be found in the fact that it has become
+municipalized. In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in
+London (through the county council), Newcastle and other English towns,
+the corporations have laid down greens in public parks and open spaces.
+In Scotland the public greens are self-supporting, from a charge, which
+includes the use of bowls, of one penny an hour for each player; in
+London the upkeep of the greens falls on the rates, but players must
+provide their own bowls.
+
+
+  The game.
+
+There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown. The crown
+has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in. all round from the
+centre to the sides. This type of green is confined almost wholly to
+certain of the northern and midland counties of England, where it is
+popular for single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the
+crown-green game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of
+bowls of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of
+skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green that
+constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the rule as to the
+shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown (25 yds.), there is
+no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds. square forms an ideal
+green. The Queen's Park and Titwood clubs in Glasgow have each three
+greens, and as they can quite comfortably play six rinks on each, it is
+not uncommon to see 144 players making their game simultaneously. An
+undersized lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing from
+corner to corner instead of up and down--the orthodox direction. For
+the scientific construction of a green, the whole ground must be
+excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and thoroughly drained, and layers
+of different materials (gravel, cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down
+before the final covering of turf, 2½ or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is
+the best. It wears longest and keeps its "spring" to the last.
+Surrounding the green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not
+quite on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side
+next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed with
+wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch are banks
+generally laid with turf. A green is divided into spaces usually from 18
+to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled "rinks"--a word which also
+designates each set of players--and these are numbered in sequence on a
+plate fixed in the bank at each end opposite the centre of the space.
+The end ditch within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish
+laws, regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices the
+general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space is further
+marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely fastened flush
+with the turf.
+
+Every player uses four _lignum vitae_ bowls in single-handed games and
+(as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches. Every bowl must
+have a certain amount of bias, which was formerly obtained by loading
+one side with lead, but is now imparted by the turner making one side
+more convex than the other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No
+bowl must have less than No. 3 bias--that is, it should draw about 6 ft.
+to a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior
+green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to allow for a
+narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter of the bowl shall not
+be less than 4½ in. nor more than 5¼ in., and that its weight must not
+exceed 3½ lb. The jack or kitty, as the white earthenware ball to which
+the bowler bowls is called, is round and 2½ to 2¾ in. in diameter. On
+crown-greens it is customary to use a small biased wooden jack to give
+the bowler some clue to the run of the green. The bowler delivers his
+bowl with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber or cocoa-nut
+fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 by 16 in.,
+though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian clubs employ a
+much larger size, and require the bowler to keep both feet on the mat in
+the act of delivery.
+
+In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the player being
+to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to the jack than his
+opponent's, or to protect a well-placed bowl, or to dislodge a better
+bowl than his own. But in practice there is every opportunity for skill.
+On all good greens the game is played in rinks of four a side, there
+being, however, on the part of many English clubs still an adherence to
+the old-fashioned method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a
+match team consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men
+in all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second
+player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director), and
+their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable. Great
+responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice of his players,
+who are selected for well-defined reasons. The leader has to place the
+mat, to throw the jack, to count the game, and to call the result of
+each end or head to the skip who is at the other end of the green. He is
+picked for his skill in playing to the jack. It is, therefore, his
+business to "be up." There is no excuse for short play on his part, and
+his bowls would be better off the green than obstructing the path of
+subsequent bowls. So he will endeavour to be "on the jack," the ideal
+position being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The
+skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being played
+to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played in the second
+place (the "soft second"). Most frequently he will be required either to
+protect a good bowl or to rectify a possible error of the leader. His
+official duty is to mark the game on the scoring card when the leader
+announces the result. He keeps a record of the play of both sides. The
+third player, who does any measuring that may be necessary to determine
+which bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible
+a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever the
+skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will already be
+understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack to play, he must
+observe the situation of the bowls of both sides. It may be that he has
+to draw a shot with the utmost nicety to save the end, or even the
+match, or to lay a cunningly contrived block, or to "fire"--that is, to
+deliver his bowl almost dead straight at the object, with enough force
+to kill the bias for the moment. The score having been counted, the
+leader then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where the
+jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack in the
+opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play, for obvious
+reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The players play in
+couples--the first on both sides, then the second and so on. The leader
+having played his first bowl, the opposing leader will play his first
+and so on. As a rule, a match consists of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a
+few more, by agreement).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 1.--Drawing.
+
+FIG. 2.--Guarding.
+
+FIG. 3.--Trailing
+
+FIG. 4.--Driving.
+
+(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)]
+
+  Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack, the
+  leader is bound to throw (i.e. roll) a legal jack. A legal jack must
+  travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest within 2
+  yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far beyond this
+  as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run within 2 yds. of
+  the end ditch or either side boundary. In English practice the leader
+  is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a legal jack at his
+  first attempt; should he fail again, the right to throw passes to his
+  opponent, but not the right of playing first. On Scottish greens the
+  leader has only a single throw. A legal jack should not be interfered
+  with except by the course of play. Should the jack be driven towards
+  the side boundary, it is legitimate for a player to cause his bowl to
+  draw outside of the dividing string, provided that when it has ceased
+  running it shall have come to rest entirely within his own space. If
+  it stop on the string, or outside of it, the bowl is "dead" and must
+  be removed to the bank. A "toucher" bowl is a characteristic of the
+  Scottish game to which great exception is taken by many English clubs.
+  Should a bowl running jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it
+  is called a toucher and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross
+  as soon as it is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is
+  finished wherever it may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if
+  it run into the ditch or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet
+  count as alive. A bowl, however, that is forced on to the jack by
+  another is not a toucher. The feat of hitting the jack is so common
+  that it really calls for no special reward. Difference of opinion
+  prevails as to the condition of the jack after it has been driven into
+  the ditch. According to Scottish rules, unless it has been forced
+  clean out of bounds, such a jack is still alive. On most English
+  greens it is a "dead" jack and the end void. Every bowler should learn
+  both forehand and backhand play. In forehand play the bowl as it
+  courses to the jack describes its segment of a circle on the right, in
+  backhand play on the left. In both styles the biased side must always
+  be the inner.
+
+  In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May day
+  till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close the
+  green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches
+  re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand.
+
+  On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but it is
+  rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect the
+  proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper. There
+  are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding, trailing and
+  driving. In _drawing_ (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near as
+  possible to the jack, the player's bowl passing outside of two other
+  bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack,
+  without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl
+  come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and
+  one point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked
+  around the jack for convenience sake. In _guarding_ (fig. 2), two
+  jacks are laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical
+  line. A thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of
+  this thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in.
+  apart from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line,
+  or within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two
+  points, and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In _trailing_ (fig. 3), two
+  bowls are laid on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked
+  from bowl to bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is
+  then deposited equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the
+  front line. A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius
+  of 9 ft. from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails
+  the jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them
+  itself. If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself
+  cross the first; or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the
+  first, two points are awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and
+  either of the stationary bowls, and passing over the back line; or
+  touching the jack, yet not trailing it past the first line, but itself
+  crossing the back line; or trailing the jack over the front line
+  without crossing it itself, receives one point. In no case must the
+  stationary bowls be touched, or the semicircle crossed by the trailed
+  jack or played bowls. In _driving_ (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2
+  ft. apart, and then a jack is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart
+  from each, and occupying the position of the apex of an inverted
+  pyramid. The player who drives the jack into the ditch between the two
+  bowls scores three. If he moves the jack, but does not carry it
+  through to the ditch, he scores two. If he pass between the jack and
+  either bowl he scores one, although it is not easy to see what driving
+  he has done. The played bowl must itself run into the ditch without
+  touching either of the stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points
+  game demands an ideally perfect green.
+
+  See W.W. Mitchell, _Manual of Bowl-playing_ (Glasgow, 1880); _Laws of
+  the Game issued by the Scottish B.A._ (1893, et sqq.); H.J. Dingley,
+  _Touchers and Rubs_ (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, _The Gentle Art of
+  Bowling_, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A. Manson, _The
+  Bowler's Handbook_ (London, 1906).     (J. A. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE, an urban district in the Appleby parliamentary
+division of Westmorland, England, on the east shore of Windermere, 1¼ m.
+S.W. of Windermere station on the London & North-Western railway.
+Together with the town of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop.
+5061 in 1901), but the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation
+is fine, the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the
+lake narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills are
+richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon them. Bowness
+lies at the head of a small bay, is served by the lake-steamers of the
+Furness Railway Company, and is a favourite yachting, boating, fishing
+and tourist centre. The church of St Martin is ancient, and contains
+stained glass from Cartmel priory in Furness. (See WINDERMERE.)
+
+
+
+
+BOWRING, SIR JOHN (1792-1872), English linguist, political economist and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the 17th of October 1792,
+of an old Puritan family. In early life he came under the influence of
+Jeremy Bentham. He did not, however, share his master's contempt for
+_belles-lettres_, but was a diligent student of literature and foreign
+languages, especially those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked
+with Mezzofanti and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The
+first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in _Specimens
+of the Russian Poets_ (1821-1823). These were speedily followed by
+_Batavian Anthology_ (1824), _Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain_
+(1824), _Specimens of the Polish Poets_, and _Servian Popular Poetry_,
+both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute to the newly
+founded _Westminster Review_, of which he was appointed editor in 1825.
+By his contributions to the _Review_ he obtained considerable reputation
+as political economist and parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its
+pages the cause of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard
+Cobden and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary
+reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education. In 1828 he visited
+Holland, where the university of Groningen conferred on him the degree
+of doctor of laws. In the following year he was in Denmark, preparing
+for the publication of a collection of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who
+had been the trusted friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed
+his literary executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a
+collected edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843.
+Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member for
+Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed head of a
+government commission to be sent to France to inquire into the actual
+state of commerce between the two countries. He was engaged in similar
+investigations in Switzerland, Italy, Syria and some of the German
+states. The results of these missions appeared in a series of reports
+laid before the House of Commons. After a retirement of four years he
+sat in parliament from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this
+busy period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a
+translation of the _Manuscript of the Queen's Court_, a collection of
+old Bohemian lyrics, &c. In 1849 he was appointed British consul at
+Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post which he held for
+four years. After his return he distinguished himself as an advocate of
+the decimal system, and published a work entitled _The Decimal System in
+Numbers, Coins and Accounts_ (1854). The introduction of the florin as a
+preparatory step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he
+was again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested with the
+supreme military and naval power. It was during his governorship that a
+dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the irritation caused by his
+"spirited" or high-handed policy led to the second war with China. In
+1855 he visited Siam, and negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce.
+After the usual five years of service he retired and received a pension.
+His last employment by the English government was as a commissioner to
+Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with the new
+kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted the appointment of
+minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary from the Hawaiian
+government to the courts of Europe, and in this capacity negotiated
+treaties with Belgium, Holland, Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In
+addition to the works already named he published--_Poetry of the
+Magyars_ (1830); _Cheskian Anthology_ (1832); _The Kingdom and People of
+Siam_ (1857); a translation of _Peter Schlemihl_ (1824); translations
+from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petöfi (1866); and various pamphlets.
+He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations of
+several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont, near Exeter,
+on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable collection of coleoptera was
+presented to the British Museum by his second son, Lewin Bowring, a
+well-known Anglo-Indian administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring,
+member of parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the
+literary world as an able translator.
+
+  Sir John Bowring's _Recollections_ were edited by Lewin Bowring (d.
+  1910) in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BOWTELL, a medieval term in architecture for a round or corniced
+moulding; the word is a variant of "boltel," which is probably the
+diminutive of "bolt," the shaft of an arrow or javelin. A "roving"
+bowtell is one which passes up the side of a bench end and round a
+finial, the term "roving" being applied to that which follows the line
+of a curve.
+
+
+
+
+BOWYER, WILLIAM (1663-1737), English printer, was born in 1663,
+apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the Stationers'
+Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the twenty printers allowed by
+the Star Chamber. He was burned out in the great fire of 1712, but his
+loss was partly made good by the subscription of friends and fellow
+craftsmen, as recorded on a tablet in Stationers' Hall, and in 1713 he
+returned to his Whitefriars shop and became the leading printer of his
+day. He died on the 27th of December 1737.
+
+His son, WILLIAM BOWYER (1699-1777), was born in London on the 19th of
+December 1699. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and in
+1722 became a partner in his father's business. In 1729 he was appointed
+printer of the votes of the House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the
+Society of Antiquaries, of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In
+1737 he took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor and
+biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal Society, and in
+1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and the journals of the
+House of Commons. He died on the 13th of November 1777, leaving
+unfinished a number of large works and among them the reprint of
+Domesday Book. He wrote a great many tracts and pamphlets, edited,
+arranged and published a host of books, but perhaps his principal work
+was an edition of the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous
+bequests in favour of his own profession are administered by the
+Stationers' Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in
+whose hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was
+known as "the learned printer."
+
+
+
+
+BOX (Gr. [Greek: puxos], Lat. _buxus_, box-wood; cf. [Greek: puxis], a
+pyx), the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong,
+round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens by
+raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened by a catch,
+hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the material of which it
+is fashioned, it is the direct descendant of the chest, one of the most
+ancient articles of domestic furniture. Its uses are infinite, and the
+name, preceded by a qualifying adjective, has been given to many objects
+of artistic or antiquarian interest.
+
+Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their immediate
+purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest. It is usually fitted
+with a tray divided into many small compartments, for needles, reels of
+silk and cotton and other necessaries of stitchery. The date of its
+introduction is in considerable doubt, but 17th-century examples have
+come down to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned
+with embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her work-box,
+and, especially in the second half of that period, much taste and
+elaborate pains were expended upon the case, which was often exceedingly
+dainty and elegant. These boxes are ordinarily portable, but sometimes
+form the top of a table.
+
+But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its most
+distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is now little more
+than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice, was throughout the
+larger part of the 18th century the indispensable companion of every man
+of birth and breeding. It long survived his sword, and was in frequent
+use until nearly the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the
+enameller and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as
+often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great personages
+possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more ordinary, their
+selection being regulated by their dress and by the relative splendour
+of the occasion. From the cheapest wood that was suitable--at one time
+potato-pulp was extensively used--to a frame of gold encased with
+diamonds, a great variety of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was
+a favourite, and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly
+effective. Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its
+natural state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with
+enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes the
+lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette, or a tiny
+miniature, often some choice work by an old master. After snuff-taking
+had ceased to be general it lingered for some time among diplomatists,
+either because--as Talleyrand explained--they found a ceremonious pinch
+to be a useful aid to reflection in a business interview, or because
+monarchs retained the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors
+and other intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other
+way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking that
+we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution of
+decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch's snuff-box
+was a distinction almost equivalent to having one's ear pulled by
+Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of England, Messrs Rundell &
+Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid £8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign
+ministers. Now that the snuff-box is no longer used it is collected by
+wealthy amateurs or deposited in museums, and especially artistic
+examples command large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904),
+possessed an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by
+auction after his death for £2000.
+
+A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very modest
+form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may reach the
+monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which were made for Marie
+Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor, and another at Versailles, the
+work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker, Degault as miniature-painter, and
+Thomire as chaser.
+
+A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities. Its place
+has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those which have
+survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the Bodleian library,
+possess locks with an extremely elaborate mechanism contrived in the
+under-side of the lid.
+
+The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces of
+furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical ingenuity of
+the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of the 18th century. Some
+of the most elegant were the work of Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton.
+Occasionally flat-topped boxes, they were most frequently either
+vase-shaped, or tall and narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a
+series of raised stages for exhibiting the handles of knives and the
+bowls of spoons. Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently
+employed, and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie or edged
+with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist in large numbers;
+they are often converted into stationery cabinets.
+
+The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again more
+ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it was of a size
+to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or incised lid.
+
+The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles for the
+powder and the patches of the 18th century; the former was the direct
+ancestor of the puff-box of the modern dressing-table.
+
+The _étui_ is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials, often
+of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials or small
+articles of feminine use. It was worn on the châtelaine.
+
+
+
+
+BOXING (M.E. _box_, a blow, probably from Dan. _bask_, a buffet), the
+art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded gloves, as
+distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists, or some kind of
+light gloves affording little moderation of the blow, are employed. The
+ancient Greeks used a sort of glove in practice, but, although far less
+formidable than the terrible caestus worn in serious encounters, it was
+by no means so mild an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the
+invention of which is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton
+(1705-1789), "the father of British pugilism." In any case gloves were
+first used in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being
+decided with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion of
+England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were for many
+years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the newly invented
+gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the young aristocrats of his
+day. The most popular teacher of the art was, however, John Jackson
+(1769-1845), called "Gentleman Jackson," who was champion from 1795 to
+1800, and who is credited with imparting to boxing its scientific
+principles, such as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting,
+and agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his _Memoirs_, asserted
+that Jackson "made more than a thousand a year by teaching sparring."
+Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who, when chided for keeping company
+with a pugilist, insisted that Jackson's manners were "infinitely
+superior to those of the fellows of the college whom I meet at the high
+table," and referred to him in the following lines in _Hints from
+Horace_:--
+
+  "And men unpractised in exchanging knocks
+   Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box."
+
+His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and distinction,
+and when the allied monarchs visited London he was entrusted with the
+management of a boxing carnival with which they were vastly pleased. In
+1814 the Pugilistic Club, the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting
+element, was formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing
+had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout the
+country considerable interest continued to be manifested in
+prize-fighting.
+
+The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism, may be said
+to date from the year 1866, when the public had become disgusted with
+the brutality and unfair practices of the professional "bruisers," and
+the laws against prize-fighting began to be more rigidly enforced. In
+that year the "Amateur Athletic Club" was founded, principally through
+the efforts of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with
+the 8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known as the
+Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in Great Britain, and
+were also authoritative in America until the adoption of the boxing
+rules of the Amateur Athletic Union of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry
+presented cups for the British amateur championships at the recognized
+weights.
+
+For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account of
+modern prize-fighting see PUGILISM. At present two kinds of boxing
+contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of rounds (as in the
+amateur championships) and that for endurance, in which the one who
+cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance contests, which contain the
+essential element of the old prize-fights, are now indulged in only by
+professionals. Among amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once
+was, owing to the importance placed upon brute strength, and the
+prevailing ambition of the modern boxer to "knock out" his opponent,
+i.e. reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round matches
+between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is therefore no need
+to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless a common practice to
+strike a dazed and reeling adversary a heavy blow with a view to ending
+the battle at once. During the annual boxing competitions between Oxford
+and Cambridge more than half the bouts have been known to end in this
+manner. Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient
+in the art indulge in a practice bout--or "sparring."
+
+Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers face each
+other just out of reach and balanced equally on both feet, the left from
+10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left foot is planted flat on
+the floor, while the right heel is raised slightly from it. The left
+side of the body is turned a little towards the opponent and the right
+shoulder slightly depressed. When the hands are clenched inside the
+gloves the thumb is doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a
+sprain when hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of
+individual taste. In the "crouch," affected by many American
+professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent over
+towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched out to
+keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however, teaches a
+beginner any other than the upright position. Some boxers stand with the
+right foot forward, a practice common in the 18th century, which gives
+freer play with the right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should
+stand lightly on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant,
+using short steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating
+with the right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks
+consist in straight leads, i.e. blows aimed with or without preliminary
+feints, at some part of the opponent's body or head. All other attacks
+are either "counters" or returns after a guard or "block." A counter is
+a lead carried out just as one is attacked, the object being to block
+(parry) the blow and land on the opponent at the same time. Counters are
+often carried out in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In
+hitting, a boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of
+impact. Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the
+body behind them ("straight from the shouder" hits); jabs, short blows
+(usually with the left hand when at close quarters); hooks, or
+side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging blows from beneath
+to the adversary's chin); chops (short blows from above); punches
+(usually at close quarters, with the right hand); or swings (round-arm
+blows, usually delivered with a partial twist of the body to augment the
+force of the blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a
+knockout, or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may be
+mentioned:--on the pit of the stomach, called the solar plexus, from the
+sensitive network of nerves situated there; a blow on the point of the
+chin, having a tendency slightly to paralyse the brain; a blow under the
+ear, painful and often resulting in partial helplessness; and one
+directly over the heart, kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten
+seconds after being knocked down in which to rise, an experienced
+ring-fighter will drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in
+that position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.
+
+Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut. If a blow is
+caught or stopped short it is called _blocking_, but a blow may also be
+shoved aside, or avoided altogether by _slipping, i.e._ moving the head
+quickly to one side, or by ducking and allowing the adversary's swing to
+pass harmlessly over the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow
+without guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to
+escape the opponent's glove.
+
+The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884) contain the
+following provisions. "An amateur is one who has never competed for a
+money prize or staked bet with or against a professional for any prize,
+except with the express sanction of the A.B.A., and who has never
+taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a
+means of obtaining a livelihood." The ring shall be roped and between 12
+and 24 ft. square. No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided
+into the following classes by weight:--Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb
+(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not exceeding 10
+st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 lb. (158 lb); and Heavy,
+any weight above. There shall be two judges, a referee and a timekeeper.
+The votes of the judges decide the winner of a bout, unless they
+disagree, in which case the referee has the deciding vote. In case of
+doubt he may order an extra round of two minutes' duration. Each match
+is for three rounds, the first two lasting three minutes and the third
+four, with one minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to
+come up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws a
+bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen by the
+judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second) only, and no
+advice or coaching during the progress of a round is permitted. Unless
+one competitor is unable to respond to the call of time, or is obliged
+to stop before the match is over, the judges decide the winner by
+_points_, which are for attack, comprising successful hits cleanly
+delivered, and defence, comprising guarding, slipping, ducking,
+counter-hitting and getting away in time to avoid a return. When the
+points are equal the decision is given in favour of the boxer who has
+done the most leading, i.e. has been the more aggressive. Fouls are
+hitting below the belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of
+the hand, the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or "roughing" on the
+ropes, i.e. unnecessary shouldering and jostling.
+
+The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association differ
+slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must be from 16 to 24
+ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than 8 oz. in weight. The
+recognized classes by weight are: Bantam, 105 lb. and under; Feather,
+115 lb. and under; Light, 135 lb. and under; Welter, 145 lb. and under;
+Middle, 158 lb. and under; and Heavy, over 158 lb. The rules for
+officials and rounds are identical with the British, except that only in
+final bouts does the last round last four minutes. Two "seconds" are
+allowed. The rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The
+amateur rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing
+contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership in the
+Athletic Association.
+
+  _Glossary_ of terms not mentioned above:--_Break away_, to get away
+  from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the men
+  clinch. _Break ground_, retire diagonally to right or left.
+  _Catch-weight_, any weight. _Corners_, the opposite angles of the
+  square "ring," in which the boxers rest between the rounds.
+  _Cross-counter_, a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of
+  the adversary as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round
+  that of the opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact.
+  _Clinching_, grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from
+  a clinch one tries to pin the adversary's hands in order to prevent
+  his hitting at close quarters. _Drawing_ an opponent, enticing him by
+  leaving an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter
+  is prepared. _Fiddling_, forward and back movements of the arms at the
+  beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. _Footwork_,
+  the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. _In-fighting_, boxing at
+  very close quarters. _Mark_, the pit of the stomach. _Side-step_,
+  springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being
+  usually followed up by a counter attack. _Timing_, a blow delivered on
+  the enemy's preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.
+
+  See _Boxing_, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897);
+  _Boxing_, by Wm. Elder (Spalding's Athletic Library, New York, 1902)
+  (these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing). The
+  article "Boxing," by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the
+  _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _Boxing_, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series,
+  London, 1896); _Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling_, in the Badminton
+  Library (London, 1892).
+
+FRENCH BOXING (_la boxe française_) dates from about 1830. It is more
+like the ancient Greek _pankration_ (see PUGILISM) than is British
+boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking with the
+feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed. It is a
+development of the old sport of _savate_, in which the feet, and not the
+hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate, which was practised
+especially by roughs, were usually given in some low resort, and there
+were no respectable teachers. While Paris was restricted to savate,
+another sport, called _chausson_ or _jeu marseillais_, was practised in
+the south of France, especially among the soldiers, in which blows of
+the fist as well as kicks were exchanged, and the kicks were given
+higher than in savate, in the stomach or even the face. It was an
+excellent exercise, but could hardly be reckoned a serious means of
+defence, for the high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of
+the fist could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows of
+the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas _père_ says that Charles Lecour
+first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with savate. For
+this purpose he went to England, and took lessons of Adams and Smith,
+the London boxers. He then returned to Paris, about 1852, and opened a
+school to teach the sport since called _la boxe française_. Around him,
+and two provincial instructors who came to Paris about this time with
+similar ideas, there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between
+1845 and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development. Among
+others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour's brother Hubert, who
+although rather undersized, was quick as lightning, and had an English
+blow and a French kick that were truly terrible. Charles Ducros was
+another whose style of boxing, more in the English fashion, but with low
+kicks about his opponent's shins, made a name for himself. Later came
+Vigneron, a "strong man," whose style, though slow, was severe in its
+punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in these fights, and Lecour
+and Vigneron had to cease giving public exhibitions and devote
+themselves to teaching. Towards 1862 a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not
+only very clever with his fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and
+the author of a treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may
+be said to have created _la boxe française_, which, for defence _at
+equal weights_, the French claim to be better than the English.
+
+  See _L'Art de la boxe française et de la canne_, by J. Charlemont
+  (Paris, 1899); _The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence_,
+  by Georges d'Amoric (London, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+BOXWOOD, the wood obtained from the genus _Buxus_, the principal species
+being the well-known tree or shrub, _B. sempervirens_, the common box,
+in general use for borders of garden walks, ornamental parterres, &c.
+The other source of the ordinary boxwood of commerce is _B. balearica_,
+which yields the variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is
+grown throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of the
+south of England), in the southern part of the European continent
+generally, and extends through Persia into India, where it is found
+growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. There has been much
+discussion as to whether it is a true native of Britain. Writing more
+than 200 years ago, John Ray, the author of the important _Historia
+Plantarum_, says, "The Box grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also
+at Boxwell, on the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in
+Kent.... It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable." On the
+other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the north
+of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows and near
+cultivation, and it may have been one of the many introductions owed to
+the Romans. Only a very small proportion of the wood suitable for
+industrial uses is now obtained in Great Britain. The box is a very
+slow-growing plant, adding not more than 1½ or 2 in. to its diameter in
+twenty years, and on an average attaining only a height of 16 ft., with
+a mean diameter of 10½ in. The leaves of this species are small, oval,
+leathery in texture and of a deep glossy green colour. _B. balearica_ is
+a tree of considerable size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with
+leaves three times larger than those of the common box. It is a native
+of the islands of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor,
+and around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the chief
+source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce by way of
+Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses a delicate yellow
+colour; it is very dense in structure and has a fine uniform grain,
+which has given it unique value for the purposes of the wood-engraver. A
+large amount is used in the manufacture of measuring rules, various
+mathematical instruments, flutes and other musical instruments, as well
+as for turning into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a
+favourite wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and
+musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.
+
+
+
+
+BOYACÁ, or Bojacá, an inland department of Colombia, bounded by the
+departments of Santander and Cundinamarca on the N., W. and S., and the
+republic of Venezuela on the E., and having an area of 33,321 sq. m.,
+including the Casanare territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The
+department is very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals.
+The famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of Boyacá.
+The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in the Eastern
+Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool, temperate
+climate, though only 5½° N. of the equator. It was an important place in
+colonial times, and occupies the site of one of the Indian towns of this
+region (Hunsa), which had acquired a considerable degree of civilization
+before the discovery of America. Other towns of note in the department
+are Chiquinquira (20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and
+Boyacá (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated the
+Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.
+
+
+
+
+BOYAR (Russ. _boyarin_, plur. _boyare_), a dignity of Old Russia
+conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the boyars were
+the intimate friends and confidential advisers of the Russian prince,
+the superior members of his _druzhina_ or bodyguard, his comrades and
+champions. They were divided into classes according to rank, most
+generally determined by personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the
+"oldest," "elder" and the "younger" boyars. At first the dignity seems
+to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably, hereditary. At a
+later day the boyars were the chief members of the prince's _duma_, or
+council, like the _senatores_ of Poland and Lithuania. Their further
+designation of _luchshie lyudi_ or "the best people" proves that they
+were generally richer than their fellow subjects. So long as the
+princes, in their interminable struggles with the barbarians of the
+Steppe, needed the assistance of the towns, "the best people" of the
+cities and of the _druzhina_ proper mingled freely together both in war
+and commerce; but after Yaroslav's crushing victory over the Petchenegs
+in 1036 beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart,
+and a political and economical difference between the members of the
+princely _druzhina_ and the aristocracy of the towns becomes
+discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more exclusively
+to commerce, while the _druzhina_ asserts the privileges of an
+exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the land. Still
+later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes were established, the
+boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown court aristocracy with
+the exclusive privilege of possessing land and serfs. Hence their title
+of _dvoryane_ (courtiers), first used in the 12th century. On the other
+hand there was no distinction, as in Germany, between the _Dienst Adel_
+(nobility of service) and the simple _Adel_. The Russian boyardom had no
+corporate or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely
+local (the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity
+of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration
+from one prince to another at will, which prevented the formation of a
+settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not determine but only
+facilitated the attainment of high rank, e.g. the son of a boyar was not
+a boyar born, but could more easily attain to boyardom, if of superior
+personal merit. It was reserved for Peter the Great to transform the
+_boyarstvo_ or boyardom into something more nearly resembling the
+aristocracy of the West.
+
+  See Alexander Markevich, _The History of Rank-priority in the Realm of
+  Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries_ (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888); V.
+  Klyuchevsky, _The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia_ (Russ.) (Moscow,
+  1888).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BOY-BISHOP, the name given to the "bishop of the boys" (_episcopus
+puerorum_ or _innocentium_, sometimes _episcopus scholariorum_ or
+_chorestarum_), who, according to a custom very wide-spread in the
+middle ages, was chosen in connexion with the festival of Holy
+Innocents. For the origin of the curious authority of the boy-bishop and
+of the rites over which he presided, see FOOLS, FEAST OF. In England the
+boy-bishop was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the
+patron of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day
+(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full bishop's
+robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades dressed as
+priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people. At Salisbury
+the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical patronage
+during his episcopate, and could make valid appointments. The boy and
+his colleagues took possession of the cathedral and performed all the
+ceremonies and offices except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to
+the cathedrals, the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several
+ecclesiastical councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the
+abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council of Basel
+in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily suppressed. In
+England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1542, revived by Mary in 1552
+and finally abolished by Elizabeth. On the continent it survived longest
+in Germany, in the so-called _Gregoriusfest_, said to have been founded
+by Gregory IV. in 828 in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A
+school-boy was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two
+boy-deacons and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church, where,
+after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he preached. At
+Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.
+
+  See Brand, _Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain_ (1905); Gasquet,
+  _Parish Life in Medieval England_ (1906); Du Cange, _Glossarium_
+  (London, 1884), s.v. "Episcopus puerorum."
+
+
+
+
+BOYCE, WILLIAM (1710-1779), English musical composer, the son of a
+cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of February 1710. As a
+chorister in St Paul's he received his early musical education from
+Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene, and he afterwards studied the theory
+of music under Dr Pepusch. In 1734, having become organist of Oxford
+chapel, Vere Street, Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne's masque of
+_Peleus and Thetis_ to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was
+appointed organist of St Michael's church, Cornhill, and in the same
+year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote the music for
+John Lockman's oratorio _David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan_. In
+1737 he was appointed to conduct the meetings of the three choirs of
+Gloucester, Worcester and Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata
+_Solomon_, in which occurs the favourite song "Softly rise, O southern
+breeze." In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the
+university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit of his
+setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry Pelham, duke
+of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he became organist of
+All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street. A musical setting to _The
+Chaplet_, an entertainment by Moses Mendez, was Boyce's most successful
+achievement in this year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden's _Secular
+Masque_ and in 1751 set another piece (_The Shepherd's Lottery_) by
+Mendez. He became master of the king's band in succession to Greene in
+1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal organist to the chapel
+royal. As an ecclesiastical composer Boyce ranks among the best
+representatives of the English school. His two church services and his
+anthems, of which the best specimens are _By the Waters of Babylon_ and
+_O, Where shall Wisdom be found_, are frequently performed. It should
+also be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and choruses
+for Purcell's _Te Deum_ and _Jubilate_, which the earlier musician had
+composed for the St Cecilia's day of 1694. Boyce did this in his
+capacity of conductor at the annual festivals of the Sons of the Clergy
+at St Paul's cathedral, an office which he had taken in succession to
+Greene. His twelve trios for two violins and a bass were long popular.
+One of his most valuable services to musical art was his publication in
+three volumes quarto of a work on _Cathedral Music_. The collection had
+been begun by Greene, but it was mainly the work of Boyce. The first
+volume appeared in 1760 and the last in 1778. On the 7th of February
+1779 Boyce died from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of
+St Paul's cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+BOYCOTT, the refusal and incitement to refusal to have commercial or
+social dealings with any one on whom it is wished to bring pressure. As
+merely a form of "sending to Coventry" or (in W.E. Gladstone's phrase)
+"exclusive dealing," boycotting may be, from a legal point of view,
+unassailable, and as such has frequently been justified by its original
+political inventors. But in practice it has usually taken the form of
+what is undoubtedly an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property
+or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all and
+sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse. The
+word was first used in Ireland, and was derived from the name of Captain
+Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897), agent for the estates of the
+earl of Erne in Co. Mayo. For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at
+figures fixed by the tenants, Captain Boycott had his life threatened,
+his servants compelled to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters
+intercepted and his food supplies interfered with. It took a force of
+900 soldiers to protect the Ulster Orangemen ("Emergency Men") who
+succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and mobbed in
+the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The system of boycotting
+was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist "Plan of Campaign," and
+was dealt with under the Crimes Act of 1887. The term soon came into
+common English use, and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans,
+Dutch and Russians. In the United States this method of "persuasion" was
+taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who refused their
+demands being brought to terms by a combination to refuse to buy his
+product or do his work, or to deal with any who did. Various cases have
+occurred in America in which labour organizations have pronounced such a
+boycott against a firm; and its illegal nature has been established in
+the law-courts, notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company v. The
+American Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district
+of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters' Union (February 1908) in
+the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held by the U.S. Supreme
+Court to be a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust law.
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1899), Scottish author and divine,
+was born at Auchinleck manse in Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He
+studied at King's College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the
+idea of practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however,
+he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the Scottish
+ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Ayr. He
+served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr, Kirkpatrick-Irongray
+near Dumfries, St Bernard's, Edinburgh, and finally, in 1865, became
+minister of the first charge at St Andrews. Here he advocated an
+improved ritual in the Scottish church, his action resulting in the
+appointment by the general assembly of a committee, with Boyd as
+convener, to prepare a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of
+the general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with
+admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the 1st of March
+1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and talker, and his desultory
+essays have very much of the charm of his conversation. Among his
+numerous publications may be specially mentioned the two works (each in
+three series), _Recreations of a Country Parson_ (1859, 1861 and 1878),
+and _Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson_ (1862-1865 and 1875); he also
+wrote _Twenty-five Years at St Andrews_ (1892), and _St Andrews and
+Elsewhere_ (1894). He was familiarly known to the public as a writer by
+his initials "A.K.H.B."
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman, was a son of
+Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old and distinguished
+family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, had fought with Wallace
+and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was created a peer about 1454, was one of
+the regents of Scotland during the minority of James III., but, in 1466,
+with some associates he secured the person of the young king and was
+appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental in
+reforming some religious foundations; he arranged the marriage between
+James III. and Margaret, daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and
+Norway, and secured the cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway.
+However, when in 1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and
+justiciary for himself, and the hand of the king's sister Mary, with the
+title of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became too
+strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to
+death. He escaped to England, and the date of his death is unknown. His
+brother and assistant, Sir Alexander Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of
+November 1469.
+
+Boyd's son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his father was
+overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that of bringing the
+king's bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then, warned by his wife,
+escaped to the continent of Europe. He is mentioned very eulogistically
+in one of the Paston Letters, but practically nothing is known of his
+subsequent history.
+
+Lord Boyd's grandson Robert (d. c. 1550), a son of Alexander Boyd, was
+confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours of his
+grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the 3rd Lord Boyd. His
+son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590), took a prominent part in Scottish
+politics during the troubled time which followed the death of James V.
+in 1542. At first he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his
+views changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary,
+queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside in 1568.
+During the queen's captivity he was often employed on diplomatic
+errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her favour, and he was
+suspected of participation in the murder of the regent Murray. He
+enjoyed a high and influential position under the regent James Douglas,
+earl of Morton, but was banished in 1583 for his share in the seizure of
+King James VI., a plot known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to
+France, but was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd
+of January 1590.
+
+William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of Kilmarnock
+in 1661, and this nobleman's grandson William, the 3rd earl (d. 1717),
+was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and fought for George I. during
+the rising of 1715. His son William, the 4th earl (1704-1746), was
+educated in the same principles, but in 1745, owing either to a personal
+affront or to the influence of his wife or to his straitened
+circumstances he deserted George II. and joined Charles Edward, the
+Young Pretender. The 4th earl fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he
+was made prisoner, and was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The
+title of earl of Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated at the
+universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for many years a teacher
+in the Protestant college of Saumur in France, but returned to Scotland
+in 1621, to escape the Huguenot persecution. In 1623 he was appointed
+minister of the Barony church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the
+university in 1634, 1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the
+half of his fortune, a sum amounting to £20,000 Scots, besides his
+library and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though
+often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that he made the
+printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and other Biblical
+narratives a condition of the reception of his grant to the university
+is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch Covenanter, and though for
+a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell, afterwards became friendly with him.
+His best-known works are _The Battel of the Soul in Death_ (1629), of
+which a new edition, with a biography by G. Neil, was published in
+Glasgow in 1831; _Zion's Flowers_--often called "Boyd's Bible" (1644);
+_Four Letters of Comfort_ (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BOYDELL, JOHN (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher, was born at
+Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one came to London and was
+apprenticed for seven years to an engraver. In 1746 he published a
+volume of views in England and Wales, and started in business as a
+print-seller. By his good taste and liberality he managed to secure the
+services of the best artists, and his engravings were executed with such
+skill that his business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in
+his plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the
+most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were exhibited
+publicly for many years. The engravings from these paintings form a
+splendid companion volume to his large illustrated edition of
+Shakespeare's works. Towards the close of his life Boydell sustained
+severe losses through the French Revolution, and was compelled to
+dispose of his Shakespeare gallery by lottery. Boydell had previously
+become an alderman, and rose to be lord mayor of London.
+
+
+
+
+BOYER, ALEXIS (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on the 1st of March
+1757 at Uzerches (Corrèze). The son of a tailor, he obtained his first
+medical knowledge in the shop of a barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he
+had the good fortune to attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792)
+and P.J. Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill
+and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at the age of
+thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second surgeon to the Hôtel
+Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the École de Santé he gained the
+chair of operative surgery, but soon exchanged it for the chair of
+clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon nominated him imperial family
+surgeon, and, after the brilliant campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him
+the legion of honour, with the title of baron of the empire and a salary
+of 25,000 francs. On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured
+him the favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was
+consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In
+1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief to
+the Hôpital de la Charité, and was chosen a member of the Institute. He
+died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833. Perhaps no French surgeon of
+his time thought or wrote with greater clearness and good sense than
+Boyer; and while his natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation,
+and somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as
+judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating, as
+he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases. His two
+great works are:--_Traité complet de l'anatomie_ (in 4 vols.,
+1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and _Traité des
+maladies chirurgicales et des opérations qui leur conviennent_ (in 11
+vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols. was published in
+1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe Boyer (1801-1858).
+
+
+
+
+BOYER, JEAN PIERRE (1776-1850), president of the republic of Haiti, a
+mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the 28th of February 1776. He
+received a good education in France, and, returning to St Domingo,
+joined the army in 1792. In 1794 he was already in command of a
+battalion, and fought with distinction under General Rigaud against the
+English. The negro insurrection under Toussaint l'Ouverture, which was
+directed against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced
+him to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon, and in
+1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc's expedition. Being opposed to the
+reinstitution of slavery, he turned against the French and succeeded in
+producing an alliance between the negroes and mulattoes by which they
+were driven from the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king,
+but his cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with A.A.S.
+Pétion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806). Christophe now
+seized the supreme power, but Pétion set up an independent republic in
+the southern part of the island, with Boyer as commander-in-chief.
+Christophe's efforts to crush this state were defeated by Boyer's
+gallant defence of Port-au-Prince, and a series of brilliant victories,
+which, on Pétion's death in 1818, led to Boyer's election as president.
+Two years later the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he
+gained almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his
+presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration in
+order, and to encourage the arts and sciences, and in 1825 obtained
+French recognition of the independence of Haiti, in return for a payment
+of 150,000 francs. The weight of this debt excited the greatest
+discontent in Haiti. Boyer was able to carry on his government for some
+years longer, but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his
+power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He resided there till
+1848, when he removed to Paris, where he died in 1850.
+
+  See Wallez, _Précis historique des négociations entre la France et
+  Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le général Boyer_
+  (Paris, 1826).
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, JOHN J. (1851- ), American sculptor, was born in New York City.
+He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and
+in the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. He is particularly successful in the
+portrayal of Indians. Among his principal works are: "Stone Age,"
+Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "The Alarm," Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a
+third study in primitive culture, the two groups, "The Savage Age" at
+the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also includes the seated
+"Franklin," in Philadelphia; and "Bacon" and "Plato" in the
+Congressional library, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691), English natural philosopher, seventh son and
+fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great earl of Cork, was born at
+Lismore Castle, in the province of Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of
+January 1627. While still a child he learned to speak Latin and French,
+and he was only eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his
+father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over
+three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French
+tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy in 1641,
+he remained during the winter of that year in Florence, studying the
+"paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo, who died within a league of
+the city early in 1642. Returning to England in 1644 he found that his
+father was dead and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire,
+together with estates in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to
+study and scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the
+band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College," who devoted
+themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy." They met
+frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of the members also
+had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle went to reside in 1654.
+Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the
+assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction,
+and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine,"
+finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of
+air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was published in
+1660 under the title _New Experiments Physico-Mechanical touching the
+spring of air and its effects_. Among the critics of the views put
+forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595-1675), and it
+was while answering his objections that Boyle enunciated the law that
+the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure, which among
+English-speaking peoples is usually called after his name, though on the
+continent of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish
+it till 1676. In 1663 the "Invisible College" became the "Royal Society
+of London for improving natural knowledge," and the charter of
+incorporation granted by Charles II. named Boyle a member of the
+council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined
+the honour from a scruple about oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London
+where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall
+Mall. About 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously
+and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his
+communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be
+excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very
+extraordinary," on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and
+Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his
+spirits, range his papers," and prepare some important chemical
+investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy
+to the studious disciples of that art," but of which he did not make
+known the nature. His health became still worse in 1691, and his death
+occurred on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of
+the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. He was
+buried in the churchyard of St Martin's in the Fields, his funeral
+sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.
+
+Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried out
+the principles which Bacon preached in the _Novum Organum_. Yet he would
+not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of any other teacher: on
+several occasions he mentions that in order to keep his judgment as
+unprepossessed as might be with any of the modern theories of
+philosophy, till he was "provided of experiments" to help him judge of
+them, he refrained from any study of the Atomical and the Cartesian
+systems, and even of the _Novum Organum_ itself, though he admits to
+"transiently consulting" them about a few particulars. Nothing was more
+alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses. He
+regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself, and in
+consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of scientific inquiry
+than had been enjoyed by his predecessors for many centuries. This,
+however, did not mean that he paid no attention to the practical
+application of science nor that he despised knowledge which tended to
+use. He himself was an alchemist; and believing the transmutation of
+metals to be a possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of
+effecting it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689,
+of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver. With
+all the important work he accomplished in physics--the enunciation of
+Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation
+of sound, and investigations on the expansive force of freezing water,
+on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on
+electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, &c.--chemistry was his peculiar
+and favourite study. His first book on the subject was _The Sceptical
+Chemist_, published in 1661, in which he criticized the "experiments
+whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt,
+Sulphur and Mercury to be the true Principles of Things." For him
+chemistry was the science of the composition of substances, not merely
+an adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He advanced
+towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable constituents
+of material bodies; and understanding the distinction between mixtures
+and compounds, he made considerable progress in the technique of
+detecting their ingredients, a process which he designated by the term
+"analysis." He further supposed that the elements were ultimately
+composed of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however,
+they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied chemistry had to
+thank him for improved methods and for an extended knowledge of
+individual substances. He also studied the chemistry of combustion and
+of respiration, and made experiments in physiology, where, however, he
+was hampered by the "tenderness of his nature" which kept him from
+anatomical dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew
+them to be "most instructing."
+
+Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted much time to
+theology, showing a very decided leaning to the practical side and an
+indifference to controversial polemics. At the Restoration he was
+favourably received at court, and in 1665 would have received the
+provostship of Eton, if he would have taken orders; but this he refused
+to do, on the ground that his writings on religious subjects would have
+greater weight coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church.
+He spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity,
+contributing liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses of
+translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages. By his
+will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian religion
+against "notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans, Jews and
+Mahommedans," with the proviso that controversies between Christians
+were not to be mentioned.
+
+In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance. His
+constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he suffered
+from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific work procured
+him an extraordinary reputation among his contemporaries, his private
+character and virtues, the charm of his social manners, his wit and
+powers of conversation, endeared him to a large circle of personal
+friends. He was never married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous,
+and his style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.
+
+  The following are the more important of his works in addition to the
+  two already mentioned:--_Considerations touching the Usefulness of
+  Experimental Natural Philosophy_ (1663), followed by a second part in
+  1671; _Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with Observations
+  on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark_ (1663); _New Experiments and
+  Observations upon Cold_ (1665); _Hydrostatical Paradoxes_ (1666);
+  _Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the Corpuscular
+  Philosophy_ (1666); a continuation of his work on the spring of air
+  (1669); tracts about the _Cosmical Qualities of Things_, the
+  _Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions_, the _Bottom
+  of the Sea_, &c. with an _Introduction to the History of Particular
+  Qualities_ (1670); _Origin and Virtues of Gems_ (1672); _Essays of the
+  strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums_
+  (1673); two volumes of tracts on the _Saltness of the Sea_, the
+  _Hidden Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions
+  on Hobbes's_ Problemata de Vacuo (1674); _Experiments and Notes about
+  the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities_,
+  including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676);
+  _Observations upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any
+  Preceding Illustration_ (1678); the _Aerial Noctiluca_ (1680); _New
+  Experiments and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca_ (1682); a further
+  continuation of his work on the air; _Memoirs for the Natural History
+  of the Human Blood_ (1684); _Short Memoirs for the Natural
+  Experimental History of Mineral Waters_ (1685); _Medicina
+  Hydrostatica_ (1690); and _Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae_
+  (1691). Among his religious and philosophical writings
+  were:--_Seraphic Love_, written in 1648, but not published till 1660;
+  an _Essay upon the Style of the Holy Scriptures_ (1663); _Occasional
+  Reflections upon Several Subjects_ (1665), which was ridiculed by
+  Swift in _A Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick_, and by Butler in _An
+  Occasional Reflection on Dr Charlton's Feeling a Dog's Pulse at
+  Cresham College_; _Excellence of Theology compared with Natural
+  Philosophy_ (1664); _Some Considerations about the Reconcileableness
+  of Reason and Religion_, with a _Discourse about the Possibility of
+  the Resurrection_ (1675); _Discourse of Things above Reason_ (1681);
+  _High Veneration Man owes to God_ (1685); _A Free Inquiry into the
+  vulgarly received Notion of Nature_ (1686); and the _Christian
+  Virtuoso_ (1690). Several other works appeared after his death, among
+  them _The General History of the Air designed and begun_ (1692); a
+  "collection of choice remedies," _Medicinal Experiments_ (1692-1698);
+  and _A Free Discourse against Customary Swearing_ (1695). An
+  incomplete and unauthorized edition of Boyle's works was published at
+  Geneva in 1677, but the first complete edition was that of Thomas
+  Birch, with a life, published in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second
+  edition appearing in 1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his
+  natural history collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses
+  a portrait of him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom
+  (1632-1690).
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the north
+parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland Great Western
+railway, 106¼ m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and 28 m. S. by E. from Sligo.
+Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully situated on both banks of the river
+Boyle, an affluent of the Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three
+bridges connect the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade
+in agricultural produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive
+ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains of a
+cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman and Transitional
+arcades with carving of very beautiful detail. The offices of the
+monastery are well preserved, and an interesting feature is seen in the
+names carved on the door of the lodge, attributed in Cromwell's soldier,
+who occupied the buildings. Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church
+near Lough Key, and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara.
+Boyle was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the
+Irish parliament.
+
+
+
+
+BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen, near
+Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly direction,
+passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the Irish Sea, 4 m. below
+the town last named. It is navigable for barges to Navan, 19 m. from its
+mouth. Much of the scenery on its banks is beautiful, though never
+grand. About 2 m. west of Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks
+the spot where the forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory
+over those of James II., on the 1st of July[1] 1690, known as the battle
+of the Boyne.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This was the "old style" date, which in the new style (see
+    CALENDAR) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, _Hist, of
+    Ireland_, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by
+    the Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this is
+    a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the old
+    style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention being
+    to commemorate both.
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BRIGADE, an organization founded in Glasgow by Mr (afterwards Sir)
+W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian manliness by the use of a
+semi-military discipline and order, gymnastics, summer camps and
+religious services and classes. There are about 2200 companies connected
+with different churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British
+empire and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A
+similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the Church
+Lads' Brigade. Boys' and girls' life brigades are a more recent
+movement; they teach young people how to save life from fire and from
+water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and elementary nursing.
+
+
+
+
+BOZDAR, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually associated
+with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera Ghazi Khan. They
+are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali and Las Bela, whilst the
+majority of the population are said to live in the Punjab. They are
+usually graziers, and the name Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the
+Persian name for goat. Within the limits of their mountain home on the
+outer spurs of the Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race,
+mustering about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at
+feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In 1857 their
+raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition under
+Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The Sangarh pass was captured
+and the Bozdars submitted. Since Baluchistan has been taken over they
+have given but little trouble.
+
+
+
+
+BOZRAH. (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12; Is. xxxiv. 6,
+lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with _el-Buseireh_, S.E. of the Dead
+Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here are comparatively
+unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral district, and its
+inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200, are all shepherds. (2) A
+city in the _Mishor_ or plain country of Moab, denounced by Jeremiah
+(xlviii. 24). It has been identified (also questionably) with a very
+extensive collection of ruins of various ages, now called Bosra (the
+Roman _Bostra_), situated in the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus.
+The area within the walls is about 1¼ m. in length, and nearly 1 m. in
+breadth, while extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The
+principal buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an
+aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more recent
+workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other arches, three
+mosques, and what are known as the church and convent of the monk
+Boheira. In A.D. 106 the city was beautified and perhaps restored from
+ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital of the new province of Arabia.
+In the reign of Alexander Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a
+native of the place, Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the
+time of Constantine the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and
+not long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of
+the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and it
+successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest it from
+their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous city, after
+which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited by thirty or
+forty families only. Another suggested identification is with Kusur
+el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and Aroer. This is perhaps the
+same as the Bezer mentioned in Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical
+city and a city of refuge.
+
+In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora. The latter is
+probably to be identified with Bosra, the former perhaps with the
+present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner of the Leja.
+     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it was united
+with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived from Brabo, a
+semi-mythical Frankish chief.
+
+The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of Lower
+Lorraine (q.v.), which became in the course of the 11th century split up
+into a number of small feudal states. The counts of Hainaut, Namur,
+Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their independence, and the territory of
+Liége passed to the bishops of that city. The remnant of the duchy,
+united since 1100 with the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106
+by the emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon
+Godfrey (Godefroid) I., "the Bearded," count of Louvain and Brussels.
+His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg, and for three
+generations the representatives of the rival houses contested the
+possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine. The issue was decided
+in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke Godfrey III. in 1159. His son,
+Henry I., "the Warrior" (1183-1235), abandoned the title of duke of
+Lower Lorraine and assumed in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His
+successors were Henry II., "the Magnanimous" (1235-1248), Henry III.,
+"le Debonnair" (1248-1261), and John I., "the Victorious" (1261-1294).
+These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was Louvain.
+John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg from Adolf of Berg, and
+secured his acquisition by defeating and slaying his competitor, Henry
+of Luxemburg, at the battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son,
+John II., "the Pacific" (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his
+subjects by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation
+of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (_beden_) and
+taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution was
+entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four nobles, ten
+burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints and to see that
+the conditions laid down by the charter concerning the administration of
+justice and finance were not infringed. He was succeeded by his son,
+John III., "the Triumphant" (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining
+his position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels,
+and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but he had
+a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of fortune. He it was to
+whom Brabant owed the great charter of its liberties, called _La joyeuse
+entrée_, because it was granted on the occasion of the marriage of his
+daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was
+proclaimed on their state entry into Brussels (1356).
+
+Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in 1349, the
+ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the above-named
+Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock William IV., count
+of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg, her second husband, assumed
+in right of his wife, and by the sanction of the charter _La joyeuse
+entrée_, the style of duke of Brabant. Johanna's title was, however,
+disputed by Louis II., count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her
+sister Margaret. The question had been compromised by the cession to
+Margaret in 1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war
+broke out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis, who
+upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities. The democratic
+leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels and Peter Coutercel at
+Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign Wenzel was taken prisoner in
+1371 by the duke of Gelderland, and had to be ransomed by his subjects.
+After his death (1383) his widow continued to rule over the two duchies
+for eighteen years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house
+of Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with her
+neighbours, the dukes of Jülich and Gelderland. In 1390 she revoked the
+deed which secured the succession to Brabant to the house of Luxemburg,
+and appointed her niece, Margaret of Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of
+Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant (see FLANDERS), and her husband,
+Philip the Bold of Burgundy, her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married
+(1) Philip I. de Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the
+Bold, (d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see BURGUNDY). Of her
+three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to Burgundy, and
+Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in 1406. Anthony was killed
+at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and was succeeded by his eldest son
+by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol, John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly
+memorable for the excitement caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba
+(q.v.), countess of Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession
+passed to his brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.
+
+On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant became the
+inheritance of the elder branch of the house of Burgundy, in the person
+of Philip III., "the Good," of Burgundy, II. of Brabant, son of John.
+His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482), daughter and heiress of Charles I.,
+"the Bold," (d. 1477) married the archduke Maximilian of Austria
+(afterwards emperor) and so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian
+possessions to the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant,
+Brussels, became under the Habsburg régime the residence of the court
+and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor Charles
+V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland states were linked
+with those of the Spanish monarchy. The attempt of Philip II. of Spain
+to impose despotic rule upon the Netherlands led to the outbreak of the
+Netherland revolt, 1568 (see NETHERLANDS).
+
+In the course of the eighty years' war of independence the province of
+Brabant became separated into two portions. In the southern and larger
+part Spanish rule was maintained, and Brussels continued to be the seat
+of government. The northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch
+under Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured 's
+Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637). At the peace
+of Münster this portion, which now forms the Dutch province of North
+Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces and was known
+as Generality Land, and placed under the direct government of the
+states-general. The southern portion, now divided into the provinces of
+Antwerp and South Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish
+Habsburgs until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700.
+After the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands passed
+by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs.
+During the whole period of Austrian rule the province of Brabant
+succeeded in maintaining, to a very large extent unimpaired, the
+immunities and privileges to which it was entitled under the provisions
+of its ancient charter of liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged
+attempt by the emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe
+these inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of
+Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabançon revolt of
+1789-1790.
+
+Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant is merged in
+that of Belgium (q.v.). The revolt against Dutch rule in 1830 broke out
+at Brussels and was in its initial stages largely a Brabançon movement.
+The important part played by Brabant at this crisis of the history of
+the southern Netherlands was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the
+ancient Brabançon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of
+Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke of
+Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the king of
+the Belgians.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, the central and metropolitan province of Belgium, is formed out
+of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830, that is to say, during
+the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands, Belgian Brabant was
+distinguished from Dutch by the employment of the geographical terms
+South and North. The surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest
+points, some 400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St
+Jean. The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known for
+their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many manufactures
+flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies, as well as in the
+larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant contains 820,740 acres or
+1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal,
+Ottignies, and its three administrative divisions are named after the
+first three of those towns. They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344
+communes. In 1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a
+proportion of 1077 per sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, NORTH, the largest province in Holland, bounded S. by Belgium,
+W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht, the Volkerak and the
+Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from Zealand and South Holland, N.
+and N. E. by the Merwede and Maas, which separate it from South Holland
+and Gelderland, and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231
+sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a
+gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and 160 ft.
+in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil is composed of
+diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel, but giving place to
+sea-clay along the western boundary and river-clay along the banks of
+the Maas and smaller rivers. The watershed is formed by the
+north-eastern edge of the Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a
+curved line drawn through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The
+landscape consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath,
+occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys of the
+Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen called the Peel
+("marshy land"). Deurne, a few miles east of Helmond, the site of a
+prehistoric burial-ground, was an early fen colony. The work of
+reclamation was removed farther eastwards to Helenaveen in the second
+half of the 19th century. Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the
+main industry, generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands
+wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western corner
+of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the beet sugar
+industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom, Steenbergen and
+Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of hops in the district
+north-west of 's Hertogenbosch. The large majority of the population is
+Roman Catholic. The earliest development of towns and villages took
+place along the river Maas and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman
+camps which were the origin of many such afterwards developed in the
+hands of feudal lords. The chief town of the province, 's Hertogenbosch,
+may be cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg,
+Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda is the
+next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom had originally a
+more maritime importance. Rozendaal, Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel)
+are important railway junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an
+independent barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in
+1439. The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious position
+of the province on the borders of the country doubtless militated
+against an earlier industrial development, but since the separation from
+Belgium and the construction of roads, railways and canals there has
+been a general improvement, Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having
+risen into prominence in modern times as industrial centres.
+Leather-tanning and shoe-making are especially associated with the
+district called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg
+and 's Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of industrial villages
+along the course of the Old Maas.
+
+
+
+
+BRACCIANO, a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m. N.W. of Rome by
+rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake of Bracciano, 915 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is chiefly remarkable for its fine
+castle (built by the Orsini in 1460, and since 1696 the property of the
+Odescalchi) which has preserved its medieval character. The beautiful
+lake is the ancient _Lacus Sabatinus_, supposed to derive its name from
+an Etruscan city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be
+mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake
+itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes, the
+_tribus Sabatina_, founded in 387 B.C. (O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des
+Österr. Arch. Instituts_, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m. in area, 538
+ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost circular, but is
+held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result of a volcanic
+subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from it extend as far as
+Rome; various small craters surround it, while the existence of warm
+springs in the district (especially those of Vicarello, probably the
+ancient _Aquae Apollinares_) may also be noted. Many remains of ancient
+villas may be seen round the lake: above its west bank is the station of
+Forum Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which
+retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown name.
+About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called Ad Novas. The
+site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was occupied by a Roman villa.
+The water of the lake partly supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by
+Paul V. of the Aqua Traiana.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO (1566-1645), Italian poet, was born at Pistoia,
+of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to Florence he was admitted
+into the academy there, and devoted himself to literature. At Rome he
+entered the service of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, with whom he
+afterwards went to France. After the death of Clement VIII. he returned
+to his own country; and when his patron Barberini was elected pope,
+under the name of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was
+made secretary to the pope's brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also the
+honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms of the
+Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards known by the
+name of _Bracciolini dell' Api_. During Urban's pontificate the poet
+lived at Rome in considerable reputation, though at the same time he was
+censured for his sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned
+to Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of
+poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which Bracciolini
+did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his mock-heroic poem
+_Lo Scherno degli Dei_, published in 1618, similar but confessedly
+inferior to the contemporary work of Tassoni, _Secchia Rapita_. Of his
+serious heroic poems the most celebrated is _La Croce Racquistata_.
+
+  For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see POGGIO.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE, CHARLES LORING (1826-1890), American philanthropist, was born on
+the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut. He graduated at Yale
+in 1846, studied theology there in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union
+Theological Seminary in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his
+life to social work among the poor of New York, and to Christian
+propaganda among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a
+social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold "boys'
+meetings," and in 1853 helped to found the Children's Aid Society,
+establishing workshops, industrial schools and lodging-houses for
+newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the international prison congress
+which met in London. He died at Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August
+1890. He published from time to time several volumes embodying his views
+on practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of
+social conditions.
+
+  See _The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace_ (New York, 1894),
+  edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE, JULIA (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was born at
+Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In her fifth year she
+became blind and deaf, and lost the power of speech. At the age of
+eighteen she entered the asylum for the deaf and dumb at Hartford. The
+study of blind deaf-mutes and their scientific training was then in its
+infancy; but she learnt to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a
+good memory. Dr S.G. Howe's experiments with her were interesting as
+leading to his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington,
+Conn., on the 12th of August 1884.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. _bracchium_, the
+arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the extended arms.
+From the original meaning of "the two arms" comes that of something
+which secures, connects, tightens or strengthens, found in numerous uses
+of the word, as a carpenter's tool with a crank handle and socket to
+hold a bit for boring; a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any
+building or machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support
+the trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord of a
+drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and printing
+sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or music; a
+nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming the sails
+(cf. the corresponding French term _bras de vergue_). As meaning "a
+couple" or "pair" the term was first applied to dogs, probably from the
+leash by which they were coupled in coursing. In architecture "brace
+mould" is the term for two ressaunts or ogees united together like a
+brace in printing, sometimes with a small bead between them.
+
+
+
+
+BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE (c. 1674-1748), English actress, is said to have been
+placed under the care of Thomas Betterton and his wife, and to have
+first appeared on the stage as the page in _The Orphan_ at its first
+performance at Dorset Garden in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell's
+_Squire of Alsatia_ at the Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar
+parts until, in 1693, as Araminta in _The Old Bachelor_, she made her
+first appearance in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her
+name is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton and the
+other seceders to Lincoln's Inn Fields, where, on its opening with
+Congreve's _Love for Love_, she played Angelica. This part, and those of
+Belinda in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_, and Almira in Congreve's
+_Mourning Bride_, were among her best impersonations, but she also
+played the heroines of some of Nicholas Rowe's tragedies, and acted in
+the contemporary versions of Shakespeare's plays. In 1705 she followed
+Betterton to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in Mrs
+Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story runs that it
+was left for the audience to determine which was the better comedy
+actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle in Betterton's _Amorous
+Widow_, which was played alternately by the two rivals on successive
+nights. When the popular vote was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs
+Bracegirdle quitted the stage, making only one reappearance at
+Betterton's benefit in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much
+discussion. Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of "not being
+unguarded in her private character," while Macaulay does not hesitate to
+call her "a cold, vain and interested coquette, who perfectly understood
+how much the influence of her charms was increased by the fame of a
+severity which cost her nothing." She was certainly the object of the
+adoration of many men, and she was the innocent cause of the killing of
+the actor William Mountfort (q.v.), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun
+regarded as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was
+suspected of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress she is
+also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate friend, and
+left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation for virtue was
+remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a subscription list of 800
+guineas, presented to her as a tribute to her virtue. Her charity to the
+poor in Clare Market and around Drury Lane was conspicuous, "insomuch
+that she would not pass that neighbourhood without the thankful
+acclamations of people of all degrees." She died in 1748, and was buried
+in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See Genest, _History of the Stage_; Colley Gibber, _Apology_ (edited
+  by Bellchambers); Egerton, _Life of Anne Oldfield_; Downes, _Roscius
+  Anglicanus._
+
+
+
+
+BRACELET, or ARMLET, a personal ornament for the arm or wrist, made of
+different materials, according to the fashion of the age and the rank of
+the wearer. The word is the French _bracelet_, a diminutive of _bracel_,
+from _brac(c)hiale_, formed from the Latin _bracchium_, the arm, on
+which it was usually worn. By the Romans it was called _armilla,
+brachiale, occabus_; and in the middle ages _bauga, armispatha_.
+
+[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopédie._
+
+FIG. 1.--Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.]
+
+In the Bible there are three different words which the authorized
+version renders by "bracelet." These are--(1) [Hebrew: 'es'adah]
+_'es'adah_, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which being
+used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the _armlet_; (2)
+[Hebrew: samid] _samid_, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi. 50,
+Ezek. xvi. 11;--where these two words occur together (as in Num. xxxi.
+50) the first is rendered by "chain," and the second by "bracelet"; (3)
+[Hebrew: sheroth] _sheroth_, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19. The
+first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second, bracelets worn by
+women and sometimes by men; and the third a peculiar bracelet of
+chain-work worn only by women. In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes
+the royal ornament which the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead
+Saul, and brought with the other regalia to David. There is little
+question that this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as
+we still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the Ganges.
+The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets, which were also worn by
+the Egyptian women. These, however, are not jewelled, but of plain or
+enamelled metal, as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews.
+
+In modern times the most celebrated armlets are those which form part of
+the regalia of the Persian kings and formerly belonged to the Mogul
+emperors of India, being part of the spoil carried to Persia from Delhi
+by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are of dazzling splendour, and
+the jewels in them are of such large size and immense value that the
+pair have been reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal
+stone of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the
+_Darya-i-nur_, "sea (or river) of light." It weighs 186 carats, and is
+considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world. The principal
+jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat inferior size (146
+carats) and value, is renowned as the _Taj-e-mah_, "crown of the moon."
+The imperial armlets, generally set with jewels, may also be observed in
+most of the portraits of the Indian emperors.
+
+Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric nations, and
+the women frequently wear several on the same arm. The finer kinds are
+of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver; others of less value are made
+of plated steel, horn, brass, copper, beads, &c. Chinese bracelets are
+sometimes cut out of single pieces of jade.
+
+This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common in Europe
+from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the Bronze Age were of
+either gold or bronze, silver being then unknown. In shape they were
+oval and penannular with expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an
+opening between them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily
+slipped over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered
+rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often chased
+with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets of bronze,
+peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the whole fore-arm, and
+were doubtless intended as much for defence against a sword-stroke as
+for ornament. Among the nations of classical antiquity, bracelets were
+worn by both sexes of the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks,
+except in orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn by
+women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been used
+during the empire by _nouveaux riches_, and by some of the emperors. It
+should also be mentioned that bracelets were conferred as a military
+decoration in the field.
+
+[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopédie_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.]
+
+The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types, both of which were
+also familiar to the Assyrians. The one class were in the form of coiled
+spirals, usually in the form of snakes, a term which Pollux gives as a
+synonym for bracelet. The other class were stiff penannular hoops,
+capable of being slightly opened. In such examples the terminals are
+finely finished as rams' heads, lions' heads, or (as in the accompanying
+figure from a bracelet found at Kuloba) as enamelled sphinxes. In late
+Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of consecutive panels, as often
+in modern jewelry.
+
+[Illustration: From La Grande Encydopédie.
+
+FIG. 3.--Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.]
+
+The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern Europe, while
+silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited and intertwisted
+strands of silver wire, and plain penannular hoops, round or
+lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities, became common
+towards the close of the pagan period. The late Celtic period in Britain
+was characterized by serpent-shaped bracelets and massive armlets, with
+projecting ornaments of solid bronze and perforations filled with
+enamel. In the middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in
+Europe, but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations
+to the present time, and many of the types that were common in Europe in
+prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.
+
+  A treatise, _De Armillis Veterum_, by Thomas Bartholinus, was
+  published at Amsterdam in 1676.
+
+
+
+
+BRACHIOPODA, an important and well-defined but extremely isolated class
+of invertebrates. The group may be defined as follows: Sessile solitary
+_Coelomata_ with bivalved shells usually of unequal size and arranged
+dorso-ventrally. The head is produced into ciliated arms bearing
+tentacles. They reproduce sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of
+separate sexes.
+
+The name Brachiopod ([Greek: brachion], an arm, and [Greek: pous,
+podos], a foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by
+A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively adopted. The
+division of the group into _Ecardines_ (_Inarticulata_), with no hinge
+to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at both ends, and
+_Testicardines_ (_Articulata_), with a hinge between the dorsal and
+ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed by Owen and has been
+adopted by nearly all authors. In a later scheme based on our increased
+knowledge of fossil forms, the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary
+groups (orders). This is given at the end of the article, but it must
+not be forgotten that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ
+markedly from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1-11.--Various forms of Brachiopoda.
+
+  1. _Magellania [Waldheimia] cranium_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve.
+
+  2. _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_.
+
+  3. and 4. _Thecidea_.
+
+  5. _Spirifer_. Dorsal valve, showing calcareous spiral coils.
+
+  6. _Orthis calligramma_.
+
+  7. _Leptaena transversalis_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve.
+
+  8. _Productus horridus_.
+
+  9. _Lingula pyramidata_ (after Morse).
+
+  10. _Discinisca lamellosa_.
+
+  11. _Crania anomala_ Interior of dorsal valve, showing muscular
+  impressions and labial appendages.]
+
+The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a shell
+composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always, except in
+cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved. The valves are,
+consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is not the case with the
+Lamellibranchiata,--so much so, that certain Brachiopod shells were
+named _Lampades_, or lamp shells, by some early naturalists; but while
+such may bear a kind of resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far
+the larger number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most
+beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species it is
+thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally the
+shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size, but in
+certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something less in
+length, as is the case with _Productus giganteus_. The valves are also
+in some species very unequal in their respective thickness, as may be
+seen in _Productus_ (_Daviesiella_)[1] _llangollensis_, _Davidsonia
+verneuilii_, &c., and while the space allotted to the animal is very
+great in many species, as in _Terebratula sphaeroidalis_, it is very
+small in others belonging to _Strophomena_, _Leptaena_, _Chonetes_, &c.
+The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in some forms is six or
+seven times as great as the opposite one. The outer surface of many of
+the species presents likewise the most exquisite sculpture, heightened
+by brilliant shades, or spots of green, red, yellow and bluish black.
+Traces of the original colour have also been preserved in some of the
+fossil forms; radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in
+well-preserved examples of _Terebratula_ (_Dielasma_) _hastata_, _T_.
+(_Dielasma_) _sacculus_, _T. communis_, _T. biplicata_, and of several
+others. Some specimens of _T. carnea_ are of a beautiful pale pink
+colour when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps has
+described the tint of several Jurassic species.
+
+The valves are distinguished as _dorsal_ and _ventral_. The ventral
+valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as _Terebratula_
+and _Rhynchonella_, has a prominent beak or umbo, with a circular or
+otherwise shaped foramen at or near its extremity, partly bounded by one
+or two plates, termed a deltidium. Through the foramen passes a
+peduncle, by which the animal is in many species attached to submarine
+objects during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no
+indication of ever having been attached, while some that had been moored
+by means of a peduncle during the early portion of their existence have
+become detached at a more advanced stage of life, the opening becoming
+gradually cicatrized, as is so often seen in _Leptaena rhomboidalis_,
+_Orthisina anomala_, &c. Lastly, some species adhere to submarine
+objects by a larger or smaller portion of their ventral valve, as is the
+case with many forms of _Crania_, _Thecidium_, _Davidsonia_, &c. Some
+_Cranias_ are always attached by the whole surface of their lower or
+ventral valve, which models itself and fills up all the projections or
+depressions existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it
+adhered. These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the
+upper or dorsal valve. Some species of _Strophalosia_ and _Productus_
+seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy or muddy bottoms
+on which they lived, by the means of tubular spines often of
+considerable length. The interior of the shell varies very much
+according to families and genera. On the inner surface of both valves
+several well-defined muscular, vascular and ovarian impressions are
+observable; they form either indentations of greater or less size and
+depth, or occur as variously shaped projections. In the _Trimerellidae_,
+for example, some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted
+platform situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half
+or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there exists in
+the interior of the _dorsal_ valve of some genera a variously modified,
+thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support of the ciliated
+arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of the chief generic
+characters of both recent and extinct forms. This brachial skeleton is
+more developed in some genera than in others. In certain forms, as in
+_Terebratula_ and _Terebratulina_, it is short and simple, and attached
+to a small divided hinge-plate, the two riband-shaped lamina being bent
+upwards in the middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and
+on each side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the
+loop in _Terebratulina_ becomes annular in the adult by the union of its
+crural processes (fig. 16). In _Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_] it is
+elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four depressions,
+under which originates a median septum, which extends more or less into
+the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14). In _Terebratella_ the loop
+is attached to the hinge-plate and to the septum (fig. 17). In
+_Megerlia_ it is three times attached, first to the hinge-plate, and
+then to the septum by processes from the diverging and reflected
+positions of the loop. In _Magas_ the brachial skeleton is composed of
+an elevated longitudinal septum reaching from one valve to the other, to
+which are affixed two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones
+riband-shaped; attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards
+proceed by a gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to
+the sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both
+sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of two
+triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In _Bouchardia_ the septum
+only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped lamellae. Many more
+modifications are observable in different groups of which the great
+family _Terebratulidae_ is composed. In _Thecidium_ (figs. 3,4) the
+interior of the dorsal valve is variously furrowed to receive the
+lophophore folded in two or more lobes. In the family _Spiriferidae_
+there are two conical spires directed outwards, and nearly filling the
+cavity of the shell (fig. 5); while in _Atrypa_ the broad spirally
+coiled lamellae are vertical, and directed toward the centre of the
+dorsal valve. In the _Rhynchonellidae_ there are two short slender
+curved laminae, while in many genera and even families, such as the
+_Productidae, Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae_, &c., there exists
+no calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve in
+many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth, which fit
+into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so that the valves
+cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 12-18.
+
+  12. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of ventral valve.
+  f, foramen; d, deltidium; t, teeth; a, adductor impressions (=
+  occlusors, _Hancock_); c, divaricator (= cardinal muscles, _King_, =
+  muscles diducteurs principaux, _Gratiolet_); c', accessory
+  divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, _Gratiolet_); b, ventral
+  adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du pedoncule paire
+  supérieure, _Gratiolet_); b', peduncular muscle.
+
+  13. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of dorsal valve. c,
+  c', cardinal process; b', b', hinge-plate; s, dental sockets; l, loop;
+  q, crura; a, a', adductor impressions; c, accessory divaricator; b,
+  peduncle muscles; ss, septum.
+
+  14. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Longitudinal section of
+  valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; l, loop; q, crura; ss, septum;
+  c, cardinal process.
+
+  15. _Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea_. Interior of dorsal valve. l,
+  loop; b, hinge-plate; c, cardinal process.
+
+  16. Loop of _Terebratulina caput serpentis_.
+
+  17. Longitudinal section of _Terebratella dorsata_. (References as in
+  fig. 14.)
+
+  18. Longitudinal section of _Magas pumilus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior
+of dorsal valve, to show the position of the labial appendages. v,
+Mouth. (A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show the brachial
+membrane and a portion of the spiral extremities of the arms.)]
+
+Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains
+prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle
+secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated by
+calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite
+surrounded by a cuticular mesh work; the whole is nourished and kept
+alive by processes, which in _Crania_ are branched; these perforate the
+shell and permit the access of the coelomic fluid throughout its
+substance. These canals are closed externally and are absent in
+_Rhynchonella_, where the amount of calcareous deposit is small. In
+_Lingula_ the shell is composed of alternate layers of chitin and of
+phosphate of lime. The free edges of the mantle often bear chitinous
+bristles or setae which project beyond the shell. As in the case of the
+Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the adult is not a direct derivative of
+the youngest shell of the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species
+is protected by an embryonic shell called the "protegulum," which
+sometimes persists in the umbones of the adult shells but is more
+usually worn off. In all species it has the same shape, a shape which
+has been retained in the adult by the Lower Cambrian genus _Iphidea_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_.
+Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal.
+
+  d, h, Brachial appendages.
+  a, Adductor
+  c, c', Divaricator muscles.
+  s, Septum.
+  v, Mouth.
+  z, Exremity of alimentary tube. The penduncular muscules have been
+      purposely omitted.]
+
+The body of the Brachiopod usually occupies about the posterior half of
+the space within the shell. The anterior half of this space is lined by
+the inner wall of the mantle and is called the mantle cavity. This
+cavity lodges the arms, which are curved and coiled in different ways in
+different genera. The water which bears the oxygen for respiration and
+the minute organisms upon which the Brachiopod feeds is swept into the
+mantle cavity by the action of the cilia which cover the arms, and the
+eggs and excreta pass out into the same cavity. The mouth lies in the
+centre of the anterior wall of the body. Its two lips fusing together at
+the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called arms. These
+arms, which together form the lophophore, may be, as in _Cistella_,
+applied flat to the inner surface of the dorsal mantle fold, but more
+usually they are raised free from the body like a pair of moustaches,
+and as they are usually far too long to lie straight in the mantle
+cavity, they are folded or coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in
+many cases supports the arms has been mentioned above.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A diagram of the left half of an _Argiope_
+(_Megathyris_), which has been bisected in the median plane.
+
+   1. The ventral valve.
+   2. The dorsal valve.
+   3. The pedicle.
+   4. The mouth.
+   5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore.
+   6. Tentacles.
+   7. Ovary in dorsal valve.
+   8. Liver diverticula.
+   9. Occlusor muscle--its double origin is shown.
+  10. Internal opening of left nephridium.
+  11. External opening of the same.
+  12. Ventral adjustor.
+  13. Divaricator muscle.
+  14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.
+  15. The heart.
+  16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.]
+
+A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it consists of
+a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective tissue not uncommon
+in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which is traversed by certain canals
+whose nature is considered below under the section (_The Body Cavity_)
+devoted to the coelom. Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter,
+the pre-oral rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral
+rim is composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number some
+thousands, and they are usually bent over and tend to form a closed
+cylinder of the gutter. Each of these tentacles (fig. 22) is hollow, and
+it contains a diverticulum from the coelom, a branch of the vascular
+system, a nerve and some muscle-fibres. Externally on two sides and on
+the inner surface the tentacles are ciliated, and the cilia are
+continued across the gutter to the lip and even on the outer surface of
+the latter. These cilia pass on any diatoms and other minute organism
+which come within their range of action to the capacious oval mouth,
+which appears as a mere deepening of the gutter in the middle line. In
+_Terebratulina, Rhynchonella, Lingula_, and possibly other genera, the
+arms can be unrolled and protruded from the opened shell; in this case
+the tentacles also straighten themselves and wave about in the water.
+
+  _The Body Cavity._--The various internal organs of the brachiopod
+  body, the alimentary canal and liver, the excretory organs, the heart,
+  numerous muscles and the reproductive organs, are enclosed in a cavity
+  called the body cavity, and since this cavity (i.) is derived from the
+  archicoel and is from the first surrounded by meroblast, (ii.)
+  communicates with the exterior through the nephridia or excretory
+  organs, and (iii.) gives rise by the proliferation of the cells which
+  line it to the ova and spermatoza, it is of the nature of a true
+  coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber surrounding the
+  alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally into the
+  sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial cells lining
+  the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated fluid
+  contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a great
+  tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic cavity
+  there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards as coelomic,
+  but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests largely on
+  histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation is
+  wanting. These spaces are as follows:--(i.) the great arm-sinus; (ii.)
+  the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus and the
+  peri-oesophageal sinus, and in _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, and, to a
+  less extent, in _Crania_, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of
+  the general body cavity which in _Crania_ are separated off and
+  contain muscles, &c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists.
+  The great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the
+  fold or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated
+  groove in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off
+  from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic space
+  nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate
+  with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms of the
+  lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind
+  diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the
+  blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth
+  where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another they
+  open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and partly
+  walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This sinus is
+  continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal sinus, and thus
+  the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the relations of the
+  so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In _Crania_ it is
+  completely shut off from the main coelom, but in _Lingula_ it
+  communicates freely with this cavity. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_
+  there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which
+  traverses the supporting tissue of the edge of the mantle and contains
+  muscle-fibres. It opens into the peri-oesophageal sinus. It is better
+  developed and more spacious in _Lingula_ than in _Discinisca._ In
+  _Crania_, where only indications of the lip-sinus occur, there are two
+  other closed spaces. The posterior occlusor muscles lie in a special
+  closed space which Blochmann also regards as coelomic. The posterior
+  end of the intestine is similarly surrounded by a closed coelomic
+  space known as the peri-anal sinus in which the rectum lies freely,
+  unsupported by mesenteries. All these spaces contain a similar
+  coagulable fluid with sparse corpuscles, and all are lined by ciliated
+  cells. There is further a great tendency for the endothelial cells to
+  form muscles, and this is especially pronounced in the small
+  arm-sinus, where a conspicuous muscle is built up. The mantle-sinuses
+  which form the chief spaces in the mantle are diverticula of the main
+  coelomic cavity. In _Discinisca_ they are provided with a muscular
+  valve placed at their point of origin. They contain the same fluid as
+  the general coelom. The stalk is an extension of the ventral
+  body-wall, and contains a portion of the coelom which, in _Discinisca_
+  and _Lingula_, remains in communication with the general body cavity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Diagrammatic section through an arm of the
+  lophophore of _Crania_. Magnified; after Blochmann.
+
+     1. The lip.
+     2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line.
+     3. Great arm-sinus.
+     4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres.
+     5. Tentacular canal.
+     6. External tentacular muscle.
+     7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the
+         small arm-sinus.
+     8. Chief arm-nerve.
+     9. Secondary arm-nerve.
+    10. Under arm-nerve.]
+
+  _The Alimentary Canal_.--The mouth, which is quite devoid of armature,
+  leads imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus. The
+  latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the broad
+  ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes into an
+  intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short,
+  finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is
+  longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In
+  _Lingula_ and _Discina_ the anus lies to the right in the
+  mantle-cavity, but in _Crania_ it opens medianly into a posterior
+  extension of the same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine
+  caused by the lateral position of the anus in the two genera just
+  named, Brachiopods are bilaterally symmetrical animals.
+
+  The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad
+  duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which may
+  branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of the space
+  in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes, which may be
+  found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a large part of the
+  digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach, oesophagus and
+  intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The intestine is slung
+  by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which divides the body cavity
+  into two symmetrically shaped halves; it is "stayed" by two transverse
+  septa, the anterior or gastroparietal band running from the stomach to
+  the body wall and the posterior or ileoparietal band running from the
+  intestine to the body wall. None of these septa is complete, and the
+  various parts of the central body cavity freely communicate with one
+  another. In _Rhynchonella_, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the
+  internal opening of the anterior pair is supported by the
+  gastroparietal band and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal
+  band. The latter pair alone persists in all other genera.
+
+  The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped
+  nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the
+  mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and
+  devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow
+  or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act as
+  ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--The structures formerly regarded as
+  pseudohearts have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart
+  was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases escaped
+  the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884, however,
+  observed this organ in the living animal in species of the following
+  genera:--_Terebratulina, Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_]_, Rhynchonella,
+  Megathyris_ (_Argiope_), _Lingula_, and _Crania_ (fig. 21). It
+  consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal
+  side of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations
+  of _Terebratulina_ made by quickly removing the viscera and examining
+  them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the
+  pulsations, which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Rhynchonella_ (_Hemithyris_) _psittacea._
+  Interior of dorsal valve, s, Sockets; b, dental plates; V, mouth;
+  de, labial appendage in its natural position; d, appendage extended
+  or unrolled.]
+
+  A vessel--the dorsal vessel--runs forward from the heart along the
+  dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel is nothing but a split
+  between the right and left folds of the mesentery, and its cavity is
+  thus a remnant of the blastocoel. A similar primitive arrangement is
+  thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the genital arteries. Anteriorly
+  the dorsal vessel splits into a right and a left half, which enter the
+  small arm-sinus and, running along it, give off a blind branch to each
+  tentacle (fig. 21). The right and left halves are connected ventrally
+  to the oesophagus by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in
+  the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular
+  ring around the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second
+  median vessel which divides almost at once into a right and a left
+  half, each of which again divides into two vessels which run to the
+  dorsal and ventral mantles respectively. The dorsal branch sends a
+  blind twig into each of the diverticula of the dorsal mantle-sinus,
+  the ventral branch supplies the nephridia and neighbouring parts
+  before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle. Both dorsal and
+  ventral branches supply the generative organs.
+
+  The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles is not
+  yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is a
+  remarkable fact that in _Discinisca_, although the vessels to the
+  lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart
+  or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.
+
+  _Muscles._--The number and position of the muscles differ materially
+  in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been
+  grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which each
+  division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist who has
+  written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed different names
+  for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising is much to be
+  regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus _Terebratula_ may
+  be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles are stated by A.
+  Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected with the opening and
+  closing of the valves, or with their attachment to or movements upon
+  the peduncle. First of all, the adductors or occlusors consist of two
+  muscles, which, bifurcating near the centre of the shell cavity,
+  produce a large quadruple impression on the internal surface of the
+  small valve (fig. 13, a, a'), and a single divided one towards the
+  centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12, a). The function of
+  this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves. Two other pairs
+  have been termed _divaricators_ by Hancock, or _cardinal muscles_
+  ("muscles diducteurs" of Gratiolet), and have for function the opening
+  of the valves. The divaricators proper are stated by Hancock to arise
+  from the ventral valve, one on each side, a little in advance of and
+  close to the adductors, and after rapidly diminishing in size become
+  attached to the cardinal process, a space or prominence between the
+  sockets in the dorsal valve. The _accessory divaricators_ are,
+  according to the same authority, a pair of small muscles which have
+  their ends attached to the ventral valve, one on each side of the
+  median line, a little behind the united basis of the adductors, and
+  again to the extreme point of the cardinal process. Two pairs of
+  muscles, apparently connected with the peduncle and its limited
+  movements, have been minutely described by Hancock as having one of
+  their extremities attached to this organ. The _dorsal adjusters_ are
+  fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle, and are again inserted
+  into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve. The _ventral adjusters_ are
+  considered to pass from the inner extremity of the peduncle, and to
+  become attached by one pair of their extremities to the ventral valve,
+  one on each side and a little behind the expanded base of the
+  divaricators. The function of these muscles, according to the same
+  authority, is not only that of erecting the shell; they serve also to
+  attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect the steadying of it
+  upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting they can cause a slight
+  rotation of the animal in its stalk.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Diagram
+  showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.)
+
+    M, Ventral,
+    N, Dorsal valve,
+    l, Loop.
+    V, Mouth.
+    Z, Extremity of intestine,
+    c, Divaricators.
+    c', Accessory divaricators.
+    a, Adductor.
+    b, Ventral adjusters.
+    b', Peduncular muscles.
+    b'', Dorsal adjusters.
+    P, Peduncle.]
+
+  Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division
+  composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for certain
+  unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing the
+  different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong and tight
+  interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth and sockets,
+  many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves but slightly. In
+  some species, such as _Thecidea_, the animal could raise its dorsal
+  valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one (fig. 4).
+
+  [Illustration: FIGS. 25, 26. _Lingula anatina._
+
+    25, Interior of ventral valve.
+    26, Interior of dorsal valve.
+    g, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves).
+    h, Central muscles (close valves).
+    i, Transmedial or sliding muscles.
+    b, Parietal band.
+    j, k, l, Lateral muscles (j, anteriors; k, middles; l, outsiders),
+      enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other.
+
+    (After King.)]
+
+  In the Ecardines, of which _Lingula_ and _Discina_ may be quoted as
+  examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell or
+  valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one, and
+  individualizes their respective functions as follows:--Three pairs are
+  _lateral_, having their members limited to the sides of the shell; one
+  pair are _transmedians_, each member passing across the middle of the
+  reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the umbonal
+  cavity. The _central_ and _umbonal_ muscles effect the direct opening
+  and closing of the shell, the _laterals_ enable the valves to move
+  forward and backward on each other, and the _transmedians_ allow the
+  similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from each
+  other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated,
+  that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long
+  a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves
+  sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually
+  observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the animal
+  perform the operation. They mention that it is never done suddenly or
+  by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one side several
+  times and back again on each other, at the same time opening gradually
+  in the transverse direction till they rest opposite to one another and
+  widely apart. Those who have not seen the animal in life, or who did
+  not believe in the possibility of the valves crossing each other with
+  a slight obliquity, would not consent to appropriating any of its
+  muscles to that purpose, and consequently attributed to all the
+  lateral muscles the simple function of keeping the valves in an
+  opposite position, or holding them adjusted. We have not only the
+  observations of Semper and Morse, but the anatomical investigations of
+  King, to confirm the sliding action or lateral divarication of the
+  valves of _Lingula_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Lingula anatina_.
+
+    Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The letters
+    indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26.
+
+    A, Dorsal,
+    B, Ventral valve.
+    p, Peduncle.
+    e, Heart.
+    a, Alimentary tube.
+    z, Anal aperture.]
+
+  In the Testicardines, where no such sliding action of the valves was
+  necessary or possible, no muscles for such an object were required,
+  consequently none took rise from the lateral portions of the valves as
+  in _Lingula_; but in an extinct group, the _Trimerellidae_, which
+  seems to be somewhat intermediate in character between the Ecardines
+  and Testicardines, have been found certain scars, which appear to have
+  been produced by rudimentary lateral muscles, but it is doubtful
+  (considering the shells are furnished with teeth, though but rudely
+  developed) whether such muscles enabled the valves, as in _Lingula_,
+  to move forward and backward upon each other. _Crania_ in life opens
+  its valves by moving upon the straight hinge, without sliding the
+  valve.
+
+  The _nervous system_ of Brachiopods has, as a rule, maintained its
+  primitive connexion with the external epithelium. In a few places it
+  has sunk into the connective-tissue supporting layer beneath the
+  ectoderm, but the chief centres still remain in the ectoderm, and the
+  fibrils forming the nerves are for the most part at the base of the
+  ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus is a thin commissure which
+  passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve. This latter includes in its
+  course numerous ganglion cells, and forms, according to F. Blochmann,
+  the immensely long drawn out supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief
+  arm-nerve traverses the lophophore, being situated between the great
+  arm-sinus and the base of the lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a
+  branch to each tentacle, and these all anastomose at the base of the
+  tentacles with the second nerve of the arm, the so-called secondary
+  arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve, this strand runs through the
+  lophophore, parallel indeed with the former except near the middle
+  line, where it passes ventrally to the oesophagus. The lophophore is
+  supplied by yet a third nerve, the under arm-nerve, which is less
+  clearly defined than the others, and resembles a moderate aggregation
+  of the nerve fibrils, which seem everywhere to underlie the ectoderm,
+  and which in a few cases are gathered up into nerves. The under
+  arm-nerve, which lies between the small arm-sinus and the surface,
+  supplies nerves to the muscles of both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28).
+  Medianly, it has its origin in the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which,
+  like the supra-oesophageal, is drawn out laterally, though not to the
+  same extent. In the middle line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is
+  small; the ganglion is in fact drawn out into two halves placed on
+  either side of the body. From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia
+  numerous nerves arise. Passing from the middle line outwards they
+  are--(i.) the median pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle;
+  (ii.) numerous small nerves--the circum-oesophageal commissures--which
+  pass round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal
+  ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its
+  muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal
+  mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves to
+  the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the
+  various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round the
+  edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of the
+  nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another
+  concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils.
+
+  The above account applies more particularly to _Crania_, but in the
+  main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been
+  investigated. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, however, the
+  sub-oesophageal ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives
+  off two posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in _Lingula_
+  unite and form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the
+  adult. The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very
+  specialized sense organs are found in the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Diagram of nervous system of _Crania_; from
+  the dorsal side. The nerves running to the dorsal parts are white,
+  with black edges; those running to the ventral parts are solid black.
+  Magnified. (After Blochmann.)
+
+     1. Oesophagus.
+     2. Supra-oesophageal commisure.
+     3. Circum-oesophageal commisure.
+     4. Under arm-nerve.
+     5. Great arm-sinus.
+     6. Small arm-sinus.
+     7. Tentacle.
+     8. Lip of lophophore.
+     9. Infra-oesophageal commisure.
+    10. Chief arm-nerve.
+    11. Secondary arm-nerve.
+    12. Nerves to tentacles.
+    13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.
+    14. Dorsal lateral nerve.
+    15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve.
+    16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle.
+    17. Anterior occlusor muscle.
+    18. Posterior occlusor muscle.
+    19. Obliquus superior muscle.
+    20. Levator brachii muscle.]
+
+  The _histology_ of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many
+  primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has
+  especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus of
+  nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places gathered
+  up into nerves, and the great development of connective tissue, are
+  worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of hyaline
+  supporting tissue, embedded in which are scattered cells and fibres.
+  The lophophore and stalk are largely composed of this tissue. The
+  ectodermal cells are large, ciliated, and amongst the ciliated cells
+  glandular cells are scattered. The chitinous chaetae have their origin
+  in special ectodermal pits, at the base of which is one large cell
+  which is thought to secrete the chaeta, as in Chaetopods. These pits
+  are not isolated, but are connected by an ectodermal ridge, which
+  grows in at the margin of the mantle and forms a continuous band
+  somewhat resembling the ectodermal primordium of vertebrate teeth.
+
+  The ovary and testes are heaped-up masses of red or yellow cells due
+  to a proliferation of the cells lining the coelom. There are four of
+  such masses, two dorsal and two ventral, and as a rule they extend
+  between the outer and inner layer of the mantle lining the shells. The
+  ova and the spermatozoa dehisce into the body cavity and pass to the
+  exterior through the nephridia. Fertilization takes place outside the
+  body, and in some species the early stages of development take place
+  in a brood-pouch which is essentially a more or less deep depression
+  of the body-wall median in _Thecidea_, while in _Cistella_ (_?
+  Argiope_) there is one such pouch on each side, just below the base of
+  the arms, and into these the nephridia open. The developing ova are
+  attached by little stalks to the walls of these pouches. In spite of
+  some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods which have been
+  carefully investigated have been found to be male or female.
+  Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.
+
+  [FIG. 29.--Three larvae stages of _Megathyris_ (_Argiope_). A, Larva
+  which has just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a
+  somewhat later stage; C, the fully formed embryo just before
+  fixing--the neo-embryo of Beecher. Highly magnified.
+
+    1. Anterior segment.
+    2. Second or mantle-forming segment.
+    3. Third or stalk-forming segment.
+    4. Eye-spots.
+    5. Setae.
+    6. Nerve mass (?).
+    7. Alimentary canal.
+    8. Muscles.]
+
+  _Embryology._--With the exception of Yatsu's article on the
+  development of _Lingula_ (_J. Coll. Sci., Japan_, xvii., 1901-1903)
+  and E.G. Conklin's on "Terebratulina septentrionalis" (_P. Amer. Phil.
+  Soc._ xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge
+  of the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky's
+  researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on _Megathyris_
+  (_Argiope_) and Yatsu's just mentioned are the most complete as
+  regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula is
+  formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two coelomic
+  sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial
+  segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three segments.
+  The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to muscles which
+  enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one another (fig.
+  29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch, which is a
+  lateral or median cavity in the body of the female, and lead a free
+  swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment broadens and becomes
+  umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of cilia round the rim and
+  smaller cilia on the general surface. By the aid of these cilia the
+  larva swims actively, but owing to its minute size it covers very
+  little distance, and this probably accounts for the fact that where
+  brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many in one spot. The
+  head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually testing the ground
+  (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards like a skirt
+  surrounding the third segment, which is destined to form the stalk. It
+  bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced chaetae. After a
+  certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to some stone or
+  rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward over the head
+  and forms the mantle. What goes on within the mantle is unknown, but
+  presumably the head is absorbed. The chaetae drop off, and the
+  lophophore is believed to arise from thickenings which appear in the
+  dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton Expedition brought back, and H.
+  Simroth (_Ergeb. Plankton Expedition_, ii., 1897) has described, a few
+  larval brachiopods of undetermined genera, two of which at least were
+  pelagic, or at any rate taken far from the coast. These larvae, which
+  resemble those described by Fritz Müller (_Arch. Naturg._, 1861-1862),
+  have their mantle turned over their head and the larval shell well
+  developed. No stalk has been seen by Simroth or Fritz Müller, but in
+  other respects the larva resembles the stages in the development of
+  _Megathyris_ and _Terebratulina_ which immediately precede fixation.
+  The cirri or tentacles, of which three or four pairs are present, are
+  capable of being protruded, and the minute larva swims by means of the
+  ciliary action they produce. It can retract the tentacles, shut its
+  shell, and sink to the bottom.
+
+  [FIG. 30.--Stages in the fixing and metamorphosis of _Terebratulina_.
+  Highly magnified. (From Morse.)
+
+    A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to rest.
+    B, C, D, Stages showing the turning forward of the second or mantle
+      segment.
+    E, Completion of this.
+    F, Young Brachiopod.
+    1, 2, 3, The first, second and third segments.]
+
+  C.E.E. Beecher (_Amer. Jour. Sci._ ser. 3, xli. and xliv.) has
+  classified with appropriate names the various stages through which
+  Brachiopod larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the
+  second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the
+  Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops a
+  larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed the
+  larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have
+  disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the
+  lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal mantle
+  lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost all the
+  families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout the
+  group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian genus _Iphidea
+  [Paterina]_, and the Phylembryo is frequently referred to as the
+  _Paterina_ stage. In some orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an
+  _Obolella_ stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not
+  universal. The larva now assumes specific characters and is
+  practically adult.
+
+  [FIG. 31.--Shell of larval Brachiopod. Phylembryo stage. (From
+  Simroth.) 1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.]
+
+  _Classification_.--Beecher's division of the Brachiopoda into four
+  orders is based largely on the character of the aperture through which
+  the stalk or pedicle leaves the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it
+  is necessary to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are not
+  used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular pedicle-opening
+  seen in _Orthis_, &c., has been named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke
+  the delthyrium. In some less primitive genera, e.g. _Terebratula_,
+  that type of opening is found in the young stages only; later it
+  becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out from the sides of
+  the delthyrium. These plates are secreted by the ventral lobe of the
+  mantle, and were named by von Buch in 1834 the "deltidium." The form
+  of the deltidium varies in different genera. The two plates may meet
+  in the middle line, and leave only a small oval opening near the
+  centre for the pedicle, as in _Rhynchonella_; or they may meet only
+  near the base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of the
+  circular pedicle-opening, as in _Terebratula_; or the right plate may
+  remain quite distinct from the left plate, as in _Terebratella_. The
+  pro-deltidium, a term introduced by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small
+  embryonic plate originating on the dorsal side of the body. It
+  subsequently becomes attached to the ventral valve, and develops into
+  the pseudo-deltidium, in the Neotremata and the Protremata. The
+  pseudo-deltidium (so named by Bronn in 1862) is a single plate which
+  grows from the apex of the delthyrium downwards, and may completely
+  close the aperture. The pseudo-deltidium is sometimes reabsorbed in
+  the adult. In the Telotremata neither pro-deltidium nor
+  pseudo-deltidium is known. In the Atremata the pro-deltidium does not
+  become fixed to the ventral valve, and does not develop into a
+  pseudo-deltidium. The American use of the term deltidium for the
+  structure which Europeans call the pseudo-deltidium makes for
+  confusion. The development of the brachial supports has been studied
+  by Friele, Fischer and Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by
+  Beecher (_Trans. Connect. Acad._ ix., 1893; reprinted in _Studies in
+  Evolution_, 1901).
+
+  The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped together, as
+  the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines--the Tretenterata of
+  Davidson--and the orders Protremata and Telotremata, as the Articulata
+  or Testicardines--the Clistenterata of Davidson. The following scheme
+  of classification is based on Beecher's and Schubert's. Recent
+  families are printed in italic type.
+
+  [FIG. 32.--Diagram of the pedicle-opening of _Rhynchonella_. Magnified.
+
+    1. Umbo of ventral valve.
+    2. Deltidium.
+    3. Margin of delthyrium.
+    4. Pedicle-opening.
+    5. Dorsal valve.]
+
+
+  Class I. ECARDINES (INARTICULATA)
+
+  ORDER I. Atremata (Beecher).--Inarticulate Brachiopoda, with the
+  pedicle passing out between the umbones, the opening being shared by
+  both valves. Pro-deltidium attached to dorsal valves.
+  FAMILIES.--PATERINIDAE, OBOLIDAE, TRIMERELLIDAE, LINGULELLIDAE,
+  _LINGULIDAE_, LIGULASMATIDAE.
+
+  ORDER II. Neotremata (Beecher).--More or less circular, cone-shaped,
+  inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle passes out at right angles to
+  the plane of junction of the valves of the shell; the opening is
+  confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form of a slit, or may
+  be closed by the development of a special plate called the listrium,
+  or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached to ventral valve.
+  FAMILIES.--ACROTRETIDAE, SIPHONOTRETIDAE, TREMATIDAE, _DISCINIDAE_,
+  _CRANIIDAE_.
+
+
+  Class II. TESTICARDINES (ARTICULATA)
+
+  ORDER III. Protremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with
+  pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open at the
+  hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium,
+  which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating on the
+  dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral valve.
+  FAMILIES.--KUTORGINIDAE, EICHWALDIIDAE, BILLINGSELLIDAE,
+  STROPHOMENIDAE, _THECIDIIDAE_, PRODUCTIDAE, RICHTHOFENIDAE, ORTHIDAE,
+  CLITAMBONITIDAE, SYNTROPHIIDAE, PORAMBONITIDAE, PENTAMERIDAE.
+
+  ORDER IV. Telotremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with the
+  pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve, and
+  placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no
+  pro-deltidium. Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &c.
+  FAMILIES.--PROTORHYNCHIDAE, _RHYNCHONELLIDAE_, CENTRONELLIDAE,
+  _TEREBRATULIDAE_, STRINGOCEPHALIDAE, MEGALANTERIDAE,
+  _TEREBRATELLIDAE_, ATRYPIDAE, SPIRIFERIDAE, ATHYRIDAE.
+
+  _Affinities_.--Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the
+  Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been
+  wanting. Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the
+  Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the
+  Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata. None of these
+  alliances has borne close scrutiny. The suggestion to place
+  Brachiopods with the Polyzoa, _Phoronis, Rhabdopleura_ and
+  _Cephalodiscus_, in the Phylum Podaxonia made in _Ency. Brit._ (vol.
+  xix, ninth edition, pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and
+  until we have a fuller account of the embryology of some one form,
+  preferably an Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very
+  isolated one. It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to
+  belong to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with
+  three segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in
+  several of the larger groups.
+
+  _Distribution._--Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian, and
+  reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which upwards
+  of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous in the Devonian
+  period; at present they are represented by some 140 recent species.
+  The following have been found in the British area, as defined by A.M.
+  Norman, _Terebratulina caput-serpentis_ L., _Terebratula (Gwynia)
+  capsula_ Jeff., _Magellania (Macandrevia) cranium_ Müll., _M.
+  septigera_ Lovén, _Terebratella spitzbergenensis_ Dav., _Megathyris
+  decollata_ Chemn., _Cistella cistellula_ S. Wood, _Cryptopora gnomon_
+  Jeff., _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_ Gmel., _Crania anomala_
+  Müll., and _Discinisca atlantica_ King. About one-half the 120
+  existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line. Below 150
+  fathoms they are rare, but a few such as _Terebratulina wyvillei_ are
+  found down to 2000 fathoms. _Lingula_ is essentially a very shallow
+  water form. As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ
+  from those of the southern. A large number of specimens of a species
+  are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading is
+  during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously
+  can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried some
+  little distance by currents.
+
+  Undue stress is often laid on the fact that _Lingula_ has come down to
+  us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst _Crania_, and
+  forms very closely resembling _Discina_ and _Rhynchonella_, are found
+  from the Ordovician strata onwards. The former statement is, however,
+  true of animals from other classes at least as highly organized as
+  Brachiopods, e.g. the Gasteropod _Capulus_, whilst most of the
+  invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by forms which
+  do not differ from their existing representatives in any important
+  respect.
+
+  A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be found
+  in Davidson's Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods, _Pal. Soc.
+  Mon._ vi., 1886. The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda, by the same
+  author, _Tr. Linn. Soc. London_, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv., 1886-1888,
+  must on no account be omitted.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.
+
+
+
+
+BRACHISTOCHRONE (from the Gr. [Greek: brachistos], shortest, and
+[Greek: chronos], time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694 to
+denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed point to
+another in the shortest time. When the directive force is constant, the
+curve is a cycloid (q.v.); under other conditions, spirals and other
+curves are described (see MECHANICS).
+
+
+
+
+BRACHYCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed), a term invented by Andreas
+Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width from side to side was
+little less than the length from front to back, their ratio being as 80
+to 100, as in those of the Mongolian type. Thus taking the length as
+100, if the width exceeds 80, the skull is to be classed as
+brachycephalic. The prevailing form of the head of civilized races is
+brachycephalic. It is supposed that a brachycephalic race inhabited
+Europe before the Celts. Among those peoples whose heads show marked
+brachycephaly are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians,
+Bavarians, Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See CRANIOMETRY.)
+
+
+
+
+BRACKYLOGUS (from Gr. [Greek: brachys], short, and [Greek: logos],
+word), title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work
+containing a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some writers
+have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian, and others have
+treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th century. The earliest extant
+edition of this work was published at Lyons in 1549, under the title of
+_Corpus Legum per modum Institutionum_; and the title _Brachylogus
+totius Juris Civilis_ appears for the first time in an edition published
+at Lyons in 1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great
+probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence that it was
+composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le Débonnaire (778-840), as
+it contains a Lombard law of that king's, which forbids the testimony of
+a clerk to be received against a layman. On the other hand its style and
+reasoning is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and
+11th centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author has
+not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of the
+Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion that he wrote
+before that school became dominant at Bologna. Savigny, who traced the
+history of the _Brachylogus_ with great care, is disposed to think that
+it is the work of Irnerius himself (_Geschichte des röm. Rechts im
+Mittelalter_). Its value is chiefly historical, as it furnishes evidence
+that a knowledge of Justinian's legislation was always maintained in
+northern Italy. The author of the work has adopted the _Institutes_ of
+Justinian as the basis of it, and draws largely on the _Digest_, the
+_Code_ and the _Novels_; while certain passages, evidently taken from
+the _Sententiae Receptae_ of Julius Paulus, imply that the author was
+also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled by order
+of Alaric II.
+
+  An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under the
+  title of _Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis_. See also H.
+  Fitting, _Über die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten Brachylogus_
+  (Berlin, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BRACKET, in architecture and carpentering, a projecting feature either
+in wood or metal for holding things together or supporting a shelf. The
+same feature in stone is called a "console" (q.v.). In furniture it is a
+small ornamental shelf for a wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks,
+china or other bric-à-brac. The word has been referred to "brace,"
+clamp, Lat. _bracchium_, arm, but the earliest form "bragget" (1580)
+points to the true derivation from the Fr. _braguette_, or Span.
+_bragueta_ (Lat. _bracae_, breeches), used both of the front part of a
+pair of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development
+is not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed
+connexion with "brace."
+
+
+
+
+BRACKET-FUNGI. The term "bracket" has been given to those hard, woody
+fungi that grow on trees or timber in the form of semicircular brackets.
+They belong to the order _Polyporeae_, distinguished by the layer of
+tubes or pores on the under surface within which the spores are borne.
+The mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues of
+the tree, and often destroys it; the "bracket" represents the fruiting
+stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain entrance to other
+trees by some wound or cut surface; hence the need of careful forestry.
+Many of these woody fungi persist for several years, and a new layer of
+pores is superposed on the previous season's growth.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLESHAM BEDS, in geology, a series of clays and marls, with sandy
+and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of the Hampshire Basin, England.
+They are well developed in the Isle of Wight and on the mainland
+opposite; and receive their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in
+Sussex. The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil
+mollusca are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the
+_Palaeophis_, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera also occur.
+The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay above and the
+Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below. In the London Basin these beds
+are represented only by thin sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group.
+In the Paris Basin the "Calcaire grossier" lies upon the same geological
+horizon.
+
+  See F. Dixon, _Geology of Sussex_ (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards and
+  S.V. Wood, "Monograph of Eocene Mollusca," _Palaeontographical Soc._
+  vol. i. (1847-1877); "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol.
+  Survey_ (2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, "The Geology of the Country around
+  Southampton," _Mem. Geol. Survey_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON, VISCOUNT (c. 1540-1617), English lord
+chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton of Ridley,
+Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded, but, according to
+Wood,[1] when he became a commoner at Brasenose College, Oxford, in
+1556, he was about seventeen. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1559, and was
+called to the bar in 1572, being chosen a governor of the society in
+1580, Lent reader in 1582, and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained
+legal renown and a large practice, and tradition relates that his
+skilful conduct of a case against the crown gained the notice of
+Elizabeth, who is reported to have declared: "In my troth he shall never
+plead against me again." Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was
+made solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments of
+1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended in the
+House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons desired that he
+should return to their house, the Lords refusing on the ground that he
+was called by the queen's writ to attend in the Lords before his
+election by the House of Commons.[2] He took part in the trial of Mary,
+queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that in her indictment she should
+only be styled "commonly called queen of Scots," to avoid scruples about
+judging a sovereign. He conducted several other state prosecutions. On
+the 2nd of June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted
+and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April 1594 he
+became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596 lord keeper of
+the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining, however, a commoner as
+Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in the Lords as such during the whole
+reign of Elizabeth. He kept in addition the mastership of the rolls, the
+whole work of the chancery during this period falling on his shoulders
+and sometimes causing inconvenience to suitors[3]. His promotion was
+welcomed from all quarters. "I think no man," wrote a contemporary to
+Essex, "ever came to this dignity with more applause than this worthy
+gentleman."[4]
+
+Egerton became one of the queen's most trusted advisers and one of the
+greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was a leading member
+of the numerous special commissions, including the ecclesiastical
+commission, and was the queen's interpreter in her communications to
+parliament. In 1598 he was employed as a commissioner for negotiating
+with the Dutch, obtaining great credit by the treaty then effected, and
+in 1600 in the same capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of
+his unlawful marriage with his second wife, in a private house without
+banns, the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and was
+obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.[5] He was a firm
+friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate Essex. He sought to
+moderate his violence and rashness, and after the scene in the council
+in July 1598, when the queen struck Essex and bade him go and be hanged,
+he endeavoured to reconcile him to the queen in an admirable letter
+which has often been printed.[6] On the arrival of Essex in London
+without leave from Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported
+the queen's just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity
+to the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House from
+the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the lord keeper
+used his influence to recover for him the queen's favour and gave him
+kindly warnings concerning the necessity for caution in his conduct. On
+the 5th of June 1600 he presided over the court held at his house, which
+deprived Essex of his offices except that of master of the horse,
+treating him with leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only
+that of disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he
+attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to bring
+Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601, the day fixed for
+the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers of state visited
+Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of the tumultuous assemblage.
+His efforts to persuade Essex to speak with him privately and explain
+his "griefs," and to refrain from violence, and his appeal to the
+company to depart peacefully on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and
+he was imprisoned by Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill
+him and to throw the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he
+abandoned all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his
+trial. On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber,
+exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of Thomas Lea
+to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.[7] In July 1602, a few months
+before her death, Elizabeth visited the lord keeper at his house at
+Harefield in Middlesex, and he was one of those present during her last
+hours who received her faltering intimation as to her successor.
+
+On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed lord
+keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in May 1603, and the
+chamberlainship of Chester in August. On the 21st of July he was created
+Baron Ellesmere, and on the 24th lord chancellor. His support of the
+king's prerogative was too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of
+the harsh penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the
+legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the
+prisoner "might be his last work to conclude his services."[8] In May
+1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet for questioning
+the authority of the earl marshal's court. In 1604 he came into
+collision with the House of Commons. Sir Francis Goodwin, an outlaw,
+having been elected for Buckinghamshire contrary to the king's
+proclamation, the chancellor cancelled the return when made according to
+custom into chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons,
+however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin to his
+seat, and though the matter was in the present instance compromised by
+the choice of a third party, they secured for the future the right of
+judging in their own elections. He was at one with James in desiring to
+effect the union between England and Scotland, and served on the
+commission in 1604; and the English merchants who opposed the union and
+community of trade with the Scots were "roundly shaken by him." In 1608,
+in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the assistance of
+the fourteen judges, that those born after the accession of James I. to
+the throne of England were English subjects and capable of holding lands
+in England; and he compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle
+Thomas, whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not,
+however, always show obedience to the king's wishes. He opposed the
+latter's Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of James's most
+peremptory commands and threats, refused to put the great seal to the
+pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated as high steward in the
+trial of the latter and his countess for the murder of Overbury. He was
+a rigid churchman, hostile to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics.
+He fully approved of the king's unfriendly attitude towards the former,
+adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared, in
+admiration of James's theological reasoning on this occasion, that he
+had never understood before the meaning of the legal maxim, _Rex est
+mixta persona cum sacerdote_. In 1605 he opposed the petition for the
+restitution of deprived Puritan ministers, and obtained an opinion from
+the judges that the petition was illegal. He supported the party of
+Abbot against Laud at Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness
+of the latter to be president of St John's College. In 1605 he directed
+the judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.
+
+His vigorous and active public career closed with a great victory gained
+over the common law and his formidable antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The
+chancellor's court of equity had originated in the necessity for a
+tribunal to decide cases not served by the common law, and to relax and
+correct the rigidity and insufficiency of the latter's procedure. The
+two jurisdictions had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar
+complaining of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor,
+and the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of justice
+in the courts of common law. The disputes between the courts, concerning
+which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated with the chancellor and
+Sir Edward Coke,[9] the lord chief justice, came to a crisis in 1616,
+when the court of chancery granted relief against judgments at common
+law in the cases of _Heath v. Rydley_ and _Courtney v. Granvil_. This
+relief was declared by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be
+illegal, and a counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against
+the parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury, however,
+refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite of Coke's threats
+and assurances that the chancellor was dead, and the dispute was
+referred to the king himself, who after consulting his counsel and on
+Bacon's advice decided in favour of equity. The chancellor's triumph was
+a great one, and from this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court
+of chancery was unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his
+dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the _commendams_,
+agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge's duty to communicate with the
+king, before giving judgments in which his interests were concerned, and
+in November warned the new lord chief justice against imitating the
+errors of his predecessor and especially his love of "popularity."[10]
+Writing in 1609 to Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had
+long been a thorn in his flesh) as a "frantic, turbulent and idle broken
+brayned fellow," apologizing for so often troubling Salisbury on this
+subject, "no fit exercise for a chancellor and a treasurer."[11] He now
+summoned Coke before him and communicated to him the king's
+dissatisfaction with his _Reports_, desiring, however, to be spared
+further service in his disgracing. After several petitions for leave to
+retire through failing health, he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617,
+delivered up to James the great seal, which he had held continuously for
+the unprecedented term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of
+November 1616 he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took
+place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his decease James
+sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper, with the gift of an
+earldom, and the presidentship of the council with a pension of £3000 a
+year, which the dying man declined as earthly vanities with which he had
+no more concern. He was buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.
+
+As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the long line of
+illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive or improper use of
+his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous case which precipitated the
+contest between the courts was a clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly
+fit for the chancellor's intervention. He refused to answer any
+communications from suitors in his court,[12] and it was doubtless to
+Ellesmere (as weeding out the "enormous sin" of judicial corruption)[13]
+that John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire. He
+gained Camden's admiration, who records an anagram on his name, "Gestat
+Honorem." Bacon, whose merit he had early recognized, and whose claims
+to the office of solicitor-general he had unavailingly supported both in
+1594 and 1606, calls him "a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the
+state," and speaks with gratitude of his "fatherly kindness." Ben
+Jonson, among the poets, extolled in an epigram his "wing'd judgements,"
+"purest hands," and constancy. Though endowed with considerable
+oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition and affected to
+despise eloquence as "not decorum for judges, that ought to respect the
+Matter and not the Humours of the Hearers."[14] Like others of his day
+he hoped to see a codification of the laws,[15] and appears to have had
+greater faith in judge-made law than in statutes of the realm, advising
+the parliament (October 27, 1601) "that laws in force might be revised
+and explained and no new laws made," and describing the Statute of Wills
+passed in Henry VIII.'s reign as the "ruin of ancient families" and "the
+nurse of forgeries." In the thirty-eighth year of Elizabeth he drew up
+rules for procedure in the Star Chamber,[16] restricting the fees, and
+in the eighth of James I. ordinances for remedying abuses in the court
+of chancery. In 1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post
+Nati, which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship. The
+following have been ascribed to him:--_The Privileges and Prerogatives
+of the High Court of Chancery_ (1641); _Certain Observations concerning
+the Office of the Lord Chancellor_ (1651)--denied by Lord Chancellor
+Hardwicke in _A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the
+Rolls_ (1728) to be Lord Ellesmere's work; _Observations on Lord Coke's
+Reports_, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710), the only evidence of his
+authorship being apparently that the MS. was in his handwriting; four
+MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. _The Prerogative
+Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery_ and _The Power
+of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on Magna Charta, &c._, Sept.
+1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and _An Abridgment of Lord Coke's Reports_
+(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of _Certain Observations
+concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor_, Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also
+_Life of Egerton_, p. 80, note T, catalogue of Harleian collection, and
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, 1806, ii. 170).
+
+He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
+Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons and a daughter. The
+elder son, Thomas, predeceased him, leaving three daughters. The
+younger, John, succeeded his father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was
+created earl of Bridgewater, and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley
+(daughter of his father's third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby),
+was the ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (q.v.), whose
+male line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and
+Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere (q.v.),
+descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and co-heir of the 1st duke
+of Bridgewater.
+
+  No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written, for
+  which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very scantily
+  calendared in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24, and app. pt. vii. p.
+  126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of personal and
+  family matters intended for a separate projected _Life_ which was
+  never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the Camden Society in
+  1840.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 197.
+
+  [2] D'Ewes's _Parliaments of Elizabeth_, 441, 442.
+
+  [3] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1601-1603, p. 191.
+
+  [4] Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, i. 479.
+
+  [5] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24.
+
+  [6] T. Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, ii. 384.
+
+  [7] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583.
+
+  [8] _State Trials_, ii. 909.
+
+  [9] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 381.
+
+  [10] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 407.
+
+  [11] _Lansdowne MS._ 91, f. 41.
+
+  [12] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ app. pt. vii. p. 156.
+
+  [13] _Life of Donne_, by E. Gosse, i. 43.
+
+  [14] Judgment on the Post Nati.
+
+  [15] Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.
+
+  [16] _Harleian MS._ 2310, f. i.; Gardiner's _Hist. of England_, ix. 56.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
+parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 59 m. N.W. by W.
+from London by the Great Central railway; served also by a branch of the
+London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St
+Peter, the body of which is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful
+Early English tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by
+William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his
+great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th century,
+called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman and Early
+English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on. The borough is under a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3489 acres.
+
+Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl Alberie, from
+whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence to the families of De
+Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments were held in 1249 and 1267, and
+others were prohibited in 1222 and 1244. The market, formerly held on
+Sunday, was changed in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of
+_Quo Warranto_ Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a
+fair on St Andrew's day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary granted two
+fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686 James II. incorporated
+the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 26 burgesses, granted three new
+fairs and confirmed the old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four
+fairs to the earl of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new
+charter of incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors
+under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (_Brit._ p. 430)
+says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for wool. It first sent
+members to parliament in 1547, and continued to send two representatives
+till disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The town formerly had a
+considerable woollen and lace-making trade.
+
+
+
+
+BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX (1833-   ), French painter and etcher, was born in
+Paris. He was trained in early youth as a trade lithographer, until
+Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him to his studio. His portrait of his
+grandmother, painted by him at the age of nineteen, attracted Théophile
+Gautier's attention at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and
+etching about 1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the
+revival of the etcher's art in France. Altogether he has produced over
+eight hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of
+contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations of
+other artists' paintings, especially those of Meissonier, Gustave Moreau
+and Corot. After having been attached to the Sèvres porcelain factory in
+1870, he accepted a post as art manager of the Paris _atelier_ of the
+firm of Haviland of Limoges. He was connected by a link of firm
+friendship with Manet, Whistler, and all the other fighters in the
+impressionist cause, and received all the honours that await the
+successful artist in France, including the grade of officer of the
+Legion of Honour in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BRACTON, HENRY DE (d. 1268), English judge and writer on English law.
+His real name was Bratton, and in all probability he derived it either
+from Bratton Fleming or from Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in
+Devonshire. It is only after his death that his name appears as
+"Bracton." He seems to have entered the king's service as a clerk under
+the patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal
+justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to appear as a
+justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268 he was steadily
+employed as a justice of assize in the south-western counties,
+especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. During the earlier part of this
+period he was also sitting as a judge in the king's central court, and
+was there hearing those pleas which "followed the king"; in other words,
+he was a member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon
+to be distinguished as the king's bench. From this position he retired
+or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly before the meeting
+of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. Whether his disappearance is to
+be connected with the political events of this turbulent time is
+uncertain. He continued to take the assizes in the south-west, and in
+1267 he was a member of a commission of prelates, barons and judges
+appointed to hear the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon
+de Montfort. In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261
+rector of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having
+resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral; he also held
+a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham. Already in 1245 he enjoyed
+a dispensation enabling him to hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He
+died in 1268 and was buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a
+chantry for his soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of
+Thorverton.
+
+His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of England which
+is sufficiently described elsewhere (see ENGLISH LAW). The main part of
+it seems to have been compiled between 1250 and 1256; but apparently it
+is an unfinished work. This may be due to the fact that when he ceased
+to be a member of the king's central court Bracton was ordered to
+surrender certain judicial records which he had been using as raw
+material. Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best
+work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.
+
+  The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This text was
+  reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English translation
+  was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are numerous, and
+  a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton's _Note-Book_ (ed.
+  Maitland, 1887); _Bracton and Azo_ (Selden Society, 1895).
+       (F. W. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRADAWL (from "brad," a flat nail, and "awl," a piercing tool), a small
+tool used for boring holes (see TOOL).
+
+
+
+
+BRADDOCK, EDWARD (1695?-1755), British general, was born in Perthshire,
+Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of Major-General Edward Braddock
+(d. 1725), and joined the Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a
+lieutenant-colonel he served under the prince of Orange in Holland
+during the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy
+of the 14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed
+shortly afterwards to command against the French in America, he landed
+in Virginia in February 1755. After some months of preparation, in which
+he was hampered by administrative confusion and want of resources, he
+took the field with a picked column, in which George Washington served
+as a volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg,
+Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of July and
+almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade of French and
+Indians. The troops were completely surprised and routed, and Braddock,
+rallying his men time after time, fell at last mortally wounded. He was
+carried off the field with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was
+buried at Great Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its
+retreat to reorganize. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+BRADDOCK, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900)
+15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,357. Braddock
+is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg &
+Lake Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of
+steel--especially steel rails; among its other manufactures are
+pig-iron, wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and
+electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the borough's
+factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a Carnegie library.
+Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular resort. The municipality owns and
+operates the water-works. Braddock was named in honour of the English
+general Edward Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site
+of the present borough at the hands of a force of French and Indians.
+The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th century, and was
+incorporated in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH (1837-   ), English novelist, daughter of Henry
+Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward
+Braddon, prime minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She
+began at an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced
+her first novel, _The Trail of the Serpent_. In the same year appeared
+_Garibaldi_, accompanied by _Olivia_, and other poems, chiefly
+narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving more notice
+than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a novelist was made by a
+favourable review in _The Times of Lady Audley's Secret_. _Aurora
+Floyd_, a novel with a strong affinity to _Madame Bovary_, followed, and
+achieved equal success. Its immediate successors, _Eleanor's Victory,
+John Marchmont's Legacy, Henry Dunbar_, remain with her former works the
+best-known of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a large
+and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body of readers of
+fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic in plot and character,
+conventional in their views of life, they are yet distinguished by
+constructive skill and opulence of invention. For a considerable time
+Miss Braddon conducted _Belgravia_, in which several of her novels
+appeared. In 1874 she married Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B.
+Maxwell, afterwards becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper
+correspondent.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr, was born at
+Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII., and educated
+at the local grammar school. Being a good penman and accountant, he
+became secretary to Sir John Harrington, paymaster of the English
+forces in France. Bradford at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to
+support his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the money
+entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution. In April 1547
+he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began to study law; but
+finding divinity more congenial, he removed, in the following year, to
+St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, where he studied with such assiduity
+that in little more than a year he was admitted by special grace to the
+degree of master of arts, and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke
+Hall, the fellowship being "worth seven pound a year." One of his pupils
+was John Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the see
+of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain. In 1553 he was
+also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became one of the most popular
+preachers in the kingdom, earning high praise from John Knox. Soon after
+the accession of Mary he was arrested on a charge of sedition, and
+confined in the Tower and the king's bench prison for a year and a half.
+During this time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in
+various parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January
+1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as chief, and,
+refusing to retract his principles, was condemned as a heretic and
+burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st of July 1555.
+
+  His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts,
+  letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker Society
+  (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33698-8.txt or 33698-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/9/33698/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33698-8.zip b/33698-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..05bfc1c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-8.zip
diff --git a/33698-h.zip b/33698-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8aeed2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h.zip
diff --git a/33698-h/33698-h.htm b/33698-h/33698-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6fd69c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/33698-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,19728 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
+    "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Volume IV Slice III - Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John.
+    </title>
+
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+    body    { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; }
+    p       { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.c     { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;}
+    p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; }
+
+    h2,h3        { text-align: center; }
+    hr           { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; }
+    hr.art       { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899;
+                          margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em }
+    hr.foot      {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; }
+    hr.full      {width: 100%}
+
+    table.ws      {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;
+                   margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;}
+    table.reg     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; }
+    table.nobctr  { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; }
+    table.pic     { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; }
+    table.math0   { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;}
+    table.math0 td  {text-align: center;}
+    table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;}
+
+    table.reg td  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.reg td.tc5p  { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;}
+    table.nobctr td { white-space: normal; }
+    table.pic td    { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;}
+    table.nobctr p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+    table.pic td p  {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;}
+
+    td            { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+    td.norm       { white-space: normal; }
+    td.denom      { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;}
+
+    td.tcc        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tccm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tccb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcr        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tcrb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tcrm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.tcl        { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;}
+    td.tclb       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;}
+    td.tclm       { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;}
+    td.vb         { vertical-align: bottom; }
+
+      .caption    { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;}
+      .caption1   { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;}
+
+    td.lb       {border-left: black 1px solid;}
+    td.ltb      {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb       {border-right: black 1px solid;}
+    td.rb2      {border-right: black 2px solid;}
+    td.tb, span.tb  {border-top: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb       {border-bottom: black 1px solid;}
+    td.bb1      {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+    td.rlb      {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;}
+    td.allb     {border: black 1px solid;}
+    td.cl       {background-color: #e8e8e8}
+
+    table p       { margin: 0;}
+
+    a:link, a:visited, link  {text-decoration:none}
+
+    .author   {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .center   {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;}
+    .center1  {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+    .grk      {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;}
+
+    .f80      {font-size: 80%}
+    .f90      {font-size: 90%}
+    .f150     {font-size: 150%}
+    .f200     {font-size: 200%}
+
+    .sp       {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .sp1      {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su       {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;}
+    .su1      {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;}
+    .spp      {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .suu      {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;}
+    .sc       {font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .scs      {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;}
+    .ov       {text-decoration: overline}
+    .cl       {background-color: #f5f5f5;}
+    .bk       {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;}
+    .bk1      {margin-left: -1em;}
+
+    .pagenum  {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt;
+                  background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0;
+                  padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; }
+    span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em;
+	           font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold;
+                   font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0;
+                   background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; }
+    .note     {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; }
+    .fn       { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5;
+                text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; }
+    span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;}
+
+    div.poemr        { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;}
+    div.poemr p      { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; }
+    div.poemr p.s     { margin-top: 1.5em; }
+    div.poemr p.i05   { margin-left: 0.4em; }
+    div.poemr p.i1    { margin-left: 1em; }
+    div.poemr p.i2    { margin-left: 2em; }
+
+    .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figleft1  { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; }
+    .figcenter   {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;}
+    .figcenter1  {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;}
+    .figure      {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;}
+    .bold        {font-weight: bold; }
+
+     div.minind   {text-align: justify;}
+     div.condensed, div.condensed1  { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; }
+     div.condensed1 p  {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%}
+
+     div.list   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;}
+     div.list1   {margin-left: 0;}
+     div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;}
+
+    .pt05       {padding-top: 0.5em;}
+    .pt1        {padding-top: 1em;}
+    .pt2        {padding-top: 2em;}
+    .ptb1       {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;}
+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3
+       "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE III<br /><br />
+Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BORGIA, LUCREZIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BOULTON, MATTHEW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BOUND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BORGO SAN DONNINO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BOUNDS, BEATING THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BORGU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BOUNTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BORIC ACID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BORING</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BOURBON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BOURBON, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BORISOGLYEBSK</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BOURBON-LANCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BORKU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BOURBON L&rsquo;ARCHAMBAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BORKUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BORLASE, WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BORMIO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BOURCHIER, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BORN, IGNAZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BORNA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BOURG-EN-BRESSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BORNEO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BORNHOLM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BOURGEOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BORNIER, HENRI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BOURGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BORNU</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BORODINO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BOURKE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BOROLANITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BORON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BOURNE, VINCENT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BOROUGH, STEVEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BOURNE</a> (town)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BOROUGH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BOURNE</a> (stream)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BOROUGHBRIDGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BOURNEMOUTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BOROUGH ENGLISH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BOURNONITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BORROMEAN ISLANDS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BOURRÉE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BORROMEO, CARLO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BOURSAULT, EDME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BORSIPPA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BOURSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BORT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BOURSSE, ESAIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BORZHOM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BOS, LAMBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BOSA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BOUTS-RIMÉS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BOUVARDIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BOSCASTLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BOUVIER, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BOUVINES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BOSCH, JEROM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BOVEY BEDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BOVIANUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BOVIDAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BOSPORUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BOVILLAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BOW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BOSS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BOSSU, RENÉ LE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BOWDLER, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BOWDOIN, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BOSTANAI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BOSTON, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BOSTON</a> (Lincolnshire, England)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BOWEN, FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BOSTON</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BOSTON</a> (game of cards)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BOWER, WALTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BOSTONITE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BOWIE, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BOSWELL, JAMES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BOW-LEG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BOWLES, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BOTANY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BOTANY BAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BOWLINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BOTHA, LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BOWLING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BOTHNIA, GULF OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.)</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BOTHWELL</a> (town)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BOWLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BOTOCUDOS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BOTORI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BOWRING, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BOTOSHANI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BOWTELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BO-TREE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BOWYER, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BOTRYTIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BOX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BOXING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BOXWOOD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BOYACÁ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BOYAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BOTTLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BOY-BISHOP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BOYCE, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BOTTLENOSE WHALE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BOYCOTT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BOTTOMRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BOTZARIS, MARCO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BOTZEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BOYD, ZACHARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BOUCHARDON, EDME</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BOYDELL, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BOYER, ALEXIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BOUCHER, JONATHAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BOYLE, JOHN J.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BOYLE, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BOUCHOR, MAURICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BOYLE</a> (town)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BOYNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BOUCICAULT, DION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BOYS&rsquo; BRIGADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BOUCICAUT, JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BOZDAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BOZRAH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BOUDINOT, ELIAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BRABANT</a> (duchy)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BOUÉ, AMI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BRABANT</a> (Belgium)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BRABANT, NORTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BRACCIANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BRACE, CHARLES LORING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BOUGIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BRACE, JULIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BOUGUER, PIERRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BRACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BRACELET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BRACHIOPODA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BRACHISTOCHRONE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BOUILLON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BRACHYCEPHALIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BOUILLOTTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BRACKYLOGUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BRACKET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BRACKET-FUNGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BOULANGER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BRACKLESHAM BEDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BRACKLEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BOULDER</a> (Colorado, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BOULDER</a> (large stone)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BRACTON, HENRY DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BOULDER CLAY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BRADAWL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BOUL&#274;</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BRADDOCK, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BOULEVARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BRADDOCK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BOULOGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BRADFORD, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BORGIA, LUCREZIA<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara,
+daughter of Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI.
+(<i>q.v.</i>), by his mistress Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at
+Rome in 1480. Her early years were spent at her mother&rsquo;s house
+near her father&rsquo;s splendid palace; but later she was given over
+to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of Cardinal Borgia
+and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his mistresses.
+Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of
+Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music,
+embroidery, painting, &amp;c.; she was famed for her beauty and
+charm, but the corrupt court of Rome in which she was brought
+up was not conducive to a good moral education. Her father
+at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for her, and at the age
+of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de Centelles, a
+Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost
+immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another
+Spaniard, Don Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa.
+On the death of Innocent VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was
+elected pope as Alexander VI., and, contemplating a yet more
+ambitious marriage for his daughter, he annulled the union with
+Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed to Giovanni
+Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now
+in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when
+the pope&rsquo;s policy changed and he became friendly to the king
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page250" id="page250"></a>250</span>
+of Naples, the enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the
+subjugation of the vassal lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling
+his position insecure, left Rome for Pesaro with his wife. By
+Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the pope had all his
+children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a series
+of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with
+Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband&rsquo;s
+impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with
+Naples, he married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of
+Bisceglie, a handsome youth of eighteen, related to the
+Neapolitan king. But he too realized the fickleness of the Borgias&rsquo;
+favour when Alexander backed up Louis XII. of France in the
+latter&rsquo;s schemes for the conquest of Naples. Bisceglie fled from
+Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent Lucrezia to receive
+the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On her return to
+Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was induced
+to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the
+order of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie,
+Lucrezia retired to Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where
+she acted for a time as regent during Alexander&rsquo;s absence.
+The latter now was anxious for a union between his daughter
+and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d&rsquo;Este, duke of Ferrara.
+The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither Alphonso
+nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of
+Borgia, and Lucrezia&rsquo;s own reputation was not unblemished.
+However, by bribes and threats the opposition was overcome,
+and in September 1501 the marriage was celebrated by proxy
+with great magnificence in Rome. On Lucrezia&rsquo;s arrival at
+Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her youthful
+charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth
+she led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath
+of scandal. On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became
+duke, and she gathered many learned men, poets and artists at
+her court, among whom were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus
+Manutius the printer, and the painters Titian and Dosso Dossi.
+She devoted herself to the education of her children and to
+charitable works; the only tragedy connected with this period
+of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to have
+admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso&rsquo;s jealousy. She
+died on the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter
+by the duke of Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke
+of Bisceglie, and possibly another of doubtful paternity. She
+seems to have been a woman of very mediocre talents, and only
+played a part in history because she was the daughter of
+Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was
+in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women
+around her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of
+incest with her father and brothers which were brought against
+her by the scandal-mongers of the time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the bibliographies for <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexander VI.</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borgia, Cesare</a></span>;
+and especially F. Gregorovius&rsquo;s <i>Lucrezia Borgia</i> (Stuttgart, 1874),
+the standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Lucrezia Borgia,
+Duchess of Ferrara</i> (London, 1869), which, while containing much
+information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori&rsquo;s &ldquo;Una
+Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia,&rdquo; in the <i>Nuova Antologia</i>
+(August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1868-&emsp;&emsp;), American
+sculptor, was born in Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868,
+the son of a Danish wood-carver. He studied under Louis F.
+Rebisso in the Cincinnati art school in 1895-1897, and under
+Frémiet in Paris. He took as his chief subjects incidents of
+western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he was familiar
+from his years on the ranch; notably &ldquo;Lassoing Wild Horses,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Stampeding Wild Horses,&rdquo; &ldquo;Last Round-up,&rdquo; &ldquo;On the
+Border of White Man&rsquo;s Land,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Burial on the Plains.&rdquo;
+His elder brother, Gutzon Borglum (b. 1867), also showed
+himself an artist of some originality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter
+of the Milanese school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani
+da Fossano, was approximately contemporary with Leonardo da
+Vinci, but represented, at least during a great part of his career,
+the tendencies of Lombard art anterior to the arrival of that
+master&mdash;the tendencies which he had adopted and perfected
+from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and Zenale. We are
+not precisely informed of the dates either of the death or the birth
+of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and
+whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian
+school. His fame is principally associated with that of
+one great building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the
+Carthusians at Pavia, for which he worked much and in many
+different ways. It is certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the
+tradition which represents him as having designed, in 1473, the
+celebrated façade of the Certosa itself. His residence there
+appears to have been of eight years&rsquo; duration, from 1486, when
+he furnished the designs of the figures of the virgin, saints and
+apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in <i>tarsia</i> or inlaid wood
+work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to Milan.
+Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San
+Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his
+career earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to
+Milan he worked at the church of San Satiro in that city. From
+1497 he was engaged for some time in decorating with paintings
+the church of the Incoronata in the neighbouring town at Lodi.
+Our notices of him thenceforth are few and far between. In
+1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his signature
+appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524&mdash;and this is our
+last authentic record&mdash;he painted a series of frescoes illustrating
+the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan.
+Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty,
+Borgognone is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an
+interesting place in the most interesting period of Italian art.
+The National Gallery, London, has two fair examples of his work
+&mdash;the separate fragments of a silk banner painted for the Certosa,
+and containing the heads of two kneeling groups severally of men
+and women; and a large altar-piece of the marriage of St Catherine,
+painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near Pavia. But to judge
+of his real powers and peculiar ideals&mdash;his system of faint and
+clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his somewhat
+slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us
+of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their
+Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive
+love of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed
+energy in figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in
+the matter of storied and minutely diversified backgrounds&mdash;to
+judge of these qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary
+to study first the great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at
+the Certosa, and next those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces
+at Milan and Lodi, in which we find the influence of
+Leonardo and of the new time mingling with, but not expelling,
+his first predilections.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORGO SAN DONNINO,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a town and episcopal see of Emilia,
+Italy, in the province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the
+town of Parma. Pop. (1901) town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It
+occupies the site of the ancient Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no
+doubt, as its name shows, of Roman origin. Here M. Lucullus
+defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was independent
+under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village
+dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom
+of S. Domninus under Maximian in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 304. The cathedral,
+erected in honour of this saint, is one of the finest and
+best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque churches of the 11th-13th
+centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the façade is incomplete,
+but the lower, with its three portals and sculptures, is very
+fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned, and has not
+been spoilt by restorations. For the <i>bénitier</i>, a work of the early
+11th century, see <i>Rassegna d&rsquo;Arte</i>, 1905, 180. Not far from the
+town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century
+structure in brick (<i>ib</i>., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale,
+in the Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century.
+Borgo S. Donnino is an important centre for the produce and
+cattle of Emilia.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORGU,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Barba</span>, an inland country of West Africa. The
+western part is included in the French colony of Dahomey (<i>q.v</i>.);
+the eastern division forms the Borgu province of the British
+protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu is bounded N.E. and E. by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page251" id="page251"></a>251</span>
+Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by Gurma. The country
+consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers draining north
+or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger basin
+and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east
+and south-west near the western frontier. In about 10° N.,
+below the town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger,
+navigable up to that point from the sea. The soil is mostly
+fertile, and is fairly cultivated, producing in abundance millet,
+yams, plantains and limes. The acacia tree is common, and
+from it gum-arabic of good quality is obtained. From the nut
+of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed. Cattle are numerous
+and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu is inhabited
+by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were
+dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the
+country, the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king
+of Bussa was another more or less powerful potentate. In the
+early years of the 19th century Borgu was invaded by the Fula
+(<i>q.v</i>.), but the Bariba (as the people are called collectively) maintained
+their independence. In 1894 Borgu became the object
+of rivalry between France and England. The Royal Niger
+Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection
+with the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D.
+Lugard to negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other
+chiefs, and Lugard succeeded in doing so a few days before the
+arrival of French expeditions from the west. Disregarding the
+British treaties, French officers concluded others with various
+chiefs, invaded Bussa and established themselves at various
+points on the Niger. To defend British interests, the West
+African Frontier Force was raised locally under Lugard&rsquo;s command,
+and a period of great tension ensued, British and French
+troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was, however,
+averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western
+part of Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the
+French withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.</p>
+
+<p>The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m.
+Up to the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria
+little or nothing was known of the country, though there were
+interesting legends of the antiquity of its history. The population
+was entirely independent, and resisted with success not only the
+Fula from the north but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi
+from the south and west. Travellers who attempted to penetrate
+this country had never returned. Since 1898 the country has
+been opened, and from being the most lawless and truculent of
+people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and
+law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little
+crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced
+by civil police. The assessment of taxes under British administration
+was successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected
+without trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but
+not industrious or inclined for trade. In the north there are
+some pastoral settlements of Fula. The Bariba themselves
+remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been constructed between
+the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural resources of
+Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the
+cessation of war and by immigration the country should show
+marked development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are
+still to be found in the fifty-mile strip of forest land which
+stretches between the Niger and the interior of the province.
+The forest contains valuable sylvan products, and there are
+great possibilities for the cultivation of rubber. There are also
+extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton, with the waterway
+of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought from
+Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally
+started. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bussa</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORIC ACID,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boracic Acid</span>, H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>, an acid obtained by
+dissolving boron trioxide in water. It was first prepared by
+Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715) from borax, by the action of
+mineral acids, and was given the name <i>sal sedativum Hombergi</i>.
+The presence of boric acid or its salts has been noted in sea-water,
+whilst it is also said to exist in plants and especially in almost all
+fruits (A.H. Allen, <i>Analyst</i>, 1904, 301). The free acid is found
+native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany, the Lipari
+Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures in
+the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals
+(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).</p>
+
+<p>The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the
+Maremma of Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country
+over which jets of vapour and heated gases (<i>soffioni</i>) and springs
+of boiling water spurt out from chasms and fissures. In some
+places the fissures open directly into the air, but in other parts
+of the district they are covered by small muddy lakes (<i>lagoni</i>).
+The soffioni contain a small quantity of boric acid (usually less
+than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of ammoniacal
+vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is constructed
+over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the
+passage of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into
+the highest basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon
+brought into a state of ebullition; after remaining in this basin
+for about a day, it is run off into the second one and is treated
+there in a similar manner. The operation is carried on through
+the entire series, until the liquor in the last basin contains about
+2% of boric acid. It is then run into settling tanks, from which
+it next passes into the evaporating pans, which are shallow lead-lined
+pans heated by the gases of the soffioni. These pans are
+worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first being
+concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is
+sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified
+by recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes
+prepared by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached,
+and the water so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated
+with boric acid to be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also
+obtained from boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric
+acid, followed by the evaporation of the solution so obtained.
+The residue is then heated in a current of superheated steam, in
+which the boric acid volatilizes and distils over. It may also be
+obtained by the decomposition of boracite with hot hydrochloric
+acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by the addition
+of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution of
+borax.</p>
+
+<p class="center">Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 5H<span class="su">2</span>O = Na<span class="su">2</span>SO<span class="su">4</span> + 4H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae
+belonging to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold
+water, but dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the &ldquo;weak&rdquo;
+acids, its dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, <i>Jour.
+of Chem. Soc.</i>, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably
+hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus
+to a claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a
+turmeric paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown,
+the colour becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the
+addition of sodium or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black.
+Boric acid is easily soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution
+be inflamed it burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The
+acid on being heated to 100° C. loses water and is converted into
+<i>metaboric acid</i>, HBO<span class="su">3</span>; at 140° C., <i>pyroboric acid</i>, H<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, is produced;
+at still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of
+the normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric
+acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily
+converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid.
+That orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of
+ethyl orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which
+corresponds to the molecular formula B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span>; the molecular
+formula of the acid must consequently be B(OH)<span class="su">3</span> or H<span class="su">3</span>BO<span class="su">3</span>. The
+metallic borates are generally obtained in the hydrated condition,
+and with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in
+water. The most important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or
+borax (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence
+they may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and
+butter (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adulteration</a></span>). In medicine boracic acid is used in
+solution to relieve itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic
+to impregnate lint or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too
+feeble to be relied upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics,
+such as mercuric chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been
+already employed, boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous
+and non-irritant) may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic
+or non-bacterial condition which they have obtained. Borax taken
+internally is of some value in irritability of the bladder, but as a
+urinary antiseptic it is now surpassed by several recently introduced
+drugs, such as urotropine.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORING.<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> The operations of deep boring are resorted to for
+ascertaining the nature, thickness and extent of the various
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page252" id="page252"></a>252</span>
+geological formations underlying the surface of the earth. Among the
+purposes for which boring is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting
+or searching for mineral deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas,
+artesian or salt wells; (3) determining the depth below the surface of
+bed-rock or other firm substratum, together with the character of the
+overlying materials, preparatory to mining or civil engineering
+operations; (4) carrying on geological or other scientific explorations.</p>
+
+<p>Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of
+mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least
+not highly inclined; <i>e.g.</i> deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide,
+flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of
+points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the
+thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map
+may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral
+are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While
+boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply
+inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less
+trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually
+misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally,
+bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the
+valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit.
+Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in
+estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the
+development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells,
+boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also
+for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in
+many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock
+salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing
+water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The
+sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are
+often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St
+Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft.</p>
+
+<p>Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as
+exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring
+veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated
+workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk
+for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote
+from a shaft.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in
+connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the
+depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and
+designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the
+cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological
+exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth
+in the earth&rsquo;s crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about
+6700 ft. deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg,
+Pennsylvania, 5532 ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of the bituminous coal and oil-bearing
+formations.</p>
+
+<p>There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers,
+(2) drive pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope
+system, in which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The
+first two methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others
+are for rock.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. <i>Earth augers</i> comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary
+spiral auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is
+attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections
+of rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by
+means of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod&mdash;by hand for holes of
+small diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse
+power. Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily
+bored; stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is
+intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the soil
+clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually bored
+by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive soils, the
+auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron cylinder to prevent
+the soil from falling out.</p>
+
+<p>Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common
+form (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the
+rod rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through
+a few revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied.
+For boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates.
+Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter
+earth augers are handled with the
+aid of a light derrick.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:226px; height:304px" src="images/img252a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.<br />
+Pod Auger.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>2. <i>Drive pipes</i> are widely used,
+both for testing the depth and
+character of soft material overlying
+solid rock and as a necessary preliminary
+to rock boring, when some
+thickness of surface soil must first
+be passed through. In its simplest
+form the drive pipe consists of one
+or more lengths of wrought iron
+pipe, open at both ends and from
+½ in. to 6 in. diameter. When of
+small size the pipe is driven by a
+heavy hammer; for deep and large
+holes, a light pile-driver becomes
+necessary. The lower end of the
+pipe is provided with an annular
+steel shoe; the upper end has a
+drivehead for receiving the blows
+of the hammer. Successive lengths
+are screwed on as required. For
+shallow holes the pipe is cleaned
+out by a &ldquo;bailer&rdquo; or &ldquo;sand-pump&rdquo;&mdash;a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long,
+with a valve in the lower end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by
+being dashed up and down, and then raised and emptied. If,
+after reaching some depth, the external frictional resistance prevents
+the pipe from sinking farther, another pipe of small diameter may
+be inserted and the driving continued. Drive pipes are often sunk
+by applying weights at the surface and slowly rotating by a lever.
+Two pipes are then used, one inside the other. Water is pumped
+down the inner pipe, thus loosening
+the soil, raising the debris and increasing
+the speed of driving. The
+&ldquo;driven well&rdquo; for water supply is an
+adaptation of the drive pipe and put
+down in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Drill and Rods</i>.&mdash;This method has
+long been used in Europe and elsewhere
+for deep boring. In the United
+States it is rarely employed for depths
+greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual
+form of cutting tool or drill is shown
+in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to
+2 in. square, in long lengths with
+screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are
+occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is
+done by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod.
+The men alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly
+walking around and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole
+true. The cuttings are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:175px; height:170px" src="images/img252b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3<br />Drill Bit.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.<br />Rod Joint.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 150px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:97px; height:331px" src="images/img252c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.<br />Sliding Link.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached,
+on account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper
+a &ldquo;spring-pole&rdquo; may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft.
+long and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests
+in an inclined position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft.
+from the butt, the latter being firmly fixed. The rods
+are suspended from the end of the pole, which extends
+at a height of several feet over the mouth of the
+hole. With the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes
+are produced by a slight effort on the part of the
+driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per 10 hours are
+easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.</p>
+
+<p>For deep boring the rod system requires a more
+elaborate plant. The rods are suspended from a
+heavy &ldquo;walking beam&rdquo; or lever, usually oscillated
+by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device,
+the rods, which are rotated slightly after every
+stroke, are gradually fed down as the hole is deepened,
+length after length being added. A tall derrick
+carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and
+tools are manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached
+rigidly to the rods as in shallow boring, because the
+momentum of the heavy moving parts, transmitted
+directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause
+excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary,
+therefore, to introduce a sliding-link joint between
+the rods and bit. One form of link is shown
+in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest,
+while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper
+member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up
+stroke the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow.
+For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 &#8468;, length of
+stroke 2½ to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page253" id="page253"></a>253</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:77px; height:416px" src="images/img253a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.<br />
+Kind Free-Falling Tool.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the
+rods may be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension.
+To deliver a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop
+with a quick stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the
+operating machinery. For overcoming this difficulty, various
+&ldquo;free-falling tools&rdquo; have been devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall
+by gravity; the rod follows on its measured down
+stroke, and picks up the bit. Free-falling tools are of
+two classes: (1) those by which the bit is released
+automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist
+imparted to the rod by the drillman. One of the best
+known of the first class is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6).
+The shank of the bit is gripped and released by the
+jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements
+of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward
+stroke, the resistance of the water in the hole
+slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and releasing
+the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end
+of the stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the
+bit and raise it for delivering another blow. The
+Fabian free-fall may be noted as an example of the
+second class (see Köhler, <i>Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde</i>,
+p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an
+annular groove in the bottom of the hole, and raising
+to the surface the core so formed, for observing the
+character of the rock.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Rope and Drop Tools.</i>&mdash;This method was long ago
+used in China. Because of its extensive application
+in the oil-fields it is generally designated in the
+United States as the &ldquo;oil-well system.&rdquo; In its
+various modifications it is often employed also in
+general prospecting of mineral deposits and in sinking
+artesian, natural gas and salt wells. One of its forms
+is known in England as the Mather &amp; Platt system.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:132px; height:464px" src="images/img253b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.<br />Temper Screw.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The chief point of difference from rod-boring is
+the substitution of rope for the jointed rods. For
+deep boring it possesses the advantage of saving
+the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering
+the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or
+a dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down
+by means of the rope with which they are operated while drilling.
+The speed of rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase
+of depth, while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest
+form the so-called &ldquo;string of tools,&rdquo; suspended from the rope, is
+composed of the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair
+of sliding links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a
+different purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward
+stroke, as the jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend
+to stick fast in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally
+inserted between the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow.
+The weight of another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope
+taut. The length of stroke and feed are regulated
+by the &ldquo;temper-screw&rdquo; (fig. 7), a feed device
+resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped
+to it is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals,
+as the hole is deepened. The bits usually range
+from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed of boring
+being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24
+hours, according to the kind of rock. A great
+variety of special &ldquo;fishing tools&rdquo; are made, for
+use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or other
+accident.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Diamond Drill.</i>&mdash;The methods described above
+are capable of boring holes vertically downward
+only. By the diamond drill, holes can be
+bored in any direction, from vertically downward
+to vertically upward. It has the further advantage
+of making an annular hole from which is
+obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete
+cross-section of the strata penetrated; the thickness
+and character of each stratum are shown,
+together with its depth below the surface. Thus,
+the diamond drill is peculiarly well adapted for
+prospecting mineral deposits from which samples
+are desired. The first practical application of
+diamonds for drilling in rock was made in 1863
+by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a civil engineer of
+Paris.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus consists essentially of a line of
+hollow rods, coupled by screw joints, an annular
+steel bit or crown, set with diamonds, being
+attached to the lower end. By means of a small
+engine on the surface the rods are rapidly rotated
+and fed down automatically as the hole
+deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions
+per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter
+of the bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the
+hollow rods by a pump, passing back to the surface through the
+annular space between the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The
+cuttings are thus carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole
+clean and unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the
+bit and diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This
+is done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:490px; height:403px" src="images/img253c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.&mdash;Little<br />Champion Rock Drill.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:125px" src="images/img253d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.<br />Diamond Drill Bit.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> to
+2¾ in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1<span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. diameter, and are capable
+of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more. They require
+from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore
+shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating
+in underground workings of mines, small and compact machines
+are sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1¼ to 1<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in.
+holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> to 1 in. diameter.
+Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields
+several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been
+successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate
+depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour,
+including ordinary delays, though in favourable
+rock much higher speeds are often attained.
+In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of
+time consumed in raising and lowering the rods.
+If no core is desired a &ldquo;solid bit&rdquo; is used.
+The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only
+necessary to raise the rods occasionally, for
+examining the condition of the bit.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 200px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:364px" src="images/img253e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.<br />Core Lifter and Barrel</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The driving engine has two inclined cylinders,
+coupled to a crank-shaft, by which,
+through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The
+rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For producing
+the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw and
+hydraulic cylinder. For the <i>differential feed</i> (fig. 9) the engine has a
+hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods are coupled.
+This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is supported
+by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared to the
+screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly
+proportioning the number of teeth in the
+system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is caused
+to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft,
+so that the drill-rod is fed downward a small
+fraction of an inch for each revolution. To
+vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different
+rocks, three pairs of gears with different ratios
+of teeth are provided. The screw-shaft and
+gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which
+can be rotated in a vertical plane, for boring
+holes at an angle.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>hydraulic feed</i> is an improvement on
+the above, in that the rate of feed is independent
+of the rotative speed of the rods and
+can be adjusted with the utmost nicety. There
+are either one or two feed cylinders, supplied
+with water from the pump. The rod, while
+rotating freely, is supported by the feed
+cylinder piston and caused to move slowly
+downward by allowing the water to pass
+from the lower to the upper part of the
+cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of
+the water and hence the rate of feed.</p>
+
+<p>The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft
+steel, set with six to eight or more diamonds
+according to its diameter. The diamonds,
+usually from 1½ to 2½ carats in size, are carefully set in the bit,
+projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds
+are used, &ldquo;carbons&rdquo; and &ldquo;borts.&rdquo; The carbons are opaque, dark
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page254" id="page254"></a>254</span>
+in colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes.
+They are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are
+rough, imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks.
+As the bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The
+wear of carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable.
+Above the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter
+(fig. 11, A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and
+raising it to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in
+the hole and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water
+and debris. It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole
+straight, partly for holding and protecting the core.</p>
+
+<p>Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock,
+as the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their
+settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond
+bit may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for
+core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an
+annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for
+soft rock, a toothed bit is used.</p>
+
+<p>Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate
+considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very
+deep holes have been found to vary as much as 45° and even 60°
+from their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do
+not fit closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to
+occur in drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different
+degrees of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel
+the liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented.
+Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the
+sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should
+therefore always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole
+instruments for observing at a number of successive points the
+direction and degree of deviation.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> If accurately surveyed a
+crooked hole may be quite as useful as a straight one.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For further information on boring see <i>Trans. Amer.
+Inst. Mining Engs.</i> vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C.
+le Neve Foster, <i>Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining</i>, chap. iii.;
+<i>Glückauf</i>, 9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905;
+<i>Scientific American</i>, 21st August 1886;
+<i>Engineering and Mining Jour.</i> vol. lviii. p. 268,
+vol. lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920;
+<i>Trans. Inst. Mining Engs.</i>, England, vol. xxiii. p. 685;
+<i>School of Mines Quarterly</i>, N. Y., vol. xvi. p. 1;
+<i>Zeitschr. für Berg- Hütten- und Salinenwesen</i>, vol. xxv. p. 29;
+Denny, &ldquo;Diamond Drilling,&rdquo; <i>Mines and Minerals</i>, vol. xx.,
+August 1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241;
+<i>Mining Jour.</i>, 26th January 1901;
+<i>Mining and Scientific Press</i>, 28th November 1903, p. 353;
+<i>Öst. Zeitschr. für Berg- und Hüttenwesen</i>, 21st May, 4th June 1904;
+<i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xii. p. 301;
+<i>Engineering Magazine</i>, March 1896, p. 1075.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. P.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Brough, <i>Mine Surveying</i>, pp. 276-278;
+Marriott, <i>Trans. Inst. Mining and Metallurgy</i>, vol. xiv. p. 255.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> tsar of Muscovy (<i>c.</i> 1551-1605),
+the most famous member of an ancient, now extinct,
+Russian family of Tatar origin, which migrated from the Horde
+to Muscovy in the 14th century. Boris&rsquo; career of service began
+at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is mentioned in 1570 as
+taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the archers of
+the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by his
+marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan&rsquo;s abominable favourite
+Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of
+Boris, to be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which
+occasion Boris was promoted to the rank of <i>boyar</i>. On his
+deathbed Ivan appointed Boris one of the guardians of his son and
+successor; for Theodore, despite his seven-and-twenty years,
+was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of Theodore began
+with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich Demetrius, the
+son of Ivan&rsquo;s fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion resulting in the
+banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her relations, to
+their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar&rsquo;s coronation
+(May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches,
+yet he held but the second place in the regency during the
+lifetime of his co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in
+August, he was left without any serious rival. A conspiracy
+against him of all the other great boyars and the metropolitan
+Dionysy, which sought to break Boris&rsquo; power by divorcing the
+tsar from Godunov&rsquo;s childless sister, only ended in the
+banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov
+was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into
+his hands, and he corresponded with foreign princes as their
+equal. His policy was generally pacific, but always most prudent.
+In 1595 he recovered from Sweden the towns lost during the
+former reign. Five years previously he had defeated a Tatar
+raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the title of <i>sluga</i>,
+an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar. Towards
+Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an
+anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor
+with subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov
+encouraged English merchants to trade with Russia by exempting
+them from tolls. He civilized the north-eastern and
+south-eastern borders of Muscovy by building numerous towns and
+fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic tribes in order. Samara,
+Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of lesser towns derive
+from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had been slipping
+from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new settlements,
+including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during his
+government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate,
+which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches
+and emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan
+of Kiev. Boris&rsquo; most important domestic reform was the
+<i>ukaz</i> (1587) forbidding the peasantry to transfer themselves
+from one landowner to another, thus binding them to the soil.
+The object of this ordinance was to secure revenue, but it led to
+the institution of serfdom in its most grinding form. The sudden
+death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15, 1591)
+has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his
+way to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was
+personally concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the
+many, often absurd, accusations subsequently brought against
+him by jealous rivals or ignorant contemporaries who hated
+Godunov&rsquo;s reforms as novelties.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598),
+self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to
+seize the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a
+monastery would have been his lightest fate. His election was
+proposed by the patriarch Job, who acted on the conviction that
+Boris was the one man capable of coping with the extraordinary
+difficulties of an unexampled situation. Boris, however, would
+only accept the throne from a <i>Zemsky Sobor</i>, or national
+assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously
+elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly
+crowned tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both
+popular and prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well.
+Enlightened as he was, he fully recognized the intellectual
+inferiority of Russia as compared with the West, and did his
+utmost to bring about a better state of things. He was the first
+tsar to import foreign teachers on a great scale, the first to send
+young Russians abroad to be educated, the first to allow Lutheran
+churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the necessity of a
+Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by diplomatic
+means. He cultivated friendly relations with the Scandinavians,
+in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal houses, so as
+to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was one of
+the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But his
+great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness,
+which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about
+him. His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as
+to forbid the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged
+informers and persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements.
+The Romanov family in especial suffered severely from
+these delations. Boris died suddenly (April 13, 1605), leaving one
+son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a few months and then
+was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, <i>On the Historical Significance of
+the Reign of Boris Godunov</i> (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850);
+Sergyei Mikhailivich Solovev, <i>History of Russia</i> (Rus.)
+(2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St Petersburg, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORISOGLYEBSK, <a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>a town of Russia, in the government of
+Tambov, 100 m. S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51° 22&prime; N. lat.
+and 43° 4&prime; E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern
+frontiers of Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was
+surrounded by wooden fortifications. The principal industries
+are the preparation of wool, iron-casting, soap-boiling,
+tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there is an active trade in
+grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two important annual fairs.
+Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page255" id="page255"></a>255</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BORKU,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Borgu</span>, a region of Central Africa between 17° and
+19° N. and 18° and 21° E., forming part of the transitional zone
+between the arid wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of
+the central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains,
+and is in great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging
+to the same system. These hills to the south and east merge into
+the plains of Wadai and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of
+Lake Chad, is the Bodele basin. The drainage of the country
+is to the lake, but the numerous khors with which its surface is
+scored are mostly dry or contain water for brief periods only. A
+considerable part of the soil is light sand drifted about by the
+wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist mainly of a
+number of valleys separated from each other by low and irregular
+limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also
+cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled
+population of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies
+of negroes; the others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber and
+Arab tribes. The inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses.</p>
+
+<p>A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through
+Borku to Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to
+Europeans. Gustav Nachtigal spent some time in it in the
+year 1871, and gave a valuable account of the region and its
+inhabitants in his book, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i> (Berlin, 1879-1889).
+In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great Britain, was assigned
+to the French sphere of influence. The country, which had
+formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs, was
+then governed by the Senussi (<i>q.v.</i>), who had placed garrisons
+in the chief centres of population. From it raids were made
+on French territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem
+entered Borku, but after capturing Ain Galakka, the principal
+Senussi station, retired. Borku is also called Borgu, but must
+not be confounded with the Borgu (<i>q.v.</i>) west of the Niger.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A summary of Nachtigal&rsquo;s writing on Borku will be found in section 28
+of <i>Gustav Nachtigal&rsquo;s Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan</i>
+(1 vol.), arranged by Albert Fränkel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an
+article (with map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in <i>La Géographie</i>, Oct. 1908.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORKUM,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging
+to the Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the
+East Frisian chain, lying between the east and west arms of the
+estuary of the Ems, and opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about
+2500. The island is 5 m. long and 2½ m. broad, is a favourite
+summer resort, and is visited annually by about 20,000 persons.
+There is a daily steamboat service with Emden, Leer and Hamburg
+during the summer months. The island affords pasture for
+cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORLASE, WILLIAM<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1695-1772), English antiquary and
+naturalist, was born at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient
+family, on the 2nd of February 1695. He was educated at
+Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was ordained. In 1722 he
+was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in 1732 he obtained
+in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish. In the
+parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with
+mineral and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and
+thus was led to study somewhat minutely the natural history of
+the county. In 1750 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal
+Society; and in 1754 he published, at Oxford, his <i>Antiquities of
+Cornwall</i> (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next publication was
+<i>Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the Islands of
+Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain</i> (Oxford,
+1756). In 1758 appeared his <i>Natural History of Cornwall</i>. He
+presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils
+and antiquities, which he had described in his works, and
+received the thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D.
+He died on the 31st of August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted
+with most of the leading literary men of the time, particularly
+with Alexander Pope, with whom he kept up a long correspondence,
+and for whose grotto at Twickenham he furnished the
+greater part of the fossils and minerals.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Borlase&rsquo;s letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill
+several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and
+a complete unpublished treatise <i>Concerning the Creation and Deluge</i>.
+Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given
+in the <i>Quarterly Review</i>, October 1875. Borlase&rsquo;s memoirs of his
+own life were published in Nichol&rsquo;s <i>Literary Anecdotes</i>, vol. v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORMIO<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Worms</i>), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the
+province of Sondrio, 41½ m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop.
+(1901) 1814. It is situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the
+Adda), 4020 ft. above sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass,
+and, owing to its position, was of some military importance in
+the middle ages. It contains interesting churches and picturesque
+towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman date was discovered at Bormio in 1820.</p>
+
+<p>The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned
+by Pliny and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are
+much frequented.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORN, IGNAZ,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> <span class="sc">Edler von</span> (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist
+and metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg,
+in Transylvania, on the 26th of December 1742. Educated
+in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he was for sixteen months a
+member of the order, but left it and studied law at Prague.
+Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and France,
+studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered
+the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed
+by Maria Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna,
+where he was nominated to the council of mines and the mint,
+and continued to reside until his death on the 24th of July 1791.
+He introduced a method of extracting metals by amalgamation
+(<i>Über das Anquicken der Erze</i>, 1786), and other improvements in
+mining and other technical processes. His publications also include
+<i>Lithophylacium Bornianum</i> (1772-1775) and <i>Bergbaukunde</i>
+(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born
+attempted satire with no great success. <i>Die Staatsperücke</i>, a
+tale published without his knowledge in 1772, and an attack on
+Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king&rsquo;s astronomer at Vienna, are two
+of his satirical works. Part of a satire, entitled <i>Monachologia</i>,
+in which the monks are described in the technical language of
+natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born was well
+acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of
+Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately
+connected with metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active
+part in the political changes in Hungary. After the death of
+the emperor Joseph II., the diet of the states of Hungary
+rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and conferred the rights
+of denizen on several persons who had been favourable to the
+cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von Born. At the
+time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a work
+entitled <i>Fasti Leopoldini</i>, probably relating to the prudent
+conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORNA,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the
+Wyhra at its junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig
+by rail. Pop. (1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting,
+iron foundries, organ, pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÖRNE, KARL LUDWIG<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1786-1837), German political writer and
+satirist, was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main,
+where his father, Jakob Baruch, carried on the business
+of a banker. He received his early education at Giessen, but
+as Jews were ineligible at that time for public appointments in
+Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study medicine at Berlin
+under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he resided.
+Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron&rsquo;s wife,
+the talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave
+vent to his adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of
+medical science, which he had subsequently pursued at Halle,
+he studied constitutional law and political science at Heidelberg
+and Giessen, and in 1811 took his doctor&rsquo;s degree at the latter
+university. On his return to Frankfort, now constituted as a
+grand duchy under the sovereignty of the prince bishop Karl von
+Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of police actuary in
+that city. The old conditions, however, returned in 1814 and
+he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the oppression
+under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in journalism,
+and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers, <i>Staatsristretto</i>
+and <i>Die Zeitschwingen</i>. In 1818 he became a convert to Lutheran
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page256" id="page256"></a>256</span>
+protestantism, changing his name from Löb Baruch to Ludwig
+Börne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than,
+as in the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve
+his social standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited <i>Die Wage</i>,
+a paper distinguished by its lively political articles and its powerful
+but sarcastic theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed
+by the police authorities, and in 1821 Börne quitted for a while
+the field of publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg
+and Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he
+hurried to Paris, expecting to find the newly-constituted state of
+society somewhat in accordance with his own ideas of freedom.
+Although to some extent disappointed in his hopes, he was not
+disposed to look any more kindly on the political condition of
+Germany; this lent additional zest to the brilliant satirical
+letters (<i>Briefe aus Paris</i>, 1830-1833, published Paris, 1834),
+which he began to publish in his last literary venture, <i>La Balance</i>,
+a revival under its French name of <i>Die Wage</i>. The <i>Briefe aus
+Paris</i> was Börne&rsquo;s most important publication, and a landmark
+in the history of German journalism. Its appearance led him
+to be regarded as one of the leaders of the new literary party of
+&ldquo;Young Germany.&rdquo; He died at Paris on the 12th of February
+1837.</p>
+
+<p>Börne&rsquo;s works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a
+thorough French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found
+in his <i>Denkrede auf Jean Paul</i> (1826), a writer for whom he had
+warm sympathy and admiration, in his <i>Dramaturgische Blätter</i>
+(1829-1834), and the witty satire, <i>Menzel der Franzosenfresser</i>
+(1837). He also wrote a number of short stories and sketches, of
+which the best known are the <i>Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke</i>
+(1829) and <i>Der Esskünstler</i> (1822).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first edition of his <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i> appeared at Hamburg
+(1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of <i>Nachgelassene
+Schriften</i> (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition
+in 12 volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently.
+The latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar
+(8 vols., Leipzig, 1900). For further biographical matter see
+K. Gutzkow, <i>Börnes Leben</i> (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann,
+<i>L. Börne, sein Leben und sein Wirken</i> (Berlin, 1888). <i>Börnes Briefe
+an Henriette Herz</i> (1802-1807), first published in 1861, have been
+re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg, 1905), who has also published
+Börne&rsquo;s <i>Berliner Briefe</i> (1828) (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine&rsquo;s
+witty attack on Börne (<i>Werke</i>, ed. Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus&rsquo; essay
+in his <i>Historiche Schriften</i> (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters
+in G. Brandes, <i>Hovedströmninger i det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur</i>
+vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German trans. 1891; English trans.
+1905), and in J. Proelss, <i>Das junge Deutschland</i> (Stuttgart, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORNEO,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending
+from 7° N. to 4° 20&prime; S., and from 108° 53&prime; to 119° 22&prime; E. It is
+830 m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth.
+Its area according to the calculations of the Topographical
+Bureau of Batavia (1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures
+are admittedly approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate,
+gives the area of Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however,
+five times as large as England and Wales. Politically Borneo is
+divided into four portions: (1) British North Borneo, the territory
+exploited and administered by the Chartered British North
+Borneo Company, to which a separate section of this article
+is devoted; (2) Brunei (<i>q.v.</i>), a Malayan sultanate under British
+protection; (3) Sarawak (<i>q.v.</i>), the large territory ruled by
+raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign
+relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises
+the remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion
+of the island.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Features</i>.&mdash;The general character of the country is
+mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great
+elevation, and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is
+situated near its north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above
+sea-level. There is no proper nucleus of mountains whence chains
+ramify in different directions. The central and west central
+parts of the island, however, are occupied by three mountain
+chains and a plateau. These chains are: (1) the folded chain
+of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western division of
+Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains
+near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.;
+(2) the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits
+range from 3000 to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit
+Raja, a plateau which divides the waters of the Kapuas from the
+rivers of southern Borneo; and (3) the Müller chain, between the
+eastern parts of the Madi plateau (presently to be mentioned) and
+the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region presenting heights, such as
+Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once active but are now long
+extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between the Kapuas and
+the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft., and it
+is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are
+homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera,
+but of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern
+end of the Kapuas mountains there are further to be observed:
+(1) A chain running north-north-east, which forms the boundary
+between Sarawak and Dutch Borneo, the highest peak of which,
+Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft. This chain can hardly be
+said to extend continuously to the extreme north of the island,
+but it carries on the line of elevation towards the mountains of
+Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to the
+north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The
+mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in
+the portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2)
+A chain which runs eastward from the central mountains and
+terminates in the great promontory of the east coast, known
+variously as Cape Kanior or Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked
+chain running in a south-easterly direction among the congeries
+of hills that extend south-eastward from the central mountains,
+and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast, heights
+up to and exceeding 6000 ft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coasts.</i>&mdash;Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth,
+the coasts of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low
+alluvial lands, of a marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy
+character. In places the sands are fringed by long lines of
+<i>Casuarina</i>, trees; in others, and more especially in the neighbourhood
+of some of the river mouths, there are deep banks of black
+mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast presents to
+the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue, sparsely
+clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of rank
+grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a
+maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers
+few accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a
+rule at or near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded
+too efficiently by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the
+long coast-line of Dutch Borneo there are only seven ports of call,
+which are habitually made use of by the ships of the Dutch
+Packet Company. They are Pontianak, Banjermasin, Kota
+Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The islands off
+the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial formation
+at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the
+shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the
+principal islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern
+extremity, Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>), a British colony off the west coast of
+the territory of North Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the
+south-west coast. On Great Karimata is situated the village of
+Palembang with a population of about 500 souls employed in
+fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest produce.</p>
+
+<div class="center ptb1"><img style="width:900px; height:1076px" src="images/img257.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><i>Rivers</i>.&mdash;The rivers play a very important part in the economy
+of Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the
+main arteries of population. Hydrographically the island may
+be divided into five principal versants. Of these the shortest
+embraces the north-western slope, north of the Kapuas range,
+and discharges its waters into the China Sea. The most important
+of its rivers are the Sarawak, the Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the
+Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.), the Baram, the Limbang
+or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of British North
+Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and of
+scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range
+here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs
+parallel. In the south-western versant the largest river is the
+Kapuas, which, rising near the centre of the island, falls into the
+sea between Mampawa and Sukadana after a long and winding
+course. This river, of volume varying with the tide and the
+amount of rainfall, is normally navigable by small steamers and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page257" id="page257"></a>257</span>
+native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for 300 to 400 m., that is
+to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence as far as Benut.
+The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow than the
+lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes which
+extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its
+considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi
+with its affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several
+channels in a wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the
+Kapuas, is navigable in its lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft.
+Rivers lying to the south of the Kapuas, but of less importance in
+the way of size, commerce and navigation, are the Simpang,
+Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood of whose mouths,
+or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native villages are
+situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal river of
+the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and
+falls into the Java Sea in 114° 30&prime; E. Its upper reaches are
+greatly impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower
+part of its course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district,
+much of which is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two
+rivers of considerable size towards the west, the Kapuas Murung
+or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or Great Dyak. The Katingan
+or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and the Kota
+Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west. The
+rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage,
+the basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000
+sq. m., and the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are
+navigable for two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size,
+but in many cases the bars at their mouths present considerable
+difficulties to ships drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the
+larger affluents of the Barito are also navigable throughout the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page258" id="page258"></a>258</span>
+greater part of their courses. The south-eastern like the
+north-western corner of the island is watered by a considerable
+number of short mountain streams. The one great river of the eastern
+versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the central
+mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by numerous
+mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from its
+mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical
+features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan
+or Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that
+calls for mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant
+are comparatively small, as the island narrows into a kind of
+promontory. Of these the Kinabatangan in the territory of British
+North Borneo is the most important. Lakes are neither
+numerous nor very large. In most cases they are more fittingly
+described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper Kapuas, of
+which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar,
+and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the
+basins of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine
+natural harbour in the island of which any use has been made is
+that of Sandakan, the principal settlement of the North Borneo
+Company on the north coast.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known.
+The mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch
+possessions, and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island,
+consists chiefly of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones
+and limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The
+sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but
+Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable that
+several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar
+rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and
+possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Müller range, the
+Madi plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist
+chiefly of almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of
+Tertiary age. The low-lying country between the mountain ranges
+is covered for the most part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits,
+but Cretaceous beds occur at several localities. Some of the older
+rocks of the mountain regions have been referred to the Devonian,
+but the evidence cannot be considered conclusive. <i>Vertebraria</i> and
+<i>Phyllotheca</i>, plants characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series,
+have been recorded in Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those
+of the lower part of the Australian Carboniferous system, are stated
+to occur in the limestone of north Borneo. <i>Pseudomonotis salinaria</i>,
+a Triassic form, has been noted from the schists of the west of Borneo.
+In the Kapoewas district radiolarian cherts supposed to be of
+Jurassic age are met with. Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging
+to several horizons, have been described from west Borneo and
+Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which have long been known in
+west Borneo, are comparatively little disturbed. They consist
+for the most part of marls with <i>Orbitolina concava</i>, and are
+referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of somewhat later date are
+found in the Marpapura district in south-east Borneo. The Tertiary
+system includes conglomerates, sandstones, limestones and marls,
+which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene age. They
+contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds generally lie
+nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the Madi plateau
+and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several thousand
+feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are
+extensively developed, especially in the Müller Mountains. The whole
+of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west
+and rhyolites and dacites in the east.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied.
+It includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a
+somewhat yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper,
+iron, tin, antimony, mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and
+coal. The exploitation of the mines suffers in many cases from
+the difficulties and expense of transport, the high duties payable
+in Dutch Borneo to the native princes, the competition among
+the rival companies, and often the limited quantities of the
+minerals found in the mines. The districts of Sambas and
+Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys of
+the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest
+quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from
+alluvial washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working
+gold-mines in the upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the
+prospects of the enterprise, which is conducted on a fairly
+extensive scale, are known to be encouraging. Diamonds are also
+found widely distributed and mainly in the same regions as the
+gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the largest quantity,
+and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of export.
+Considerable progress has been made in the development of the
+oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the <i>Nederlandsch Indische
+Industrie en Handel Maatschappij</i>, the Dutch business of the
+Shell Transport and Trading Company, increased its output
+from 123,592 tons in 1901 to 285,720 tons in 1904, and showed
+further satisfactory increase thereafter. This company owns
+extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and Sanga-Sanga. The quality
+of the oil varies in a remarkable way according to the depth.
+The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft., and yields
+a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next source
+is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much lighter
+in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the
+refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis,
+whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable
+percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very
+high, owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the
+natural pressure of the gas. There is every reason to believe
+that the oil-fields of Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal
+mines have, in many instances, been opened and abandoned,
+failure being due to the difficulty of production. Coal of good
+quality has been found in Pengaron and elsewhere in the Banjermasin
+district, but most Borneo coal is considerably below this
+average of excellence. It has also been found in fair quantities
+at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak. The coalmines
+of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success
+has never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under
+130 tons a day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the
+raja of Sarawak, yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent
+coal. The discovery that Borneo produced antimony was made
+in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the orientalist, who learned in that
+year that a quantity had been brought to Singapore by a native
+trader as ballast. The supply is practically unlimited and widely
+distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in Sarawak.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Health</i>.&mdash;As is to be anticipated, having regard to
+its insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through
+the very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very
+damp. In the hills and in the interior regions are found which
+may almost be described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere
+is dense, humid and oppressive. Throughout the average
+temperature is from 78° to 80° F., but the thermometer rarely
+falls below 70°, except in the hills, and occasionally on exceptional
+days mounts as high as 96° in the shade. The rainy
+westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the meteorological
+stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind.
+Even at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west
+wind brings annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain
+carried by the south-east wind. The difference between the
+seasons is not rigidly marked. The climate is practically unchanging
+all the year round, the atmosphere being uniformly
+moist, and though days of continuous downpour are rare, comparatively
+few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls
+between November and May, and at this season the torrents are
+tremendous while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and
+violent, almost invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an
+extensive area there is, of course, great variety in the climatic
+character of different districts, especially when viewed in relation
+to health. Some places, such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance,
+are notoriously unhealthy; but from the statistics of the Dutch
+government, and the records of Sarawak and British North
+Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo has in
+general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java,
+or in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula.
+Among the native races the prevailing diseases, apart from those
+of a malarial origin, are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient
+food, from intemperance, and from want of cleanliness.
+The habit of allowing their meat to putrefy before regarding it
+as fit for food, and of encouraging children of tender age to drink
+to intoxication, accounts for absence of old folk and the heavy
+mortality which are to be observed among the Muruts of British
+North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes of
+the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus
+are common among the natives throughout the country and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page259" id="page259"></a>259</span>
+especially in the interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with
+on the coast. Smallpox, dysentery and fevers, frequently of
+a bilious character, are endemic and occasionally epidemic.
+Cholera breaks out from time to time and works great havoc, as
+was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak&rsquo;s punitive
+expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by
+boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast
+could be regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will
+attack whole tribes. About one sixth of the native population
+of the interior, and a smaller proportion of those living on the
+coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm called <i>kurap</i>, which also
+prevails almost universally among the Sakai and Semang, the
+aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The disease is
+believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is
+not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna</i>.&mdash;The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of
+species, many of which are numerically of great importance.
+Among the quadrupeds the most remarkable is the orang-utan
+(Malay, <i>ôrang ûtan</i>, <i>i.e.</i> jungle man), as the huge ape, called <i>mias</i>
+or <i>mâyas</i> by the natives, is named by Europeans. Numerous
+species of monkey are found in Borneo, including the wahwah,
+a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance and
+habits than the orang-utan, and several <i>Semnopitheci</i>, such as the
+long-nosed ape and the golden-black or <i>chrysomelas</i>. The large-eyed
+<i>Stenops tardigradus</i> also deserves mention. The larger
+beasts of prey are not met with, and little check is therefore put
+on the natural fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small
+panther and the clouded tiger (so called)&mdash;<i>Felis macroscelis</i>&mdash;are
+the largest animals of the cat kind that occur in Borneo.
+The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay or honey-bear is
+very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur in
+the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare,
+and in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution
+of quadrupeds as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan
+Peninsula is somewhat peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious.
+Many quadrupeds, such as the honey-bear and the
+rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is common
+both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur
+in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found
+in Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so
+plentiful in parts of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never
+been discovered in the Malay Peninsula. It has been suggested,
+but with very scant measure of probability, that the existence of
+elephants in Borneo, whose confinement to a single district is
+remarkable and unexplained, is due to importation; and the
+fact is on record that when Magellan&rsquo;s ships visited Brunei in
+1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the sultan of
+Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way confounded
+with the Malayan <i>seladang</i> or gaur, are rare, but the
+whole country swarms with wild swine, and the <i>babirusa</i>, a
+pig with curious horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators
+are found in most of the rivers, and the gavial is less frequently
+met with. Three or four species of deer are common, including
+the mouse-deer, or <i>plandok</i>, an animal of remarkable grace and
+beauty, about the size of a hare but considerably less heavy.
+Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines, civet-cats, rats, bats,
+flying-foxes and lizards are found in great variety; snakes of
+various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are abundant,
+while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes with
+horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered
+by Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some
+quarters. The most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons,
+owls, horn-bills, cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back
+and peacock-pheasants), partridges, ravens, crows, parrots,
+pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe, quail and swallows. Of most
+of these birds several varieties are met with. The <i>Cypselus
+esculentus</i>, or edible-nest swift, is very common, and the nests,
+which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed the best
+in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief insect
+pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds
+of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to
+beasts. There are also two kinds of ants, the s&#283;mut âpi (&ldquo;fire
+ant&rdquo;) and the <i>s&#283;mut lâda</i> (&ldquo;pepper ant&rdquo;), whose bites are
+peculiarly painful. Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties
+abound. The honey and the wax of the wild bee are collected
+by the natives. Butterflies and moths are remarkable for their
+number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no less numerously
+represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly
+wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding
+seas, swarm with fish. The <i>siawan</i> is a species of fish
+found in the rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted.
+The natives are expert and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang
+and pearl-shell are of some commercial importance.</p>
+
+<p>The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not
+very obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo,
+a smaller breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula,
+and in some districts bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small
+horses, are the principal domestic animals. The character of the
+country and the nomadic habits of many of the natives of the
+interior, who rarely occupy their villages for more than a few
+years in succession, have not proved favourable to pastoral
+modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture,
+but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the
+saddle. Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by
+the wealthier classes, are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak.
+In British North Borneo, and especially in the district of Tempasuk
+on the north-west coast, Borneo ponies, bred originally,
+it is supposed, from the stock which is indigenous to the Sulu
+archipelago, are common.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i>.&mdash;The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion
+of the surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation.
+The king of the forest is the <i>tapan</i>, which, rising to a great height
+without fork or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage.
+The official seats of some of the chiefs are constructed from the
+wood of this tree. Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of
+its timber, is abundant; it is used by the natives for the pillars
+of their homes and forms an article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong.
+It is rivalled in hardness by the <i>kâyu t&#283;mb&#283;su</i>. In all,
+about sixty kinds of timber of marketable quality are furnished
+in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of extraction, even
+in the regions situated in close proximity to the large waterways,
+renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will attain
+to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of
+supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in
+great variety, including the <i>nîpah</i>, which is much used for thatching,
+the cabbage, fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two
+furnish large supplies of food to the natives, some copra is exported,
+and sago factories, mostly in the hands of Chinese,
+prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets. Gutta-percha
+(<i>g&#283;tah p&#283;rcha</i> in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon, cloves,
+nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in
+the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the
+much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian,
+a large fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed
+of stout pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a
+tall tree and occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries
+upon passers-by. Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons,
+pumpkins, cucumbers, pineapples, bananas and mangosteens
+are cultivated, as also are a large number of other fruits. Rice
+is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers and in the swamps,
+and also in rude clearings in the interior; sugar-cane of superior
+quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes exported
+in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of the
+Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of
+cigars, in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for
+native consumption, which is of small commercial importance,
+is cultivated in most parts of the island. Indigo, coffee and
+pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in the western division
+of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the flowering
+plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants&mdash;the
+latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the
+northern districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very
+common, many that are usually independent assuming here the
+parasitic character; the <i>Vanda lowii</i>, for example, grows on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page260" id="page260"></a>260</span>
+lower branches of trees, and its strange pendent flower-stalks
+often hang down so as almost to reach the ground. Ferns are
+abundant, but not so varied as in Java.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population</i>.&mdash;The population of Borneo is not known with any approach to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it is estimated as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Dutch Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">1,130,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">British North Borneo</td> <td class="tcr">200,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sarawak</td> <td class="tcr">500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Brunei</td> <td class="tcr">20,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and
+vast areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain
+unexplored, and free from any practical authority or control.
+In Sarawak, owing to the high administrative genius of the first
+raja and his successor, the natives have been brought far more
+completely under control, but the raja has never found occasion
+to utilize the machinery of his government for the accurate
+enumeration of his subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two
+divisions, the western and the south and eastern respectively.
+Of the two, the former is under the more complete and effective
+control. The estimated population in the western division is
+413,000 and in the south and eastern 717,000. Europeans
+number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and Chinese, mainly in
+the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions there is an
+average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The
+sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is
+due to a variety of causes&mdash;to the physical character of the
+country, which for the most part restricts the area of population to the
+near neighbourhood of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to
+which the majority of the natives have attained and the consequent
+disregard of sanitation and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting,
+the last of which has not even yet been effectually checked among some
+of the tribes of the interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in
+earlier times of Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives,
+more especially of the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a
+life of spasmodic nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an
+incredible improvidence which induces them to convert into intoxicating
+liquor a large portion of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious
+character which are invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies,
+and certain superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of
+abortion, have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas,
+Montrado and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the
+population is due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of
+mines, the navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the
+concentration of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths
+of rivers and the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western
+division, Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000;
+Montrado, Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the
+south and eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000
+inhabitants; Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with
+populations of from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and
+Martapura early Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the
+influence still are manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided
+by navigable rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population
+to a degree which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the
+interior parts of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only
+a very small proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by
+agriculture and industry, the great majority of them being officials.
+The Arabs and Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and
+agriculture. Of the natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which,
+however, is for the most part of a somewhat primitive description. The
+industries of the natives are confined to such crafts as spinning and
+weaving and dyeing, the manufacture of iron weapons and implements,
+boat- and shipbuilding, &amp;c. More particularly in the south-eastern
+division, and especially in the districts of Negara, Banjermasin,
+Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding, iron forging, gold- and
+silversmith&rsquo;s work, and the polishing of
+diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger
+centres of population.</p>
+
+<p><i>Races.</i>&mdash;The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable
+variety of races, of different origin and degrees of civilization.
+The most important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and
+Muruts of the interior, the Malays, among whom must be
+counted such Malayan tribes as the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &amp;c., the
+Bugis, who were originally immigrants from Celebes, and the
+Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs, are of
+importance on account of their political influence in Dutch
+Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance
+in Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the
+Malays, Dyaks and Bugis are given under their several headings,
+and some information concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will
+be found in the section below, which deals with British North
+Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with Borneo calls for
+notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized people
+who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion
+of the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted.
+The Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la
+on the north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century,
+and later documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th
+century. The traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm
+the statements, and many of the leading families of Brunei
+in north-west Borneo claim to have Chinese blood in their
+veins, while the annals of Sulu record an extensive Chinese
+immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is certain
+that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th
+centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and
+to trade with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable
+Chinese population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most
+part in planting and exporting pepper, but the consistent
+oppression of the native rajas destroyed their industry and led
+eventually to the practical extirpation of the Chinese. The
+Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged immigration from
+China with a view to developing the mineral resources of their
+territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found in
+considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere.
+They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or
+agriculture, to carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder.
+About 1779 the Dutch acquired immediate authority
+over all strangers, and thus assumed responsibility for the
+control of the Chinese, who presently proved themselves somewhat
+troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and
+were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search
+of fresh mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages
+with the Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives.
+They brought with them from China their aptitude for the
+organization of secret societies which, almost from the first,
+assumed the guise of political associations. These secret societies
+furnished them with a machinery whereby collective action was
+rendered easy, and under astute leaders they offered a formidable
+opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when driven into
+the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they cost the
+first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were
+at last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the
+Chinese are now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day
+the Chinaman forms perhaps the most valuable element in the
+civilization and development of the island, just as does his fellow
+in the mining states of the Malayan Peninsula. They are industrious,
+frugal and intelligent; the richer among them are
+excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in their
+dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own
+script, and the second generation acquires an education of an
+European type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping,
+trading and mining industries, so long as the mining
+is of an alluvial character, is in Chinese hands. The greater
+part of the Chinese on the west coast are originally drawn
+from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They are
+called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those
+which furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the
+Malay Peninsula. They are a rough and hardy people, and are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page261" id="page261"></a>261</span>
+apt at times to be turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes
+mostly from Fuh-kien and the coast districts of Amoy. They
+are known to the Borneans as Ollohs.</p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political
+unity, and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact
+unappreciated by the vast majority of its native inhabitants.
+The name of Kalamantan has been given by some Europeans
+(on what original authority it is not possible now to ascertain)
+as the native name for the island of Borneo considered as a
+whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of the island
+itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To this
+day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak
+of going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may
+be, but make use of no term which recognizes that these localities
+are part of a single whole. The only archaeological remains are
+a few Hindu temples, and it is probable that the early settlement
+of the south-eastern portion of the island by Hindus dates from
+some time during the first six centuries of our era. There exist,
+however, no data, not even any trustworthy tradition, from
+which to reconstruct the early history of Borneo. Borneo began
+to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca in 1511, when
+Alphonso d&rsquo;Albuquerque despatched Antonio d&rsquo;Abreu with three
+ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions
+to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he
+might encounter on his way. D&rsquo;Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly
+direction from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern
+coast of Borneo and laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island
+near the south-western extremity of Ceram. He returned to
+Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his captains, Francisco Serrano,
+at Ternate, where Magellan&rsquo;s followers found him in 1521. After
+Magellan&rsquo;s death, his comrades sailed from the Moluccas across
+the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white men who
+are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of
+Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting
+account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers
+by the sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the
+principal objective of European traders, and the route followed
+by Magellan&rsquo;s ships being frequently used, Borneo was often
+touched at during the remainder of the 16th century, and trade
+relations with Brunei were successfully established by the
+Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat unsuccessfully
+to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until
+1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance
+and by their agency was restored to his own, that they attained
+their object. Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful
+intercourse with Brunei, varied by not infrequent hostilities,
+and in 1645 a punitive expedition on a larger scale than heretofore
+was sent to chastise Brunei for persistent acts of piracy.
+No attempt at annexation followed upon this action, commerce
+rather than territory being at this period the prime object of
+both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon
+the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only
+effort at proselytizing of which we have record came to an
+untimely end in the death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia,
+who had been its originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and
+British East India Companies had been formed, had destroyed
+the monopoly so long enjoyed by the Portuguese, and to a less
+extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the Malayan Archipelago,
+and had gained a footing in Borneo. The establishment of
+Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates from
+1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman,
+sailed from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession
+of the Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was
+appointed Dutch resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana.
+The first appearance of the British in Borneo dates from
+1609, and by 1698 they had an important settlement at Banjermasin,
+whence they were subsequently expelled by the influence
+of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the sultan a trading
+monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the predominant
+European race throughout the Malay Archipelago,
+defeating the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the
+trading-posts all along the western and southern coasts of
+Borneo were presently their exclusive possessions, the sultan of
+Bantam, who was the overlord of these districts, ceding his
+rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile had turned their
+attention to the north of the island, over which the sultan of
+Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759,
+Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of
+Balambangan, and the whole of the north-eastern promontory.
+A military post was established, but it was destroyed in 1775
+by the natives under the <i>dâto&rsquo;</i>, or vassal chiefs, who resented
+the cession of their territory. This mishap rendered a treaty,
+which had been concluded in 1774 with the sultan of Brunei,
+practically a dead letter, and by the end of the century British
+influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at an end.
+The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered
+from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809
+to order the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the
+coasts of Borneo, assisted and stimulated by immigrants from
+the neighbouring islands to the north, devoted themselves more
+and more to organized piracy, and putting to sea in great fleets
+manned by two and three thousand men on cruises that lasted
+for two and even three years, they terrorized the neighbouring
+seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost impossible
+for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the
+British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by
+the sultan of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811
+Alexander Hare was despatched thither as commissioner and
+resident. He not only obtained for his government an advantageous
+treaty, but secured for himself a grant of a district
+which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About the same
+time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a
+post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the
+Dutch in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the
+Dutch government was left in undisputed possession of the field.
+An energetic policy was soon after adopted, and about half the
+kingdom of Banjermasin was surrendered to the Dutch by its
+sultan in 1823, further concessions being made two years later.
+Meanwhile, George Müller, while exploring the east coast,
+obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of Dutch
+authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the
+enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak
+of war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected
+by the Dutch for a considerable period, and no effective check
+was imposed upon the natives with a view to stopping piracy,
+which was annually becoming more and more unendurable. On
+the rise of Singapore direct trade had been established with
+Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to
+British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir
+James Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned
+to the state of affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for
+Borneo, determined, if possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he
+had obtained from the sultan of Brunei the grant of supreme
+authority over Sarawak, in which state, on the sultan&rsquo;s behalf,
+he had waged a successful war, and before many years had
+elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government, succeeded
+in suppressing piracy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brooke, Sir James</a></span>; and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sarawak</a></span>). In 1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no
+cession of territory to any nation or individual without the
+consent of Great Britain. Since then more and more territory
+has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the raja of Sarawak
+and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest remnant
+of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of the
+sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the
+hopes which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole
+island in their dominions, but it served also to stimulate their
+efforts to consolidate their power within the sphere already
+subjected to their influence. Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and
+Bulungan had made nominal submission to them in 1834, and
+in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their protectorate, a
+treaty of a similar character being concluded about the same
+time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo
+were finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June
+1891. In spite of this, however, large areas in the interior,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page262" id="page262"></a>262</span>
+both in Dutch Borneo and in the territory owned by the British
+North Borneo Company, are still only nominally under European
+control, and have experienced few direct effects of European administration.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">British North Borneo or Sabah</p>
+
+<p>Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions
+of the territory situated on the north-western coast of the island,
+and originally in no way included the remainder of the country
+now owned by the British North Borneo Company. It has
+become customary, however, for the name to be used by
+Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the company&rsquo;s
+territory, and little by little the more educated natives are
+insensibly adopting the practice.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;As has been seen, the British connexion with
+northern and north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century,
+nor was it resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for
+Brunei and Sarawak. The island of Labuan (<i>q.v.</i>) was occupied
+by the British as a crown colony in 1848, and this may be taken
+as the starting-point of renewed British relations with that
+portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the north of
+Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established
+in Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which
+was subsequently the capital of the North Borneo Company&rsquo;s
+territory. In 1878, through the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards
+Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of Sulu was induced to transfer
+to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck and Mr Dent, all his
+rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen, he had
+been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters
+of this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon.
+Sir Harry Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had
+rendered great assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the
+suppression of piracy, and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881
+the British North Borneo Provisional Association, Limited, was
+formed to take over the concession which had been obtained
+from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that year a petition
+was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal charter.
+This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo
+Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of
+some diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish
+governments, all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by
+the original grants, and proceeded under its charter to organize
+the administration of the territory. The company subsequently
+acquired further sovereign and territorial rights from the sultan
+of Brunei and his chiefs in addition to some which had already
+been obtained at the time of the formation of the company.
+The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas district,
+including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same
+year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani
+islands in April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the &ldquo;State
+of North Borneo,&rdquo; the territory of the company was made a
+British protectorate, but its administration remained entirely
+in the hands of the company, the crown reserving only control
+of its foreign relations, and the appointment of its governors
+being required to receive the formal sanction of the secretary of
+state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government placed the
+colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the
+governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal
+commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission
+from the company. This arrangement held good until 1905,
+when, in answer to the frequently and strongly expressed desire
+of the colonists, Labuan was removed from the jurisdiction of
+the company and attached to the colony of the Straits Settlements.
+In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby the sultan
+of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and territorial
+rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas river
+which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the
+effect of rounding off the company&rsquo;s territories, and had the
+additional advantage of doing away with the various no-man&rsquo;s
+lands which had long been used by the discontented among the
+natives as so many Caves of Adullam. The company&rsquo;s acquisition
+of territory was viewed with considerable dissatisfaction
+by many of the natives, and this found expression in frequent acts
+of violence. The most noted and the most successful of the
+native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet Saleh),
+who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his
+regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation.
+In 1898 a composition was made with him, the terms of which
+were unfortunately not defined with sufficient clearness, and he
+retired into the Tambunan country, to the east of the range
+which runs parallel with the west coast, where for a period he
+lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes of the valley. In
+1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his acts of
+aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and this
+time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of
+January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of
+his defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town
+of Kudat on Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused
+more panic than damage, and little by little during the next
+years the last smouldering embers of rebellion were extinguished.
+At the present time, though effective administration of the more
+inaccessible districts of the interior cannot be said to have been
+established even yet, the pacification of the native population
+is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan district,
+the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled.
+It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of
+perhaps 12,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geography.</i>&mdash;The state of North Borneo may roughly be
+said to form a pentagon of which three sides, the north-west,
+north-east and east are washed by the sea, while the remaining two
+sides, the south-west and the south, are bordered respectively
+by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and by the territories of the
+raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government. The boundary
+between the company&rsquo;s territory and the Dutch government is
+defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention
+has already been made.</p>
+
+<p>The total area of the company&rsquo;s territory is estimated at about
+31,000 sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater
+portion is exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the
+interior consists almost entirely of highlands with here and there
+open valleys and plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the
+west coast the mountain range, as already noted, runs parallel
+with the seashore at a distance from it of about 15 m. Of this
+range the central feature is the mountain of Kinabalu, which is
+composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks and attains
+to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to
+the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of
+the Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country
+and falls into the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated
+to be 11,000 ft. above sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is
+itself for the most part from 1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea,
+forming a string of small plateaus marking the sites of former
+lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the eastern coast the country
+consists of huddled hills broken here and there by regions of a
+more mountainous character. The principal plateaus are in the
+Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan,
+and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu.
+Similar plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted
+about the interior. The proximity of the mountain range to the
+seashore causes the rivers of the west coast, with the single
+exception of the Padas, to be rapid, boulder-obstructed, shallow
+streams of little value as means of communication for a distance
+of more than half a dozen miles from their mouths. The Padas
+is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and native boats
+for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller craft
+can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at
+this point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids,
+which are of such a character that nothing can even be brought
+down them. Even below Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult
+and occasionally dangerous by similar obstructions. The other
+principal rivers of the west coast are the Kalias, Kimanis,
+Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman, Mengkabong, Tampasuk
+and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any great importance
+as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of pony
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page263" id="page263"></a>263</span>
+raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis
+waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the
+volume of water is not great. Here also are the principal
+Bajau settlements. Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the
+words <i>Bâjau</i> and <i>p&#283;rômpak</i> (pirate) are still used as
+synonymous terms. At the northern extremity of the island Marudu Bay
+receives the waters of the Marudu which rises on the western side
+of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal rivers are the
+Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu and forms
+its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk,
+which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay;
+and the Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in
+the territory, which is believed to have its rise eastward of the
+range of which Trus Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable
+by steamer for a considerable distance and by native boats for
+a distance of over 100 m. from its mouth. Some valuable
+tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat liable to flood, and
+some remarkable burial-caves are found in the valley of the
+Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are the
+Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the
+Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it
+as a whole, the company&rsquo;s territory is much less generously
+watered than are other parts of Borneo, which again compares
+unfavourably in this respect with the Malayan states of the
+peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially those of the west coast,
+are obstructed by bars at their mouths that render them difficult
+of access. Several of the natural harbours of North Borneo, on
+the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious. Sandakan
+Harbour, on the north-east coast (5° 40&prime; N., 118° 10&prime; E.), runs
+inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by
+the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only
+2 m. across, is split into two channels by the little, high,
+bluff-like island of Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies
+from 10 to 17 fathoms, and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance
+half-way up the bay. The principal town in the territory, and
+the seat of government (though an attempt has been unsuccessfully
+made to transfer this to Jesselton on the west coast), is
+Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the Sarwaka inlet.
+At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and Kudat
+in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of
+H.M.S. &ldquo;Nigeria&rdquo; in 1881, is a small but useful harbour.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Population.</i>&mdash;The climate of North Borneo is
+tropical, hot, damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and
+not usually excessive. The shade temperature at Sandakan
+ordinarily ranges from 72° to 94° F. The population of the
+company&rsquo;s territory is not known with any approach to accuracy,
+but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to 175,000,
+including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are
+found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the
+country bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly
+by Dusuns, by Kadayans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns&mdash;both Malayan
+tribes&mdash;and by Brunei Malays. The east coast is very sparsely
+populated and its inhabitants are mostly Bajaus and settlers
+from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago. The interior is dotted
+with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or by Muruts,
+a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided up
+into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a
+common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe
+are festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as
+belonging to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly
+seem to be the representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of
+the island, and there is much reason to think that the Dusuns
+also must be classed as distinct from the Dyaks. The Dusun
+language, it is interesting to note, presents very curious
+grammatical complications and refinements such as are not to be
+found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples
+of the Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern
+Asia. Dusuns and Muruts alike are in a very low state of
+civilization, and both indulge inordinately in the use of
+intoxicating liquors of their own manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Settlements and Communication.</i>&mdash;The company possesses a
+number of small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan,
+with a population of 9 500, is the most important. The remainder
+which call for separate mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay
+on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu Bay and Jesselton on Gaya
+Bay on the west coast. A railway of indifferent construction
+runs along the west coast from Jesselton to Weston on Brunei
+Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to Tenom above
+the rapids. It was originally intended that this should eventually
+be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko Bay)
+on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties
+which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse
+population of the territory, and the failure of the existing line
+to justify the expectations entertained by its designers, combine
+to render the prosecution of any such project highly improbable.
+Sandakan is connected by telegraph with Mempakul on the west
+coast whence a cable runs to Labuan and so gives telegraphic
+communication with Singapore. The overland line from Mempakul
+to Sandakan, however, passes through forest-clad and
+very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is therefore
+subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic communication
+between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been
+established and is more regularly and successfully maintained.
+The only roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate
+vicinity of the company&rsquo;s principal stations. The Sabah Steamship
+Company, subsidized by the Chartered Company, runs
+steamers along the coast, calling at all the company&rsquo;s stations
+at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm runs
+vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore
+to Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at
+Jesselton and Kudat <i>en route</i>. There is also fairly frequent
+communication between Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey
+of four days&rsquo; steaming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Products and Trade</i>.&mdash;The capabilities of the company&rsquo;s
+territory are only dimly known. Coal has been found in the
+neighbourhood of Cowie Harbour and elsewhere, but though its
+quality is believed to be as good as that exported from Dutch
+Borneo, it is not yet known whether it exists in payable
+quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits on the
+banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the
+quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a
+whole has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and
+no opinion can at present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth
+or poverty of the company&rsquo;s property. Traces of mineral oil,
+iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony have been found, but the
+wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its jungle produce.
+It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but the
+difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry
+within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans,
+mangrove-bark, edible nuts, guano, edible birds&rsquo;-nests, &amp;c., are
+all valuable articles of export. The principal cultivated produce
+is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts, coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes.
+Of these the tobacco and the sago are the most important.
+Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the tobacco crop increased
+from £471 to £200,000.</p>
+
+<p>As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North
+Borneo is largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send
+their agents inland to attend the <i>Tamus</i> (Malay, <i>t&#283;mu</i>, to meet)
+or fairs, which are the recognized scenes of barter between the
+natives of the interior and those of the coast. At Sandakan
+there is a Chinese population of over 2000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration</i>.&mdash;For administrative purposes the territory
+is divided into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the
+north; Keppel on the west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh,
+Mayne and Elphinstone on the east coast; and Dent and
+Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these provinces, however,
+are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The form
+of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted
+in the Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of
+their administration by British residents. The government is
+vested primarily in the court of directors appointed under the
+company&rsquo;s charter, which may be compared to the colonial
+office in its relation to a British colony, though the court of
+directors interests itself far more closely than does the colonial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page264" id="page264"></a>264</span>
+department in the smaller details of local administration. The
+supreme authority on the spot is represented by the governor,
+under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel,
+officers who occupy much the same position as that usually
+known by the title of magistrate and collector. The less important
+districts are administered by district magistrates, who
+also collect the taxes. The principal departments, whose chiefs
+reside at the capital, are the treasury, the land and survey, the
+public works, the constabulary, the medical and the judicial.
+The secretariat is under the charge of a government secretary
+who ranks next in precedence to the governor. Legislation is
+by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a council,
+meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads
+of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The
+public service is recruited by nomination by the court of directors.
+The governor is the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a
+judge who is subordinate to him takes all ordinary supreme court
+cases. The laws are the Indian Penal and Civil Procedure Codes
+and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few local laws promulgated
+by proclamation. There is an Imam&rsquo;s court for the
+trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession,
+&amp;c. The native chiefs are responsible to the government for
+the preservation of law and order in their districts. They have
+restricted judicial powers. The constabulary numbers some
+600 men and consists of a mixed force of Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi
+Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a few Europeans.
+There is a Protestant mission which supports a church&mdash;the only
+stone building in the territory&mdash;and a school at Sandakan, with
+branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman
+Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at
+Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points
+on the west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters
+are at Kuching in Sarawak. The Chinese have their
+joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few small mosques, but
+the vast majority of the native inhabitants are pagans who
+have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Finance and Money.</i>&mdash;The principal sources of revenue are
+the licences granted for the importation and retailing of opium,
+wine and spirits, which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs
+duty of 5% on imports; an export tax of 5% on jungle produce;
+a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient native custom; and a stamp
+duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale of government
+lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &amp;c. Judicial fees
+bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and
+revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The
+people of the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large
+number of the natives of the interior escaping all payment of
+dues to the company, the revenue being for the most part contributed
+by the more civilized members of the community
+residing in the neighbourhood of the company&rsquo;s stations. There
+are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking
+business when required. The state, which has adopted the
+penny postage, is in the Postal Union, and money orders on
+North Borneo are issued in the United Kingdom and in most
+British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the principal
+banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900.
+There is also a government note issue issued by the company for
+use within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and
+British dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin&mdash;viz.
+cents and half cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the
+Straits Settlements, and measures have been taken with a view
+to the accomplishment of this. In the interior the principal
+medium of exchange among the natives is the large earthenware
+jars, imported originally, it is believed, from China, which form
+the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Cl.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert,
+<i>Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear
+1609</i>; <i>Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en
+Atchin in het jaar 1691</i>; Beeckman, <i>Visit to Borneo</i>, 1718, in J.
+Pinkerton&rsquo;s <i>General Collections</i> (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in <i>Ond
+en Nieuw Oost Indiën</i> (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel,
+<i>Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. &ldquo;Dido&rdquo;</i> (London, 1846); R. Mundy,
+<i>Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes</i> (London, 1848); F.S.
+Marryat, <i>Borneo</i>, &amp;c. (1848); P.J. Veth, <i>Borneo&rsquo;s Westerafdeeling</i> (Zalt-Bommel,
+1854 and 1856); S. Müller, <i>Reizen en onderzoekingen in den
+Indischen Archipel</i> (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, <i>Head-hunters of
+Borneo</i> (London, 1881), and <i>Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo</i> (The Hague,
+1887); J. Hatton, <i>The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North
+Borneo</i> (London, 1882); F. Hatton, <i>North Borneo</i> (London, 1885);
+T. Posewitz, <i>Borneo ... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien</i>
+(Berlin, 1889), Eng. trans., <i>Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources</i>
+(London, 1892); J. Whitehead, <i>Exploration of Mount Kini Balu</i>
+(London, 1893); Mrs W.B. Pryor, <i>A Decade in Borneo</i> (London,
+1894); H. Ling Roth, <i>The Natives of Sarawak and North Borneo</i>
+(London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf, <i>Geologische Verkinningstochten
+in Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1900, Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis,
+<i>In Centraal Borneo</i> (Leiden, 1901), and <i>Quer durch Borneo</i>
+(Leiden, 1904), &amp;c.; W.H. Furness, <i>Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters</i>
+(London, 1902); O. Beccari, <i>Nelle Foreste di Borneo</i> (Florence,
+1902), Eng. trans., <i>Wanderings in the Great Forests of Borneo</i> (London,
+1904); D. Cator, <i>Everyday Life among the Head-hunters</i> (London,
+1905). For geology, besides the works of Posewitz and Molengraaf
+already cited, see R.B. Newton in <i>Geol. Mag</i>., 1897, pp. 407-415,
+and <i>Proc. Malac. Soc</i>., London, vol. v. (1902-1903), pp. 403-409.
+A series of papers on the palaeontology of the island will be found in
+the several volumes of the <i>Samml. Geol</i>. R. Mus., Leiden.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORNHOLM,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the
+Swedish coast, belonging to Denmark, lying on 15° E., and
+between 55° and 55° 18&prime; N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to
+N.W. and 19 (extreme) from E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The
+surface is generally hilly; the scenery is fine in the north, where
+the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and the granite hill of Helligdomsklipper
+dominates the island. Besides freestone, exported
+for building, limestone, blue marble, and porcelain-clay are
+worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but it is not
+of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The
+inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing,
+distillation and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving
+and clock-making are also carried on to some extent. The
+capital is Rönne (115 m. by sea from Copenhagen), and there are
+five other small towns on the island&mdash;Svanike, Neksö, Hasle,
+Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects Rönne with Neksö
+(22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N. Madvig, the
+philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch&rsquo;s
+Hotel, 10 m. N. of Rönne, is the most favoured resort on the
+island, which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast
+are the ruins of the castle of Hammershus, which was built in
+1158, and long served as a state prison; while another old
+castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684, and important as commanding
+the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on Christiansö,
+one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island of
+Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was
+long the independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th
+century it became a fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it
+was captured by the Hanseatic League, in 1522 it came under
+Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made directly subject to the
+city of Lübeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by storm, and their
+possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde in 1658;
+but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a
+popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces,
+the island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORNIER, HENRI,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1825-1901) French poet
+and dramatist, was born at Lunel (Hérault) on the 25th of
+December 1825. He came to Paris in 1845 With the object of
+studying law, but in that year he published a volume of verse,
+<i>Les Premières Feuilles</i>, and the Comédie Francaise accepted a
+play of his entitled <i>Le Mariage de Luther</i>. He was given a post
+in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century,
+becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Théâtre
+Français his heroic drama in verse, <i>La Fille de Roland</i>. The
+action of the play turns on the love of Gérald, son of the traitor
+Ganelon, for the daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and
+the nobility of the character of Gérald, who renounces Berthe
+when he learns his real origin, procured for the piece a great
+success. The conflict between honour and love and the grandiose
+sentiment of the play inevitably provoked comparison with
+Corneille. The piece would indeed be a masterpiece if, as its
+critics were not slow to point out, the verse had been quite equal
+to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page265" id="page265"></a>265</span>
+Bornier should be mentioned: <i>Dimitri</i> (1876), libretto of an
+opera by M.V. de Jonciêres; and the dramas, <i>Les Noces d&rsquo;Allila</i>
+(1880) and <i>Mahomet</i> (1888). The production of this last piece
+was forbidden in deference to the representations of the Turkish
+ambassador. Henri de Bornier was critic of the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>
+from 1879 to 1887. His <i>Poésies complètes</i> were published in 1894.
+He died in January 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORNU,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of
+Lake Chad. It is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and
+N. by the Sahara. Formerly an independent Mahommedan
+sultanate it has been divided between Great Britain, Germany
+and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern Bornu
+and also Zinder (<i>q.v.</i>), a tributary state to the north-west, while
+the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of
+Cameroon. Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m.,
+forms part of the British protectorate of Nigeria.</p>
+
+<p>Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping
+gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much
+larger area than it now occupies. The Komadugu (<i>i.e.</i> river)
+Waube&mdash;generally known as the Yo&mdash;and its tributaries rise
+in the highlands which, beyond the western border of Bornu,
+form the watershed between the Niger and Chad systems, and
+flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo in its
+last few miles marking the frontier between the French and
+British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains
+to the Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern
+Bornu is obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great
+depth. The vast plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare
+outcrops of ironstone, and consists of the porous fissured black
+earth called &ldquo;cotton soil&rdquo; in India, alternating with, or more
+probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout the flat country water
+is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54 ft., corresponding
+to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the north-west the
+country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the south
+limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola
+tributary of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked
+acacia, yielding the species of gum most valuable in the market,
+extends from the Gongola to Gujba. Immense baobabs (<i>Adansonia
+digitata</i>), fine tamarinds and a few trees of the genus <i>Ficus</i>
+are met with in the south. North of Maifoni (latitude 12° N.)
+the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive plantations
+have been made, and its place is taken by the <i>Kigelia</i> and also
+by a very handsome species of <i>Diospyros</i>. North of Kuka is a
+dense belt of <i>Hyphaene</i> palm with fine tamarinds and figs.
+Cotton and indigo grow wild, and afford the materials for the
+cloths, finely dyed with blue stripes, which form the staple
+fabric of the country. On the shores of Lake Chad the cotton
+grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and wheat of excellent
+quality are raised, but in small quantities, the staple food being
+a species of millet called <i>gussub</i>, which is made into a kind of
+paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams,
+sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers,
+onions, water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees
+the country possesses the lime and fig.</p>
+
+<p>Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover
+in the extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes,
+elephants, hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles
+and ostriches are found. The horse, the camel and the ox are
+the chief domestic animals; all are used as beasts of burden. The
+country abounds with bees, and honey forms one of the chief
+Bornuese delicacies.</p>
+
+<p>The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is
+oppressively hot, rising sometimes to 105° and 107°, and even
+during most of the night not falling much below 100°. In May
+the wet season begins, with violent storms of thunder and
+lightning. In the end of June the rivers and lakes begin to
+overflow, and for several months the rains, accompanied with
+sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants at this
+season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate;
+cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for
+several months the climate is healthy and agreeable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants</i>.&mdash;The inhabitants, of whom the great majority
+profess Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of
+mixed blood, <i>i.e.</i> Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing.
+The total population of British Bornu is estimated at 500,000.
+The dominant tribe, called Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a
+Negro race with an infusion of Berber blood, have black skins,
+large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but good teeth and
+high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty by
+extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo,
+and dye their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The
+law allows polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more
+than two or three wives. The marriage ceremonies last for a
+whole week, the first three days being spent in feasting on the
+favourite national dishes, and the others appropriated to certain
+symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the watching of
+wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess,
+played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite
+occupation.</p>
+
+<p>The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the
+Shuwas, who are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved
+dialect of Arabic. Of the date of their immigration from the
+East there is no record; but they were in the country as early
+as the middle of the 17th century. They are divided into
+numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist of
+rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form.
+Another tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile
+islands in Lake Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable
+channels.</p>
+
+<p>The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the
+horses, as well as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail.
+The Shuwas, however, are clad only in a light shirt, and the
+Kanembu spearmen go almost naked, and fight with shield and
+spear. It is indispensable to a chief of rank that he should
+possess a huge belly, and when high feeding cannot produce this,
+padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding the heat
+of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the
+number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise
+is enclosed in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in
+Bornu is the Kanuri. It has no affinity, according to Heinrich
+Barth, with the great Berber family. A grammar was published
+in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a volume of tales and fables,
+with a translation and vocabulary.</p>
+
+<p>The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from
+10,000 to 50,000 or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft.
+in height and 20 ft. in thickness, having at each of the four
+corners a triple gate, composed of strong planks of wood, with
+bars of iron. The abodes of the principal inhabitants form an
+enclosed square, in which are separate houses for each of the
+wives; the chief&rsquo;s palace consists of turrets connected together
+by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly polished,
+so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed only
+of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908
+became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial
+town some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former
+capital, Kuka (<i>q.v.</i>), and Ngornu (the town of &ldquo;blessing&rdquo;), are
+near the shores of Lake Chad. On the Yo are still to be seen
+extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and Gambarou or
+Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809.
+Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the
+German part of Bornu.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious.
+The first dynasty known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants
+of Sef, which came to the throne in the person of Dugu or Duku,
+and had its capital at Njimiye (Jima) in Kanem on the north-east
+shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of Berber origin, the
+descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being mythical. From
+this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or Ba-Berberche,
+applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu. Mahommedanism
+was adopted towards the end of the 11th century,
+and has since continued the religion of the country. From
+1194 to 1220 reigned Selma II., under whom the power of the
+kingdom was greatly extended; and Dunama II., his successor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page266" id="page266"></a>266</span>
+was also a powerful and warlike prince. In the following reigns
+the prosperity of the country began to diminish, and about 1386
+the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek
+refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the
+Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni,
+rendered his country once more redoubtable and strong. His
+successor, Idris II., completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated
+Kanem; and under Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu
+reached its highest pitch of greatness. At this period Zinder
+became a tributary state. A series of for the most part peaceful
+reigns succeeded till about the middle of the 18th century, when
+Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with the
+Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the
+kingdom began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already
+conquered the Hausa country. Expelled from his capital by the
+invaders, Ahmed was only restored by the assistance of the fakir
+Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who, pretending to a celestial
+mission, hoisted the green flag of the Prophet, and undertook
+the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear to have been
+taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely out
+of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient
+kings with all the appearance of sovereignty&mdash;reserving for
+himself, however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The
+court of the sultan (<i>shehu</i>) was established at New Bornu,
+or Birni, which was made the capital, the old city having
+been destroyed during the Fula invasion; while the sheik, in
+military state, took up his residence at the new city of Kuka.
+Fairly established, he ruled the country with a rod of iron, and
+at the same time inspired his subjects with a superstitious notion
+of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed against moral or
+religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women, as talking
+too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the offender
+liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited with
+the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself.
+Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar,
+who altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.</p>
+
+<p>During Omar&rsquo;s reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu
+was visited by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and
+the Sahara. The first to enter the country were Walter Oudney,
+Hugh Clapperton and Dixon Denham (1823). They were
+followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later travellers included
+Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All these
+travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the
+middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by
+Barth; and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by
+King William of Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik&rsquo;s kindness
+to many German explorers, writes thus in December 1872:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable
+fact. It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless
+weakness of Sheik Omar&mdash;otherwise so worthy and brave a man&mdash;must
+bear almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder
+the provinces in an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse
+are almost at a standstill; good faith and confidence exist
+no more. The indolence of the court avoids military expeditions,
+and anarchy and a lack of security on the routes are the consequences....
+Thus the sheik and the land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and lower.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no
+European traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil
+resided for a time at Kuka during his great journey from the
+Senegal to Tripoli. The French traveller noticed many signs of
+decadence, the energy of the people being sapped by luxury,
+while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to rivalries and intrigues
+among members of the royal family. The chief of Zinder had
+ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough to
+exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening
+from the south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once
+a slave of Zobeir Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi.
+After making himself master of the fortified town of Manifa,
+Rabah proceeded against Bornu, defeating the army of the sultan
+Ahsem in two pitched battles. In December 1893 Ahsem fled
+from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon afterwards
+destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the south-east
+of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the
+trade between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route
+via Bilma. Rabah had raised a large, well-drilled army, and
+proved a formidable opponent to the French in their advance on
+Lake Chad from the south. However in 1900 he was killed at
+Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined forces of three
+French expeditions which had been converging from the Congo,
+the Sahara and the Niger.</p>
+
+<p>By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of
+Zinder in the north had been included in the French sphere,
+and after the defeat of Rabah French military expeditions
+occupied both the German and British portions of Bornu, but
+in 1902 on the appearance of British and German expeditions
+the French withdrew to their own country east of the Shari.
+The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a
+descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as
+the capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been
+under administrative control. It has been divided into East and
+West Bornu, the line of division being fixed approximately at
+longitude 12°, and placed under the administration of a resident.
+Maifoni and Kuka were selected for British stations in the east,
+and Damjiri and Gujba in the west. Garrisons are quartered at
+these points. The province has been mapped, and a network of
+tracks available for wheeled transport has been made through it.
+Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been
+opened through the Gongola river. The <i>shehu</i>, who took the
+oath of allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his
+formal installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local
+dignity as a native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British
+administration. Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British
+occupation, and it is estimated that the population has increased
+by immigration to about 50% more than it was in 1902. The
+people are industrious. Extensive areas are being brought under
+cultivation, and taxes are collected without difficulty. Owing
+to its increasing commercial importance, the native capital was
+in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>: <i>History;</i>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rabah</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Heinrich Barth&rsquo;s <i>Travels in North and Central
+Africa</i> (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture
+of the state in the period (<i>c</i>. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier
+<i>Travels</i> of Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be
+consulted, as well as Rohlfs, <i>Land und Volk in Afrika</i> (Bremen, 1870);
+Nachtigal, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i>, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil,
+<i>de St.-Louis à Tripoli par le lac Tchad</i> (Paris, 1895). For later information
+consult Lady Lugard&rsquo;s <i>A Tropical Dependency</i> (London, 1905),
+and the <i>Annual Reports</i>, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria,
+issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. L. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1834-1887),
+Russian musical composer, natural son of a Russian prince, was
+born in St Petersburg on the 12th of November 1834. He was
+brought up to the medical profession, and in 1862 was appointed
+assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg academy of
+medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a
+leading part in advocating women&rsquo;s education, helping to found
+the school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872
+till his death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest
+in music was indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship
+with Balakirev, and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady
+who was an accomplished pianist; but in his earlier years he
+had been proficient both in playing the piano, violin, &rsquo;cello and
+other instruments, and also in composing; and during life he
+did his best to pursue his studies in both music and chemistry
+with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed
+much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony
+was written in 1862-1867; his opera <i>Prince Igor</i>, begun in 1869,
+was left unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov
+and Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, &ldquo;In
+the Steppes&rdquo; (1880) is, however, his best-known work. Borodin
+also wrote a second symphony (1871-1877), part of a third
+(orchestrated after his death by Glazounov), and a few string
+quartets and some fine songs. His music is characteristically
+Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died suddenly
+at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page267" id="page267"></a>267</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BORODINO,<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow,
+on the Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the
+scene of a great battle between the army of Napoleon and the
+Russians under Kutusov on the 7th of September 1812. Though
+the battle is remembered chiefly for the terrible losses incurred
+by both sides, in many respects it is an excellent example of
+Napoleon&rsquo;s tactical methods. After preliminary fighting on
+the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the 6th,
+Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in
+his resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason
+the French right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians
+from their position, was designedly weakened. The Russian
+right, bent back at an angle and strongly posted, was also
+neglected, for Napoleon intended to make a direct frontal attack.
+The enemy&rsquo;s right centre near the village of Borodino was to be
+attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was afterwards
+to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called
+&ldquo;great redoubt,&rdquo; which was to be attacked directly from the
+front by Ney and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout
+was to attack frontally a group of field works on which the
+Russian left centre was formed; and the extreme right of the
+French army was composed of the weak corps of Poniatowski.
+The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders named,
+and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more
+than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard.
+When the Russians closed on their centre they were even more
+densely massed, and their reserves were subjected to an effective
+fire from the French field guns. At 6 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> on the 7th of September
+the French attack began. By 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> the Russian centre was
+driven in, and though a furious counter-attack enabled Prince
+Bagration&rsquo;s troops to win back their original line, fresh French
+troops under Davout and Ney drove them back again. But
+the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung to
+the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was
+suspended by Napoleon&rsquo;s order, owing to a cavalry attack by
+the Russians on Eugene&rsquo;s extreme left. When this alarm was
+ended the advance was resumed. Napoleon had now collected
+a sufficient target for his guns. A terrific bombardment by the
+artillery was followed by the decisive charge of the battle, made
+by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen, followed by the
+infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in two, and
+the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt just
+as Eugene&rsquo;s infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful <i>mêlée</i> the
+Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The
+defenders were now dislodged from their main line and the battle
+was practically at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not
+using the Guard, which was intact, to complete the victory.
+There is, however, no evidence that any further expenditure of
+men would have had good results. Napoleon had imposed his
+will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of Moscow
+without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the
+Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national
+spirit of the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon.
+Had it not been for this spirit, Borodino would have been
+decisive of the war without&rsquo;the final blow of the Guard. As
+it was, the Russians lost about 42,000 men out of 121,000;
+Napoleon&rsquo;s army (of which one-half consisted of the contingents
+of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland, Holland, &amp;c.)
+32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, <i>Zahl im Kriege</i>). On the side of
+the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken,
+and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at
+the head of his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who
+took Montbrun&rsquo;s place and fell in the <i>mêlée</i> in the redoubt.
+The Russians lost 22 generals, amongst them Prince Bagration,
+who died of his wounds after the battle, and to whose
+memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the
+tsar Nicholas I.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOROLANITE,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> one of the most remarkable rocks of the
+British Isles, found on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire,
+after which it has been named. In this locality there is
+a considerable area of granite rich in red alkali felspar, and
+passing, by diminution in the amount of its quartz, into quartz-syenites
+(nordmarkites) and syenites. At the margins of the
+outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the nepheline
+is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the other
+ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and
+aegirine. The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous
+rocks, though some syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites
+resemble borolanite in this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite
+assumes the form of a dark rock with large rounded white
+spots. These last consist of an intermixture of nepheline or
+sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the analogy of certain leucite-syenites
+which are known in Arkansas, it is very probable that
+these spots represent original leucites which have been changed
+into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble
+leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have
+its crystalline outlines. The &ldquo;pseudo-leucites,&rdquo; as they have
+been called, measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch
+across. The dark matrix consists of biotite, aegirine-augite
+and melanite. Connected with the borolanite there are other
+types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In Finland, melanite-bearing
+nepheline rocks have been found and described as
+Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite
+is Magnet Cove in Arkansas.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORON<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic
+elements, occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid,
+and in various borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite
+and boracite. It was isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thénard
+in 1808 by heating boron trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube.
+It was also isolated at about the same time by Sir H. Davy,
+from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a dark brown amorphous
+powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the roughly
+powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot
+crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried
+common salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all
+the sodium has been used up, the mass is thrown into dilute
+hydrochloric acid, when the soluble sodium salts go into solution,
+and the insoluble boron remains as a brown powder, which may
+by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan (<i>Ann. Chim. Phys.</i>, 1895, 6,
+p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide with one part of magnesium
+powder. The dark product obtained is washed with water,
+hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally calcined
+again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air
+during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous
+boron is a chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45;
+it sublimes in the electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at
+ordinary temperatures, and burns on strong ignition with production
+of the oxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> and the nitride BN. It combines
+directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature, and with chlorine,
+bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react with the
+alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat
+to form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated
+temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead
+monoxide and cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat.
+Heated with sulphuric acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized
+to boric acid, whilst on fusion with alkaline carbonates and
+hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali metal. Like silicon
+and carbon, very varying values had been given for its specific
+heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat increases
+rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a
+mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the
+air by a layer of charcoal, F. Wöhler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville
+obtained a grey product, from which, on dissolving out the
+aluminium with sodium hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline
+product, which they thought to be a modification of boron,
+but which was shown later to be a mixture of aluminium
+borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten aluminium,
+and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals
+are obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near
+that of the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kühne (D.R.P. 147,871)
+described a process in which external heating is not necessary,
+a mixture of aluminium turnings, sulphur and boric acid being
+ignited by a hot iron rod, the resulting aluminium sulphide,
+formed as a by-product, being decomposed by water.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page268" id="page268"></a>268</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition;
+on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium
+boride Mg<span class="su">3</span>B<span class="su">2</span> is obtained, and if this be decomposed with
+dilute hydrochloric acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a
+mixture of hydrogen and boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture
+burns with a green flame forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is
+deposited on passing the gas mixture through a hot tube, or on
+depressing a cold surface in the gas flame. By cooling it with liquid
+air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield obtained from it a gas of
+composition B3H3. The mixture probably contained also some
+BH<span class="su">3</span> (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, <i>Proc. Chem. Soc</i>., 17, p. 152).
+Boron fluoride BF<span class="su">3</span> was first prepared in 1808 by Gay Lussac and
+L. Thénard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of the trioxide
+and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a colourless
+pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes strongly
+in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the elements
+of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged into
+the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it support
+combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a colourless,
+oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time decomposes, with
+separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric acid HF·BF<span class="su">3</span>
+in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free condition, but
+many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also combines with
+ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a white crystalline
+solid of composition BF<span class="su">3</span>·NH<span class="su">3</span>; with excess of ammonia gas,
+colourless liquids BF<span class="su">3</span>·2NH<span class="su">3</span> and BF<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span> are produced, which on
+heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.</p>
+
+<p>Boron chloride BCl<span class="su">3</span> results when amorphous boron is heated in
+chlorine gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over
+a heated mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product
+being condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is
+a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18° C, and is readily decomposed
+by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It
+unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid
+of composition 2BCl<span class="su">3</span>·3NH<span class="su">3</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Boron bromide BBr<span class="su">3</span> can be formed by direct union of the two
+elements, but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation
+of the chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5° C.
+With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as
+the chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous
+hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide,
+BI<span class="su">3</span>, which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and
+hydriodic acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white
+crystalline solid of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210° C., and it
+can be distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water,
+and with a solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives
+a red powder of composition PBI<span class="su">2</span>, which sublimes <i>in vacuo</i> at
+210° C. to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen
+loses its iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.</p>
+
+<p>Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either
+in air or in nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating
+to redness in a platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous
+borax with two parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion,
+the melt is well washed with dilute hydrochloric acid and
+then with water, the nitride remaining as a white powder.
+It can also be prepared by heating borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span>; or by
+heating boron trioxide with a metallic cyanide. It is insoluble in
+water and unaffected by most reagents, but when heated in a
+current of steam or boiled for some time with a caustic alkali,
+slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the formation
+of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly in
+hydrofluoric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Borimide B<span class="su">2</span>(NH)<span class="su">3</span> is obtained on long heating of the compound
+B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span>·6NH<span class="su">2</span> in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120° C.
+It is a white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride
+and ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes
+it slowly.</p>
+
+<p>Boron sulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">3</span> can be obtained by the direct union of the
+two elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at
+440° C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the
+trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It
+forms slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable
+smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation
+of boric acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B<span class="su">2</span>S<span class="su">5</span>
+is prepared, in an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur
+in carbon bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline
+powder which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur,
+sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.</p>
+
+<p>Boron trioxide B<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is the only known oxide of boron; and may
+be prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by
+strongly igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a
+transparent vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form
+boric acid (<i>q.v</i>.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing
+in moist air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation
+of boric acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is
+not volatile below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with
+salts of more volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from
+such salts; for example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron
+trioxide, sulphur trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed.
+It also possesses the power of combining with most metallic oxides
+at high temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show
+characteristic colours. Many organic compounds of boron are
+known; thus, from the action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol
+or on methyl alcohol, ethyl borate B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> and methyl borate
+B(OCH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> are obtained. These are colourless liquids boiling at
+119° C. and 72° C. respectively, and both are readily decomposed by
+water. By the action of zinc methyl on ethyl borate, in the requisite
+proportions, boron trimethyl is obtained, thus:&mdash;2B(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span> +
+6Zn(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">2</span> = 2B(CH<span class="su">3</span>)<span class="su">3</span> + 6Zn <span class="f150">&lt;</span>
+{ CH<span class="su">3</span> / OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> } as a colourless spontaneously
+inflammable gas of unbearable smell. Boron triethyl B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">3</span> is
+obtained in the same manner, by using zinc ethyl. It is a colourless
+spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling point 95° C. By the
+action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two molecules of zinc ethyl,
+the compound B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span> diethylboron ethoxide is obtained
+as a colourless liquid boiling at 102° C. By the action of water
+it is converted into B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>·OH, and this latter compound on
+exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the compound
+B·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·OH, which, with water, gives B(C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)·(OH)<span class="su">2</span>. From
+the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule
+of zinc ethyl the compound B<span class="su">2</span>·C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·(OC<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">5</span> is obtained as a colourless
+liquid of boiling point. 112° C. Boron triethyl and boron trimethyl
+both combine with ammonia.</p>
+
+<p>The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating
+the water content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion
+of anhydrous borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston)
+and from analysis of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville);
+the values obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be
+estimated by precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble
+in a mixture of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose
+only boric acid or its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure
+this, the borate can be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl
+alcohol and the volatile ester absorbed in potash.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Burrough, Burrowe, Borrows</span>], <span class="bold">STEVEN</span>
+(1525-1584), English navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire
+on the 25th of September 1525. In 1553 he took part in
+the expedition which was despatched from the Thames under
+Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to Cathay
+and India, serving as master of the &ldquo;Edward Bonaventure,&rdquo;
+on which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated
+by a storm from the &ldquo;Bona Esperanza&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Bona Confidentia,&rdquo;
+the other two ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded
+on his voyage alone, and sailing into the White Sea, in the words
+of his epitaph, &ldquo;discouered Moscouia by the Northerne sea
+passage to St Nicholas&rdquo; (Archangel). In a second expedition,
+made in the &ldquo;Serchthrift&rdquo; in 1556, he discovered Kara Strait,
+between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was
+in charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in
+1558, he also made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563
+he was appointed chief pilot and one of the four masters of the
+queen&rsquo;s ships in the Medway, and in this office he spent the rest
+of his life. He died on the 12th of July 1584, and was buried at
+Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough, wrote a description
+of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the White Sea
+to the Caspian and back.</p>
+
+<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">William Borough</span>, born in 1536, also
+at Northam, served as an ordinary seaman in the &ldquo;Edward
+Bonaventure&rdquo; on her voyage to Russia in 1553, and subsequently
+made many voyages to St Nicholas. Later he transferred
+his services from the merchant adventurers to the crown. As
+commander of the &ldquo;Lion&rdquo; he accompanied Sir Francis Drake
+in his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble
+by presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom
+of the attack on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of
+<i>A Discourse of the Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle</i>
+(1581), and some of the charts he made are preserved at the
+British Museum and Hatfield.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (A.S. nominative <i>burh</i>, dative <i>byrig</i>, which produces
+some of the place-names ending in <i>bury</i>, a sheltered or
+fortified place, the camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a
+chieftain; of. Ger. <i>Burg</i>, Fr. <i>bor</i>, <i>borc</i>, <i>bourg</i>), the term for a
+town, considered as a unit of local government.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the English Borough.</i>&mdash;After the early English settlement,
+when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations,
+their colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders
+to form tribal strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of
+Roman colonies show no continuity with Roman municipal
+organization. The resettlement of the Roman Durovernum as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page269" id="page269"></a>269</span>
+the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed name, the
+name &ldquo;burh of the men of Kent,&rdquo; Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury),
+illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was
+Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other <i>ceasters</i>
+mark the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early
+English burh. The tribal burh was protected by an earthen
+wall, and a general obligation to build and maintain burhs at the
+royal command was enforced by Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in
+disturbance of the peace of the burh were punished by higher
+fines than breaches of the peace of the &ldquo;ham&rdquo; or ordinary
+dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the
+asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary
+of the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony,
+and hence the long retention of a processional perambulation.
+Possibly the &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; or &ldquo;wall&rdquo; of the borough gave it,
+besides safety, a sanctity analogous to that enjoyed by the
+Germanic assembly while gathered within its &ldquo;hedge,&rdquo; which
+the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered, and
+removed when it was over. While the &ldquo;peace&rdquo; of the Germanic
+assembly was essentially temporary, the &ldquo;peace&rdquo; of the burh
+was sacred all the year round. Its &ldquo;hedge&rdquo; was never removed.
+The sanctity of the burh was enjoyed by all the dwellings of the
+king, at first perhaps only during his term of residence. Neither
+in the early English language nor in the contemporary Latin was
+there any fixed usage differentiating the various words descriptive
+of the several forms of human settlement, and the tribal refuges
+cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages or the
+strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test.
+It is not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to
+draw a distinction between the burhs that served as military
+strongholds for national defence and the royal vills which served
+no such purpose. Some of the royal vills eventually entered
+the class of boroughs, but by another route, and for the present
+the private stronghold and the royal dwelling may be neglected.
+It was the public stronghold and the administrative centre of a
+dependent district which was the source of the main features
+peculiar to the borough.</p>
+
+<p>Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the
+boroughs built for national defence. They were placed where
+artificial defence was most needed, at the junction of roads, in
+the plains, on the rivers, at the centres naturally marked out for
+trade, seldom where hills or marshes formed a sufficient natural
+defence. The burhs drew commerce by every channel; the
+camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the ecclesiastical
+centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in its chief
+burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The
+burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and
+exchangers, with an authorized scale for weights and measures.
+Mercantile transactions in the burhs or <i>ports</i>, as they were called
+when their commercial rather than their military importance
+was accentuated, were placed by law under special legal privileges
+in order no doubt to secure the king&rsquo;s hold upon his toll. Over
+the burh or port was set a reeve, a royal officer answerable to the
+king for his dues from the burh, his rents for lands and houses,
+his customs on commerce, his share of the profits from judicial
+fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had a &ldquo;moot&rdquo;
+or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter of
+speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should
+meet three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies
+at which attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the
+burghal district, when pleas concerning life and liberty and land
+were held, and men were compelled to find pledges answerable
+for their good conduct. At these great meetings the borough
+reeve (<i>gerefa</i>) presided, declaring the law and guiding the judgments
+given by the suitors of the court. The reeve was supported
+by a group of assistants, called in Devon the &ldquo;witan,&rdquo; in the
+boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve)
+&ldquo;lawmen,&rdquo; in other towns probably by a group of aldermen,
+senior burgesses, with military and police authority, whose
+office was in some cases hereditary. These persons assisted the
+reeve at the great meetings of the full court, and sat with him as
+judges at the subordinate meetings which were held to settle the
+unfinished causes and minor causes. There was no compulsion
+on those not specially summoned to attend these extra meetings.
+At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in public,
+and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all
+the <i>burh-wara</i>, other business concerning borough administration
+was decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies
+that the origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed.
+In the larger towns the division into wards, with a separate
+police system, can be traced at an early time, appearing as a unit
+of military organization, answerable for the defence of a gate of
+the town. The police system of London is described in detail in a
+record of 930-940. Here the free people were grouped in associations
+of ten, each under the superintendence of a headman. The
+bishops and reeves who belonged to the &ldquo;court of London&rdquo;
+appear as the directors of the system, and in them we may see
+the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word
+<i>bertha</i> for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London
+wardmoot at a later time was used for the frankpledge system
+as well as for the organization of the muster, point to a connexion
+between the military and the police systems in the towns. At
+the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th century there is
+evidence of a systematic &ldquo;timbering&rdquo; of new burhs, with the
+object of providing strongholds for the defence of Wessex against
+the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts were
+charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a
+&ldquo;haw,&rdquo; or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by
+charter as if it were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood
+with which it was conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded
+to lands in the county succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs,
+for a close association existed between the &ldquo;thegns&rdquo; of the
+shire and the shirestow, an association partly perhaps of duty
+and also of privilege. The king granted borough &ldquo;haws&rdquo; as
+places of refuge in Kent, and in London he gave them with
+commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been called the
+&ldquo;heterogeneous&rdquo; tenure of the shirestow, one of the most
+conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough,
+was further increased by the liberty which some burgesses
+enjoyed to &ldquo;commend&rdquo; themselves to a lord of their own
+choosing, promising to that lord suit and service and perhaps
+rent in return for protection. Over these burgesses the lords
+could claim jurisdictional rights, and these were in some cases
+increased by royal grants of special rights within certain &ldquo;sokes.&rdquo;
+The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or areas of
+seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve&rsquo;s authority
+was greatly restricted while that of the lord&rsquo;s reeve took precedence.
+Even the haws, being &ldquo;burhs&rdquo; or strongholds within
+a stronghold, enjoyed a local &ldquo;peace&rdquo; which protected from
+official intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction
+in the borough, there was also heterogeneity of status;
+there were burh-thegns and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of
+various kinds, the three groups representing perhaps military,
+commercial and agricultural elements. The burh generally
+shows signs of having been originally a village settlement,
+surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary
+before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule
+eventually the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some
+evidence pointing to the fact that the restriction of the borough
+authority to this area is not ancient, but due to the Norman
+settlement. The wide districts over which the boroughs had had
+authority were placed under the control of the Norman castle
+which was itself built by means of the old English levy of
+&ldquo;burh-work.&rdquo; The borough court was allowed to continue its work
+only within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict,
+the castle was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in
+the national scheme of defence, the burgess &ldquo;cnihts&rdquo; made
+commerce their principal object under the encouragement of
+the old privileges of the walled place.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords
+had burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord.
+In many cases boroughs of this &ldquo;seignorial&rdquo; type were created
+upon the royal estates. Out of the king&rsquo;s vill, as a rule the
+jurisdictional centre of a hundred, there was sometimes created
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page270" id="page270"></a>270</span>
+a borough. The lines of division before Domesday Book are
+obscure, but it is probable that in some cases, by a royal grant
+of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal vill, where a
+hundred court for the district was already held, were authorized
+to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their disputes,
+distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs
+of this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the
+king&rsquo;s estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in
+1086 they were probably already numerous. A borough was
+usually, though perhaps not invariably, the companion of a
+Norman castle. In some cases a French &ldquo;bourg&rdquo; was created
+by the side of an English borough, and the two remained for
+many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in other
+cases a French &ldquo;bourg&rdquo; was settled by the side of an English
+village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords
+had been almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country,
+and lost none of their burghal privileges by the migration.
+Every castle needed for its maintenance a group of skilled
+artisans, and the lords wished to draw to the castle gates all kinds
+of commodities for the castle&rsquo;s provision. The strength of the
+garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a place of danger
+to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to invite to
+its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar to
+those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed
+to those who would build on the plots which were offered to
+colonists. A low fixed rental, release from the renders required
+of villeins, release from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the
+creation of a separate borough jurisdiction, with or without the
+right to choose their own officers, rules fixing the maximum of
+fees and fines, or promising assessment of the fines by the
+burgesses themselves, the cancelling of all the castellan&rsquo;s rights,
+especially the right to take a forced levy of food for the castle
+from all within the area of his jurisdiction, freedom from arbitrary
+tallage, freedom of movement, the right to alienate property
+and devise land, these and many other privileges named in the
+early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman
+<i>liber burgus</i> of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were
+enjoyed by all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial
+rights accompanied the lord&rsquo;s charter which created a borough
+and made burgesses out of villeins. However liberal the grant,
+the lord or his reeve still remained in close personal relation with
+the burgesses of such places, and this character, together with
+the uniformity of their tenure, continued to hold them apart
+from the boroughs of the old English type, where all varieties
+of personal relationship between the lords and their groups of
+tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right to
+retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into
+the old boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of
+the king took precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the
+king&rsquo;s consent was legal. By these means the lords&rsquo; position
+was weakened, and other seignorial claims were later evaded or
+contested. The rights which the lords failed to keep were divided
+between the king and the municipality; in London, for instance,
+the king obtained all escheats, while the borough court secured
+the right of wardship of burgess orphans.</p>
+
+<p>From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs
+was as a rule included in the general &ldquo;farm&rdquo; rendered for the
+county by the sheriff; sometimes it was rendered by a royal
+farmer apart from the county-farm. The king generally accepted
+a composition for all the various items due from the borough.
+The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep that composition
+unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of
+the right amount at the right time for fear that it should be
+increased by way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent
+arrear, and the distraints for debt due, which were obtained
+through the borough court, were a matter of interest to the
+burgesses of the court, and first taught the burgesses co-operative
+action. Money was raised, possibly by order of the borough
+court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to choose
+officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not
+through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases
+also the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe
+the English boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous
+enough to make him an officer specially obnoxious to the
+boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave the London citizens the
+right to choose their own sheriffs and a justiciar answerable for
+keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the Lincoln citizens
+paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the end of the
+12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves,
+and John&rsquo;s charters began to make rules as to the freedom of
+choice to be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and
+as to the royal power of dismissal. In Richard I.&rsquo;s reign London
+imitated the French communes in styling the chief officer a
+mayor; in 1208 Winchester also had a mayor, and the title
+soon became no rarity. The chartered right to choose two or
+more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many
+boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position
+of the London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable
+modifications which Henry II.&rsquo;s systematization of
+the criminal law had introduced. Burgesses who had gone for
+criminal and civil justice to their own court in disputes between
+themselves, or between themselves and strangers who were in
+their town, secured confirmation of this right by charter, not to
+exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt themselves from the
+necessity of pleading in a distant court. The burgess, whether
+plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and could claim
+in this respect a &ldquo;benefit&rdquo; somewhat similar to the benefit of
+clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own
+officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the
+farming of his rents and a large number of rights which would
+eventually prove to be sources of great profit.</p>
+
+<p>No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings
+at the time of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that
+the communities in the 12th century became alive to the possibilities
+of their new position, that trade received a new impulse,
+and the vague constitutional powers of the borough court
+acquired a new need for definition. At first the selection of
+officers who were to treat with the exchequer and to keep the
+royal pleas was almost certainly restricted to a few rich persons
+who could find the necessary securities. Nominated probably
+in one of the smaller judicial assemblies, the choice was announced
+at the great Michaelmas assembly of the whole community,
+and it is not till the next century that we hear of any attempt
+of the &ldquo;vulgus&rdquo; to make a different selection from that of the
+magnates. The &ldquo;vulgus&rdquo; were able to take effective action by
+means of the several craft organizations, and first found the
+necessity to do so when taxation was heavy or when questions
+of trade legislation were mooted (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilds</a></span>). The taxation of
+the boroughs in the reign of Henry II. was assessed by the
+king&rsquo;s justices, who fixed the sums due <i>per capita</i>; but if the
+borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was made by the
+burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the magnates.
+In the levy <i>per communam</i> the assessment was made through
+the wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer
+class. In Henry II.&rsquo;s reign London was taxed by both methods,
+the <i>barones majores</i> by head, the <i>barones minores</i> through the
+wardmoot. The pressure of taxation led in the 13th century to
+a closer definition of the burghal constitutions; the commons
+sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in London) not only to
+hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end of the century
+London had definitely established two councils, that of the
+mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and
+a common council, representing the voice of the commonalty,
+as expressed through the city wards. The choice of councillors
+in the wards rested probably with the aldermen and the ward
+jury summoned by them to make the presentments. In some
+cases juries were summoned not to represent different areas but
+different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in 1272 juries of the
+rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by authority
+from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the
+several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds
+all-powerful agencies for organizing joint action among classes of
+commons united by a trade interest, and the history of the towns
+becomes the history of the struggle between the gilds which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page271" id="page271"></a>271</span>
+captured control of the council and the gilds which were excluded
+therefrom. Many municipal revolutions took place, and a large
+number of constitutional experiments were tried all over the
+country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which directed
+a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose
+more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom,
+found much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like
+the London plan, of two companies, alderman and council, was
+widely favoured in the 14th century, perhaps in imitation of the
+Houses of Lords and Commons. The mayor was sometimes
+styled the &ldquo;sovereign&rdquo; and was given many prerogatives.
+Great respect was paid to the &ldquo;ancients,&rdquo; those, namely, who had
+already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were
+orderly arrangements for counting &ldquo;voices&rdquo; arrived at in a few
+of the most highly developed towns, and these were used only in
+the small assemblies of the governing body, not in the large
+electoral assemblies of the people.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="correction" title="amended from Londom">London</span> in the 13th century there was a regular system for
+the admission of new members to the borough &ldquo;franchise,&rdquo;
+which was at first regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage
+but as a means to secure a privileged position in the borough
+court and in the trade of the borough. Admission could be
+obtained by inheritance, by purchase or gift, in some places by
+marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by a municipal
+register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for his
+privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the
+burdens of taxation, control, &amp;c., which fell upon burgesses.
+Personal service was not always necessary, and in some towns
+there were many non-resident burgesses. When in later times
+admission to this freedom came to be used as means to secure
+the parliamentary franchise, the freedom of the borough was
+freely sold and given. The elections in which the commons of
+the boroughs first took interest were those of the borough
+magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in
+asserting their right to take part in borough elections they were
+rarely able to keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their
+power was feared, but sometimes because of the riotous proceedings
+which ensued. These led to government interference,
+which no party in the borough desired. The possibility of a
+forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the burgesses on
+the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London
+repeatedly was &ldquo;taken into the king&rsquo;s hand,&rdquo; subjected to
+heavy fines and put under the constable of the Tower. In the
+15th century disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new
+constitutions, some of which were the outcome of royal charters,
+others the result of parliamentary legislation. The development
+of the law of corporations also at this time compelled the boroughs
+to seek new charters which should satisfy the now exacting
+demands of the law. The charters of incorporation were issued
+at a time when the state was looking more and more to the
+borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial staff,
+and thus the government was closely interested in the manner
+of their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way
+as to narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed
+under a council and in a number of cases popular control was
+excluded altogether, the whole system being made one of co-optation.
+The absence of popular protest may be ascribed in
+part to the fact that the old popular control had been more
+nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two
+councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy
+burden of taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences,
+paying <i>per capita</i> like the magnates of the 12th century, and
+for a time there is on the whole little evidence of friction between
+the governors and the governed. Throughout, popular opinion
+in the closest of corporations had a means of expression, though
+none of execution, in the presentments of the leet juries and
+sessions juries. By means of their &ldquo;verdicts&rdquo; they could use
+threats against the governing body, express their resentment
+against acts of the council which benefited the governing body
+rather than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize
+where the members of the governing body were suspected of
+fraud. Elizabeth repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations
+&ldquo;because of the abuses committed by their head rulers,&rdquo;
+but in her reign they were fairly easily controlled by the privy
+council, which directed their choice of members of parliament and
+secured supporters of the government policy to fill vacancies on
+the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and Stuart charters
+of specifying by name the members of the governing body and
+holders of special offices opened the way to a &ldquo;purging&rdquo; of the
+hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were
+also rather vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal
+of officers for misconduct, though as a rule the appointments
+were for life. When under the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth
+political and religious feeling ran high in the boroughs,
+use was made of these clauses both by the majority on the
+council and by the central government to mould the character
+of the council by a drastic &ldquo;purging.&rdquo; Another means of control
+first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various
+acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal
+office to the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there
+was no improvement in the methods used by the central
+government to control the boroughs. All opponents of the ruling
+policy were disfranchised and disqualified for office by act of
+parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were to be
+tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals
+gave them opportunity to control the borough policy.
+Few Commonwealth charters have been preserved, though several
+were issued in response to the requests of the corporations.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases the charters used words which appeared to
+point to an opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where
+a usage of election by the town council had been established.
+In 1598 the judges gave an opinion that the town councils could
+by by-law determine laws for the government of the town
+regardless of the terms of the charter. In the 18th century the
+judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage of
+popular election was established, there were means of controlling
+the result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations,
+though their right to choose a member of parliament might be
+doubtful, had the sole right to admit new burgesses, and in order
+to determine parliamentary elections they enfranchised
+non-residents. Where conflicts arose over the choice of a member,
+and two selections were made, the matter came before the House
+of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in favour
+of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the
+town council, on the general principle that neither the royal
+charter nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise.
+But as each case was separately determined by a body swayed
+by the dominant political party, no one principle was steadily
+adhered to in the trial of election petitions. The royal right to
+create boroughs was freely used by Elizabeth and James I. as a
+means of securing a submissive parliament. The later Stuarts
+abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made by the
+Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the
+later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence,
+not to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration
+decided to exercise a strict control of the close corporations
+in order to secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a
+pliant executive among the borough justices, and pliant juries,
+which were impanelled at the selection of the borough officers.
+In 1660 it was made a rule that all future charters should reserve
+expressly to the crown the first nomination of the aldermen,
+recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso should be entered placing
+with the common council the return of the member of parliament.
+The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal commissioners
+to settle the composition of the town councils, and to remove
+all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or
+were suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take
+the necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive
+juries was again so great in 1682 that a general attack
+on the borough franchises was begun by the crown. A London
+jury having returned a verdict hostile to the crown, after various
+attempts to bend the city to his will, Charles II. issued a <i>quo
+warranto</i> against the mayor and commonalty in order to charge
+the citizens with illegal encroachments upon their chartered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page272" id="page272"></a>272</span>
+rights. The want of a sound philosophical principle in the laws
+which were intended to regulate the actions of organized groups
+of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws in the
+legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it possible
+for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken
+against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a &ldquo;body politic
+invisible&rdquo;; that the indictment lay only against every particular
+member of the governing body; and that the corporation as a
+corporation was incapable of suffering a forfeiture or of making
+a surrender. The judges gave a judgment for the king, the
+charters were forfeited and the government placed with a court
+of aldermen of the king&rsquo;s own choosing. Until James II. yielded,
+there was no common council in London. The novelty of the
+proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon
+of the <i>quo warranto</i> systematically to ensure a general
+revocation of charters. The new charters which were then granted
+required the king&rsquo;s consent for the more important appointments,
+and gave him power to remove officers without reason given. Under
+James II. in 1687 six commissioners were appointed to &ldquo;regulate&rdquo;
+the corporations and remove from them all persons who were
+opposed to the abolition of the penal laws against Catholics.
+The new appointments were made under a writ which ran, &ldquo;We
+will and require you to elect&rdquo; (a named person). When James
+II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a
+proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their
+ancient charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many
+boroughs, though not in all, was the charter which had established
+a close corporation, and from this time on to 1835 the boroughs
+made no progress in constitutional growth. The tendency for
+the close corporation to treat the members of the governing
+body as the only corporators, and to repudiate the idea that the
+corporation was answerable to the inhabitants of the borough
+if the corporate property was squandered, became more and
+more manifest as the history of the past slipped into oblivion.
+The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a
+club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the
+same among themselves whensoever such a division should seem
+profitable. Even where the constitution of the corporation was
+not close by charter, the franchise tended to become restricted
+to an ever-dwindling electorate, as the old methods for the
+extension of the municipal franchise by other means than
+inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the &ldquo;freemen&rdquo;
+numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate
+was increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to
+the freedom of voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation
+at parliamentary elections. The growth of corruption in the
+boroughs continued unchecked until the era of the Reform Bill.
+Several boroughs had by that time become insolvent, and some
+had recourse to their member of parliament to eke out their
+revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town
+revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however,
+heavy charges fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era
+dissatisfaction with the corporations was mainly shown by the
+number of local acts of parliament which placed under the
+authority of special commissioners a variety of administrative
+details, which if the corporation had not been suspected would
+certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered
+another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some
+towns out of the trust was developed a system of municipal
+administration where there was no recognized corporation.
+Thus at Peterborough the feoffees who had succeeded to the
+control of certain ancient charities constituted a form of town
+council with very restricted powers. In the 17th century
+Sheffield was brought under the act &ldquo;to redress the misemployment
+of lands given to charitable uses,&rdquo; and the municipal
+administration of what had been a borough passed into the
+hands of the trustees of the Burgery or town trust.</p>
+
+<p>The many special authorities created under act of parliament
+led to much confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased
+the need for a general reform. The reform of the boroughs was
+treated as part of the question of parliamentary reform. In
+1832 the exclusive privileges of the corporations in parliamentary
+elections having been abolished and male occupiers enfranchised,
+the question of the municipal franchise was next dealt with. In
+1833 a commission inquired into the administration of the
+municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the
+Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal
+franchise to the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations
+dealt with by the act, the town council was to consist of a mayor,
+aldermen and councillors, and the councils were given like
+powers, being divided into those with and those without a
+commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open to the
+inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required.
+The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were
+restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The
+system of police, which in some places was still medieval in
+character, was placed under the control of the council. The
+various privileged areas within the bounds of a borough were
+with few exceptions made part of the borough. The powers of
+the council to alienate corporate property were closely restricted.
+The operations of the act were extended by later legislation, and
+the divers amendments and enactments which followed were
+consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882.</p>
+<div class="author">(M. Bat.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Irish Boroughs.</i>&mdash;In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life
+are connected with the maritime settlements on the southern
+and eastern coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these
+Ostman ports with Anglo-Norman communities, who brought
+with them, or afterwards obtained, municipal charters of a
+favourable kind. The English settlement obviously depended
+on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over the
+native population outside. Quite different from these were the
+new close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster
+James I. introduced from England. The conquest was by this
+time completed, and by a rigorous enforcement of the Supremacy
+and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties of the older boroughs
+were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules published
+(in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672
+resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither
+this regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth,
+marriage and apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free
+and vigorous municipalities. The corrupt admission of
+non-resident freemen, in order to outvote the ancient freeholders
+in parliamentary elections, and the systematic exclusion of
+Roman Catholics, soon divorced the &ldquo;commonalty&rdquo; from true
+local interests, and made the corporations, which elected themselves
+or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scottish Boroughs.</i>&mdash;In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided
+into royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony.
+The first were erected by royal charter, and every burgess held
+direct of the crown. It was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the
+burgh lands,&mdash;a distinction still traceable in modern conveyancing.
+Where perhaps no charter ever existed, the law on proof of
+immemorial possession of the privileges of a royal burgh has
+presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The charter
+gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long
+exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council
+to be chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates
+by both councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which
+was specially reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable
+jurisdictions, was originally cumulative with, and as large as,
+that of the sheriff. It is now confined to police offences, summary
+ejections, orders for <i>interim</i> aliment (for prisoners), payment
+of burgh dues and delivery of title deeds. Three head courts were
+held in the year, at which all burgesses were obliged to attend,
+and at which public business was done and private transactions
+were ratified. There were three classes of burgesses&mdash;burgesses
+<i>in sua arte</i>, members of one or other of the corporations;
+burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses. The
+Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable
+inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of
+admission was required, at which the applicant swore fealty and
+promised to watch and ward for the community, and to pay his
+&ldquo;maill&rdquo; to the king. These borough maills, or rents, and the
+great and small customs of burghs, formed a large part of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page273" id="page273"></a>273</span>
+royal revenue, and, although frequently leased or feued out for
+a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I. annexed to the
+crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in the
+peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable;
+they are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the
+usual privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or
+tribute, and that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess&rsquo;s
+own debts. There was also the usual strife between the gildry
+and the craftsmen, who were generally prohibited from trading,
+and of whom dyers, fleshers and shoemakers were forbidden to
+enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and visitors were appointed
+by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed by the magistrates.
+The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated, not by royal
+charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh, by
+seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the
+free burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of
+importing and exporting merchandise was confined to freemen,
+burgesses and their factors. Ships were directed to trade to the
+king&rsquo;s free burghs, there to pay the customs, and to receive their
+<i>cocquets</i> or custom-house seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling
+outside burghs were forbidden to &ldquo;use any merchandise,&rdquo; or to
+sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633, erroneously called a
+<i>Ratification</i> of the privileges of burghs, extended these privileges
+of buying and selling to retail as well as wholesale trade, but
+restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs. Accordingly, in
+1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to the
+freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk,
+dyeing materials, &amp;c., permitting generally to all persons the
+export of native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses
+of barony and regality to export their own manufactures, and
+such goods as they may buy in &ldquo;markets,&rdquo; and to import against
+these consignments certain materials for tillage, building, or for
+use in their own manufactures, with a general permission to
+retail all commodities. This extraordinary system was again
+changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen of royal
+burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by sea
+or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything
+which was not native raw material, which might be freely
+exported by land. The gentry were always allowed to import
+for their personal consumption and to export an equal quantity
+of commodities. The act mentions that the royal burghs as an
+estate of the kingdom contributed one-sixth part of all public
+impositions, and were obliged to build and maintain prison-houses.
+Some of these trade privileges were not abolished till 1846.</p>
+
+<p>In the north of Scotland there was an association of free
+burghs called the Hanse or <i>Ansus</i>; and the lord chamberlain,
+by his <i>Iter</i>, or circuit of visitation, maintained a common
+standard of right and duties in all burghs, and examined the state of
+the &ldquo;common good,&rdquo; the accounts of which in 1535 were
+appointed to be laid before the auditors in exchequer. The
+chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor Burgorum
+(Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made
+regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right
+(<i>e.g.</i> succession), according to the varying customs of burghs.
+This court frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed
+at Edinburgh. The more modern convention of royal burghs
+(which appeared as a judicial <i>persona</i> in the Court of Session so
+late as 1839) probably dates from the act of James III. (1487,
+c. 111), which appointed the commissioners of burghs, both north
+and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing &ldquo;to treat of the
+welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the
+common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the
+skaith and injuries sustained within the burghs.&rdquo; Among the
+more important functions of this body (on whose decrees at one
+time summary diligence proceeded) were the prohibition of undue
+exactions within burghs, the revisal of the &ldquo;set&rdquo; or mode of
+municipal election, and the <i>pro rata</i> division among the burghs
+of the parliamentary subsidy required from the third estate.
+The reform of the municipalities, and the complete representation
+of the mercantile interests in the united parliament, deprived
+this body of any importance.</p>
+
+<p>Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some
+great lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory
+or in practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction
+in civil and criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of
+the baron or the lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the
+right of nominating magistrates. Powers to hold markets and
+to levy customs were likewise given to these burghs.</p>
+
+<p>The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance.
+In 1295 the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement
+for the marriage of Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized
+as a third estate, granting a tenth penny on all rents
+for the king&rsquo;s life, if he should apply it for the public good.
+The commissioners of burghs received from the exchequer their
+costages or expenses of attending parliament. The burghs were
+represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee on
+articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the
+Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown,
+and the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion
+of general taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly
+preserved by act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners,
+of course, fluctuated from time to time. Cromwell
+assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs in the second
+parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice until
+1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two
+members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention
+of burghs) certain groups of burghs returned one member,
+Edinburgh returning two. Under art. 22 of the treaty of
+Union the number of members for royal burghs was fixed at
+fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the magistrates
+and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates
+chosen ad hoc.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. C. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Gross, <i>Bibliography of British Municipal History</i> (1897),
+which contains all needful references up to that date;
+F.W. Maitland, <i>Township and Borough</i> (1898);
+A. Ballard, <i>Domesday Boroughs</i> (1904);
+M. Bateson, <i>Borough Customs</i> (1904-1906);
+S. and B. Webb, <i>English Local Government</i> (3 vols., 1906-1908).
+For the character of the modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson,
+<i>Local Government in Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1904), where other
+works are mentioned.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOROUGHBRIDGE,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a market town in the Ripon parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W.
+of York on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
+830. It lies in the central plain of Yorkshire, on the river Ure
+near its confluence with the Swale. It is in the parish of
+Aldborough, the village of that name (<i>q.v.</i>), celebrated for
+its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three
+upright stones called the Devil&rsquo;s Arrows, which are of uncertain
+origin but probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge,
+then called Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and
+passed to William the Conqueror, but suffered so much from the
+ravages of his soldiers that by 1086 it had decreased in value from
+£10 to 55 s. When the site of the Great North Road was altered,
+towards the end of the 11th century, a bridge was built across the
+Ure, about half a mile above the Roman bridge at Aldborough,
+and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This caused a village
+to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as to become a
+market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor of
+Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited
+a few years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham.
+It then remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several
+citizens of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands
+to the present owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the
+early 14th century centres round the war with Scotland, and
+culminates with the battle fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the
+Scots invaded England, they penetrated as far south as
+Boroughbridge and burnt the town. Boroughbridge was evidently a
+borough by prescription, and as such was called upon to return
+two members to parliament in 1299. It was not represented again
+until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town was finally
+disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants of
+Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in 1670
+created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the
+5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis
+Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOROUGH ENGLISH,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> a custom prevailing in certain ancient
+English boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where
+the lands are held in socage), and also in certain copyhold manors
+(chiefly in Surrey, Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in
+general lands descend to the youngest son, to the exclusion of all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page274" id="page274"></a>274</span>
+the other children, of the person dying seised and intestate.
+Descent to the youngest brother to the exclusion of all other
+collaterals, where there is no issue, is sometimes included in the
+general definition, but this is really a special custom to be
+proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from local
+reputation&mdash;a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest
+sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart
+from specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not
+including collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the
+distinct custom that the widow shall take as dower the whole
+and not merely one-third of her husband&rsquo;s lands.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much
+disputed. Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin,
+there is no direct evidence of such being the case. The first
+mention of the custom in England occurs in Glanvil, without,
+however, any explanation as to its origin. Littleton&rsquo;s explanation,
+which is the more usually accepted, is that custom casts
+the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the death of
+his parents he is least able to support himself, and more likely
+to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived
+Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons
+migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household.
+C.I. Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It
+was referred to by the Normans as &ldquo;the custom of the English
+towns.&rdquo; In the Yearbook of 22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described
+as the custom of Nottingham, which is made clear by the report
+of a trial in the first year of Edward III. where it was found
+that in Nottingham there were two districts, the one the <i>Burgh-Fraunçoyes</i>,
+the other the <i>Burgh-Engloyes</i>, where descent was
+to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has
+derived its name. On the European continent the custom of
+junior-rights is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and
+it has by some been ascribed to the <i>jus primae noctis</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It is also said to exist amongst the Mongols.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gavelkind</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Primogeniture</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tenure</a></span>;
+Blackstone&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>; Coke&rsquo;s <i>Institutes</i>;
+Comyn&rsquo;s <i>Digest of the Law</i>;
+Elton&rsquo;s <i>Origin of English History</i>;
+Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORROMEAN ISLANDS,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a group of four islands on the W. side
+of Lago Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost,
+the Isola Bella, is famous for its château and terraced
+gardens, constructed by Count Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690).
+To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori, containing a fishing
+village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre, the largest of
+the group, with a château and garden; and to the N. again,
+off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORROMEO, CARLO<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the
+Roman Catholic Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of
+Arona, and Margarita de&rsquo; Medici, was born at the castle of Arona
+on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of October 1538. When he was
+about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo resigned to him
+an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in charity to
+the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In
+1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother,
+Count Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the
+management of their domestic affairs. After a time, however,
+he resumed his studies, and in 1559 he took his doctor&rsquo;s degree.
+In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de&rsquo; Medici, was raised to the
+pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made prothonotary,
+entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the
+ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration
+of Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the
+Franciscans, the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was
+thus at the age of twenty-two practically the leading statesman
+of the papal court. Soon after he was raised to the archbishopric
+of Milan. In compliance with the pope&rsquo;s desire, he lived in great
+splendour; yet his own temperance and humility were never
+brought into question. He established an academy of learned
+persons, and published their memoirs as the <i>Noctes Vaticanae</i>.
+About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at
+Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On
+the death of his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit
+the church and marry, that his family might not become extinct.
+He declined the proposal, however, and became henceforward
+still more fervent in exercises of piety, and more zealous for the
+welfare of the church. Owing to his influence over Pius IV.,
+he was able to facilitate the final deliberations of the council of
+Trent, and he took a large share in the drawing up of the
+Tridentine catechism (<i>Catechismus Romanus</i>).</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of
+Borromeo contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of
+the conclave. Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the
+reformation of his diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory
+condition owing to the prolonged absences of its
+previous archbishops. He made a series of pastoral visits, and
+restored decency and dignity to divine service. In conformity
+with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the cathedral
+of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing
+not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the
+nave of the church into two compartments for the separation of
+the sexes. He extended his reforms to the collegiate churches
+(even to the fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St
+John the Baptist), and to the monasteries. The great abuses
+which had overrun the church at this time arose principally
+from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo, therefore, established
+seminaries, colleges and communities for the education
+of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,
+of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society
+whose members were pledged to give aid to the church when and
+where it might be required. He further paved the way for the
+&ldquo;Golden&rdquo; or &ldquo;Borromean&rdquo; league formed in 1586 by the Swiss
+Catholic cantons of Switzerland to expel heretics if necessary by
+armed force.</p>
+
+<p>In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about
+giving directions for accommodating the sick and burying the
+dead, avoiding no danger and sparing no expense. He visited all
+the neighbouring parishes where the contagion raged, distributing
+money, providing accommodation for the sick, and punishing
+those, especially the clergy, who were remiss in discharging their
+duties. He met with much opposition to his reforms. The
+governor of the province, and many of the senators, apprehensive
+that the cardinal&rsquo;s ordinances and proceedings would encroach
+upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and complaints
+to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had
+more formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate
+opposition of several religious orders, particularly that of the
+Humiliati (Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society
+formed a conspiracy against his life, and a shot was fired at him
+in the archiepiscopal chapel under circumstances which led to the
+belief that his escape was miraculous. The number of his enemies
+was increased by his successful attack on his Jesuit confessor
+Ribera, who with other members of the college of Milan was
+found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His manifold labours
+and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He was seized
+with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of
+November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is
+celebrated on the 4th of November.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the <i>Nodes Vaticanae</i>, to which he appears to have
+contributed, the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous
+reformer are some homilies, discourses and sermons, with a
+collection of letters. His sermons, which have little literary
+merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5 vols., Milan, 1747-1748),
+and have been translated into many languages. The record of
+his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the <i>Acta
+Ecclesiae Mediolanensis</i> (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last
+wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well
+as a statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers
+who regarded him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.</p>
+
+<p>His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop
+of Milan from 1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library
+in that city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.P. Giussano, <i>Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo</i> (1610, Eng. ed. by
+H.E. Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, <i>Documenti circa la vita e
+la gesta di Borromeo</i> (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page275" id="page275"></a>275</span>
+<i>Histoire de St Charles Borromée</i> (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono,
+<i>Un grande riformatore del secolo XVI</i> (Florence, 1904); article
+&ldquo;Borromäus&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORROMINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1599-1667), Italian architect,
+was born at Bissone in 1599. He was the chief representative of
+the style known in architecture as &ldquo;baroque,&rdquo; which marked a
+fearless and often reckless departure from the traditional laws
+of the Renaissance, and often obtained originality only at the
+cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the main opponents of this
+style was Barocchio (<i>q.v.</i>). Borromini was much employed in
+the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works
+are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La
+Sapienza in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the
+church of the Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of
+San Giovanni in Laterano. He died by his own hand at Rome in
+1667. Engravings of his chief compositions are to be found in
+the posthumous work, <i>Francisci Borromini opus Architectonicum</i>
+(1727).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORROW, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1803-1881), English traveller,
+linguist and author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the
+5th of July 1803, of a middle-class Cornish family. His father
+was a recruiting officer, and his mother a Norfolk lady of French
+extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow attended, with no very
+great profit, the grammar school at Norwich. After leaving
+school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors, where he
+neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention
+to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William
+Taylor, the friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in
+1824 he went to London to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer.
+In 1826 he published a volume of <i>Romantic Ballads</i>
+translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir Richard Phillips,
+the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages, his
+experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last
+became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton&rsquo;s doom, he
+must leave London and either return to Norwich and share his
+mother&rsquo;s narrow income, or turn to account in some way the
+magnificent physical strength with which nature had endowed
+him. Determining on the latter of these courses, he left London
+on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6 ft. in height,
+was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of
+extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty&mdash;Greek
+in type with a dash of the Hebrew&mdash;we may assume that there
+had never before appeared on the English high-roads so
+majestic-looking a tramp as he who, on an afternoon in May, left his
+squalid lodging with bundle and stick to begin life on the roads.
+Shaping his course to the south-west, he soon found himself on
+Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary adventures began.
+After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and it was
+while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance
+of the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse,
+whom he has immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners.
+He was now brought much into contact with the gipsies, and
+this fact gave him the most important subject-matter for his
+writings. For picturesque as is Borrow&rsquo;s style, it is this
+subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain, which&mdash;if
+his pictures of that world are true&mdash;will keep his writings alive.
+Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to
+America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow&rsquo;s pictures
+of them are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate
+that no one who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers
+with whom he associated, and whom he depicted, has
+ever written about him and them. Full of &ldquo;documents&rdquo; as is
+Dr Knapp&rsquo;s painstaking biography, it cannot be said to give a
+vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this most
+interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of
+gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was
+brought into contact, and he can only refer, in justification of
+Borrow&rsquo;s descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own,
+where the whole question is discussed at length, and where he has
+set out to prove that Borrow&rsquo;s pictures of the section of the English
+gipsies he knew are not idealized. But there is one great blemish
+in <i>all</i> Borrow&rsquo;s dramatic scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever
+they may be laid. This was pointed out by the gentleman who
+&ldquo;read&rdquo; <i>Zincali</i> for Mr Murray, the publisher:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in
+several of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who
+are in humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of
+character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be
+very advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference
+to this point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and
+introducing a few contractions&mdash;<i>don&rsquo;ts, can&rsquo;ts</i>, &amp;c. This would
+improve them greatly.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The
+reader has only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given
+in that photographic study of Romany life, <i>In Gipsy Tents</i>, by
+F.H. Groome, with the dialogues in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The Romany
+Rye</i>, to see how the illusion in Borrow&rsquo;s narrative is disturbed
+by the uncolloquial locutions of the speakers. It is true, no
+doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps the English and
+Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding words,
+and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the
+Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language
+to the archduke Joseph, often called the &ldquo;Gipsy Archduke.&rdquo; But
+after all allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow&rsquo;s
+presentation of it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs
+Petulengro, Ursula, and the rest, to find them using complex
+sentences and bookish words which, even among English people,
+are rarely heard in conversation. As to the deep impression
+that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly explained
+by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of all
+countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The
+silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained
+to the last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of
+his hairless face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange
+look &ldquo;not a bit like a Gorgio&rsquo;s,&rdquo; to use the words of one of his
+gipsy friends. Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which
+Borrow assumed in the company of his social equals left him
+entirely when he was with the gipsies. The result of this was
+that these wanderers knew him better than did his own countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>Seven years after the events recorded in <i>Lavengro</i> and <i>The
+Romany Rye</i> Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible
+Society, in which capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835)
+(where he published <i>Targum</i>, a collection of translations), and
+Spain, Portugal and Morocco (1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he
+acted as correspondent to the <i>Morning Herald</i>. The result of
+these travels and adventures was the publication, in 1841, of
+<i>Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain</i>, the original MS. of which,
+in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was Borrow&rsquo;s
+method of work. In 1843 appeared <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, when
+suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book
+glows with freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840
+he married Mary Clarke, the widow of a naval officer, and
+permanently settled at Oulton Broad, near Lowestoft, with her
+and her daughter. Here he began to write again. Very likely
+Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond life
+in England as a hedge-smith had not <i>The Bible in Spain</i> made
+him famous as a wanderer. <i>Lavengro</i> appeared in 1851 with a
+success which, compared with that of <i>The Bible in Spain</i>, was
+only partial. He was much chagrined at this, and although <i>Lavengro</i>
+broke off in the midst of a scene in the Dingle, and only
+broke off there because the three volumes would hold no more, it
+was not until 1857 that he published the sequel, <i>The Romany
+Rye</i>. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe, and in 1854
+he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he
+described in <i>Wild Wales</i>, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought
+out a volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue,
+<i>Romano Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language</i>, a book
+which has been exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John
+Sampson. In the summer of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to
+Mr Murray and a few friends, and returned to Oulton. On the
+26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his house at Oulton, in
+his seventy-ninth year.</p>
+
+<p>Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though
+he was not a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page276" id="page276"></a>276</span>
+attainments is shown by his translation of the Church of England
+<i>Homilies</i> into Manchu, of the Gospel of St Luke into the Git
+dialect of the Gitanos, of <i>The Sleeping Bard</i> from the
+Cambrian-British, and of <i>Bluebeard</i> into Turkish. But it is not
+Borrow&rsquo;s linguistic accomplishments that have kept his name fresh, and
+will continue to keep it fresh for many a generation to come. It
+is his character, his unique character as expressed, or partially
+expressed, in his books. Among all the &ldquo;remarkable individuals&rdquo;
+(to use his favourite expression) who during the middle of the 19th
+century figured in the world of letters, Borrow was surely the
+most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the most
+extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled
+any other writer of his time. With regard to <i>Lavengro</i> and
+<i>The Romany Rye</i>, there has been very much discussion as to how
+much <i>Dichtung</i> is mingled with the <i>Wahrheit</i> in those
+fascinating books. Had it not been for the amazingly clumsy pieces of
+fiction which he threw into the narrative, few readers would have
+doubted the autobiographical nature of the two books. Such
+incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of unreality over
+the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never
+created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the
+times and Borrow&rsquo;s writings the originals are easily recognizable.
+This is true, no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at
+Norwich, and indeed generally as regards those he knew before
+the period of his gipsy wanderings. It must not be supposed,
+however, that such a character as the man who &ldquo;touched&rdquo; to
+avert the evil chance is in any sense a portrait of an individual
+with whom he had been brought into contact. The character
+has so many of Borrow&rsquo;s own eccentricities that it might rather
+be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow
+strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which
+he seems to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects
+along his path in order to save himself from the evil chance. He
+never conquered the superstition. In walking through Richmond
+Park with the present writer he would step out of his way
+constantly to touch a tree, and he was offended if the friend he
+was with seemed to observe it. Many of the peculiarities of the
+man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract his mind
+from painful thoughts were also Borrow&rsquo;s own.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. W.-D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORSIPPA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (<i>Barsip</i> in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions;
+<i>Borsif</i> in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the
+Greek name of an ancient city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and
+10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr Hindieh, or Hindieh canal,
+formerly known as &ldquo;the Euphrates of Borsippa,&rdquo; and even
+during the Arabic period called &ldquo;the river of Birs.&rdquo; Borsippa was
+the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the inscriptions
+Babylon II., also the &ldquo;city without equal.&rdquo; Its patron god
+was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in
+the oldest inscriptions, but comes into importance first after
+Khammurabi had made Babylon the capital of the whole land,
+somewhere before 2000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida
+at this place, dedicating it, however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach).
+But although Khammurabi himself does not seem to have
+honoured Nebo (<i>q.v.</i>), subsequent kings recognized him as the
+deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (<i>q.v.</i>). Each
+new year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who
+in his turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second
+in wealth and importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk
+in Babylon. As with Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of
+Nebuchadrezzar was the period of its greatest prosperity. In
+general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon, falling into decay
+after the time of Alexander, and finally in the middle ages into
+ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by two large
+ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the two,
+but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil,
+from a <i>ziara</i>, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which
+stands on its highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on
+Jewish legends, at this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham
+into a fiery furnace, from which he was saved by the grace of God.
+Excavations were first conducted here by the French Expédition
+Scientifique en Mésopotamie in 1852, with small result. In 1879
+and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive, although
+unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a considerable
+quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the British
+Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains
+unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is
+probably the most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On
+the top of a hill over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified
+brick split down the centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge
+masses of vitrified brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and
+also single enamelled bricks, generally bearing an inscription of
+Nebuchadrezzar, twisted, curled and broken, apparently by
+great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition makes this the Tower
+of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed by
+lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
+1854 showed it to be the stage tower or <i>ziggurat</i>, called the
+&ldquo;house of the seven divisions of heaven and earth,&rdquo; of E-Zida,
+the temple of Nebo. On a large platform rose seven solid
+terraces, each smaller than the one below it, the lowest being
+272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these terraces was faced
+with bricks of a different colour. The approach to this <i>ziggurat</i>
+was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the principal
+rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms
+were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its
+final form this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar,
+but from the clay cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in
+two of the corners of the tower it appears that he restored an
+incomplete <i>ziggurat</i> of a former king, &ldquo;which was long since
+fallen into decay.&rdquo; Some of the best authorities believe that it
+was this ambitious but incomplete and ruinous <i>ziggurat</i>,
+existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which gave occasion to or
+afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of the Tower of Babel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;H.C. Rawlinson, <i>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</i> (1860);
+J. Oppert, <i>Expédition scientifique en Mésopotamie</i> (Paris, 1863);
+F. Delitzsch, <i>Wo lag das Paradies?</i> (Leipzig, 1881);
+J.P. Peters, <i>Nippur</i> (New York and London, 1896);
+H. Rassam, <i>Asshur and the Land of Nimrod</i> (London and New York, 1897);
+M. Jastrow, <i>Religion of Babylonia and Assyria</i> (Boston, 1898);
+see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babylon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babel</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. P. Pe.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORT,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boart</span>, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for
+cutting but useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort
+occurs in small spherical masses, of greyish colour, rough or
+drusy on the surface, and showing on fracture a radiate crystalline
+structure. These masses, known in Brazil as bolas, are often
+called &ldquo;shot bort&rdquo; or &ldquo;round bort.&rdquo; Much of the bort consists
+of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the
+term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and
+crystalline fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A
+large proportion of the output of some of the South African mines
+consists of such material. This bort is crushed in steel mortars to
+form diamond powder, which is largely used in lapidaries&rsquo; work.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span>
+(1780-1846), French naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780.
+He was sent as naturalist with Captain Nicholas Baudin&rsquo;s
+expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the vessel at Mauritius,
+and spent two years in exploring Réunion and other islands.
+Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles of
+Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal
+Soult. His attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike
+to the Bourbons were shown in various ways during 1815, and
+his name was consequently placed on the list of the proscribed;
+but after wandering in disguise from place to place he was
+allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In 1829 he was
+placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea, and in
+1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on
+the 23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the <i>Dictionnaire
+classique d&rsquo;histoire naturelle</i>, and among his separate productions
+were:&mdash;<i>Essais sur les Îles Fortunées</i> (1802);
+<i>Voyage dans les Îles d&rsquo;Afrique</i> (1803);
+<i>Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau
+de Saint-Pierre de Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes</i> (1821);
+<i>L&rsquo;Homme, essai zoologique sur le genre humain</i> (1827);
+<i>Résumé de la géographie de la Péninsule</i> (1838).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BORZHOM,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in
+the government of Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page277" id="page277"></a>277</span>
+Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800. It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft.
+in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow rift in the Little Caucasus
+mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm climate, its two hot
+springs (71½°-82° Fahr.) and its beautiful parks make it a favourite
+summer resort, and give it its popular name of &ldquo;the pearl of
+Caucasus.&rdquo; The bottled mineral waters are very extensively exported.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOS, LAMBERT<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was
+born at Workum in Friesland, where his father was headmaster
+of the school. He went to the university of Franeker (suppressed
+by Napoleon in 1811), and was appointed professor of Greek there
+in 1704; after an uneventful life he died at Franeker in 1717.
+His most famous work, <i>Ellipses Graecae</i> (1702), was
+translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his <i>Antiquitates
+Graecae</i> (1714) passed through several editions. He also published
+<i>Vetus Testamentum</i>, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709);
+notes on Thomas Magister (1698); <i>Exercitationes Philologicae</i> (1700);
+<i>Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos</i> (1715);
+and two small treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSA,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia,
+in the province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop.
+(1901) 6846. The height above the town is crowned by a castle
+of the Malaspina family. The cathedral, founded in the 12th
+century, restored in the 15th, and rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There
+are some tanneries, and the fishing industry is important, but
+the coral production of Sicily has entirely destroyed that of Bosa
+since 1887. The district produces oil and wine. The present town
+of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1½ m. from the site
+of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a well-preserved
+church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but is only
+mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the coast-road
+in the Itineraries (<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> x. 7939 seq.).
+One of the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records
+the erection of four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife
+Faustina and their two sons.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1812-1886),
+Dutch novelist, was born at Alkmaar in north Holland
+on the 16th of September 1812. Her father, named
+Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a fair
+education, and at an early period of her career she developed a
+taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced
+indoor life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the
+Dutch painter, Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter
+was known as Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance,
+<i>Almagro</i>, appeared in 1837, followed by the <i>Graaf van Devonshire</i>
+(<i>The Earl of Devonshire</i>) in 1838; the <i>Engelschen te Rome</i> (<i>The
+English at Rome</i>) in 1840, and <i>Het Huis Lauernesse</i> (<i>The House
+of Lauernesse</i>) in 1841, an episode of the Reformation, translated
+into many European languages. These stories, mainly founded
+upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch history,
+betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined
+with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her
+style is sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten
+years (1840-1850) were mainly devoted to further studies, the
+result of which was revealed in 1851-1854, when her <i>Leycester
+in Nederland</i> (3 vols.), <i>Vrouwen van het Leycestersche Tydperk</i>
+(<i>Women of Leicester&rsquo;s Epoch</i>, 3 vols.), and <i>Gideon Florensz</i> (3 vols.)
+appeared, a series dealing with Robert Dudley&rsquo;s adventures
+in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs Bosboom-Toussaint
+abandoned historical romance for the modern society novel,
+but her <i>Delftsche Wonderdokter</i> (<i>The Necromancer of Delft</i>, 1871,
+3 vols.) and <i>Majoor Frans</i> (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the
+success of her earlier works. <i>Major Frank</i> has been translated
+into English (1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of
+April 1886. Her novels have been published there in a collected
+edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1759-1828), French
+naturalist, was born at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He
+was educated at the college of Dijon, where he showed a taste for
+botany, and he followed up his studies in Paris at the Jardin des
+Plantes, where he made the acquaintance of Mme M.J.P.
+Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a government
+appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in the
+postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792
+he also held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent
+outbreaks of 1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to
+take refuge in flight. For some months he lay concealed at
+Sainte-Radégonde, in the forest of Montmorency, barely subsisting
+on roots and vegetables. He was enabled to return to Paris
+on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title <i>Appel à l&rsquo;impartiale
+postérité par la citoyenne Roland</i> published a manuscript Mme
+Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon
+afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the
+natural riches of that country. The immense materials he
+gathered were never published in a complete form, but much
+went to enrich the works of B.G.E. de Lacépède, P.A. Latreille
+and others. After his return, on the establishment of the
+Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of this he was
+again deprived by the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1799, and for a time he was
+in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to scientific
+literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the foundations
+of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new <i>Dictionnaire
+d&rsquo;histoire naturelle</i>, and on the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>, he
+edited the <i>Dictionnaire raisonné et universel d&rsquo;agriculture</i>, and was
+one of the editors of the <i>Annales de l&rsquo;agriculture française</i>. He
+was made inspector of the gardens at Versailles, and of the public
+nurseries belonging to the ministry of the interior. The last
+years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work on the vine,
+for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials, but
+his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its completion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSCÁN ALMOGAVER, JUAN<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1490?-1542), Spanish poet,
+was born about the close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan
+of patrician birth, and, after some years of military service,
+became tutor to the duke of Alva. His poems were published in
+1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are divided into sections
+which mark the stages of Boscán&rsquo;s poetical evolution. The first
+book contains poems in the old Castilian metres, written in his
+youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted with the
+Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt
+Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscán&rsquo;s
+activity. The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the
+Italian manner, the longest of these being <i>Hero y Leander</i>, a poem
+in blank verse, based on Musaeus. Boscán&rsquo;s best effort, the
+<i>Octava Rima</i>, is a skilful imitation of Petrarch and Bembo.
+Boscán also published in 1534 an admirable translation of
+Castiglione&rsquo;s <i>Il Cortegiano</i>. Italian measures had been introduced
+into Spanish literature by Santillana and Villalpando; it is
+Boscán&rsquo;s distinction to have naturalized these forms definitively,
+and to have founded a poetic school.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by
+W.J. Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco
+Flamini, <i>Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera</i> (Livorno, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSCASTLE,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a small seaport and watering-place in the
+Launceston parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m.
+N. of Camelford station on the London &amp; South-Western railway.
+Pop. (civil parish of Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises
+steeply above a very narrow cove on the north coast, sheltered,
+but difficult of access, vessels having to be warped into it by
+means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the harbour marks
+the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St Symphorian,
+Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from
+Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition
+that a ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the
+harbour, and that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath
+the waves, has been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish
+poet Robert Stephen Hawker, vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast
+scenery near Boscastle is severely beautiful, with abrupt cliffs
+fully exposed to the sea, and broken only by a few picturesque
+inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove. Inland
+are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSCAWEN, EDWARD<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1711-1761), British admiral, was
+born on the 19th of August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page278" id="page278"></a>278</span>
+1st Viscount Falmouth. He early entered the navy, and in 1739
+distinguished himself at the taking of Porto Bello. At the siege
+of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of a party of seamen, he
+took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while exposed to the fire of
+another fort. On his return to England in the following year he
+married, and entered parliament as member for Truro. In 1744
+he captured the French frigate &ldquo;Médée,&rdquo; commanded by M. de
+Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he
+signalized himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and
+was wounded in the shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart
+again became his prisoner, and the French ships, ten in number,
+were taken. On the 15th of July he was made rear-admiral and
+commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East Indies. On
+the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David&rsquo;s, and soon
+after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and
+the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege.
+Soon afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was
+delivered up to him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in
+England, and was the next year made one of the lords of the
+Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother of the Trinity House.
+In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral, and in April he
+intercepted the French squadron bound to North America, and
+took the &ldquo;Alcide&rdquo; and &ldquo;Lys&rdquo; of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart
+became his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen
+returned to Spithead with his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For
+this exploit, he received the thanks of parliament. In 1758 he
+was appointed admiral of the blue and commander-in-chief of
+the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in conjunction with
+General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and the
+island of Cape Breton&mdash;services for which he again received the
+thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to
+command in the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet,
+commanded by M. de la Clue, and after a sharp engagement in
+Lagos Bay took three large ships and burnt two, returning to
+Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners. The victory
+defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in
+Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he
+was appointed general of the marines, with a salary of £3000 per
+annum, and was also sworn a member of the privy council. He
+died at his seat near Guildford on the 10th of January 1761.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSCH<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (or Bos), <span class="bold">JEROM</span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1518), the name generally
+given, from his birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van
+Aeken, the Dutch painter. He was probably a pupil of Albert
+Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel of the 15th century,
+for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre types, <i>diableries</i>,
+and scenes of the kind generally associated with Breughel, whose
+art is to a great extent based on Bosch&rsquo;s. He was a satirist much
+in advance of his time, and one of the most original and ingenious
+artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on
+Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works
+were much admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose
+court Bosch painted for some time. One of his chief works is the
+&ldquo;Last Judgment&rdquo; at the Berlin gallery, which also owns a
+little &ldquo;St Jerome in the Desert.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Fall of the Rebellious
+Angels&rdquo; and the &ldquo;St Anthony&rdquo; triptych are in the Brussels
+museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.
+The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important
+&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo; the Antwerp museum a &ldquo;Passion,&rdquo;
+and a practically unknown painting from his brush is at the
+Naples museum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician
+and natural philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign
+<i>savants</i> to adopt Newton&rsquo;s gravitation theory, was born at
+Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May 1711, according to the
+usual account, but ten years earlier according to Lalande (<i>Éloge</i>,
+1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through the usual
+elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On
+completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied
+mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so
+brilliant was his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was
+appointed professor of mathematics in the college. For this
+post he was especially fitted by his acquaintance with recent
+advances in science, and by his skill in a classical severity of
+demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the works of the
+Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment he
+had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem
+to find the sun&rsquo;s equator and determine the period of its rotation
+by observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the
+arduous duties of his professorship he found time for investigation
+in all the fields of physical science; and he published a
+very large number of dissertations, some of them of considerable
+length, on a wide variety of subjects. Among these subjects
+were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora Borealis, the figure of
+the earth, the observation of the fixed stars, the inequalities in
+terrestrial gravitation, the application of mathematics to the
+theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in astronomical
+observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the cycloid, the
+logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of
+continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of
+spherical trigonometry, &amp;c. In 1742 he was consulted, with
+other men of science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the
+best means of securing the stability of the dome of St Peter&rsquo;s,
+Rome, in which a crack had been discovered. His suggestion was
+adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take part in the Portuguese
+expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the measurement of a
+degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent request of
+the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a similar
+task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,
+an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between
+Rome and Rimini. The operations were begun towards the
+close of 1750, and were completed in about two years. An
+account of them was published in 1755, entitled <i>De Litteraria
+expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad dimetiendos duos meridiani
+gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich</i>. The value of this work was
+increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of the Church.
+A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having
+arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of
+Lucca with respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent,
+in 1757, as agent of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing
+about a satisfactory arrangement of the matter. In the following
+year he published at Vienna his famous work, <i>Theoria philosophiae
+naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in natura existentium</i>,
+containing his atomic theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molecule</a></span>). Another occasion
+for the exercise of his diplomatic ability soon after presented
+itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of the British
+government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port of
+Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of
+Ragusa had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to
+undertake an embassy to London (1760), to vindicate the
+character of his native place and satisfy the government. This
+mission he discharged successfully, with credit to himself and
+satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in England he
+was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid
+this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem,
+entitled <i>De Solis et Lunae Defectibus</i> (London, 1764). This
+prolix composition, one of a class which at that time was much in
+vogue&mdash;metrical epitomes of the facts of science&mdash;contains in
+about five thousand lines, illustrated by voluminous notes, a
+compendium of astronomy. It was for the most part written
+on horseback, during the author&rsquo;s rides in the country while
+engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is characterized
+by G.B.J. Delambre as &ldquo;uninstructive to an astronomer
+and unintelligible to any one else.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but
+ill-health compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was
+called to the chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia,
+and this post he held, together with the directorship of the
+observatory of Brera, for six years. He was invited by the
+Royal Society of London to undertake an expedition to California
+to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but this was prevented
+by the recent decree of the Spanish government for the expulsion
+of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and
+petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many
+enemies, so that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page279" id="page279"></a>279</span>
+change of residence. About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he
+continued to teach and to hold the directorship of the observatory
+of Brera; but being deprived of his post by the intrigues of his
+associates he was about to retire to his native place, when the
+news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his order in Italy.
+Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an invitation
+from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized
+and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office
+instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained
+there ten years, but his position became irksome, and at length
+intolerable. He continued, however, to devote himself diligently
+to the pursuits of science, and published many remarkable
+memoirs. Among them were an elegant solution of the problem
+to determine the orbit of a comet from three observations, and
+memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic telescopes. In
+1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at Bassano,
+where he occupied himself with the publication of his <i>Opera
+pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &amp;c.</i>, which appeared in
+1785 in five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to
+the convent of Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his
+literary labours. But his health was failing, his reputation
+was on the wane, his works did not sell, and he gradually sank
+a prey to illness and disappointment. He fell into melancholy,
+imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid intervals, and died
+at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In addition to the
+works already mentioned Boscovich published <i>Elementa universae
+matheseos</i> (1754), the substance of the course of study prepared
+for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled <i>Giornale
+di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia</i>, of which several
+editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour
+was the editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay
+on the philosophy of Descartes, with scientific annotations and
+supplements.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. L. R. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosnia-Herzegovina</span>,
+two provinces formerly included in European Turkey, which
+now, together with Dalmatia, form the southernmost territories
+of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name <i>Herzegovina</i> is
+also written <i>Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina</i> or, in Croatian,
+<i>Hercegovina</i>. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral
+triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an
+area of 19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula.
+They are bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by
+Dalmatia; S.E. by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar;
+and N.E. by Servia. Opposite to the promontory of Sabbioncello,
+and at the entrance to the Bocche di Cattaro, the frontier of
+Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but these two strips of
+coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend only for a
+total distance of 14½ m. Bosnia is altogether an inland territory.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Physical Features.</i>&mdash;Along the Dalmatian border, and
+through the centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric
+Alps, which attain their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near
+Travnik, Serajevo and Mostar. There are numerous high valleys
+shut in among the mountains of this range; the most noteworthy
+being the plain of Livno, which lies parallel to the Dalmatian
+border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea. The zone of
+highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean
+altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur
+frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a
+region of mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial
+basins, which finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina,
+or Vale of the Save, forming the southernmost fringe of the
+Hungarian Alföld. Bosnia belongs wholly to the watershed of the
+Save, and its rivers to the Danubian system, no large stream
+finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows eastward along the
+northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four main tributaries,
+the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed on the
+Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and
+Piva; curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for
+102 m. with Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha,
+after a total course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many
+springs near Serajevo, and winds for 107 m. northward, through
+a succession of fertile glens, reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac.
+Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a channel through the Dinaric Alps,
+and, after passing Jajce and Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m.
+from its own headwaters. The Una rises on the Croatian
+border, and, after skirting the Plje&#353;evica Planina, in Croatia,
+turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream
+for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is
+98 m. At Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.</p>
+
+<p>Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram
+defined by Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an
+irregular line drawn from a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar
+to the bend of the river Narenta, differs in many respects from
+the larger territory. Its mountains, which belong to the Adriatic
+watershed, and form a continuation of the Montenegrin highlands,
+are less rounded and more dolomitic in character. They descend
+in parallel ridges of grey Karst limestone, south-westwards to
+the sea; their last summits reappear in the multitude of rocky
+islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the peaks of Orjen,
+Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often exceeds
+6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered
+with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they
+present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their
+monotony is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and <i>poljes</i>,
+or upland hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are
+grouped; the districts or cantons thus formed are walled round
+by a natural rampart of limestone. These <i>poljes</i> may be
+described as oases in what is otherwise a desert expanse of mountains.
+The surface of some, as notably the <i>Mostarsko Blato</i>, lying
+west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms a lake; others are
+watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes of the
+rock, and make their way by underground channels either to
+the sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these
+is the Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in
+Popovopolye, and after making its way by a subterranean
+passage through a range of mountains, wells up in the mighty
+source of Ombla near Ragusa, and hurries in undiminished
+volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva, is the one
+large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground throughout
+its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the Lebrsnik
+mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric
+Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south,
+and falls into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m.
+North of Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated
+Narenta defile, a narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by
+mountains which rise on either side and culminate in Lupoglav
+(6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica (7205 ft.) on the west.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Geology and Minerals.</i>&mdash;Geologically, the highlands
+of Bosnia and Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their
+orographic and tectonic character, as a continuation of the
+South Alpine calcareous belt. Along the west frontier there
+appear broad and strongly marked zones of Cretaceous limestone,
+alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by a strip of
+Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of
+Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly
+direction, are the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up
+the greatest part of the north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of
+flysch intermingled with several strips of eruptive rock. In the
+south-east of Bosnia the predominant formations are Triassic
+and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and quartzite. Along
+the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the fluvial and Karst
+valleys (<i>poljes</i>), are found diluvial and alluvial formations,
+interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer. Bosnia is
+rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome, manganese,
+cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent
+building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were
+worked by the Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the
+Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining Company of Bosnia began to
+develop the coal and iron fields; and from 1886 its operations
+were continued by the government. Valuable salt is obtained
+from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of Herzegovina
+yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound,
+and those of Ilid&#382;e, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page280" id="page280"></a>280</span>
+days of the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at
+the beginning of the 20th century.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Climate.</i>&mdash;In climate Bosnia differs considerably from
+Herzegovina. In both alike the <i>scirocco</i>, bringing rain from the
+south-west, is a prevalent wind, as well as the <i>bora</i>, the fearful
+north-north-easter of Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral
+valleys of the Dinaric Alps, overwhelms everything in its path.
+The snow-fall is slight, and, except on a few of the loftier peaks,
+the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the weather resembles that of
+the south Austrian highlands, generally mild, though apt to be
+bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual temperature
+is 50° Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the Dalmatian
+mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often
+rises beyond 110° Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region
+show that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (<i>Ursus spelaeus</i>)
+were taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina,
+a discovery without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula.
+Of existing species the bear, wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and
+chamois may occasionally be seen in the remotest wilds of
+mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last red-deer
+was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.
+Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks
+of the Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and
+wild-goose are fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (<i>Gypaëtus
+barbatus</i>) had almost become extinct in 1900; but several
+varieties of eagle and falcon are left. Falconry was long a
+pastime of the Moslem landlords. The destruction of game,
+recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is prevented by the
+laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close time, and
+rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles includes
+the venomous <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> and <i>Pelias berus</i>, while
+scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In
+the museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection,
+including the remarkable <i>Pogonus anophthalmus</i>, from the
+underground Karst caves. The caves are rich in curious kinds
+of fish, <i>Paraphoxinus Gethaldii</i>, which is unknown elsewhere,
+<i>Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus alepidatus</i> and others,
+which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In Herzegovina,
+although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,
+the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value.
+Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of
+both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon,
+sturgeon and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Flora.</i>&mdash;Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian
+flora, representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare
+<i>Veronica crinita, Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica</i> and
+<i>Daphne Blagayana</i>. About 50% of the occupied
+<span class="sidenote">Forests.</span>
+territory is clothed with forest. &ldquo;Bosnia begins with the forest,&rdquo;
+says a native proverb, &ldquo;Herzegovina with the rock&rdquo;; and this
+account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst
+is as bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests,
+where only the hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes
+a belt of large timber, including many giant trees, 200 ft. high,
+and 20 ft. in girth at the level of a man&rsquo;s shoulder. Dense
+brushwood prevails on the foothills. There are three main
+zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges of northern
+Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the shadier by
+beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely
+mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm,
+ash, fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized
+by the predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other
+conifers. In all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow
+(especially <i>Salix laurea</i>), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and
+yew; while the mountain ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and
+other wild fruit trees are found at rarer intervals. Until 1878
+the forests were almost neglected; afterwards, the government
+was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats, owing to the damage
+they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the popular rights
+of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These measures
+were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves was
+discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Agriculture.</i>&mdash;In 1895, according to the agricultural survey,
+the surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Acres.&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Plough-land.</td> <td class="tcr">2,355,499</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Garden-ground.</td> <td class="tcr">103,040</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Meadow.</td> <td class="tcr">739,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Vineyards.</td> <td class="tcr">12,598</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Pasture.</td> <td class="tcr">1,875,840</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Forest.</td> <td class="tcr">5,670,619</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Unproductive.</td> <td class="tcr">210,998</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted
+for the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,
+mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice
+and tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered
+portions of Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state
+sugar-refinery, for which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity.
+<i>Pyrethrum cinerariaefolium</i> is exported for the manufacture of
+insect-powder, and sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained
+in their seeds. The plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish
+prunes and a spirit called <i>&#353;livovica, shlivovitsa</i> or <i>sliwowitz</i>.
+This district is the headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs.
+Poultry, bees and silkworms are commonly kept. On the whole
+agriculture is backward, despite the richness of the soil; for the
+cultivators are a very conservative race, and prefer the methods
+and implements of their ancestors. Many improvements
+were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after 1878.
+Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were
+made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Ga&#269;ko, on
+the Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar;
+a model poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary;
+a school of agriculture and dairy farming at Ilid&#382;e; and another
+school at Modric, near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain
+number of village schoolmasters are annually trained, for six
+weeks, in practical husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural
+machinery lent, by the government. To better the breeds
+of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened near Serajevo, and foreign
+horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are imported.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Land Tenure.</i>&mdash;The <i>zadruga</i>, or household community,
+more common in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), survives to a small extent in Bosnia
+and Herzegovina; but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles
+the system called <i>métayage</i>. At the time of the Austrian occupation
+(1878) it was regulated by a Turkish enactment<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> of the 12th
+of September 1859. Apart from gardens and house-property,
+all land was, according to this enactment, owned by the state;
+in practice, it was held by the Moslem <i>begs</i> or <i>beys</i> (nobles) and
+<i>agas</i> (landlords), who let it to the peasantry. The landlord
+received from his tenant (<i>kmet</i>) a fixed percentage, usually one
+third (<i>tretina</i>), of the annual produce; and, of the remaining two
+thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth (<i>desetina</i>) went to the
+state. The amount of the <i>desetina</i> was always fixed first, and
+served as a basis for the assessment of the <i>tretina</i>, which,
+however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could
+relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing
+to pay his <i>tretina</i>, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage
+done to it. The landlord was bound to keep his tenants&rsquo; dwellings
+and outhouses in repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the
+right of pre-emption belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to
+the neighbours. Thus foreign speculators in land were excluded,
+while a class of peasant proprietors was created; its numbers
+being increased by the custom that, if any man reclaimed a piece
+of waste land, it became his own property after ten years. The
+Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire period
+of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,
+satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants
+farming their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One
+conspicuous feature of the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem
+<i>Vakuf</i>, or ecclesiastical property, consisting of estates dedicated
+to such charitable purposes as poor-relief, and the endowment
+of mosques, schools, hospitals, cemeteries and baths. It is
+administered by a central board of Moslem officials, who meet in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page281" id="page281"></a>281</span>
+Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income rose to £25,000 in
+1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The <i>Vakuf</i> tenants
+were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent had been
+fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year&rsquo;s harvest,
+and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their holdings.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Industries and Commerce.</i>&mdash;Beside agriculture, which
+employed over 88% of the whole population in 1895, the other
+industries are insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and
+leather and metal work, carried on by the workmen in their own
+houses. There are also government workshops, opened with a
+view to a higher technical and artistic development of the house
+industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid metallic wares,
+<i>bez</i> (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive government
+support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there
+were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an
+annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several
+blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the
+larger private establishments there existed in the same year seven
+breweries, one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle
+factories, two building and furniture works, a factory for spinning
+thread, one iron and steel works, one paper and one ammonia
+and soda factory, and one mineral-oil refinery.</p>
+
+<p>In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882
+included in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary,
+to the extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898
+special statistics have been drawn up respecting their trade
+also with Austria and Hungary. According to these statistics
+the most important articles of export are coal and turf, fruit,
+minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other articles of export
+are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco, sugar-beet
+and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food stuffs,
+building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats, clothes,
+wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.</p>
+
+<p>There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a
+hypothecary credit business and manages the wholesale trade of
+the tobacco factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka,
+Bjelina and Br&#269;ka.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Communications.</i>&mdash;The construction of carriage-roads,
+wholly neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale
+by the Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion
+with the Hungarian state system. One crosses the Una at
+Kostajnica, and, after skirting the right bank of that river as far
+as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka. The other, a narrow-gauge
+line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and follows the Bosna
+to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond Dolnja
+Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces
+through the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the
+Narenta valley, and runs almost parallel with the coast to
+Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche di Cattaro. Up to this point
+the railways of the occupied territory were complete in 1901.
+A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of Servia and
+Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of
+railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and
+Una, but the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like
+the Vrbas, too full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta
+only begins to be navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the
+railway lines, like the postal, telegraphic and telephonic services,
+are state property. In many of the principal towns there are
+also government hotels.</p>
+
+<p>Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of
+the combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar
+(17,010), the capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja
+Tuzla (11,034), Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Fo&#269;a
+(4217), Jajce (3929) and Trebinje (2966). All these are described
+in separate articles.</p>
+
+<p>10. <i>Population and National Characteristics.</i>&mdash;In 1895 the
+population, which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance
+of males over females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element
+is small, consisting chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies,
+Italians and Jews. Spanish is a comomon language of the Jews,
+whose ancestors fled hither, during the 16th century, to escape
+the Inquisition. The natives are officially described as Bosniaks,
+but classify themselves according to religion. Thus the Roman
+Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins; the
+Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong
+to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all
+speak a language almost identical with Servian, though written
+by the Roman Catholics in Latin instead of Cyrillic letters.
+A full account of this language, and its literature, is given under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Servia</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Croatia-Slavonia</a></span>. To avoid offending either
+&ldquo;Serbs&rdquo; or &ldquo;Croats,&rdquo; it is officially designated &ldquo;Bosnisch.&rdquo;
+In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical
+type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The
+Bosnians or Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both
+appearance and character. They have the same love for poetry,
+music and romance; the same intense pride in their race and
+history; many of the same superstitions and customs. The
+Christians retain the Servian costume, modified in detail, as
+by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The &ldquo;Turkish&rdquo;
+women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in
+others they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy
+is almost unknown, possibly because many of the &ldquo;Turks&rdquo;
+are descended from the austere Bogomils, who were, in most
+cases, converted to Islam, but more probably because the
+&ldquo;Turks&rdquo; are as a rule too poor to provide for more than one
+wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the people
+of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting
+chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their
+houses are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the
+Karst region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family
+ties are strong, and the women are not ill-treated, although
+they share in all kinds of manual labour.</p>
+
+<p>11. <i>Government.</i>&mdash;At the time of the Austrian annexation in
+1908, the only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that
+the foreign consuls received their <i>exequatur</i> from Turkey, instead
+of Austria; otherwise the government of the country was
+conducted in the name of the Austrian emperor, through the
+imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who controlled the civil
+service for the occupied territory. Its central bureau, with
+departments of the interior, religion and education, finance
+and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were
+largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better
+able than the Germans to comprehend the local customs and
+language. A consultative assembly, composed of the highest
+ecclesiastical authorities, together with 12 popular representatives,
+also met at Serajevo. For administrative purposes the country
+was divided into 6 districts or prefectures (<i>kreise</i>), which were
+subdivided into 49 subprefectures (<i>bezirke</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed
+by the government, and a town council, of whom one third are
+similarly appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a
+proportionate number of councillors representing each religious
+community. To ensure economy, the decisions of this body are
+supervised by a government commissioner. The commune is
+preserved, somewhat as in Servia (<i>q.v.</i>), but with modified
+powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are
+tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from
+the leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges,
+and three votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants
+and witnesses are German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used.
+An appeal, on points of law alone, may be carried to the supreme
+court in Serajevo, and there tried by five judges without assessors.
+In cases not involving a sum greater than 300 florins (£25), no
+appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins (£4 : 3 : 4) are in
+question, the case is summarily decided at the <i>Bagatelle Gericht</i>,
+or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers admitted to
+practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the Turkish law
+was retained during the period of occupation; all cases between
+Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,
+against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided
+by assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their
+21st year, for 3 years&rsquo; service with the colours, and 9 years in the
+reserve. The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops,
+and there are 7100 native troops. The principal military
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page282" id="page282"></a>282</span>
+stations are Bjelina, Zvornik, Vi&#353;egrad, Gora&#382;da, Fo&#269;a, Bilek,
+Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern frontier; Mostar and
+Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Biha&#263; in the north.</p>
+
+<p>12. <i>Religion</i>.&mdash;In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox
+Christians, 35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The
+patriarch of Constantinople is the nominal head of the Orthodox
+priesthood; but by an arrangement concluded in 1879, his
+authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor, in exchange
+for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the clergy
+of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate
+of Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and
+Mostar require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the
+communes chose their own parish priests, but this right is now
+vested in the government. The Roman Catholics have an
+archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and an apostolic
+administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of the
+Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or
+<i>reis-el-ulema</i>, who with his council is nominated and paid by the government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends
+from the <i>Vakuf</i>. Considerable bitterness prevails between the
+rival confessions, each aiming at political ascendancy, but the
+government favours none. In order to conciliate even the
+Moslems, who include the bulk of the great landholders and of the
+urban population, its representatives visit the mosques in state
+on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage; and
+even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the
+state.</p>
+
+<p>13. <i>Education</i>.&mdash;Education for boys and girls between the
+ages of seven and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The
+state supports primary schools (352 in 1905), where reading,
+writing, arithmetic and history are taught; and separate
+instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Jewish
+and Moslem clergy. There are also various private schools,
+belonging to the different religious communities. These receive
+a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages
+all parents to send their children to its own schools. One of the
+earliest and best-known private schools is the orphanage at
+Serajevo, founded in 1869 by two English ladies, Miss Irby and
+Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem schools, which, in 1905, comprised
+855 <i>mektebs</i> or primary schools, and 41 <i>madrasas</i> or high
+schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish or Arabic; while
+in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic characters.</p>
+
+<p>For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school
+at Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers&rsquo; training-college
+at Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem
+law-students, called <i>scheriatschule</i> from the <i>sheri</i> or Turkish code; and various theological, commercial and art institutes.
+Promising pupils are frequently sent to Vienna University,
+with scholarships, which may be forfeited if the holders engage
+in political agitation.</p>
+
+<p>14. <i>Antiquities</i>.&mdash;Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man
+had been discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many
+later prehistoric remains are preserved in Serajevo museum.
+The neolithic station of Butmir, near Ilid&#382;e, was probably a
+lake-dwellers&rsquo; colony, and has yielded numerous stone and
+horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off, similar
+relics were found at Sobunar, Zlati&#353;te and Debelobrdo; iron
+and bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate
+design, occur in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the
+cemetery of Jezerine, where they are associated with objects in
+silver, tin, amber, glass, &amp;c. Among the numerous finds made
+in other districts may be mentioned the discovery, at Vrankamer,
+near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of which dates from
+300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as roads,
+mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such
+remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and
+Serajevo; and especially near the sources of the Drina. The
+period between the downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th
+century, and the growth of a Bosnian state, in the 11th, is
+poorer in antiquities. The later middle ages are represented by
+several monasteries, and many castles, such as those of Dervent,
+Doboj, Maglaj, &#381;ep&#269;e and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Biha&#263;, on
+the Una; Prijedor and Klju&#263;, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,
+Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the
+Narenta, at Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A
+group of signs carved on some rocks near Vi&#353;egrad have been
+regarded as cuneiform writing, but are probably medieval
+masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the Begova D&#382;amia
+at Serajevo, the Fo&#269;a mosques and the Mostar bridge, the
+buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit.
+More remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft.
+in length, 3 in height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed
+to mark the graves of the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite
+unadorned, a few only being decorated with rude has-reliefs of
+animals, plants, weapons, the crescent and star, or, very rarely,
+the cross.</p>
+
+<p>15. <i>History</i>.&mdash;Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate
+name or history, and until the great Slavonic immigration of
+636 it remained an undifferentiated part of Illyria
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Owing to the scarcity of authoritative documents,
+<span class="sidenote">Formation of the Banate.</span>
+it is impossible to describe in detail the events
+of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia
+became the generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna
+(ancient <i>Basanius</i>); and subsequently for several outlying and
+tributary principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla;
+Usora, along the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj,
+the later Krajina, Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west;
+and Rama, the modern district of Livno. The old Illyrian
+population was rapidly absorbed or expelled, its Latin institutions
+being replaced by the autonomous tribal divisions, or <i>&#381;upanates</i>,
+of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and Byzantium gradually
+welded these isolated social units into a single nation, whose
+ruler was known as the Ban (<i>q.v.</i>). But the central power
+remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural
+frontiers. It seems probable that the bans were originally
+viceroys of the Croatian kings, who resumed their sovereignty
+over Bosnia from 958 to 1010. Thenceforward, until 1180, the
+bans continued subject to the Eastern empire or Hungary, with
+brief intervals of independence. The territory now called
+Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It
+comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its
+capital at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of
+Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this
+region as it was in the 10th century.<a name="fa2b" id="fa2b" href="#ft2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left
+Bosnia divided between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early
+in the 12th century a new religion, that of the Bogomils
+(<i>q.v.</i>), was introduced, and denounced as heretical.
+<span class="sidenote">Religious controversies.</span>
+Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian
+nobles and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign
+was long proverbial for its prosperity, owing to the flourishing
+state of commerce and agriculture, and the extensive mining
+operations carried on by the Ragusans. An unusually able
+ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian dynasty
+of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,<a name="fa3b" id="fa3b" href="#ft3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Kulin
+perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects
+and Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong
+pressure from Pope Innocent III. and Béla III. of Hungary;
+but, despite all efforts, Bogomilism incessantly gained ground.
+In 1232 Stephen, the successor of Kulin, was dethroned by the
+native magnates, who chose instead Matthew Ninoslav, a
+Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant characteristics
+of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the
+corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by
+the lack of any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme
+influence of religion. Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a
+crusade, Ninoslav was baptized, only to abjure Christianity in
+1233. For six years he withstood the Hungarian crusaders, led
+by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar invasion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page283" id="page283"></a>283</span>
+Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was
+concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal
+of the crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III.
+entered into friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country
+was for the moment an independent and formidable state. The
+importance attached to its conversion is well attested by the
+correspondence of Pope Gregory IX. with Ninoslav and various
+Bosnian ecclesiastics.<a name="fa4b" id="fa4b" href="#ft4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made
+to exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Béla IV.,
+who appeared as the champion of Roman Catholicism,
+secured the election of his nominee Prijesda to the
+<span class="sidenote">Period of Hungarian supremacy.</span>
+banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until
+1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their
+former power. From 1299 to 1322 the country was ruled by
+the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen &#352;ubi&#263;, who, though
+vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper and Lower
+Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the
+growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native
+magnates in 1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil,
+Stephen Kotromani&#263;, last and greatest of the Bosnian bans.</p>
+
+<p>At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith;
+Hungary, governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of
+Anjou, was striving to crush the insurgent magnates
+of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial interests were
+<span class="sidenote">Stephen Kotromanic.</span>
+imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the
+balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic
+to aid Hungary. In an unsuccessful war against the
+Croats (1322-26), from which Venice derived the sole advantage,
+the ban appears to have learned the value of sea-power; immediately
+afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum and the
+Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta.
+Ragusa furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for
+a guarantee of protection; commercial treaties with Venice
+further strengthened his position; and the Vatican, which had
+instigated the Croats to invade the dominions of their heretical
+neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his conversion to
+Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,
+and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I.
+of Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344.
+Four years later his influence brought about a truce between
+Hungary and the Venetians, who had agreed with Bosnia for
+mutual support against the Croats; and in 1353, the year of his
+death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Louis.</p>
+
+<p>Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromani&#263;, was a
+minor, and for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent.
+Confronted by civil war, and deprived of Hlum by
+the Hungarians, she was compelled to acknowledge
+<span class="sidenote">Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.</span>
+the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards
+of Louis. But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition
+at home, and forthwith embarked on a career of
+conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of Dalmatia.
+The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire
+defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies;
+and to win help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to
+Tvrtko a large tract of territory, including the principality of
+Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was crowned as &ldquo;Stephen I., king of
+Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,&rdquo; although Lazar retained
+his own title and a diminished authority. The death of Louis in
+1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh outbreak
+in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor&rsquo;s designs by
+establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested
+from Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and
+Cattaro, except the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his
+kingdom at the moment when Servia was lost through the Ottoman
+victory of Kossovo (1389). At his coronation he had
+proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian empire;
+in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;
+and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which
+should extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster
+of Kossovo, though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately
+react on Bosnia itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his
+kingdom was still at the summit of its prosperity.</p>
+
+<p>Kotromani&#263; and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate
+their turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under
+Dabisa (Stephen II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko.
+Sigismond of Hungary profited by the disorder that
+<span class="sidenote">Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.</span>
+ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398
+the Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,<a name="fa5b" id="fa5b" href="#ft5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a> overran Bosnia.
+Ostoja (Stephen III., 1398-1418), an illegitimate son
+of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands of Hrvoje Vuk&#269;i&#263;,
+duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hrani&#263;,<a name="fa6b" id="fa6b" href="#ft6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and other leaders of the
+aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the
+Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant
+to the throne in Tvrtkovi&#263;, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all
+took sides in the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman
+Catholics. During the reigns of Ostoji&#263; (Stephen IV., 1418-1421)
+and Tvrtkovi&#263; (Stephen V., 1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an
+easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a yearly tribute, after
+again ravaging the country, and carrying off many thousands
+of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.</p>
+
+<p>The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi János, and the
+attempt to organize a defensive league among the neighbouring
+Christian lands, temporarily averted the ruin of
+Bosnia under Thomas Ostoji&#263; (Stephen VI., 1444-1461).
+<span class="sidenote">Turkish conquest.</span>
+Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican,
+Ostojic renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former
+co-religionists, until the menace of an insurrection forced him
+to grant an amnesty. His position was endangered by the
+growing power of his father-in-law, Stephen Vukcic, an ardent
+Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into a single
+principality. Vuk&#269;i&#263;&mdash;or <i>Cosaccia</i>, as he is frequently called
+by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac&mdash;was
+the first and last holder of the title &ldquo;Duke of St Sava,&rdquo;
+conferred on him by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and
+from this title is derived the name <i>Herzegovina</i>, or &ldquo;the Duchy.&rdquo;
+Hardly had the king become reconciled with this formidable
+antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of Hunyadi, and the fall
+of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against the Turks.
+In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were
+unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while
+the Croats proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and
+his successor Toma&#353;evi&#263; (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered
+to the Turks and was beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vuk&#269;i&#263;
+offered a desperate resistance, held out until 1483; but apart
+from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts of the Bosnians
+were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining the
+enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted
+to the Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were
+occupied by Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate
+&ldquo;banate&rdquo; or &ldquo;kingdom of Bosnia,&rdquo; until 1526, when the
+Hungarian power was broken at Mohács. In 1528 Jajce surrendered,
+after repelling every attack by the Turkish armies for 65 years.</p>
+
+<p>The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest.
+It was followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees.
+Many of the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia
+and south Hungary, where they ultimately fell again under
+Ottoman dominion. Others found shelter in Rome or Venice,
+and a large number settled in Ragusa, where they doubtless
+contributed to the remarkable literary development of the 16th
+and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was
+a characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged
+war on their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards
+from Zengg in maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious
+pirate community of the Uskoks (<i>q.v.</i>). There was less inducement
+for the Orthodox inhabitants to emigrate, because almost
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page284" id="page284"></a>284</span>
+all the neighbouring lands were governed by Moslems or Roman
+Catholics; and at home the peasants were permitted to retain
+their creed and communal organization. Judged by its influence
+on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively
+unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent
+growth is perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek
+Church, as the representative of Christianity in Turkey. The
+Christian aristocracy lost its privileges, but its ancient titles of
+duke (<i>vojvod</i>) and count (<i>knez</i>) did not disappear. The first was
+retained by the leaders who still carried on the struggle for liberty
+in Montenegro; the second was transferred to the headmen of
+the communes. Many of the Franciscans refused to abandon their
+work, and in 1463 they received a charter from the sultan
+Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of Fojnica,
+near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it did
+not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic
+of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of
+Trappist monks was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.</p>
+
+<p>The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils,
+who thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the
+destinies of their country for more than three centuries.
+Bosnia was regarded by successive sultans as the
+<span class="sidenote">Bosnia under Turkish rule.</span>
+gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians
+and their religion was hereditary among the Bogomils.
+Thus the desire for vengeance and the prospect of a
+brilliant military career impelled the Bogomil magnates to
+adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity, presented
+some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal
+governor of the country was the Turkish <i>vali</i>, who resided at
+Banjaluka or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if
+the taxes were duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted
+Moslem aristocracy, who adopted the dress, titles and
+etiquette of the Turkish court, without relinquishing their
+language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in fortified
+towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on sufferance
+for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate
+military caste, headed by 48 <i>kapetans</i>&mdash;landholders exercising
+unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs,
+but bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops
+for the service of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were
+fighting, either against a common enemy or among themselves,
+hunting, hawking and listening to the minstrels who celebrated
+their exploits. Their yearly visits to Serajevo assumed in time
+the character of an informal parliament, for the discussion of
+national questions; and their rights tended always to increase,
+and to become hereditary, in fact, though not in law. In every
+important campaign of the Turkish armies, these descendants
+of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable
+wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high
+military and administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha,
+a native of Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was
+succeeded by the distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet
+Beg Sokolovi&#263;, a Bosnian. Below the feudal nobility and their
+Moslem soldiers came the Christian serfs, tillers of the soil and
+taxpayers, whose lives and property were at the mercy of their
+lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all, the system by
+which the strongest of their sons were carried off as recruits for
+the corps of janissaries (<i>q.v</i>.), frequently drove them to brigandage,
+and occasionally to open revolt.</p>
+
+<p>These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile
+the country was involved in the series of wars waged by the
+Turks against Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the
+Krajina and all along the Montenegrin frontier,
+<span class="sidenote">External history 1528-1821.</span>
+Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless feud,
+irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers;
+while the Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant
+occupation for the nobles during a large part of the 16th and
+17th centuries. But after the Ottoman defeat at Vienna
+in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of extending the
+foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard
+pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the
+Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was
+still officially styled the &ldquo;vali of Hungary,&rdquo; removed his
+headquarters from Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and
+therefore a safer capital. Two years later, the imperial troops
+reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired with 3000 Roman Catholic
+emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by Eugene of Savoy,
+who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties of
+Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of
+all the Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow
+enclaves of Klek and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan
+dominions from those of Venice. At the same time a strip of
+territory in northern Bosnia was ceded to Austria, which was
+thus able to control both banks of the Save. This territory was
+restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of Belgrade;<a name="fa7b" id="fa7b" href="#ft7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a> but in
+1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally, in 1791,
+the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una
+as the Bosnian frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the
+sultan Mahmud II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in
+Bosnia, where Turkish prestige had already been weakened
+by the establishment of Servian autonomy under
+<span class="sidenote">Moslem rebellions.</span>
+Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married
+and settled on the land, forming a strongly conservative
+and fanatical caste, friendly to the Moslem nobles, who now
+dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges. Their opportunity
+came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress the
+insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian
+revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the
+massacre of the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed
+in 1827. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further
+attempt at reform was initiated by the sultan and his grand
+vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a most formidable
+outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam, and the
+Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march
+on Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the
+true faith. A holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein
+Aga Berberli, a brilliant soldier and orator, who called himself
+<i>Zmaj Bosanski</i>, the &ldquo;Dragon of Bosnia,&rdquo; and was regarded by
+his followers as a saint. The Moslems of Herzegovina, under
+Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte, but in
+Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo
+he was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha
+Pasha; and within a few weeks the united armies occupied the
+whole of Bulgaria, and a large part of Macedonia. Their career
+was checked by Reshid Pasha, who persuaded the two victorious
+commanders to intrigue against one another, secured the division
+of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn. The rout of the
+Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at Scutari
+were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate
+defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his
+appeal for pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished
+for life to Tribizond. The power of the Bosnian nobles, though
+shaken by their defeat, remained unbroken; and they resisted
+vigorously when their kapetanates were abolished in 1837; and
+again when a measure of equality before the law was conceded
+to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovi&#263;
+reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to
+tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name.
+In 1840 he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac
+to wage war upon the vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and
+simultaneously to suppress a Christian rising. Peace was
+arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was rumoured that Ali had
+concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro, hoping to shake
+off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an entirely
+independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge, but
+during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate
+policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons
+at Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the
+Christians, who had again revolted; and he supported the
+Bosnian nobles against reforms imposed by the vali. At last,
+in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to restore quiet. Ali
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page285" id="page285"></a>285</span>
+Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but secretly
+sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved
+everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their
+commander Omer or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was
+shortly afterwards assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish
+officials should restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his
+captor (March 1851).</p>
+
+<p>The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important
+administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the
+commercial centre of the country, and the jealously
+guarded stronghold of the nobles, superseded Travnik
+<span class="sidenote">Condition of the serfs.</span>
+as the official capital, and the residence of the vali.
+A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization
+of Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who
+governed the country until 1860. But as the administration
+grew stronger, the position of the peasantry became worse.
+They had now to satisfy the imperial tax-farmers and excisemen,
+as well as their feudal lords. The begs and agas continued to
+exact their forced labour and one-third of their produce; the
+central government imposed a tithe which had become an
+eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption
+from military service, levied on every newborn male, forced
+labour on the roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on
+grapes and tobacco, and a variety of lesser taxes combined to
+burden the Christian serfs; but even more galling than the
+amount was the manner in which these dues were exacted&mdash;the
+extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen, the
+brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant
+villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian
+independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public
+bankruptcy of Turkey.</p>
+
+<p>Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the
+Bosnian Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers
+of Nevesinje, which gives its name to a mountain
+range east of Mostar, rose against the Turks. Within
+<span class="sidenote">Christian rising of 1875.</span>
+a few weeks the whole country was involved. The
+Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovi&#263;,
+Socica, Ljubibrati&#263;, and others, held out for a year against all
+the forces that Turkey could despatch against them.<a name="fa8b" id="fa8b" href="#ft8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a> In July
+1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the struggle, and in April
+1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.</p>
+
+<p>The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of
+July 1878 by the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not
+easily effected; and, owing to the difficulty of military
+operations among the mountains, it was necessary to
+<span class="sidenote">Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.</span>
+employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the
+native leader, was supported by a body of Albanians
+and mutinous Turkish troops, while the whole Moslem
+population bitterly resented the proposed change. The
+losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those
+who fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under
+martial law. But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements,
+the Austrian general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on
+the 19th of August, and ended the campaign on the 20th of
+September, by the capture of Bihac in the north-west, and of
+Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country was
+then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the
+bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von
+Hoffmann and Joseph de Szlávy, resulted only in the insurrection
+of 1881-82. Order was restored in June 1882, when the
+administration was entrusted to Benjamin von Kállay (<i>q.v.</i>),
+as imperial minister of finance. Kállay retained this position
+until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he was succeeded
+by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life
+and property were rendered secure, and great progress was
+achieved, on the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient
+civil service, harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments,
+promoting commerce, carrying out important public works,
+and reorganizing the fiscal and educational systems. All classes
+and creeds were treated impartially; and, although the
+administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and
+undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics
+have also urged that Kállay fostered the desire for material
+welfare at the cost of every other national ideal; that, despite
+his own popularity, he never secured the goodwill of the people
+for Austria-Hungary; that he left the agrarian difficulty
+unsolved, and the hostile religious factions unreconciled. These
+charges are not wholly unfounded; but the chief social and
+political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced to
+historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian
+occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival
+churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kállay, it is
+only necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882
+and Bosnia in 1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin
+entailed by four centuries of misrule were transformed into
+a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in south-eastern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish
+to end the anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin,
+by incorporating Bosnia and Herzegovina into the
+Dual Monarchy. The treaty had contemplated the
+<span class="sidenote">Austrian annexation.</span>
+evacuation of the occupied provinces after the restoration
+of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly
+stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian
+and Ottoman plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition
+of Turkish assent to the provisions of the treaty. But the
+Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed to promise a revival
+of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled the Turks
+to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the
+ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms
+in Turkey certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants
+of the occupied territory to petition the emperor for the grant of
+a constitution similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria
+proper. But the Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by
+the weakness of Russia after the war with Japan, and aware that
+the proclamation of Bulgarian independence was imminent, had
+already decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, in spite of
+the pledges given at Berlin, and although the proposal was
+unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being communicated
+to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of Berlin,
+in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis Joseph,
+was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial
+rescript published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and
+Moslem delegates, who had started on the same day for Budapest,
+to present their petition to the emperor, learned from the rescript
+that the government intended to concede to their compatriots
+&ldquo;a share in the legislation and administration of provincial
+affairs, and equal protection for all religious beliefs, languages
+and racial distinctions.&rdquo; The separate administration was,
+however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not promise
+that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative
+assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;G. Capus, <i>A travers la Bosnie et l&rsquo;Herzégovine</i>
+(Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the
+combined provinces, their resources and population.
+J. Asbóth, <i>An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina</i> (London,
+1890) is valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography:
+A. Bordeaux, <i>La Bosnie populaire</i> (Paris, 1904) for social life and
+mining. Much information is also contained in the works by
+Lamouche, Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and
+Laveleye, cited under the heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balkan Peninsula</a></span>. See also
+B. Nika&#353;inovi&#263;, <i>Bosnien und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der
+österreich-ungarischen Monarchie</i> (Berlin, 1901, &amp;c.), and M. Oransz,
+<i>Auf dem Rade durch Kroatien und Bosnien</i> (Vienna, 1903). The best
+map is that of the Austrian General Staff. See also for geology,
+J. Cviji&#263;, <i>Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien</i> (Vienna,
+1900); F. Katzer, <i>Geologischer Führer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina</i>
+(Serajevo, 1903); P. Ballif, <i>Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i>
+(Vienna, 1896). Sport: &ldquo;Snaffle,&rdquo; <i>In the Land of the Bora</i>
+(London, 1897). Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports,
+and the official <i>Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen</i> (1879 and 1895),
+and <i>Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (1899). The chief
+official publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro,
+<i>Through Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia</i> (Edinburgh, 1900);
+A.J. Evans, <i>Illyrian Letters</i> (London, 1878); W. Radimský,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page286" id="page286"></a>286</span>
+<i>Die neolithische Station von Butmir</i> (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif,
+<i>Römische Strassen in Bosnien und Herzegovina</i> (Vienna, 1893, &amp;c.).
+No adequate history of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century;
+but the chief materials for such a work are contained in the following
+books:&mdash;A. Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram
+illustrantia</i> (Rome, 1860) and <i>Vetera monumenta Slavorum
+Meridionalium</i> (1. Rome, 1863; 2. Agram, 1875),&mdash;these are collections of
+Latin documents from the Vatican library; V. Makushev, <i>Monumenta
+historica Slavorum Meridionalium</i> (Belgrade, 1885);
+Y. Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti spectantia ad historiam Serborum</i>, &amp;c.
+(Belgrade, 1860-1862); F. Miklosich, <i>Monumenta Serbica</i> (Vienna, 1858).
+Other important authorities are
+G. Lucio, <i>De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae</i> (Amsterdam, 1666);
+M. Orbini, <i>Regno degli Slavi</i> (Pesaro 1601);
+D. Farlatus and others, <i>Illyricum Sacrum</i> (Venice, 1751-1819);
+C. du Fresne du Cange, <i>Illyricum vetus et novum</i> (1746);
+M. Simek, <i>Politische Geschichte des Königreiches Bosnien und Rama</i>
+(Vienna, 1787). The best modern history, though valueless for the period
+after 1463, is by P. Coquelle, <i>Histoire du Monténégro et de la Bosnie</i>
+(Paris, 1895). See also V. Klai&#263;, <i>Geschichte Bosniens</i> (Leipzig 1884).
+J. Spalaïkovitch (Spalajkovi&#263;), in <i>La Bosnie et l&rsquo;Herzégovine</i>
+(Paris, 1897), give a critical account of the Austro-Hungarian
+administration.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. G. J.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance,
+were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years
+allowed by Turkish law.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2b" id="ft2b" href="#fa2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>De Administrando Imperio</i>, 33 and 34. The names of <i>Chulmia</i>
+and <i>Chelmo</i>, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian
+chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3b" id="ft3b" href="#fa3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia,
+see L. Villari, <i>The Republic of Ragusa</i> (London, 1904).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4b" id="ft4b" href="#fa4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Given by Theiner, <i>Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia</i>,
+173-185.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5b" id="ft5b" href="#fa5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The Slavs
+were probably Bogomils.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6b" id="ft6b" href="#fa6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of
+south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the
+Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, <i>Acta archivi Veneti</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7b" id="ft7b" href="#fa7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> For details of these events see Umar Effendi, <i>History of the War
+in Bosnia</i> (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8b" id="ft8b" href="#fa8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans,
+<i>Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot</i> (London, 1876);
+and W.J.  Stillman, <i>Herzegovina and the Late Uprising</i> (London, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bosphorus</span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Bosporos">&#914;&#972;&#963;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> = ox-ford, traditionally
+connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of
+a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings).
+By the ancients this name, signifying a strait, was especially
+applied to the <i>Bosporus Cimmerius</i> (see below), and the <i>Bosporus
+Thracius</i>; but when used without any adjective it now denotes
+the latter, which unites the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora
+and forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. The
+channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum breadth at the
+northern entrance of 2¾ m., a minimum breadth of about 800 yds.,
+and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in mid-stream. In
+the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea to the Sea
+of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite direction
+below the surface and along the shores. The surface current
+varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at
+narrow places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very
+rarely frozen over, though history records a few instances; and
+the Golden Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople
+lies, has been partially frozen over occasionally in modern times.
+The shores of the Bosporus are composed in the northern portion
+of different volcanic rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte;
+but along the remaining course of the channel the prevailing
+formations are Devonian, consisting of sandstones, marls,
+quartzose conglomerates, and calcareous deposits of various
+kinds. The scenery on both sides is of the most varied and
+beautiful description, many villages lining each well-wooded
+shore, while on the European side are numerous fine residences
+of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is under
+Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the
+treaty of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other
+than Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the
+Dardanelles) without the countenance of the Porte. (See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Constantinople</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> the ancient name for the Straits
+of Kerch or Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of
+Azov; the Cimmerii (<i>q.v.</i>) were the ancient inhabitants. The
+straits are about 25 m. long and 2½ m. broad at the narrowest,
+and are formed by an eastern extension of the Crimea and the
+peninsula of Taman, a kind of continuation of the Caucasus.
+This in ancient times seems to have formed a group of islands
+intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and various
+sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek
+cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, <i>q.v.</i>), the chief of
+all, often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on
+the east Phanagoria (Sênnája), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus,
+Gorgippia (Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians,
+Panticapaeum in the 7th or early in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, but
+Phanagoria (<i>c.</i> 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was a colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum
+had some connexion with Athens&mdash;at least it appears to have
+been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns have left
+hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the numerous
+barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful
+objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg.
+They comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens,
+textiles and specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The
+numerous terra-cottas are rather rude in style.</p>
+
+<p>According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was
+governed from 480 to 438 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by the Archaeanactidae, probably
+a ruling family, who gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), apparently a Thracian. He founded a dynasty which seems
+to have endured until <i>c</i>. 110 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Spartocids have left many
+inscriptions which tell us that the earlier members of the house
+ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of various native
+tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and other branches
+of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the inscriptions
+and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a complete
+list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus,
+established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum
+to his dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a
+serious commercial rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct
+proximity to the cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was
+reserved for his son Leucon (387-347) to take this city. He
+was succeeded by his two sons conjointly, Spartocus II. and
+Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his brother reigned alone
+until 310. Then followed a civil war in which Eumelus (310-303)
+was successful. His successor was Spartocus III. (303-283) and
+after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the family
+names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know
+only that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway
+against the power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus,
+general of Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to
+hand over his kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a
+Scythian Saumacus who led a rebellion against him. The house
+of Spartocus was well known as a line of enlightened and wise
+princes; although Greek opinion could not deny that they were,
+strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as dynasts.
+They maintained close relations with Athens, their best customers
+for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the staple
+at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special privileges.
+We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In return
+the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up
+decrees in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great
+entrusted the Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who,
+however, deserted to the Romans. But even when driven out
+of his own kingdom by Pompey, Mithradates was strong enough
+to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and Machares slew himself.
+Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt under Pharnaces,
+another of the old king&rsquo;s sons. After the death of Mithradates
+(<span class="scs">B.C.</span> 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to Pompey,
+but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was
+defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain
+by a pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and
+in spite of Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king,
+until 16 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> After his death Dynamis was compelled to marry
+an adventurer Scribonius, but the Romans under Agrippa interfered
+and set Polemon (14-8) in his place. To him succeeded
+Aspurgus (8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38?), son of Asander, who founded a line
+of kings which endured with certain interruptions until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341.
+These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys,
+Rhescuporis, Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates,
+claimed descent from Mithradates the Great, and used the
+Pontic era (starting from 297 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) introduced by him, regularly
+placing dates upon their coins and inscriptions. Hence we know
+their names and dates fairly well, though scarcely any events of
+their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered the eastern
+half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended along
+the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the
+Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on
+a perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported
+by their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of
+garrison and fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose
+and probably produced some disorganization. At one of these
+periods (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 255) the Goths and Borani were enabled to seize
+Bosporan shipping and raid the shores of Asia Minor. With the
+last coin of the last Rhescuporis, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 341, materials for a connected
+history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to an end. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page287" id="page287"></a>287</span>
+kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the
+neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have
+been revived under Byzantine protection, and from time to time
+Byzantine officers built fortresses and exercised authority at
+Bosporus, which was constituted an archbishopric. They also
+held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic side of the strait, a town which
+in the 10th and 11th centuries became the seat of the Russian
+principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn gave place to Tatar
+domination.</p>
+
+<p>The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic
+state, the first, that is to say, in which a mixed population
+adopted the Greek language and civilization. It depended for
+its prosperity upon the export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this
+commerce supported a class whose wealth and vulgarity are
+exemplified by the contents of the numerous tombs to which
+reference has been made. In later times a Jewish element was
+added to the population, and under its influence were developed
+in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies of
+&ldquo;worshippers of the highest God,&rdquo; apparently professing a
+monotheism which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian
+was purer than any found among the inhabitants of the Empire.</p>
+
+<p>We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other
+cities from the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The gold <i>staters</i> of Panticapaeum
+bearing Pan&rsquo;s head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their
+weight and fine workmanship. We have also coins with the
+names of the later Spartocids and a singularly complete series
+of dated <i>solidi</i> issued by the later or Achaemenian dynasty; in
+them may be noticed the swift degeneration of the gold <i>solidus</i>
+through silver and potin to bronze (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Numismatics</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, <i>Inscrr. orae
+Septent. Ponti Euxini</i>, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art. &ldquo;Bosporus&rdquo;
+(2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencycl.</i> vol. iii. 757
+(Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, <i>Scythians and Greeks</i> (Cambridge,
+1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv. (St Petersburg,
+1901). Coins: B. Koehne, <i>Musée Kotschoubey</i> (St Petersburg,
+1855). Religious Societies: E. Schürer in <i>Sitzber. d. k. pr. Akad. d.
+Wissenschaft zu Berlin</i> (1897), i. pp. 200-227. Excavations: <i>Antiquités
+du Bosphore cimmérien</i> (St Petersburg, 1854, repr. Paris,
+1892) and <i>Compte rendu</i> and <i>Bulletin de la Commission Imp. Archéologique
+de St. Pétersbourg</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. H. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1810-1861), French
+marshal, entered the artillery in 1833, and a year later went to
+Algeria. Here he soon did good service, and made himself
+remarkable not only for technical skill but the moral qualities
+indispensable for high command. Becoming captain in 1839,
+he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar
+and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command
+of a battalion of native <i>tirailleurs</i>, and in 1843 was thanked in
+general orders for his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In
+1845 he became lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a
+French line regiment. In the following year he was in charge
+of the Oran district, where his swift suppression of an insurrection
+won him further promotion to the grade of general of brigade,
+in which rank he went through the campaign of Kabulia, receiving
+a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France after nineteen
+years&rsquo; absence, a general of division. Bosquet was amongst the
+earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the battle
+of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the
+Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet&rsquo;s
+corps of two divisions protected them against interruption.
+His timely intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854)
+secured the victory for the allies. During 1855 Bosquet&rsquo;s corps
+occupied the right wing of the besieging armies opposite the
+Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his corps at the storming
+of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault of the 8th of
+September he was in command of the whole of the storming
+troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another
+serious wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the
+foremost soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of
+France, but his health was broken, and he lived only a few years
+longer. He had the grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross
+of the Legion of Honour, and the Medjidieh of the 1st class.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSS.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1) (From the O. Eng. <i>boce</i>, a swelling, cf. Ital. <i>bozza</i>,
+and Fr. <i>bosse</i>, possibly connected with the O. Ger. <i>b&#333;zan</i>, to beat),
+a round protuberance; the projecting centre or &ldquo;umbo&rdquo; of a
+buckler; in geology a projection of rock through strata of
+another species; in architecture, the projecting keystone of the
+ribs of a vault which masks their junction; the term is also
+applied to similar projecting blocks at every intersection. The
+boss was often richly carved, generally with conventional
+foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque figures.
+The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the
+15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2)
+(From the Dutch <i>baas</i>, a word used by the Dutch settlers in
+New York for &ldquo;master,&rdquo; and so generally used by the Kaffirs in
+South Africa; connected with the Ger. <i>Base</i>, cousin, meaning
+a &ldquo;chief kinsman,&rdquo; the head of a household or family), a colloquial
+term, first used in America, for an employer, a foreman,
+and generally any one who gives orders, especially in American
+political slang for the manager of a party organization.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSSI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer
+on art, was born at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan.
+He was educated at the college of Monza; and his early fondness
+for drawing was fostered by the director of the college, who
+supplied him with prints after the works of Agostino Caracci
+for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at Milan,
+and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate
+friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became
+assistant secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine
+Arts. He rendered important service in the organization of this
+new institution. In 1804, in conjunction with Oriani, he drew
+up the rules of the three academies of art of Bologna, Venice
+and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with the decoration of
+the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of Napoleon I.
+to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last Judgment
+of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night,
+Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command
+of Prince Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a
+copy of the Last Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated,
+for the purpose of getting it rendered in mosaic. The drawing
+was made from the remains of the original with the aid of copies
+and the best prints. The mosaic was executed by Raffaelli,
+and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna. Bossi made
+another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera.
+This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great
+works of sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence.
+Bossi devoted a large part of his life to the study of the works
+of Leonardo; and his last work was a series of drawings in
+monochrome representing incidents in the life of that great
+master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in black chalk of the
+Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the Magdalene.
+In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled
+<i>Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci</i>, which had the merit of greatly
+interesting Goethe. His other works are <i>Delle Opinioni di Leonardo
+intorno alla simmetria de&rsquo; corpi umani</i> (1811), and <i>Del Tipo dell&rsquo; arte
+della pittura</i> (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December
+1816. A monument by Canova was erected to his memory
+in the Ambrosian library, and a bust was placed in the Brera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSSU, RENÉ LE<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1631-1680), French critic, was born in
+Paris on the 16th of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and
+in 1649 became one of the regular canons of Sainte-Geneviève.
+He wrote <i>Parallèle des principes de la physique d&rsquo;Aristote et de
+celle de René Descartes</i> (1674), and a <i>Traité du poème épique</i>,
+highly praised by Boileau, the leading doctrine of which was that
+the subject should be chosen before the characters, and that the
+action should be arranged without reference to the personages
+who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of March 1680.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSSUET, JAQUES BÉNIGNE<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> (1627-1704), French divine,
+orator and writer, was born at Dijon on the 27th of September
+1627. He came of a family of prosperous Burgundian lawyers;
+his father was a judge of the parliament (a provincial high court)
+at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent to school with
+the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the college of
+Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious
+mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his
+natural vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page288" id="page288"></a>288</span>
+hard work; fellow-students nicknamed him <i>Bos suetus aratro</i>&mdash;an
+ox broken in to the plough. But his abilities became known
+beyond the college walls. He was taken up by the Hôtel de
+Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic culture and the original
+home of the <i>Précieuses</i>. Here he became the subject of a
+celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about extempore
+preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to
+deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well
+as in more conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant
+degree in divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years
+he spent at Metz, where his father&rsquo;s influence had got him a
+canonry at the early age of thirteen; to this was now added the
+more important office of archdeacon. He was plunged at once
+into the thick of controversy; for nearly half Metz was Protestant,
+and Bossuet&rsquo;s first appearance in print was a refutation of the
+Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile the Protestants
+with the Roman Church became the great object of his dreams;
+and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the
+pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where
+political assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers
+scarcely born. Not that he reached perfection at a bound. His
+youthful imagination was unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into
+a kind of paradoxical subtlety, redolent of the divinity school.
+But these blemishes vanished when he settled in Paris (1659),
+and three years later mounted the pulpit of the Chapel Royal.</p>
+
+<p>In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical
+logic or clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear,
+he must manage to address them in terms they would agree to
+consider sensible and well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too
+much of their good opinion. Having very stern ideas of the
+dignity of a priest, he refused to descend to the usual devices
+for arousing popular interest. The narrative element in his
+sermons grows shorter with each year. He never drew satirical
+pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not write
+out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart:
+of the two hundred printed in his <i>Works</i> all but a fraction are
+rough drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sévigné forsook
+him, when Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669;
+though Fénelon and La Bruyère, two much sounder critics,
+refused to follow their example. Bossuet possessed the full
+equipment of the orator, voice, language, flexibility and strength.
+He never needed to strain for effect; his genius struck out at a
+single blow the thought, the feeling and the word. What he said
+of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he could &ldquo;fling
+his fury into theses,&rdquo; and thus unite the dry light of argument
+with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their
+highest point in the <i>Oraisons funèbres</i>. Bossuet was always best
+when at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious
+scruples intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought
+to the artistic side of his subject. For the <i>Oraison</i>, as its name
+betokened, stood midway between the sermon proper and what
+would nowadays be called a biographical sketch. At least,
+that was what Bossuet made it; for on this field he stood not
+merely first, but alone. His three great masterpieces were
+delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of Charles
+I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670),
+and the great soldier Condé (1687).</p>
+
+<p>Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in
+a Paris pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop
+of Condom in Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being
+appointed tutor to the dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and
+now a boy of nine (1670). The choice was scarcely fortunate.
+Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but his genius was by no
+means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child; and the
+dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a
+merely genealogical incident at his father&rsquo;s court. Probably
+no one was happier than the tutor, when his charge&rsquo;s
+sixteenth birthday came round, and he was promptly married
+off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine years at court were by
+no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published nothing,
+except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his
+pupil&rsquo;s instruction&mdash;or rather, to fit himself to give that instruction&mdash;a
+remarkable trilogy. First came the <i>Traité de la connaissance
+de Dieu et de soi-même</i>, then the <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;histoire
+universelle</i>, lastly the <i>Politique tirée de l&rsquo;Écriture Sainte</i>. The
+three books fit into each other. The <i>Traité</i> is a general sketch
+of the nature of God and the nature of man. The <i>Discours</i>
+is a history of God&rsquo;s dealings with humanity in the past. The
+<i>Politique</i> is a code of rights and duties drawn up in the light
+thrown by those dealings. Not that Bossuet literally supposed
+that the last word of political wisdom had been said by the Old
+Testament. His conclusions are only &ldquo;drawn from Holy Scripture,&rdquo;
+because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction
+for the institutions of his country&mdash;to hallow the France
+of Louis XIV. by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel
+of Solomon. Then, too, the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him
+to speak out more boldly than court-etiquette would have otherwise
+allowed, to remind the son of Louis XIV. that kings have
+duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten these duties,
+but Louis&rsquo; son would bear them in mind. The tutor&rsquo;s imagination
+looked forward to a time when France would blossom into
+Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is
+what made him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its
+forms: <i>&rdquo;le roi, Jésus-Christ et l&rsquo;Église, Dieu en ces trois noms&rdquo;</i>,
+he says in a characteristic letter. And the object of his books
+is to provide authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet&rsquo;s
+worship of authority by no means killed his confidence in reason;
+what it did was to make him doubt the honesty of those who
+reasoned otherwise than himself. The whole chain of argument
+seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy proved that
+a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of
+human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the
+most part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations,
+as well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit
+obedience as the immediate representatives of God. Thus all
+revolt, whether civil or religious, is a direct defiance of the
+Almighty. Cromwell becomes a moral monster, and the revocation
+of the edict of Nantes is &ldquo;the greatest achievement of the
+second Constantine.&rdquo; Not that Bossuet glorified the <i>status quo</i>
+simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his youth had known
+the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France of his
+manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had
+suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient
+Rome. Why not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation
+at bay and prolong that splendour for all time? Bossuet&rsquo;s
+own <i>Discours sur l&rsquo;histoire universelle</i> might have furnished an
+answer, for there the fall of many empires is detailed. But then
+the <i>Discours</i> was composed under a single preoccupation. To
+Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one point of
+real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet
+and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome
+he only touched in so far as they formed part of the <i>Praeparatio
+Evangelica</i>. And yet his <i>Discours</i> is far more than a theological
+pamphlet. Pascal, in utter scorn for science, might refer the
+rise and fall of empires to Providence or chance&mdash;the nose of
+Cleopatra, or &ldquo;a little grain of sand&rdquo; in the English lord
+protector&rsquo;s veins. Bossuet held fast to his principle that God
+works through secondary causes. &ldquo;It is His will that every
+great change should have its roots in the ages that went before
+it.&rdquo; Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple
+with origins and causes, and in this way his book deserves its
+place as one of the very first of philosophic histories.</p>
+
+<p>From writing history he turned to history in the making.
+In 1681 he was gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he
+could take possession of his see, he was drawn into a
+violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gallicanism</a></span>). Here he found himself between two fires. To
+support the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated
+their casuists and <i>dévotion aisée</i> almost as much as Pascal himself.
+To oppose the pope was to play into the hands of Louis, who
+was frankly anxious to humble the Church before the State. So
+Bossuet steered a middle course. Before the general assembly of
+the French clergy he preached a great sermon on the unity of the
+Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise. As Louis
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page289" id="page289"></a>289</span>
+insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration, Bossuet
+got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could.
+And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on
+a gigantic <i>Defensio Cleri Gallicani</i>, only published after his death.</p>
+
+<p>The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project
+very near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had
+been busy with schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman
+Church. In 1668 he converted Turenne; in 1670 he published
+an <i>Exposition de la foi catholique</i>, so moderate in tone that
+adversaries were driven to accuse him of having fraudulently
+watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a Protestant taste.
+Finally in 1688 appeared his great <i>Histoire des variations des
+églises protestantes</i>, perhaps the most brilliant of all his works.
+Few writers could have made the Justification controversy
+interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough.
+Without rules an organized society cannot hold together, and
+rules require an authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches
+had thrown over this interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble
+in showing that, the longer they lived, the more they varied on
+increasingly important points. For the moment the Protestants
+were pulverized; but before long they began to ask whether
+variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691 and
+1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion,
+but negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual
+Roman doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept,
+but he flatly refused to guarantee that they would necessarily
+believe to-morrow what they believe to-day. &ldquo;We prefer,&rdquo; he
+said, &ldquo;a church eternally variable and for ever moving forwards.&rdquo;
+Next, Protestant writers began to accumulate some startling
+proofs of Rome&rsquo;s own variations; and here they were backed up
+by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the father
+of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine,
+Bossuet&rsquo;s own special master, of having corrupted the primitive
+doctrine of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a <i>Défense de la
+tradition</i>, but Simon calmly went on to raise issues graver still.
+Under a veil of politely ironical circumlocutions, such as did not
+deceive the bishop of Meaux, he claimed his right to interpret
+the Bible like any other book. Bossuet denounced him again
+and again; Simon told his friends he would wait until &ldquo;the old
+fellow&rdquo; was no more. Another Oratorian proved more dangerous
+still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay
+rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether.
+It was blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of
+nature would break through a reign of law He had Himself
+established. Bossuet might scribble <i>nova, mira, falsa</i>, in the
+margins of his book and urge on Fénelon to attack them;
+Malebranche politely met his threats by saying that to be refuted
+by such a pen would do him too much honour. These repeated
+checks soured Bossuet&rsquo;s temper. In his earlier controversies he
+had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot
+ministers he refuted found him a kindly advocate at court.
+Even his approval of the revocation of the edict of Nantes
+stopped far short of approving dragonades within his diocese of
+Meaux. But now his patience was wearing out. A dissertation
+by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk, became his
+excuse for writing certain violent <i>Maximes sur la comédie</i> (1694)
+wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Molière,
+dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling
+with Fénelon over the love of God, and employing methods of
+controversy at least as odious as Fénelon&rsquo;s own (1697-1699).
+All that can be said in his defence is that Fénelon, four-and-twenty
+years his junior, was an old pupil, who had suddenly
+grown into a rival; and that on the matter of principle most
+authorities thought him right.</p>
+
+<p>Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet&rsquo;s life came slowly to
+an end. Till he was over seventy he had scarcely known what
+illness was; but in 1702 he was attacked by the stone. Two
+years later he was a hopeless invalid, and on the 12th of April
+1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private life there is little
+to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted bishop,
+much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring
+occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was
+kindly and affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until
+he was over forty, he had lived among purely ecclesiastical
+surroundings; and it was probably want of self-confidence,
+more than want of moral courage, that made him shut his eyes
+a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s private life.
+After all, he was not the king&rsquo;s confessor; and to &ldquo;reform&rdquo;
+Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down,
+would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his
+books Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the
+attacks on Simon, breathe an air of masculine belief in reason,
+rare enough among the apologists of any age. Bossuet would
+willingly have undertaken, as Malebranche actually undertook,
+to make an intelligent Chinaman accept all his ideas, if only he
+could be induced to lend them his attention. But his best praise
+is to have brought all the powers of language to paint an undying
+picture of a vanished world, where religion and letters, laws and
+science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable planets, circling
+for ever round one central Sun.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The best edition of Bossuet&rsquo;s sermons is the <i>&OElig;uvres
+oratoires de Bossuet</i>, edited by Abbé Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris, 1890-1896).
+His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols. (Paris, 1862-1864).
+A complete list of the innumerable works relating to
+him will be found in the <i>Bossuet</i> number of the <i>Bibliothèque des
+bibliographies critiques</i>, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and
+published by the Société des Études Historiques (Paris, 1900).
+The general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of
+M. Rebelliau, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1900),
+and M. Gustave Lanson, <i>Bossuet</i> (Paris, 1901).
+In English there is a modest <i>Bossuet</i> by Mrs Sidney Lear (London, 1874),
+and two remarkable studies by Sir J. Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume
+of his <i>Horae Sabbaticae</i> (London, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(St. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTANAI,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan
+rule, in the middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their
+seat in Persia, and were practically the secular heads of the
+Jewish community in the Orient.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTON, THOMAS<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at
+Duns on the 17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and
+his mother, Alison Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was
+educated at Edinburgh, and licensed in 1697 by the presbytery
+of Chirnside. In 1699 he became minister of the small parish of
+Simprin, where there were in all &ldquo;not more than 90 examinable
+persons.&rdquo; In 1704 he found, while visiting a member of his
+flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a commonwealth
+soldier. This was the famous <i>Marrow of Modern Divinity</i>,
+by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading
+Reformation divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the
+Gospel. Its object was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness
+of the Gospel. It cleared away such conditions as repentance,
+or some degree of outward or inward reformation, and argued
+that where Christ is heartily received, full repentance and a new
+life follow. On Boston&rsquo;s recommendation, Hog of Carnock
+reprinted <i>The Marrow</i> in 1718; and Boston also published
+an edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked
+from the standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard
+of a far-reaching movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The
+&ldquo;Marrow men&rdquo; were marked by the zeal of their service and
+the effect of their preaching. As they remained Calvinists they
+could not preach a universal atonement; they were in fact
+extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was translated
+to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only
+member of the assembly who entered a protest against what
+he deemed the inadequate sentence passed on John Simson,
+professor of divinity at Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox
+teaching on the Incarnation. He died on the 20th of May 1732.
+His books, <i>The Fourfold State, The Crook in the Lot</i>, and his
+<i>Body of Divinity</i> and <i>Miscellanies</i>, long exercised
+a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Memoirs</i> were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908).
+An edition of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport
+of Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its
+mouth in the Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern
+railway. Pop. (1901) 15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural
+fen district, drained by numerous cuts, some of which are
+navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb Decorated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page290" id="page290"></a>290</span>
+building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in the
+kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was
+restored to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., in 1857, in memory of the connexion of that city with the
+English town. The western tower, commonly known as Boston
+Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its foundations were the
+first to be laid of the present church (which is on the site of
+an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the
+Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent
+example. It somewhat resembles the completed tower of
+Antwerp cathedral, and is crowned by a graceful octagonal
+lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft. in height. The church of
+Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively restored, retains
+good Early English details. Other buildings of interest are the
+guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick; Shodfriars Hall,
+a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a Dominican
+priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine
+gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St
+Botolph&rsquo;s church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a
+mansion of the 16th century. Public institutions include a
+people&rsquo;s park and large municipal buildings (1904).</p>
+
+<p>As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th
+century the river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels
+exceeding about 50 tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in
+extent was constructed, with an entrance lock giving access to
+the quay sides for vessels of 3000 tons. The bed of the river
+was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the town, and a new cut
+of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An iron
+swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway.
+There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons.
+Imports, principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased
+owing to these improvements from £116,179 in 1881 to £816,698
+in 1899; and exports (coal, machinery and manufactured goods)
+from £83,000 in 1883 to £261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and
+coastal fisheries are important. Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco,
+sail and rope works are the principal industries in the town.
+Boston returns one member to parliament. The parliamentary
+borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of the
+county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen
+and 18 councillors. Area, 2727 acres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph&rsquo;s Town) derives its name
+from St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was
+destroyed by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday,
+Boston was probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of
+Brittany. The excellent commercial position of the town at the
+mouth of the Witham explains its speedy rise into importance.
+King John by charter of 1204 granted the bailiff of Boston sole
+jurisdiction in the town. By the 13th century it was a great
+commercial centre second only to London in paying £780 for two years
+to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward III. made it a staple
+port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish merchants largely
+increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of the Hanseatic
+League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system Boston&rsquo;s
+prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained almost
+without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free
+borough by Henry VIII.&rsquo;s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI.
+in 1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of
+admiralty) in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent
+members to the great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from
+1552 to 1885 two members were returned to each parliament. The
+Redistribution Act 1885 reduced the representation to one member.
+In 1257 a market was granted to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308
+to John, earl of Brittany. The great annual mart was held before
+1218 and attended by many German and other merchants. Two
+annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted by Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
+charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives only in the
+Beast Mart held on the 11th of December.</p>
+
+<p>See Pishey Thompson, <i>History and Antiquities of Boston and the
+Hundred of Skirbeck</i> (Boston, 1856);
+George Jebb, <i>Guide to the Church of St Botolph, with Notes
+on the History of Boston; Victoria County History: Lincolnshire</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+in Suffolk county; lat. 42° 21&prime; 27.6&Prime; N., long. 71° 3&prime; 30&Prime; W. Pop.
+(1900) 560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census)
+595,580; (1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston &amp;
+Albany (New York Central), the Old Colony system of the New
+York, New Haven &amp; Hartford, and the Boston &amp; Maine railway
+systems, each of which controls several minor roads once independent.
+The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on what was
+once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a
+narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water.
+On the north is the Charles river, which widens here into a broad,
+originally much broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface
+of the peninsula was very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was
+deeply indented with coves, and there were salt marshes that
+fringed the neck and the river-channel and were left oozy by
+the ebbing tides. Until after the War of Independence the
+primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was afterwards
+subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site of
+any other American city. The area of the original Boston was
+only 783 acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804)
+this was increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate
+Boston of the present day&mdash;including the annexed territories of
+South Boston (1804), Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester,
+Brighton and West Roxbury (1874)&mdash;comprehends almost
+43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the finest residential
+quarter of the city&mdash;the Back Bay, so called from that inner
+harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)&mdash;stand
+on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and
+fairest portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries
+of granite, and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water
+margins, constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming
+flats, and furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings.
+At the edge of the Common, which is now well within the city,
+the British troops in 1775 took their boats on the eve of the
+battle of Lexington; and the post-office, now in the very heart
+of the business section of the city, stands on the original
+shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and excellently drained. The
+original territory still preserves to a large degree its irregularity
+of surface, but its hills have been much degraded or wholly razed.
+Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as a signal warning
+station, is still the most conspicuous topographical feature of
+the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque
+eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it
+became possible, in the reconstruction of the business district,
+to widen and straighten its streets and create squares, and so
+provide for the traffic that had long outgrown the narrow,
+crooked ways of the older city. Atlantic Avenue, along the
+harbour front, was created, and Washington Street, the chief
+business artery, was largely remade after 1866. It is probable
+that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger outlay of labour,
+material and money, in reducing, levelling and reclaiming
+territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in
+Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all
+the other chief cities of the United States together. Washington
+Street, still narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested
+thoroughfare in America. The finest residence streets are in the
+Back Bay, which is laid out, in sharp contrast with the older
+quarters, in a regular, rectangular arrangement. The North
+End, the original city and afterwards the fashionable quarter,
+is now given over to the Jews and foreign colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the
+United States for the purpose of fortification, are numerous,
+and render the navigation of the shipping channels difficult
+and easily guarded. Though tortuous of access, the channels
+afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft. since great improvements were
+undertaken by the national government in 1892, 1899, 1902 and
+1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It affords nearly
+60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of early
+reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been.
+The islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part
+heavily wooded when first occupied. It has been found impossible
+to afforest them on account of the roughness of the sea-air, and
+the wash from their bluffs into the harbour has involved large
+expense in the erection of sea-walls. Castle Island has been
+fortified since the earliest days; Fort Independence, on this
+island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on neighbouring islands,
+constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad watercourses
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page291" id="page291"></a>291</span>
+around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges,
+East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the
+navy-yard at Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by
+the electric subway under the harbour. At the Charlestown
+navy-yard (1800) there are docks, manufactories, foundries,
+machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks, furnaces, casting-pits,
+timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &amp;c. The famous
+frigate &ldquo;Independence&rdquo; was launched here in 1814, the more
+famous &ldquo;Constitution&rdquo; having been launched while the yard
+was still private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles,
+to Charlestown, was opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic
+merit is the Cambridge Bridge (1908), which replaced the old
+West Boston Bridge, and is one feature of improvements long
+projected for the beautifying of the Charles river basin.</p>
+
+<p>Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by
+time and the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries
+remain intact&mdash;King&rsquo;s chapel burying ground, with the graves
+of John Winthrop and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground
+in the heart of the city, where Samuel Sewall, the parents
+of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis and Samuel Adams are
+buried; and Copp&rsquo;s Hill burial ground, containing the tombs of
+the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of the
+city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul
+Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South
+church (1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882),
+and Faneuil Hall (1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898)
+are rich in memorable associations of the period preceding the
+War of Independence. The second was the seat of the royal
+government of Massachusetts during the provincial period, and
+within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions of colonial
+dependence or independence probably first came into evident
+conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was,
+for instance, the meeting-place of the people after the &ldquo;Boston
+Massacre&rdquo; of 1770, when they demanded the removal of the
+British troops from the city; and here, too, were held the meetings
+that led up to the &ldquo;Boston Tea Party&rdquo; of 1773. Faneuil Hall
+(the original hall of the name was given to the city by Peter
+Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is associated, like the
+Old South, with the patriotic oratory of revolutionary days and
+is called &ldquo;the cradle of American liberty.&rdquo; Its association with
+reform movements and great public issues of later times is not
+less close and interesting.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The adjoining Quincy market may
+be mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to
+open six new streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks
+and wharf rights&mdash;all without laying tax or debt upon the city.
+The original King&rsquo;s chapel (1688, present building 1749-1754) was
+the first Episcopal church of Boston, which bitterly resented
+the action of the royal governor in 1687 in using the Old South
+for the services of the Church of England. The new state house,
+the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles Bulfinch)
+was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again
+by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to
+1900).  Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity
+with the style of the original portion; and its gilded dome
+is a conspicuous landmark. Other buildings of local importance
+are the city hall (1865); the United States government building
+(1871-1878, cost about $6,000,000); the county court-house
+(1887-1893, $2,250,000); the custom-house (1837-1848);
+and the chamber of commerce (1892).</p>
+
+<p>Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a
+group of exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum
+of Fine Arts, the public library and the new Old South church.
+Trinity (1877, cost $800,000), in yellowish granite with dark
+sandstone trimmings, the masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built
+in the Romanesque style of southern France; it is a Latin cross
+surmounted by a massive central tower, with smaller towers and
+an adjacent chapel reached by open cloisters that distribute
+the balance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 137). It has
+windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and others.</p>
+
+<p>The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site,
+given by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of
+pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance,
+suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court,
+and notable decorative features and embellishments, including
+bronze doors by D.C. French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by
+Macmonnies, a fine staircase in Siena marble, some characteristic
+decorative panels by Puvis de Chavannes (illustrating the
+history of science and literature), and other notable decorative
+paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of religion), Edwin
+A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old Museum of
+Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic style,
+with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old
+South (the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum)
+is a handsome structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine
+campanile. The dignified buildings of the Massachusetts Institute
+of Technology are near. In Huntington Avenue, at its
+junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another group of handsome
+new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony
+Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music.
+In the Back Bay Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L.
+Olmsted, still other groups have formed&mdash;among others those
+of the marble buildings of the Harvard medical school; Fenway
+Court, a building in the style, internally, of a Venetian palace,
+that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner, and Simmons
+College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum of
+Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is
+being made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.</p>
+
+<p>Boston compares favourably with other American cities in
+the character of its public and private architecture. The height
+of buildings in the business section is limited to 125 ft., and in
+some places to 90 ft.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for
+electric trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in
+part with two, constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000
+up to 1905. The branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath
+the harbour bed and extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to
+Maverick Square, East Boston; it was the first all-cement tunnel
+(diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The subway was built by the
+city, but leased and operated by a private company on such terms
+as to repay its cost in forty years. Another tunnel has been
+added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow
+streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented
+difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional
+efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the
+surface cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the
+subway. All the various roads&mdash;surface, elevated (about 7 m.,
+built 1896-1901), and subway&mdash;are controlled, almost wholly,
+by one company. They all connect and interchange passengers
+freely; so that the ordinary American five-cent fare enables
+a passenger to travel between almost any two points over an
+area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of the
+Boston &amp; Maine and the Boston &amp; Albany systems also deserve
+mention. The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers
+9 acres and has 23 tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898),
+one of the largest stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has
+32 tracks, and is used by the Boston &amp; Albany and by the New
+York, New Haven &amp; Hartford railways.</p>
+
+<p>A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water
+service was begun in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir
+at Clinton, on the Nashua river. The basin here excavated
+by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above high-tide level
+of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average
+depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of
+water. It is the largest municipal reservoir in the world<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a>, yet
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page292" id="page292"></a>292</span>
+it is only part of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan
+area.</p>
+
+<p>The park system is quite unique among American cities.
+The Common, a park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has
+been a public reservation since 1634, and no city park in the
+world is cherished more affectionately for historical associations.
+Adjoining it is the Public Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the
+made area of the city. Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back
+Bay streets running from the foot of the Public Garden, is one of
+the finest residence streets of the country. It is 240 ft. wide,
+with four rows of trees shading the parking of its central mall,
+and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the beautiful outer
+park system. The park system consists of two concentric
+rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the
+metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in
+co-operation with the city. The former has been laid out since
+1875, and includes upwards of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m.
+of walks, drives and rides. Its central ornament is Franklin
+Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system, which extends
+around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in 1893.
+It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation
+(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts,
+a beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as
+Middlesex Fells, two large beach bath reservations on the harbour
+at Revere and Hull (Nantasket), and the boating section of the
+Charles river. At the end of 1907 more than $13,000,000 had
+been expended on the system. Including the local parks of the
+cities and towns of the metropolitan district there are over
+17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan park
+district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in
+the establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement,
+planned for many years, was brought nearer by the completion
+of the new Cambridge Bridge. This improvement was
+projected to include the damming of the Charles river, and the
+creation of a great freshwater basin, with drive-ways of reclaimed
+land along the shores, and other adornments, somewhat after
+the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Art and Literature.</i>&mdash;The Museum of Fine Arts was founded
+in 1870 (though there were art exhibits collected from 1826
+onward) and its present building was erected in 1908. It has
+one of the finest collections of casts in existence, a number of
+original pieces of Greek statuary, the second-best collection in
+the world of Aretine ware, the finest collection of Japanese
+pottery, and probably the largest and finest of Japanese paintings
+in existence. Among the memorials to men of Massachusetts
+(a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by monuments
+in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state
+house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are
+statues of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew
+by Thomas Ball; of Generals Joseph Hooker and William F.
+Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by Daniel C. French; of W.L.
+Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner; of Samuel
+Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin
+Franklin by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story),
+Colonel W. Prescott (Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel
+Webster (H. Powers), W.E. Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks
+(H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St Gaudens), and J.B.
+O&rsquo;Reilly (D.C. French).</p>
+
+<p>Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A.
+Ward commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic
+properties of ether, made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General
+Hospital by Dr W.T.G. Morton; an emancipation group of
+Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of Lincoln; a fine equestrian
+statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington, one of the best
+works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument
+in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil
+War; another (1888) recording the death of those who fell in the
+Boston Massacre of 1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut
+(H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson (Anne Whitney), and Alexander
+Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent bronze bas-relief
+(1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the departure
+from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment
+of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art
+department of the city government, under unpaid commissioners,
+appointed by the mayor from candidates named by local art and
+literary institutions; and without their approval no work of art
+can now become the property of the city.</p>
+
+<p>The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January
+1908, is the second library of the country in size, and is the largest
+free circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111
+volumes). There was a public municipal library in Boston before
+1674&mdash;probably in 1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was
+apparently never replaced. The present library (antedated by
+several circulating, social and professional collections) may
+justly be said to have had its origin in the efforts of the Parisian,
+Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830 on, to foster
+international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged gifts
+from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes,
+and a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated
+in 1849 with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private
+citizens) was the nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal
+foundation dates from 1848. Among the special collections are
+the George Ticknor library of Spanish and Portuguese books
+(6393 vols.), very full sets of United States and British public
+documents, the Bowditch mathematical library (7090 vols.),
+the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193 vols.), the
+Barton library, including one of the finest existing collections of
+Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general library),
+the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full collection
+on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than
+100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and
+literature of the United States. The library is supported almost
+entirely by municipal appropriations, though holding also considerable
+trust funds ($388,742 in 1905). The other notable
+book-collections of the city include those of the Athenaeum,
+founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets), the
+Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the
+Boston medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New
+England Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750
+volumes and 34,150 pamphlets), the state library (founded
+1826; 140,000), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
+(founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society of Natural History
+(founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000 pamphlets).</p>
+
+<p>The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts
+Institute of Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical
+school in the country, opened to students (including
+women) in 1865, four years after the granting of a charter to
+Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president; Boston University
+(chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal; co-educational); the
+New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational; private;
+1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States,
+having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College
+of Pharmacy (1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School
+(1873); the School of Drawing and Painting (1876) of the
+Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College (1860), Roman Catholic,
+under the Society of Jesus; St John&rsquo;s Theological Seminary
+(1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for women,
+and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute
+of Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range
+of its instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a
+pioneer in introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory
+instruction in physics, mechanics and mining. The architects
+of the United States navy are sent here for instruction in their
+most advanced courses. Boston University was endowed by
+Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston fish-merchant, Lee Claflin
+(1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a benefactor of Wesleyan
+University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob Sleeper.
+It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of
+theology&mdash;founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical
+Institute; in 1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871
+the Boston Theological Seminary&mdash;law, music, medicine, liberal
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page293" id="page293"></a>293</span>
+arts and agriculture (at Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts
+Agricultural College), all antedate 1876. The funds for
+Simmons College were left by John Simmons in 1870, who wished
+to found a school to teach the professions and &ldquo;branches of art,
+science and industry best calculated to enable the scholars to
+acquire an independent livelihood.&rdquo; The Lowell Institute (<i>q.v.</i>),
+established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed
+$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public
+lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading
+scholars of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a
+series of public lectures on American history is delivered in the
+Old South meeting house. The public schools, particularly the
+secondary schools, enjoy a very high reputation. The new English
+High and Latin school, founded in 1635, is the oldest school of
+the country. A girls&rsquo; Latin school, with the same standards as
+the boys&rsquo; school, was established in 1878 (an outcome of the
+same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are large
+numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.</p>
+
+<p>In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American
+centres. The Federal Street theatre&mdash;the first regular theatre&mdash;was
+established in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its
+natural influence in keeping Boston behind New York and
+Philadelphia in this respect. The dramatic history of the city is
+largely associated with the Boston Museum, built in 1841 by
+Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in 1846 and
+1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical performances
+were given (see an interesting article in the <i>New England
+Magazine</i>, June 1903), in later years under the management of
+R. Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum
+was swept away, as other interesting old places of entertainment
+(the old Federal Street theatre, the Tremont theatre, &amp;c.) had
+been, in the course of further building changes. The Boston
+theatre dates from 1854, and there were seventeen theatres
+altogether in 1900.</p>
+
+<p>As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical
+organizations may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society
+(1815), the Harvard Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic
+(1880) and the Symphony Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the
+generosity of Henry Lee Higginson. This orchestra has done
+much for music not only in Boston but in the United States
+generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was incorporated,
+and an opera house has been erected on the north side of
+Huntington Avenue.</p>
+
+<p>Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until
+the later decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable
+and important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy
+was identical with the long predominance of the New
+England literary school, who lived in Boston or in the country
+round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no longer so) that
+still hold an exceptional position in periodical literature, the
+<i>North American Review</i> (1815) and the <i>Atlantic Monthly</i> (1857),
+date from this period. The great majority of names in the long
+list of worthies of the commonwealth&mdash;writers, statesmen,
+orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are
+intimately connected with Boston. Among the city&rsquo;s daily
+newspapers the <i>Boston Herald</i> (1846), the <i>Boston Globe</i>, the
+<i>Evening Transcript</i> (1830), the <i>Advertiser</i> (1813) and the <i>Post</i>
+(1831) are the most important.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industry and Commerce</i>.&mdash;Boston is fringed with wharves.
+Commercial interests are largely concentrated in East Boston.
+Railway connexion with Worcester, Lowell and Providence
+was opened in 1835; with Albany, N.Y., and thereby with
+various lines of interior communication, in 1841 (double track,
+1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was
+completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston
+was selected as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the
+first regular line of trans-Atlantic steamers. The following
+decade was the most active of the city&rsquo;s history as regards the
+ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to all parts of the globe.
+The Cunard arrangement was the first of various measures
+that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New
+England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty
+of 1854, and Boston&rsquo;s interests are foremost to-day in demanding
+a return to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the
+commerce of the port greatly declined. The Cunard service
+has not been continuous. In 1869 there was not one vessel steaming
+directly for Europe; in 1900 there were 973 for foreign
+ports. Great improvements of the harbour were undertaken
+in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the creation
+of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been
+a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like
+New York, complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia,
+Baltimore, New Orleans and Galveston. Boston also
+feels the competition of Montreal and Portland; the Canadian
+roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight differentials.
+Boston is the second import port of the United States, but its
+exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of Galveston,
+or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade entering
+and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year
+9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston.
+The value of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively
+$123,414,168 and $104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses,
+wool, hides and skins, cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their
+manufactures, chemicals, coal, and leather and its manufactures
+are the leading imports; provisions, leather and its manufactures,
+cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs, iron and steel and
+their manufactures are the leading exports. In the exportation
+of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products classed as
+provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the largest
+wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being
+in each second in the world to London only.</p>
+
+<p>Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as
+was commerce in colonial times. The value of all manufactured
+products from establishments under the &ldquo;factory system&rdquo;
+in 1900 was $162,764,523; in 1905 it was $184,351,163. Among
+the leading and more distinctive items were printing and
+publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses refining
+($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because
+of the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men&rsquo;s
+clothing (in 1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women&rsquo;s
+clothing (in 1900, $3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and
+shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655, in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe
+cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445); malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668,
+in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery (in 1900, $4,455,184, in
+1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900, $3,504,603,
+in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in 1905);
+other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780);
+rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323);
+steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in
+1905, $3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &amp;c. Art tiles and pottery
+are manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries
+early became of great importance. The Waltham watch and
+the Singer sewing-machine had their beginning in Boston in
+1850. The making of the Chickering pianos goes back to 1823,
+and of Mason &amp; Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are to-day
+very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The
+ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.</p>
+
+<p><i>Government</i>.&mdash;Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630,
+when it was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation
+before 1822; although the uncertain boundaries between the
+powers of colony and township prompted repeated petitions
+to the legislature for incorporation, beginning as early as 1650.
+In 1822 Boston became a city. Thus for nearly two centuries
+it preserved intact its old &ldquo;town&rdquo; government, disposing of
+all its affairs in the &ldquo;town-meeting&rdquo; of its citizens. Excellent
+political training such a government unquestionably offered;
+but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition increased,
+as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822)
+became greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous
+in blood. All the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary
+ordinary business seldom drew out more than a hundred voters,
+and often a mere handful. From very early days executive
+officers known as &ldquo;select-men,&rdquo; constables, clerks of markets,
+hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &amp;c., were chosen; and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page294" id="page294"></a>294</span>
+select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the
+freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could
+control the business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and
+boisterousness marred its democractic excellence in exciting
+times. Large sums were voted loosely, and expended by executive
+boards without any budgetary control. The whole system was
+full of looseness, complexity and makeshifts. But the tenacity
+with which it was clung to, proved that it was suited to the
+community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was not
+inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity.
+Various other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown
+older, have been similarly compelled to abandon their old form
+of government. The powers of the old township were much
+more extensive than those of the present city of Boston, including
+as they did the determination of the residence of strangers,
+the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the fixing of
+wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a
+voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised
+in 1854, and again reconstructed in important particulars by
+laws of 1885 separating the executive and legislative powers,
+and by subsequent acts. A complete alteration of the government
+has indeed been effected since 1885. Boston proper is only
+the centre of a large metropolitan area, closely settled, with
+interests in large part common. This metropolitan area, within
+a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house, contained
+in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last
+two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this
+greater city some general government, fully consolidated or of
+limited powers, was a standing question of expediency. The
+commonwealth has four times recognized a community of metropolitan
+interests in creating state commissions since 1882 for
+the union of such interests, beginning with a metropolitan health
+district in that year. The metropolitan water district (1895)
+included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or townships in
+its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889) twenty
+four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment
+was firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of
+the state commissions, independent of the city&rsquo;s control, but
+able to commit the city indefinitely by undertaking expensive
+works and new debt, was resented. Independence is further
+curtailed by other state boards semi-independent of the city&mdash;the
+police commission of three members from 1885 to 1906,
+and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed by the
+governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the
+governor; the transit commission, &amp;c. There are, further,
+county offices (Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea,
+Revere and Winthrop), generally independent of the city,
+though the latter pays practically all the bills.</p>
+
+<p>A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for
+municipal elections in January; for the election of a mayor
+for four years; for his recall at the end of two years if a majority
+of the registered voters so vote in the state election in November
+in the second year of his term; for the summary removal for cause
+by the mayor of any department head or other of his appointees,
+for a city council of one chamber of nine members, elected at
+large each for three years; for nomination by petition; for a
+permanent finance commission appointed by the governor; for
+the confirmation of the mayor&rsquo;s appointments by the state civil
+service commission; for the mayor&rsquo;s preparation of the annual
+budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the
+council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except
+for school use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously)
+appoint the superintendent and supervisors of schools.
+The number of members of the school-board was in 1905
+reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by the city at large,
+and serving for one, two or three years; at the same time power
+was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of schools.
+Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal
+administration. The city&rsquo;s work is done under an eight-hour
+law.</p>
+
+<p>An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899
+showed that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice
+of a president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a
+governor, the determination of liquor-license questions by
+referendum, and the settlement of other referenda. On 21
+referenda, 10 being questions of license, the ratio of actual to
+registered voters ranged on the latter from 57.00 to 75.38%
+(mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to 33.40 (mean
+61.39),&mdash;the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two presidential
+votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means
+for mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36
+and 84.73, 61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to
+65% actually register. Women vote for school committee-men
+(categories as above, 95.18, 59.62, 76.49%). On a referendum
+in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal suffrage
+to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered
+voted, and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be
+registered.</p>
+
+<p>Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory
+and penal institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and
+other charitable or philanthropic organizations, private and
+public, number several hundreds. The Associated Charities is an
+incorporated organization for systematizing the various charities
+of the city. The Massachusetts general hospital (1811-1821)&mdash;
+with a branch for mental and nervous diseases, McLean hospital
+(1816), in the township of Belmont (post-office, Waverley) about
+6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts
+school for the blind (1832), famous for its conduct by
+Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman and
+Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded
+children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye
+and ear infirmary (1824), all receive financial aid from the
+commonwealth, which has representation in their management.
+The city hospital dates from 1864. A floating hospital for women
+and children in the summer months, with permanent and transient
+wards, has been maintained since 1894 (incorporated 1901).
+Boston was one of the first municipalities of the country to
+make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile offenders;
+in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People&rsquo;s Palace
+dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing
+baths, gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an
+employment bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &amp;c., was
+opened in 1906. Simmons College and Harvard University maintain
+the Boston school for social workers (1904). Beneficent
+social work out of the more usual type is directed by the music
+and bath departments of the city government. In the provision
+of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the
+pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced.
+The beach reservations of the metropolitan park system at
+Revere and Nantasket, and several smaller city beaches are
+a special feature of this service. Benjamin Franklin, who
+was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left £1000 to
+the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and
+constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring
+class of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been
+the most expensively governed of American cities. The average
+yearly expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416,
+exclusive of payments on funded and floating debts. The running
+expenses <i>per-capita</i> in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the
+average of 86 leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92;
+Chicago, $11.62). Schools, police, charities, water, streets and
+parks are the items of heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools
+for the five years from 1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937,
+of which $7,057,895.42 was for new buildings; the cost of the
+police department was $11,387,314.66 for the six years 1902-1907;
+and of the water department $4,941,343.37 for the six years 1902-1907;
+of charities and social work a much larger sum. The remaking
+of the city was enormously expensive, especially the alteration
+of the streets after 1866, when the city received power to make
+such alterations and assess a part of the improvements upon abutting
+estates. The creation of the city water-system has also been excessively
+costly, and the total cost up to the 31st of January 1908
+of the works remaining to the city after the creation of the metropolitan
+board in 1898 was about $17,000,000. The metropolitan
+water board&mdash;of whose expenditures Boston bears only a share&mdash;expended
+from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was planned
+to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city park
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page295" id="page295"></a>295</span>
+system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the
+metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are
+no municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the
+city depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control
+of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the
+contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues
+were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were
+used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently,
+but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in
+1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in
+1907, $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)&mdash;this included the debt
+of Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects
+for which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of
+dollars: highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05,
+rapid transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907
+36% of all state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively
+of the assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and
+water services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or
+for Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited
+control. The improvement of the Back Bay and of the South
+Boston flats was in considerable measure forced upon the city by
+the commonwealth. The debt per capita is as high as the cost of
+current administration relatively to other cities. The average
+interest rate on the city obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The
+city&rsquo;s tax valuation in 1907 was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200;
+in 1850, $180,000,500), of which only $242,606,856 represented personalty;
+although in the judgment of the city board of trade such
+property cannot by any possibility be inferior in value to realty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population.</i>&mdash;Up to the War of Independence the population
+was not only American, but it was in its ideas and standards
+essentially Puritan; modern liberalism, however, has introduced
+new standards of social life. In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants
+were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or in part of foreign
+parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian, English
+and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population
+these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0,
+6.7 and 5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but
+unmixing nations, divide among themselves a large part of the
+city, and give to its life a cosmopolitan colour of varied speech,
+opinion, habits, traditions, social relations and religions. Most
+remarkable of all, the Roman Catholic churches, in this stronghold
+of exiled Puritanism where Catholics were so long under the
+heavy ban of law, outnumber those of any single Protestant
+denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the politics of the city,
+and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned against each
+other on the question of the control of the public schools.
+Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism
+of the city remains strikingly predominant. The population
+of Boston at the end of each decennial period since 1790 was as
+follows:&mdash;(1790), 18,320; (1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820),
+43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840), 93,383; (1850), 136,881;
+(1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880), 362,839; (1890),
+448,477; (1900), 560,892.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it
+was explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were
+various attempts to settle about its borders in the following
+years before John Endecott in 1628 landed at Salem as governor
+of the colony of Massachusetts bay, within which Boston was
+included. In June 1630 John Winthrop&rsquo;s company reached
+Charlestown. At that time a &ldquo;bookish recluse,&rdquo; William
+Blaxton (Blackstone), one of the several &ldquo;old planters&rdquo; scattered
+about the bay, had for several years been living on Boston
+peninsula. The location seemed one suitable for commerce and
+defence, and the Winthrop party chose it for their settlement.
+The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of which no trace remains
+to-day (or possibly a reference to the three hills of the then
+peninsula, Beacon, Copp&rsquo;s and Fort) led to the adoption of the
+name Trimountaine for the peninsula,&mdash;a name perpetuated
+variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont;
+but on the 17th of September 1630, the date adopted for
+anniversary celebrations, it was ordered that &ldquo;Trimountaine shall
+be called Boston,&rdquo; after the borough of that name in Lincolnshire,
+England, of which several of the leading settlers had formerly
+been prominent citizens.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge,
+Charlestown or Boston should be the capital of the colony, but
+in 1632 the General Court agreed &ldquo;by general consent, that
+Boston is the fittest place for public meetings of any place in
+the Bay.&rdquo; It rapidly became the wealthiest and most populous.
+Throughout the 17th century its history is so largely that of
+Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable. Theological
+systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this epoch
+&mdash;the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions,
+the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in
+Boston, in 1648, 1651, 1656, 1688) &amp;c.&mdash;are referred to in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>). In 1692 the first permanent and
+successful printing press was established; in 1704 the first
+newspaper in America, the <i>Boston News-Letter</i>, which was
+published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily mellowed
+under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry
+was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half
+of the 17th century was growing material prosperity, and there
+were those who thought their fellows unduly willing to relax
+church tests of fellowship when good trade was in question.
+There was an unpleasant Englishman who declared in 1699
+that he found &ldquo;Money Their God, and Large Possessions the only
+Heaven they Covet.&rdquo; Prices were low, foreign commerce was
+already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the
+official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston &ldquo;town&rdquo;
+was drawing society from the &ldquo;country.&rdquo; Of the two-score or so
+of families most prominent in the first century hardly one retained
+place in the similar list for the early years of the second. Boston
+was a prosperous, thrifty, English country town, one traveller
+thought. Another, Daniel Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation
+&ldquo;as polite as in most of the cities and towns in England,
+many of their merchants having the advantage of a free conversation
+with travellers; so that a gentleman from London
+would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he observes
+the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their tables,
+their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and
+showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The population, which was almost stationary through much
+of the century, was about 20,000 in the years immediately before
+the War of Independence. At this time Boston was the most
+flourishing town of North America. It built ships as cheaply
+as any place in the world, it carried goods for other colonies,
+it traded&mdash;often evading British laws&mdash;with Europe, Guinea,
+Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The merchant
+princes and social leaders of the time are painted with elaborate
+show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English
+writers of Queen Anne&rsquo;s reign seem to have been but little known
+in the colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat
+in character, showed but scant improvement. About the middle
+of the century restrictions upon the press began to disappear.
+At the same time questions of trade, of local politics, finally
+of colonial autonomy, of imperial policy, had gradually, but
+already long since, replaced theology in leading interest. In
+the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most frequently recurring
+and most important name in British colonial history. Sentiments
+of limited independence of the British government had
+been developing since the very beginning of the settlement
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>), and their strength in 1689 had been
+strikingly exhibited in the local revolution of that year, when
+the royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros, and other high officials,
+were frightened into surrender and were imprisoned. This
+movement, it should be noted, was a popular rising, and not the
+work of a few leaders.</p>
+
+<p>The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence
+need barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures
+of the British government for taxing and oppressing the colonies
+began in Boston. The argument of Otis on the writs of assistance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page296" id="page296"></a>296</span>
+was in 1760-1761. The Stamp Act, passed in 1765, was repealed
+in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a surprising show of
+determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were first
+quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March,
+in a street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded
+by the soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry.
+This incident is known as the &ldquo;Boston Massacre.&rdquo; The Tea Act
+of 1773 was defied by the emptying into the harbour of three
+cargoes of tea on the 16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens
+disguised as Indians, after the people in town-meeting had
+exhausted every effort, through a period of weeks, to procure the
+return of the tea-ships to England. To this act Great Britain
+replied by various penal regulations and reconstructive acts of
+government. She quartered troops in Boston; she made the
+juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the royal
+officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia
+or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to
+abolish town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called &ldquo;Boston
+Port Bill,&rdquo; she closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774.
+Not even a ferry, a scow or other boat could move in the harbour.
+Marblehead and Salem were made ports of entry, and Salem was
+made the capital. But they would not profit by Boston&rsquo;s
+misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British goods and
+to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours
+and from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement.
+In October 1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the
+Massachusetts general court at Salem, the members adjourned to
+Concord as the first provincial congress. Finally came war,
+with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and beleaguerment by the
+colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the British
+were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With
+them went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest
+families of the city and province. The evacuation closed the
+heroic period of Boston&rsquo;s history. War did not again approach
+the city.</p>
+
+<p>The years from 1776 to the end of &ldquo;town&rdquo; government in
+1822 were marked by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce
+and manufactures alike took great impetus. Direct trade with
+the East Indies began about 1785, with Russia in 1787. A
+Boston vessel, the &ldquo;Columbia&rdquo; (Captain Robert Gray), opened
+trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first
+American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In
+1805 Boston began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which
+was gradually extended to Cuba, to ports of the southern states,
+and finally to Rio de Janeiro and Calcutta (1833), declining
+only after the Civil War; it enabled Boston to control the
+American trade of Calcutta against New York throughout the
+entire period. But of course it was far less important than
+various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of commerce.
+It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the
+embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson.
+In manufactures the foundation was laid of the city&rsquo;s wealth.
+In politics the period is characterized by Boston&rsquo;s connexion
+with the fortunes of the Federalist party. The city was warmly
+in favour of the adoption of the federal constitution of 1787;
+even Samuel Adams was rejected for Congress because he was
+backward in its support. It was the losses entailed upon her
+commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson&rsquo;s administration
+that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican
+party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition
+to its policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War
+of 1812, and in the Hartford Convention of 1814.</p>
+
+<p>Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement.
+Unitarian tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old
+Congregational churches were plainly evident about 1750, and it
+is said by Andrew P. Peabody (1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly
+all the Congregational pulpits around Boston were filled by
+Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates from 1785.
+In 1782 King&rsquo;s chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in
+1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard.
+But the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of
+Channing, was very different from that of to-day. Theodore
+Parker and Channing have been the greatest leaders. The
+American Unitarian Association, organized in 1825, has always
+retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological and
+philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th
+century were characterized by the transcendental movement
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massachusetts</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the
+most striking feature of Boston&rsquo;s annals. Garrison established
+the Liberator in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the
+cause of abolition in 1835, and Wendell Phillips a little later.
+In 1835 a mob, composed in part of wealthy and high-standing
+citizens, attacked a city-building, and dragged Garrison through
+the streets until the mayor secured his safety by putting him
+in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given
+in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader,
+George Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians
+in 1835 precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court
+House was surrounded with chains to prevent the &ldquo;rescue&rdquo;
+of a slave (Sims) held for rendition under the Fugitive Slave
+Law; another slave (Shadrach) was released this same year,
+and in 1854 there was a riot and intense excitement over the
+rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since taken
+her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the
+rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as
+in the years before the War of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Later events of importance have already been indicated in
+essentials. On the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire
+swept the business part of the city, destroying hundreds of buildings
+of brick and granite, and inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000.
+Within two years the whole area, solidly rebuilt and with widened
+and straightened streets, showed no traces of the ruin except an
+appearance superior in all respects to that presented before the
+fire. The expense of this re-creation probably duplicated, at
+least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time there has
+been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not upon
+material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration.
+It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions,
+its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre
+of American culture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See the annual <i>City Documents</i>; also Justin
+Winsor (ed.) <i>The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk
+County ... 1630-1880</i> (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that
+covers every phase of the city&rsquo;s growth, history and life;
+S.A. Drake, <i>The History and Antiquities of ... Boston</i> (2 vols.,
+Boston, 1854; and later editions),
+and <i>Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston</i> (Boston, 1873, and later editions);
+Josiah Quincy, <i>A Municipal History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830</i> (Boston, 1852);
+C.W. Ernst, <i>Constitutional History of Boston</i> (Boston, 1894);
+H.H. Sprague, <i>City Government in Boston&mdash;its Rise and Development</i> (Boston, 1890);
+E.E. Hale, <i>Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood</i> (New York, 1898),
+and L. Swift, <i>Literary Landmarks of Boston</i> (Boston, 1903).
+A great mass of original historical documents have been
+published by the registry department of the city government since
+1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston has been described in many works of
+fiction, and the reader may be referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner,
+to L. Maria Childs&rsquo; <i>The Rebels</i>,
+to J.F. Cooper&rsquo;s <i>Lionel Lincoln</i>,
+to the early novels of W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates),
+to O.W. Holmes&rsquo; <i>Poet</i> and <i>Autocrat</i>,
+and Hawthorne&rsquo;s <i>Scarlet Letter</i>, as pictures of Boston life
+at various periods since early colonial days.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended
+from 1822 to 1880.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable
+Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of
+the country, organized in 1638.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft.,
+only 750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to
+rock. The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock,
+sand or mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected
+with the reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m.
+covered masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for
+the near future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons,
+reservoirs holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts
+capable of carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily
+supply of 173,000,000 gallons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that
+city&rsquo;s seals, framed in oak from St Botolph&rsquo;s church, of which John
+Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been
+vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of
+Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett,
+and also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west
+chapel of St Botolph&rsquo;s church, and to erect in it a memorial
+tablet to Cotton&rsquo;s memory. The total amount raised by subscription
+for this purpose was £673.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTON,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a game of cards invented during the last quarter
+of the 18th century. It is said to have originated in Boston,
+Massachusetts, during the siege by the British. It seems to have
+been invented by the officers of the French fleet which lay for a
+time off the town of Marblehead, and the name of the two small
+islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from the period of the
+American Revolution, been called Great and Little Misery,
+correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor,
+in his <i>Letters on the Eastern States</i>, published in 1821,
+states somewhat differently that &ldquo;A game of cards was invented in
+Versailles and called in honour of the town, Boston; the points of
+the game are allusive, &lsquo;great independence,&rsquo; &lsquo;little independence,&rsquo;
+&rsquo;great misery,&rsquo; &lsquo;little misery,&rsquo; &amp;c. It is composed partly
+of whist and partly of quadrille, though partaking mostly of the
+former.&rdquo; The game enjoyed an extraordinary vogue in high
+French society, where it was the fashion at that time to admire
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page297" id="page297"></a>297</span>
+all things American. &ldquo;The ladies... filled my pockets with
+bon-bons, and ... called me &lsquo;<i>le pétit Bostonien.</i>&rsquo; It was indeed
+by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in
+France then. The war having broken out in Boston and the
+first great battle fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name
+universal celebrity. A game invented at that time, played with
+cards, was called &lsquo;Boston,&rsquo; and is to this day (1830) exceedingly
+fashionable at Paris by that appellation&rdquo; (<i>Recollections of Samuel
+Breck</i>, Philadelphia, 1877). There was a tradition that Dr
+Franklin was fond of the game and even that he had a hand in
+its invention. At the middle of the 19th century it was still
+popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its favour
+has steadily declined since then.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ
+somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former,
+two packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting
+and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no
+partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values,
+and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first
+pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for
+the trump, the suit of the card turned being &ldquo;first preference,&rdquo; the
+other suit of the same colour &ldquo;second preference&rdquo; or &ldquo;colour,&rdquo;
+while the two remaining suits are &ldquo;plain suits.&rdquo; The eldest hand
+then announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided
+he may name the trump, or lose a certain number without
+trumps. The different bids are called by various names, but the
+usual ones are as follows:&mdash;To win five tricks, &ldquo;Boston.&rdquo; (To win)
+&ldquo;six tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;seven tricks.&rdquo; To lose twelve tricks, after
+discarding one card that is not shown, &ldquo;little <i>misère</i>.&rdquo; (To win)
+&ldquo;eight tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;nine tricks.&rdquo; To lose every trick,
+&ldquo;grand <i>misère</i>.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;ten tricks.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;eleven tricks.&rdquo;
+To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card that is not shown,
+the remaining twelve cards being exposed on the table but not liable
+to be called, &ldquo;little spread.&rdquo; (To win) &ldquo;twelve tricks.&rdquo; To lose
+every trick with exposed cards, &ldquo;grand spread.&rdquo; To win thirteen
+tricks, &ldquo;grand slam.&rdquo; If a player does not care to bid he may pass,
+and the next player bids. Succeeding players may &ldquo;overcall,&rdquo; <i>i.e</i>.
+overbid, previous bidders. Players passing may thereafter bid only
+&ldquo;<i>misères</i>.&rdquo; If a player bids seven but makes ten he is paid for the
+three extra tricks, but on a lower scale than if he had bid ten. If
+no bid should be made, a &ldquo;<i>misère partout</i>&rdquo; (general poverty) is
+often played, the trump being turned down and each player striving
+to take as few tricks as possible. Payments are made by each loser
+according to the value of the winner&rsquo;s bid and the overtricks he has
+scored. There are regular tables of payments. In America overtricks
+are not usually paid for. In French Boston the knave of
+diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other cards, even trumps. The
+names of the different bids remind one of the period of the American
+Revolution, including &ldquo;Independence,&rdquo; &ldquo;Philadelphia,&rdquo; &ldquo;Souveraine,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Concordia,&rdquo; &amp;c. Other variations of the game are <i>Boston
+de Fontainebleau</i> and Russian Boston.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTONITE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey
+or pinkish rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar
+(orthoclase, microperthite, &amp;c.). Some of them contain a small
+amount of interstitial quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a
+small percentage of lime, which occasions the presence of a
+plagioclase felspar (maenite, gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other
+minerals, except apatite, zircon and magnetite, are typically
+absent. They have very much the same composition as the
+trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been grouped
+with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as
+dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite;
+and they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain
+types of lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite.
+Though nowhere very common they have a wide distribution,
+being known from Scotland, Wales, Massachusetts, Montreal,
+Portugal, Bohemia, &amp;c. The lindoites and quartz-lindoites of
+Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSTRÖM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1797-1866), Swedish
+philosopher, was born at Piteå and studied at Upsala, where
+from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of practical philosophy.
+His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a thoroughgoing
+rational idealism founded on the principle that the only true
+reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence
+is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space.
+Thus Boström protests not only against empiricism but also
+against those doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to
+him to picture God as something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics
+the highest aim is the direction of actions by reason in harmony
+with the Divine; so the state, like the individual, exists solely in
+God, and in its most perfect form consists in the harmonious
+obedience of all its members to a constitutional monarch; the
+perfection of mankind as a whole is to be sought in a rational
+orderly system of such states in obedience to Universal Reason.
+This system differs from Platonism in that the &ldquo;ideas&rdquo; of God
+are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Boström&rsquo;s writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala,
+1883). For his school see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>Literature</i>; also H. Höffding,
+<i>Filosofien i Sverig</i> (German trans. in <i>Philos. Monatsheften</i>, 1879), and
+<i>History of Mod. Philos.</i> (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg,
+<i>Hist. of Phil.</i> (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, <i>Om den Boströmske
+filosofien</i> (Lund, 1883), and <i>Karakteristik af den Boströmska
+filosofien</i> (Lund, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSWELL, JAMES<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the
+biographer of Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the
+29th of October 1740. His grandfather was in good practice at
+the Scottish bar, and his father, Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck,
+was also a noted advocate, who, on his elevation to the supreme
+court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire property as Lord
+Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful evidence to
+have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was killed at
+Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its
+position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots
+nobility. In contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian
+Whig, James was &ldquo;a fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed
+for King James until his uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to
+pray for King George, which he accordingly did&rdquo; (&ldquo;Whigs of all
+ages are made in the same way&rdquo; was Johnson&rsquo;s comment).
+He met one or two English boys, and acquired a &ldquo;tincture of
+polite letters&rdquo; at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L.
+Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors
+at the Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father.
+At the university, where he was constrained for a season to study
+civil law, he met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and
+correspondent. The letters of Boswell to his &ldquo;Atticus&rdquo; were
+first published by Bentley in 1857. One winter he spent at
+Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who was then lecturing
+on moral philosophy and rhetoric.</p>
+
+<p>In 1760 he was first brought into contact with &ldquo;the elegance,
+the refinement and the liberality&rdquo; of London society, for which
+he had long sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to
+Newmarket and introduced him into the society of &ldquo;the great,
+the gay and the ingenious.&rdquo; He wrote a poem called &ldquo;The Cub
+at Newmarket,&rdquo; published by Dodsley in 1762, and had visions
+of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by his
+father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived
+to alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing
+his acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the
+northern capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume
+and Sir David Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the
+Northern Circuit he kept a brief journal. Boswell had already
+realized his vocation, the exercise of which was to give a new
+word to the language. He had begun to Boswellize. He was
+already on the track of bigger game&mdash;the biggest available in the
+Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came to a
+composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit
+of a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition
+that his father would allow him to study civil law on the
+continent. He set out in April 1763 by &ldquo;the best road in Scotland&rdquo;
+with a servant, on horseback like himself, in &ldquo;a cocked
+hat, a brown wig, brown coat made in the court fashion, red vest,
+corduroy small clothes and long military boots.&rdquo; On Monday,
+the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies the bookseller,
+No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first
+met &ldquo;Dictionary Johnson,&rdquo; the great man of his dreams, and
+was severely buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday,
+the 24th of May, Boswell boldly called on Mr Johnson at his
+chambers on the first floor of No. 1 Inner Temple Lane. On
+this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the 13th of June
+he said, &ldquo;Come to me as often as you can&rdquo;; on the 25th of June
+Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and
+Johnson exclaimed with warmth, &ldquo;Give me your hand; I have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page298" id="page298"></a>298</span>
+taken a liking to you.&rdquo; Boswell experienced a variety of
+sensations, among which exultation was predominant. Some one
+asked, &ldquo;Who is this Scotch cur at Johnson&rsquo;s heels?&rdquo; &ldquo;He is
+not a cur,&rdquo; replied Goldsmith, &ldquo;he is only a bur. Tom Davies
+flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of
+sticking.&rdquo; Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell
+twenty-three. After June 1763 they met on something like 270
+subsequent days. These meetings formed the memorable part
+of Boswell&rsquo;s life, and they are told inimitably in his famous
+biography of his friend.</p>
+
+<p>The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies,
+and one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole
+banquet of letters, was not so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately
+maintained. Boswell&rsquo;s freshness at the table of
+conversation gave a new zest to every maxim that Johnson
+enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for interpreting
+the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so
+unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding
+the task-work of life. Johnson&rsquo;s favourite indulgence was to
+talk; Boswell&rsquo;s great idea of success to elicit memorable conversation.
+Boswell is almost equally admirable as a reporter
+and as an interviewer, as a collector and as a researcher. He
+prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared topics for him, he
+drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a copy of his
+famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost
+verbatim report of Johnson&rsquo;s interview with the king, he frequented
+the tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old
+scholar on lengthy peregrinations in the Highlands and in the
+midlands. &ldquo;Sir,&rdquo; said Johnson to his follower, &ldquo;you appear to
+have only two subjects, yourself and me, and I am sick of both.&rdquo;
+Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset, and admirable
+as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far too
+volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that
+was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and
+notoriety. He would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol
+Wilkes, or Chatham, or Voltaire, or even the great Frederick
+himself. As it was, during his continental tour he managed in
+the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with Pasquale di Paoli, the
+leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise struggle against
+Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to London in
+February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost
+cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he
+was now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his
+return to the law by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled <i>The
+Essence of the Douglas Cause</i> (November 1767), in which he
+vigorously repelled the charge of imposture from the youthful
+claimant. In the same year he issued a little book called <i>Dorando</i>,
+containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise of a Spanish
+tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph of
+Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published
+extracts while the case was still <i>sub judice</i> were censured severely
+by the court of session; but though his identity was notorious
+the author himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768
+Boswell published through the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his
+<i>Account of Corsica, Journal of a Tour to that Island, and Memoirs
+of Pascal Paoli</i>. The liveliness of personal impression which he
+managed to communicate to all his books gained for this one a
+deserved success, and the <i>Tour</i> was promptly translated into
+French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others,
+jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli
+Boswell or Paoli&rsquo;s Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of
+identifying him at the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the
+trouble to insert a placard in his hat bearing the legend &ldquo;Corsica
+Boswell.&rdquo; The amazing costume of &ldquo;a Corsican chief&rdquo; which he
+wore on this occasion was described at length in the magazines.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland
+undertaken to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson&rsquo;s emphatic
+direction), Boswell married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at
+Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some years henceforth his visits to
+London were brief, but on the 30th of April 1773 he was present
+at his admission to the Literary Club, for which honour he had
+been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn of this
+year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited the
+Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell&rsquo;s father nor his wife
+shared his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck
+remarked that Jamie was &ldquo;gane clean gyte ... And whose tail
+do ye think he has pinned himself to now, man? A dominie,
+an auld dominie, that keepit a schule and ca&rsquo;d it an academy!&rdquo;
+Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might have objected to
+Johnson&rsquo;s habit of turning lighted candles upside down when in the
+parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a
+bear. Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides</i> was written for
+the most part during the journey, but was not published until
+the spring of 1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the
+public, and Boswell&rsquo;s indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in
+him by the neat ladies&rsquo; maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of
+drunkenness which he exhibited at Corrichatachin, created a
+literary sensation and sent the <i>Tour</i> through three editions in one
+year. In the meantime his pecuniary and other difficulties at
+home were great; he made hardly more than £100 a year by his
+profession, and his relations with his father were chronically
+strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple and
+managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John
+Wilkes he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous
+dinner at Dilly&rsquo;s on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August
+1782 his father died, leaving him an estate worth £1600 a year.
+On the 30th of June 1784, Boswell met Johnson for the last time at
+a dinner at Sir Joshua Reynolds&rsquo;s. He accompanied him back in
+the coach from Leicester Square to Bolt Court. &ldquo;We bade adieu
+to each other affectionately in the carriage. When he had got
+down upon the foot pavement he called out &lsquo;Fare you well&rsquo;;
+and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of pathetic
+briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to indicate
+a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a foreboding
+of our long, long separation.&rdquo; Johnson died that year,
+and two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs
+Boswell died, leaving five children. She had been an excellent
+mother and a good wife, despite the infidelities and drunkenness
+of her husband, and from her death Boswell relapsed into worse
+excesses, grievously aggravated by hypochondria. He died of a
+complication of disorders at his house in Great Poland Street
+on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight later at
+Auchinleck.</p>
+
+<p>Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his
+magnum opus, <i>The Life of Samuel Johnson</i>, which was in process
+of crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in
+two quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May
+1791. He was preparing a third edition when he died; this was
+completed by his friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth
+edition in 1807. That of James Boswell junior (the editor of
+Malone&rsquo;s <i>Variorum Shakespeare</i>, 1821) appeared in 1811.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Life of Johnson</i> was written on a scale practically unknown
+to biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the
+blotches and pimples revealed (&ldquo;I will not make my tiger a cat
+to please anybody,&rdquo; wrote &ldquo;Bozzy&rdquo;). It may be overmuch an
+exhibition of oddities, but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer
+application of the experimental method to the determination of
+human character. Its size and lack of divisions (to divide it
+into chapters was an original device of Croker&rsquo;s) are a drawback,
+and have prevented Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> from that assured
+triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various English
+classics such as <i>Robinson Crusoe</i> or <i>Gulliver&rsquo;s Travels</i>. But
+wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred
+book and has pervaded English life and thought in the same way,
+that the Bible, Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell
+has successfully (to use his own phrase) &ldquo;Johnsonized&rdquo; Britain,
+but has not yet Johnsonized the planet. The model originally
+proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason&rsquo;s <i>Life of Gray</i>, but
+he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model. The fashion
+that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the
+neutral tints of <i>oratio obliqua</i> but in full <i>oratio recta</i> was a stroke of
+genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical transmitter
+of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of
+the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page299" id="page299"></a>299</span>
+a certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell
+exaggerates the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson
+for some of his own tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the
+best judges are of opinion that Boswell&rsquo;s accuracy is exceptional,
+as it is undoubtedly seconded by a power of observation of a
+singular retentiveness and intensity. The difficulty of dramatic
+description can only be realized, as Jowett well pointed out, by
+those who have attempted it, and it is not until we compare
+Boswell&rsquo;s reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can
+appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation
+is extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling
+touches. The result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early
+days of his poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature,
+but in the fulness of fame and competence of fortune from 1763
+to 1784, is better known to us than any other man in history.
+The old theory to explain such a marvel (originally propounded
+by Gray when the <i>Tour in Corsica</i> appeared) that &ldquo;any fool may
+write a valuable book by chance&rdquo; is now regarded as untenable.
+If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his folly was at times
+transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not in despite
+of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact, that
+he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his opportunities
+just as he prepared his transitions and introduced
+those inimitable glosses by which Johnson&rsquo;s motives are explained,
+his state of mind upon particular occasions indicated,
+and the general feeling of his company conveyed. This remarkable
+literary faculty, however, was but a fraction of the total
+make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece as the <i>Life</i>.
+There is a touch of genius, too, in the naïf and imperturbable
+good nature and persistency (&ldquo;Sir, I will not be baited with
+&rsquo;what&rsquo; and &lsquo;why.&rsquo; &lsquo;Why is a cow&rsquo;s tail long?&rsquo; &lsquo;Why is a
+fox&rsquo;s tail bushy?&rsquo;&rdquo;), and even in the abnegation of all personal
+dignity, with which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself
+said of Goldsmith, &ldquo;He had sagacity enough to cultivate
+assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson, and his faculties
+were gradually enlarged.&rdquo; Character, the vital principle of the
+individual, is the <i>ignis fatuus</i> of the mechanical biographer.
+Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means&mdash;witness
+Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude&mdash;but it has
+never been attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell
+in his <i>Life of Johnson</i>. The more we study Boswell, the more
+we compare him with other biographers, the greater his work
+appears.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The eleventh edition of Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Johnson</i> was brought out by
+John Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded
+by numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep
+in annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and
+mutually corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value
+as an unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before
+the last links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been
+adequately recognized. A new edition of the original text was
+issued in 1874 by Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful
+life of James Boswell in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition,
+including the <i>Tour</i> and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev.
+Alexander Napier in 1884; the definitive edition is that by Dr
+Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887, with copious annotations and a
+model index. A generously illustrated edition was completed in
+1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen, and reprints of value
+have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with woodcuts), A. Birrell,
+Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin Dobson. A short
+biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith Leask.
+Boswell&rsquo;s commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the title
+of <i>Boswelliana</i>, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. Se.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOSWORTH, JOSEPH<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon
+scholar, was born in Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton,
+whence he proceeded to Aberdeen University, he became in 1817
+vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire, and devoted his spare
+time to literature and particularly to the study of Anglo-Saxon.
+In 1823 appeared his <i>Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar</i>. In
+1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam
+and then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840,
+working there on his <i>Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language</i>
+(1838), his best-known work. In 1857 he became rector of Water
+Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and in the following year was
+appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford. He
+gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 £10,000 for the
+establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the
+27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on
+the Anglo-Saxon charters.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTANY<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="botanae">&#946;&#959;&#964;&#940;&#957;&#951;</span>, plant; <span class="grk" title="boskein">&#946;&#972;&#963;&#954;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to graze), the
+science which includes everything relating to the vegetable
+kingdom, whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a
+consideration of the external forms of plants&mdash;of their anatomical
+structure, however minute&mdash;of the functions which they perform&mdash;of
+their arrangement and classification&mdash;of their distribution
+over the globe at the present and at former epochs&mdash;and of the
+uses to which they are subservient. It examines the plant in its
+earliest state of development, and follows it through all its stages
+of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a comprehensive
+view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the minutest
+organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the most
+gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which
+subsist between all members of the plant world, including those
+between existing groups and those which are known only from
+their fossilized remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here
+with the history and evolution of the science.</p>
+
+<p>The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries
+must necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from
+the earliest times. The science that treats of them dates back
+to the days of Solomon, who &ldquo;spake of trees, from the cedar of
+Lebanon to the hyssop on the wall.&rdquo; The Chaldaeans, Egyptians
+and Greeks were the early cultivators of science, and botany was
+not neglected, although the study of it was mixed up with crude
+speculations as to vegetable life, and as to the change of plants
+into animals. About 300 years before Christ Theophrastus
+wrote a <i>History of Plants</i>, and described about 500 species used
+for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer, who
+appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work
+on Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand
+plants, many of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic
+and Arabian writers also took up this subject. Little, however,
+was done in the science of botany, properly so called, until the
+16th century of the Christian era, when the revival of learning
+dispelled the darkness which had long hung over Europe.
+Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as the
+restorer of the science in Europe. In his <i>Herbarium</i>, printed at
+Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number
+of plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful
+woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,&mdash;Leonhard Fuchs,
+whose <i>Historia Stirpium</i> (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note
+for its excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose <i>Kreutter
+Buch</i> appeared in 1539; and William Turner, &ldquo;The Father of
+English Botany,&rdquo; the first part of whose <i>New Herbal</i>, printed in
+English, was issued in 1551. The descriptions in these early
+works were encumbered with much medicinal detail, including
+speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which were
+strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first little
+attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on
+the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was
+gradually evolved, and is well illustrated in the <i>Herbal</i>, issued
+in 1597 by John Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who
+had a garden in Holborn, and was a keen student of British
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of
+plants was made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603),
+who is called by Linnaeus <i>primus verus systematicus</i>.
+In his work <i>De Plantis</i>, published at Florence in 1583, he distributed
+the 1520 plants then known into fifteen classes, the
+distinguishing characters being taken from the fruit.</p>
+
+<p>John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of
+botany, and was also a good zoologist. He promulgated a
+system which may be considered as the dawn of the &ldquo;natural
+system&rdquo; of the present day (Ray, <i>Methodus Plantarum</i>, 1682).
+He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and divided the
+former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or
+&ldquo;classes&rdquo;) were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the
+affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in
+his enlightened views of arrangement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page300" id="page300"></a>300</span></p>
+
+<p>About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (1620-1683), the
+first professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic
+arrangement of plants, largely on the lines previously suggested
+by Caesalpinus. He divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing
+plants according as they were woody or herbaceous,
+and taking into account the nature of the flowers and fruit. In
+1690 Rivinus<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> promulgated a classification founded chiefly on
+the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (1656-1708), who
+about the same time took up the subject of vegetable taxonomy,
+was long at the head of the French school of botany, and published
+a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about
+8000 species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two
+classes, chiefly according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing
+herbs and under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on
+the other. The system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted
+on the continent, but was ultimately displaced by that of Carl
+von Linné, or Linnaeus (<i>q.v.</i>; 1707-1778).</p>
+
+<p>The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived
+from the stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the
+flower, and hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an
+artificial method, because it takes into account only a few marked
+characters in plants, and does not propose to unite them by
+natural affinities. It is an index to a department of the book of
+nature, and as such is useful to the student. It does not aspire
+to any higher character, and although it cannot be looked upon
+as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it has a certain
+facility of application which at once commended it. It does not
+of itself give the student a view of the true relations of plants,
+and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is only
+a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself
+claimed nothing higher for it. He says&mdash;&ldquo;Methodi Naturalis
+fragmenta studiose inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc
+in botanicis desideratum est. Natura non facit saltus. Plantae
+omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant, uti territorium in mappa
+geographica.&rdquo; Accordingly, besides his artificial index, he
+also promulgated fragments of a natural method of arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James
+Edward Smith (1759-1828), who adopted it in his <i>English Flora</i>,
+and who also became possessor of the Linnean collection. The
+system was for a long time the only one taught in the schools of
+Britain, even after it had been discarded by those in France and
+in other continental countries.</p>
+
+<p>The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th
+centuries did much in the way of advancing botany. They were
+at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal
+plants. This was especially the case at universities, where
+medical schools existed. The first botanic garden was established
+at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of Pisa. The garden
+at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579. Gardens
+also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier
+garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg
+in 1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin
+des Plantes at Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala
+garden in 1627. The botanic garden at Oxford was founded in
+1632. The garden at Edinburgh was founded by Sir Andrew
+Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and, under the name of
+the Physic Garden, was placed under the superintendence of
+James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in the university.
+The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when
+Frederick, prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House
+and its gardens from the Capel family. After his death in 1751
+his widow, Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha, showed great
+interest in their scientific development, and in 1759 engaged
+William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden of the
+Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796;
+that of Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow
+in 1818. The Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of
+Coimbra from 1773. Jean Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician
+and botanist, states that at the end of the 18th century there were
+1600 botanic gardens in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of
+Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de
+Jussieu, had adopted the principles of Linnaeus&rsquo;s <i>Fragmenta</i> in
+his arrangement of the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon.
+At an early age Antoine became botanical demonstrator in the
+Jardin des Plantes, and was thus led to devote his time to the
+science of botany. Being called upon to arrange the plants in the
+garden, he necessarily had to consider the best method of doing
+so, and, following the lines already suggested by his uncle,
+adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray, in
+which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted
+the simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the
+natural affinities of plants. His <i>Genera Plantarum</i>, begun in
+1778, and finally published in 1789, was an important advance,
+and formed the basis of all natural classifications. One of the
+early supporters of this natural method was Augustin Pyramus
+de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813 published his <i>Théorie
+élémentaire de la botanique</i>, in which he showed that the affinities
+of plants are to be sought by the comparative study of the form
+and development of organs (morphology), not of their functions
+(physiology). His <i>Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis</i>
+was intended to embrace an arrangement and description
+of all known plants. The work was continued after his death,
+by his son Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent
+botanists, and embraces descriptions of the genera and species
+of the orders of Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by
+de Candolle is a modification of that of Jussieu.</p>
+
+<p>In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require
+to have a thorough knowledge of structural and morphological
+botany, and hence we find that the advances made in these
+departments have materially aided the efforts of systematic
+botanists.</p>
+
+<p>Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to
+support and advocate the natural system of classification. The
+publication of his <i>Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae</i> (in 1810),
+according to the natural method, led the way to the adoption
+of that method in the universities and schools of Britain. In
+1827 Brown announced his important discovery of the distinction
+between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the philosophical
+character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him as
+&ldquo;Botanicorum facile princeps.&rdquo; In 1830 John Lindley published
+the first edition of his <i>Introduction to the Natural System</i>, embodying
+a slight modification of de Candolle&rsquo;s system. From the
+year 1832 up to 1859 great advances were made in systematic
+botany, both in Britain and on the continent of Europe. The
+<i>Enchiridion</i> and <i>Genera Plantarum</i> of S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849),
+the <i>Prodromus</i> of de Candolle, and the <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>
+(1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic botany,
+according to the natural system.</p>
+
+<p>The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned
+with the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with
+the higher or flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development
+of the compound microscope rendered possible the accurate
+study of their life-histories; and the publication in 1851 of the
+results of Wilhelm Hofmeister&rsquo;s researches on the comparative
+embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed a flood of light on
+their relationships to each other and to the higher plants, and
+supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups Thallophyta,
+Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last
+named including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.</p>
+
+<p>A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are
+frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has
+been much used in Great Britain and in America, is that of
+Bentham and Hooker, whose <i>Genera Plantarum</i> (1862-1883) is
+a descriptive account of all the genera of flowering plants, based
+on their careful examination. The arrangement is a modification
+of that adopted by the de Candolles. Another system differing
+somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler (Berlin, 1883), a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page301" id="page301"></a>301</span>
+modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf Engler of
+Berlin, the principal editor of <i>Die natrürliche Pflanzenfamilien</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not
+keep pace with the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew
+and his contemporary Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers
+in the department of plant anatomy. Both authors laid
+an account of the results of their study of plant structure before
+the Royal Society of London almost at the same time in 1671.
+Malpighi&rsquo;s complete work, <i>Anatome Plantarum</i>, appeared in 1675
+and Grew&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy of Plants</i> in 1682. For more than a hundred
+years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802
+appeared the <i>Traité d&rsquo;anatomie et de physiologie végétale</i> of C.F.B.
+de Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other
+publications by Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864),
+and others. In 1812 J.J. P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by
+maceration of tissues in water. The work of F.J.F. Meyen
+and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century placed the
+study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference
+must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger
+(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nägeli&rsquo;s investigations on
+molecular structure and the growth of the cell membrane we
+recognize the origin of modern methods of the study of cell-structure
+included under cytology (<i>q.v.</i>). The work of Karl
+Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the structure and
+development of tissues, while A. de Bary&rsquo;s <i>Comparative Anatomy
+of the Phanerogams and Ferns</i> (1877) supplied an admirable
+presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work
+has been carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and
+others, who have sought to correlate the large mass of facts
+and to find some general underlying principles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>:
+<i>Anatomy of</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The subject of fertilization was one which early excited
+attention. The idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants
+was entertained in early times, long before separate male and
+female organs had been demonstrated. The production of dates
+in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of flowers into contact, proves
+that in very remote periods some notions were entertained on
+the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated, and wild
+ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them.
+Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that
+there were male and female date-trees, and that the female
+required the concurrence of the male to become fertile. This
+fact was also known to the Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other
+nations of Asia and Africa. The Babylonians suspended male
+clusters from wild dates over the females; but they seem to have
+supposed that the fertility thus produced depended on the
+presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by entering
+the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process
+was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle
+in his school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the
+sexes of plants, but he does not appear to have determined the
+organs of reproduction. Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian,
+speaks particularly of a male and female palm, but his statements
+were not founded on any real knowledge of the organs. From
+Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome in 1603,
+there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the
+reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention
+directed to the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation
+from the male plants causing fertility in the female.</p>
+
+<p>Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a
+paper on the <i>Anatomy of Plants</i>, read before the Royal Society
+in November 1676, the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up
+to this period all was vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the
+<i>attire</i>, or the stamens, as being the male parts, and refers to
+conversations with Sir Thomas Millington, Sedleian professor at
+Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory seems really to
+belong. Grew says that &ldquo;when the attire or apices break or
+open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus,
+and touches it with a prolific virtue.&rdquo; Ray adopted Grew&rsquo;s
+views, and states various arguments to prove their correctness
+in the preface to his work on European plants, published in 1694.
+In 1694 R.J. Camerarius, professor of botany and medicine at
+Tübingen, published a letter on the sexes of plants, in which he
+refers to the stamens and pistils as the organs of reproduction,
+and states the difficulties he had encountered in determining
+the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland,
+in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina
+(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be
+conveyed into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific.
+In this remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the
+discoveries afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly
+the peculiar views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711
+E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir presented to the Royal Academy at
+Paris, supported the views of Grew and others as to the sexes
+of plants. He states that the germ is never to be seen in the
+seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if the
+stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either
+not ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments
+made by him to prove this&mdash;one by cutting off the staminal
+flowers in Maize, and the other by rearing the female plant of
+Mercurialis apart from the male. In these instances most of the
+flowers were abortive, but a few were fertile, which he attributes
+to the dust of the apices having been wafted by the wind from
+other plants.</p>
+
+<p>Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual
+system. He first published his views in 1736, and he thus
+writes&mdash;&ldquo;Antheras et stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a
+palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio, Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo,
+Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio, Bradleyo, Royeno,
+Logano, &amp;c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili assumptum;
+nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae
+flores, latere potest.&rdquo; He divided plants into sexual and asexual,
+the former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter
+Cryptogamous or flowerless. In the latter division of plants he
+could not detect stamens and pistils, and he did not investigate
+the mode in which their germs were produced. He was no
+physiologist, and did not promulgate any views as to the embryogenic
+process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the
+arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive
+botany made great advances the physiological department of the
+science was neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at
+once by all, for we find Charles Alston stating arguments against
+them in his <i>Dissertation on the Sexes of Plants</i>. Alston&rsquo;s observations
+were founded on what occurred in certain unisexual plants,
+such as Mercurialis, Spinach, Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The
+conclusion at which he arrives is that the pollen is not in all
+flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for fertile seeds can
+be produced without its influence. He supports parthenogenesis
+in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of Linnaeus&rsquo;s
+method of classification, the attention of botanists was directed
+to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of
+Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses
+made its appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point
+out the existence of certain cellular bodies in these plants which
+appeared to perform the functions of reproductive organs, and
+to them the names of antheridia and pistillidia were given. This
+opened up a new field of research, and led the way in the study of
+Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since been much advanced
+by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The interesting
+observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been
+neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he
+had pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know
+that the scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application
+to the stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect
+seed, but the stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored.
+The matter seemed involved in mystery, and no one
+attempted to raise the veil which hung over the subject of
+embryogeny. The general view was, that the embryo originated
+in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner fertilized by the
+pollen.</p>
+
+<p>In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused
+the attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but
+although he made valuable researches, he did not add much in
+the way of new information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page302" id="page302"></a>302</span>
+existence of pollen tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart
+and R. Brown. The latter traced the tubes as far as the nucleus
+of the ovule. These important discoveries mark a new epoch in
+embryology, and may be said to be the foundation of the views
+now entertained, which were materially aided by the subsequent
+elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or cell-development,
+by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole subject of
+fertilization and development of the embryo has been more
+recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards
+both cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must
+be sought in the various special articles. The observations of
+Darwin as to the fertilization of orchids, <i>Primula, Linum</i> and
+<i>Lythrum</i>, and other plants, and the part which insects take in
+this function, gave an explanation of the observations of Christian
+Konrad Sprengel, made at the close of the 18th century, and
+opened up a new phase in the study of botany, which has been
+followed by Hermann Müller, Federico Delpino and others,
+and more recently by Paul Knuth.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen
+Hales. In his <i>Statical Essays</i> (1727) he gave an account of
+numerous experiments and observations which he had made on
+the nutrition of plants and the movement of sap in them. He
+showed that the gaseous constituents of the air contribute
+largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves are the
+organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in
+nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short
+account of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical
+work. The birth of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley
+and Lavoisier, at the close of the 18th century, made possible
+the scientific study of plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in
+1779 discovered that plants incessantly give out carbonic acid
+gas, but that the green leaves and shoots only exhale oxygen
+in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby indicating the distinction
+between assimilation of carbonic acid gas (photosynthesis) and
+respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave precision to
+the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative methods.
+The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further
+studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century,
+and Liebig&rsquo;s application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology
+put beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere
+and the soil in the nutrition of plants.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted
+the attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements
+of the leaf of Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature.
+Linnaeus also studied the periodical movements of flowers and
+leaves, and referred to the assumption of the night-position as the
+sleep-movement. Early in the 19th century Andrew Knight
+showed by experiment that the vertical growth of stems and
+roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made other
+observations on the relation between the position assumed by
+plant organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet,
+H. von Mohl and others contributed to the advance of this phase
+of plant physiology. Darwin&rsquo;s experiments in reference to the
+movements of climbing and twining plants, and of leaves in
+insectivorous plants, have opened up a wide field of inquiry as
+to the relation between plants and the various external factors,
+which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of Julius
+Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a
+scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of
+plants, for the development of which reference may be made
+to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>. The study of form and
+development has advanced under the name &ldquo;morphology,&rdquo;
+with the progress of which are associated the names of K.
+Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while more
+recently, as cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate study of the cell and its
+contents has attracted considerable attention.</p>
+
+<p>The department of geographical botany made rapid advance
+by means of the various scientific expeditions which have been
+sent to all quarters of the globe, as well as by individual effort
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Distribution</i>) since the time of A. von Humboldt.
+The question of the mode in which the floras of islands and of
+continents have been formed gave rise to important speculations
+by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles Darwin, Sir J.D.
+Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion between
+climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently
+under the name of &ldquo;Ecology&rdquo; or &ldquo;Oecology&rdquo; the study of
+plants in relation to each other and to their environment has
+become the subject of systematic investigation.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of palaeontological botany (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>)
+has been advanced by the researches of both botanists and
+geologists. The nature of the climate at different epochs of the
+earth&rsquo;s history has also been determined from the character of
+the flora. The works of A.T. Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and
+W.P. Schimper advanced this department of science. Among
+others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may be
+noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the
+Miocene flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta
+(1823-1895), who examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson
+and Leo Lesquereux, and others who reported on the Canadian
+and American fossil plants. In Great Britain also W.C. Williamson,
+by his study of the structure of the plants of the coal-measures,
+opened up a new line of research which has been
+followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and
+others, and has led to important discoveries on the nature of
+extinct groups of plants and also on the phylogeny of existing
+groups.</p>
+
+<p>Botany may be divided into the following departments:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of
+the various parts, including (<i>a</i>) Morphology, the study of the
+general form of the organs and their development&mdash;this will be
+treated in a series of articles dealing with the great subdivisions
+of plants (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angiosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gymnosperms</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteridophyta</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bryophyta</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algae</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lichens</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fungi</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bacteriology</a></span>) and
+the more important organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stem</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Leaf</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Root</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flower</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fruit</a></span>); (<i>b</i>) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including
+minute anatomy or histology (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Anatomy</i>).</p>
+
+<p>2. Cytology (<i>q.v.</i>), the intimate structure and behaviour of the
+cell and its contents&mdash;protoplasm, nucleus, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire
+plant and its organs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>).</p>
+
+<p>4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Classification</i>).</p>
+
+<p>5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of
+the distribution of plants on the earth&rsquo;s surface (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>:
+<i>Distribution</i>).</p>
+
+<p>6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various
+strata of which the earth is composed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Palaeobotany</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each
+other and to their environment (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plants</a></span>: <i>Ecology</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science,
+there are various applications of botany, such as forestry (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forests and Forestry</a></span>), agriculture (<i>q.v.</i>), horticulture (<i>q.v.</i>),
+and materia medica (for use in medicine; see the separate articles
+on each plant).</p>
+<div class="author">(A. B. R.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Morison, <i>Pradudia Botanica</i> (1672); <i>Plantarum Historia
+Universalis</i> (1680).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann,
+<i>Introductio genetatis in Rem Herbariam</i> (Lipsiae, 1690).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Tournefort, <i>Élémens de botanique</i> (1694); <i>Institutiones Rei
+Herbariae</i> (1700).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTANY BAY,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county,
+New South Wales, Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney.
+On its shore is the township of Botany, forming a suburb of
+Sydney, with which it is connected by a tramway. It was first
+visited by Captain Cook in 1770, who landed at a spot marked by
+a monument, and took possession of the territory for the crown.
+The bay received its name from Joseph Banks, the botanist of
+the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora. When, on
+the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict establishments
+in America were no longer available (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">New South Wales</a></span>), the attention of the British government,
+then under the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay;
+and in 1787 Commodore Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form
+a penal settlement there. Finding, on his arrival, however, that
+the locality was ill suited for such a purpose, he removed northwards
+to the site of the present city of Sydney. The name of
+Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy, and continued
+to be used in a general way for any convict establishment
+in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South
+Wales was discontinued in 1840.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page303" id="page303"></a>303</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BOTHA, LOUIS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), Boer general and statesman, was
+the son of one of the &ldquo;Voortrekkers,&rdquo; and was born on the 27th
+of September 1862 at Greytown (Natal). He saw active service
+in savage warfare, and in 1887 served as a field-cornet. Subsequently
+he settled in the Vryheid district, which he represented
+in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of 1899 he served at first
+under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon rose to higher
+commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles of
+Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great
+a reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made
+commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was
+again demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August
+23-28, 1900), and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the
+Boer resistance with a view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In
+this task, and in the subsequent operations of the war, he was
+aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey and de Wet. The
+success of his measures was seen in the steady resistance offered
+by the Boers to the very close of the three years&rsquo; war. He was
+the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace negotiations
+of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited
+Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their
+former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British
+rule, General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of
+the Boer people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating
+always measures which he considered as tending to the maintenance
+of peace and good order and the re-establishment of
+prosperity in the Transvaal. After the grant of self-government
+to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was called upon by Lord
+Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of the same
+year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held in
+London. During his visit to England on this occasion General
+Botha declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to
+the British empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of
+the country regardless of racial differences. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Transvaal</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTHNIA, GULF OF,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> the northern part of the Baltic Sea (<i>q.v.</i>).
+The name is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of
+which the western part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in
+Finland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> <span class="sc">4th Earl of</span>, duke of
+Orkney and Shetland (<i>c</i>. 1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of
+Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter
+of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about 1536. His father,
+Patrick, the 3rd earl (<i>c</i>. 1512-1556), was the only son of Adam,
+the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of
+Patrick (d. <i>c</i>. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell.
+It was this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes.
+Having fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn
+in 1488, he was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with
+the earldom of Bothwell, the office of lord high admiral and other
+dignities. He also received many grants of land, including the
+lordship of Bothwell, which had been taken from John Ramsay,
+Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James III.</p>
+
+<p>James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father&rsquo;s titles, lands
+and hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of
+Scotland. Though a Protestant, he supported the government of
+Mary of Guise, showed himself violently anti-English, and led a
+raid into England, subsequently in 1559 meeting the English
+commissioners and signing articles for peace on the border.
+The same year he seized £1000 secretly sent by Elizabeth to the
+lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran occupied and
+stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in November
+sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December
+he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560
+was despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on
+the way, where he either married or seduced Anne, daughter of
+Christopher Thorssen, whom he afterwards deserted, and who
+came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain redress. He joined Mary at
+Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by her as a commissioner
+to summon the parliament; in February he arrived in Edinburgh
+and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September.
+He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his
+various rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan
+disorders, and was ordered in December to leave the city. In
+March 1562, having made up his quarrel with Arran, he was
+accused of having proposed to the latter a project for seizing the
+queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle,
+whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the
+23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray&rsquo;s influence,
+however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for
+France, but was driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he
+was detained, and was subsequently, on the 18th of January
+1564, seized at Berwick and sent by Elizabeth to the Tower,
+whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to France. After
+these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565, but
+withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents
+to France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to
+aid in the suppression of Murray&rsquo;s rebellion, successfully eluding
+the ships of Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the
+Marches he was employed in settling disputes on the border, but
+used his power to instigate thieving and disorders, and is
+described by Cecil&rsquo;s correspondents as &ldquo;as naughty a man as
+liveth and much given to the most detestable vices,&rdquo; &ldquo;as false as
+a devil,&rdquo; &ldquo;one that the godly of this whole nation hath a cause to
+curse for ever.&rdquo;<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In February 1566 Bothwell, in spite of his
+previous matrimonial engagements&mdash;and he had also been united
+by &ldquo;handfasting&rdquo; to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun Riddell&mdash;married
+Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly.
+Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the
+fact that he was the &ldquo;stoutest&rdquo; in refusing mass, he became
+one of her chief advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her
+mind and affections dates from the murder of Rizzio on the
+9th of March 1566. The queen required a protector, whom she
+found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the leaders of the
+factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever been a
+stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party
+and English influence. In Bothwell also, &ldquo;the glorious, rash and
+hazardous young man,&rdquo; romantic, handsome, charming even in his
+guilt, Mary gained what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He
+now stood forth as her champion; Mary took refuge with him at
+Dunbar, presented him, among other estates, with the castle
+there and the chief lands of the earldom of March, and made him
+the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland. Her partiality
+for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley
+became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was
+dangerously wounded, and the queen showed her anxiety for his
+safety by riding 40 miles to visit him, incurring a severe illness. In
+November she visited him at Dunbar, and in December took
+place the conference at Craigmillar at which both were present,
+and at which the disposal of Darnley was arranged, Bothwell with
+some others subsequently signing the bond to accomplish his
+murder. He himself superintended all the preparations, visiting
+Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of
+February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood
+for the ball, and riding back to Kirk o&rsquo; Field to carry out the
+crime. After the explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and
+feigned surprise at the receipt of the news half an hour later,
+ascribing the catastrophe to &ldquo;the strangest accident that ever
+chancit, to wit, the fouder (lightning) came out of the luft (sky)
+and had burnt the king&rsquo;s house.&rdquo;<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Bothwell&rsquo;s power was now greater, and the queen&rsquo;s affection for
+him more ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that
+she cared not to lose France, England and her own country for
+him, and would go with him to the world&rsquo;s end in a white petticoat
+ere she left him.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> He was gratified with further rewards, and
+his success was clouded by no stings of conscience or remorse.
+According to Melville he had designs on the life of the young
+prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley&rsquo;s father, Bothwell
+was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been forbidden
+to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused
+to attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page304" id="page304"></a>304</span>
+intention to marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret
+before the issue of the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of
+April he obtained the consent and support of the Protestant
+lords, who signed a bond in his favour. On the 24th he seized
+Mary&rsquo;s willing person near Edinburgh, and carried her to his
+castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell&rsquo;s divorce from his
+wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of his adultery
+with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic court
+on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who
+now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation
+for the marriage,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and in consequence it is extremely
+doubtful whether according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell
+and Mary were ever husband and wife. On the 12th Bothwell
+was created duke of Orkney and Shetland and the marriage took
+place on the 15th according to the Protestant usage, the Roman
+Catholic rite being performed, according to some accounts,
+afterwards in addition.<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Bothwell&rsquo;s triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles,
+both Protestant and Roman Catholic, now immediately united
+to effect his destruction. In June Mary and Bothwell fled from
+Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence Bothwell, on the place
+being surrounded by Morton and his followers, escaped to
+Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched
+with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the
+15th of June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the
+nobles to single combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the
+challenge. Meanwhile, during the negotiations, the queen&rsquo;s
+troops had been deserting; a surrender became inevitable, and
+Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting from Mary for ever.
+Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north, visited Orkney
+and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a band of
+pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived at
+Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first
+wife or victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the
+gift of a ship and promises of an annuity, and on his identity
+becoming known he was sent by the authorities to Copenhagen,
+where he arrived on the 30th of September. He wrote <i>Les
+Affaires du comte de Boduel</i>, exhibiting himself as the victim of
+the malice of his enemies, and gained King Frederick II.&rsquo;s goodwill
+by an offer to restore the Orkneys and Shetlands to Denmark.
+In consequence the king allowed him to remain at Copenhagen,
+and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568 he
+was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently
+with Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration,
+and a new suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary
+demanded a divorce, on pleas which recall those of Henry VIII.
+in the matter of Catherine of Aragon. The divorce was finally
+granted by the pope in September 1570 on the ground of her
+prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> and met with no opposition
+from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell&rsquo;s good
+treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was
+removed to the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand.
+Here the close and solitary confinement, and the dreary and
+hopeless inactivity to which he was condemned, proved a terrible
+punishment for the full-blooded, energetic and masterful Bothwell.
+He sank into insanity, and died on the 14th of April 1578.
+He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a coffin,
+doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait was
+taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum
+of the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called
+death-bed confession is not genuine.</p>
+
+<p>He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, <span class="sc">Francis
+Stewart Hepburn</span>, who, through his father, John Stewart,
+prior of Coldingham, was a grandson of King James V., and was
+thus related to Mary, queen of Scots, and the regent Murray,
+was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord high admiral
+of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the court of
+James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants
+was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart&rsquo;s death
+should be avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he
+suffered a short imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this
+time he had completely lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned,
+this time on a charge of witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in
+1591, and was deprived by parliament of his lands and titles;
+as an outlaw his career was one of extraordinary lawlessness.
+In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood palace, and in 1593 he
+captured the king, forcing from him a promise of pardon. But
+almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life, and,
+although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take
+refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July
+1614. This earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See the article in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> and
+authorities;
+<i>Les Affaires du comte de Boduel</i> (written January 1568,
+publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829);
+&ldquo;Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell,&rdquo; in G. Chalmers&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Mary, Queen of Scots</i> (1818);
+<i>Life of Bothwell</i>, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880);
+<i>Pièces et documents relatifs au comte de Bothwell</i>,
+by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856);
+<i>Appendix to the Hist. of Scotland</i>, by G. Buchanan (1721);
+<i>Sir James Melville&rsquo;s Memoirs</i> (Bannatyne Club, 1827);
+<i>A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary, Queen of Scots</i>, by J. Stuart (1874);
+J.H. Burton&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i> (1873);
+A. Lang&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, ii. (1902);
+<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxxviii. 308;
+<i>Cal. of State Papers, Foreign, Scottish, Venetian</i>, vii;
+<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, xix. and xx., <i>Domestic, Border Papers</i>;
+<i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Salisbury</i>, i. ii.
+See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mary, Queen of Scots</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Sir James Melville&rsquo;s Mem. 174.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568</i>, p. 212.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> Rep. ii. p. 177.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Scottish</i>, ii. 333.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571</i>, p. 372.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTHWELL,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town
+(1901) 3015; of parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right
+bank of the Clyde, 9 m. E.S.E. of Glasgow by the North British
+and Caledonian railways. Owing to its pleasant situation it has
+become a residential quarter of Glasgow. The choir of the old
+Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end of the 19th century)
+forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna Baillie, the poetess,
+was born in the manse, and a memorial has been erected in her
+honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as well as
+the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the
+battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke
+of Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500
+men and 1000 prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level
+north-eastern bank, is the castle that once belonged to James
+Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl. 1566-1580), the assassin of the
+regent Murray; and near the present farmhouse the South
+Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque ruins of
+Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of the
+river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as
+Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray,
+who fell at Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the
+Douglases. The lordship was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick
+Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of Bothwell, who resigned it
+in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus. It
+thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the earl of
+Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic,
+and mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the
+south side by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of
+the chapel. A dungeon bears the nickname of &ldquo;Wallace&rsquo;s Beef
+Barrel.&rdquo; The unpretending mansion near by was built by
+Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar (1653-1712). The parish
+of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns and villages, all
+owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron and oil-shale.
+The principal places, most of which have stations on the
+North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park,
+Carfin, Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend,
+Newarthill, Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace,
+Colliery Rows and Tennochside.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTOCUDOS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (from Port. <i>botoque</i>, a plug, in allusion to the
+wooden disks or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign
+name for a tribe of South American Indians of eastern Brazil,
+also known as the Aimores or Aimbores. They appear to have
+no collective tribal name for themselves. Some are called Nac-nanuk
+or Nac-poruk, &ldquo;sons of the soil.&rdquo; The name Botocudos
+cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince
+Maximilian von Neuwied (<i>Reise nach Bresilien</i>,
+Frankfort-On-Main, 1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando
+Coutinho reached the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page305" id="page305"></a>305</span>
+fort at the head of Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against
+&ldquo;the Aimores and other tribes.&rdquo; The original home of the tribe
+comprised most of the present province of Espirito Santo, and
+reached inland to the headwaters of Rio Grande (Belmonte) and
+Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do Espinhacao, but
+the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country between
+Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond
+Serra dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter
+district that at the close of the 18th century they came into
+collision with the whites, who were attracted thither by the
+diamond fields.</p>
+
+<p>The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and
+living on forest products. They are below the medium height,
+but broad-shouldered and remarkable for the muscular development
+and depth of their chests. Their arms and legs are, however,
+soft and fleshy, and their feet and hands small. Their features,
+which vary individually almost as much as those of Europeans,
+are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high cheek-bones,
+small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection
+of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse,
+black and lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown,
+sometimes almost approaching white. The general yellow tint
+emphasizes their Mongolic appearance, which all travellers have
+noticed. The Botocudos were themselves greatly struck by the
+Chinese coolies, whom they met in Brazilian seaports, and whom
+they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri Hollard, <i>De l&rsquo;homme et
+des races humaines</i>, Paris, 1853).<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Some few Botocudos have
+settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them, numbering
+between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest
+of savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every
+effort was made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the
+Portuguese as no better than wild beasts. Smallpox was
+deliberately spread among them; poisoned food was scattered in
+the forests; by such infamous means the coast districts about
+Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one Portuguese commander
+boasted that he had either slain with his own hands or
+ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements
+and domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are
+reed spears and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough
+shelters of leaf and bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the
+language of the Botocudos is known, it would appear that they have
+no means of expressing the numerals higher than one. Their only
+musical instrument is a small bamboo nose-flute. They attribute
+all the blessings of life to the &ldquo;day-fire&rdquo; (sun) and all evil to
+&ldquo;night-fire&rdquo; (moon). At the graves of the dead they keep fires
+burning for some days to scare away evil spirits, and during storms
+and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to drive away demons.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the <i>tembeitera</i>,
+or wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip
+and the lobe of the ear. This disk, made of the specially light
+and carefully dried wood of the barriguda tree (<i>Chorisia
+ventricosa</i>), is called by the natives themselves <i>emburé</i>,
+whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable derivation of
+their name Aimbore (<i>Voyages dans l&rsquo;intérieur du Brésil 1816-1821</i>,
+Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly
+by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing
+the lip begins often as early as the eighth year, when an
+initial boring is made by a hard pointed stick, and gradually
+extended by the insertion of larger and larger disks or plugs,
+sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in diameter. Notwithstanding
+the lightness of the wood the <i>tembeitera</i> weighs down
+the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last becomes
+a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn,
+of such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders.
+Ear-ornaments of like nature are common in south and even central
+America, at least as far north as Honduras. When Columbus
+discovered this latter country during his fourth voyage (1502)
+he named part of the seaboard <i>Costa de la Oreja</i>, from the
+conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early Spanish explorers
+also gave the name <i>Orejones</i> or &ldquo;big-eared&rdquo; to several
+Amazon tribes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.R. Wallace, <i>Travels on the Amazon</i> (1853-1900);
+H.H. Bancroft, <i>Hist. of Pacific States</i> (San Francisco, 1882),
+vol. i. p. 211;
+A.H. Keane, &ldquo;On the Botocudos&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Anthrop. Instit.</i>
+vol. xiii. (1884); J.R. Peixoto,
+<i>Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds</i>
+(Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, <i>Geology and
+Physical Geography of Brazil</i> (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who
+formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian
+revolt of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the
+Zeklars and other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTORI,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> a Japanese game played at the naval, military and
+other schools, by two sides of equal number, usually about one
+hundred, each of which defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly
+set in the ground, the poles being about 200 yds. distant from
+each other. The object of each party is to overthrow the
+adversaries&rsquo; pole while keeping their own upright. Pulling,
+hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking.
+The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive
+at the enemies&rsquo; pole, and frequently succeed in passing over
+their heads and shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus
+enabled to reach the pole and bear it down unless pulled off in
+time by its defenders. A game similar in character is played
+by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of Amherst College
+(Massachusetts), called the &ldquo;Flag-rush.&rdquo; It was instituted at
+the instance of the faculty to take the place of the traditional
+&ldquo;Cane-rush,&rdquo; a general <i>mêlée</i> between the two classes for the
+ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became
+so rough that students were frequently seriously injured. In
+the &ldquo;Flag-rush&rdquo; a small flag is set upon a padded post about
+6 ft. high, and is defended by one class while the other endeavours,
+as at Botori, to overthrow it. If the flag is not captured or torn
+down within a certain time the defending side wins.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTOSHANI<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (<i>Boto&#351;ani</i>), the capital of the department of
+Botoshani, Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia,
+and in one of the richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the
+north Moldavian hills. Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is
+commercially important as the town through which goods from
+Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the south; being situated
+on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the main line from
+Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour mills;
+and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being
+largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani
+owes its name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of
+Jenghiz Khan, who occupied the country in the 13th century.
+There are large colonies of Armenians and Jews.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BO-TREE,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bodhi-tree</span>, the name given by the Buddhists of India
+and Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (<i>Ficus religiosa</i>).
+It is regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each
+temple. These are traditionally supposed to be derived from
+the original one, the Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath
+which the Buddha is traditionally supposed to have attained
+perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined city of Anuradhapura,
+80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the parent-tree
+sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+is said to have been planted in 288 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and is to this day
+worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to
+pray before it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the
+Kandy priests.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTRYTIS,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey
+mould on decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under
+a hand-lens it is seen to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks
+which are branched at the tips, each branchlet being crowned
+with a naked head of pale-coloured spores. It is a very common
+fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in greenhouses, and
+can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad record as
+a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the higher
+plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them
+to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other
+cultivated plants are subject to attack by <i>Botrytis</i>, Some of
+the species exist in two other growth-forms, so different in
+appearance from the <i>Botrytis</i> that they have been regarded as
+distinct plants:&mdash;a sclerotium, which is a hard compact mass of
+fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain its vitality for a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page306" id="page306"></a>306</span>
+considerable time in a resting condition; and a stalked <i>Peziza</i>,
+or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The latter
+is the perfect form of fruit. The <i>Botrytis</i> mould is known as
+the conidial form.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (1766-1837), Italian
+historian, was born at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont.
+He studied medicine at the university of Turin, and obtained
+his doctor&rsquo;s degree when about twenty years of age. Having
+rendered himself obnoxious to the government during the
+political commotions that followed the French Revolution,
+he was imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795
+he withdrew to France, only to return to his native country
+as a surgeon in the French army, whose progress he followed
+as far as Venice. Here he joined the expedition to Corfu, from
+which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At first he favoured
+French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation of Piedmont
+by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he
+afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the
+union of all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control.
+After the separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired
+into private life, but, fearing persecution at home, became a
+French citizen. In 1817 he was appointed rector of the university
+of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed owing to clerical influence.
+Amid all the vicissitudes of his early manhood Botta had never
+allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the political quiet that
+followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more exclusively
+to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from
+1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he
+himself had been an eyewitness of many of the events described.
+His continuation of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards
+encouraged to undertake, is a careful and laborious work, but is
+not based on original authorities and is of small value. Though
+living in Paris he was in both these works the ardent exponent
+of that recoil against everything French which took place
+throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a
+reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the
+marked features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned
+and eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate.
+Botta died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty,
+but in the enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation.</p>
+
+<p>His son, Paul Émile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished
+traveller and Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at
+Khorsabad (1843) were among the first efforts in the line of
+investigation afterwards pursued by Layard.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works of Carlo Botta are
+<i>Storia naturale e medica dell&rsquo; Isola di Corfu</i> (1798);
+an Italian translation of Born&rsquo;s <i>Joannis Physiophili specimen
+monachologiae</i> (1801);
+<i>Souvenirs d&rsquo;un voyage en Dalmatie</i> (1802);
+<i>Storia della guerra dell&rsquo; Independenza d&rsquo;America</i> (1809);
+<i>Camillo</i>, a poem (1815);
+<i>Storia d&rsquo;Italia dal 1789 al 1814</i> (1824, new ed., Prato, 1862);
+<i>Storia d&rsquo;ltalia in continuazione al Guicciardini</i> (1832,
+new ed., Milan, 1878).
+See C. Dionisiotti, <i>Vita di Carlo Botta</i> (Turin, 1867);
+C. Pavesio, <i>Carlo Botta e le sue opere storiche</i> (Florence, 1874);
+Scipione Botta, <i>Vita privata di Carlo Botta</i> (Florence, 1877);
+A. d&rsquo;Ancona c O. Bacci, <i>Manuela della Letteratura Italiana</i>
+(Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist
+and musical composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the
+24th of December 1823. He studied music at the Milan
+Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to the double-bass, an
+instrument with which his name is principally associated. On
+leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also occupied
+the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana. Here
+his first opera, <i>Cristoforo Colombo</i>, was produced in 1847.
+In 1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass
+solos at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he
+made frequent visits to England, and his extraordinary command
+of his unwieldy instrument gained him great popularity in London
+and the provinces. Apart from his triumphs as an executant,
+Bottesini was a conductor of European reputation, and earned
+some success as a composer, though his work had not sufficient
+individuality to survive the changes of taste and fashion. He
+was conductor at the Théâtre des Italiens in Paris from 1855 to 1857,
+where his second opera, <i>L&rsquo;Assedio di Firenze</i>, was produced
+in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising
+the production of his opera <i>Marion Delorme</i> in 1862, and in
+1863 at Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of
+conducting by repeated concert tours through the principal
+countries of Europe. In 1871 he conducted a season of Italian
+opera at the Lyceum theatre in London, during which his opera
+<i>Ali Baba</i> was produced, and at the close of the year he was
+chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of <i>Aïda</i>,
+which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote
+three operas besides those already mentioned: <i>Il Diavolo della
+Notte</i> (Milan, 1859); <i>Vinciguerra</i> (Paris, 1870); and
+<i>Ero e Leandro</i> (Turin, 1880), the last named to a libretto
+by Arrigo Boito, which was subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also
+wrote <i>The Garden of Olivet</i>, a devotional oratorio (libretto
+by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at the Norwich festival in
+1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and numerous songs, and minor
+instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma on the 7th of July 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTICELLI, SANDRO,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> properly <span class="sc">Alessandro di Mariano
+dei Filipepi</span> (1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at
+Florence in 1444, in a house in the Via Nuova, Borg&rsquo; Ognissanti.
+This was the home of his father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi,
+a struggling tanner. Sandro, the youngest child but one of his
+parents, derived the name Botticelli, by which he was commonly
+known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith to whom he was
+apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a prosperous
+broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who
+for some reason bore the nickname <i>Botticello</i> or Little
+Barrel. A return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as
+aged thirteen, weak in health, and still at school (if the words
+<i>sta al legare</i> are to be taken as a misspelling of <i>sta al
+leggere</i>, otherwise they might perhaps mean that he was
+apprenticed either to a jeweller or a bookbinder). One of his elder
+brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a bookseller, was at this
+time in business as a goldsmith and gold-leaf-beater, and with him
+Sandro was very probably first put to work. Having shown
+an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was apprenticed in
+1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he remained
+as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to
+carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the
+cathedral church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years
+Sandro was no doubt employed with other pupils upon the great
+series of frescoes in the choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which
+his master was for long intermittently engaged. The later
+among these frescoes in many respects anticipate, by charm of
+sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic flutter of
+draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro&rsquo;s
+own style. One of Sandro&rsquo;s earliest extant pictures, the oblong
+&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; at the National Gallery, London
+(No. 592, long ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost
+entirely under the influence of his first master. Left in Florence
+on Fra Filippo&rsquo;s departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually
+developing his individuality under various influences, among
+which that of the realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some
+time the strongest. From that school he acquired a knowledge of
+bodily structure and movement, and a searching and expressive
+precision of linear draughtsmanship, which he could never
+have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo influence
+dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio,
+in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was
+painted by Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one
+of a series of the seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems,
+were executed by Piero Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother
+Antonio. The same influence is again very manifest in the two
+brilliant little pictures at the Uffizi in which the youthful
+Botticelli has illustrated the story of Judith and Holofernes;
+in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal of Cosimo de&rsquo;
+Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized &ldquo;St Sebastian&rdquo;
+at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church
+of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence
+seem also to point to Botticelli&rsquo;s having occasionally helped,
+in his earliest or Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page307" id="page307"></a>307</span>
+school of engravings in Florence which had been founded by the
+goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.</p>
+
+<p>Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while
+the much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the &ldquo;Fortitude&rdquo;
+is the only authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio
+influence is really much apparent; the various other
+pictures on which this opinion is founded, chiefly Madonnas
+dispersed among the museums of Naples, Florence, Paris and
+elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability the work not
+of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced partly
+by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been
+endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico
+di Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli
+stood in friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio&rsquo;s
+workshop, particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the
+many &ldquo;Madonnas&rdquo; which bear Botticelli&rsquo;s name in galleries
+public and private, the earliest which carries the unmistakable
+stamp of his own hand and invention is that which passed from
+the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs Gardner at Boston.
+At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement to work at
+Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the Incoronata
+in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city
+abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his
+preserved works comes probably the much-injured round of the
+&ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long
+ascribed in error, like the earlier oblong panel of the same subject,
+to Filippino Lippi. (To about this date is assigned by some the
+well-known &ldquo;Assumption of the Virgin surrounded with the
+heavenly hierarchies,&rdquo; formerly at Hamilton Palace and now in
+the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism has proved
+that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari&rsquo;s time has
+ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the
+work of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco
+Botticini.)</p>
+
+<p>A more mature and more celebrated &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo;
+than either of those in the National Gallery is that now in the
+Uffizi, which Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in
+1477, and which was originally placed over an altar against the
+front wall of the church of Sta Maria Novella to the right inside
+the main entrance. The scene is here less crowded than in some
+other of the master&rsquo;s representations of the subject, the
+conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of those elements
+of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which he was
+sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated;
+the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover,
+special interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the
+chief members of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of
+his time in Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the
+patronage of this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico
+in the Via Larga he painted a decorative piece of Pallas with
+lance and shield (not to be confounded with the banner painted
+with a similar allegoric device of Pallas by Verrocchio, to be
+carried by Giuliano de&rsquo; Medici in the famous tournament in 1475
+in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta, the wife of his
+friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now lost, as
+are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded
+to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475
+and Lorenzo&rsquo;s death in 1492. But Sandro&rsquo;s more especial patron,
+for whom were executed several of his most important still extant
+works, was another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de&rsquo; Medici,
+grandson of a natural brother of Cosimo <i>Pater Patriae</i>, and
+inheritor of a vast share of the family estates and interests. For
+the villa of this younger Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted
+about 1477-1478 the famous picture of &ldquo;Primavera&rdquo; or Spring
+now in the Academy at Florence. The design, inspired by
+Poliziano&rsquo;s poem the &ldquo;Giostra,&rdquo; with reminiscences of Lucretius
+and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested, of the
+late Latin &ldquo;Mythologikon&rdquo; of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an
+enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential
+spirit of the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully
+draped, with Cupid hovering above her, stands in a grove of
+orange and myrtle and welcomes the approach of Spring, who
+enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and Zephyrus gently
+urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later &ldquo;Birth of
+Venus,&rdquo; the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the
+little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly
+and freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of
+bodily structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which
+something of the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages
+is intimately and exquisitely blended with the newly awakened
+spirit of naturalism and the revived pagan delight in bodily form
+and movement and richness of linear rhythm. In connexion with
+this and other classic and allegoric pictures by the master, much
+romantic speculation has been idly spent on the supposition that
+the chief personages were figured in the likeness of Giuliano de&rsquo;
+Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact died
+in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance
+which has been spun about their names in modern days is quite
+unsubstantial; and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli
+should have introduced the likenesses of these two supposed
+lovers (for it is not even certain that they were lovers at all) in
+pictures all of which were demonstrably painted after the death
+of one and most of them after the death of both.</p>
+
+<p>The tragedy of Giuliano&rsquo;s assassination by the Pazzi
+conspirators in 1478 was a public event which certainly brought
+employment to Botticelli. After the capture and execution of
+the criminals he was commissioned to paint their effigies hanging
+by the neck on the walls of the Palazzo del Podestà, above the
+entrance of what was formerly the Dogana. In the course of
+Florentine history public buildings had on several previous
+occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last had been
+when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging
+by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the
+return of Cosimo de&rsquo; Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi
+commission may be dated the evidences which are found in some
+of Botticelli&rsquo;s work of a closer study than heretofore of the
+virile methods and energetic types of Castagno. His frescoes of the
+hanged conspirators held their place for sixteen years only, and
+were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of another revolution in
+the city&rsquo;s politics. Two years later (1480) he painted in rivalry
+with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on the choir
+screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the
+church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his
+contributing designs to the workshops of the &ldquo;fine-manner&rdquo;
+engravers in the shape of a beautiful print of the triumph of
+Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an antique sarcophagus (the
+only example known is in the British Museum), as well as in
+nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with the
+commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo
+della Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after
+canto xix., perhaps because of the material difficulties involved
+by the use of line engravings for the decoration of a printed page,
+perhaps because the artist was at this time called away to Rome
+to undertake the most important commission of his life. Due
+possibly to the same call is the unfinished condition of a
+much-damaged, crowded &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi&rdquo; by Botticelli
+preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have
+influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in
+like manner remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also
+at the Uffizi.</p>
+
+<p>The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to
+take part with other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio,
+Cosimo Rosselli, Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration
+of Sixtus IV.&rsquo;s chapel at the Vatican, the ceiling of which was
+afterwards destined to be the field of Michelangelo&rsquo;s noblest
+labours. Internal evidence shows that Sandro and his assistants
+bore a chief share in the series of papal portraits which decorate
+the niches between the windows. His share in the decoration of the
+walls with subjects from the Old and the New Testament consists
+of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of Moses (several
+episodes of his early life arranged in a single composition);
+another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a third the
+temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is
+relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page308" id="page308"></a>308</span>
+animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a
+leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a
+year and a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken
+as the central and most important productions of his career,
+though they are far from being the best-known, and from their
+situation on the dimmed and stained walls of the chapel are by no
+means easy of inspection. Skill in the interlinking of complicated
+groups; in the principal actors energy of dramatic action and
+expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in the artist&rsquo;s
+later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the personages
+of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women
+an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar
+strain of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist&rsquo;s
+own; the most expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship,
+the richest and most inventive charm in fanciful costume
+and decorative colouring, all combine to distinguish them.
+During this time of his stay in Rome (1481-1482) Botticelli is
+recorded also to have painted another &ldquo;Adoration of the Magi,&rdquo;
+his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same subject; this has been
+identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now in the Hermitage
+gallery at St Petersburg.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli
+worked there for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il
+Magnifico in 1492, with but slight variations in manner and sentiment,
+in the now formed manner of his middle life. Some of the
+recorded works of this time have perished; but a good many
+have been preserved, and except in the few cases where the dates
+of commission and payment can be established by existing
+records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal
+evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken
+with other artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico
+came to nothing (1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes
+carried out by him in the vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il
+Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra in 1484 has been destroyed
+by the effects first of damp and then of fire. To 1482-1483
+belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a Madonna and Child
+with six saints and four angels), now in the academy at Florence.
+Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and
+most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of
+his works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels
+in the Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book,
+as the &ldquo;Magnificat.&rdquo; Somewhere near this must be placed
+the beautiful and highly finished drawing of &ldquo;Abundance,&rdquo;
+which has passed through the Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm
+collections into the British Museum, as well as a small Madonna
+in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and the fine full-faced
+portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or apprentice in
+the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the marriage
+of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed,
+and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and
+dramatic set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio&rsquo;s tale of
+Nastagio degl&rsquo;Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of
+Mr Barker and are now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly
+preserved altar-piece of the Madonna between the two saints John,
+now in the Berlin gallery, was painted for the Bardi chapel in
+the church of San Spirito in 1486. In the same year he helped
+to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni with Giovanna
+degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes, the
+remains of which, after they had been brought to light from
+under a coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were
+removed in 1882 to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same
+date (1485-1488) should apparently be placed that second
+masterpiece of fanciful classicism done for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco&rsquo;s
+villa at Castello, the &ldquo;Birth of Venus,&rdquo; now in the
+Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly inspired by
+the &ldquo;Stanze&rdquo; of Poliziano, perhaps also by the <i>Pervigilium
+Veneris</i>; together with the scarcely less admirable &ldquo;Mars and
+Venus&rdquo; of the National Gallery, conceived in the master&rsquo;s
+peculiar vein of virile sanity mingled with exquisite caprice;
+and the most beautiful and characteristic of all his Madonnas,
+the round of the &ldquo;Virgin with the Pomegranate&rdquo; (Uffizi). The
+fine picture of &ldquo;Pallas and the Centaur,&rdquo; rediscovered after an
+occultation of many years in the private apartments of the Pitti
+Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and to celebrate
+the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the spirit of
+tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo
+(1488-1490). &ldquo;The Annunciation&rdquo; from the convent of Cestello, now
+in the Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and
+expressive, in its bending movements and vehement gestures, of
+that agitation of spirit the signs of which become increasingly
+perceptible in Botticelli&rsquo;s work from about this time until the
+end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with its <i>predelle</i>,
+commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished in 1490,
+with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels
+encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of
+Botticelli&rsquo;s altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date
+probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small
+painting of the &ldquo;Last Communion of St Jerome&rdquo; belonging to
+the Marchese Farinola.</p>
+
+<p>In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a
+consultation as to the completion of the façade of the Duomo,
+and to bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the
+mosaic decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same
+church. The death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the
+accession to chief power of his worthless son Piero, soon plunged
+Florence into political troubles, to which were by and by added
+the profound spiritual agitation consequent upon the preaching
+and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de&rsquo; Medici,
+who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political
+rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage
+of Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between
+the years 1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute
+a set of drawings in illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate
+and ambitious plan than the little designs for the engraver
+which had been interrupted in 1481. Eighty-five of these drawings
+are in the famous manuscript acquired for the Berlin museum
+at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882, and eleven
+more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the
+most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master;
+revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with
+the text; full of Botticelli&rsquo;s characteristic poetic yearning and
+vehemence of expression, his half-childish intensity of vision;
+exquisite in lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of
+linear composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the
+whole to the illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the
+poem, and in the fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and
+inadequacy of invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory
+Botticelli maintains a careful adherence to the text, illustrating
+the several progressive incidents of each canto on a single page
+in the old-fashioned way. In the Paradise he gives a freer rein
+to his invention, and his designs become less a literal illustration
+of the text than an imaginative commentary on it. Almost all
+interest is centred on the persons of Dante and Beatrice, who are
+shown us again and again in various phases of ascending progress
+and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a bare
+symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them.
+Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light
+preliminary sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably
+intended to be finished in colour, as a few actually are. To the
+period of these drawings (1492-1497) would seem to belong the
+fine and finely preserved small round of the &ldquo;Virgin and Child
+with Angels&rdquo; at the Ambrosiana, Milan, and the famous
+&ldquo;Calumny of Apelles&rdquo; at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by some
+contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally
+remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and
+composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution
+and detail. Probably the small &ldquo;St Augustine&rdquo; in the Uffizi,
+the injured &ldquo;Judith with the head of Holofernes&rdquo; in the Kaufmann
+collection at Berlin, and the &ldquo;Virgin and Child with St John,&rdquo;
+belonging to Mr Heseltine in London, are works of the same period.</p>
+
+<p>Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at
+Naples, returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro&rsquo;s
+home in the Via Nuova. He soon became a devoted follower of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page309" id="page309"></a>309</span>
+Savonarola, and has left a manuscript chronicle which is one of
+the best sources for the history of the friar and of his movement.
+Sandro himself seems to have remained aloof from the movement
+almost until the date of the execution of Savonarola and his two
+followers in 1498. At least there is clear evidence of his being
+in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco so
+late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have been
+had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni.
+It was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence
+in 1497 that brought to a premature end the master&rsquo;s great
+undertaking on the illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo&rsquo;s
+return, following on the overthrow and death of Savonarola
+in 1498, we find no trace of any further relations between him
+and Botticelli, who by that time would seem to have become
+a declared devotee of the friar&rsquo;s memory and an adherent,
+like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of
+swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents
+give some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery
+of Monticelli a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the
+winter of the same year as bound over to keep the peace with, a
+neighbour living next to the small suburban villa which Sandro
+held jointly with his brother Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro;
+in 1499 as paying belated matriculation fees to the gild of doctors
+and druggists (of which the painters were a branch); and again
+in 1499 as carrying out some decorative paintings for a member
+of the Vespucci family. It has been suggested, probably with
+reason, that portions of these decorations are to be recognized in
+two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history, one illustrating
+the story of Virginia, which has passed with the collection
+of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a
+history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham,
+which passed into Mrs Gardner&rsquo;s collection at Boston. These
+and the few works still remaining to be mentioned are all strongly
+marked by the strained vehemence of design and feeling characteristic
+of the master&rsquo;s later years, when he dramatizes his
+own high-strung emotions in figures flung forward and swaying
+out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with looks cast
+agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild
+yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small
+Pietà at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary
+copy of one which the master is recorded to have painted for the
+Panciatichi chapel in the church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they
+are present to a degree even of caricature in the larger and
+coarser painting of the same subject which bears the master&rsquo;s
+name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a work of his
+school. The mystic vein of religious and political speculation
+into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest illustration
+in the beautiful symbolic &ldquo;Nativity&rdquo; which passed in
+succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller
+Maitland collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with
+the apocalyptic inscription in Greek which the master has added
+to make his meaning clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is
+a much-injured symbolic &ldquo;Magdalene at the foot of the Cross&rdquo;
+in private possession at Lyons. Among extant pictures those
+which from internal evidence we must put latest in the master&rsquo;s
+career are three panels illustrating the story of St Zenobius,
+of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the collection
+of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after
+1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence
+of Isabella d&rsquo;Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by
+Ugolino Verino. In 1503-1504 he served on the committee of
+artists appointed to decide where the colossal David of Michelangelo
+should be placed. In these and the following years we
+find him paying fees to the company of St Luke, and the next
+thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial in the
+Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May
+1510.</p>
+
+<p>The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination
+in Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the
+capacity for religious conviction and emotional conversion
+which made of him an ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola,
+coexisted in him, according to all records, with a strong vein
+of the laughing humour and love of rough practical and verbal
+jesting which belonged to the Florentine character in his age.
+His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been the resort,
+not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to
+have been at all times working for him, but of a company of
+more or less idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues
+always wagging. Vasari&rsquo;s account of the straits into which
+he was led by his absorption in the study of Dante and his adhesion
+to the sect of Savonarola are evidently much exaggerated,
+since there is proof that he lived and died, not rich indeed, but
+possessed of property enough to keep him from any real pinch
+of distress. The story of his work and life, after having been
+the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and
+speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work
+of Mr H.P. Horne cited below,&mdash;a masterpiece of documentary
+research and critical exposition.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Vasari, <i>Le Opere</i> (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.; Crowe-Cavalcaselle,
+<i>Hist. of Painting in Italy</i>, vol. ii.; Fr. Lippmann,
+<i>Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Göttlicher Komödie</i>; Dr Karl
+Woermann, &ldquo;Sandro Botticelli&rdquo; (in Dohme, <i>Kunst u. Künstler</i>); Dr
+Hermann Ulmann, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Dr E. Steinmann, <i>Sandro
+Botticelli</i> (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author&rsquo;s elucidation
+of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, <i>Sandro Botticelli</i>; Bernhard
+Berenson, <i>The Drawings of Florentine Painters; The Florentine
+Painters of the Renaissance</i> (2nd ed.); <i>The Study and Criticism of
+Italian Art</i>; papers in the <i>Burlington Magazine</i>, the <i>Gazette des
+Beaux-Arts</i> (to this critic is due the first systematic attempt to discriminate
+between the original work of Botticelli and that of his
+various pupils); J. Mesnil, <i>Miscellanea d&rsquo;Arte</i> and papers in the
+<i>Rivista d&rsquo;Arte</i>, &amp;c.; W. Warburg, <i>Sandro Botticelli&rsquo;s &ldquo;Geburt der
+Venus&rdquo; and &ldquo;Frühling&rdquo;</i>; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), <i>The Life
+and Art of Sandro Botticelli</i> (1904); F. Wickhoff in the <i>Jahrbuch
+der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen</i> (1906); Herbert P. Horne,
+<i>Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli</i> (1908); this
+last authority practically supersedes all others.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BÖTTIGER, KARL AUGUST<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1760-1835), German archaeologist,
+was born at Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He
+was educated at the school of Pforta, and the university of
+Leipzig. After holding minor educational posts, he obtained
+in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the appointment of
+rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into a circle
+of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He
+published in 1803 a learned work, <i>Sabina, oder Morgenszenen
+im Putzzimmer einer reichen Römerin</i>, a description of a wealthy
+Roman lady&rsquo;s toilette, and a work on ancient art, <i>Griechische
+Vasengemälde</i>. At the same time he assisted in editing the
+<i>Journal des Luxus und der Moden</i>, the <i>Deutsche Merkur</i>, and the
+<i>London and Paris</i>. In 1804 he was called to Dresden as superintendent
+of the studies of the court pages, and received the rank
+of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made director of studies
+at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of Antiquities.
+He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief
+works are:&mdash;<i>Ideen zur Archäologie der Malerei</i>, i. (1811) (no more
+published); <i>Kunstmythologie</i> (1811); <i>Vorlesungen und Aufsätze
+zur Alterthumskunde</i> (1817); <i>Amalthea</i> (1821-1825); <i>Ideen zur
+Kunstmythologie</i> (1826-1836). The <i>Opuscula et Carmina Latina</i>
+were published separately in 1837; with a collection of his
+smaller pieces, <i>Kleine Schriften</i> (1837-1838), including a complete
+list of his works (56 pages). His biography was written by his
+son Karl Wilhelm Böttiger (1790-1862), for some time professor
+of history at Erlangen, and author of several valuable histories
+(<i>History of Germany</i>, <i>History of Saxony</i>, <i>History of Bavaria</i>,
+<i>Universal History of Biographies</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:253px" src="images/img310.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens
+at Pompeii and Herculaneum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. <i>butta</i>,
+a flask; cf. Eng. &ldquo;butt&rdquo;), a vessel for containing liquids, generally
+as opposed to one for drinking from (though this probably is
+not excluded), and with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and
+pouring. The first bottles were probably made of the skins of
+animals. In the <i>Iliad</i> (iii. 247) the attendants are represented
+as bearing wine for use in a bottle made of goat&rsquo;s skin. The
+ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and from the
+language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a bottle
+was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection
+of the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed
+<span class="grk" title="podeon">&#960;&#959;&#948;&#949;&#974;&#957;</span>. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page310" id="page310"></a>310</span>
+bottles of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The
+Greeks and Romans also were accustomed to use bottles made of
+skins; and in the southern parts Europe they are still used
+for the transport of wine. The first of explicit reference to bottles
+of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix. 4), where it is said that
+the Gibeonites took &ldquo;old
+sacks upon their asses,
+and wine-bottles <i>old and
+rent and bound up</i>.&rdquo; The
+objection to putting &ldquo;new
+wine into old bottles&rdquo;
+(Matt. ix. 17) is that the
+skin, already stretched
+and weakened by use, is
+liable to burst under the
+pressure of the gas from
+new wine. Skins are still
+most extensively used
+throughout western Asia
+for the conveyance and
+storage of water. It is
+an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as
+being made exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet
+speaks of &ldquo;a potter&rsquo;s earthen vessel.&rdquo; The Egyptians (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Art and Archaeology</i>) possessed vases and bottles
+of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory, bone, porcelain, bronze,
+silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or common
+earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass
+(<i>q.v</i>.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry
+has attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer,
+&amp;c., or mineral waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling
+the bottles has been introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering,
+for labelling and for washing them.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a genus of Australian plants,
+known botanically as <i>Callistemon</i>, and belongiug to the myrtle
+family (Myrtaceae). They take their name from the resemblance
+of the head of flowers to a bottle-brush. They are well known in
+cultivation as greenhouse shrubs; the flower owes its beauty to
+the numerous long thread-like stamens which far exceed the
+small petals. <i>Callistemon salignus</i> is a valuable hard wood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTLENOSE WHALE<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<i>Hyperoödon rostratus</i>), a member of
+the sperm-whale family, which is an inhabitant of the North
+Atlantic, passing the summer in the Spitzbergen seas and going
+farther south in winter. It resembles the sperm-whale in
+possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of the head,
+which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and also
+for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost indistinguishable
+from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a
+regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length
+these whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from
+black on the upper surface in the young to light brown in old
+animals, the under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch
+between the flukes, as in other whales, but the hinder part of the
+tail is rounded. Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills,
+and are practically toothless; the only teeth which exist in the
+adult being a small pair at the front of the lower jaw, concealed
+beneath the gum during life. Examples have frequently been
+recorded on the British coasts. In November 1904 a female,
+24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven ashore at Whitstable.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cetacea</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTTOMRY,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom)
+is hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses
+incurred in the course of her voyage, under the condition that if
+she arrive at her destination the ship shall be liable for repayment
+of the loan, together with such premium thereon as may have
+been agreed for; but that if the ship be lost, the lender shall have
+no claim against the borrower either for the sum advanced or for
+the premium. The freight may be pledged as well as the ship,
+and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the personal
+obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is
+borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken
+up at <i>respondentia</i>; but it is now only in rare and exceptional
+cases that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the
+cargo, except under a general bottomry obligation, along with
+the ship and freight. In consideration of the risks assumed by
+the lender, the bottomry premium (sometimes termed <i>maritime
+interest</i>) is usually high, varying of course with the nature of the
+risk and the difficulty of procuring funds.</p>
+
+<p>A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which
+sufficiently shows the conditions agreed on between the parties;
+but it is usually drawn up in the form of a <i>bond</i> which confers a
+maritime lien (<i>q.v.</i>). The document must show, either by express
+terms or from its general tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed
+by the lender,&mdash;this being the consideration for which the high
+premium is conceded. The lender may transfer the bond by
+indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of exchange or bill of
+lading, and the right to recover its value becomes vested in the
+indorsees. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bond</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains
+in force so long as the ship exists <i>in the form of a ship</i>, whatever
+amount of damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the
+&ldquo;constructive total loss&rdquo; which is recognized in marine insurance,
+when the ship is damaged to such an extent that she is not worth
+repairing, is not recognized in reference to bottomry, and will not
+absolve the borrower from his obligation. But if the ship go to
+pieces, the borrower is freed from all liability under the bottomry
+contract; and the lender is not entitled to receive any share of
+the proceeds of such of the ship&rsquo;s stores or materials as may have
+been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on bottomry is not
+liable in England for general average losses. If the ship should
+<i>deviate</i> from the voyage for which the funds were advanced, her
+subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower
+under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all
+on her intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover
+the bottomry premium in addition to his advance, but only
+the ordinary rate of interest for the temporary loan. As the
+bottomry premium is presumed, in every case, to cover the
+risks incurred by the lender, he is not entitled to charge the
+borrower with the premium which he may pay for <i>insurance</i>
+of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the
+bond.</p>
+
+<p>The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the
+custom of permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign
+country, to pledge the ship in order to raise money for repairs,
+or other extraordinary expenditures rendered necessary in the
+course of the voyage. Circumstances often arise, in which,
+without the exercise of this power on the part of the master, it
+would be impossible to provide means for accomplishing the
+voyage; and it is better that the master should have authority
+to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo also,
+in security for the money which has become requisite, than that
+the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But
+the right of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always
+be created by necessity; if exercised without necessity the
+contract will be void. Accordingly, the master of a British ship
+has no power to grant a bottomry bond at a British port, or at
+any foreign port where he might raise funds on the personal
+credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any power to pledge
+the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only for such
+supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage.
+And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the
+owners of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before
+pledging their property (&ldquo;The Bonaparte,&rdquo; 1853, 8 Moo. P.C.
+473; &ldquo;The Staffordshire,&rdquo; 1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased
+facility of communication, by telegraph and otherwise, has given
+additional stringency to this rule, and caused a decline in the
+practice of giving bottomry bonds.</p>
+
+<p>The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain
+that a real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to
+see to the application of the money advanced. If the lender has
+originally advanced the funds on the personal credit of the owner
+he is not entitled to require a bottomry obligation. A bond
+procured from the shipmaster by improper compulsion would be
+void.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page311" id="page311"></a>311</span></p>
+
+<p>The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon
+there being some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so
+doing. He has no such power except in virtue of circumstances
+which may oblige him to assume the character of <i>agent for the
+cargo</i>, in the absence of any other party authorized to act on its
+behalf. Under ordinary circumstances he is not at liberty to
+pledge the cargo for repairs to the ship. If indeed the goods be
+of a perishable nature, and if it be impossible to get the ship
+repaired in sufficient time to obviate serious loss on them by
+delay, without including them under the bottomry contract, he
+has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in the case
+supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure.
+The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo,
+with a reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under
+the whole circumstances of the case. When he does this his
+proceedings will be sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice
+the interests of the cargo by including it under bottomry
+for the mere purpose of relieving the ship, or of earning the
+freight, the owners of the cargo will not be bound by the bottomry
+contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be good in
+part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted
+<i>within</i> or <i>beyond</i> the scope of his legitimate authority in granting
+it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different
+stages of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient
+to discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of
+payment, as having furnished the means of preserving the ship,
+and thereby preventing the total loss of the security for the
+previous bonds.</p>
+
+<p>When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight
+and cargo is not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be
+taken by the bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the
+sale of the ship; and should the proceeds of these be insufficient
+to discharge the claim, a judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted
+to. As a general rule the value of the ship and freight
+must be exhausted before recourse can be taken against the
+cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders against
+the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability
+under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged,
+whether the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond
+or not. But the owners of the ship, though not liable to the
+bondholder for more than the value of the ship and freight, may
+be further liable to the proprietors of the cargo for any sum in
+excess of the cargo&rsquo;s proper share of the expenses, taken by the
+bondholder out of the proceeds of the cargo to satisfy the bond
+after the ship and freight have been exhausted.</p>
+
+<p>The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties
+for whose benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on
+the final adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of
+destination.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was
+common among the ancient Greeks, being known as <span class="grk" title="ekdosis">&#7956;&#954;&#948;&#959;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="daneion">&#948;&#940;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>
+(see Demosthenes&rsquo; speeches <i>Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum</i> and
+<i>In Dionysodorum</i>); it passed into Roman law as <i>foenus nauticum</i>
+or <i>usura maritima</i>.</p>
+
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lien</a></span>: <i>Maritime</i>; and generally Abbott on <i>Shipping</i>
+(14th ed., 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTZARIS<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Bozzaris</span>], <span class="bold">MARCO</span> (<i>c.</i> 1788-1823), leader in the
+War of Greek Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the
+second son of Kitzo Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by
+order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803, after the capture of Suli by
+Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the Suliots, crossed over
+to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took service in an
+Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the Greek
+patriotic society known as the <i>Hetairia Philike</i>, and in 1820,
+with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina
+against the Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he
+distinguished himself by his courage, tenacity and skill as a
+partisan leader in the fighting in western Hellas, and was conspicuous
+in the defence of Missolonghi during the first siege
+(1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August 1823 he led the
+celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000 Albanians
+who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha
+was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks
+was complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still
+celebrated in popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris&rsquo;s
+brother Kosta (Constantine), who fought at Karpenisi and
+completed the victory, lived to become a general and senator in
+the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th of November
+1853. Marco&rsquo;s son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three
+times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He
+died at Athens on the 17th of August 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOTZEN,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bozen</span> (Ital. <i>Bolzano</i>), a town in the Austrian
+province of Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with
+the Eisak, and a short way above the junction of the latter with
+the Adige or Etsch. It is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a
+station on the Brenner railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass
+and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it had a population of 13,632,
+Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though the Italian element
+is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town amid
+Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old
+Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries,
+opposite which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of
+the famous <i>Minnesänger</i>, Walther von der Vogelweide, who,
+according to some accounts, was born (<i>c</i>. 1170) at a farm above
+Waidbruck, to the north of Botzen. Botzen is the busiest
+commercial town in the German-speaking portion of Tirol,
+being admirably situated at the junction of the Brenner route
+from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the
+Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has
+always been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually),
+while the local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century.
+Lately its prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour
+as a winter resort of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the
+Talfer, and now practically a suburb of Botzen.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pons Drusi</i> (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen)
+is mentioned in the 4th century by the <i>Peutinger Table</i>. In the
+7th to 8th centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian
+counts. But in 1027, with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it
+was given by the emperor Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent.
+From 1028 onwards it was ruled by local counts, the vassals of the
+bishops, but after Tirol fell into the hands of the Habsburgers
+(1363) their power grew at the expense of that of the bishops.
+In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of having a
+town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of
+jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later
+history is merged in that of Tirol.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHARDON, EDME<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (1698-1762), French sculptor, was
+esteemed in his day the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at
+Chaumont, he became the pupil of Guillaume Coustou and gained
+the <i>prix de Rome</i> in 1722. Resisting the tendency of the day
+he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste, always correct,
+charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the finish
+that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained
+at Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict
+XIII. (1730). In 1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece,
+&ldquo;Cupid fashioning a Bow out of the Club of Hercules,&rdquo;
+perfect in its grace, but cold in the purity of its classic design.
+His two other leading <i>chefs-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i> are the fountain in the rue
+de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which had been finished
+and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of Louis XV.,
+a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which,
+when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of
+its kind ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to
+finish, but left its completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during
+the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are <i>Vie d&rsquo;Edme
+Bouchardon</i>, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); <i>Notice sur
+Edme Bouchardon, sculpteur</i>, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837);
+<i>Notice historique sur Edme Bouchardon</i>, by J. Carnandet (Paris,
+1855); and <i>French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century</i>,
+by Lady Dilke (London, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (1703-1770), French painter, was born
+in Paris, and at first was employed by Jean François Cars (1670-1739),
+the engraver, father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771),
+to make designs and illustrations for books. In 1727,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page312" id="page312"></a>312</span>
+however, he went to Italy, and at Rome became well known as
+a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and soon became a
+favourite in society. His picture &ldquo;Rinaldo and Armida&rdquo; (1734)
+is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins
+factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by
+Madame de Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute
+various decorative works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like
+style and graceful voluptuousness gave him the title of the
+Anacreon of painting, but his repute declined until recent years.
+The Wallace collection, at Hertford House, has some of his
+finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings were also
+numerous and masterly.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Antoine Bret&rsquo;s notice in the <i>Nécrologe des hommes célèbres</i> for
+1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul
+Mantz.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER, JONATHAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (1738-1804), English divine and
+philologist, was born in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton,
+Cumberland, on the 12th of March 1738. He was educated at
+the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went to Virginia,
+where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia
+planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son
+of George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate
+friendship. Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop
+of London in March 1762, and at once sailed again for America,
+where he remained until 1775 as rector of various Virginia and
+Maryland parishes, including Hanover, King George&rsquo;s county,
+Virginia, and St Anne&rsquo;s at Annapolis, Maryland. He was widely
+known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments
+won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest
+scholars in the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he
+vigorously opposed the &ldquo;vestry act,&rdquo; by which the powers and
+emoluments of the Maryland pastors were greatly diminished.
+When the struggle between the colonies and the mother country
+began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his
+opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other
+measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a
+breach between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell
+discourse preached after the opening of hostilities he declared
+that no power on earth should prevent him from praying and
+shouting &ldquo;God save the King.&rdquo; In the succeeding autumn he
+returned to England, where his loyalism was rewarded by a
+government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in
+Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April
+1804, becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of
+his day. He was an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed
+largely to William Hutchinson&rsquo;s <i>History of the County of Cumberland</i>
+(2 vols., 1704 seq.), and published <i>A View of the Causes
+and Consequences of the American Revolution</i> (1797), dedicated
+to George Washington, and consisting of thirteen discourses
+delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His philological
+studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were devoted,
+resulted in the compilation of &ldquo;A Glossary of Provincial and
+Archaic Words,&rdquo; intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary</i>, but never published except in part, which finally in
+1831 passed into the hands of the English compilers of Webster&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary</i>, by whom it was utilized.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Barton Boucher</span> (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill
+Bishops, Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of
+religious tracts, hymns and novels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHER DE CRÈVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span>
+(1788-1868), French geologist and antiquary, was born on the
+10th of September 1788 at Rethel, Ardennes, France. He was
+the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume Boucher de Crèvec&oelig;ur,
+botanist and customs officer, and of Étienne-Jeanne-Marie de
+Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by royal decree in
+1818 to assume in addition to his father&rsquo;s). In 1802 he entered
+government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him
+for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid
+promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825)
+to succeed his father as director of the <i>douane</i> at Abbeville,
+where he remained for the rest of his life, being superannuated
+in January 1853, and dying on the 5th of August 1868. His
+leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of what was afterwards
+called the Stone Age, &ldquo;antediluvian man,&rdquo; as he expressed it.
+About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the Somme
+valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human
+handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make
+public the important discovery of a worked flint implement
+with remains of elephant, rhinoceros, &amp;c., in the gravels of
+Menchecourt. This was in 1846. A few years later he commenced
+the issue of his monumental work, <i>Antiquités celtiques
+et an édiluviennes</i> (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a work in which
+he was the first to establish the existence of man in the Pleistocene
+or early Quaternary period. His views met with little approval,
+partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding
+the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly
+because the figures in his book were badly executed and they
+included drawings of flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship.
+In 1855 Dr Jean Paul Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens,
+strongly advocated the authenticity of the flint implements; but
+it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer (<i>q.v</i>.) saw the collection
+at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (<i>q.v</i>.) in the following year
+to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely agreed that the
+flint implements were the work of man, and that they occurred
+in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct
+mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together
+with worked flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near
+Abbeville seemed to vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely;
+but doubt was thrown on the antiquity of the human remains
+(owing to the possibility of interment), though not on the good
+faith of the discoverer, who was the same year made an officer
+of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his
+champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many
+other directions. For more than thirty years he filled the
+presidential chair of the Société d&rsquo;Émulation at Abbeville,
+to the publications of which he contributed articles on a wide
+range of subjects. He was the author of several tragedies,
+two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a number of
+books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his scientific
+books may be added <i>De l&rsquo;homme antédilumen et de ses &oelig;uvres</i>
+(Paris, 1860).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Alcius Ledien, <i>Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses &oelig;uvres, sa
+correspondence</i> (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, &ldquo;Recollections
+of M. Boucher de Perthes&rdquo; (with portrait) in <i>Essays Descriptive and
+Biographical</i> (1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHES-DU-RHÔNE,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a maritime department of south-eastern
+France situated at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026
+sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed in 1790 from western
+Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which it is separated
+by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the Mediterranean,
+along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m.
+The western portion consists of the Camargue (<i>q.v</i>.), a low and
+marshy plain enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhône,
+and comprising the Rhone delta. A large portion of its surface is
+covered by lagoons and pools (étangs), the largest of which is the
+Étang de Vaccarès; to the east of the Camargue is situated the
+remarkable stretch of country called the Crau, which is strewn
+with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east and north
+there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation belonging
+to the Alpine system. The Étang de Berre, a lagoon
+covering an area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea
+to the south-east of the Crau. A few small tributaries of the
+Rhone and the Durance, a number of streams, such as the Arc
+and the Touloubre, which flow into the Étang de Berre, and the
+Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are the only
+rivers that properly belong to the department.</p>
+
+<p>Bouches-du-Rhône enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean
+coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy
+north-west wind blowing from the central plateau of France.
+The proportion of arable land is small, though the quantity has
+been considerably increased by artificial irrigation and by the
+draining of marshland. Cereals, of which wheat and oats are
+the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and the plain of
+Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page313" id="page313"></a>313</span>
+is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the
+oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method
+of submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera.
+In the cantons of the north-west large quantities of early
+vegetables are produced. Of live-stock, sheep alone are raised to
+any extent. Almonds, figs, capers, mulberry trees and silkworms
+are sources of considerable profit. Iron is worked, but
+the most important mines are those of lignite, in which between
+2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces
+bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand
+and gravel and marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen,
+and the amount of sea-salt obtained exceeds in quantity the produce
+of any other department in France. Marseilles, the capital,
+is by far the most important industrial town. In its oil-works,
+soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding works, distilleries,
+flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering and machinery
+works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved foods
+and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated
+most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these
+must be added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne,
+the silk-works in the north-west cantons, and various paper and
+cardboard manufactories, while several of the industries of
+Marseilles, such as the distilling of oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding
+and soap-making, are common to the whole of Bouches-du-Rhône.
+Fishing is also an important industry. Cereals, flour,
+silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils, soap, sugar
+and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and brandy,
+raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &amp;c., are
+imported.  The foreign commerce of the department, which is
+principally carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most
+part concentrated in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues,
+Cassis and La Ciotat. Internal trade is facilitated by the canal
+from Aries to Port-de-Bouc and two smaller canals, in all about
+35 m. in length. The Rhone and the Petit-Rhône are both
+navigable within the department.</p>
+
+<p>Bouches-du-Rhône is divided into the three arrondissements
+of Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It
+belongs to the archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of
+the XV. army corps, the headquarters of which are at Marseilles,
+and to the <i>académie</i> (educational division) of Aix. Its court of
+appeal is at Aix. Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues,
+Salon, Les Saintes-Maries, St Rémy, Les Baux and Tarascon,
+the principal places, are separately noticed. Objects of interest
+elsewhere may be mentioned. Near Saint-Chamas there is a
+remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre, which probably
+dates from the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and is thus the oldest in
+France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has
+triumphal arches at either end. At Vernègues there are
+remains of a Roman temple known as the &ldquo;Maison-Basse.&rdquo; The
+famous abbey of Montmajour, of which the oldest parts are
+the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2½ m. from Arles. At
+Orgon there are the ruins of a château of the 15th century, and
+near La Roque d&rsquo;Anthéron the church and other buildings of
+the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOR, MAURICE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1855-&emsp;&emsp;), French poet, was born on
+the 15th of December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession
+<i>Chansons joyeuses</i> (1874), <i>Poèmes de l&rsquo;amour et de la mer</i> (1875),
+<i>Le Faust moderne</i> (1878) in prose and verse, and <i>Les Contes
+parisiens</i> (1880) in verse. His <i>Aurore</i> (1883) showed a tendency
+to religious mysticism, which reached its fullest expression in
+<i>Les Symboles</i> (1888; new series, 1895), the most interesting of his
+works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph Félix Bouchor, b. 1853,
+became well known as an artist) was a sculptor as well as a poet,
+and he designed and worked the figures used in his charming
+pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by
+himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas
+on religious subjects, <i>Tobie</i> (1889), <i>Noël</i> (1890) and <i>Sainte
+Cécile</i> (1892), were produced in Paris at the Théâtre des
+Marionnettes. A one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noël, was
+played at the Théâtre Français in 1895, but <i>Dieu le veut</i>
+(1888) was not produced. In conjunction with the musician
+Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts for the preservation of
+the French folk-songs, and published <i>Chants populaires pour les
+écoles</i> (1897).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOËL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (1754-1840), French
+minister, was born at Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At
+the outbreak of the Revolution he was a captain of cavalry, and
+his zeal led to his being made colonel and given the command at
+Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the Austrians the
+minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April 1793,
+Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by
+the Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the
+31st of March 1794. The predominant rôle of the Committee of
+Public Safety during that period did not leave much scope for the
+new minister, yet he rendered some services in the organization
+of the republican armies, and chose his officers with insight,
+among them Kléber, Masséna, Moreau and Bonaparte. During
+the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his incontestable honesty,
+he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was tried by the
+tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he withdrew
+from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the 8th
+of June 1840.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAULT, DION<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright,
+was born in Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a
+French refugee and an Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was
+fortunate enough to make an immediate success as a dramatist
+with <i>London Assurance</i>, produced at Covent Garden on the
+4th of March 1841, with a cast that included Charles Matthews,
+William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He rapidly
+followed this with a number of other plays, among the most
+successful of the early ones being <i>Old Heads and Young Hearts</i>,
+<i>Louis XI</i>., and <i>The Corsican Brothers</i>. In June 1852 he made his
+first appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled
+<i>The Vampire</i> at the Princess&rsquo;s theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he
+was in the United States, where he was always a popular favourite.
+On his return to England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic
+adaptation of Gerald Griffin&rsquo;s novel, <i>The Collegians</i>, entitled <i>The
+Colleen Bawn</i>. This play, one of the most successful of modern
+times, was performed in almost every city of the United Kingdom
+and the United States, and made its author a handsome fortune,
+which he lost in the management of various London theatres. It
+was followed by <i>The Octoroon</i> (1861), the popularity of which was
+almost as great. Boucicault&rsquo;s next marked success was at the
+Princess&rsquo;s theatre in 1865 with <i>Arrah-na-Pogue</i>, in which he
+played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable
+creation of Con in his play <i>The Shaughraun</i> (first produced at
+Drury Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best
+stage Irishman of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York
+City and finally made his home there, but he paid occasional
+visits to London, where his last appearance was made in his play,
+<i>The Jilt</i>, in 1886. <i>The Streets of London</i> and <i>After Dark</i> were two
+of his late successes as a dramatist. He died in New York on the
+18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice married, his first
+wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of Charles
+Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children,
+Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished
+in the profession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUCICAUT, JEAN<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Jean le Meingre</span>, called <span class="sc">Boucicaut</span>]
+(<i>c.</i> 1366-1421), marshal of France, was the son of another Jean
+le Meingre, also known as Boucicaut, marshal of France, who
+died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.). At a very early age he
+became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in Flanders and in
+Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of Roosebeke in
+1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to the
+Holy Land. Boucicaut&rsquo;s great desire appears to have been to
+fight the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers
+who marched to the defence of Hungary and shared in the
+Christian defeat at Nicopolis, where he narrowly escaped death.
+After remaining for some months a captive in the hands of the
+sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned to France; then
+in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the Eastern
+emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut
+drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and
+returned to France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page314" id="page314"></a>314</span>
+again to eastern Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa,
+who in 1396 had placed herself under the dominion of France.
+Here he was successful in restoring order and in making the
+French occupation effective, and he was soon able to turn his
+attention to the defence of the Genoese possessions in the
+Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this direction involved
+him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus, but led
+also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off
+Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been
+claimed by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with
+the republic, and then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on
+a campaign in northern Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke,
+and Boucicaut, unable to reduce her again to submission, retired
+to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt, where he was taken
+prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was very skilful
+in the tournament, founded the order of the <i>Dame blanche à
+l&rsquo;écu vert</i>, a society the object of which was to defend the
+wives and daughters of absent knights.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut&rsquo;s life
+and adventures, entitled <i>Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le
+Meingre dit Boucicaut</i>, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy
+in 1620. See J. Delaville le Roulx, <i>La France en Orient: expéditions
+du maréchal Boucicaut</i> (Paris, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUDIN, EUGÈNE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1824-1898), French painter of the <i>paysage
+de mer</i>, was the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy
+for a while on board the rickety steamer that plied between
+Havre and Honfleur across the estuary of the Seine. But before
+old age came on him, Boudin&rsquo;s father abandoned seafaring,
+and the son gave it up too, having of course no real vocation
+for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a sailor&rsquo;s
+character,&mdash;frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin
+the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker;
+this time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugène
+helped in the little business, and, in stolen hours, produced
+certain drawings. That was a time at which the romantic outlines
+of the Norman coast engaged Isabey, and the green wide
+valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon; and Troyon and
+Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young Boudin
+found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence;
+his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the
+young man resulted in his being granted for a short term of
+years by the town of his adoption a pension, that he might study
+painting. He studied partly in Paris; but whatever individuality
+he possessed in those years was hidden and covered, rather than
+disclosed. An instance of tiresome, elaborate labour&mdash;good
+enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of keeping with
+what at least was the popular taste of that day&mdash;is his &ldquo;Pardon
+of Sainte Anne de la Palud,&rdquo; a Breton scene, of 1858, in which
+he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately
+to become his wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture
+hangs in the museum of Havre, along with a hundred later,
+fresher, thoroughly individual studies and sketches, the gift
+of Boudin&rsquo;s brother, Louis Boudin, after the painter&rsquo;s death.
+Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and poor.
+But his work gained character and added, to merely academic
+correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be
+himself by 1864 or 1865&mdash;that was the first of such periods
+of his as may be accounted good&mdash;and, though not at that time
+so fully a master of transient effects of weather as he became
+later, he began then to paint with a success genuinely artistic
+the scenes of the harbour and the estuary, which no longer
+lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious completeness.
+The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for
+then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously
+conceived canvases and panels, which record the impressions
+of a precursor of the Impressionists in presence of the Channel
+waters, and of those autumn skies, or skies of summer, now
+radiant, now uncertain, which hung over the small ports and
+the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the watering-places, Trouville,
+Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with <i>port</i> and
+<i>avant-port</i> and <i>bassin</i>, of Dunkirk, of Havre.  In the war
+time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About 1875-1876
+he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird&rsquo;s-eye
+vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from
+these years, and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion
+of Jongkind, with whom he had so much in common,
+but whose work, like his, free and fearless and unconventional,
+can never be said with accuracy to have seriously influenced
+his own. Doing excellent things continually through all the
+&rsquo;seventies, when he was in late middle age&mdash;gaining scope in
+colour, having now so many notes&mdash;faithful no longer wholly
+to his amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery,
+now nobly deep&mdash;sending to the Salon great canvases, and to
+the few enlightened people who would buy them of him the
+<i>toile</i> or panel of most moderate size on which he best of all expressed
+himself&mdash;Boudin was yet not acceptable to the public
+or to the fashionable dealer. The late &rsquo;eighties had to come
+and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale for his work
+at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly speaking
+his work in those very &rsquo;eighties was not so good as the labour,
+essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier,
+nor had it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances
+of some years later, when the inspired sketch was the thing
+that he generally stopped at. Old age found him strong and
+receptive. Only in the very last year of his life was there perceptible
+a positive deterioration. Not very long before it,
+Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions of Venice
+for which much more was to be said than that they were not
+Ziem&rsquo;s. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the
+sunshine blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly
+at Antibes and Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again
+as a refuge from ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief
+it could give him was almost spent, he resolved that it should
+not be for him, in the words of Maurice Barrès, a &ldquo;<i>tombe fleurie</i>,&rdquo;
+and he returned, hastily, weak and sinking, to his home at
+Deauville, that he might at least die within sight of Channel
+waters and under Channel skies. As a &ldquo;marine painter&rdquo;&mdash;more
+properly as a painter of subjects in which water must have
+some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that
+goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks
+of tidal rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined
+Parisienne noted as ably as the sailor-folk&mdash;Boudin stands alone.
+Beside him others are apt to seem rather theatrical&mdash;or if they
+do not romance they appear, perhaps, to chronicle dully. The
+pastels of Boudin&mdash;summary and economic even in the &rsquo;sixties,
+at a time when his painted work was less free&mdash;obtained the
+splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other than Corot
+who, before his pictures, said to him: &ldquo;You are the master
+of the sky.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Gustave Cahen, <i>Eugène Boudin</i> (Paris, 1899); Arsène
+Alexandre, <i>Essais</i>; Frederick Wedmore, <i>Whistler and Others</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. We.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUDINOT, ELIAS<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (1740-1821), American revolutionary
+leader, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot
+descent, on the 2nd of May 1740. He studied law at Princeton,
+New Jersey, in the office of Richard Stockton, whose sister
+Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760 he was
+licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards practising
+at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of
+Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs.
+He was a deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from
+May to August 1775, and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the
+commissary-general of prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in
+the continental army. He was one of the New Jersey members
+of the continental congress in 1778 and again from 1781 until
+1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was president
+of that body, acting also for a short time, after the resignation
+of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs. From
+1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of Representatives,
+and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the
+United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part
+in the founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which
+he became the first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor
+of the college of New Jersey (afterwards Princeton University).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page315" id="page315"></a>315</span>
+In reply to Thomas Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age of Reason</i>, he published the
+<i>Age of Revelation</i> (1790); he also published a volume entitled
+<i>A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost
+Ten Tribes of Israel</i> (1816), in which he endeavours to prove
+that the American Indians may be the ten lost tribes. Boudinot
+died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October 1821.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias
+Boudinot</i>, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUÉ, AMI<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at
+Hamburg on the 16th of March 1794, and received his early
+education there and in Geneva and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh
+to study medicine at the university, he came under
+the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in geology
+and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boué was thus led
+to make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and
+the Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he
+settled for some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his <i>Essai
+géologique sur l&rsquo;Écosse</i>, in which the eruptive rocks in particular
+were carefully described. He travelled much in Germany,
+Austria and southern Europe, studying various geological formations,
+and becoming one of the pioneers in geological research;
+he was one of the founders of the Société Géologique de France
+in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he settled in
+Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the
+21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences
+at Vienna he communicated important papers on the geology
+of the Balkan States (1859-1870), and he also published <i>Mémoires
+géologiques et paléontologiques</i> (Paris, 1832) and <i>La Turquie
+d&rsquo;Europe; observations sur la géographie, la géologie, l&rsquo;histoire
+naturelle, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1840).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span>, comte de Cagny
+(1644-1711), marshal of France, was born on the 10th of January
+1644. He entered the army and saw service in 1663 at the siege
+of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of dragoons. In the conquest
+of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de Créqui. In Holland
+he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing himself
+by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a
+cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the
+retreat of the French army. He was already a brigadier, and
+in 1677 he became <i>maréchal de camp</i>. He served throughout the
+campaigns of the time with increasing distinction, and in 1681
+became lieutenant-general. He commanded the French army
+on the Moselle, which opened the War of the League of Augsburg
+with a series of victories; then he led a corps to the Sambre,
+and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of Fleurus.
+In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in person;
+and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack
+on the town. He was present with the king at the siege of
+Namur in 1692, and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For
+his services he was raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of
+France, and in 1694 was made a duke. In 1694 he was appointed
+governor of French Flanders and of the town of Lille. By a
+skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in 1695, and
+only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of his
+13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace
+of Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war,
+when Lille was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and
+Eugene, Boufflers was appointed to the command, and made a
+most gallant resistance of three months. He was rewarded and
+honoured by the king for his defence of Lille, as if he had been
+victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph; his enemy,
+appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms of
+capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709,
+when the affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent
+danger, Boufflers offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and
+was with him at the battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed
+the highest skill, and after Villars was wounded he conducted
+the retreat of the French army without losing either cannon or
+prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd of August
+1711.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F...., <i>Vie du Mal. de Boufflers</i> (Lille, 1852), and Père
+Delarue&rsquo;s and Père Poisson&rsquo;s <i>Oraisons funèbres du Mal. B.</i> (1712).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> <span class="sc">Chevalier de</span> (1737-1815),
+French statesman and man of letters, was born near Nancy
+on the 31st of May 1738. He was the son of Louis François,
+marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie Catherine de Beauveau
+Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski, and the boy
+was brought up at the court of Lunéville. He spent six months
+in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during his
+residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely
+popular, <i>Aline, reine de Golconde</i>. Boufflers did not,
+however, take the vows, as his ambitions were military. He
+entered the order of the Knights of Malta, so that he might be
+able to follow the career of arms without sacrificing the revenues
+of a benefice he had received in Lorraine from King Stanislas.
+After serving in various campaigns he reached the grade of
+<i>maréchal de camp</i> in 1784, and in the next year was sent to West
+Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent administrator,
+and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of
+the slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the
+material resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787
+was regarded as a real calamity by both colonists and negroes.
+The <i>Mémoires secrets</i> of Bachaumont give the current opinion
+that Boufflers was sent to Senegal because he was in disgrace at
+court; but the real reason appears to have been a desire to pay
+his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran, which took
+place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted
+to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of
+the states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum
+with Prince Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration
+he was made joint-librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine. His
+wit and his skill in light verse had won him a great reputation,
+and he was one of the idols of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical
+character was described in an epigram attributed to Antoine
+de Rivarol, &ldquo;<i>abbé libertin, militaire philosophe, diplomate chansonnier,
+émigré patriote, républicain courtisan</i>.&rdquo; He died in Paris
+on the 18th of January 1815.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> were published under his own supervision
+in 1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by
+Eugène Asse in 1878; his <i>Poésies</i> by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the
+<i>Correspondance inédite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de
+Boufflers</i> (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1729-1811), French
+navigator, was born at Paris on the 11th of November 1729.
+He was the son of a notary, and in early life studied law, but
+soon abandoned the profession, and in 1753 entered the army
+in the corps of musketeers. At the age of twenty-five he published
+a treatise on the integral calculus, as a supplement to
+De l&rsquo;Hôpital&rsquo;s treatise, <i>Des infiniment petits</i>. In 1755 he was sent
+to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made
+a member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as
+captain of dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm;
+and having distinguished himself in the war against
+England, was rewarded with the rank of colonel and the cross
+of St Louis. He afterwards served in the Seven Years&rsquo; War
+from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French government
+conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands,
+Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the
+settlement having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the
+French government gave it up to them, on condition of their
+indemnifying Bougainville. He was then appointed to the
+command of the frigate &ldquo;La Boudeuse&rdquo; and the transport
+&ldquo;L&rsquo;Etoile,&rdquo; and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of
+discovery round the world. Having executed his commission
+of delivering up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville
+proceeded on his expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires.
+Passing through the Straits of Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu
+archipelago, and Tahiti, where the English navigator Wallis
+had touched eight months before. He proceeded across the
+Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named
+the Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon
+Islands. His men now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels
+requiring refitting, he anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas,
+where the governor of the Dutch settlement supplied his wants.
+It was the beginning of September, and the expedition took
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page316" id="page316"></a>316</span>
+advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried them to
+Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with
+the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville&rsquo;s
+account of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity
+and some humour. After an interval of several years, he again
+accepted a naval command and saw much active service between
+1779 and 1782. In the memorable engagement of the 12th of April
+1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte de Grasse, near
+Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the &ldquo;Auguste,&rdquo; succeeded
+in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them
+safely into St Eustace. He was created <i>chef d&rsquo;escadre</i>, and on
+re-entering the army, was given the rank of <i>maréchal de camp</i>.
+After the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of
+associate of the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery
+towards the north pole, but this did not meet with support from
+the French government. Bougainville obtained the rank of
+vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792, having escaped almost
+miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he retired to his estate
+in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the Institute at its
+formation, and returning to Paris became a member of the Board
+of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator,
+count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He
+died at Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and
+had three sons, who served in the French army.</p>
+
+<p>Bougainville&rsquo;s name is given to the largest member of the
+Solomon Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait
+which divides it from the British island of Choiseul. It is also
+applied to the strait between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo
+Islands of the New Hebrides group, and the South American
+climbing plant <i>Bougainvillea</i>, often cultivated in greenhouses,
+is named after him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1834-1905), Anglo-American
+painter, was born in England, but his parents went to the
+United States in 1839, and he was brought up at Albany, N.Y.
+He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and subsequently
+lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick
+Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made
+his reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A.
+in 1896, and a member of the National Academy of Design in
+New York in 1871. His pictures of Dutch life and scenery were
+especially characteristic; and his subject-pictures, such as the
+&ldquo;Return of the Mayflower&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Scarlet Letter,&rdquo; were
+very popular in America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUGIE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement
+in the department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The
+town, which is defended by a wall built since the French occupation,
+and by detached forts, is beautifully situated on the slope
+of Mount Guraya. Behind it are the heights of Mounts Babor
+and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and crowned with forests of
+pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting buildings in the
+town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and Abd-el-Kader,
+and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by
+bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was
+built by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist,
+and considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in
+the 11th century. The streets are very steep, and many are
+ascended by stairs. The harbour, sheltered from the east by a
+breakwater, was enlarged in 1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and
+has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft. Bougie is the natural port
+of Kabylia, and under the French rule its commerce&mdash;chiefly
+in oils, wools, hides and minerals&mdash;has greatly developed; a
+branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from
+Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the
+commune, 17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight
+communes, 37,711.</p>
+
+<p>Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the
+Romans, is a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its
+origin to the Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric
+the Vandal surrounded it with walls and for some time made it
+his capital. En-Nasr (1062-1088), the most powerful of the
+Berber dynasty of Hammad, made Bougie the seat of his government,
+and it became the greatest commercial centre of the North
+African coast, attaining a high degree of civilization. From an
+old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the heliograph was in
+common use, special towers, with mirrors properly arranged,
+being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian merchants
+of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the
+city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of
+the 13th century Bougie passed under the dominion of the
+Hafsides, and in the 15th century it became one of the strongholds
+of the Barbary pirates. It enjoyed partial independence
+under amirs of Hafside origin, but in January 1510 was captured
+by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The Spaniards strongly
+fortified the place and held it against two attacks by the corsairs
+Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah
+Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his <i>Africae
+descriptio</i>, speaks of the &ldquo;magnificence&rdquo; of the temples, palaces
+and other buildings of the city in his day (<i>c.</i> 1525), but it appears
+to have fallen into decay not long afterwards. When the French
+took the town from the Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little
+more than a few fortifications and ruins. It is said that the
+French word for a candle is derived from the name of the town,
+candles being first made of wax imported from Bougie.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUGUER, PIERRE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1698-1758), French mathematician,
+was born on the 16th of February 1698. His father, John
+Bouguer, one of the best hydrographers of his time, was regius
+professor of hydrography at Croisic in lower Brittany, and
+author of a treatise on navigation. In 1713 he was appointed
+to succeed his father as professor of hydrography. In 1727 he
+gained the prize given by the Académie des Sciences for his
+paper &ldquo;On the best manner of forming and distributing the
+masts of ships&rdquo;; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation
+&ldquo;On the best method of observing the altitude of stars at sea,&rdquo;
+the other for his paper &ldquo;On the best method of observing the
+variation of the compass at sea.&rdquo; These were published in the
+<i>Prix de l&rsquo;Académie des Sciences</i>. In 1729 he published <i>Essai
+d&rsquo;optique sur la gradation de la lumière</i>, the object of which is to
+define the quantity of light lost by passing through a given
+extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun to be
+300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made
+some of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he
+was made professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded
+P.L.M. de Maupertuis as associate geometer of the Académie
+des Sciences. He also invented a heliometer, afterwards
+perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards promoted in the
+Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside in Paris.
+In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in
+order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator.
+Ten years were spent in this operation, a full account of which
+was published by Bouguer in 1749, <i>Figure de la terre déterminée</i>.
+His later writings were nearly all upon the theory of navigation.
+He died on the 15th of August 1758.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following is a list of his principal works:&mdash;<i>Traité d&rsquo;optique
+sur la gradation de la lumière</i> (1729 and 1760);
+<i>Entretiens sur la cause d&rsquo;inclinaison des orbites des planètes</i> (1734);
+<i>Traité de navire, &amp;c.</i> (1746, 4to);
+<i>La Figure de la terre déterminée, &amp;c.</i> (1749), 4to;
+<i>Nouveau traité de navigation, contenant la théorie et la pratique du pilotage</i> (1753);
+<i>Solution des principaux problèmes sur la manoeuvre des vaisseaux</i> (1757);
+<i>Opérations faites pour la vérification du degré du méridien entre
+Paris et Amiens</i>, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus, Cassini et Pingré(1757).</p>
+
+<p>See J.E. Montucla, <i>Histoire des mathématiques</i> (1802).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1825-1905), French
+painter, was born at La Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825.
+From 1843 till 1850 he went through the course of training at
+the École des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850 divided the Grand Prix
+de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set being &ldquo;Zenobia
+on the banks of the Araxes.&rdquo; On his return from Rome in 1855
+he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences,
+deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at
+Pompeii and Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his
+&ldquo;Idyll&rdquo; (1853). He also began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at
+the Salon. &ldquo;The Martyr&rsquo;s Triumph,&rdquo; the body of St Cecilia
+borne to the catacombs, was placed in the Luxembourg after
+being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page317" id="page317"></a>317</span>
+year he exhibited &ldquo;Fraternal Love,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Portrait&rdquo; and a
+&ldquo;Study.&rdquo; The state subsequently commissioned him to paint
+the emperor&rsquo;s visit to the sufferers by the inundations at
+Tarascon. In 1857 Bouguereau received a first prize medal.
+Nine of his panels executed in wax-painting for the mansion of
+M. Bartholomy were much discussed&mdash;&ldquo;Love,&rdquo; &ldquo;Friendship,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Fortune,&rdquo; &ldquo;Spring,&rdquo; &ldquo;Summer,&rdquo; &ldquo;Dancing,&rdquo; &ldquo;Arion on a
+Sea-horse,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Bacchante&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Four Divisions of the
+Day.&rdquo; He also exhibited at the Salon &ldquo;The Return of Tobit&rdquo;
+(now in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed
+much grace of design, in his &ldquo;Napoleon,&rdquo; a work of evident
+labour, he betrayed a lack of ease in the treatment of modern
+costume. Bouguereau subsequently exhibited &ldquo;Love Wounded&rdquo;
+(1859), &ldquo;The Day of the Dead&rdquo; (at Bordeaux), &ldquo;The First
+Discord&rdquo; (1861, in the Club at Limoges), &ldquo;The Return from the
+Fields&rdquo; (a picture in which Théophile Gautier recognized &ldquo;a
+pure feeling for the antique&rdquo;), &ldquo;A Fawn and Bacchante&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Peace&rdquo;; in 1863 a &ldquo;Holy Family,&rdquo; &ldquo;Remorse,&rdquo; &ldquo;A Bacchante
+teasing a Goat&rdquo; (in the Bordeaux gallery); in 1864 &ldquo;A
+Bather&rdquo; (at Ghent), and &ldquo;Sleep&rdquo;; in 1865 &ldquo;An Indigent
+Family,&rdquo; and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 &ldquo;A
+First Cause,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Covetousness,&rdquo; with &ldquo;Philomela and
+Procne&rdquo;; and some decorative work for M. Montlun at La
+Rochelle, for M. Emile Péreire in Paris, and for the churches of
+St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866 the large painting of
+&ldquo;Apollo and the Muses on Olympus,&rdquo; in the Great Theatre at
+Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned
+&ldquo;Between Love and Riches&rdquo; (1869), &ldquo;A Girl Bathing&rdquo; (1870),
+&ldquo;In Harvest Time&rdquo; (1872), &ldquo;Nymphs and Satyrs&rdquo; (1873),
+&ldquo;Charity&rdquo; and &ldquo;Homer and his Guide&rdquo; (1874), &ldquo;Virgin and
+Child,&rdquo; &ldquo;Jesus and John the Baptist,&rdquo; &ldquo;Return of Spring&rdquo;
+(which was purchased by an American collector, and was destroyed
+by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a &ldquo;Pietà&rdquo;
+(1876), &ldquo;A Girl defending herself from Love&rdquo; (1880), &ldquo;Night&rdquo;
+(1883), &ldquo;The Youth of Bacchus&rdquo; (1884), &ldquo;Biblis&rdquo; (1885),
+&ldquo;Love Disarmed&rdquo; (1886), &ldquo;Love Victorious&rdquo; (1887), &ldquo;The
+Holy Women at the Sepulchre&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Little Beggar Girls&rdquo;
+(1890), &ldquo;Love in a Shower&rdquo; and &ldquo;First Jewels&rdquo; (1891). To
+the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau&rsquo;s
+best-known pictures. Most of his works, especially &ldquo;The Triumph
+of Venus&rdquo; (1856) and &ldquo;Charity,&rdquo; are popularly known through
+engravings. &ldquo;Prayer,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Invocation&rdquo; and &ldquo;Sappho&rdquo;
+have been engraved by M. Thirion, &ldquo;The Golden Age&rdquo; by M.
+Annetombe. Bouguereau&rsquo;s pictures, highly appreciated by the
+general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of
+a freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with
+being too content to revive the formulas and subjects of the
+antique. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a
+third-class medal, in 1878 a medal of honour, and the same again
+in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the Society of French
+Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled with much
+energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856,
+an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of
+July 1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute,
+8th of January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ch. Vendryes, <i>Catalogue illustré des &oelig;uvres de Bouguereau</i>
+(Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, <i>Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains</i>
+(Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, <i>French Painters; Artistes modernes:
+dictionnaire illustré des beaux-arts</i> (1885); &ldquo;W. Bouguereau,&rdquo; <i>Portfolio</i>
+(1875); Émile Bayard, &ldquo;William Bouguereau,&rdquo; <i>Monde
+moderne</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (1628-1702), French critic, was
+born in Paris in 1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the
+age of sixteen, and was appointed to read lectures on literature
+in the college of Clermont at Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours.
+He afterwards became private tutor to the two sons of the duke
+of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the Romanist
+refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary
+occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he
+returned to Paris, and published in 1671 <i>Les Entretiens d&rsquo;Ariste
+et d&rsquo;Eugène</i>, a critical work on the French language, printed
+five times at Paris, twice at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons,
+Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &amp;c. The chief of his other works
+are <i>La Manière de bien penser sur les ouvrages d&rsquo;esprit</i> (1687),
+<i>Doutes sur la langue française</i> (1674), <i>Vie de Saint Ignace de Loyola</i>
+(1679), <i>Vie de Saint François Xavier</i> (1682), and a translation of
+the New Testament into French (1697). His practice of publishing
+secular books and works of devotion alternately led to the
+<i>mot</i>, <i>&rdquo;qu&rsquo;il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre.&rdquo;</i> Bouhours
+died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Georges Doucieux, <i>Un Jésuite homme de lettres au dix-septième
+siècle: Le père Bouhours</i> (1886). For a list of Bouhours&rsquo; works see
+Backer and Sommervogel, <i>Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus</i>, i.
+pp. 1886 et seq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1822-1869), French poet
+and dramatist, was born at Cany, Seine Inférieure, on the 27th
+of May 1822. He was a schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to
+whom he dedicated his first work, <i>Méloenis</i> (1851), a narrative
+poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman manners under the
+emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled <i>Fossiles</i>
+attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt
+therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were
+included also in <i>Festons et astragales</i> (1859). As a dramatist
+he secured a success with his first play, <i>Madame de Montarcy</i>
+(1856), which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odéon; and
+<i>Hélène Peyron</i> (1858) and <i>L&rsquo;Oncle Million</i> (1860) were also
+favourably received. But of his other plays, some of them
+of real merit, only the <i>Conjuration d&rsquo;Amboise</i> (1866) met with
+any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th of July 1869, at
+Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a notice
+of the author, in 1872.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Maxime du Camp, <i>Souvenirs littéraires</i> (1882); and
+H. de la Ville de Mirmont, <i>Le Poète Louis Bouilhet</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUILLÉ, FRANÇOIS CLAUDE AMOUR,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1739-1800),
+French general. He served in the Seven Years&rsquo; War,
+and as governor in the Antilles conducted operations against
+the English in the War of American Independence. On his
+return to France he was named governor of the Three Bishoprics,
+of Alsace and of Franche-Comté. Hostile to the Revolution,
+he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and
+brutally suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy,
+which had been provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble
+officers. Then he proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a
+frontier town where an appeal could be made to other nations
+against the revolutionists. When this project failed as a result
+of Louis XVI.&rsquo;s arrest at Varennes, Bouillé went to Russia to
+induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the king, and then
+to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in various
+royalist attempts on France. He left <i>Mémoires sur la Révolution
+française depuis son origine jusqu&rsquo;à la retraite du duc de
+Brunswick</i> (Paris, 1801).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUILLON,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes,
+now a small town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop.
+(1904) 2721. It is most picturesquely situated in the valley
+under the rocky ridge on which are still the very well preserved
+remains of the castle of Godfrey of Bouillon (<i>q.v.</i>), the leader
+of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft. above the sea, but lying
+in a basin, skirts both banks of the river Semois which is crossed
+by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round and almost
+encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of the
+sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The
+whole effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant
+woods makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In
+the 8th and 9th centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the
+counts of Ardenne and Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries
+the family took the higher titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine
+and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the name of Godfrey (Godefroy)
+and the fifth of them was the great crusader. He was the
+son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many commentators
+into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was
+born at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle
+of Baisy near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida
+d&rsquo;Ardenne, sister of the fourth Godfrey (&ldquo;the Hunchback&rdquo;),
+and the successful defence of the castle when a mere youth
+of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat of arms of the future
+conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress, strong by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page318" id="page318"></a>318</span>
+art as well as position before the invention of modern artillery,
+has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake
+the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince
+bishop of Liége, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the
+appendage of the bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The
+bishops appointed &ldquo;châtelains,&rdquo; one of whom was the celebrated
+&ldquo;Wild Boar of the Ardennes,&rdquo; William de la Marck. His
+descendants made themselves quasi-independent and called
+themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of Bouillon, and they
+were even recognized by the king of France. The possession
+of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife
+until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of
+Nijmwegen. From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested
+in the French family of La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne, one of whom
+(Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of France) had
+married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race.
+In 1676 the duke of Créquy seized it in the name of Louis XIV.,
+who in 1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne,
+whose descendants continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon
+remained French till 1814, and Vauban called it &ldquo;the key
+of the Ardennes.&rdquo; In 1760 the elder Rousseau established
+here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In 1814-1815,
+before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an extraordinary
+attempt was made by Philippe d&rsquo;Auvergne of the
+British navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to
+revive the ancient duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon
+freely recognized him, and Louis XVIII. was well pleased with
+the arrangement, but the congress assigned Bouillon to the
+Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to Germany after Sedan
+slept one night in the little town, which is a convenient centre
+for visiting that battlefield.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUILLOTTE,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a French game of cards, very popular during
+the Revolution, and again for some years from 1830. Five, four
+or three persons may play; a piquet pack is used, from which,
+in case five play, the sevens, when four the knaves, and when
+three the queens also, are omitted. Counters or chips, as in
+poker, are used. Before the deal each player &ldquo;antes&rdquo; one
+counter, after which each, the &ldquo;age&rdquo; passing, may &ldquo;raise&rdquo;
+the pot; those not &ldquo;seeing the raise&rdquo; being obliged to drop
+out. Three cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth,
+called the <i>retourne</i>, when four play, turned up. Each player
+must then bet, call, raise or drop out. When a call is made
+the hands are shown and the best hand wins. The hands rank
+as follows: <i>brélan carré</i>, four of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>;
+<i>simple brélan</i>, three of a kind, ace being high; <i>brélan favori</i>,
+three of a kind, one being the <i>retourne</i>. When no player holds
+a <i>brélan</i> the hand holding the greatest number of pips wins,
+ace counting 11, and court cards 10.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1763-1842), French author,
+was born near Tours on the 24th of January 1763. At the
+outbreak of the Revolution he held office under the new government,
+and had a considerable share in the organization of
+primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life to devote
+himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical
+comedy, <i>Pierre le Grand</i> (1790), for Grétry&rsquo;s music, and the
+opera, <i>Les Deux Journées</i> (1800), music by Cherubini; also
+<i>L&rsquo;Abbé de l&rsquo;épée</i> (1800), and some other plays; and <i>Causeries
+d&rsquo;un vieillard</i> (1807), <i>Contes à ma fille</i> (1809), and <i>Les Adieux du
+vieux conteur</i> (1835). His <i>Léonore</i> (1798) formed the basis of
+the libretto of the <i>Fidelio</i> of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris
+on the 14th of April 1842.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bouilly, <i>Mes récapitulations</i> (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouvé,
+<i>Soixante ans de souvenir</i> (lère partie, 1886).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1658-1722), French
+political writer, was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He
+was educated at the college of Juilly, and served in the army
+until 1697. He wrote a number of historical works (published
+after his death), of which the most important were the following:
+<i>Histoire de l&rsquo;ancien gouvernement de la France</i> (La Haye, 1727);
+<i>État de la France, avec des mémoires sur l&rsquo;ancien gouvernement</i>
+(London, 1727); <i>Histoire de la pairie de France</i> (London, 1753);
+<i>Histoire des Arabes</i> (1731). His writings are characterized by
+an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was an
+aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute
+monarchy on the one hand and popular government on the
+other. He was at great pains to prove the pretensions of his
+own family to ancient nobility, and maintained that the government
+should be entrusted solely to men of his class. He died
+in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER,<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> the name of several French artists:&mdash;<span class="sc">Jean</span>
+(1606-1660), a pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an
+academy at Modena; his cousin <span class="sc">Jean</span> (1607-1680), a celebrated
+line-engraver; the latter&rsquo;s son <span class="sc">Matthieu</span>, another engraver;
+<span class="sc">Louis</span> (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of Victor Hugo,
+and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the best-known,
+<span class="sc">Gustave Rodolphe Clarence</span> (1824-1888), a pupil
+of Paul Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and
+Roman subjects, and a member of the Institute (1882); and
+<span class="sc">Clément</span> (1805-1842), a pupil of Ingres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1837-1891),
+French general, was born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837.
+He entered the army in 1856, and served in Algeria, Italy,
+Cochin-China and the Franco-German War, earning the reputation
+of being a smart soldier. He was made a brigadier-general
+in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, then
+commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger&rsquo;s expressions
+of gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered
+against him afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet&rsquo;s
+cabinet, he erased the name of the due d&rsquo;Aumale from the army
+list, as part of the republican campaign against the Orleanist
+and Bonapartist princes. In 1882 his appointment as director of
+infantry at the war office enabled him to make himself conspicuous
+as a military reformer; and in 1884 he was appointed
+to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled owing
+to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political
+resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in
+politics under the aegis of M. Clémenceau and the Radical party;
+and in January 1886, when M. Freycinet was brought into power
+by the support of the Radical leader, Boulanger was given the
+post of war minister.</p>
+
+<p>By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and
+common soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity
+in the most pronounced fashion&mdash;notably by his fire-eating
+attitude towards Germany in April 1887 in connexion with the
+Schnaebele frontier incident&mdash;Boulanger came to be accepted by
+the mob as the man destined to give France her revenge for the
+disasters of 1870, and to be used simultaneously as a tool by all
+the anti-Republican intriguers. His action with regard to the
+royal princes has already been referred to, but it should be added
+that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his ingratitude to
+the duc d&rsquo;Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the words
+alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published,
+and the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel
+with the baron de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at
+the moment in dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet&rsquo;s
+defeat in December 1886 he was retained by M. Goblet at the
+war office. M. Clémenceau, however, had by this time abandoned
+his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so inconveniently
+prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to get rid
+of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their &ldquo;brav&rsquo;
+général,&rdquo; but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined
+to take him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand
+to command an army corps. A Boulangist &ldquo;movement&rdquo;
+was now in full swing. The Bonapartists had attached themselves
+to the general, and even the comte de Paris encouraged
+his followers to support him, to the dismay of those old-fashioned
+Royalists who resented Boulanger&rsquo;s treatment of the duc
+d&rsquo;Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the
+moment&mdash;&ldquo;C&rsquo;est Boulanger qu&rsquo;il nous faut&rdquo;; the general and
+his black horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and
+he was urged to play the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the
+presidency.</p>
+
+<p>The general&rsquo;s vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after
+various symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page319" id="page319"></a>319</span>
+was deprived of his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris
+without leave, and finally on the recommendation of a council of
+inquiry composed of five generals, his name was removed from
+the army list. He was, however, almost at once elected to the
+chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a demand
+for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a
+minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see
+what his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly
+directed to keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular
+hero survives many deficiencies, and neither his failure as an
+orator nor the humiliation of a discomfiture in a duel with
+M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian, sufficed to check the
+enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his personality was
+the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he resigned
+his seat as a protest against the reception given by the chamber
+to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one another
+in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January
+1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority.
+He had now become an open menace to the parliamentary
+Republic. Had Boulanger immediately placed himself at the
+head of a revolt he might at this moment have effected the
+<i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> which the intriguers had worked for, and might
+not improbably have made himself master of France; but
+the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M.
+Constans as minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its
+measures for bringing a prosecution against him, and within two
+months a warrant was signed for his arrest. To the astonishment
+of his friends, on the 1st of April he fled from Paris before it
+could be executed, going first to Brussels and then to London.
+It was the end of the political danger, though Boulangist echoes
+continued for a little while to reverberate at the polls during
+1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and condemned
+<i>in absentia</i> for treason, in October 1889 went to live
+in Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings.
+The world was startled, however, on the 30th of September
+1891 by hearing that he had committed suicide in a cemetery at
+Brussels by blowing out his brains on the grave of his mistress,
+Madame de Bonnemains (<i>née</i> Marguerite Crouzet), who had died
+in the preceding July.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: History; and Verly, <i>Le Général
+Boulanger et la conspiration monarchique</i> (Paris, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Comte</span> (1761-1840), French politician and magistrate,
+son of an agricultural labourer, was born at Chamousey (Vosges)
+on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the bar at Nancy in
+1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly acquired a
+reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the revolutionary
+cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and
+Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate
+principles brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he
+had to go into hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council
+of Five Hundred, of which he was twice president, but his views
+developed steadily in the conservative direction. Fearing a
+possible renewal of the Terror, he became an active member of
+the plot for the overthrow of the Directory in November 1799.
+He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative commission
+formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as
+president of the legislative section of the council of state he
+examined and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years
+of hard work as director of a special land commission he settled
+the titles of land acquired by the French nation at the Revolution,
+and placed on an unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors
+who had bought this land from the government. He received
+the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and the title of count,
+was a member of Napoleon&rsquo;s privy council, but was never in high
+favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain the recognition
+of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at
+Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He
+was allowed to return to France in 1819, but took no further
+active part in politics, although he presented himself unsuccessfully
+for parliamentary election in 1824 and 1827. He died in
+Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He published two books on
+English history&mdash;<i>Essai sur les causes qui, en 1649, amenèrent en
+Angleterre l&rsquo;établissement de la république</i> (Paris, 1799), and
+<i>Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II, derniers
+rois de la maison de Stuart</i> (The Hague, 1818)&mdash;which contained
+much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration
+governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing
+his memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the
+<i>Théorie constitutionnelle de Sieyès</i> (1836), remained unpublished.</p>
+
+<p>His elder son, Comte <span class="sc">Henri Georges Boulay de la Meurthe</span>
+(1797-1858), was a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of
+Louis Napoleon to the presidency, was named (January 1849)
+vice-president of the republic. He zealously promoted popular
+education, and became in 1842 president of the society for
+elementary instruction.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULDER,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boulder county,
+Colorado, U.S.A., about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890)
+3330; (1900) 6150 (693 foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served
+by the Union Pacific, the Colorado &amp; Southern, and the Denver,
+Boulder &amp; Western railways; the last connects with the neighbouring
+mining camps, and affords fine views of mountain scenery.
+Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle Boulder
+Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its
+confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the
+valley at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado,
+established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in
+1877; it includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine
+(1883), school of law (1892), college of engineering (1893),
+graduate school, college of commerce (1906), college of education
+(1908), and a summer school (1904), and has a library of about
+42,000 volumes. There are a fine park of 2840 acres, the property
+of the city, and three beautiful cañons near Boulder. At the
+southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above the city,
+are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado
+Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with
+bronchial and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual
+temperature for eleven years ending with 1907 was 51° F.
+There are medicinal springs in the vicinity. The water-works
+are owned and operated by the city, the water being obtained
+from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in the Snowy
+Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is irrigated,
+and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There
+are ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil
+and natural gas abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries
+in the city; and in Boulder county, especially at Nederland,
+18 m. south-west, and at Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the
+city, has been obtained since 1900 most of the tungsten mined
+in the United States; the output in 1907 was valued at about
+$520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder was made
+in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an
+affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid
+out and organized in February 1859, and a city charter was
+secured in 1871 and another in 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULDER<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (short for &ldquo;boulder-stone,&rdquo; of uncertain origin;
+cf. Swed. <i>bullersten</i>, a large stone which causes a noise of
+rippling water in a stream, from <i>bullra</i>, to make a loud noise),
+a large stone, weathered or water-worn; especially a geological
+term for a large mass of rock transported to a distance from the
+formation to which it belongs. Similarly, in mining, a mass of
+ore found at a distance from the lode.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULDER CLAY,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of
+boulders, which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets
+wherever they are found, but is in a special sense the typical
+deposit of the Glacial Period in northern Europe and America.
+Boulder clay is variously known as &ldquo;till&rdquo; or &ldquo;ground moraine&rdquo;
+(Ger. <i>Blocklehme</i>, <i>Geschiebsmergel</i> or <i>Grundmoräne</i>; Fr. <i>argile à
+blocaux</i>, <i>moraine profonde</i>; Swed. <i>Krosstenslera</i>). It is usually a
+stiff, tough clay devoid of stratification; though some varieties
+are distinctly laminated. Occasionally, within the boulder clay,
+there are irregular lenticular masses of more or less stratified
+sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder clay is the result of the
+abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older rocks over which the
+ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them; thus, in Britain,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page320" id="page320"></a>320</span>
+over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is red, over
+Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it may
+be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay
+may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much
+boulder clay is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it
+becomes brown upon being weathered.</p>
+
+<p>The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner,
+and they vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons
+in weight. Usually they are somewhat oblong, and often they
+possess a flat side or &ldquo;sole&rdquo;; they may be angular, sub-angular,
+or well rounded, and, if they are hard rocks, they frequently
+bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with other rocks
+while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which they
+are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice
+has travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or
+sandstones; in others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &amp;c.;
+indeed, they may consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the
+contained boulders it is often possible to trace the path along
+which a vanished ice-sheet moved; thus in the Glacial drift of
+the east coast of England many Scandinavian rocks can be
+recognized.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in
+the boulder clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically
+unknown; but in some maritime districts marine shells
+have been incorporated with the clay. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacial Period</a></span>;
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glacier</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUL&#274;<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="boulae">&#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#942;</span>, literally &ldquo;will,&rdquo; &ldquo;advice&rdquo;; hence a
+&ldquo;council&rdquo;), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory
+council. In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies,
+there was a council of this kind, probably composed of the heads
+of families, <i>i.e.</i> of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually
+on the summons of the king for the purpose of consultation.
+Sometimes, however, it met on its own initiative, and laid suggestions
+before the king. It formed a means of communication
+between the king and the freemen assembled in the Agora. In
+Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was retained
+(for the Spartan Council of Elders see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gerousia</a></span>). In Athens
+the ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of
+a democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for
+purposes of distinction, it was described as &ldquo;the Boul&#275; on the
+Areopagus,&rdquo; or, more shortly, &ldquo;the Areopagus&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). It must
+be clearly understood that the second, or Solonian Boule, was
+entirely different from the Areopagus which represented the
+Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian history, even
+after the &ldquo;mutilation&rdquo; carried out by Ephialtes. Further, it
+is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second
+Boule a &ldquo;senate.&rdquo; There is no real analogy between the Roman
+senate and the Athenian council of Five Hundred.</p>
+
+<p>Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind
+of which we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary
+to mention that councils existed in other Greek states also, both
+oligarchic and democratic. A Boul&#275; was in the first place a
+necessary part of a Greek oligarchy; the transition from
+monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun by the gradual
+transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of nobles.
+Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule
+was equally essential. The general assembly of the people was
+utterly unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all
+their minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in
+almost all the states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that
+there was an oligarchic council of unknown numbers presided
+over by eight leaders (Nicol. Damasc. <i>Frag</i>. 60). It was probably
+like the old Homeric council, except that its constitution did not
+depend on a birth qualification, but on a high census. This was
+natural in Corinth where, according to Herodotus (ii. 167),
+mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an inscription we
+learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on Erythrae
+(about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), included a council analogous to their own.
+(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of
+ninety, which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred
+(471). (4) Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council
+of eighty and later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc.
+v. 47). Councils are also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis
+(democratic), (7) Corcyra (democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these
+seven the most instructive is that of Erythrae, which proves
+that in the 5th century the Council of Five Hundred was so
+efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed at Erythrae
+(and probably in the other tributary cities).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Boul&#275; at Athens. History.</i>&mdash;The origin of the second
+Boul&#275;, or Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in
+obscurity. In the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c.</i> 4),
+it is stated that Draco established a council of 401, and that he
+transferred to it some of the functions of the Council of Areopagus
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It is, however, generally held (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>) that this
+statement is untrue, and that it was Solon who first established
+the council as a part of the constitution. Thirdly, it has been
+held that the council was not invented either by Draco or by
+Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has
+also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boul&#275;
+existed before Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view
+is the omission of any reference to the Boul&#275; in one of the earliest
+Athenian inscriptions, that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill,
+No. 4), where in place of the customary formula of a later age,
+<span class="grk" title="hedoxe tae boulae kai to daemo">&#7956;&#948;&#959;&#958;&#949; &#964;&#8135; &#946;&#959;&#965;&#955;&#8135; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#964;&#8183; &#948;&#942;&#956;&#8179;</span>, we have the formula <span class="grk" title="edochsen to
+daemo">&#7956;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#963;&#949;&#957; &#964;&#8183; &#948;&#942;&#956;&#8179;</span>. This argument is far from conclusive, and it is clear
+from the <i>Constitution</i> (<i>c.</i> 20) that the resistance of the Boul&#275; to
+Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior to the legislation of Cleisthenes
+(<i>i.e.</i> that the Boul&#275; in question was the Solonian and not
+the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to conclude
+that it was Solon who invented the Boul&#275; to act as a semi-democratic
+check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing
+at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the
+people in the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing
+is known of the operations of this council until the struggle
+between Isagoras and Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon&rsquo;s
+council had been based on the four Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes
+created the new ten tribes in order to destroy the local
+influence of dominant families and to give the country demes
+a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a
+body of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see
+below) was the keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and
+may be said in a sense to have embodied the principle of local
+representation. After Cleisthenes, the council remained unaltered
+till 306 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when, on the addition of two new tribes
+named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, its
+numbers were increased to 600. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 126-127 the old number
+of 500 was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned
+in an inscription of the early 3rd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, and about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400
+the number of councillors had fallen to 300.</p>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Functions.</i>&mdash;(<i>a</i>) Under Solon the council
+consisted of 400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes.
+It is certain that all classes were eligible except the
+Th&#275;tes, but the method of appointment is not known.
+<span class="sidenote">Solon&rsquo;s council.</span>
+Three suggestions have been made, (1) that each tribe
+chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot
+from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method
+of selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates
+was employed. According to the passage in Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Solon</i>
+the functions of this body were from the first <i>probouleutic</i> (<i>i.e.</i>
+it prepared the business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that
+this function was not assigned to it until the Cleisthenean
+reforms. When we consider, however, the double danger of
+leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and yet under the presidency
+of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable that the probouleutic
+functions were devised by Solon as a method of maintaining
+the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boul&#275; was
+from the first what it certainly was later, a <i>committee</i> of the
+Ecclesia, <i>i.e.</i> not a &ldquo;senate.&rdquo; It may be regarded as certain
+<span class="sidenote">Cleisthenes&rsquo; council.</span>
+that the system of Prytaneis was the invention of
+Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (<i>b</i>) Under Cleisthenes the
+council reached its full development as a democratic
+representative body. Its actual organization is still
+uncertain, but it may be inferred that it became gradually a
+more strictly self-existent body than the Solonian council. Every
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page321" id="page321"></a>321</span>
+full citizen of thirty years of age was eligible, and, unlike other
+civil offices, it was permissible to serve twice, but not more than
+twice (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 62). It may be regarded as certain, although
+our evidence is derived from inscriptions which date from the
+3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, that from the first the Bouleutae were appointed
+by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the deme,
+and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed.
+For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in
+case of death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass
+before the old council an examination in which the whole of his
+private life was scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to
+take an oath that they (1) would act according to the laws, (2)
+would give the best advice in their power, and (3) would carry
+out the examination of their successors in an impartial spirit.
+As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they received payment
+originally at the rate of one drachma a day,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> at the end of the
+4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of office
+each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the
+council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within
+its own sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over
+its members by the device known as <i>Ecphyllophoria</i>; it could
+provisionally suspend a member, pending a formal trial before
+the whole council assembled <i>ad hoc</i>. The council had further a
+complete system of scribes or secretaries (<i>grammateis</i>), private
+treasury officials, and a paid herald who summoned the Boule
+and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place generally in the
+council hall (<i>Bouleuterion</i>), but on special occasions in the
+theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the
+Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being
+separated by a barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance
+the public was excluded.</p>
+
+<p>The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable
+to meet more than three or four times a month; the council, on
+the other hand, was in continuous session, except on
+feast days. It was impossible that the Five Hundred
+<span class="sidenote">Prytaneis.</span>
+should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate the despatch
+of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced, probably
+by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten
+equal periods. During each of these periods the council was
+represented by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who
+acted as a committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the
+year. Each of these committees was led by a president (<i>Epistates</i>),
+who acted as chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also,
+and a third of its numbers lived permanently during their period
+of office in the Tholos (Dome) or Skias, a round building where
+they (with certain other officials and honoured citizens) dined
+at the public expense. In 378-377 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (or perhaps in the
+archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the Ecclesia was
+transferred to the <i>Epistates of the Proedri</i>, the <i>Proedri</i> being a
+body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the Prytaneis
+from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule
+(<i>i.e.</i> the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare
+all business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation
+(<span class="grk" title="probouleuma">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#946;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#949;&#965;&#956;&#945;</span>) was presented to the popular assembly
+(for procedure, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>), which either passed it as it stood
+or made amendments subject to certain conditions. It must
+be clearly understood that the recommendation of the council
+had no intrinsic force until by the votes of the Ecclesia it passed
+into law as a psephism. But in addition to this function, the
+Council of the Five Hundred had large administrative and
+judicial control. (1) It was before the council that the Poletae
+arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of tenders
+for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further,
+it dealt with defaulting collectors (<span class="grk" title="eklogeis">&#7953;&#954;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>), exacted the debts
+of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual
+estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the
+Apodectae (&ldquo;Receivers&rdquo;) and the &ldquo;Treasurers of the God.&rdquo;
+(3) From Demosthenes (<i>In Androt</i>.) it is clear that it had to
+arrange for the provision of so many triremes per annum and
+the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It arranged for the
+maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from the
+demes. (5) It heard certain cases of <i>eisangelia</i> (impeachment)
+and had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case
+over to the Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly
+prosecutions for crimes against the state (<i>e.g.</i> treason, conspiracy,
+bribery). In later times it acted mainly as a court of first
+instance. Subsequently (<i>Ath. Pol.</i> c. 45) its powers were limited
+and an appeal was allowed to the popular courts. (6) The
+council presided over the <i>dokimasia</i> (consideration of fitness)
+of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally
+concerned with a candidate&rsquo;s moral and physical fitness, degenerated
+into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign
+affairs the council as the only body in permanent session naturally
+received foreign envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia.
+Further, the Boul&#275;;, with the Strategi (&ldquo;Generals&rdquo;), took treaty
+oaths, after the Ecclesia had decided on the terms. The Xenophontic
+<i>Politeia</i> states that the council of the 5th century was
+&ldquo;concerned with war,&rdquo; but in the 4th century it chiefly supervised
+the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least the
+council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes
+(<i>De Fals. Leg.</i> p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers
+to send ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (<i>De Myst.</i> 14 foil.)
+states that it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation
+of the Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian
+Expedition.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely
+essential to the working of the Athenian state. Without having
+any final legislative authority, it was a necessary part of the
+legislative machinery, and it may be regarded as certain that a
+large proportion of its recommendations were passed without
+alteration or even discussion by the Ecclesia. The Boul&#275; was,
+therefore, in the strict sense a committee of the Ecclesia, and
+was immediately connected with a system of sub-committees
+which exercised executive functions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;With this article compare <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Draco</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cleisthenes</a></span>, where collateral information
+is given. Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer
+&amp;c.), see Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng. trans. by E.J.
+Brooks and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, <i>History of Greece</i> (1900);
+A.H.J. Greenidge <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional History</i> (1896);
+J.E. Sandys&rsquo; edition of the <i>Constitution of Athens</i>; Boeckh, <i>Die
+Staatshaushaltung der Athener</i> (1886); Schumann, <i>Griechische
+Altertümer</i> (1897-1902); Busolt, <i>Die griechischen Staats- und
+Rechtsaltertümer</i> (1902). See also H. Swoboda, <i>Die griechischen
+Volksbeschlüsse</i> (1890); Szanto, <i>Das griechische Bürgerrecht</i> (1892);
+Perrot, <i>Essai sur le droit public d&rsquo;Athènes</i> (1869). It should be
+observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless
+that they are without the information contained in the <i>Constitution
+of Athens</i> (<i>q.v.</i>). See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed
+to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+(Thuc. viii. 69; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pericles</a></span>).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULEVARD<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (a Fr. word, earlier <i>boulevart</i>, from Dutch or
+Ger. <i>Bollwerk</i>, cf. Eng. &ldquo;bulwark&rdquo;), originally, in fortification,
+an earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into
+use owing to the width of the gangways in medieval walls being
+insufficient for the mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard
+or bulwark was usually an earthen outwork mounting artillery,
+and so placed in advance as to prevent the guns of a besieger
+from battering the foot of the main walls. It was as a rule
+circular. Semicircular <i>demi-boulevards</i> were often constructed
+round the bases of the old masonry towers with the same object.
+In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote a
+promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by
+analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULLE, ANDRÉ CHARLES<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker,
+who gave his name to a fashion of inlaying known as
+Boulle or Buhl work. The son of Jean Boulle, a member of a
+family of <i>ébénistes</i> who had already achieved distinction&mdash;Pierre
+Boulle, who died <i>c.</i> 1636, was for many years <i>tourneur et menuisier
+du roy des cabinets d&rsquo;ébène</i>,&mdash;he became the most famous of his
+name and was, indeed, the second cabinet-maker&mdash;the first was
+Jean Macé&mdash;who has acquired individual renown. That must
+have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty he had
+already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of the
+Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page322" id="page322"></a>322</span>
+most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be
+admitted to these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark
+of royal favour, but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom
+from the trammels of the trade gilds. Boulle was given the
+deceased Jean Macé&rsquo;s own lodging in 1672 by Louis XIV. upon
+the recommendation, of Colbert, who described him as &ldquo;<i>le plus
+habile ébéniste de Paris</i>,&rdquo; but in the patent conferring this privilege
+he is described also as &ldquo;chaser, gilder and maker of marqueterie.&rdquo;
+Boulle appears to have been originally a painter, since the first
+payment to him by the crown of which there is any record (1669)
+specifies &ldquo;ouvrages de peinture.&rdquo; He was employed for many years
+at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of &ldquo;wood
+mosaic,&rdquo; the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in
+the Cabinet du Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable
+work. These rooms were long since dismantled and their
+contents dispersed, but Boulle&rsquo;s drawings for the work are in the
+Musée des Arts Décoratifs. His royal commissions were, indeed,
+innumerable, as we learn both from the <i>Comptes des bâtiments</i>
+and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most
+magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the
+great nobles and financiers of his own country crowded him with
+commissions, and the <i>mot</i> of the abbé de Marolles, &ldquo;<i>Boulle y
+tourne en ovale</i>,&rdquo; has become a stock quotation in the literature of
+French cabinet-making. Yet despite his distinction, the facility
+with which he worked, the high prices he obtained, and his
+workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle appears to have been
+constantly short of money. He did not always pay his workmen,
+clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain the
+fine things they had ordered, more than one application was
+made for permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the
+courts within the asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the
+king giving him six months&rsquo; protection from his creditors on
+condition that he used the time to regulate his affairs or &ldquo;ce scra
+la derniére grâce que sa majesté lui fera là-dessus.&rdquo; Twenty
+years later one of his sons was arrested at Fontainebleau and
+kept in prison for debt until the king had him released. In 1720
+his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire which,
+beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops
+and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances,
+models and finished work of which they were full. The salvage
+was sold and a petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent,
+the result of which does not appear. It would seem that Boulle
+was never a good man of business, but, according to his friend
+Mariette, many of his pecuniary difficulties were caused by his
+passion for collecting pictures, engravings and other objects of
+art&mdash;the inventory of his losses in the fire, which exceeded
+£40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters, including
+forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal
+kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings
+and engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases,
+and when the next sale took place, fresh expedients were
+devised for obtaining more money. Collecting was to Boulle a
+mania of which, says his friend, it was impossible to cure him.
+Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years and debts. He left four
+sons who followed in his footsteps in more senses than one&mdash;Jean
+Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745), Pierre
+Benoit (d. 1741), Charles André (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph
+(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their
+lives, and the three last are known to have died in debt.</p>
+
+<p>All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder
+Boulle was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He
+was born into a France which was just entering upon the most
+brilliant period of sumptuary magnificence which any nation has
+known in modern times. Louis XIV., so avid of the delights of
+the eye, by the reckless extravagance of his example turned the
+thoughts of his courtiers to domestic splendours which had
+hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which arose in his
+time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not only
+inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late
+Renaissance, but had <i>ébénisterie</i> in his blood, arose, as some such
+man invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal
+pride and love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was
+by no means the first Frenchman to practise the delightful art
+of marqueterie, nor was he quite the inventor of the peculiar
+type of inlay which is chiefly associated with his name; but no
+artist, before or since, has used these motives with such astonishing
+skill, courage and surety. He produced pieces of monumental
+solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or gleaming with the
+sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and white metal.
+The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making
+furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying
+it with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints,
+ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods.
+Boulle improved upon this by inlaying brass devices into wood
+or tortoise-shell, which last he greatly used according to the
+design he had immediately in view, whether flowers, scenes,
+scrolls, &amp;c.; to these he sometimes added enamelled metal.
+Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so characteristic that any
+furniture, however cheap and common, which has a reddish <i>fond</i>
+that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now described
+as &ldquo;Buhl&rdquo;&mdash;the name is the invention of the British auctioneer
+and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like
+the ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the
+first instance the production of his work was costly, owing to the
+quantity of valuable material that was cut away and wasted,
+and, in addition, the labour lost in separately cutting for each
+article or copy of a pattern. By a subsequent improvement
+Boulle effected an economy by gluing together various sheets of
+material and sawing through the whole, so that an equal number
+of figures and matrices were produced at one operation. Boulle
+adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of
+his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under
+the tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased
+the brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the
+metal required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails,
+these were hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing.
+He also adopted, in relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets,
+edgings, and other ornaments of appropriate design, partly to
+protect the corners and edges of his work, and partly for decoration.
+He subsequently used other brass mountings, such as
+claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low relief, according
+to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in the pieces
+that undoubtedly come from Boulle&rsquo;s <i>atelier</i> are nearly always
+of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the
+rough&mdash;the tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute
+finish, their jewel-like smoothness.</p>
+
+<p>Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to
+declare the authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in
+the manner of Boulle and to all appearance from his workshops.
+His sons unquestionably carried on the traditions for some years
+after his death, and his imitators were many and capable. A
+few of the more magnificent pedigree-pieces are among the world&rsquo;s
+mobiliary treasures. There are, for instance, the two famous
+<i>armoires</i>, which fetched £12,075 at the Hamilton Palace sale;
+the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze mounts, in the
+Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and
+tables in the Louvre, the Musée Cluny and the Mobilier National;
+the marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato
+collection. There are several fine authenticated pieces in the
+Wallace collection at Hertford House, together with others
+consummately imitated, probably in the Louis Seize period.
+On the rare occasions when a pedigree example comes into the
+auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but there
+can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous
+specimens of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the
+second and third classes of his work are perhaps becoming more
+numerous. The truth is that this wonderful work, with its
+engraved or inlaid designs of Bérain, its myriads of tiny pieces
+of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell, all kept together
+with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very often to a
+rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages
+of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat
+and humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than
+time and wear&mdash;such delicate things are rarely much used, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page323" id="page323"></a>323</span>
+are protected from ordinary chances of deterioration. There is
+consequently reason to rejoice when a piece of real artistry in
+furniture finds its final home in a museum, where a degree of
+warmth is maintained which, however distressing it may be to
+the visitor, at least preserves the contents from one of the worst
+enemies of the collector.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boullongne</span>, the name of a family of French
+painters. Louis (1609-1674), who was one of the original
+members of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648),
+became celebrated under Louis XIV. His traditions were continued
+by his children: <span class="sc">Genevieve</span> (1645-1708), who married
+the sculptor Jacques Clerion; <span class="sc">Madeleine</span> (1646-1710), whose
+work survives in the <i>Trophies d&rsquo;armes</i> at Versailles; <span class="sc">Bon</span> (1649-1717),
+a successful teacher and decorative artist; and <span class="sc">Louis</span> the
+younger (1654-1733), who copied Raphael&rsquo;s cartoons for the
+Gobelins tapestry, and besides taking a high place as a painter
+was also a designer of medals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-MER,<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> a fortified seaport of northern France
+and chief town of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated
+on the shore of the English Channel at the mouth of the river
+Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris on the Northern railway, and
+28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop. (1906) 49,636.
+Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of hills
+skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of
+Capécure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two
+bridges, while the river is also crossed by a double railway
+viaduct. The town consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and
+the Basse Ville. The former, situated on the top of the hill, is
+of comparatively small extent, and forms almost a parallelogram,
+surrounded by ramparts of the 13th century, and, outside them,
+by boulevards, and entered by ancient gateways. In this part
+are the law court, the château and the hotel de ville (built in the
+18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and 17th centuries
+is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the château (13th century)
+now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was
+confined after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance
+north-west stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known
+place of pilgrimage, erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old
+building destroyed in the Revolution, of which the extensive
+crypt still remains. The modern town stretches from the foot
+of the hill to the harbour, along which it extends, terminating
+in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers, and provided
+with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains
+several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep.
+A main street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas
+and Grande rue, extends from the bridge across the Liane to the
+promenade by the side of the ramparts. This is intersected first
+by the Quai Gambetta, and farther back by the rue Victor Hugo
+and the rue Nationale, which contain the principal shops. The
+public buildings include several modern churches, two hospitals
+and a museum with collections of antiquities, natural history,
+porcelain, &amp;c. Connected with the museum is a public library
+with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts,
+many of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in
+the town, and numerous boarding-schools intended for English
+pupils. Boulogne is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals
+of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
+a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France.
+There are also communal colleges, a national school of music,
+and schools of hydrography, commerce and industry. Boulogne
+has for a long time been one of the most anglicized of French
+cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of English
+travellers reach the continent at this point.</p>
+
+<p>The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties
+enclose a channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal
+basin with a depth at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an
+extensive dock, and behind it an inner port. There is also a
+tidal basin opening off the entrance channel. The depth of
+water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at spring-tide and 24 ft. at
+neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the numbers are 29½ and 23½
+respectively. The commerce of Boulogne consists chiefly in the
+importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk and wool skins,
+threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the exportation of
+wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other vegetables,
+skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual value
+of the exports in the five years 1901-1905 was £10,953,000
+(£11,704,000 in the years 1896-1900), and of the imports
+£6,064,000 (£7,003,000 in the years 1896-1900). From 1901 to
+1905 the annual average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735, tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared 2750, tonnage
+1,748,297. The total number of passengers between Folkestone
+and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49% above the average
+for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the steamers of the
+South-Eastern &amp; Chatham railway company. The liners of
+the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies
+also call at the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries
+Boulogne is exceeded by no seaport in France. The most
+important branch is the herring-fishery; next in value is the
+mackerel. Large quantities of fresh fish are transmitted to
+Paris by railway, but an abundant supply is reserved to the town
+itself. The fishermen live for the most part in a separate quarter
+called La Beurrière, situated in the upper part of the town.
+In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village
+of Étaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value
+of the fish taken being estimated at £1,025,000. Among the
+numerous industrial establishments in Boulogne and its environs
+may be mentioned foundries, cement-factories, important steel-pen
+manufactories, oil-works, dye-works, fish-curing works,
+flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories of cloth, fireproof ware,
+chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap. Shipbuilding is also
+carried on.</p>
+
+<p>Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the
+most remarkable is the Colonne de la Grande Armée, erected
+on the high ground above the town, in honour of Napoleon I.,
+on occasion of the projected invasion of England, for which
+he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is
+of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue
+of the emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the
+monument was not completed till 1841. On the edge of the
+cliff to the east of the port are some rude brick remains of an
+old building called Tour d&rsquo;Ordre, said to be the ruins of a
+tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended invasion of
+Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Boulogne is identified with the <i>Gessoriacum</i> of the Romans,
+under whom it was an important harbour. It is suggested that
+it was the <i>Portus Itius</i> where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Itius Portus</a></span>). At an early period it began to be known as
+<i>Bononia</i>, a name which has been gradually modified into the
+present form. The town was destroyed by the Normans in
+882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period
+Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the
+subject of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the
+year 965 it belonged to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey
+of Bouillon, the first king of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of
+Blois, who became king of England in 1135, had married Mahaut,
+daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of Boulogne. Their
+daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and her
+daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this
+last marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of
+Philip Hurepel (d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her
+succeeded the house of Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne,
+sister of Ida, and wife of Henry I. of Brabant; and then the
+house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter of Henry I. of
+Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the possession
+of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke
+of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France
+reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving
+Lauraguais as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of
+Auvergne, heir of the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage
+to Mary of Burgundy, suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess
+of Artois, Louis XI declared the countship of Boulogne to be
+held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544 Henry VIII.&mdash;
+more successful in this than Henry III. had been in 1347&mdash;took
+the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page324" id="page324"></a>324</span>
+From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat
+of a bishopric.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE,<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the
+department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of
+Paris and immediately outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906)
+49,412. The town has a Gothic church of the 14th and 15th
+centuries (restored in 1863) founded in honour of Notre-Dame of
+Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name of the place,
+which was previously called Menus-lès-St Cloud. Laundrying is
+extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes,
+soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome
+residences. For the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paris</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOULTON, MATTHEW<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1728-1809), English manufacturer
+and engineer, was born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham,
+where his father, Matthew Boulton the elder, was
+a manufacturer of metal articles of various kinds. To this
+business he succeeded on his father&rsquo;s death in 1759, and in
+consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from
+Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi.
+north of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of
+artistic objects in metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings
+by a mechanical process in which he was associated with
+Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who subsequently achieved a
+reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled glass. About
+1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the motive
+power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt,
+who on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho
+works for the development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt&rsquo;s
+partner, Dr John Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and
+Boulton, to whom he owed £1200, accepted the two-thirds share
+in Watt&rsquo;s patent held by him in satisfaction of the debt. Three
+years later Boulton and Watt formally entered into partnership,
+and it was mainly through the energy and self-sacrifice of the
+former, who devoted all the capital he possessed or could borrow
+to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length made a
+commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an
+act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt&rsquo;s
+1769 patent to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from
+the business, which they handed over to their sons, Matthew
+Robinson Boulton and James Watt junior. In 1788 Boulton
+turned his attention to coining machinery, and erected at Soho a
+complete plant with which he struck coins for the Sierra Leone
+and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797 produced
+a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a
+patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the
+hydraulic ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August
+1809.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUND,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Boundary</span> (from O. Fr. <i>bonde</i>, Med. Lat. <i>bodena</i> or
+<i>butina</i>, a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or
+extent of land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a
+post, ditch, hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &amp;c., though on the other
+hand it may have to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by
+measurement. In law, the exact boundary of land is always a
+matter of evidence; where no evidence is available, the court
+acts on presumption. For example, the boundary of land on
+opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is presumed to
+be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are separated by
+a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the hedge
+and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended
+upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes
+great care was taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish
+by perambulations from time to time. The confusion of local
+boundaries in England was the subject of several commissions
+and committees in the 19th century, and much information will
+be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873, 1888). The Local
+Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for the
+alteration of local areas.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUNDS, BEATING THE,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> an ancient custom still observed in
+many English parishes. In former times when maps were rare
+it was usual to make a formal perambulation of the parish
+boundaries on Ascension day or during Rogation week. The
+latter is in the north of England still called &ldquo;Gang Week&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Ganging Days&rdquo; from this &ldquo;ganging&rdquo; or procession. The
+priest of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial
+officials headed a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs,
+beat with them the parish border-stones. Sometimes the boys
+were themselves whipped or even violently bumped on the
+boundary-stones to make them remember. The object of taking
+boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the boundaries
+should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is as
+old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and
+Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from
+the Roman Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of
+February in honour of Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom
+cakes and wine were offered, sports and dancing taking place at
+the boundaries. In England a parish-ale or feast was always
+held after the perambulation, which assured its popularity, and in
+Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign the occasion had become an excuse for so
+much revelry that it attracted the condemnation of a preacher
+who declared &ldquo;these solemne and accustomable processions and
+supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable
+abuse.&rdquo; Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice
+which originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy
+being supposed to beseech (<i>rogare</i>) the divine blessing upon the
+parish lands for the ensuing harvest. This feature originated in
+the 5th century, when Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted
+special prayers and fasting and processions on these days. This
+clerical side of the parish bounds-beating was one of the
+religious functions prohibited by the Injunctions of Queen
+Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the perambulation
+should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular function,
+so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &amp;c. might be
+preserved (Gibson, <i>Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani</i> (1761)
+pp. 213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with
+bounds-beating. Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday,
+in accordance with the will of one Edward Wilkes, a London
+merchant who died in 1646, the trustees of his almshouses
+accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and plum
+rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that
+while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUNTY<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (through O. Fr. <i>bontet</i>, from Lat. <i>bonitas</i>, goodness),
+a gift or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government
+to encourage some branch of production or industry, as in
+England in the case of the bounty on corn, first granted in 1688
+and abolished in 1814, the herring-fishery bounties, the bounties
+on sail-cloth, linen and other goods. It is admitted that the
+giving of bounties is generally impolitic, though they may sometimes
+be justified as a measure of state. The most striking
+modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (<i>q.v.</i>). Somewhat
+akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (<i>q.v.</i>)
+by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be
+termed, grants are often given, more especially in new countries,
+for the destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and
+some other countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting;
+France has given bounties to encourage the Newfoundland
+fisheries.</p>
+
+<p>Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce
+men to enlist in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom,
+to the sum given on entering the militia reserve. During the
+American Civil War, many recruits joined solely for the sake of
+the bounty offered, and afterwards deserted; they were called
+&ldquo;bounty-jumpers.&rdquo; The term bounty was also applied in the
+English navy to signify money payable to the officers and crew
+of a ship in respect of services on particular occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Anne&rsquo;s Bounty (<i>q.v.</i>) is a fund applied for the augmentation
+of poor livings in the established church.</p>
+
+<p>King&rsquo;s Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal
+bounty to those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of
+three or more children at a birth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1816-1897), French
+general, was born at Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a
+Greek colonel who died in the War of Independence in 1827.
+He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined the Zouaves, becoming
+lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and aide-de-camp to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page325" id="page325"></a>325</span>
+King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition that he
+first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves;
+1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st
+Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the
+Crimean War he commanded a portion of the Algerian troops;
+and at the Alma, Inkerman and Sevastopol Bourbaki&rsquo;s name
+became famous. In 1857 he was made general of division,
+commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war with Italy
+was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was proposed
+as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined
+the proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with
+the command of the Imperial Guard, and he played an important
+part in the fighting round Metz.</p>
+
+<p>A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with
+Bourbaki&rsquo;s name. A man who called himself Regnier,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> about
+the 21st of September, appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview
+with the refugee empress Eugénie, and failing to obtain this he
+managed to get from the young prince imperial a signed photograph
+with a message to the emperor Napoleon. This he used,
+by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as credentials to
+Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz, telling
+him on the empress&rsquo;s alleged authority that peace was about to
+be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki
+was to go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went
+to England, with Prussian connivance, as though he had a
+recognized mission, only to discover from the empress at Hastings
+that a trick had been played on him; and as soon as he could
+manage he returned to France. He offered his services to
+Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army,
+but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the
+Army of the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and
+ill-equipped Army of the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to
+raise the siege of Belfort, which, after the victory of Villersexel,
+ended in the repulse of the French in the three days&rsquo; battle of the
+Lisaine. Other German forces under Manteuffel now closed upon
+Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven over the Swiss frontier
+with the remnant of his forces (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German War</a></span>). His
+troops were in the most desperate condition, owing to lack of
+food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started, only
+84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki
+himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable
+surrender, on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions
+to General Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own
+head, but the bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was
+flattened against his skull and his life was saved. General
+Clinchant carried Bourbaki into Switzerland, and he recovered
+sufficiently to return to France. In July 1871 he again took the
+command at Lyons, and subsequently became military governor.
+In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was placed on the
+retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for the
+senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic
+Frenchman and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like
+some other French generals of the Second Empire whose training
+had been obtained in Africa, was found wanting in the higher
+elements of command when the European conditions of 1870
+were concerned.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself&mdash;
+who on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on
+Lord Granville (see the <i>Life of Lord Granville</i>, by Lord Fitzmaurice,
+ii. 61) of being a &ldquo;swindler&rdquo; but honestly wishing to serve the
+empress&mdash;was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of
+1902-1903; he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in
+a pamphlet, <i>Quel est votre nom?</i> It has been suspected that on the
+part either of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed
+intrigue was on foot.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBON.<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> The noble family of Bourbon, from which so
+many European kings have sprung, took its name from Bourbon
+l&rsquo;Archambault, chief town of a lordship which in the 10th century
+was one of the largest baronies of the kingdom of France. The
+limits of the lordship, which was called the Bourbonnais, were
+approximately those of the modern department of Allier, being
+on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and
+Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry.
+The first of the long line of Bourbons known in history was
+Adhémar or Aimar, who was invested with the barony towards
+the close of the 9th century. Matilda, heiress of the first house
+of Bourbon, brought this lordship to the family of Dampierre
+by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre, marshal of
+Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes
+of Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy,
+married Robert, count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St
+Louis) of France. The elder branches of the family had become
+extinct, and their son Louis became duke of Bourbon in 1327.
+In 1488 the line of his descendants ended with Jean II., who
+died in that year. The whole estates passed to Jean&rsquo;s brother
+Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne, daughter of
+Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter, Suzanne,
+who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the
+Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards
+constable of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on
+his marriage, was born in 1489, and at an early age was looked
+upon as one of the finest soldiers and gentlemen in France.
+With the constable ended the direct line from Pierre I., duke of
+Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in descent from Pierre&rsquo;s
+brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count of Vendôme
+and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal house
+of Bourbon and of the noble families of Condé, Conti and
+Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendôme
+was Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret,
+heiress of Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their
+son became king of France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded
+by his son, Louis XIII., who left two sons, Louis XIV., and
+Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the Orleans branch. Louis XIV.&rsquo;s
+son, the dauphin, died before his father, and left three sons,
+one of whom died without issue. Of the others the elder, Louis
+of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son became
+Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king
+of Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon
+family. Louis XV. was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI.,
+who perished on the scaffold. At the restoration the throne of
+France was occupied by Louis XVIII., brother of Louis XVI.,
+who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles X. The second
+son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri Charles
+Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d&rsquo;Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and
+comte de Chambord (<i>q.v.</i>). From Louis XIV.&rsquo;s brother, Philip,
+descended another claimant of the throne. Philip&rsquo;s son was
+the regent Orleans, whose great-grandson, &ldquo;Philippe Égalité,&rdquo;
+perished on the scaffold in 1793. Égalité&rsquo;s son, Louis Philippe,
+was king of the French from 1830 to 1848; his grandson, Louis
+Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on the death
+of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the throne
+of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had
+a son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d&rsquo;Orléans, called by his
+adherents Philip VIII.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spanish Branch.</i>&mdash;Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis
+XIV., became king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was
+succeeded in 1746 by his son Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759
+without family, and was followed by his brother Charles III.
+Charles III.&rsquo;s eldest son became Charles IV. of Spain in 1788,
+while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples in
+1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his
+son, Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand
+was succeeded by his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated
+in favour of her son, Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso&rsquo;s
+posthumous son became king of Spain as Alphonso XIII.
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the throne
+in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged
+for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos,
+count de Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was
+defeated and compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of
+the latter, Don Carlos Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for
+some years carried on war in Spain with the object of attaining
+the rights contended for by the Carlist party.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page326" id="page326"></a>326</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON</p>
+
+<p class="center bold">I. <i>The French Bourbons.</i></p>
+
+<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:638px" src="images/img326.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page327" id="page327"></a>327</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 bold">II. <i>The Spanish and Italian Bourbons.</i></p>
+
+<div class="center"><img style="width:1000px; height:706px" src="images/img327.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page328" id="page328"></a>328</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Neapolitan Branch.</i>&mdash;The first Bourbon who wore the crown
+of Naples was Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to
+the Spanish throne in 1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples
+to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was deposed by Napoleon,
+but afterwards regained his throne, and took the title of
+Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was succeeded
+by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his son
+Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following
+year his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom,
+which was incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duchies of Lucca and Parma.</i>&mdash;In 1748 the duchy of Parma
+was conferred on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain.
+He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was
+ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand&rsquo;s son Louis being made king
+of Etruria, but the French only took possession of the duchy
+after Ferdinand&rsquo;s death in 1802. Louis&rsquo;s son Charles Louis
+was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he was
+given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815.
+In 1847, on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon,
+who had received Parma and Piacenza in accordance with the
+terms of the treaty of Paris of 1814, Charles Louis succeeded
+to the duchies as Charles II., at the same time surrendering
+Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of his son,
+Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and
+was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert.
+In 1860 the duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the
+new kingdom of Italy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bastard Branches.</i>&mdash;There are numerous bastard branches
+of the family of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendôme
+branch, descended from Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and
+the Maine and Toulouse branches, descended from the two
+natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de Montespan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Coiffier de Moret, <i>Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons</i> (2 vols., 1824);
+Berand, <i>Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon</i> (1835);
+Désormeaux, <i>Histoire de la maison de Bourbon</i> (5 vols., 1782-1788);
+Achaintre, <i>Histoire généalogique et chronologique de la maison royale de Bourbon</i>
+(2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, <i>Généalogie de la maison de Bourbon</i> (1872).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBON, CHARLES,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duke of</span> (1490-1527), constable of
+France, second son of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin
+of Auvergne, was born on the 17th of February 1490, his mother
+being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II.,
+duke of Bourbon, by Anne of France, daughter of King Louis XI.,
+and assumed the title of duke of Bourbon. The addition
+of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships and other
+fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother
+Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest
+noble in Europe. He gained his first military experience in
+the Italian campaigns of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression
+of the Genoese revolt (1507) and contributing to the victory
+over the Venetians at Agnadello (May 14, 1509). Shortly after
+the accession of Francis I. Bourbon received the office of constable
+of France, and for his brilliant services at the battle of Marignano
+(September 1515) he was made governor of the Milanese, which
+he succeeded in defending against an attack of the emperor
+Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis and the
+constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill
+suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and
+influence kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not
+of fear. The duke was recalled from the government of the
+Milanese; his official salary and the sums he had borrowed
+for war expenses remained unpaid; and in the campaign in
+the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the command
+of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the
+constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without
+surviving issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother
+of the king, Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and
+at the same time to revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted
+her love. A suit was instituted at her instance against the duke
+in the parlement of Paris, in which Louise, as grand-daughter
+of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d. 1456), claimed the female and
+some of the male fiefs of the duchy of Bourbon, while the king
+claimed those fiefs which were originally appanages, as escheating
+to the crown, and other claims were put forward. Before the
+parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis handed over
+to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered the
+remainder to be sequestrated.</p>
+
+<p>Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time
+had been coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his
+negotiations with the emperor and Henry VIII. of England.
+It was agreed that the constable should raise in his own dominions
+an armed force to assist the emperor in an invasion of France, and
+should receive in return the hand of Eleonora, queen dowager
+of Portugal, or of another of the emperor&rsquo;s sisters, and an
+independent kingdom comprising his own lands together with
+Dauphiné and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity
+to Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon&rsquo;s plans were
+hampered by the presence of the French troops assembling for
+the invasion of Italy, and for this reason he was unable to effect
+a junction with the emperor&rsquo;s German troops from the east.
+News of the conspiracy soon reached the ears of Francis, who
+was on his way to take command of the Italian expedition. In
+an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured
+to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but
+without success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days,
+and after many vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint
+invasion of France by the emperor and his ally of England had
+failed signally, mainly through lack of money and defects of
+combination. In the spring of 1524, however, Bourbon at the
+head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French across
+the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded)
+and drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested
+Marseilles, but being unable to prevent the introduction of
+supplies by Andrea Doria, the Genoese admiral in the service of
+Francis, he was forced to raise the siege and retreat to the
+Milanese. He took part in the battle of Pavia (1525), where
+Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But Bourbon&rsquo;s
+troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to
+extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his
+kingdom and his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon
+had been offered the duchy of Milan by way of compensation.
+He now levied contributions from the townsmen, and demanded
+20,000 ducats for the liberation of the chancellor Girolamo
+Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an attempt to
+realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But the
+sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527
+Bourbon&rsquo;s army was joined by a body of German mercenaries,
+mostly Protestants, and the combined forces advanced towards
+the papal states. Refusing to recognize the truce which the
+viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope Clement VII.,
+Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor&rsquo;s plan of
+attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the
+troops, starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and
+Spaniards and Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the
+5th of May 1527 the imperial army appeared before the walls
+of Rome. On the following morning Bourbon attacked the
+Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling ladder fell mortally
+wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his <i>Life</i> claims
+to have fired. After Bourbon&rsquo;s death his troops took and sacked Rome.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Armstrong, <i>Charles V.</i> (London, 1902); <i>Cambridge Mod.
+Hist.</i> vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBON-LANCY,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a watering-place of east-central France
+in the department of Saône-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from
+the right bank of the Loire and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of
+Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 1896; commune, 4266. The
+town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in the Roman period,
+and ancient baths and other remains have been found. The
+waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking
+and bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &amp;c. Their temperature
+varies from 117° to 132° F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de
+Sévigné, James II. of England, and other celebrated persons
+visited the springs in the 17th and 18th centuries. The town
+has a well-equipped bathing establishment, a large hospital, and
+a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as an archaeological
+museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a
+hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page329" id="page329"></a>329</span>
+the 15th century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also
+remain. The industries of the town include the manufacture of
+farm implements.</p>
+
+<p>In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold
+and a fief of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member
+of which the suffix to its name is derived.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBON L&rsquo;ARCHAMBAULT,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of central France in
+the department of Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by
+rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The town has thermal springs known
+in Roman times, which are used in cases of scrofula and
+rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the state.
+A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle
+of the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a
+cylindrical keep, are of interest. There are a military and a
+civil hospital in the town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity.
+Bourbon (<i>Aquae Borvonis</i> or <i>Bormonis</i>) was anciently the
+capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its name to the great Bourbon
+family. The affix Archambault is the name of one of its early lords.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of eastern France, in the
+department of Haute-Marne, 35½ m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres.
+Pop. (1906) 3738. It is much frequented on account of its hot
+saline springs, which were known to the Romans under the name
+<i>Aquae Borvonis</i>. The heat of these springs varies from 110° to
+156° F. The waters are used in cases of lymphatic affections,
+scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &amp;c. The principal buildings are
+a church of the 12th century, the state bathing-establishment
+and the military hospital; there are also the remains of a castle.
+Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried on in the
+town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated
+Cistercian abbey of Morimond.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, ARTHUR<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1864-&emsp;&emsp;), English actor, was born
+in Berkshire in 1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church,
+Oxford. At the university he became prominent as an amateur
+actor in connexion with the O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and
+in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a professional. He also acted
+with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and was for a while in
+Daly&rsquo;s company in America. In 1894 he married the actress
+Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress
+Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading
+parts under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both
+as tragedian and comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the
+London stage, and his career as actor-manager was remarkable
+for the production of a number of successful modern plays, by
+Mr Sutro and others.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURCHIER, THOMAS<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1404-1486), English archbishop,
+lord chancellor and cardinal, was a younger son of William
+Bourchier, count of Eu (d. 1420), and through his mother, Anne,
+a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, was a
+descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers was Henry,
+earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord
+Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and
+then entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and
+after holding some minor appointments he became bishop of
+Worcester in 1434. In the same year he was chancellor of the
+university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was appointed bishop of
+Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of Canterbury,
+becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.
+Bourchier&rsquo;s short term of office as chancellor coincided with the
+opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong
+partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when
+Richard, duke of York, was deprived of power in October 1456.
+Afterwards, in 1458, he helped to reconcile the contending
+parties, but when the war was renewed in 1459 he appears as a
+decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June 1461, and four
+years later he performed a similar service for the queen, Elizabeth
+Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial
+of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he
+was created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four
+arbitrators appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of
+Picquigny between England and France. After the death of
+Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier persuaded the queen to allow
+her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to share his brother&rsquo;s
+residence in the Tower of London; and although he had sworn
+to be faithful to Edward V. before his father&rsquo;s death, he crowned
+Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way
+implicated in the murder of the young princes, and he was
+probably a participant in the conspiracies against Richard.
+The third English king crowned by Bourchier was Henry VII.,
+whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in January 1486.
+The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his residence,
+Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury cathedral.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.F. Hook, <i>Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury</i> (1860-1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURDALOUE, LOUIS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1632-1704), French Jesuit and
+preacher, was born at Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At
+the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus, and was
+appointed successively professor of rhetoric, philosophy and
+moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His success as
+a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call him
+to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of
+St Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in
+popular estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading
+figures of the most brilliant period of Louis XIV.&rsquo;s reign. He
+preached at the court of Versailles during the Advent of 1670
+and the Lent of 1672, and was subsequently called again to
+deliver the Lenten course of sermons in 1674, 1675, 1680 and
+1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and 1693. This
+was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to call
+the same preacher more than three times to court. On the
+revocation of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to
+confirm the new converts in the Catholic faith, and he had
+extraordinary success in this delicate mission. Catholics and
+Protestants were unanimous in praising his fiery eloquence in
+the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier in 1686.
+Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to charitable
+institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic
+discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He
+died in Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay
+in his power of adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and
+throughout his public career he was highly appreciated by all
+classes of society. His influence was due as much to his saintly
+character and to the gentleness of his manners as to the force of
+his reasoning. Voltaire said that his sermons surpassed those of
+Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however, practically coincided
+with Bourdaloue&rsquo;s early pulpit utterances); and there is little
+doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the direct appeal
+which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a superiority
+over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may
+be with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators,
+and many of his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The only authoritative source for the Sermons
+is the edition of Père Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed
+by the <i>Pensées</i>, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy
+both as to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition
+and as to the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that
+the changes confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal.
+Other editions not based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed,
+are altogether spurious (<i>e.g.</i> that of Abbé Sicard, 1810). Among
+critical works are: Anatole Feugère, <i>Bourdaloue, sa prédication et son temps</i> (Paris, 1874);
+Adrien Lézat, <i>Bourdaloue, théologien et orateur</i> (Paris, 1874);
+P.M. Lauras, <i>Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses &oelig;uvres</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1881);
+Abbé Blampignon, <i>Étude sur Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1886);
+Henri Chérot, <i>Bourdaloue inconnu</i> (Paris, 1898), and
+<i>Bourdaloue, sa correspondance et ses correspondans</i> (Paris, 1898-1904);
+L. Pauthe, <i>Bourdaloue</i> (<i>les maîtres de la chaire au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>) (Paris, 1900);
+E. Griselle, <i>Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa prédication</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1901),
+<i>Sermons inédits; bibliographie, &amp;c.</i> (Paris, 1901),
+<i>Deux sermons inédits sur le royaume de Dieu</i> (Lille and Paris, 1904);
+Ferdinand Castets, <i>Bourdaloue, la vie et la prédication d&rsquo;un religieux au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>,
+and <i>La Revue Bourdaloue</i> (Paris, 1902-1904);
+C.H. Brooke, <i>Great French Preachers</i> (sermons of Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904);
+F. Brunetière, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Éloquence de Bourdaloue,&rdquo; in <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (August 1904),
+a general inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general characteristics.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURDON, FRANÇOIS LOUIS<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (d. 1797), known as <span class="sc">Bourdon
+de l&rsquo;Oise</span>, French revolutionist, was <i>procureur</i> at the parlement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page330" id="page330"></a>330</span>
+of Paris. He ardently embraced the revolutionary doctrines
+and took an active part in the insurrection of the 10th of August
+1792. Representing the department of the Oise in the Convention,
+he voted for the immediate death of the king. He accused
+the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned against
+Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for
+his conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of
+La Rochelle. On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies
+delegated to aid Barras to repress the insurrection made by the
+commune of Paris in favour of Robespierre. Bourbon then became
+a violent reactionary, attacking the former members of the
+Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against the rioters
+of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III. In
+the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of
+&ldquo;Clichyens,&rdquo; composed of disguised royalists, against whom
+the directors made the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of the 18th Fructidor.
+Bourdon was arrested and deported to French Guiana, where he
+died soon after his arrival.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURG-EN-BRESSE,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of
+the department of Ain, and formerly capital of the province
+of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway.
+Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune, 20,045. Bourg is situated
+at the western base of the Jura, on the left bank of the Reyssouze,
+a tributary of the Saône. The chief of the older buildings
+is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the façade
+belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.
+In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other
+public buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern.
+The hôtel de ville contains a library and the Lorin museum
+with a collection of pictures, while another museum has a collection
+of the old costumes and ornaments characteristic of Bresse.
+Among the statues in the town there is one of Edgar Quinet
+(1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat of a prefect
+and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a
+tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
+of France. Its educational establishments include lycées for
+boys and girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist
+of iron goods, mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware,
+and there are flour mills and breweries; and there is considerable
+trade in grain, cattle and poultry. The church of Brou, a
+suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic interest. Marguerite of
+Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had intended to found a
+monastery on the spot, but died before her intention could be
+carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the 16th
+century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of
+Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The
+exterior, especially the façade, is richly ornamented, but the
+chief interest lies in the works of art in the interior, which date
+from 1532. The most important are the three mausoleums with
+the marble effigies of Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau,
+and Marguerite of Austria. All three are remarkable for perfection
+of sculpture and richness of ornamentation. The rood loft,
+the oak stalls, and the reredos in the chapel of the Virgin are
+masterpieces in a similar style.</p>
+
+<p>Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is
+known of its early history. Raised to the rank of a free town
+in 1250, it was at the beginning of the 15th century chosen by
+the dukes of Savoy as the chief city of the province of Bresse.
+In 1535 it passed to France, but was restored to Duke Philibert
+Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel, which afterwards
+withstood a six months&rsquo; siege by the soldiers of Henry IV.
+The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the inhabitants,
+in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,
+offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to
+pillage.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS, LÉON VICTOR AUGUSTE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), French
+statesman, was born at Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was
+educated for the law. After holding a subordinate office (1876)
+in the department of public works, he became successively
+prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne (1885), and
+then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.
+He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical
+moment of President Grévy&rsquo;s resignation. In the following
+year he entered the chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne,
+in opposition to General Boulanger, and joined the radical left.
+He was under-secretary for home affairs in the Floquet ministry
+of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889, being then returned to the
+chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry, which succeeded,
+he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on the 18th
+of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet
+of M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself
+by the attention he had given to educational matters. In this
+capacity he was responsible in 1890 for some important reforms
+in secondary education. He retained his office in M. Loubet&rsquo;s
+cabinet in 1892, and was minister of justice under M. Ribot at
+the end of that year, when the Panama scandals were making the
+office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically pressed the
+Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having
+put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in
+order to procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in
+March 1893, but again took office, and only retired with the rest
+of the Freycinet ministry. In November 1895 he himself formed
+a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type, the main interest of
+which was attached to its fall, as the result of a constitutional
+crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate to vote
+supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that
+popular opinion would enable them to override what they claimed
+to be an unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house;
+but the public was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The
+blow was undoubtedly damaging to M. Bourgeois&rsquo;s career as an
+<i>homme de gouvernement</i>. As minister of public instruction in the
+Brisson cabinet of 1898 he organized courses for adults in primary
+education. After this short ministry he represented his country
+with dignity and effect at the Hague peace congress, and in 1903
+was nominated a member of the permanent court of arbitration.
+He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of the
+Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably
+in foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected
+president of the chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due
+d&rsquo;Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for the department of Marne,
+and in May 1906 became minister of foreign affairs in the
+Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of French
+diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURGEOIS,<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a
+<i>bourg</i> or borough in France; later the term came to have the
+wider significance of the whole class lying between the <i>ouvriers</i>
+or workmen and the nobility, and is now used generally of the
+trading middle-class of any country. In printing, the word
+(pronounced burjoice&prime;) is used of a type coming in size between
+longprimer and brevier; the derivation is supposed to be from
+the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURGES,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a city of central France, chief town of the department
+of Cher, 144 m. S. of Paris on the Orléans railway between
+Vierzon and Nevers. Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune,
+44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat and marshy country on an
+eminence limited on three sides by the waters of the Canal Of
+Berry, the Yèvre, the Auron, and other smaller streams with
+which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with
+its narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and
+east of which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing
+nurseries and market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground
+to the north and north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the
+Roman ramparts of the 4th century, which are for the most part
+built into the houses of the old quarter. They measure considerably
+less in circumference than the fortifications of the 13th
+century, remains of which in the shape of ruined walls and towers
+are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on which the city is
+built is crowned by the cathedral of St Étienne, one of the most
+important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century,
+it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period
+belong the northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking
+the façade and two of its five elaborately sculptured portals.
+The interior, which has double aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable
+height, and no transepts, contains, among many other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page331" id="page331"></a>331</span>
+works of art, magnificent stained glass of the 13th century.
+Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque construction,
+where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two
+lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The
+Jardin de l&rsquo;Archevêché, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the
+choir of the cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The
+hôtel Lallemant and the hôtel Cujas (now occupied by the
+museum) are of the Renaissance period. The hôtel de Jacques
+C&oelig;ur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII. and now used
+as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it has been
+doubted whether Jacques C&oelig;ur himself inhabited it. The mansion
+is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman
+fortifications were utilized in the construction of the south-western
+façade (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">House</a></span>, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings
+surround a courtyard into which three staircase turrets project;
+one of these leads to a chapel, the ceiling of which is decorated by
+fine frescoes.</p>
+
+<p>Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a
+court of assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the
+VIII. army corps. It has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of
+commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational
+institutions include an ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée for boys,
+and a college for girls, training colleges, and a school of industrial
+art. The industrial activity of Bourges depends primarily on
+its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its cannon-foundry
+and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the government,
+and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,
+and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb
+of Mazières has large iron and engineering works, and there are
+manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods,
+oil-cloth, boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works,
+breweries, distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The
+town has a port on the canal of Berry, and does a considerable
+trade in grain, wine, vegetables, hemp and fruit.</p>
+
+<p>Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of <i>Avaricum</i>,
+capital of the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most
+important of all Gaul. In 52 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, during the war with Vercingetorix,
+it was completely destroyed by the Roman conqueror,
+but under Augustus it rose again into importance, and was made
+the capital of Aquitania Prima. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 250 it became the
+seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being Ursinus.
+Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their possession
+till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of
+Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th
+century it became the residence of Charles VII., who thus
+acquired the popular title of &ldquo;king of Bourges.&rdquo; In 1463 a
+university was founded in the city by Louis XI., which continued
+for centuries to be one of the most famous in France, especially
+in the department of jurisprudence. On many occasions Bourges
+was the seat of ecclesiastical councils&mdash;the most important being
+the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of the
+Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the
+Lutheran doctrines were condemned.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), French
+novelist and critic, was born at Amiens on the 2nd of September
+1852. His father, a professor of mathematics, was afterwards
+appointed to a post in the college at Clermont-Ferrand. Here
+Bourget received his early education. He afterwards studied
+at the Lycée Louis-le-Grand and at the École des Hautes Études.
+In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, <i>Au bord de la mer</i>,
+which was followed by others, the last, <i>Les Aveux</i>, appearing in
+1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism,
+and in 1883 he published <i>Essais de psychologic contemporaine</i>,
+studies of eminent writers first printed in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>,
+and now brought together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit
+to England, and there wrote his first published story (<i>L&rsquo;Irréparable</i>).
+<i>Cruelle Énigme</i> followed in 1885; and <i>André Cornelis</i>
+(1886) and <i>Mensonges</i> (1887) were received with much favour.
+<i>Le Disciple</i> (1889) showed the novelist in a graver attitude; while
+in 1891 <i>Sensations d&rsquo;Italie</i>, notes of a tour in that country,
+revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year appeared
+the novel <i>C&oelig;ur de femme</i>, and <i>Nouveaux Pastels</i>, types of the
+characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types
+(<i>Pastels</i>, 1890). His later novels include <i>La Terre promise</i> (1892);
+<i>Cosmopolis</i> (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background;
+<i>Une Idylle tragique</i> (1896); <i>La Duchesse bleue</i> (1897);
+<i>Le Fantôme</i> (1901); <i>Les Deux S&oelig;urs</i> (1905); and some volumes of
+shorter stories&mdash;<i>Complications sentimentales</i> (1896), the powerful
+<i>Drames de famille</i> (1898), <i>Un Homme fort</i> (1900), <i>L&rsquo;Étape</i> (1902),
+a study of the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the
+peasant class to adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful
+study of contemporary manners was followed by <i>Un Divorce</i> (1904),
+a defence of the Roman Catholic position that divorce is
+a violation of natural laws, any breach of which inevitably
+entails disaster. <i>Études et portraits</i>, first published in 1888,
+contains impressions of Bourget&rsquo;s stay in England and Ireland,
+especially reminiscences of the months which he spent at Oxford;
+and <i>Outre-Mer</i> (1895), a book in two volumes, is his critical
+journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was admitted
+to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an
+officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration
+of the order ten years before.</p>
+
+<p>As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and
+his poems, which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are
+chiefly interesting for the light which they throw upon his
+mature method and the later products of his art. It was in
+criticism that his genius first found its true bent. The habit of
+close scientific analysis which he derived from his father, the
+sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a classical
+education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms, the
+taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not
+less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to
+be learned on the <i>boulevard</i>&mdash;all these combined to provide him
+with a most uncommon equipment for the critic&rsquo;s task. It is not
+surprising that the <i>Sensations d&rsquo;ltalie</i> (1891), and the various
+psychological studies, are in their different ways scarcely surpassed
+throughout the whole range of literature. Bourget&rsquo;s reputation
+as a novelist has long been assured. Deeply impressed
+by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal), he struck out
+on a new course at a moment when the realist school reigned
+without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover,
+had a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific
+basis, and aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable
+to, that of the writers who were depicting with an astonishing
+faithfulness the environment and the actions of a person or a
+society. With Bourget observation was mainly directed to the
+secret springs of human character. At first his purpose seemed
+to be purely artistic, but when <i>Le Disciple</i> appeared, in 1889, the
+preface to that remarkable story revealed in him an unsuspected
+fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he has varied between his
+earlier and his later manner, but his work in general has been
+more seriously conceived. From first to last he has painted with
+a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women, whether
+wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not
+less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those
+young men of France to whom he makes special appeal.</p>
+
+<p>Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue
+delineation of one social class. The first charge can hardly be
+sustained. The lights in his books are usually low; there is a
+certain lack of gaiety, and the characters move in a world of
+disenchantment. But there is no despair in his own outlook
+upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other indictment,
+the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere framework
+of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of complicated
+affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which
+the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured
+and leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of
+humbler men and women. The style of all Bourget&rsquo;s writings is
+singularly graceful. His knowledge of the literature of other
+lands gives it a greater flexibility and a finer allusiveness than
+most of his contemporaries can achieve. The precision by which
+it is not less distinguished, though responsible for a certain
+over-refinement, and for some dull pages of the novels, is an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page332" id="page332"></a>332</span>
+almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a critic, indeed,
+either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be desired. If he is
+not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books display more
+ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous creation,
+it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have
+rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also C. Lecigne, <i>L&rsquo;Évolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul
+Bourget</i> (1903); Sargeret, <i>Les Grands Convertis</i> (1906). His <i>Oeuvres
+complètes</i> began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1616-1680), Flemish mystic,
+was born at Lille on the 13th of January 1616. From an early
+age she was under the influence of religion, which took in course
+of time a mystical turn. Undertaking the work of a reformer,
+she visited France, Holland, England and Scotland. Her religious
+enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard of all sects
+raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her
+death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she
+left a large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly
+away; but in the early 18th century her influence revived in
+Scotland sufficiently to call forth several denunciations of her
+doctrines in the various Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701,
+1709 and 1710. So far as appears from her writings and contemporary
+records, she was a visionary of the ordinary type,
+distinguished only by the audacity and persistency of her
+pretensions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions
+and opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,
+Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679).
+For a critical account see Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (Leipzig, 1897),
+and <i>Étude sur Antoinette Bourignon</i>, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three
+of her works at least have been translated into English:&mdash;
+<i>An Abridgment of the Light of the World</i> (London, 1786); <i>A
+Treatise of Solid Virtue</i> (1699); <i>The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit</i>
+(1707)</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURKE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a town of Cowper county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 503 m. by rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614.
+It is situated on the south bank, and at the head of the ordinary
+winter navigation, of the Darling river. Very rich copper ore
+exists in the district in great abundance. Bourke is the centre
+of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual agricultural show
+is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of the Darling,
+3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at Pera,
+10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de Ghaisne
+de</span> (1773-1846), marshal of France, entered the <i>Gardes Françaises</i>
+of the royal army shortly before the Revolution, emigrated in
+1789, and served with Condé and the army of the <i>émigrés</i> in the
+campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently serving as chief of
+staff to Scépeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil war in lower
+Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of
+April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having
+been made by Louis XVIII. a <i>maréchal de camp</i> and a knight of
+St Louis, he headed a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary
+successes collapsed (1799-1800). He then made his
+submission to the First Consul, married, and lived in Paris; but
+his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a few months later,
+and he remained a prisoner for more than three years, finally
+escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army
+under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered
+his services to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division.
+He returned to France with Junot after the convention of
+Cintra, and was promptly re-arrested. He was soon released,
+however, on Junot&rsquo;s demand, and was commissioned as an officer
+in the imperial army. He served in Italy for a time, then went
+on the staff of the viceroy Eugène (Beauharnais), whom he
+accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner
+in the retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French
+army. His conspicuous courage at the battle of Lützen in 1813
+led Napoleon to promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his
+splendid defence of Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank
+of general of division. At the first Restoration Bourmont was
+naturally employed by the Bourbons, to whose service he had
+devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his return from
+Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent
+request of Count Gérard, he was given a divisional command in
+the army of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign
+Bourmont went over to the enemy. It is not probable that he
+gave information of French movements to the allies, but the best
+that can be said in exculpation of his treachery is that his old
+friends and comrades, the royalists of Anjou, were again in
+insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead them. He made
+no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser of
+Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division
+of the royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position
+in the army which, under the command of the duc d&rsquo;Angoulême,
+invaded Spain. He commanded the whole army in Spain for a
+time in 1824, became minister of war in 1829, and in 1830 was
+placed in command of the Algiers expedition. The landing of
+the French and the capture of Algiers were directed by him with
+complete success, and he was rewarded with the <i>bâton</i> of marshal.
+But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his command, and,
+refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced to
+resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of
+the duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal.
+Here, as always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the
+army of Dom Miguel during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after
+the victory of the constitutional party he retired to Rome.
+At the amnesty of 1840 he returned to France. He died at the
+château of Bourmont on the 27th of October 1846.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets
+in vindication of his father&rsquo;s career.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURNE, VINCENT<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (1695-1747), English classical scholar,
+familiarly known as &ldquo;Vinny&rdquo; Bourne, was born at Westminster
+in 1695. In 1710 he became a scholar at Westminster school,
+and in 1714 entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He graduated
+in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years later. Of his afterlife
+exceedingly little is known. It is certain that he passed the
+greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He died on;
+the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published
+three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a
+very handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne&rsquo;s pieces, but
+also some that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are
+remarkable not only for perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties,
+but for graceful expression and genuine poetic feeling. A number
+of them are translations of English poems, and it is not too much
+to say that the Latin versions almost invariably surpass the
+originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne&rsquo;s, Beattie and Lamb
+have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin
+versification.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See an edition (1840) of his <i>Poemata</i>, with a memoir by John
+Mitford.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURNE,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bourn</span>, a market town in the S. Kesteven or
+Stamford parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
+lying in a fenny district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 4361. The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the
+Great Northern railway here crosses the Saxby-Lynn joint line
+of the Great Northern and Midland companies. The church of
+St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with later
+insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a foundation
+of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings
+have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural.
+Bourne is famous through its connexion with the
+ardent opponent of William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake.
+Of his castle very slight traces remain. Bourne was also the
+birthplace of the Elizabethan statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley.
+The Red Hall, which now forms part of the railway station
+buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom Sir
+Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with
+the Gunpowder Plot.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURNE<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (southern form of burn, Teutonic <i>born, brun, burna</i>),
+an intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country
+where the rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly
+drains away until the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases.
+A heavy rainfall will cause streams to run in winter from the
+saturated soil. These are the winter bournes that have given
+name to several settlements upon Salisbury Plain, such as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page333" id="page333"></a>333</span>
+Winterbourne Gunning. The &ldquo;bourne&rdquo; may also be a permanent
+&ldquo;burn,&rdquo; but the word is usually applied to an intermittent
+stream. (2) (From the Fr. <i>borne</i>), a boundary; the first use of
+the word in English is in Lord Ferrers&rsquo; translation of Forrest,
+1523; the figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination
+comes from Shakespeare&rsquo;s Hamlet, &ldquo;the undiscovered country,
+from whose bourne no traveller returns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURNEMOUTH,<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> a municipal and county borough and
+watering-place of Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary
+borough of Christchurch, 107½ m. S.W. by W. from London
+by the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 59,762.
+It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay. Considerable sandstone
+cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored with deep picturesque
+dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about the valley
+of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable
+winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a
+national sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by
+subscription; a pier was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway
+communication was afforded. The climate is remarkably
+equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool in summer;
+the average temperature in July is 61.7° F., and in January 40.3°.
+The town contains numerous handsome buildings, including
+municipal buildings, churches, various places of entertainment,
+sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science and art
+school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front,
+and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome
+have attracted a large number of wealthy residents. There are
+piers at the town itself and at Boscombe, and the bathing is
+excellent. The parks, gardens and drives are extensive and
+pleasant. A service of electric tramways is maintained, notable
+as being the first system installed in England with a combination
+of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying current. There
+are golf links in Meyrick and Queen&rsquo;s parks, both laid out by the
+corporation, which has in other ways studied the entertainment
+of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and West,
+and through communications with the north are maintained by
+the Somerset &amp; Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and
+Great Central railways. The town, which is of wholly modern
+and remarkably rapid growth (for in the middle of the 19th
+century the population was less than 1000), was incorporated in
+1890, and became a county borough in 1900. The corporation
+consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33 councillors. Area,
+5769 acres.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURNONITE,<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead
+and copper with the formula PbCuSbS<span class="su">3</span>. It is of some interest
+on account of the twinning and the beautiful development of its
+crystals. It was first mentioned by Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as
+&ldquo;an ore of antimony,&rdquo; and was more completely described by the
+comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was named: the name
+given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since used in
+the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the
+mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are
+generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the
+basal pinacoid (<i>c</i>); numerous smooth bright faces are often
+developed on the edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned
+crystal is represented in fig. 1. Usually, however, the
+crystals are twinned, the twin-plane being a face of the prism (<i>m</i>);
+the angle between the faces of this prism being nearly a right
+angle (86° 20&prime;), the twinning gives rise to cruciform groups (fig. 2),
+and when it is often repeated the group has the appearance of a
+cog-wheel, hence the name <i>Rädelerz</i> (wheel-ore) of the Kapnik
+miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,
+which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the
+massive material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant
+metallic lustre with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2½, and
+the specific gravity 5.8.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:466px; height:198px" src="images/img333.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Crystal of Bournonite.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Twinned Crystal<br />of Bournonite.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion
+in Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and
+chalybite. Later, still better crystals were found in another
+Cornish mine, namely, Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which
+was worked for argentiferous galena. Fine crystals of large size
+have been found with quartz and chalybite in the mines at
+Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and tetrahedrite at
+Kapnik-Bánya near Nagy-Bánya in Hungary. A few other
+localities are known for this mineral.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURRÉE,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a French name for a dance common in Auvergne
+and in Biscay in Spain; also a term for a musical composition
+or a dance-movement in a suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in
+quick time with two beats to the bar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1769-1834),
+French diplomatist, was born at Sens on the 9th of July
+1769. He was educated at the military school of Brienne in
+Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte; and although the
+solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult, the two
+youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however,
+be added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in
+Bourrienne&rsquo;s memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in
+1787, and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded
+to Vienna. He was pursuing legal and diplomatic
+studies there and afterwards at Leipzig, when the French
+Revolution broke out and went through its first phases. Not
+until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at
+Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a
+Bohemian life together, and among other incidents of that exciting
+time, they witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the
+Tuileries (June 20) and the overthrow of the Swiss Guards
+at the same spot (August 10). Bourrienne next obtained a
+diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon his name was
+placed on the list of political <i>émigrés</i>, from which it was not
+removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of
+13th Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and
+renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second
+in command of the Army of the Interior and soon received the
+command of the Army of Italy. Bourrienne did not proceed
+with him into Italy, but was called thither by the victorious
+general at the time of the long negotiations with Austria
+(May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy
+was of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of
+Campo Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied
+Bonaparte to Egypt as his private secretary, and left a
+vivid, if not very trustworthy, account of the expedition in his
+memoirs. He also accompanied him on the adventurous return
+voyage to Fréjus (September-October 1799), and was of some
+help in the affairs which led up to the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of Brumaire
+(November) 1799. He remained by the side of the First Consul
+in his former capacity, but in the autumn of 1802 incurred his
+displeasure owing to his very questionable financial dealings.
+In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free city
+of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of
+commercial war against England, known as the Continental
+System; but it is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical
+measures with disgust, but secretly relaxed them in favour
+of those merchants who plied him with <i>douceurs</i>. In the early
+spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon to order a large
+number of military cloaks for the army, then in East Prussia,
+he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously
+was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune
+while at Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at
+the close of 1810. In 1814 he embraced the royal cause, and
+during the Hundred Days (1815) accompanied Louis XVIII. to
+Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful; he died at Caen on
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page334" id="page334"></a>334</span>
+the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a mental malady
+for two years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his
+original works, which are insignificant, but upon his <i>Mémoires</i>,
+edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which
+have been frequently republished and translated. The best English
+edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London,
+1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,
+Paris, 1899-1900). See <i>Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et involontaires</i>
+(Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &amp;c., for
+a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also <i>Napoléon et ses
+détracteurs</i>, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURRIT, MARC THÉODORE<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1739-1819), Swiss traveller
+and writer, came of a family which was of French origin but had
+taken refuge at Geneva for reasons connected with religion.
+His father was a watchmaker there, and he himself was educated
+in his native city. He was a good artist and etcher, and also a
+pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love of music he was
+made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the former
+cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself
+to the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a
+great passion ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near
+Geneva. In 1775 he made the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.)
+by the now usual route from the Pierre à Bérard, on which the
+great flat rock known as the <i>Table au Chantre</i> still preserves his
+memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first traveller to attempt the
+ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786), but neither then
+nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit. On the
+other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Géant
+(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also
+among the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &amp;c.
+He received a pension from Louis XVI., and was named the
+<i>historiographe des Alpes</i> by the emperor Joseph II., who visited
+him at Geneva. His last visit to Chamonix was in 1812. His
+writings are composed in a naïve, sentimental and rather
+pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love
+for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific
+study. His chief works are the <i>Description des glacières de
+Savoye</i>, 1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the
+<i>Description des Alpes pennines et rhétiennes</i> (2 vols., 1781)
+(reprinted in 1783 under the title of <i>Nouvelle Description des
+vallées de glace</i>, and in 1785, with additions, in 3 vols., under the
+name of <i>Nouvelle Description des glacières</i>), and the <i>Descriptions
+des cols ou passages des Alpes</i>, (2 vols., 1803), while his <i>Itinéraire
+de Genève, Lausanne et Chamouni</i>, first published in 1791, went
+through several editions in his lifetime.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURSAULT, EDME<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1638-1701), French dramatist and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Mussy l&rsquo;Évêque, now Mussy-sur-Seine
+(Aube), in October 1638. On his first arrival in Paris
+in 1651 his language was limited to a Burgundian patois, but
+within a year he produced his first comedy, <i>Le Mort vivant</i>.
+This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him
+distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Molière
+in the <i>École des femmes</i>. Boursault was persuaded that the
+&ldquo;Lysidas&rdquo; of that play was a caricature of himself, and attacked
+Molière in <i>Le Portrait du peintre ou la contre-critique de l&rsquo;École
+des femmes</i> (1663). Molière retaliated in <i>L&rsquo;Impromptu de
+Versailles</i>, and Boileau attacked Boursault in Satires 7 and 9.
+Boursault replied to Boileau in his <i>Satire des satires</i> (1669),
+but was afterwards reconciled with him, when Boileau on his
+side erased his name from his satires. Boursault obtained
+a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which
+was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and
+the editor was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition
+of Condé. In 1671 he produced a work of edification in <i>Ad usum
+Delphini: la véritable étude des souverains</i>, which so pleased
+the court that its author was about to be made assistant tutor
+to the dauphin when it was found that he was ignorant of
+Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre Huet. Perhaps
+in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at Mont-luçon
+about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688.
+Among his best-known plays are <i>Le Mercure galant</i>, the title
+of which was changed to <i>La Comédie sans titre</i> (1683); <i>La Princesse
+de Clèves</i> (1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished
+with fresh names by its author, succeeded as <i>Germanicus;
+Ésope à la ville</i> (1690); and <i>Ésope à la cour</i> (1701). His lack of
+dramatic instinct could hardly be better indicated than by the
+scheme of his <i>Ésope</i>, which allows the fabulist to come on the
+stage in each scene and recite a fable. Boursault died in Paris
+on the 15th of September 1701.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Oeuvres choisies</i> of Boursault were published in 1811, and
+a sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-René Taillandier&rsquo;s <i>Études
+littéraires</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURSE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (from the Med. Lat. <i>bursa</i>, a purse), the French
+equivalent of the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris
+Exchange, or of any foreign money-market. The English form
+&ldquo;burse,&rdquo; as in Sir Thomas Gresham&rsquo;s building, which was known
+as &ldquo;Britain&rsquo;s Burse,&rdquo; went out of use in the 18th century.
+The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from any
+connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of
+a purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family
+de Bursa is said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to
+have had three purses as a sign on the front.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOURSSE, ESAIAS<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born
+in Amsterdam. He was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose
+manner he worked for many years in his native town; then he
+took service with the Dutch East India Company, and died
+on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare, perhaps
+because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of
+them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de
+Hooch. Two of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears
+the false signature) at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now
+recognized as being the work of Boursse. His subjects are
+interiors with figures, painted with great precision and with
+exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection has his
+masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,
+almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting
+something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced.
+Other important examples are at the Ryks museum
+and at Aix-la-Chapelle. Boursse&rsquo;s &ldquo;Boy blowing Soap Bubbles,&rdquo;
+in the Berlin museum, was until lately attributed to Vermeer
+of Delft. More than one picture bearing the false signature
+of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNÉ<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span>
+(1802-1887), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of
+February 1802. After studying at the school of mines at Saint-Étienne
+he went, when little more than twenty years old, to
+South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an English
+company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he
+was attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled
+widely in the northern parts of the continent. Returning to
+France he became professor of chemistry at Lyons, and in
+1839 was appointed to the chair of agricultural and analytical
+chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris.
+In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where he sat
+as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed
+from his professorship on account of his political opinions, but
+so much resentment at this action was shown by scientific men
+in general, and especially by his colleagues, who threatened
+to resign in a body, that he was reinstated. He died in Paris
+on the 11th of May 1887.  His first papers were concerned with
+mining topics, and his sojourn in South America yielded a number
+of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of goitre in the Cordilleras,
+the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes, tropical rain, &amp;c., which won
+the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From 1836 he devoted
+himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and
+vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral
+chemistry. His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen
+in different foods, the amount of gluten in different wheats,
+investigations on the question whether plants can assimilate free
+nitrogen from the atmosphere (which he answered in the negative),
+the respiration of plants, the function of their leaves, the action
+and value of manures, and other similar subjects. Through
+his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in Alsace,
+where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page335" id="page335"></a>335</span>
+collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an <i>Essai de statique
+chimique des ètres organisés</i> (1841), and was the author of <i>Traité
+d&rsquo;économic rurale</i> (1844), which was remodelled as <i>Agronomie,
+chimie agricole, et physiologie</i> (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed.,
+1884), and of <i>Études sur la transformation du fer en acier</i>
+(1875).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1766-1828), German philosopher
+and critic, was born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and
+studied law at Göttingen. From 1790, however, he became
+a disciple of Kant, published <i>Aphorismen nach Kants Lehre
+vorgelegt</i> (1793), and became professor of philosophy at Göttingen
+(1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a
+philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of
+the &ldquo;thing-in-itself&rdquo; (<i>Ding-an-sich</i>). For the pure reason, as
+described in the <i>Kritik</i>, the &ldquo;thing-in-itself&rdquo; can be only an
+inconceivable &ldquo;something-in-general&rdquo;; any statement about
+it involves the predication of Reality, Unity and Plurality,
+which belong not to the absolute thing but to phenomena.
+On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of will,
+and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing
+is the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative
+knowledge. This doctrine has since been described as absolute
+Virtualism. Following this train of thought, Bouterwek left
+the Kantian position through his opposition to its formalism.
+In later life he inclined to the views of F.H. Jacobi, whose letters
+to him (published at Göttingen, 1868) shed much light on the
+development of his thought. His chief philosophical works are
+<i>Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik</i> (Göttingen and Halle, 1799);
+<i>Aesthetik</i> (Leipzig, 1806; Göttingen, 1815 and 1824); <i>Lehrbuch
+der philos. Vorkenntnisse</i> (Göttingen, 1810 and 1820); <i>Lehrbuch
+der philos. Wissenschaften</i> (Göttingen, 1813 and 1820). In these
+works he dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His
+chief critical work was the <i>Geschichte der neuern Poesie und
+Beredsamkeit</i> (Göttingen, 12 vols., 1801-1819), of which the
+history of Spanish literature has been published separately
+in French, Spanish and English. The <i>Geschichte</i> is a work of
+wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
+equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, <i>Paulus
+Septimus</i> (Halle, 1795), <i>Graf Donamar</i> (Göttingen, 1791) and
+<i>Ramiro</i> (Leipzig, 1804), and published a collection of poems
+(Göttingen, 1802).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de Fouilletourte</span> (1581-1652),
+French statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he
+was councillor in the parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became
+councillor of state and a secretary to the queen-mother, Marie
+de&rsquo; Medici. The connexion of his father, Denis Bouthillier
+(d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for him the title of
+secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain on good
+terms with both Marie de&rsquo; Medici and Richelieu, in spite of their
+rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But
+his great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on
+many diplomatic missions, and the success of his foreign policy
+was due in no small degree to Bouthillier&rsquo;s ability and devotion.
+In 1630 he had taken part at Regensburg in arranging the
+abortive treaty between the emperor and France. From 1633
+to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions in
+Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph.
+Following Richelieu&rsquo;s instructions, he negotiated the alliances
+which brought France into the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. Meanwhile,
+at home, his tact and amiable disposition, as well as his reputation
+for straightforwardness, had secured for him a unique position
+of influence in a court torn by jealousies and intrigues. Trusted
+by the king, the confidant of Richelieu, the friend of Marie de&rsquo;
+Medici, and through his son, Léon Bouthillier, who was appointed
+in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d&rsquo;Orléans, able to bring his influence
+to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable mediator; and the
+personal influence thus exercised, combined with the fact that
+he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy
+of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful
+man in the kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will,
+and Louis XIII. named him a member of the council of regency
+which he intended should govern the kingdom after his death.
+But the king&rsquo;s last plans were not carried out, and Bouthillier
+was obliged to retire into private life, giving up his office of
+superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris on
+the 13th of March 1652.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Léon Bouthillier</span> (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny,
+was early associated with his father, who took him with him
+from 1629 to 1632 to all the great courts of Europe, instructing
+him in diplomacy. In 1632 he was named secretary of state
+and seconded his father&rsquo;s work, so that it is not easy always to
+distinguish their respective parts. After the death of Louis XIII.
+he had to give up his office; but was sent as plenipotentiary to
+the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself incapable,
+however, giving himself up to pleasure and fêtes, and returned
+to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during
+the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin&rsquo;s
+exile (April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which
+came to nothing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUTS-RIMÉS,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> literally (from the French) &ldquo;rhymed ends,&rdquo;
+the name given in all literatures to a kind of verses of which
+no better definition can be found than was made by Addison, in
+the Spectator, when he described them as &ldquo;lists of words that
+rhyme to one another, drawn up by another hand, and given to
+a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the same
+order that they were placed upon the list.&rdquo; The more odd and
+perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to
+give a semblance of common-sense to the production. For
+instance, the rhymes <i>breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant,
+please, hope, pope</i> are submitted, and the following stanza is
+the result:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr f90">
+<p>Escaping from the Indian <i>breeze</i>,</p>
+<p>The vast, sententious <i>elephant</i></p>
+<p>Through groves of sandal loves to <i>squeeze</i></p>
+<p>And in their fragrant shade to <i>pant</i>;</p>
+<p>Although the shelter there be <i>scant</i>,</p>
+<p>The vivid odours soothe and <i>please</i>,</p>
+<p>And while he yields to dreams of <i>hope</i>,</p>
+<p>Adoring beasts surround their <i>Pope</i>.</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The invention of bouts-rimés is attributed to a minor French
+poet of the 17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered.
+According to the <i>Menagiana</i>, about the year 1648, Dulot was
+complaining one day that he had been robbed of a number of
+valuable papers, and, in particular, of three hundred sonnets.
+Surprise being expressed at his having written so many, Dulot
+explained that they were all &ldquo;blank sonnets,&rdquo; that is to say, that
+he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck
+every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was
+taken up as a jest. Bouts-rimés became the fashion, and in 1654
+no less a person than Sarrasin composed a satire against them,
+entitled <i>La Défaite des bouts-rimés</i>, which enjoyed a great success.
+Nevertheless, they continued to be abundantly composed in
+France throughout the 17th century and a great part of the 18th
+century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans (d. 1716) published a
+collection of serious sonnets, all written to rhymes selected for
+him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor Marmontel,
+nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in the
+19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,
+however, in the history of bouts-rimés is the fact that the elder
+Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection.
+He issued an invitation to all the poets of France to display their
+skill by composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose
+by the poet, Joseph Méry (1798-1866). No fewer than 350
+writers responded to the appeal, and Dumas published the
+result, as a volume, in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G.
+Rossetti&rsquo;s <i>Collected Works</i> (1886), mentions that, especially in
+1848 and 1849, he and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly
+practised their pens in writing sonnets to <i>bouts-rimés</i>, each giving
+the other the rhymes for a sonnet, and Dante Gabriel writing off
+these exercises in verse-making at the rate of a sonnet in five or
+eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti&rsquo;s poems in <i>The Germ</i>
+were <i>bouts-rimés</i> experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel&rsquo;s, a little
+touched up, remained in his brother&rsquo;s possession, but were not
+included in the <i>Collected Works</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page336" id="page336"></a>336</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1818-1905), American
+statesman, was born in Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th
+of January 1818. He was reared on a farm, and at an early age
+began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass. There he studied
+law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not begin
+practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850
+he served in the state house of representatives, and became
+the recognized leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice
+defeated for Congress, and was twice an unsuccessful candidate
+for governor. In 1851, however, by means of &ldquo;Free-Soil&rdquo;
+votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected by the
+same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active
+part in the state constitutional convention. He became a
+member of the Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853,
+and as its secretary in 1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and
+rendered much service to the state&rsquo;s school system. The passage
+of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854 had finally alienated him
+from the Democratic party, and he became one of the founders
+of the new Republican party in the state. He played an influential
+part in the Republican national convention in 1860,
+and in 1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was
+appointed by President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal
+revenue, which department he organized. From 1863 to 1869
+he was a representative in Congress, taking an influential part
+in debate, and acting as one of the managers of President
+Johnson&rsquo;s impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was secretary
+of the treasury in President Grant&rsquo;s cabinet, and from 1873 until
+1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under
+an appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second
+edition of the <i>United States Revised Statutes</i> (1878). In 1880 he
+represented the United States before the commission appointed
+in accordance with the treaty of that year, between France and
+the United States, to decide the claims brought by French
+citizens against the United States for acts of the American
+authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of American
+citizens against France for acts of French authorities during the
+war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and
+the Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States
+of the Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic
+League, and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic)
+ticket in 1900. He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on
+the 28th of February 1905. He published various volumes,
+including <i>The Constitution of the United States at the End of the
+First Century</i> (1895), and <i>Reminiscences of Sixty Years in Public
+Affairs</i> (2 vols., New York, 1902).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUVARDIA,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse
+shrubs, belonging to the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of
+tropical America. The flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered
+clusters; the corolla has a large tube and a spreading
+four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms include a number of
+hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings taken off in
+April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame with a
+close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly
+into 3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth
+leaf-mould and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature
+of 70° by night and 80° during the day; shade when required;
+syringe overhead in the afternoon and close the house
+with sun-heat. The plants should be topped to ensure a bushy
+habit, and as they grow must be shifted into 6-in. or 7-in. pots.
+After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may remain till
+the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space.
+They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants
+put at once in a temperature of about 70° at night, with a few
+degrees higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others
+are moved into heat to supply flowers in succession through the
+winter and spring.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUVET, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (1753-1832), French admiral,
+son of a captain in the service of the French East India Company,
+was born on the 23rd of April 1753. He went to sea at the age of
+twelve with his father. Bouvet served in the East Indies in the
+famous campaign of 1781-83 under the command of Suffren,
+but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of the French
+Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side. Murder
+and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the
+monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet&rsquo;s experience were
+valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command
+of the &ldquo;Audacieux&rdquo; (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic.
+In the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral,
+and he commanded a division in the fleet which fought the battle
+of the 1st of June 1794 against Lord Howe. Until the close of
+1796 he continued in command of a squadron in the French
+Channel fleet. In the December of that year he was entrusted
+with the van division of the fleet which was sent from Brest to
+attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in
+the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the
+French as soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence
+which he had not been designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found
+himself at daybreak on the 17th of December separated with
+nine sail of the line from the rest of the fleet, opened his secret
+orders, and found that he was to make his way to Mizen Head.
+He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers, and on
+the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of
+the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of
+December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry
+Bay. On the 24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his
+fleet. The continued storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and
+the awkwardness of the French crews, made it impossible to land
+the troops he had with him. On the evening of the 25th the storm
+increased to such a pitch of violence that the frigate in which
+Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea. The wind
+moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of
+the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage,
+steered for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797.
+His fortune had been very much that of his colleagues in this
+storm-tossed expedition, and on the whole he had shown more
+energy than most of them. He was wrong, however, in thinking
+that all his squadron had failed to keep their anchorage in Bantry
+Bay. The government, displeased by his precipitate return to
+Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards. He was
+compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon
+restored him to the service, and he commanded the squadron
+sent to occupy Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he
+had no further service, and lived in obscurity till his death on
+the 21st of July 1832.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Tronde, <i>Batailles navales de la France</i>, vols. ii. and iii., and James,
+<i>Naval History</i>, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of June and the
+expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the expedition
+in Tronde&rsquo;s <i>English in Ireland</i>, and it is dealt with in Admiral
+Colomb&rsquo;s <i>Naval Warfare</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUVIER, JOHN<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in
+Codogno, France, in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers
+(his mother was a member of the well-known Benezet family),
+emigrated to America and settled in Philadelphia, and after
+varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop and as a country
+editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having become a
+citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing
+in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from
+1838 until his death was an associate justice of the court of
+criminal sessions in that city. He is best known for his able
+legal writings. His <i>Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution
+and Laws of the United States of America and of the Several States of
+the American Union</i> (1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis
+Rawle, under the title of <i>Bouvier&rsquo;s Law Dictionary</i>, 2 vols., 1897)
+has always been a standard. He published also an edition of <i>Bacon&rsquo;s
+Abridgement of the Law</i> (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of
+American law entitled <i>The Institutes of American Law</i> (4 vols., 1851;
+new ed. 2 vols., 1876).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOUVINES,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a village on the French-Belgian frontier between
+Lille and Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the
+middle ages, fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces
+of Philip Augustus, king of France, and those of the coalition
+formed against him, of which the principal members were the
+emperor and King John of England. The plan of campaign
+seems to have been designed by King John, who was the soul of
+the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page337" id="page337"></a>337</span>
+the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the
+princes of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should
+at the right moment march upon Paris from the north. John&rsquo;s
+part in the general strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in
+the north moved slowly. While John, after two inroads, turned
+back to his Guienne possessions on the 3rd of July, it was not
+until three weeks later that the emperor concentrated his forces at
+Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip Augustus had countermarched
+northward and concentrated an army at Péronne.
+Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to
+get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle
+(July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque&mdash;
+the same plain on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of
+Willems was fought. The imperial army accepted the challenge
+and drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy
+cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the centre,
+supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The
+total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot.
+The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took
+ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,
+cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the <i>milice des communes</i>,
+in the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme
+in rear of the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry
+fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knightly
+gallantry were more noticeable than any attempt at combined
+action. The fighting was more serious between the two centres;
+the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost
+the best in existence, drove in the French; Philip led the cavalry
+reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long
+and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and
+narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.
+In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had
+thoroughly defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and
+William Longsword, earl of Salisbury, the leader of this corps,
+was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the warlike bishop of
+Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the other wing, where
+the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Count
+Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the
+centre the battle was now between the two mounted reserves led
+respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here too
+the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved
+only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day
+was already decided in favour of the French when their wings
+began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre.
+The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of
+Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of
+seven hundred Brabançon pikemen, and not only defied every
+attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges
+or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long
+after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron
+was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand
+men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the <i>mêlée</i>; and the
+prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William
+Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights.
+The killed amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party,
+and many thousands of foot on either side, of whom no accurate
+account can be given.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Oman, <i>History of the Art of War</i>, vii. pp. 457-480; also
+Köhler, <i>Kriegsgeschichte, &amp;c</i>., i. 140, and Delpech, <i>Tactique au
+XIII siècle</i>, 127.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOVEY BEDS,<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and
+lignite, 200-300 ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from
+Bovey Tracey to Newton Abbot in Devonshire, England.
+The deposit is evidently the result of the degradation of the
+neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt laid down
+in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains
+from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same
+geological horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland.
+Starkie Gardiner, however, who subsequently examined the
+flora, showed that it bore a close resemblance to that of the
+Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in this view he is supported
+by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made for the
+extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery and
+similar purposes. The lignite or &ldquo;Bovey Coal&rdquo; has at times
+been burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen&rsquo;s
+cottages, but it is not economical.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Gardiner, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and
+O. Heer, <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1862; C. Reid, <i>Q. J. G. S.</i> lii., 1896, p. 490,
+and <i>loc. cit.</i> liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is given
+by A.W. Clayden, <i>The History of Devonshire Scenery</i> (London, 1906),
+pp. 159-168.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOVIANUM,<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1)
+<span class="sc">Undecimanorum</span> [<i>Boiano</i>], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites,
+9 m. N.W. of Saepinum and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the
+important road from Beneventum to Corfinium, which connected
+the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The original city occupied
+the height (Civita) above the modern town, where remains of
+Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably
+founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat
+of the Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the
+name <i>Undecimanorum</i> when Vespasian settled the veterans
+of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its remains have been covered
+by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the mountains. Comparatively
+few inscriptions have been discovered. (2) <span class="sc">Vetus</span>
+(near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of
+Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (<i>Corpus Inscrip.
+Lat.</i> ix. Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni.
+It lay in a remote situation among the mountains, and where
+Bovianum is mentioned the reference is generally to Bovianum
+Undecimanorum. Remains of fortifications and lower down of
+a temple and a theatre (cf. <i>Römische Mitteilungen</i>, 1903, 154)&mdash;
+the latter remarkable for the fine preservation of the stone seats
+of the three lowest rows of the auditorium&mdash;are to be seen. No
+less than eight Oscan inscriptions have been found.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOVIDAE,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant
+mammals typified by the common ox (<i>Bos taurus</i>), and specially
+characterized by the presence on the skulls of the males or of
+both sexes of a pair of bony projections, or cores, covered in life
+with hollow sheaths of horn, which are never branched, and at all
+events after a very early stage of existence are permanently
+retained. From this, which is alone sufficient for diagnostic
+purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For other
+characteristics see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pecora</a></span>. The <i>Bovidae</i> comprise a great
+number of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep,
+goats, antelopes and certain other kinds which come under
+neither of these designations. In stature they range from the
+size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and their horns vary
+in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of the oribi
+and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped structures
+borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu
+and other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the
+<i>Bovidae</i> present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or
+<i>Cervidae</i>. Both of these families are distributed over the whole
+of the northern hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent
+from Africa south of the Sahara and well represented in South
+America, the Bovidae are unknown in the latter area, but are
+extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither group is represented
+in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of the <i>Bovidae</i>.
+The present family doubtless originated in the northern half of
+the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the
+Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been
+but poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Bovidae</i> are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies,
+each of which is briefly noticed in the present article,
+while fuller mention of some of the more important representatives
+of these is made in other articles.</p>
+
+<p>The first section is that of the <i>Bovinae</i>, which includes buffaloes,
+bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built
+ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle
+broad, moist and naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands,
+and a large dewlap often developed in the males; while the tail
+is long and generally tufted, although in one instance longhaired
+throughout. The horns are of nearly equal size in both
+sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull, and may
+be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page338" id="page338"></a>338</span>
+less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous
+knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface.
+The tall upper molars have inner columns. The group is represented
+throughout the Old World as far east as Celebes, and has
+one living North American representative. All the species may
+be included in the genus <i>Bos</i>, with several subgeneric divisions
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anoa</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aurochs</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bantin</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bison</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buffalo</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gaur</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gayal</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ox</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yak</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The second group, or <i>Caprinae</i>, includes the sheep and goats,
+which are smaller animals than most of the <i>Bovidae</i>, generally
+with horns in both sexes, but those of the females small. In
+the males the horns are usually compressed and triangular,
+with transverse ridges or knobs, and either curving backwards
+or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and when face-glands
+are present these are small and insignificant; while
+the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the <i>Bovinae</i>, there are
+frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ
+from those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack
+a distinct inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull
+it is small. The genera are <i>Ovis</i> (sheep), <i>Capra</i> (goats) and
+<i>Hemitragus</i> (tahr). Sheep and goats are very nearly related,
+but the former never have a beard on the chin of the males,
+which are devoid of a strong odour; and their horns are typically
+of a different type. There are, however, several more or less
+transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats. The group
+is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in
+the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance
+south into the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Udad</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Argali</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goat</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ibex</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mouflon</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sheep</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tahr</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The musk-ox (<i>Ovibos moschatus</i>) alone represents the family
+<i>Ovibovinae</i>, which is probably most nearly related to the next
+group (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Musk-ox</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Next come the <i>Rupicaprinae</i>, which include several genera
+of mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European
+chamois (<i>Rupicapra</i>); the other genera being the Asiatic serow,
+goral and takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain
+goat. These ruminants are best described as goat-like antelopes.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antelope</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chamois</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Goral</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rocky Mountain Goat</a></span>,
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Serow</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Takin</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Under the indefinable term &ldquo;antelope&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) may be included
+the seven remaining sections, namely <i>Tragelaphinae</i> (kudu and
+eland), <i>Hippotraginae</i> (sable antelope and oryx), <i>Antilopinae</i>
+(black-buck, gazelles, &amp;c.), <i>Cervicaprinae</i> (reedbuck and waterbuck),
+<i>Neotraginae</i> (klipspringer and steinbok), <i>Cephalophinae</i>
+(duikers and four-horned antelopes) and <i>Bubalinae</i> (hartebeests
+and gnus).</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1814-1873), English judge, a
+younger son of Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at
+All-hallows, Barking, on the 26th of May 1814. On leaving
+school he was articled to a firm of solicitors, but entering the
+Middle Temple he practised for a short time as a special pleader
+below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the home circuit.
+His special training in a solicitor&rsquo;s office, and its resulting connexion,
+combined with a thorough knowledge of the details of
+engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing
+firm in the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive
+patent and commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in
+1857 was elected M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons
+he was very zealous for legal reform, and the Partnership Law
+Amendment Act 1865, which he helped to pass, is always referred
+to as Bovill&rsquo;s Act. In 1866 he was appointed solicitor-general,
+an office which he vacated on becoming chief justice of the
+common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in November of the
+same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of November
+1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable
+knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the
+bench his painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as
+well as his great patience and courtesy, gained for him the
+respect and affection of the profession.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOVILLAE,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via
+Appia (which in 293 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was already paved up to this point),
+11 m. S.E. of Rome. It was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears
+as one of the thirty cities of the Latin league; after the destruction
+of Alba Longa the <i>sacra</i> were, it was held, transferred to
+Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in inscriptions <i>virgines
+Vestales Albanae</i> are mentioned, and the inhabitants of Bovillae
+are always spoken of as <i>Albani Longani Bovillenses</i>) and that of
+the <i>gens Iulia</i>. The existence of this hereditary worship led to an
+increase in its importance when the Julian house rose to the
+highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus&rsquo;s dead
+body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 16 the shrine of
+the family worship was dedicated anew,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and yearly games in the
+circus instituted, probably under the charge of the <i>sodales
+Augustales</i>, whose official calendar has been found here. In
+history Bovillae appears as the scene of the quarrel between
+Milo and Clodius, in which the latter, whose villa lay above the
+town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed. The site is not
+naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications cannot be
+traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa as
+a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which
+would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak
+position. Remains of buildings of the imperial period&mdash;the
+circus, a small theatre, and edifices probably connected with the
+post-station&mdash;may still be seen on the south-west edge of the
+Via Appia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Canina, <i>Via Appia</i> (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby
+in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;école française de Rome</i> (1903), p. 395.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOW <a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span>(pronounced &ldquo;b&#333;&rdquo;), a common Teutonic word for
+anything bent<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (O. Eng. <i>bo&#442;a</i>; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. <i>bogo</i>,
+M.H.G. <i>boge</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>bogen</i>; from O. Teut. stem <i>bug</i>- of
+<i>beugan</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>biegen</i>, to bend). Thus it is found in English
+compound words, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;elbow,&rdquo; &ldquo;rainbow,&rdquo; &ldquo;bow-net,&rdquo; &ldquo;bow-window,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;bow-knot,&rdquo; &ldquo;saddle-bow,&rdquo; and by itself as the
+designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English use
+of &ldquo;bow,&rdquo; or stone-bow, for &ldquo;arch,&rdquo; now obsolete, survives in
+certain names of churches and places, <i>e.g.</i> Bow church (St
+Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the
+&ldquo;Stratford-atte-Bowe&rdquo; of Chaucer). &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; however, is still
+the designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting
+arrows (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Archery</a></span>), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (<i>i.e.</i> a
+double-looped knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (<i>e.g.</i> the bow
+of a watch), certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent
+piece of wood with the ends drawn together by a string, used for
+drilling, turning, &amp;c., in various crafts, and the stick strung
+with horsehair by means of which the strings of instruments of
+the violin family are set in vibration. It is with this last that
+the present article is solely concerned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bow in Music</i>.&mdash;The modern bow (Fr. <i>archet</i>; Ger. <i>Bogen</i>;
+Ital. <i>arco</i>) consists of five parts, <i>i.e.</i> the &ldquo;stick,&rdquo; the screw or
+&ldquo;ferrule,&rdquo; the &ldquo;nut,&rdquo; the &ldquo;hair&rdquo; and the &ldquo;head.&rdquo; The stick,
+in high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (<i>Caesalpinia
+brasiliensis</i>), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity
+and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American
+oak is used, and for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich
+in colouring matter and straight in the grain is selected, and
+the stick is usually cut from a templet so as to obtain the
+accurate taper, which begins about 4¼ in. from the nut, decreasing
+according to regular proportions from <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> in. at the screw to <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> at
+the back of the head. The stick is cut absolutely straight and
+parallel along its whole length with the fibre of the wood; it
+is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the hair and
+has assumed the elegant <i>cambrure</i> first given to it by François
+Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care, for
+if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual
+resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page339" id="page339"></a>339</span>
+straight line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks
+are now of either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped
+or covered with gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the
+nut in order to afford a firm grip. The length of the stick was
+definitely and finally fixed by François Tourte at 29.34 to
+29.528 in.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at
+19 cm. (7½ to 7¾ in.) from the nut;<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> in the violoncello bow the hair
+measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of gravity
+is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7¼ in.) from the nut. In consequence
+of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it necessary to readjust
+the proportions and relative height of head and nut, in order
+to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the stick, and at the
+necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to avoid contact
+between stick and strings in bowing. In order to counterbalance
+the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep the centre
+of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with metal inlays
+or ornamental designs.</p>
+
+<p>The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the
+hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of
+the hair. This screw, about 3¼ in. long, hidden within the stick, runs
+through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which is
+firmly embedded in the nut.</p>
+
+<p>The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original
+purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the
+stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole
+nut slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw,
+thus tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a
+little cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is
+firmly fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought
+out and flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the
+pressure of a flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along
+a mortised groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut.
+Bows having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte
+at the instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were
+known as <i>archets à recouvrements</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the
+150 to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the
+bow must be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the
+pound, and must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one
+hair in ten is perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade
+bow. Experience determines the right number of hairs, for if the
+ribbon be too thick it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin
+the friction is not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fétis
+gives 175 to 250 as the number used in the modern bow,<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and Julius
+Rühlmann 110 to 120.<a name="fa4k" id="fa4k" href="#ft4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> Tourte attached the greatest importance
+to the hairing of the bow, and bestowed quite as much attention
+upon it as upon the stick. He subjected the hair to the following
+process of cleansing: first it was thoroughly scoured with soap and
+water to remove all grease, then steeped in bran-water, freed from
+all heterogeneous matter still adhering to it, and finally rinsed in
+pure water slightly blued. When passed between the fingers in
+the direction from root to tip, the hair glides smoothly and offers
+no resistance, but passed in the opposite direction it feels rough,
+suggesting a regular succession of minute projections. The outer
+epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of minute scales which
+produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when the hair is drawn
+across the strings; the force and uniformity of these shocks, which
+produce series of vibrations of equal persistency, is considerably
+heightened by the application of rosin to the hair. The particles
+of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus accentuating the
+projections and the energy of the attack or &ldquo;bite&rdquo; upon the strings.
+With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and then no matter
+how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit musical sounds&mdash;
+it is then &ldquo;played out&rdquo; and must be re-haired. The organic construction
+of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the bow, to lay
+the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down strokes may
+be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is wound
+round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is afterwards
+covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a solid mass.</p>
+
+<p>The head, 1 in. long and <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> in. wide at the plate, is cut in one piece
+with the stick, an operation which requires delicate workmanship;
+otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during a <i>sforzando</i>
+passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance similar
+to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is immovably
+fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a metal or
+ivory plate.</p>
+
+<p>The model bow here described, elaborated by François Tourte as
+long ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fétis,<a name="fa5k" id="fa5k" href="#ft5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> or between
+1785 and 1790 according to Vidal,<a name="fa6k" id="fa6k" href="#ft6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> has not since been surpassed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole
+becomes evident when we consider the history of the forerunners
+of the viol family: without the bow the ancestor of the violin
+would have remained a guitar; the bow would not have reached
+its present state of perfection had it been required only for instruments
+of the <i>rebec</i> and <i>vielle</i> type. As soon as the possibilities
+of the violin were realized, as a solo instrument capable, through the
+agency of the bow, of expressing the emotions of the performer,
+the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in earnest until it was
+capable of responding to every shade of delicate thought and
+feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted development
+of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had
+been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of
+Tourte until more than a century and a half after the Cremona
+master had given us the violin.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of
+conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have
+coincided with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th
+century, and the consequent impetus their superior culture gave
+to arts and sciences in the south-west of Europe. We have,
+however, no well-authenticated representation of the bow before
+the 9th century in Europe; the earliest is the bow illustrated
+along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin Gerbert<a name="fa7k" id="fa7k" href="#ft7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a>, the
+representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery of St Blaise,
+dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other hand,
+Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries<a name="fa8k" id="fa8k" href="#ft8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> reveals acquaintance
+with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary
+specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from
+the East, and was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia
+Minor and the Arabs from a common source&mdash;probably India, by
+way of Persia. The earliest representation of a bow yet
+discovered is to be found among the fine frescoes in one of the
+chapels of the monastery of Bawit<a name="fa9k" id="fa9k" href="#ft9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> in Egypt. The mural
+paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering
+a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject
+depicted is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean
+Clédat to some date not later than the 8th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, but more
+probably the work of a 6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an
+instrument, which appears to be a rebab, against his chin, in the
+act of bowing and stopping the strings. The bow is similar in
+shape to one shown in the Psalter of Labeo Notker, Leipzig,
+10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian sculptures of
+the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist <i>stupas</i> of
+Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the Yusafzai
+district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which
+stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has
+remained a primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu
+tradition assigns its invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon,
+and the instrument for which it was invented was called <i>ravanastron</i>;
+a primitive instrument of that name is still in use in
+Hindustan<a name="fa10k" id="fa10k" href="#ft10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a>. F.J. Fétis<a name="fa11k" id="fa11k" href="#ft11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a>, Antoine Vidal<a name="fa12k" id="fa12k" href="#ft12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a>, Edward
+Heron-Allen<a name="fa13k" id="fa13k" href="#ft13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a>, and others have given the question some consideration,
+and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther are referred
+to their works.</p>
+
+<p>There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow
+in primitive times. The earliest bow known in Europe was
+associated with the rebab (<i>q.v.</i>), the most widely used bowed
+instrument until the 12th century. The development of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page340" id="page340"></a>340</span>
+instrument can be traced with some degree of certainty, but it is
+quite impossible to decide at what date or in what place the use
+of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly in
+Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied
+to the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only
+from the time when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar
+(<i>q.v.</i>), which then became the guitar fiddle (<i>q.v.</i>), the immediate
+forerunner of the viols.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:498px" src="images/img340a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">Drawn from the ivory cover of the <i>Lothair Psalter</i>,
+by permission of Sir Thomas Brooke.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Earliest Bow of the Crémaillère Type (<i>c.</i> 11th century).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to
+provide some sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or
+string of the bow, such as is shown in
+the MS. translation of the Psalms by
+Labeo Notker, late 10th century, in
+the University library, Leipzig.<a name="fa14k" id="fa14k" href="#ft14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a> The
+length of the handle was often greatly
+exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of
+the artist. Another handle (see Bodleian
+Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th century)
+was in the form of a hilt
+with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in
+which the arched stick and the hair
+were both fixed. The first development
+of importance influencing the
+technique of stringed instruments
+was the attempt to find some device
+for controlling the tension of the
+hair. The contrivance known as
+<i>crémaillère</i>, which was the first step
+in this direction, seems to have been
+foreshadowed in the bows drawn in
+a quaint MS. of the 14th century
+in the British Museum (Sloane 3983,
+fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming
+an obtuse angle with the handle
+of the bow is a contrivance shaped
+like a spear-head which presumably
+served some useful purpose; if it
+had notches (which would be too
+small to show in the drawing), and
+the hair of the bow was finished with
+a loop, then we have here an early
+example of a device for controlling the tension. Another bow in
+the same MS. has two round knobs on the stick which may be
+assumed to have served the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p>A very early example of the <i>crémaillère</i> bow (fig. 1) occurs on
+a carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian
+MS. Psalter of Lothair (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 825), for some time known
+as the Ellis and White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir
+Thomas Brooke at Armitage Bridge House. The carved figure
+of King David, assigned from its characteristic pose and the
+treatment of the drapery to the 11th century, holds a stringed
+instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which occurs twice in other
+Carolingian MSS.<a name="fa15k" id="fa15k" href="#ft15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> of the 9th century, but copied here without
+understanding, as though it were a lyre with many strings.
+The artist has added a bow with <i>crémaillère</i> attachment, which
+is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th century.
+The earliest representation of a <i>crémaillère</i> bow, with this
+exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc,
+who merely states that it was copied from a painting.<a name="fa16k" id="fa16k" href="#ft16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> Fétis
+(op. cit. p. 117) figures a <i>crémaillère</i> bow which he styles
+&ldquo;Bassani, 1680.&rdquo; Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a <i>tromba marina</i>,
+with the hair and stick bound together with waxed cord. The
+hair appears to be kept more or less tense by means of a wedge
+of wood or other material forced in between stick and hair, the
+latter bulging slightly at this point like the string of an archery
+bow when the arrow is in position; this contrivance may be
+due to the fancy of the artist.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:920px; height:168px" src="images/img340b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill &amp; Sons.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed
+to the elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the
+best authority (Vuillaume and Fétis), it might be imagined
+that some of the bows figured by Mersenne,<a name="fa17k" id="fa17k" href="#ft17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> <i>e.g.</i> the bass viol
+bow KL (p. 184), and another KLM (p. 192), had a movable
+nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn astride the stick as in
+the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the construction of the bow,
+which consists of three parts: the <i>bois, bâton</i> or <i>brin</i>,
+the <i>soye</i>, and the <i>demi-roüe</i> or <i>hausse</i>. The term
+&ldquo;half-wheel&rdquo; clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round
+so as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such
+ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer
+that the drawing is misleading and that the very decided button
+was only meant for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are
+informed further that <i>la soye</i> was in reality hairs from the horse
+or some other animal, of which from 80 to 100 were used for each
+bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used on the weak beats, 2, 4,
+6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats, 1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185).
+The same practice prevailed in England in 1667, when Christopher
+Simpson wrote the <i>Division Viol</i>. He gives information
+concerning the construction of the bow in these words: &ldquo;the
+viol-bow for division should be stiff but not heavy. The length
+(betwixt the two places where the hairs are fastened at each
+end) about seven-and-twenty inches. The nut should be short,
+the height of it about a finger&rsquo;s breadth or a little more&rdquo; (p. 2).</p>
+
+<p>As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of
+the technique of the violin, marked modifications in the
+construction of the bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began
+during the second decade of the 18th century to gauge the
+capabilities of the bow, introduced further improvements,
+such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight contour, and a
+shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The Tourtes,
+father and son, accomplished the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed:
+J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered
+an inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific
+basis the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all
+his bows to conform to strict ratio;<a name="fa18k" id="fa18k" href="#ft18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Dominique Peccate,
+apprenticed to J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his
+name and &ldquo;Paris&rdquo; on the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur,
+1760-1832; François Lupot, 1774-1837, the first to line the angular
+cutting of the nut, where it slides along the stick, with a plate of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page341" id="page341"></a>341</span>
+metal; Simon, born 1808, who also signs his bows on the stick near
+the nut; John Dodd of Richmond, the greatest English bow-maker,
+who was especially renowned for his violoncello bows, though his
+violin bows had the defect of being rather short.</p>
+
+<p>The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin
+and viola, and the head and nut are deeper.</p>
+
+<p>The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning
+of the 19th century were the <i>Dragonetti</i>, maintaining the arch
+of the medieval bows, and the <i>Bottesini</i>, shaped and held like the
+violin bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining
+towards the bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire
+under Habeneck about 1830; the great artist himself sent over
+the model from London. Illustrations of both bows are given by
+Vidal (<i>op. cit.</i> pl. xviii.).</p>
+
+<p>Messrs W.E. Hill &amp; Sons probably possess the finest and most
+representative collection of bows in the world.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
+this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way,
+as &ldquo;bough,&rdquo; an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common
+Teutonic word, seen in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>, Ger. <i>Bug</i>, shoulder, and is
+cognate with Gr. <span class="grk" title="paechus">&#960;&#8134;&#967;&#965;&#962;</span>, forearm. The sense of &ldquo;shoulder&rdquo; of
+a ship is not found in O. Eng. <i>bog</i>. but was probably borrowed
+from Dutch or Danish. &ldquo;Bow,&rdquo; an inclination of the head or body,
+though pronounced as &ldquo;bough,&rdquo; is of the same origin as &ldquo;bow,&rdquo; to
+bend.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See F.J. Fétis, <i>Antoine Stradivari</i>, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 123.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4k" id="ft4k" href="#fa4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> J. Rühlmann, <i>Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente</i> (Brunswick,
+1882), p. 143.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5k" id="ft5k" href="#fa5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Fétis, <i>op. cit.</i> p. 119.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6k" id="ft6k" href="#fa6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Antoine Vidal, <i>Les Instruments à archet</i> (Paris, 1876-1878),
+tome i. p. 269</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7k" id="ft7k" href="#fa7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>De Cantu et Musica Sacra</i> (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18; the
+MS. has since perished by fire.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8k" id="ft8k" href="#fa8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
+sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
+Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, <i>Gallerie Nazionali Italiane</i>, iii.
+(Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and <i>Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum</i>,
+Greek Psalter, dated 1066.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9k" id="ft9k" href="#fa9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Jean Clédat, &ldquo;Le Monastère et la nécropole de Baouît,&rdquo;
+in <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Inst. franç. d&rsquo;archéol. orient. du Caire</i>, vol. xii.
+(1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol,
+<i>Dict. d&rsquo;archéol. chrétienne, s.v.</i> &ldquo;Baouît.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10k" id="ft10k" href="#fa10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> For an illustration, see Sonnerat, <i>Voyage aux Indes orientales</i>
+(Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11k" id="ft11k" href="#fa11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> pp. 4-10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12k" id="ft12k" href="#fa12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13k" id="ft13k" href="#fa13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Edward Heron-Allen, <i>Violin-making as it was and is</i> (London, 1884),
+pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14k" id="ft14k" href="#fa14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
+<i>Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau</i> (Neuburg-a-D., 1874),
+pl. 5, No. 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15k" id="ft15k" href="#fa15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crowd</a></span> for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and
+also King David in the Bible of St Paul <i>extra muros</i>, Rome
+(photographic facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16k" id="ft16k" href="#fa16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See <i>Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français</i> (Paris, 1871),
+vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17k" id="ft17k" href="#fa17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Marin Mersenne, <i>L&rsquo;Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636-1637),
+pp. 184 and 192.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18k" id="ft18k" href="#fa18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Vuillaume&rsquo;s diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fétis,
+op. cit. pp. 125-128.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1790-1824), English
+traveller and author, was born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814,
+through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith, governor of the British Gold
+Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership in the service of
+the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape Coast.
+In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a
+mission to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful
+diplomacy the mission succeeded in its object of securing
+British control over the coast natives (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ashanti</a></span>: <i>History</i>).
+In 1818 Bowdich returned to England, and in 1819 published
+an account of his mission and of the study he had made of the
+barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled <i>Mission from Cape Coast
+Castle to Ashantee, &amp;c.</i> (London, 1819). His African collections
+he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly attacked
+the management of the African committee, and his strictures
+were instrumental in leading the British government to assume
+direct control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich
+lived in Paris, studying mathematics and the natural sciences,
+and was on intimate terms with Cuvier, Humboldt and other
+savants. During his stay in France he edited several works
+on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In 1822, accompanied
+by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of historic
+MSS., he published <i>An Account of the Discoveries of the Portuguese
+in ... Angola and Mozambique</i> (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich
+and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape
+Verde Islands, arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia,
+intending to go to Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior.
+But at Bathurst Bowdich died on the 10th of January 1824.
+His widow published an account of his last journey, entitled
+<i>Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to which is added.... A
+Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its Completion,
+&amp;c.</i> (London, 1825). Bowdich&rsquo;s daughter, Mrs Hutchinson Hale,
+republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father&rsquo;s
+<i>Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1773-1838), American mathematician,
+was born at Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to
+his father&rsquo;s business as a cooper, and afterwards apprenticed
+to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics early developed
+itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study Newton&rsquo;s
+<i>Principia</i>. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796, 1798,
+1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
+navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing
+his crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two
+editions of Hamilton Moore&rsquo;s <i>Navigation</i>, and in 1802 published
+a valuable work, <i>New American Practical Navigator</i>, founded on
+the earlier treatise by Moore. In 1804 he became president of a
+Salem insurance company. In the midst of his active career he
+undertook a translation of the <i>Mécanique céleste</i> of P.S. Laplace,
+with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He was offered, but
+declined, the professorship of mathematics and astronomy at
+Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics&rsquo;
+Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts
+and Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll
+Bowditch (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839)
+of the translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a
+separate biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch
+(1808-1892), a famous Boston physician.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWDLER, THOMAS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1754-1825), editor of the &ldquo;family&rdquo;
+Shakespeare, younger son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of
+independent fortune, was born at Ashley, near Bath, on the
+11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the universities
+of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
+four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where
+he became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned
+ladies. In 1800 he left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and
+later on he removed to South Wales. He was an energetic
+philanthropist, and carried on John Howard&rsquo;s work in the
+prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published <i>The Family
+Shakespeare</i> &ldquo;in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
+the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted
+which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family.&rdquo; Criticisms
+of this edition appeared in the <i>British Critic</i> of April 1822.
+Bowdler also expurgated Edward Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>History of the Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (published posthumously, 1826);
+and he issued a selection from the Old Testament for the use of
+children. He died at Rhyddings, near Swansea, on the 24th of
+February 1825.</p>
+
+<p>From Bowdler&rsquo;s name we have the word to &ldquo;bowdlerize,&rdquo;
+first known to occur in General Perronet Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Letters
+of a Representative to his Constituents during the Session of 1836</i>,
+printed in Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Exercises</i>, iv. 126. The official interpretation
+is &ldquo;to expurgate (a book or writing) by omitting or modifying
+words or passages considered indelicate or offensive.&rdquo; Both the
+word and its derivatives, however, are associated with false
+squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the name of Bowdler
+it is worth noting that Swinburne in &ldquo;Social Verse&rdquo; (<i>Studies
+in Prose and Poetry</i>, 1894, p. 98) said of him that &ldquo;no man ever
+did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it
+possible to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative
+children,&rdquo; and stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as
+&ldquo;nauseous and foolish cant.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWDOIN, JAMES<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1726-1790), American political leader,
+was born of French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts,
+on the 7th of August 1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745,
+and was a member of the lower house of the general court of
+Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757 to 1774 of the Massachusetts
+council, in which, according to Governor Thomas
+Hutchinson, he &ldquo;was without a rival,&rdquo; and, on the approach
+of the War of Independence, was &ldquo;the principal supporter
+of the opposition to the government.&rdquo; From August 1775
+until the summer of 1777 he was the president of the council,
+which had then become to a greater extent than formerly an
+executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was
+president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts,
+also serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft
+of the constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was
+a member of a commission appointed &ldquo;to revise the laws in force
+in the state; to select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to
+be accommodated to the present government.&rdquo; From 1785 to
+1787 he was governor of Massachusetts, suppressing with much
+vigour Shays&rsquo; Rebellion, and failing to be re-elected largely
+because it was believed that he would punish the insurrectionists
+with more severity than would his competitor, John Hancock.
+Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in
+February 1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution,
+his son being also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th
+of November 1790. He took much interest in natural philosophy,
+and presented various papers before the American Academy of
+Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the founders and, from
+1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College was named in
+his honour.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">James Bowdoin</span> (1752-1811), was born in Boston
+on the 22nd of September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771,
+and served, at various times, as a representative, senator and
+councillor of the state. From 1805 until 1808 he was the minister
+plenipotentiary of the United States in Spain. He died on
+Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the 11th of
+October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
+apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee,
+bequeathing to it his collection of paintings and drawings,
+then considered the finest in the country.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page342" id="page342"></a>342</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> (1823-&emsp;&emsp;), Canadian politician,
+son of John Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall,
+England, on the 27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved
+with his family to Belleville, Canada, where he finally became
+editor and proprietor of the <i>Intelligencer</i>. He was elected grand
+master of the Orange Association of British America, and was
+long the exponent in the Canadian parliament of the claims
+of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North Hastings
+in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
+till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
+Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership
+of Sir John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From
+December 1894 till April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and
+endeavoured to enforce remedial legislation in the question
+of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was unsuccessful, and
+he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he led
+the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided
+over the colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was
+created K.C.M.G.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span>
+(1835-1894), English judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835,
+at Woolaston in Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher
+Bowen of Hollymount, Co. Mayo, being then curate of the
+parish. He was educated at Lille, Blackheath and Rugby
+schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol scholarship in 1853.
+At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier youth, winning
+the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his time. He was
+made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
+London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1861,
+and while studying law he wrote regularly for the <i>Saturday
+Renew</i>, and also later for the <i>Spectator</i>. For a time he had little
+success at the bar, and came near to exchanging it for the career
+of a college tutor, but he was induced by his friends, who recognized
+his talents, to persevere. Soon after he had begun to make
+his mark he was briefed against the claimant in the famous
+&ldquo;Tichborne Case.&rdquo; Bowen&rsquo;s services to his leader, Sir John
+Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
+counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did
+while the trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general
+to that of attorney-general; and from this time his practice
+became a very large one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne
+trials had been great, so that his physical health became unequal
+to the tasks which his zeal for work imposed upon it, and in 1879
+his acceptance of a judgeship in the queen&rsquo;s bench division, on
+the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him the opportunity
+of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen&rsquo;s intellect
+hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
+but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
+Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice
+of appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and
+his courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of
+failing health he was able to sit more or less regularly until
+August 1893, when, on the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was
+made a lord of appeal in ordinary, and a baron for life, with
+the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this time, however,
+his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law lord
+to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his
+last public service consisted in presiding over the commission
+which sat in October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots.
+He died on the 10th of April 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who
+knew him either professionally or privately. He had a polished
+and graceful wit, of which many instances might be given,
+although such anecdotes lose force in print. For example, when
+it was suggested on the occasion of an address to Queen Victoria,
+to be presented by her judges, that a passage in it, &ldquo;conscious as
+we are of our shortcomings,&rdquo; suggested too great humility, he
+proposed the emendation &ldquo;conscious as we are of one another&rsquo;s
+shortcomings&rdquo;; and on another occasion he defined a jurist
+as &ldquo;a person who knows a little about the laws of every country
+except his own.&rdquo; Lord Bowen&rsquo;s judicial reputation will rest
+upon the series of judgments delivered by him in the court of
+appeal, which are remarkable for their lucid interpretation
+of legal principles as applied to the facts and business of life.
+Among good examples of his judgment may be cited that given
+in advising the House of Lords in <i>Angus</i> v. <i>Dalton</i> (6 App. Cas.
+740), and those delivered in <i>Abrath</i> v. <i>North Eastern Railway</i>
+(11 Q.B.D. 440); <i>Thomas</i> v. <i>Quartermaine</i> (18 Q.B.D. 685);
+<i>Vagliano</i> v. <i>Bank of England</i> (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared
+the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be
+wrong in its conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords);
+and the <i>Mogul Steamship Company</i> v. <i>M&rsquo;Gregor</i> (23 Q.B.D. 598).
+Of Lord Bowen&rsquo;s literary works besides those already indicated
+may be mentioned his translation of Virgil&rsquo;s <i>Eclogues</i>, and
+<i>Aeneid</i>, books i.-vi., and his pamphlet, <i>The Alabama Claim and
+Arbitration considered from a Legal Point of View.</i> Lord Bowen
+married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest daughter of James
+Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
+daughter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Lord Bowen</i>, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, FRANCIS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1811-1890), American philosophical
+writer and educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts,
+on the 8th of September 1811. He graduated at
+Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at Phillips Exeter
+Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and instructor
+at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he settled
+in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor
+of the <i>North American Review</i> from 1843 to 1854. In 1850
+he was appointed professor of history at Harvard; but his
+appointment was disapproved by the board of overseers on
+account of reactionary political opinions he had expressed in a
+controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning the
+Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford
+professor of natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity
+was approved, and he occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he
+was a member of the Federal commission appointed to consider
+currency reform, and wrote (1877) the minority report, in which
+he opposed the restoration of the double standard and the remonetization
+of silver. He died in Boston, Massachusetts, on the
+22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives of Sir William
+Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin Lincoln
+in Jared Sparks&rsquo; &ldquo;Library of American Biography&rdquo;; <i>Critical
+Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative
+Philosophy</i> (1842); <i>Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical
+and Ethical Science to the Evidences of Religion</i> (1849);
+<i>The Principles of Political Economy applied to the Condition,
+Resources and Institutions of the American People</i> (1856); <i>A
+Treatise on Logic</i> (1864); <i>American Political Economy</i> (1870);
+<i>Modern Philosophy from Descartes to Schopenhauer and Hartmann</i>
+(1877); and <i>Gleanings from a Literary Life, 1838-1880</i> (1880).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (1821-1899), British
+colonial governor, eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards
+rector of Taughboyne, Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of
+November 1821. Educated at Charterhouse school and Trinity
+College, Oxford, he took a first class in classics in 1844, and was
+elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he was chosen president
+of the university of Corfu. Having served as secretary of government
+in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859 the first
+governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
+from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of
+Queensland and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but
+incurred some unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of
+inconvertible paper money during the financial crisis of 1866.
+In 1867 he was made governor of New Zealand, in which position
+he was successful in reconciling the Maoris to the English rule,
+and saw the end of the struggle between the colonists and the
+natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen endeavoured
+to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
+governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of
+governor of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He
+was made a K.C.M.G. in 1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and
+received honorary degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge. In
+December 1887 he was appointed chief of the royal commission
+which was sent to Malta with regard to the new constitution for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page343" id="page343"></a>343</span>
+the island, and all the recommendations made by him were
+adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899,
+having been married twice, and having had a family of one son
+and four daughters. Bowen wrote <i>Ithaca in 1850</i> (London,
+1854), translated into Greek in 1859; and <i>Mount Athos,
+Thessaly and Epirus</i> (London, 1852); and he was the author
+of Murray&rsquo;s <i>Handbook for Greece</i> (London, 1854).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A selection of his letters and despatches, <i>Thirty Years of Colonial
+Government</i> (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWER, WALTER<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born
+about 1385 at Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the
+Firth of Forth) from 1418, was one of the commissioners for the
+collection of the ransom of James I., king of Scots, in 1423 and
+1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to Paris on the business of
+the marriage of the king&rsquo;s daughter to the dauphin. He played
+an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in the defence of
+Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged on his
+work the <i>Scotichronicon</i>, on which his reputation now chiefly rests.
+This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir
+David Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the <i>Chronica
+Gentis Scotorum</i> of Fordun. The completed work, in its original
+form, consisted of sixteen books, of which the first five and a
+portion of the sixth (to 1163) are Fordun&rsquo;s&mdash;or mainly his, for
+Bower added to them at places. In the later books, down to the
+reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by Fordun&rsquo;s <i>Gesta Annalia</i>,
+but from that point to the close the work is original and of
+contemporary importance, especially for James I., with whose
+death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining
+years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or &ldquo;abridgment&rdquo;
+of this work, which is known as the <i>Book of Cupar</i>, and is
+preserved in the Advocates&rsquo; library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7).
+Other abridgments, not by Bower, were made about the same
+time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick Russell, a Carthusian of
+Perth) preserved in the Advocates&rsquo; library (MS. 35. 6. 7) and
+another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in the
+same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the
+<i>Scotichronicon</i>, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in
+the British Museum, in <i>The Black Book of Paisley</i>, and in Harl.
+MS. 712; one in the Advocates&rsquo; library, from which Walter
+Goodall printed his edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library
+of Corpus Christi, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Goodall&rsquo;s is the only complete modern edition of Bower&rsquo;s text.
+See also W.F. Skene&rsquo;s edition of Fordun in the series of <i>Historians
+of Scotland</i> (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
+<i>Exchequer Rolls of Scotland</i>, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
+that by T.A. Archer in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biog.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1797-1877), English naturalist
+and palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the
+14th of July 1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother
+to his father&rsquo;s distillery, in which he was actively engaged until
+1847. In early years astronomy and natural history, especially
+botany, engaged much of his attention; he became an enthusiastic
+worker at the microscope, studying the structure of shells,
+corals, moss-agates, flints, &amp;c., and he also formed an extensive
+collection of fossils. The organic remains of the London Clay
+attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he and six
+other workers founded &ldquo;The London Clay Club&rdquo;&mdash;the members
+comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875),
+author of <i>The Eocene Mollusca</i> (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V.
+Wood, John Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell,
+surgeon of Highgate (1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In
+1840 Bowerbank published <i>A History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds
+of the London Clay</i>, and two years later he was elected F.R.S. In
+1847 he suggested the establishment of a society for the publication
+of undescribed British Fossils, and thus originated the
+Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he did much
+to encourage a love of natural science by being &ldquo;at home&rdquo; every
+Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
+afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his
+museum, his microscopes, and his personal assistance were at
+the service of every earnest student. In the study of sponges he
+became specially interested, and he was author of <i>A Monograph
+of the British Spongiadae</i> in 4 vols., published by the Ray Society,
+1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St Leonards, where he died on
+the 8th of March 1877.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWIE, JAMES<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in
+Logan county, Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about
+1802, and in 1818-1820 was engaged with his brothers, John J.
+and Rezin P., in smuggling negro slaves into the United States
+from the headquarters of the pirates led by Jean Lafitte on
+Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and took a
+prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
+battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass
+Fight (1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see
+<span class="sc">San Antonio</span>), but was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final
+assault on the 6th of March 1836, and was among the last to be
+butchered. Bowie&rsquo;s name is now perpetuated by a county in
+north-eastern Texas, and by its association with that of the
+famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did not
+invent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOW-LEG<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (<i>Genu Varum</i>), a deformity characterized by separation
+of the knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there
+is an outward curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times
+an interior bend of the latter bone. At birth all children are
+more or less bandy-legged. The child lies on its nurse&rsquo;s knee
+with the soles of the feet facing one another; the tibiae and
+femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs are extended,
+although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct space
+between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
+change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another;
+the femora slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints;
+the tibiae become straight; and the sole of the foot
+faces almost directly downwards. While these changes are
+occurring, the bones, which at first consist principally of cartilage,
+are gradually becoming ossified, and in a normal child by the
+time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared, both by their
+general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which form
+them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
+attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement
+to walk before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the
+result will necessarily be either an arrest in the development
+of the limbs or an increase of the bandy condition. If the child
+is weakly, either rachitic or suffering from any ailment which
+prevents the due ossification of the bones, or is improperly fed,
+the bandy condition may remain persistent. Thus the chief
+cause of this deformity is rickets (<i>q.v.</i>). The remaining causes
+are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism,
+the condition being very likely to supervene after accidents
+involving the condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the
+most important thing is to treat the constitutional disease, at
+the same time instructing the mother never to place the child
+on its feet. In many cases this is quite sufficient in itself to effect
+a cure, but matters can be hastened somewhat by applying
+splints. When in older patients the deformity arises either
+from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that of
+operation.</p>
+
+<p>A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known
+as <i>knock-knee</i> (or <i>Genu Valgum</i>). In this condition there is close
+approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the
+feet, the patient being unable to bring the feet together when
+standing. Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the
+double form is the more common. There are two varieties of
+this deformity: (i.) that due to rickets and occurring in young
+children (the rachitic form), and (ii.) that met with in adolescents
+and known as the static form. In young children it is practically
+always due to rickets, and the constitutional disease must be
+most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially in these
+cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases the body
+weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if
+quite young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated
+several times a day. Where the child is a little older and it is more
+difficult to keep him off his feet, long splints should be applied
+from the axilla or waist to a point several inches below the level
+of the foot. It is only by making the splints sufficiently long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page344" id="page344"></a>344</span>
+that a naturally active child can be kept at rest. The little
+patient should live in the open air as much as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young
+adolescents, especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers,
+and young people who have outgrown their strength, yet have
+to carry heavy weights. Normally in the erect posture the weight
+of the body is passed through the outer condyle of the femur
+rather than the inner, and this latter is lengthened to keep the
+plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws considerable
+strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint, and
+after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles
+of the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus
+the ligament gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue
+mobility from side to side. If the condition be not attended to,
+the outer condyle becomes gradually atrophied, owing to the
+increased weight transmitted through it, and the inner condyle
+becomes lengthened. These changes are the direct outcome
+of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure results in
+increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
+The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth
+that takes place in the child that is confined to bed during
+a prolonged illness. The distorted, stunted, shortened and
+fashionable foot of the Chinese lady is an example of the latter.
+Flat-foot (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Club-Foot</a></span>) and lateral curvature of the spine,
+scoliosis, are often associated with this form of Genu Valgum,
+the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the latter being
+compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg, though
+often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
+variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
+health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But
+in the more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This
+usually consists of an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee,
+attached above to a pelvic band and below to the heel of the
+boot. By the gradual tightening of padded straps passing round
+the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees into a more
+natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
+that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of
+operation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, SAMUEL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1826-1878), American journalist, was
+born in Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826.
+He was the son of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city,
+who had established the weekly <i>Springfield Republican</i> in 1824.
+The daily issue was begun in 1844, as an evening newspaper,
+afterwards becoming a morning journal. To its service Samuel
+Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception of a brief
+period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
+and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour,
+incisiveness and independence of its editorial utterances, and
+the concise and convenient arrangement of its local and general
+news-matter. During the controversies affecting slavery and
+resulting in the Civil War, Bowles supported, in general, the Whig
+and Republican parties, but in the period of Reconstruction
+under President Grant his paper represented anti-administration
+or &ldquo;Liberal Republican&rdquo; opinions, while in the disputed election
+of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and subsequently
+became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
+on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently,
+the <i>Republican</i> office was a sort of school for young
+journalists, especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness
+of style, one of his maxims being &ldquo;put it all in the first paragraph.&rdquo;
+Bowles published two books of travel, <i>Across the
+Continent</i> (1865) and <i>The Switzerland of America</i> (1869), which
+were combined into one volume under the title <i>Our New West</i>
+(1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief of
+the <i>Republican</i> by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A eulogistic <i>Life and Times of Samuel Bowles</i> (2 vols., New York,
+1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
+political movements after the compromise of 1850.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1762-1850), English poet and
+critic, was born at King&rsquo;s Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which
+his father was vicar, on the 24th of September 1762. At the age
+of fourteen he entered Winchester school, the head-master at
+the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he left as captain
+of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford, where
+he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the chancellor&rsquo;s
+prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
+quarto volume, <i>Fourteen Sonnets</i>, which met with considerable
+favour at the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and
+his young contemporaries. The <i>Sonnets</i> even in form were a
+revival, a return to the older and purer poetic style, and by their
+grace of expression, melodious versification, tender tone of feeling
+and vivid appreciation of the life and beauty of nature, stood
+out in strong contrast to the elaborated commonplaces which
+at that time formed the bulk of English poetry. After taking
+his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was appointed
+in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
+received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and
+in 1804 was presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire.
+In the same year he was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal
+stall in the cathedral of Salisbury. In 1818 he was made
+chaplain to the prince regent, and in 1828 he was elected
+residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at Salisbury on the
+7th of April 1850, aged 88.</p>
+
+<p>The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high
+standard, though all are distinguished by purity of imagination,
+cultured and graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling.
+The most extensive were <i>The Spirit of Discovery</i> (1804), which was
+mercilessly ridiculed by Byron; <i>The Missionary of the Andes</i>
+(1815); <i>The Grave of the Last Saxon</i> (1822); and <i>St John in
+Patmos</i> (1833). Bowles is perhaps more celebrated as a critic
+of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an edition of
+Pope&rsquo;s works with notes and an essay on the poetical character
+of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to poetic
+imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
+recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the
+time with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his
+style. The &ldquo;Pope and Bowles&rdquo; controversy brought into
+sharp contrast the opposing views of poetry, which may be
+roughly described as the natural and the artificial. Bowles
+maintained that images drawn from nature are poetically finer
+than those drawn from art; and that in the highest kinds of
+poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
+or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society.
+These positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell,
+Roscoe and others of less note, while for a time Bowles was
+almost solitary. Hazlitt and the <i>Blackwood</i> critics, however,
+came to his assistance, and on the whole Bowles had reason
+to congratulate himself on having established certain principles
+which might serve as the basis of a true method of poetical
+criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
+example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose
+works from his prolific pen was a <i>Life of Bishop Ken</i> (2 vols.,
+1830-1831).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Poetical Works</i> were collected in 1855, with a memoir by
+G. Gilfillan.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLINE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (a word found in most Teutonic languages,
+probably connected with the &ldquo;bow&rdquo; of a ship), a nautical
+term for a rope leading from the edge of a sail to the bows,
+for the purpose of steadying the sail when sailing close to the
+wind&mdash;&ldquo;on a bowline.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLING<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bulla</i>, a globe, through O. Fr. <i>boule</i>, ball),
+an indoor game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine
+or ten wooden pins. It has been played for centuries in Germany
+and the Low Countries, where it is still in high favour, but attains
+its greatest popularity in the United States, whence it was
+introduced in colonial times from Holland. The Dutch inhabitants
+of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
+to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the
+principal resort of the bowlers being the square just north of
+the Battery still called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys
+were made of hardened clay or of slate, but those in vogue at
+present are built up of alternate strips of pine and maple wood,
+about 1 × 3 in. in size, set on edge, and fastened together and
+to the bed of the alley with the nicest art of the cabinet-maker.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page345" id="page345"></a>345</span>
+The width of the alley is 4l½ in., and its whole length about
+80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line, over which
+the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance is
+60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. &ldquo;gutter&rdquo; to catch
+any balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the
+diamond form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th
+century the game of &ldquo;nine-pins&rdquo; was prohibited by law, on
+account of the excessive betting connected with it. This ordinance,
+however, was soon evaded by the addition of a tenth
+pin, resulting in the game of &ldquo;ten-pins,&rdquo; the pastime in vogue
+to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley in the
+form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the back,
+then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is
+placed 3 in. from the alley&rsquo;s edge, back of which is the pin-pit,
+10 in. deep and about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded
+(often with a heavy, swinging cushion), and there are safety
+corners for the pin-boys, who set up the pins, call the scores
+and place the balls in the sloping &ldquo;railway&rdquo; which returns
+them to the players&rsquo; end of the alley. The pins are made of hard
+maple and are 15 in. high, 2¼ in. in diameter at their base and
+15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls, which
+are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be
+of any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16½ &#8468; in
+weight. They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle
+finger. As many may play on a side as please, five being the
+number for championship teams, though this sometimes varies.
+Each player rolls three balls, called a <i>frame</i>, and ten frames
+constitute a game, unless otherwise agreed upon. In first-class
+matches two balls only are rolled. If all ten pins are knocked
+down by the first ball the player makes a <i>strike</i>, which counts
+him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls of
+his next frame. If, however, he should then make another
+strike, 10 more are added to his score, making 20, to which are
+added the pins he may knock down with his first ball of the third
+frame. This may also score a strike, making 30 as the score
+of the first frame, and, should the player keep up this high
+average, he will score the maximum, 300, in his ten frames.
+If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is called a
+<i>spare</i>, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball
+of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring
+is comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are
+used. Of course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is
+scored, but the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens
+of thousands of bowling clubs in the United States and Canada
+are under the jurisdiction of the American Bowling Congress,
+which meets once a year to revise the rules and hold contests
+for the national championships.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the
+most in vogue being &ldquo;Cocked Hat,&rdquo; which is played with three pins,
+one in the head-pin position and the others on either corner of the
+back row. The pins are usually a little larger than those used in the
+regular game, and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is
+90, and all balls, even those going into the gutter, are in play.
+&ldquo;Cocked hat and Feather&rdquo; is similar, except that a fourth pin is added,
+placed in the centre. Other variations of bowling are &ldquo;Quintet,&rdquo;
+in which five pins, set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler,
+are used; the &ldquo;Battle Game,&rdquo; in which 12 can be scored by
+knocking down all but the centre, or king, pin; &ldquo;Head Pin and
+Four Back,&rdquo; in which five pins are used, one in the head-pin position
+and the rest on the back line; &ldquo;Four Back&rdquo;; &ldquo;Five Back&rdquo;;
+&ldquo;Duck Pin&rdquo;; &ldquo;Head Pin,&rdquo; with nine pins set up in the old-fashioned
+way, and &ldquo;Candle Pin,&rdquo; in which thin pins tapering
+towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar
+to those of the regular game.</p>
+
+<p>The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
+Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned
+game of nine-pins (<i>Kegelspiel</i>) with solid balls and the pins
+set up diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made
+with less care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or
+marble.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Warren
+county, Kentucky, U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by
+W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7803; (1900) 8226, of whom
+2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is served by the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
+here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized
+or gravel roads also radiate from it to all parts of the
+surrounding country, a rich agricultural and live-stock raising
+region, in which there are deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural
+gas, asphalt and building stone. The city is the seat of Potter
+College (for girls; non-sectarian, opened 1889); of Ogden
+College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary school, endowed by
+the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of the
+West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern
+Normal School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and
+removed to Bowling Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green
+Business University, formerly a part of the Southern Normal
+School and Business College. Bowling Green has two parks,
+a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other live-stock,
+tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour, lumber,
+tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates
+the water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green
+was incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War
+Bowling Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate
+defence in the West, and was for some time the headquarters
+of General Albert Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned,
+however, after the capture by the Federals of Forts Henry
+and Donelson.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLING GREEN,<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Wood
+county, Ohio, U.S.A., 20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a
+residential suburb. Pop. (1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born);
+(1910) 5222. Bowling Green is served by the Cincinnati,
+Hamilton &amp; Dayton and the Toledo &amp; Ohio Central railways, and
+by the Toledo Urban &amp; Interurban and the Lake Erie, Bowling
+Green &amp; Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
+Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region
+which abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences
+and business places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately
+owned central hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures
+are cut glass, stoves and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns,
+thread-cutting machines, brooms and agricultural implements.
+Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was incorporated as a
+town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWLS,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery,
+still in vogue. It has been traced certainly to the 13th, and
+conjecturally to the 12th century. William Fitzstephen
+(d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas Becket,
+<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
+gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing
+of the summer amusements of the young men, says that on
+holidays they were &ldquo;exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling,
+Casting of Stones [<i>in jactu lapidum</i>], and Throwing of Javelins
+fitted with Loops for the Purpose, which they strive to fling
+before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like fighting Men.&rdquo;
+It is commonly supposed that by <i>jactus lapidum</i> Fitzstephen
+meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that round
+stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety
+of the game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used,
+though at a much later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,&mdash;nevertheless
+the inference seems unwarranted. The <i>jactus
+lapidum</i> of which he speaks was probably more akin to the modern
+&ldquo;putting the weight,&rdquo; once even called &ldquo;putting the stone.&rdquo;
+It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a
+rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS.
+of that period in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.),
+contains a drawing representing two players aiming at a small
+cone instead of an earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of
+the same century has a picture&mdash;crude, but spirited&mdash;which
+brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures
+are introduced and a jack. The first player&rsquo;s bowl has come
+to rest just in front of the jack; the second has delivered his
+bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric
+contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first
+player meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand,
+as if to urge the bowl to stop short of his own; the third player
+is depicted as in the act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century
+MS. <i>Book of Prayers</i> in the Francis Douce collection in the
+Bodleian library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two
+persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt (<i>Sports
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page346" id="page346"></a>346</span>
+and Pastimes</i>) suggests that the first player&rsquo;s bowl may have
+been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in
+that case it is not clear what was the first player&rsquo;s target. In
+these three earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting
+that each player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in
+delivering it was as various five or six hundred years ago as it
+is to-day. In the third he stands almost upright; in the first
+he kneels; in the second he stoops, halfway between the
+upright and the kneeling position.</p>
+
+<p>As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king
+and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of
+archery, then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it
+and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III.,
+Richard II. and other monarchs. Even when, on the invention of
+gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a
+weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The discredit
+attaching to bowling alleys, first established in London in 1455,
+probably encouraged subsequent repressive legislation, for many
+of the alleys were connected with taverns frequented by the
+dissolute and gamesters. The word &ldquo;bowls&rdquo; occurs for the first
+time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed
+previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further
+act of 1541&mdash;which was not repealed until 1845&mdash;artificers,
+labourers, apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to
+play bowls at any time save Christmas, and then only in their
+master&rsquo;s house and presence. It was further enjoined that any
+one playing bowls outside of his own garden or orchard was liable
+to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those possessed of lands of the yearly
+value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private
+greens. But though the same statute absolutely prohibited
+bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own
+pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when
+he played. In Mary&rsquo;s reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn,
+the queen or her advisers deeming the game an excuse for
+&ldquo;unlawful assemblies, conventicles, seditions and conspiracies.&rdquo;
+The scandals of the bowling alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan
+London, and Stephen Gosson in his <i>School of Abuse</i> (1579) says,
+&ldquo;Common bowling alleys are privy moths that eat up the credit
+of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are not able to weigh
+down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from maintaining
+their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread,
+and go to bed supperless often in the year.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. &ldquo;A little
+altering of the one side,&rdquo; says Robert Recorde, the mathematician,
+in his <i>Castle of Knowledge</i> (1556), &ldquo;maketh the bowl
+to run biasse waies.&rdquo; And Shakespeare (<i>Richard II</i>., Act. III.
+Sc. 4) causes the queen to remonstrate, in reply to her lady&rsquo;s
+suggestion of a game at bowls to relieve her ennui, &ldquo;&rsquo;Twill make
+me think the world is full of rubs, and that my fortune runs
+against the bias.&rdquo; This passage is interesting also as showing
+that women were accustomed to play the game in those days.
+It is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar
+story of Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the
+Armada was beating up Channel, and finishing his game before
+tackling the Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as
+a legitimate amusement for Sundays,&mdash;as, indeed, were many
+other sports. When John Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one
+Sunday, it is said that he discovered him engaged in a game;
+and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of London, enjoyed
+a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language
+&ldquo;as justly exposed his character to reproach.&rdquo; The pastime
+found favour with the Stuarts. In the <i>Book of Sports</i> (1618),
+James I. recommended a moderate indulgence to his son, Prince
+Henry, and Charles I. was an enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately
+encouraging by example wagering and playing for high stakes,
+habits that ultimately brought the green into as general disrepute
+as the alley. It is recorded that the king occasionally visited
+Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a beautiful green
+at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were £1000.
+He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium
+of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring
+Heath in Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with
+couplets reciting how his majesty &ldquo;drank from the bowl, and
+bowl&rsquo;d for what he drank.&rdquo; During his stay at the Northamptonshire
+village of Holdenby or Holmby&mdash;where Sir Thomas
+Herbert complains the green was not well kept&mdash;Charles frequently
+rode over to Lord Vaux&rsquo;s place at Harrowden, or to
+Lord Spencer&rsquo;s at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one
+account, was actually playing on the latter green when Cornet
+Joyce came to Holmby to remove him to other quarters. During
+this period gambling had become a mania. John Aubrey, the
+antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir John Suckling, the
+courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in Piccadilly,
+crying, &ldquo;for fear he should lose all their portions.&rdquo; If the
+Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay
+asserts, one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans
+could not suppress betting. So eminently respectable a person
+as John Evelyn thought no harm in bowling for stakes, and once
+played at the Durdans, near Epsom, for £10, winning match and
+money, as he triumphantly notes in his <i>Diary</i> for the 14th of
+August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions finding great
+people &ldquo;at bowles.&rdquo; But in time the excesses attending the
+game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it
+became practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens,
+like the alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and
+gardens attached to taverns.</p>
+
+<p>After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat
+unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue
+of curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf,
+the Scottish national game, it was not until well into the 19th
+century that the pastime acquired popularity in that country.
+It had been known in Scotland since the close of the 16th century
+(the Glasgow kirk session fulminated an edict against Sunday
+bowls in 1595), but greens were few and far between. There is
+record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom Bicket&rsquo;s green
+in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and Gallowgate,
+Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the grounds
+of Heriot&rsquo;s hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in
+Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared
+with the Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299,
+which still uses the green on which it has played for centuries
+and possesses the quaint custom of describing its master, or
+president, as &ldquo;sir,&rdquo; and are younger even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne
+club established in 1657. But the earlier clubs did nothing
+towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849, however, when
+many clubs had come into existence in the west and south of
+Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in
+Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting
+a national association. This was regarded, by many, as
+impracticable, but a decision of final importance was reached
+when a consultative committee was appointed to draft a uniform
+code of laws to govern the game. This body delegated its
+functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell (1803-1884), who
+prepared a code that was immediately adopted in Scotland as the
+standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish bowlers saved
+the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down level
+greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown
+grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and
+found it answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set
+an example of active interest which many magnates emulated.
+Himself a keen bowler, he offered for competition, in 1854, a
+silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all
+to be played for annually. These trophies excited healthy
+rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm as well
+as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at
+length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider
+the question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover,
+Scottish emigrants introduced the game wherever they
+went, and colonists in Australia and New Zealand established
+many clubs which, in the main, adopted Mitchell&rsquo;s laws; while
+clubs were also started in Canada and in the United States, in
+South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan (Kobe, Yokohama,
+Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took
+root very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page347" id="page347"></a>347</span>
+intercourse with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are
+strong in numbers and play.</p>
+
+<p>On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be
+played on scientific principles. It has existed in France since
+the 17th century. When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644
+he saw it played in the gardens of the Luxembourg Palace.
+In the south of France it is rather popular with artisans, who,
+however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and use
+round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging
+in a preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion
+of a bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in
+Italy, and, as we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva,
+where John Evelyn also noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of
+its vogue in Holland in the 17th century, for the painting by
+David Teniers (1610-1690), in the Scottish National Gallery at
+Edinburgh, is wrongly described as &ldquo;Peasants playing at Skittles.&rdquo;
+In this picture three men are represented as having played a
+bowl, while the fourth is in the act of delivering his bowl. The
+game is obviously bowls, the sole difference being that an upright
+peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a jack,&mdash;recalling, in
+this respect, the old English form of the game already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last
+quarter of the 19th century, but this time the lead came from
+Australia. The Bowling Associations of Victoria and New
+South Wales were established in 1880, and it was not until 1892
+that the Scottish Bowling Association was founded. Then in
+rapid succession came several independent bodies&mdash;the Midland
+Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties (1896),
+the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh
+(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of
+regularizing the game within the territories indicated by their
+titles, but it soon appeared that the multiplicity of associations
+was likely to prove a hindrance rather than a help, and with
+a view, therefore, to reducing the number of clashing jurisdictions
+and bringing about the establishment of a single legislative
+authority, the Imperial amalgamated with the English B.A. in
+1905. The visits to the United Kingdom of properly organized
+teams of bowlers from Australia and New Zealand in 1901 and
+from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had gained
+enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated
+by the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial
+Bowling Association (and now the property of the English B.A.)
+by Mr Charles Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association.
+An accredited team of bowlers from the mother country
+visited Canada in 1906, and was accorded a royal welcome.
+Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls is a true <i>Volksspiel</i>
+is to be found in the fact that it has become municipalized.
+In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in
+London (through the county council), Newcastle and other
+English towns, the corporations have laid down greens in public
+parks and open spaces. In Scotland the public greens are
+self-supporting, from a charge, which includes the use of bowls, of
+one penny an hour for each player; in London the upkeep of the
+greens falls on the rates, but players must provide their own bowls.</p>
+
+<p>There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown.
+The crown has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in.
+all round from the centre to the sides. This type of
+green is confined almost wholly to certain of the northern
+<span class="sidenote">The game.</span>
+and midland counties of England, where it is popular for
+single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the crown-green
+game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of bowls
+of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of
+skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green
+that constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the
+rule as to the shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown
+(25 yds.), there is no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds.
+square forms an ideal green. The Queen&rsquo;s Park and Titwood
+clubs in Glasgow have each three greens, and as they can quite
+comfortably play six rinks on each, it is not uncommon to see
+144 players making their game simultaneously. An undersized
+lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing
+from corner to corner instead of up and down&mdash;the orthodox
+direction. For the scientific construction of a green, the whole
+ground must be excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and
+thoroughly drained, and layers of different materials (gravel,
+cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down before the final covering
+of turf, 2½ or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is the best. It wears
+longest and keeps its &ldquo;spring&rdquo; to the last. Surrounding the
+green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not quite
+on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side
+next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed
+with wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch
+are banks generally laid with turf. A green is divided into
+spaces usually from 18 to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled
+&ldquo;rinks&rdquo;&mdash;a word which also designates each set of players&mdash;and
+these are numbered in sequence on a plate fixed in the bank
+at each end opposite the centre of the space. The end ditch
+within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish laws,
+regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices
+the general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space
+is further marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely
+fastened flush with the turf.</p>
+
+<p>Every player uses four <i>lignum vitae</i> bowls in single-handed
+games and (as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches.
+Every bowl must have a certain amount of bias, which was
+formerly obtained by loading one side with lead, but is now
+imparted by the turner making one side more convex than the
+other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No bowl must
+have less than No. 3 bias&mdash;that is, it should draw about 6 ft. to
+a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior
+green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to
+allow for a narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter
+of the bowl shall not be less than 4½ in. nor more than 5¼ in.,
+and that its weight must not exceed 3½ &#8468; The jack or kitty,
+as the white earthenware ball to which the bowler bowls is called,
+is round and 2½ to 2¾ in. in diameter. On crown-greens it is
+customary to use a small biased wooden jack to give the bowler
+some clue to the run of the green. The bowler delivers his bowl
+with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber or cocoa-nut
+fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24 by 16
+in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian
+clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep
+both feet on the mat in the act of delivery.</p>
+
+<p>In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the
+player being to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to
+the jack than his opponent&rsquo;s, or to protect a well-placed bowl,
+or to dislodge a better bowl than his own. But in practice there
+is every opportunity for skill. On all good greens the game is
+played in rinks of four a side, there being, however, on the part
+of many English clubs still an adherence to the old-fashioned
+method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a match team
+consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men in
+all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second
+player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director),
+and their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable.
+Great responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice
+of his players, who are selected for well-defined reasons. The
+leader has to place the mat, to throw the jack, to count the game,
+and to call the result of each end or head to the skip who is at
+the other end of the green. He is picked for his skill in playing
+to the jack. It is, therefore, his business to &ldquo;be up.&rdquo; There is
+no excuse for short play on his part, and his bowls would be better
+off the green than obstructing the path of subsequent bowls.
+So he will endeavour to be &ldquo;on the jack,&rdquo; the ideal position
+being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The
+skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being
+played to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played
+in the second place (the &ldquo;soft second&rdquo;). Most frequently he
+will be required either to protect a good bowl or to rectify a
+possible error of the leader. His official duty is to mark the game
+on the scoring card when the leader announces the result. He
+keeps a record of the play of both sides. The third player, who
+does any measuring that may be necessary to determine which
+bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page348" id="page348"></a>348</span>
+a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever
+the skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will
+already be understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack
+to play, he must observe the situation of the bowls of both sides.
+It may be that he has to draw a shot with the utmost nicety
+to save the end, or even the match, or to lay a cunningly contrived
+block, or to &ldquo;fire&rdquo;&mdash;that is, to deliver his bowl almost
+dead straight at the object, with enough force to kill the bias
+for the moment. The score having been counted, the leader
+then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where
+the jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack
+in the opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play,
+for obvious reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The
+players play in couples&mdash;the first on both sides, then the second
+and so on. The leader having played his first bowl, the opposing
+leader will play his first and so on. As a rule, a match consists
+of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a few more, by agreement).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="4"><img style="width:920px; height:366px" src="images/img348.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Drawing.&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Guarding.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;Figs.</span> 3.&mdash;Trailing.&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 4.&mdash;Driving.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="4">(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack,
+the leader is bound to throw (<i>i.e.</i> roll) a legal jack. A legal jack
+must travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest
+within 2 yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far
+beyond this as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run
+within 2 yds. of the end ditch or either side boundary. In English
+practice the leader is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a
+legal jack at his first attempt; should he fail again, the right to
+throw passes to his opponent, but not the right of playing first.
+On Scottish greens the leader has only a single throw. A legal jack
+should not be interfered with except by the course of play. Should
+the jack be driven towards the side boundary, it is legitimate for a
+player to cause his bowl to draw outside of the dividing string,
+provided that when it has ceased running it shall have come to rest
+entirely within his own space. If it stop on the string, or outside
+of it, the bowl is &ldquo;dead&rdquo; and must be removed to the bank. A
+&ldquo;toucher&rdquo; bowl is a characteristic of the Scottish game to which
+great exception is taken by many English clubs. Should a bowl running
+jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it is called a toucher
+and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross as soon as it
+is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is finished wherever it
+may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if it run into the ditch
+or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet count as alive. A bowl,
+however, that is forced on to the jack by another is not a toucher.
+The feat of hitting the jack is so common that it really calls for
+no special reward. Difference of opinion prevails as to the condition
+of the jack after it has been driven into the ditch. According to
+Scottish rules, unless it has been forced clean out of bounds, such
+a jack is still alive. On most English greens it is a &ldquo;dead&rdquo; jack and
+the end void. Every bowler should learn both forehand and backhand
+play. In forehand play the bowl as it courses to the jack
+describes its segment of a circle on the right, in backhand play
+on the left. In both styles the biased side must always be the inner.</p>
+
+<p>In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May
+day till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close
+the green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches
+re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand.</p>
+
+<p>On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but
+it is rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect
+the proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper.
+There are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding,
+trailing and driving. In <i>drawing</i> (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near
+as possible to the jack, the player&rsquo;s bowl passing outside of two other
+bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack,
+without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl
+come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and one
+point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked around
+the jack for convenience sake. In <i>guarding</i> (fig. 2), two jacks are
+laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical line. A
+thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of this
+thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in. apart
+from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line, or
+within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two points,
+and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In <i>trailing</i> (fig. 3), two bowls are laid
+on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked from bowl to
+bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is then deposited
+equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the front line.
+A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius of 9 ft.
+from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails the
+jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them itself.
+If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself cross the first;
+or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the first, two points are
+awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and either of the stationary
+bowls, and passing over the back line; or touching the jack, yet
+not trailing it past the first line, but itself crossing the back line;
+or trailing the jack over the front line without crossing it itself,
+receives one point. In no case must the stationary bowls be touched,
+or the semicircle crossed by the trailed jack or played bowls. In
+<i>driving</i> (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2 ft. apart, and then a jack
+is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart from each, and occupying the
+position of the apex of an inverted pyramid. The player who drives
+the jack into the ditch between the two bowls scores three. If he
+moves the jack, but does not carry it through to the ditch, he scores
+two. If he pass between the jack and either bowl he scores one,
+although it is not easy to see what driving he has done. The played
+bowl must itself run into the ditch without touching either of the
+stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points game demands an
+ideally perfect green.</p>
+
+<p>See W.W. Mitchell, <i>Manual of Bowl-playing</i> (Glasgow, 1880);
+<i>Laws of the Game issued by the Scottish B.A.</i> (1893, et sqq.); H.J.
+Dingley, <i>Touchers and Rubs</i> (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, <i>The
+Gentle Art of Bowling</i>, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A.
+Manson, <i>The Bowler&rsquo;s Handbook</i> (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> an urban district in the
+Appleby parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, on the
+east shore of Windermere, 1¼ m. S.W. of Windermere station on
+the London &amp; North-Western railway. Together with the town
+of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop. 5061 in 1901), but
+the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation is fine,
+the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the lake
+narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills
+are richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon
+them. Bowness lies at the head of a small bay, is served by
+the lake-steamers of the Furness Railway Company, and is a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page349" id="page349"></a>349</span>
+favourite yachting, boating, fishing and tourist centre. The
+church of St Martin is ancient, and contains stained glass from
+Cartmel priory in Furness. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Windermere</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWRING, SIR JOHN<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1792-1872), English linguist, political
+economist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the
+17th of October 1792, of an old Puritan family. In early life he
+came under the influence of Jeremy Bentham. He did not,
+however, share his master&rsquo;s contempt for <i>belles-lettres</i>, but was a
+diligent student of literature and foreign languages, especially
+those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked with Mezzofanti
+and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The
+first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in <i>Specimens
+of the Russian Poets</i> (1821-1823). These were speedily followed
+by <i>Batavian Anthology</i> (1824), <i>Ancient Poetry and Romances of
+Spain</i> (1824), <i>Specimens of the Polish Poets</i>, and <i>Servian Popular
+Poetry</i>, both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute
+to the newly founded <i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he was
+appointed editor in 1825. By his contributions to the <i>Review</i>
+he obtained considerable reputation as political economist and
+parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its pages the cause
+of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard Cobden
+and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary
+reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education.
+In 1828 he visited Holland, where the university of Groningen
+conferred on him the degree of doctor of laws. In the following
+year he was in Denmark, preparing for the publication of a collection
+of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who had been the trusted
+friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed his literary
+executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a collected
+edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843.
+Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member
+for Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed
+head of a government commission to be sent to France to inquire
+into the actual state of commerce between the two countries.
+He was engaged in similar investigations in Switzerland, Italy,
+Syria and some of the German states. The results of these
+missions appeared in a series of reports laid before the House of
+Commons. After a retirement of four years he sat in parliament
+from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this busy
+period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a
+translation of the <i>Manuscript of the Queen&rsquo;s Court</i>, a collection of
+old Bohemian lyrics, &amp;c. In 1849 he was appointed British
+consul at Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post
+which he held for four years. After his return he distinguished
+himself as an advocate of the decimal system, and published
+a work entitled <i>The Decimal System in Numbers, Coins and
+Accounts</i> (1854). The introduction of the florin as a preparatory
+step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he was
+again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested
+with the supreme military and naval power. It was during his
+governorship that a dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the
+irritation caused by his &ldquo;spirited&rdquo; or high-handed policy led
+to the second war with China. In 1855 he visited Siam, and
+negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce. After the usual
+five years of service he retired and received a pension. His last
+employment by the English government was as a commissioner
+to Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with
+the new kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted
+the appointment of minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary
+from the Hawaiian government to the courts of Europe,
+and in this capacity negotiated treaties with Belgium, Holland,
+Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In addition to the works already
+named he published&mdash;<i>Poetry of the Magyars</i> (1830);
+<i>Cheskian Anthology</i> (1832); <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i> (1857);
+a translation of <i>Peter Schlemihl</i> (1824);
+translations from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petöfi (1866); and various pamphlets.
+He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations
+of several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont,
+near Exeter, on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable
+collection of coleoptera was presented to the British Museum by
+his second son, Lewin Bowring, a well-known Anglo-Indian
+administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring, member of
+parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the
+literary world as an able translator.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sir John Bowring&rsquo;s <i>Recollections</i> were edited by Lewin Bowring
+(d. 1910) in 1877.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWTELL,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> a medieval term in architecture for a round or
+corniced moulding; the word is a variant of &ldquo;boltel,&rdquo; which is
+probably the diminutive of &ldquo;bolt,&rdquo; the shaft of an arrow or
+javelin. A &ldquo;roving&rdquo; bowtell is one which passes up the side of a
+bench end and round a finial, the term &ldquo;roving&rdquo; being applied to
+that which follows the line of a curve.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOWYER, WILLIAM<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (1663-1737), English printer, was born
+in 1663, apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the
+Stationers&rsquo; Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the
+twenty printers allowed by the Star Chamber. He was burned
+out in the great fire of 1712, but his loss was partly made good by
+the subscription of friends and fellow craftsmen, as recorded on a
+tablet in Stationers&rsquo; Hall, and in 1713 he returned to his Whitefriars
+shop and became the leading printer of his day. He died on
+the 27th of December 1737.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">William Bowyer</span> (1699-1777), was born in London
+on the 19th of December 1699. He was educated at St John&rsquo;s
+College, Cambridge, and in 1722 became a partner in his father&rsquo;s
+business. In 1729 he was appointed printer of the votes of the
+House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the Society of Antiquaries,
+of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In 1737 he
+took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor
+and biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal
+Society, and in 1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and
+the journals of the House of Commons. He died on the 13th of
+November 1777, leaving unfinished a number of large works and
+among them the reprint of Domesday Book. He wrote a great
+many tracts and pamphlets, edited, arranged and published a
+host of books, but perhaps his principal work was an edition of
+the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous bequests
+in favour of his own profession are administered by the Stationers&rsquo;
+Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in whose
+hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was
+known as &ldquo;the learned printer.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOX<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="puxos">&#960;&#973;&#958;&#959;&#962;</span>, Lat. <i>buxus</i>, box-wood; cf. <span class="grk" title="puxis">&#960;&#973;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span>, a pyx),
+the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong,
+round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens
+by raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened
+by a catch, hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the
+material of which it is fashioned, it is the direct descendant
+of the chest, one of the most ancient articles of domestic furniture.
+Its uses are infinite, and the name, preceded by a qualifying
+adjective, has been given to many objects of artistic or antiquarian
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their
+immediate purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest.
+It is usually fitted with a tray divided into many small compartments,
+for needles, reels of silk and cotton and other
+necessaries of stitchery. The date of its introduction is in considerable
+doubt, but 17th-century examples have come down
+to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned with
+embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her
+work-box, and, especially in the second half of that period,
+much taste and elaborate pains were expended upon the case,
+which was often exceedingly dainty and elegant. These boxes
+are ordinarily portable, but sometimes form the top of a table.</p>
+
+<p>But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its
+most distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is
+now little more than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice,
+was throughout the larger part of the 18th century the indispensable
+companion of every man of birth and breeding. It
+long survived his sword, and was in frequent use until nearly
+the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the enameller
+and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as
+often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great
+personages possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more
+ordinary, their selection being regulated by their dress and by
+the relative splendour of the occasion. From the cheapest wood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page350" id="page350"></a>350</span>
+that was suitable&mdash;at one time potato-pulp was extensively
+used&mdash;to a frame of gold encased with diamonds, a great variety
+of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was a favourite,
+and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly effective.
+Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its natural
+state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with
+enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes
+the lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette,
+or a tiny miniature, often some choice work by an old master.
+After snuff-taking had ceased to be general it lingered for some
+time among diplomatists, either because&mdash;as Talleyrand explained&mdash;they
+found a ceremonious pinch to be a useful aid to
+reflection in a business interview, or because monarchs retained
+the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors and other
+intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other
+way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking
+that we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution
+of decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch&rsquo;s
+snuff-box was a distinction almost equivalent to having one&rsquo;s
+ear pulled by Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of
+England, Messrs Rundell &amp; Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid
+£8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign ministers. Now that the snuff-box
+is no longer used it is collected by wealthy amateurs or deposited
+in museums, and especially artistic examples command
+large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904), possessed
+an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by
+auction after his death for £2000.</p>
+
+<p>A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very
+modest form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may
+reach the monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which
+were made for Marie Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor,
+and another at Versailles, the work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker,
+Degault as miniature-painter, and Thomire as chaser.</p>
+
+<p>A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities.
+Its place has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those
+which have survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the
+Bodleian library, possess locks with an extremely elaborate
+mechanism contrived in the under-side of the lid.</p>
+
+<p>The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces
+of furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical
+ingenuity of the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of
+the 18th century. Some of the most elegant were the work of
+Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. Occasionally flat-topped
+boxes, they were most frequently either vase-shaped, or tall and
+narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a series of raised stages
+for exhibiting the handles of knives and the bowls of spoons.
+Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently employed,
+and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie
+or edged with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist
+in large numbers; they are often converted into stationery
+cabinets.</p>
+
+<p>The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again
+more ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it
+was of a size to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or
+incised lid.</p>
+
+<p>The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles
+for the powder and the patches of the 18th century;
+the former was the direct ancestor of the puff-box of the modern
+dressing-table.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>étui</i> is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials,
+often of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials
+or small articles of feminine use. It was worn on the châtelaine.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOXING<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (M.E. <i>box</i>, a blow, probably from Dan. <i>bask</i>, a buffet),
+the art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded
+gloves, as distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists,
+or some kind of light gloves affording little moderation of the
+blow, are employed. The ancient Greeks used a sort of glove
+in practice, but, although far less formidable than the terrible
+caestus worn in serious encounters, it was by no means so mild
+an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the invention of which
+is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton (1705-1789), &ldquo;the
+father of British pugilism.&rdquo; In any case gloves were first used
+in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being decided
+with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion
+of England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were
+for many years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the
+newly invented gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the
+young aristocrats of his day. The most popular teacher of the
+art was, however, John Jackson (1769-1845), called &ldquo;Gentleman
+Jackson,&rdquo; who was champion from 1795 to 1800, and who is
+credited with imparting to boxing its scientific principles, such
+as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting, and
+agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his <i>Memoirs</i>,
+asserted that Jackson &ldquo;made more than a thousand a year
+by teaching sparring.&rdquo; Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who,
+when chided for keeping company with a pugilist, insisted that
+Jackson&rsquo;s manners were &ldquo;infinitely superior to those of the
+fellows of the college whom I meet at the high table,&rdquo; and
+referred to him in the following lines in <i>Hints from Horace</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;And men unpractised in exchanging knocks</p>
+<p class="i05">Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and
+distinction, and when the allied monarchs visited London he
+was entrusted with the management of a boxing carnival with
+which they were vastly pleased. In 1814 the Pugilistic Club,
+the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting element, was
+formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing
+had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout
+the country considerable interest continued to be manifested
+in prize-fighting.</p>
+
+<p>The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism,
+may be said to date from the year 1866, when the public had
+become disgusted with the brutality and unfair practices of the
+professional &ldquo;bruisers,&rdquo; and the laws against prize-fighting
+began to be more rigidly enforced. In that year the &ldquo;Amateur
+Athletic Club&rdquo; was founded, principally through the efforts
+of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with the
+8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known
+as the Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in
+Great Britain, and were also authoritative in America until
+the adoption of the boxing rules of the Amateur Athletic Union
+of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry presented cups for the
+British amateur championships at the recognized weights.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account
+of modern prize-fighting see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>. At present two kinds
+of boxing contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of
+rounds (as in the amateur championships) and that for endurance,
+in which the one who cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance
+contests, which contain the essential element of the old prize-fights,
+are now indulged in only by professionals. Among
+amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once was, owing to
+the importance placed upon brute strength, and the prevailing
+ambition of the modern boxer to &ldquo;knock out&rdquo; his opponent,
+<i>i.e.</i> reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round
+matches between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is
+therefore no need to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless
+a common practice to strike a dazed and reeling adversary
+a heavy blow with a view to ending the battle at once. During
+the annual boxing competitions between Oxford and Cambridge
+more than half the bouts have been known to end in this manner.
+Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient
+in the art indulge in a practice bout&mdash;or &ldquo;sparring.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers
+face each other just out of reach and balanced equally on both
+feet, the left from 10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left
+foot is planted flat on the floor, while the right heel is raised
+slightly from it. The left side of the body is turned a little
+towards the opponent and the right shoulder slightly depressed.
+When the hands are clenched inside the gloves the thumb is
+doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a sprain when
+hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of individual
+taste. In the &ldquo;crouch,&rdquo; affected by many American
+professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent
+over towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page351" id="page351"></a>351</span>
+out to keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however,
+teaches a beginner any other than the upright position.
+Some boxers stand with the right foot forward, a practice
+common in the 18th century, which gives freer play with the
+right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should stand lightly
+on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant, using short
+steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating with the
+right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks
+consist in straight leads, <i>i.e.</i> blows aimed with or without preliminary
+feints, at some part of the opponent&rsquo;s body or head.
+All other attacks are either &ldquo;counters&rdquo; or returns after a guard
+or &ldquo;block.&rdquo; A counter is a lead carried out just as one is
+attacked, the object being to block (parry) the blow and land on
+the opponent at the same time. Counters are often carried out
+in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In hitting, a
+boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of impact.
+Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the
+body behind them (&ldquo;straight from the shouder&rdquo; hits); jabs,
+short blows (usually with the left hand when at close quarters);
+hooks, or side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging
+blows from beneath to the adversary&rsquo;s chin); chops (short blows
+from above); punches (usually at close quarters, with the
+right hand); or swings (round-arm blows, usually delivered
+with a partial twist of the body to augment the force of the
+blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a knockout,
+or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may
+be mentioned:&mdash;on the pit of the stomach, called the solar
+plexus, from the sensitive network of nerves situated there; a
+blow on the point of the chin, having a tendency slightly to
+paralyse the brain; a blow under the ear, painful and often
+resulting in partial helplessness; and one directly over the heart,
+kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten seconds after being
+knocked down in which to rise, an experienced ring-fighter will
+drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in that
+position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.</p>
+
+<p>Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut.
+If a blow is caught or stopped short it is called <i>blocking</i>, but
+a blow may also be shoved aside, or avoided altogether by
+<i>slipping, i.e.</i> moving the head quickly to one side, or by ducking
+and allowing the adversary&rsquo;s swing to pass harmlessly over
+the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow without
+guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to
+escape the opponent&rsquo;s glove.</p>
+
+<p>The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884)
+contain the following provisions. &ldquo;An amateur is one who has
+never competed for a money prize or staked bet with or against a
+professional for any prize, except with the express sanction of the
+A.B.A., and who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the
+practice of athletic exercises as a means of obtaining a livelihood.&rdquo;
+The ring shall be roped and between 12 and 24 ft. square.
+No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided into the
+following classes by weight:&mdash;Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb
+(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not
+exceeding 10 st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 &#8468; (158
+lb); and Heavy, any weight above. There shall be two judges,
+a referee and a timekeeper. The votes of the judges decide the
+winner of a bout, unless they disagree, in which case the referee
+has the deciding vote. In case of doubt he may order an extra
+round of two minutes&rsquo; duration. Each match is for three rounds,
+the first two lasting three minutes and the third four, with one
+minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to come
+up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws
+a bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen
+by the judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second)
+only, and no advice or coaching during the progress of a round is
+permitted. Unless one competitor is unable to respond to the
+call of time, or is obliged to stop before the match is over, the
+judges decide the winner by <i>points</i>, which are for attack, comprising
+successful hits cleanly delivered, and defence, comprising
+guarding, slipping, ducking, counter-hitting and getting away in
+time to avoid a return. When the points are equal the decision
+is given in favour of the boxer who has done the most leading, <i>i.e.</i>
+has been the more aggressive. Fouls are hitting below the
+belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of the hand,
+the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or &ldquo;roughing&rdquo; on the
+ropes, <i>i.e.</i> unnecessary shouldering and jostling.</p>
+
+<p>The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association
+differ slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must
+be from 16 to 24 ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than
+8 oz. in weight. The recognized classes by weight are: Bantam,
+105 &#8468; and under; Feather, 115 &#8468; and under; Light, 135 lb
+and under; Welter, 145 &#8468; and under; Middle, 158 &#8468; and under;
+and Heavy, over 158 &#8468; The rules for officials and rounds are
+identical with the British, except that only in final bouts does the
+last round last four minutes. Two &ldquo;seconds&rdquo; are allowed. The
+rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The amateur
+rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing
+contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership
+in the Athletic Association.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Glossary</i> of terms not mentioned above:&mdash;<i>Break away</i>, to get away
+from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the
+men clinch. <i>Break ground</i>, retire diagonally to right or left. <i>Catch-weight</i>,
+any weight. <i>Corners</i>, the opposite angles of the square
+&ldquo;ring,&rdquo; in which the boxers rest between the rounds. <i>Cross-counter</i>,
+a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of the adversary
+as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round that of the
+opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact. <i>Clinching</i>,
+grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from a clinch
+one tries to pin the adversary&rsquo;s hands in order to prevent his hitting
+at close quarters. <i>Drawing</i> an opponent, enticing him by leaving
+an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter is
+prepared. <i>Fiddling</i>, forward and back movements of the arms at
+the beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. <i>Footwork</i>,
+the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. <i>In-fighting</i>, boxing
+at very close quarters. <i>Mark</i>, the pit of the stomach. <i>Side-step</i>,
+springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being
+usually followed up by a counter attack. <i>Timing</i>, a blow delivered
+on the enemy&rsquo;s preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.</p>
+
+<p>See <i>Boxing</i>, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897);
+<i>Boxing</i>, by Wm. Elder (Spalding&rsquo;s Athletic Library, New York, 1902)
+(these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing).
+The article &ldquo;Boxing,&rdquo; by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the
+<i>Encyclopaedia of Sport</i>; <i>Boxing</i>, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series,
+London, 1896); <i>Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling</i>, in the Badminton
+Library (London, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc">French Boxing</span> (<i>la boxe française</i>) dates from about 1830.
+It is more like the ancient Greek <i>pankration</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>) than is
+British boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking
+with the feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed.
+It is a development of the old sport of <i>savate</i>, in which the feet,
+and not the hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate,
+which was practised especially by roughs, were usually given in
+some low resort, and there were no respectable teachers. While
+Paris was restricted to savate, another sport, called <i>chausson</i> or
+<i>jeu marseillais</i>, was practised in the south of France, especially
+among the soldiers, in which blows of the fist as well as kicks were
+exchanged, and the kicks were given higher than in savate, in
+the stomach or even the face. It was an excellent exercise, but
+could hardly be reckoned a serious means of defence, for the
+high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of the fist
+could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows
+of the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas <i>père</i> says that Charles
+Lecour first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with
+savate. For this purpose he went to England, and took lessons
+of Adams and Smith, the London boxers. He then returned
+to Paris, about 1852, and opened a school to teach the sport
+since called <i>la boxe française</i>. Around him, and two provincial
+instructors who came to Paris about this time with similar ideas,
+there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between 1845
+and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development.
+Among others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour&rsquo;s brother
+Hubert, who although rather undersized, was quick as lightning,
+and had an English blow and a French kick that were truly
+terrible. Charles Ducros was another whose style of boxing,
+more in the English fashion, but with low kicks about
+his opponent&rsquo;s shins, made a name for himself. Later came
+Vigneron, a &ldquo;strong man,&rdquo; whose style, though slow, was
+severe in its punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in
+these fights, and Lecour and Vigneron had to cease giving public
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page352" id="page352"></a>352</span>
+exhibitions and devote themselves to teaching. Towards 1862
+a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not only very clever with his
+fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and the author of a
+treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may be
+said to have created <i>la boxe française</i>, which, for defence <i>at
+equal weights</i>, the French claim to be better than the English.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>L&rsquo;Art de la boxe française et de la canne</i>, by J. Charlemont
+(Paris, 1899); <i>The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence</i>,
+by Georges d&rsquo;Amoric (London, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOXWOOD,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> the wood obtained from the genus <i>Buxus</i>, the
+principal species being the well-known tree or shrub, <i>B. sempervirens</i>,
+the common box, in general use for borders of garden
+walks, ornamental parterres, &amp;c. The other source of the
+ordinary boxwood of commerce is <i>B. balearica</i>, which yields the
+variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is grown
+throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of
+the south of England), in the southern part of the European
+continent generally, and extends through Persia into India,
+where it is found growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas.
+There has been much discussion as to whether it is a true native
+of Britain. Writing more than 200 years ago, John Ray, the
+author of the important <i>Historia Plantarum</i>, says, &ldquo;The Box
+grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also at Boxwell, on the
+Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in Kent....
+It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable.&rdquo; On the
+other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the
+north of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows
+and near cultivation, and it may have been one of the many
+introductions owed to the Romans. Only a very small proportion
+of the wood suitable for industrial uses is now obtained in Great
+Britain. The box is a very slow-growing plant, adding not more
+than 1½ or 2 in. to its diameter in twenty years, and on an average
+attaining only a height of 16 ft., with a mean diameter of 10½ in.
+The leaves of this species are small, oval, leathery in texture and
+of a deep glossy green colour. <i>B. balearica</i> is a tree of considerable
+size, attaining to a height of 80 ft., with leaves three times
+larger than those of the common box. It is a native of the islands
+of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia Minor, and
+around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the
+chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce
+by way of Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses
+a delicate yellow colour; it is very dense in structure and
+has a fine uniform grain, which has given it unique value for the
+purposes of the wood-engraver. A large amount is used in the
+manufacture of measuring rules, various mathematical instruments,
+flutes and other musical instruments, as well as for turning
+into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a favourite
+wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and
+musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYACÁ,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bojacá</span>, an inland department of Colombia,
+bounded by the departments of Santander and Cundinamarca
+on the N., W. and S., and the republic of Venezuela on the E.,
+and having an area of 33,321 sq. m., including the Casanare
+territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The department is
+very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals. The
+famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of
+Boyacá. The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in
+the Eastern Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool,
+temperate climate, though only 5½° N. of the equator. It was
+an important place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one
+of the Indian towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired
+a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of
+America. Other towns of note in the department are Chiquinquira
+(20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso (10,787), and
+Boyacá (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar defeated
+the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYAR<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (Russ. <i>boyarin</i>, plur. <i>boyare</i>), a dignity of Old Russia
+conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the
+boyars were the intimate friends and confidential advisers of
+the Russian prince, the superior members of his <i>druzhina</i> or
+bodyguard, his comrades and champions. They were divided
+into classes according to rank, most generally determined by
+personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the &ldquo;oldest,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;elder&rdquo; and the &ldquo;younger&rdquo; boyars. At first the dignity
+seems to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably,
+hereditary. At a later day the boyars were the chief members
+of the prince&rsquo;s <i>duma</i>, or council, like the <i>senatores</i> of Poland
+and Lithuania. Their further designation of <i>luchshie lyudi</i> or
+&ldquo;the best people&rdquo; proves that they were generally richer than
+their fellow subjects. So long as the princes, in their interminable
+struggles with the barbarians of the Steppe, needed the assistance
+of the towns, &ldquo;the best people&rdquo; of the cities and of the <i>druzhina</i>
+proper mingled freely together both in war and commerce; but
+after Yaroslav&rsquo;s crushing victory over the Petchenegs in 1036
+beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart,
+and a political and economical difference between the members
+of the princely <i>druzhina</i> and the aristocracy of the towns becomes
+discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more
+exclusively to commerce, while the <i>druzhina</i> asserts the privileges
+of an exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the
+land. Still later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes
+were established, the boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown
+court aristocracy with the exclusive privilege of possessing
+land and serfs. Hence their title of <i>dvoryane</i> (courtiers), first used
+in the 12th century. On the other hand there was no distinction,
+as in Germany, between the <i>Dienst Adel</i> (nobility of service)
+and the simple <i>Adel</i>. The Russian boyardom had no corporate
+or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely local
+(the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity
+of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration
+from one prince to another at will, which prevented the
+formation of a settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not
+determine but only facilitated the attainment of high rank, <i>e.g.</i>
+the son of a boyar was not a boyar born, but could more easily attain
+to boyardom, if of superior personal merit. It was reserved
+for Peter the Great to transform the <i>boyarstvo</i> or boyardom into
+something more nearly resembling the aristocracy of the West.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Alexander Markevich, <i>The History of Rank-priority in the
+Realm of Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries</i> (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888);
+V. Klyuchevsky, <i>The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia</i> (Russ.) (Moscow,
+1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOY-BISHOP,<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> the name given to the &ldquo;bishop of the boys&rdquo;
+(<i>episcopus puerorum</i> or <i>innocentium</i>, sometimes <i>episcopus
+scholariorum</i> or <i>chorestarum</i>), who, according to a custom very
+wide-spread in the middle ages, was chosen in connexion with
+the festival of Holy Innocents. For the origin of the curious
+authority of the boy-bishop and of the rites over which he
+presided, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fools, Feast of</a></span>. In England the boy-bishop
+was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the patron
+of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents&rsquo; day
+(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full
+bishop&rsquo;s robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades
+dressed as priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people.
+At Salisbury the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical
+patronage during his episcopate, and could make valid
+appointments. The boy and his colleagues took possession of
+the cathedral and performed all the ceremonies and offices
+except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to the cathedrals,
+the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several ecclesiastical
+councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the
+abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council
+of Basel in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily
+suppressed. In England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in
+1542, revived by Mary in 1552 and finally abolished by Elizabeth.
+On the continent it survived longest in Germany, in the so-called
+<i>Gregoriusfest</i>, said to have been founded by Gregory IV. in 828
+in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A school-boy
+was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two boy-deacons
+and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church,
+where, after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he
+preached. At Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Brand, <i>Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain</i> (1905); Gasquet,
+<i>Parish Life in Medieval England</i> (1906); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>
+(London, 1884), <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Episcopus puerorum.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page353" id="page353"></a>353</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">BOYCE, WILLIAM<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> (1710-1779), English musical composer,
+the son of a cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of
+February 1710. As a chorister in St Paul&rsquo;s he received his early
+musical education from Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene,
+and he afterwards studied the theory of music under Dr Pepusch.
+In 1734, having become organist of Oxford chapel, Vere Street,
+Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne&rsquo;s masque of <i>Peleus
+and Thetis</i> to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was
+appointed organist of St Michael&rsquo;s church, Cornhill, and in the
+same year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote
+the music for John Lockman&rsquo;s oratorio <i>David&rsquo;s Lamentation
+over Saul and Jonathan</i>. In 1737 he was appointed to conduct
+the meetings of the three choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and
+Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata <i>Solomon</i>, in which
+occurs the favourite song &ldquo;Softly rise, O southern breeze.&rdquo;
+In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the
+university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit
+of his setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry
+Pelham, duke of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he
+became organist of All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street.
+A musical setting to <i>The Chaplet</i>, an entertainment by Moses
+Mendez, was Boyce&rsquo;s most successful achievement in this
+year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden&rsquo;s <i>Secular Masque</i>
+and in 1751 set another piece (<i>The Shepherd&rsquo;s Lottery</i>) by
+Mendez. He became master of the king&rsquo;s band in succession
+to Greene in 1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal
+organist to the chapel royal. As an ecclesiastical composer
+Boyce ranks among the best representatives of the English
+school. His two church services and his anthems, of which the
+best specimens are <i>By the Waters of Babylon</i> and <i>O, Where shall
+Wisdom be found</i>, are frequently performed. It should also
+be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and
+choruses for Purcell&rsquo;s <i>Te Deum</i> and <i>Jubilate</i>, which the earlier
+musician had composed for the St Cecilia&rsquo;s day of 1694.
+Boyce did this in his capacity of conductor at the annual
+festivals of the Sons of the Clergy at St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral, an
+office which he had taken in succession to Greene. His twelve
+trios for two violins and a bass were long popular. One of
+his most valuable services to musical art was his publication
+in three volumes quarto of a work on <i>Cathedral Music</i>.
+The collection had been begun by Greene, but it was mainly
+the work of Boyce. The first volume appeared in 1760 and
+the last in 1778. On the 7th of February 1779 Boyce died
+from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of St
+Paul&rsquo;s cathedral.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYCOTT,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> the refusal and incitement to refusal to have
+commercial or social dealings with any one on whom it is wished
+to bring pressure. As merely a form of &ldquo;sending to Coventry&rdquo;
+or (in W.E. Gladstone&rsquo;s phrase) &ldquo;exclusive dealing,&rdquo; boycotting
+may be, from a legal point of view, unassailable, and as such
+has frequently been justified by its original political inventors.
+But in practice it has usually taken the form of what is undoubtedly
+an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property
+or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all
+and sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse.
+The word was first used in Ireland, and was derived
+from the name of Captain Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897),
+agent for the estates of the earl of Erne in Co. Mayo.
+For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at figures fixed by the tenants,
+Captain Boycott had his life threatened, his servants compelled
+to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters intercepted and his
+food supplies interfered with. It took a force of 900 soldiers
+to protect the Ulster Orangemen (&ldquo;Emergency Men&rdquo;) who
+succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and
+mobbed in the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The
+system of boycotting was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist
+&ldquo;Plan of Campaign,&rdquo; and was dealt with under the Crimes
+Act of 1887. The term soon came into common English use,
+and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans, Dutch and
+Russians. In the United States this method of &ldquo;persuasion&rdquo;
+was taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who
+refused their demands being brought to terms by a combination
+to refuse to buy his product or do his work, or to deal with any
+who did. Various cases have occurred in America in which
+labour organizations have pronounced such a boycott against a
+firm; and its illegal nature has been established in the law-courts,
+notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company <i>v</i>. The American
+Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district
+of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters&rsquo; Union (February
+1908) in the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held
+by the U.S. Supreme Court to be a violation of the Sherman
+Anti-Trust law.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (1825-1899),
+Scottish author and divine, was born at Auchinleck manse in
+Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He studied at King&rsquo;s
+College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the idea of
+practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however,
+he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the
+Scottish ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery
+of Ayr. He served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr,
+Kirkpatrick-Irongray near Dumfries, St Bernard&rsquo;s, Edinburgh,
+and finally, in 1865, became minister of the first charge at St
+Andrews. Here he advocated an improved ritual in the Scottish
+church, his action resulting in the appointment by the general
+assembly of a committee, with Boyd as convener, to prepare
+a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of the
+general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with
+admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the
+1st of March 1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and
+talker, and his desultory essays have very much of the charm of
+his conversation. Among his numerous publications may be
+specially mentioned the two works (each in three series), <i>Recreations
+of a Country Parson</i> (1859, 1861 and 1878), and <i>Graver
+Thoughts of a Country Parson</i> (1862-1865 and 1875); he also
+wrote <i>Twenty-five Years at St Andrews</i> (1892), and <i>St Andrews
+and Elsewhere</i> (1894). He was familiarly known to the public
+as a writer by his initials &ldquo;A.K.H.B.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ROBERT BOYD,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> <span class="sc">Lord</span> (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman,
+was a son of Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old
+and distinguished family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd,
+had fought with Wallace and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was
+created a peer about 1454, was one of the regents of Scotland
+during the minority of James III., but, in 1466, with some
+associates he secured the person of the young king and was
+appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental
+in reforming some religious foundations; he arranged
+the marriage between James III. and Margaret, daughter of
+Christian I., king of Denmark and Norway, and secured the
+cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway. However, when in
+1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and justiciary for
+himself, and the hand of the king&rsquo;s sister Mary, with the title
+of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became
+too strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and
+sentenced to death. He escaped to England, and the date of
+his death is unknown. His brother and assistant, Sir Alexander
+Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of November 1469.</p>
+
+<p>Boyd&rsquo;s son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his
+father was overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that
+of bringing the king&rsquo;s bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then,
+warned by his wife, escaped to the continent of Europe. He is
+mentioned very eulogistically in one of the Paston Letters,
+but practically nothing is known of his subsequent history.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Boyd&rsquo;s grandson Robert (d. <i>c</i>. 1550), a son of Alexander
+Boyd, was confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours
+of his grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the
+3rd Lord Boyd. His son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590),
+took a prominent part in Scottish politics during the troubled
+time which followed the death of James V. in 1542. At first
+he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his views
+changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary,
+queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside
+in 1568. During the queen&rsquo;s captivity he was often employed
+on diplomatic errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her
+favour, and he was suspected of participation in the murder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page354" id="page354"></a>354</span>
+of the regent Murray. He enjoyed a high and influential position
+under the regent James Douglas, earl of Morton, but was banished
+in 1583 for his share in the seizure of King James VI., a plot
+known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to France, but
+was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd
+of January 1590.</p>
+
+<p>William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of
+Kilmarnock in 1661, and this nobleman&rsquo;s grandson William,
+the 3rd earl (d. 1717), was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and
+fought for George I. during the rising of 1715. His son William,
+the 4th earl (1704-1746), was educated in the same principles,
+but in 1745, owing either to a personal affront or to the influence
+of his wife or to his straitened circumstances he deserted George II.
+and joined Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. The 4th earl
+fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he was made prisoner, and
+was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The title of earl of
+Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYD, ZACHARY<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated
+at the universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for
+many years a teacher in the Protestant college of Saumur in
+France, but returned to Scotland in 1621, to escape the Huguenot
+persecution. In 1623 he was appointed minister of the Barony
+church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the university in 1634,
+1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the half of his
+fortune, a sum amounting to £20,000 Scots, besides his library
+and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though
+often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that
+he made the printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and
+other Biblical narratives a condition of the reception of his grant
+to the university is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch
+Covenanter, and though for a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell,
+afterwards became friendly with him. His best-known works
+are <i>The Battel of the Soul in Death</i> (1629), of which a new edition,
+with a biography by G. Neil, was published in Glasgow in 1831;
+<i>Zion&rsquo;s Flowers</i>&mdash;often called &ldquo;Boyd&rsquo;s Bible&rdquo; (1644); <i>Four
+Letters of Comfort</i> (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYDELL, JOHN<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher,
+was born at Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one
+came to London and was apprenticed for seven years to an
+engraver. In 1746 he published a volume of views in England
+and Wales, and started in business as a print-seller. By his good
+taste and liberality he managed to secure the services of the best
+artists, and his engravings were executed with such skill that his
+business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in his
+plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the
+most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were
+exhibited publicly for many years. The engravings from these
+paintings form a splendid companion volume to his large illustrated
+edition of Shakespeare&rsquo;s works. Towards the close of his
+life Boydell sustained severe losses through the French Revolution,
+and was compelled to dispose of his Shakespeare gallery
+by lottery. Boydell had previously become an alderman, and
+rose to be lord mayor of London.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYER, ALEXIS<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on
+the 1st of March 1757 at Uzerches (Corrèze). The son of a
+tailor, he obtained his first medical knowledge in the shop of a
+barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he had the good fortune to
+attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792) and P.J.
+Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill
+and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at
+the age of thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second
+surgeon to the Hôtel Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the
+École de Santé he gained the chair of operative surgery, but soon
+exchanged it for the chair of clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon
+nominated him imperial family surgeon, and, after the brilliant
+campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him the legion of honour,
+with the title of baron of the empire and a salary of 25,000 francs.
+On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured him the
+favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was consulting
+surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe.
+In 1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief
+to the Hôpital de la Charité, and was chosen a member of
+the Institute. He died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833.
+Perhaps no French surgeon of his time thought or wrote with
+greater clearness and good sense than Boyer; and while his
+natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation, and
+somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as
+judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating,
+as he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases.
+His two great works are:&mdash;<i>Traité complet de l&rsquo;anatomie</i> (in 4 vols.,
+1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and
+<i>Traité des maladies chirurgicales et des opérations qui leur conviennent</i>
+(in 11 vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols.
+was published in 1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe
+Boyer (1801-1858).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYER, JEAN PIERRE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (1776-1850), president of the republic
+of Haiti, a mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the
+28th of February 1776. He received a good education in France,
+and, returning to St Domingo, joined the army in 1792. In 1794
+he was already in command of a battalion, and fought with
+distinction under General Rigaud against the English. The
+negro insurrection under Toussaint l&rsquo;Ouverture, which was directed
+against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced him
+to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon,
+and in 1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc&rsquo;s expedition.
+Being opposed to the reinstitution of slavery, he turned against
+the French and succeeded in producing an alliance between
+the negroes and mulattoes by which they were driven from
+the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king, but his
+cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with
+A.A.S. Pétion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806).
+Christophe now seized the supreme power, but Pétion set up an
+independent republic in the southern part of the island, with
+Boyer as commander-in-chief. Christophe&rsquo;s efforts to crush this
+state were defeated by Boyer&rsquo;s gallant defence of Port-au-Prince,
+and a series of brilliant victories, which, on Pétion&rsquo;s death
+in 1818, led to Boyer&rsquo;s election as president. Two years later
+the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he gained
+almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his
+presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration
+in order, and to encourage the arts and sciences,
+and in 1825 obtained French recognition of the independence of
+Haiti, in return for a payment of 150,000 francs. The weight
+of this debt excited the greatest discontent in Haiti. Boyer
+was able to carry on his government for some years longer,
+but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his
+power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He
+resided there till 1848, when he removed to Paris, where he
+died in 1850.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wallez, <i>Précis historique des négociations entre la France et
+Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le général Boyer</i>
+(Paris, 1826).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, JOHN J.<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), American sculptor, was born
+in New York City. He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy
+of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and in the École des Beaux Arts,
+Paris. He is particularly successful in the portrayal of Indians.
+Among his principal works are: &ldquo;Stone Age,&rdquo; Fairmount Park,
+Philadelphia; &ldquo;The Alarm,&rdquo; Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a
+third study in primitive culture, the two groups, &ldquo;The Savage
+Age&rdquo; at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also
+includes the seated &ldquo;Franklin,&rdquo; in Philadelphia; and &ldquo;Bacon&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Plato&rdquo; in the Congressional library, Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYLE, ROBERT<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1627-1691), English natural philosopher,
+seventh son and fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great
+earl of Cork, was born at Lismore Castle, in the province of
+Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of January 1627. While still
+a child he learned to speak Latin and French, and he was only
+eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his father&rsquo;s
+friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over
+three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French
+tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy
+in 1641, he remained during the winter of that year in Florence,
+studying the &ldquo;paradoxes of the great star-gazer&rdquo; Galileo, who
+died within a league of the city early in 1642. Returning to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page355" id="page355"></a>355</span>
+England in 1644 he found that his father was dead and had left
+him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire, together with estates
+in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to study and
+scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the band
+of inquirers, known as the &ldquo;Invisible College,&rdquo; who devoted
+themselves to the cultivation of the &ldquo;new philosophy.&rdquo; They
+met frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of
+the members also had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle
+went to reside in 1654. Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke&rsquo;s
+air-pump, he set himself with the assistance of Robert Hooke
+to devise improvements in its construction, and with the result,
+the &ldquo;machina Boyleana&rdquo; or &ldquo;Pneumatical Engine,&rdquo; finished
+in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of
+air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was
+published in 1660 under the title <i>New Experiments Physico-Mechanical
+touching the spring of air and its effects</i>. Among the
+critics of the views put forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus
+Linus (1595-1675), and it was while answering his objections
+that Boyle enunciated the law that the volume of a gas
+varies inversely as the pressure, which among English-speaking
+peoples is usually called after his name, though on the continent
+of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish
+it till 1676. In 1663 the &ldquo;Invisible College&rdquo; became the
+&ldquo;Royal Society of London for improving natural knowledge,&rdquo;
+and the charter of incorporation granted by Charles II. named
+Boyle a member of the council. In 1680 he was elected president
+of the society, but declined the honour from a scruple about
+oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London where he resided
+at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall Mall. About
+1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously and
+he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing
+his communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his
+desire to be excused from receiving guests, &ldquo;unless upon occasions
+very extraordinary,&rdquo; on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and
+Wednesday and Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained
+he wished to &ldquo;recruit his spirits, range his papers,&rdquo; and prepare
+some important chemical investigations which he proposed to
+leave &ldquo;as a kind of Hermetic legacy to the studious disciples
+of that art,&rdquo; but of which he did not make known the nature.
+His health became still worse in 1691, and his death occurred
+on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of
+the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years.
+He was buried in the churchyard of St Martin&rsquo;s in the Fields,
+his funeral sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.</p>
+
+<p>Boyle&rsquo;s great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried
+out the principles which Bacon preached in the <i>Novum Organum</i>.
+Yet he would not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of
+any other teacher: on several occasions he mentions that in
+order to keep his judgment as unprepossessed as might be with
+any of the modern theories of philosophy, till he was &ldquo;provided of
+experiments&rdquo; to help him judge of them, he refrained from any
+study of the Atomical and the Cartesian systems, and even of
+the <i>Novum Organum</i> itself, though he admits to &ldquo;transiently
+consulting&rdquo; them about a few particulars. Nothing was more
+alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses.
+He regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself,
+and in consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of
+scientific inquiry than had been enjoyed by his predecessors
+for many centuries. This, however, did not mean that he paid
+no attention to the practical application of science nor that he
+despised knowledge which tended to use. He himself was an
+alchemist; and believing the transmutation of metals to be a
+possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of effecting
+it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689,
+of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver.
+With all the important work he accomplished in physics&mdash;the
+enunciation of Boyle&rsquo;s law, the discovery of the part taken by
+air in the propagation of sound, and investigations on the expansive
+force of freezing water, on specific gravities and refractive
+powers, on crystals, on electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics,
+&amp;c.&mdash;chemistry was his peculiar and favourite study. His first
+book on the subject was <i>The Sceptical Chemist</i>, published in 1661,
+in which he criticized the &ldquo;experiments whereby vulgar Spagyrists
+are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt, Sulphur and
+Mercury to be the true Principles of Things.&rdquo; For him chemistry
+was the science of the composition of substances, not merely an
+adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He
+advanced towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable
+constituents of material bodies; and understanding
+the distinction between mixtures and compounds, he made
+considerable progress in the technique of detecting their ingredients,
+a process which he designated by the term &ldquo;analysis.&rdquo;
+He further supposed that the elements were ultimately composed
+of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however,
+they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied
+chemistry had to thank him for improved methods and for an
+extended knowledge of individual substances. He also studied
+the chemistry of combustion and of respiration, and made
+experiments in physiology, where, however, he was hampered
+by the &ldquo;tenderness of his nature&rdquo; which kept him from anatomical
+dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew
+them to be &ldquo;most instructing.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted
+much time to theology, showing a very decided leaning to the
+practical side and an indifference to controversial polemics.
+At the Restoration he was favourably received at court, and
+in 1665 would have received the provostship of Eton, if he would
+have taken orders; but this he refused to do, on the ground
+that his writings on religious subjects would have greater weight
+coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church. He
+spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity, contributing
+liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses
+of translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages.
+By his will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian
+religion against &ldquo;notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans,
+Jews and Mahommedans,&rdquo; with the proviso that controversies
+between Christians were not to be mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance.
+His constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he
+suffered from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific
+work procured him an extraordinary reputation among his
+contemporaries, his private character and virtues, the charm
+of his social manners, his wit and powers of conversation, endeared
+him to a large circle of personal friends. He was never
+married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous, and his
+style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are the more important of his works in addition to
+the two already mentioned:&mdash;<i>Considerations touching the Usefulness
+of Experimental Natural Philosophy</i> (1663), followed by a second
+part in 1671; <i>Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with
+Observations on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark</i> (1663); <i>New
+Experiments and Observations upon Cold</i> (1665); <i>Hydrostatical
+Paradoxes</i> (1666); <i>Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the
+Corpuscular Philosophy</i> (1666); a continuation of his work on the
+spring of air (1669); tracts about the <i>Cosmical Qualities of Things</i>,
+the <i>Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions</i>, the
+<i>Bottom of the Sea</i>, &amp;c. with an <i>Introduction to the History of Particular
+Qualities</i> (1670); <i>Origin and Virtues of Gems</i> (1672); <i>Essays of the
+strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums</i>
+(1673); two volumes of tracts on the <i>Saltness of the Sea</i>, the <i>Hidden
+Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions on
+Hobbes&rsquo;s</i> Problemata de Vacuo (1674); <i>Experiments and Notes
+about the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities</i>,
+including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676); <i>Observations
+upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any Preceding
+Illustration</i> (1678); the <i>Aerial Noctiluca</i> (1680); <i>New Experiments
+and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca</i> (1682); a further continuation
+of his work on the air; <i>Memoirs for the Natural History of the
+Human Blood</i> (1684); <i>Short Memoirs for the Natural Experimental
+History of Mineral Waters</i> (1685); <i>Medicina Hydrostatica</i> (1690);
+and <i>Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae</i> (1691). Among his
+religious and philosophical writings were:&mdash;<i>Seraphic Love</i>, written
+in 1648, but not published till 1660; an <i>Essay upon the Style of
+the Holy Scriptures</i> (1663); <i>Occasional Reflections upon Several
+Subjects</i> (1665), which was ridiculed by Swift in <i>A Pious Meditation
+upon a Broomstick</i>, and by Butler in <i>An Occasional Reflection on
+Dr Charlton&rsquo;s Feeling a Dog&rsquo;s Pulse at Cresham College</i>; <i>Excellence
+of Theology compared with Natural Philosophy</i> (1664); <i>Some Considerations
+about the Reconcileableness of Reason and Religion</i>, with a
+<i>Discourse about the Possibility of the Resurrection</i> (1675); <i>Discourse
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page356" id="page356"></a>356</span>
+of Things above Reason</i> (1681); <i>High Veneration Man owes to God</i>
+(1685); <i>A Free Inquiry into the vulgarly received Notion of Nature</i>
+(1686); and the <i>Christian Virtuoso</i> (1690). Several other works
+appeared after his death, among them <i>The General History of the
+Air designed and begun</i> (1692); a &ldquo;collection of choice remedies,&rdquo;
+<i>Medicinal Experiments</i> (1692-1698); and <i>A Free Discourse against
+Customary Swearing</i> (1695). An incomplete and unauthorized
+edition of Boyle&rsquo;s works was published at Geneva in 1677, but the
+first complete edition was that of Thomas Birch, with a life, published
+in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second edition appearing in
+1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his natural history
+collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses a portrait of
+him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom (1632-1690).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYLE,<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the
+north parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland
+Great Western railway, 106¼ m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and
+28 m. S. by E. from Sligo. Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully
+situated on both banks of the river Boyle, an affluent of the
+Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three bridges connect
+the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade in agricultural
+produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive
+ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains
+of a cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman
+and Transitional arcades with carving of very beautiful detail.
+The offices of the monastery are well preserved, and an interesting
+feature is seen in the names carved on the door of the lodge,
+attributed in Cromwell&rsquo;s soldier, who occupied the buildings.
+Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church near Lough Key,
+and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara. Boyle
+was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to
+the Irish parliament.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYNE,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen,
+near Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly
+direction, passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the
+Irish Sea, 4 m. below the town last named. It is navigable for
+barges to Navan, 19 m. from its mouth. Much of the scenery on
+its banks is beautiful, though never grand. About 2 m. west of
+Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks the spot where the
+forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory over those of
+James II., on the 1st of July<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> 1690, known as the battle of the
+Boyne.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This was the &ldquo;old style&rdquo; date, which in the new style (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calendar</a></span>) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, <i>Hist, of
+Ireland</i>, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by the
+Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this
+is a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the
+old style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention
+being to commemorate both.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOYS&rsquo; BRIGADE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> an organization founded in Glasgow by
+Mr (afterwards Sir) W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian
+manliness by the use of a semi-military discipline and order,
+gymnastics, summer camps and religious services and classes.
+There are about 2200 companies connected with different
+churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British empire
+and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A
+similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the
+Church Lads&rsquo; Brigade. Boys&rsquo; and girls&rsquo; life brigades are a more
+recent movement; they teach young people how to save life from
+fire and from water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and
+elementary nursing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOZDAR,<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually
+associated with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera
+Ghazi Khan. They are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali
+and Las Bela, whilst the majority of the population are said to
+live in the Punjab. They are usually graziers, and the name
+Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the Persian name for goat.
+Within the limits of their mountain home on the outer spurs of the
+Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race, mustering
+about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at
+feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In
+1857 their raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition
+under Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The
+Sangarh pass was captured and the Bozdars submitted. Since
+Baluchistan has been taken over they have given but little
+trouble.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BOZRAH.<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12;
+Is. xxxiv. 6, lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with <i>el-Buseireh</i>, S.E. of
+the Dead Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here
+are comparatively unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral
+district, and its inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200,
+are all shepherds. (2) A city in the <i>Mishor</i> or plain country of
+Moab, denounced by Jeremiah (xlviii. 24). It has been identified
+(also questionably) with a very extensive collection of ruins of
+various ages, now called Bosr&#257; (the Roman <i>Bostra</i>), situated in
+the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus. The area within the
+walls is about 1¼ m. in length, and nearly 1 m. in breadth, while
+extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The principal
+buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an
+aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more
+recent workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other
+arches, three mosques, and what are known as the church and
+convent of the monk Boheira. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 106 the city was beautified
+and perhaps restored from ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital
+of the new province of Arabia. In the reign of Alexander
+Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a native of the place,
+Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the time of Constantine
+the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and not
+long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of
+the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and
+it successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest
+it from their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous
+city, after which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited
+by thirty or forty families only. Another suggested identification
+is with Kus&#363;r el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and
+Aroer. This is perhaps the same as the Bezer mentioned in
+Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical city and a city of refuge.</p>
+
+<p>In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora.
+The latter is probably to be identified with Bosra, the former
+perhaps with the present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner
+of the Lej&#257;.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it
+was united with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived
+from Brabo, a semi-mythical Frankish chief.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of
+Lower Lorraine (<i>q.v.</i>), which became in the course of the 11th
+century split up into a number of small feudal states. The counts
+of Hainaut, Namur, Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their
+independence, and the territory of Liége passed to the bishops
+of that city. The remnant of the duchy, united since 1100 with
+the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106 by the
+emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon
+Godfrey (Godefroid) I., &ldquo;the Bearded,&rdquo; count of Louvain and
+Brussels. His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg,
+and for three generations the representatives of the rival houses
+contested the possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine.
+The issue was decided in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke
+Godfrey III. in 1159. His son, Henry I., &ldquo;the Warrior&rdquo; (1183-1235),
+abandoned the title of duke of Lower Lorraine and assumed
+in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His successors were Henry II.,
+&ldquo;the Magnanimous&rdquo; (1235-1248), Henry III., &ldquo;le Debonnair&rdquo;
+(1248-1261), and John I., &ldquo;the Victorious&rdquo; (1261-1294).
+These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was
+Louvain. John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg
+from Adolf of Berg, and secured his acquisition by defeating
+and slaying his competitor, Henry of Luxemburg, at the
+battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son, John II.,
+&ldquo;the Pacific&rdquo; (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his subjects
+by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation
+of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (<i>beden</i>)
+and taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution
+was entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four
+nobles, ten burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints
+and to see that the conditions laid down by the charter
+concerning the administration of justice and finance were not
+infringed. He was succeeded by his son, John III., &ldquo;the
+Triumphant&rdquo; (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining his
+position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page357" id="page357"></a>357</span>
+and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but
+he had a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of
+fortune. He it was to whom Brabant owed the great charter of
+its liberties, called <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, because it was granted on the
+occasion of the marriage of his daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with
+Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was proclaimed on
+their state entry into Brussels (1356).</p>
+
+<p>Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in
+1349, the ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the
+above-named Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock
+William IV., count of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg,
+her second husband, assumed in right of his wife, and by
+the sanction of the charter <i>La joyeuse entrée</i>, the style of duke of
+Brabant. Johanna&rsquo;s title was, however, disputed by Louis II.,
+count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her sister Margaret.
+The question had been compromised by the cession to Margaret in
+1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war broke
+out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis,
+who upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities.
+The democratic leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels
+and Peter Coutercel at Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign
+Wenzel was taken prisoner in 1371 by the duke of Gelderland,
+and had to be ransomed by his subjects. After his death (1383)
+his widow continued to rule over the two duchies for eighteen
+years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house of
+Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with
+her neighbours, the dukes of Jülich and Gelderland. In 1390
+she revoked the deed which secured the succession to Brabant to
+the house of Luxemburg, and appointed her niece, Margaret of
+Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flanders</a></span>), and her husband, Philip the Bold of Burgundy,
+her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married (1) Philip I. de
+Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the Bold,
+(d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgundy</a></span>). Of
+her three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to
+Burgundy, and Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in
+1406. Anthony was killed at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and
+was succeeded by his eldest son by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol,
+John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly memorable for the excitement
+caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba (<i>q.v.</i>), countess of
+Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession passed to his
+brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.</p>
+
+<p>On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant
+became the inheritance of the elder branch of the house of
+Burgundy, in the person of Philip III., &ldquo;the Good,&rdquo; of Burgundy,
+II. of Brabant, son of John. His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482),
+daughter and heiress of Charles I., &ldquo;the Bold,&rdquo; (d. 1477) married
+the archduke Maximilian of Austria (afterwards emperor) and
+so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian possessions to
+the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant, Brussels,
+became under the Habsburg régime the residence of the court
+and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor
+Charles V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland
+states were linked with those of the Spanish monarchy. The
+attempt of Philip II. of Spain to impose despotic rule upon the
+Netherlands led to the outbreak of the Netherland revolt, 1568
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Netherlands</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the eighty years&rsquo; war of independence the
+province of Brabant became separated into two portions. In
+the southern and larger part Spanish rule was maintained,
+and Brussels continued to be the seat of government. The
+northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch under
+Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured
+&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637).
+At the peace of Münster this portion, which now forms the Dutch
+province of North Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United
+Provinces and was known as Generality Land, and placed under
+the direct government of the states-general. The southern
+portion, now divided into the provinces of Antwerp and South
+Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish Habsburgs
+until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700. After
+the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands
+passed by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch
+of the Habsburgs. During the whole period of Austrian rule
+the province of Brabant succeeded in maintaining, to a very
+large extent unimpaired, the immunities and privileges to which
+it was entitled under the provisions of its ancient charter of
+liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged attempt by the
+emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe these
+inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of
+Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabançon revolt
+of 1789-1790.</p>
+
+<p>Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant
+is merged in that of Belgium (<i>q.v</i>.). The revolt against Dutch
+rule in 1830 broke out at Brussels and was in its initial stages
+largely a Brabançon movement. The important part played
+by Brabant at this crisis of the history of the southern Netherlands
+was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the ancient
+Brabançon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of
+Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke
+of Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the
+king of the Belgians.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRABANT,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> the central and metropolitan province of Belgium,
+is formed out of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830,
+that is to say, during the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands,
+Belgian Brabant was distinguished from Dutch by the
+employment of the geographical terms South and North. The
+surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest points, some
+400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St Jean.
+The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known
+for their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many
+manufactures flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies,
+as well as in the larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant
+contains 820,740 acres or 1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are
+Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal, Ottignies, and its three administrative
+divisions are named after the first three of those towns.
+They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344 communes. In
+1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a proportion
+of 1077 per sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRABANT, NORTH,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the largest province in Holland, bounded
+S. by Belgium, W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht,
+the Volkerak and the Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from
+Zealand and South Holland, N. and N. E. by the Merwede and
+Maas, which separate it from South Holland and Gelderland,
+and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231 sq. m.
+and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a
+gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and
+160 ft. in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil
+is composed of diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel,
+but giving place to sea-clay along the western boundary and
+river-clay along the banks of the Maas and smaller rivers.
+The watershed is formed by the north-eastern edge of the
+Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a curved line drawn
+through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The landscape
+consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath,
+occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys
+of the Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen
+called the Peel (&ldquo;marshy land&rdquo;). Deurne, a few miles east of
+Helmond, the site of a prehistoric burial-ground, was an early
+fen colony. The work of reclamation was removed farther
+eastwards to Helenaveen in the second half of the 19th century.
+Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the main industry,
+generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands
+wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western
+corner of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the
+beet sugar industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom,
+Steenbergen and Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of
+hops in the district north-west of &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch. The large
+majority of the population is Roman Catholic. The earliest development
+of towns and villages took place along the river Maas
+and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman camps which were the
+origin of many such afterwards developed in the hands of feudal
+lords. The chief town of the province, &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, may be
+cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page358" id="page358"></a>358</span>
+Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda
+is the next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom
+had originally a more maritime importance. Rozendaal,
+Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel) are important railway
+junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an independent
+barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in 1439.
+The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious
+position of the province on the borders of the country doubtless
+militated against an earlier industrial development, but since
+the separation from Belgium and the construction of roads,
+railways and canals there has been a general improvement,
+Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having risen into prominence
+in modern times as industrial centres. Leather-tanning
+and shoe-making are especially associated with the district
+called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg
+and &rsquo;s Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of
+industrial villages along the course of the Old Maas.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACCIANO,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m.
+N.W. of Rome by rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake
+of Bracciano, 915 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is
+chiefly remarkable for its fine castle (built by the Orsini in 1460,
+and since 1696 the property of the Odescalchi) which has preserved
+its medieval character. The beautiful lake is the ancient
+<i>Lacus Sabatinus</i>, supposed to derive its name from an Etruscan
+city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be
+mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake
+itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes,
+the <i>tribus Sabatina</i>, founded in 387 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (O. Cuntz in
+<i>Jahreshefte des Österr. Arch. Instituts</i>, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m.
+in area, 538 ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost
+circular, but is held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result
+of a volcanic subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from
+it extend as far as Rome; various small craters surround it,
+while the existence of warm springs in the district (especially
+those of Vicarello, probably the ancient <i>Aquae Apollinares</i>)
+may also be noted. Many remains of ancient villas may be seen
+round the lake: above its west bank is the station of Forum
+Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which
+retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown
+name. About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called
+Ad Novas. The site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was
+occupied by a Roman villa. The water of the lake partly
+supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by Paul V. of the Aqua
+Traiana.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1566-1645), Italian poet, was
+born at Pistoia, of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to
+Florence he was admitted into the academy there, and devoted
+himself to literature. At Rome he entered the service of Cardinal
+Maffeo Barberini, with whom he afterwards went to France.
+After the death of Clement VIII. he returned to his own country;
+and when his patron Barberini was elected pope, under the name
+of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was made
+secretary to the pope&rsquo;s brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also
+the honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms
+of the Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards
+known by the name of <i>Bracciolini dell&rsquo; Api</i>. During
+Urban&rsquo;s pontificate the poet lived at Rome in considerable
+reputation, though at the same time he was censured for his
+sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned to
+Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of
+poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which
+Bracciolini did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his
+mock-heroic poem <i>Lo Scherno degli Dei</i>, published in 1618,
+similar but confessedly inferior to the contemporary work of
+Tassoni, <i>Secchia Rapita</i>. Of his serious heroic poems the most
+celebrated is <i>La Croce Racquistata</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poggio</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACE, CHARLES LORING<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> (1826-1890), American philanthropist,
+was born on the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut.
+He graduated at Yale in 1846, studied theology there
+in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union Theological Seminary
+in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his life to social
+work among the poor of New York, and to Christian propaganda
+among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a
+social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold
+&ldquo;boys&rsquo; meetings,&rdquo; and in 1853 helped to found the Children&rsquo;s
+Aid Society, establishing workshops, industrial schools and
+lodging-houses for newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the
+international prison congress which met in London. He died at
+Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August 1890. He published
+from time to time several volumes embodying his views on
+practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of
+social conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace</i> (New York,
+1894), edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACE, JULIA<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was
+born at Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In
+her fifth year she became blind and deaf, and lost the power of
+speech. At the age of eighteen she entered the asylum for the
+deaf and dumb at Hartford. The study of blind deaf-mutes and
+their scientific training was then in its infancy; but she learnt
+to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a good memory. Dr
+S.G. Howe&rsquo;s experiments with her were interesting as leading to
+his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington,
+Conn., on the 12th of August 1884.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACE<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. <i>bracchium</i>,
+the arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the
+extended arms. From the original meaning of &ldquo;the two arms&rdquo;
+comes that of something which secures, connects, tightens or
+strengthens, found in numerous uses of the word, as a carpenter&rsquo;s
+tool with a crank handle and socket to hold a bit for boring;
+a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any building or
+machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support the
+trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord
+of a drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and
+printing sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or
+music; a nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming
+the sails (cf. the corresponding French term <i>bras de vergue</i>).
+As meaning &ldquo;a couple&rdquo; or &ldquo;pair&rdquo; the term was first applied
+to dogs, probably from the leash by which they were coupled in
+coursing. In architecture &ldquo;brace mould&rdquo; is the term for two
+ressaunts or ogees united together like a brace in printing,
+sometimes with a small bead between them.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1674-1748), English actress, is
+said to have been placed under the care of Thomas Betterton
+and his wife, and to have first appeared on the stage as the
+page in <i>The Orphan</i> at its first performance at Dorset Garden
+in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell&rsquo;s <i>Squire of Alsatia</i> at the
+Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar parts until, in 1693,
+as Araminta in <i>The Old Bachelor</i>, she made her first appearance
+in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her name
+is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton
+and the other seceders to Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn Fields, where, on its
+opening with Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Love for Love</i>, she played Angelica.
+This part, and those of Belinda in Vanbrugh&rsquo;s <i>Provoked Wife</i>,
+and Almira in Congreve&rsquo;s <i>Mourning Bride</i>, were among her best
+impersonations, but she also played the heroines of some of
+Nicholas Rowe&rsquo;s tragedies, and acted in the contemporary
+versions of Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays. In 1705 she followed Betterton
+to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in
+Mrs Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story
+runs that it was left for the audience to determine which was the
+better comedy actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle
+in Betterton&rsquo;s <i>Amorous Widow</i>, which was played alternately
+by the two rivals on successive nights. When the popular vote
+was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs Bracegirdle quitted
+the stage, making only one reappearance at Betterton&rsquo;s benefit
+in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much discussion.
+Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of &ldquo;not being
+unguarded in her private character,&rdquo; while Macaulay does not
+hesitate to call her &ldquo;a cold, vain and interested coquette, who
+perfectly understood how much the influence of her charms
+was increased by the fame of a severity which cost her nothing.&rdquo;
+She was certainly the object of the adoration of many men,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page359" id="page359"></a>359</span>
+and she was the innocent cause of the killing of the actor William
+Mountfort (<i>q.v.</i>), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun regarded
+as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was suspected
+of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress
+she is also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate
+friend, and left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation
+for virtue was remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a
+subscription list of 800 guineas, presented to her as a tribute to
+her virtue. Her charity to the poor in Clare Market and around
+Drury Lane was conspicuous, &ldquo;insomuch that she would not
+pass that neighbourhood without the thankful acclamations
+of people of all degrees.&rdquo; She died in 1748, and was buried in
+the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Genest, <i>History of the Stage</i>; Colley Gibber, <i>Apology</i> (edited
+by Bellchambers); Egerton, <i>Life of Anne Oldfield</i>; Downes, <i>Roscius
+Anglicanus.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACELET,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Armlet</span>, a personal ornament for the arm or
+wrist, made of different materials, according to the fashion of
+the age and the rank of the wearer. The word is the French <i>bracelet</i>,
+a diminutive of <i>bracel</i>, from <i>brac(c)hiale</i>, formed from
+the Latin <i>bracchium</i>, the arm, on which it was usually worn.
+By the Romans it was called <i>armilla, brachiale, occabus</i>; and
+in the middle ages <i>bauga, armispatha</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:454px; height:276px" src="images/img359a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie.</i></span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the Bible there are three different words which the
+authorized version renders by &ldquo;bracelet.&rdquo; These are&mdash;(1) &#1492;&#1512;&#1506;&#1510;&#1488;
+<i>&rsquo;e&#351;&lsquo;adah</i>, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which
+being used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the <i>armlet</i>;
+(2) &#1491;&#1497;&#1502;&#1510; <i>&#351;am&#299;d</i>, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi.
+50, Ezek. xvi. 11;&mdash;where these two words occur together (as in
+Num. xxxi. 50) the first is rendered by &ldquo;chain,&rdquo; and the second by
+&ldquo;bracelet&rdquo;; (3) &#1514;&#1493;&#1512;&#1513; <i>sheroth</i>, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19.
+The first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second,
+bracelets worn by women and sometimes by men; and the
+third a peculiar bracelet of chain-work worn only by women.
+In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes the royal ornament which
+the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead Saul, and brought
+with the other regalia to David. There is little question that
+this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as we
+still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the
+Ganges. The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets,
+which were also worn by the Egyptian women. These,
+however, are not jewelled, but of plain or enamelled metal,
+as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times the most celebrated
+armlets are those which form part of the
+regalia of the Persian kings and formerly
+belonged to the Mogul emperors of India,
+being part of the spoil carried to Persia
+from Delhi by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are
+of dazzling splendour, and the jewels in them are of such
+large size and immense value that the pair have been
+reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal stone
+of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the
+<i>Darya-i-nur</i>, &ldquo;sea (or river) of light.&rdquo; It weighs 186 carats,
+and is considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world.
+The principal jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat
+inferior size (146 carats) and value, is renowned as the <i>T&#257;j-e-mah</i>,
+&ldquo;crown of the moon.&rdquo; The imperial armlets, generally set
+with jewels, may also be observed in most of the portraits of
+the Indian emperors.</p>
+
+<p>Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric
+nations, and the women frequently wear several on the same
+arm. The finer kinds are of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver;
+others of less value are made of plated steel, horn, brass, copper,
+beads, &amp;c. Chinese bracelets are sometimes cut out of single
+pieces of jade.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:353px; height:354px" src="images/img359b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common
+in Europe from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the
+Bronze Age were of either gold or bronze, silver being then
+unknown. In shape they were oval and penannular with
+expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an opening between
+them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily slipped
+over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered
+rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often
+chased with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets
+of bronze, peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the
+whole fore-arm, and were doubtless intended as much for defence
+against a sword-stroke as for ornament. Among the nations
+of classical antiquity, bracelets were worn by both sexes of
+the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks, except in
+orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn
+by women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been
+used during the empire by <i>nouveaux riches</i>, and by some of the
+emperors. It should also be mentioned that bracelets were
+conferred as a military decoration in the field.</p>
+
+<p>The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types,
+both of which were also familiar to the Assyrians. The one
+class were in the
+form of coiled
+spirals, usually in
+the form of snakes,
+a term which Pollux
+gives as a synonym
+for bracelet.
+The other class
+were stiff penannular
+hoops,
+capable of being
+slightly opened. In
+such examples the
+terminals are finely
+finished as rams&rsquo;
+heads, lions&rsquo; heads,
+or (as in the accompanying
+figure
+from a bracelet
+found at Kuloba)
+as enamelled
+sphinxes. In late Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of
+consecutive panels, as often in modern jewelry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:699px; height:81px" src="images/img359c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80">From La Grande Encydopédie.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern
+Europe, while silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited
+and intertwisted strands of silver wire, and plain penannular
+hoops, round or lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities,
+became common towards the close of the pagan period.
+The late Celtic period in Britain was characterized by serpent-shaped
+bracelets and massive armlets, with projecting ornaments
+of solid bronze and perforations filled with enamel. In the
+middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in Europe,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page360" id="page360"></a>360</span>
+but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations
+to the present time, and many of the types that were common
+in Europe in prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A treatise, <i>De Armillis Veterum</i>, by Thomas Bartholinus, was
+published at Amsterdam in 1676.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACHIOPODA,<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> an important and well-defined but extremely
+isolated class of invertebrates. The group may be defined as
+follows: Sessile solitary <i>Coelomata</i> with bivalved shells usually
+of unequal size and arranged dorso-ventrally. The head is
+produced into ciliated arms bearing tentacles. They reproduce
+sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of separate sexes.</p>
+
+<p>The name Brachiopod (<span class="grk" title="brachion">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#943;&#969;&#957;</span>, an arm, and <span class="grk" title="pous, podos">&#960;&#959;&#973;&#962;, &#960;&#959;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>, a
+foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by
+A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively
+adopted. The division of the group into <i>Ecardines</i> (<i>Inarticulata</i>),
+with no hinge to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at
+both ends, and <i>Testicardines</i> (<i>Articulata</i>), with a hinge between
+the dorsal and ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed
+by Owen and has been adopted by nearly all authors. In a
+later scheme based on our increased knowledge of fossil forms,
+the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary groups (orders).
+This is given at the end of the article, but it must not be forgotten
+that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ markedly
+from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:447px; height:605px" src="images/img360.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 1-11.&mdash;Various forms of Brachiopoda.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>]
+<i>cranium</i>. A, ventral, B,
+dorsal valve.</p>
+<p>2. <i>Rhynchonella (Hemithyris)
+psittacea</i>.</p>
+<p>3. and 4. <i>Thecidea</i>.</p>
+<p>5. <i>Spirifer</i>. Dorsal valve,
+showing calcareous spiral
+coils.</p>
+<p>6. <i>Orthis calligramma</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>7. <i>Leptaena transversalis</i>. A,
+ventral, B, dorsal valve.</p>
+<p>8. <i>Productus horridus</i>.</p>
+<p>9. <i>Lingula pyramidata</i> (after
+Morse).</p>
+<p>10. <i>Discinisca lamellosa</i>.</p>
+<p>11. <i>Crania anomala</i> Interior of
+dorsal valve, showing muscular
+impressions and labial
+appendages.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a
+shell composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always,
+except in cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved.
+The valves are, consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is
+not the case with the Lamellibranchiata,&mdash;so much so, that
+certain Brachiopod shells were named <i>Lampades</i>, or lamp shells,
+by some early naturalists; but while such may bear a kind of
+resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far the larger
+number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most
+beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species
+it is thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally
+the shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size,
+but in certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something
+less in length, as is the case with <i>Productus giganteus</i>.
+The valves are also in some species very unequal in their respective
+thickness, as may be seen in <i>Productus</i> (<i>Daviesiella</i>)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <i>llangollensis</i>,
+<i>Davidsonia verneuilii</i>, &amp;c., and while the space allotted to the
+animal is very great in many species, as in <i>Terebratula sphaeroidalis</i>,
+it is very small in others belonging to <i>Strophomena</i>, <i>Leptaena</i>,
+<i>Chonetes</i>, &amp;c. The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in
+some forms is six or seven times as great as the opposite one.
+The outer surface of many of the species presents likewise the
+most exquisite sculpture, heightened by brilliant shades, or spots
+of green, red, yellow and bluish black. Traces of the original
+colour have also been preserved in some of the fossil forms;
+radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in well-preserved
+examples of <i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Dielasma</i>) <i>hastata</i>, <i>T</i>. (<i>Dielasma</i>)
+<i>sacculus</i>, <i>T. communis</i>, <i>T. biplicata</i>, and of several others.
+Some specimens of <i>T. carnea</i> are of a beautiful pale pink colour
+when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps
+has described the tint of several Jurassic species.</p>
+
+<p>The valves are distinguished as <i>dorsal</i> and <i>ventral</i>. The ventral
+valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as <i>Terebratula</i>
+and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, has a prominent beak or umbo,
+with a circular or otherwise shaped foramen at or near its
+extremity, partly bounded by one or two plates, termed a
+deltidium. Through the foramen passes a peduncle, by which
+the animal is in many species attached to submarine objects
+during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no
+indication of ever having been attached, while some that had
+been moored by means of a peduncle during the early portion of
+their existence have become detached at a more advanced stage
+of life, the opening becoming gradually cicatrized, as is so often
+seen in <i>Leptaena rhomboidalis</i>, <i>Orthisina anomala</i>, &amp;c. Lastly,
+some species adhere to submarine objects by a larger or smaller
+portion of their ventral valve, as is the case with many forms of
+<i>Crania</i>, <i>Thecidium</i>, <i>Davidsonia</i>, &amp;c. Some <i>Cranias</i> are always
+attached by the whole surface of their lower or ventral valve,
+which models itself and fills up all the projections or depressions
+existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it adhered.
+These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the
+upper or dorsal valve. Some species of <i>Strophalosia</i> and <i>Productus</i>
+seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy
+or muddy bottoms on which they lived, by the means of
+tubular spines often of considerable length. The interior of
+the shell varies very much according to families and genera.
+On the inner surface of both valves several well-defined muscular,
+vascular and ovarian impressions are observable; they form
+either indentations of greater or less size and depth, or occur as
+variously shaped projections. In the <i>Trimerellidae</i>, for example,
+some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted platform
+situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half
+or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there
+exists in the interior of the <i>dorsal</i> valve of some genera a variously
+modified, thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support
+of the ciliated arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of
+the chief generic characters of both recent and extinct forms.
+This brachial skeleton is more developed in some genera than
+in others. In certain forms, as in <i>Terebratula</i> and <i>Terebratulina</i>,
+it is short and simple, and attached to a small divided hinge-plate,
+the two riband-shaped lamina being bent upwards in the
+middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and on each
+side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the loop
+in <i>Terebratulina</i> becomes annular in the adult by the union of
+its crural processes (fig. 16). In <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] it
+is elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four
+depressions, under which originates a median septum, which
+extends more or less into the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page361" id="page361"></a>361</span>
+In <i>Terebratella</i> the loop is attached to the hinge-plate and to the
+septum (fig. 17). In <i>Megerlia</i> it is three times attached, first to
+the hinge-plate, and then to the septum by processes from the
+diverging and reflected positions of the loop. In <i>Magas</i> the
+brachial skeleton is composed of an elevated longitudinal septum
+reaching from one valve to the other, to which are affixed
+two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones riband-shaped;
+attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards proceed by a
+gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to the
+sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both
+sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of
+two triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In <i>Bouchardia</i>
+the septum only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped
+lamellae. Many more modifications are observable in different
+groups of which the great family <i>Terebratulidae</i> is composed.
+In <i>Thecidium</i> (figs. 3,4) the interior of the dorsal valve is variously
+furrowed to receive the lophophore folded in two or more lobes.
+In the family <i>Spiriferidae</i> there are two conical spires directed
+outwards, and nearly filling the cavity of the shell (fig. 5);
+while in <i>Atrypa</i> the broad spirally coiled lamellae are vertical,
+and directed toward the centre of the dorsal valve. In the
+<i>Rhynchonellidae</i> there are two short slender curved laminae,
+while in many genera and even families, such as the <i>Productidae,
+Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae</i>, &amp;c., there exists no
+calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve
+in many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth,
+which fit into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so
+that the valves cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:459px; height:627px" src="images/img361a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 12-18.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="vertical-align: top;">
+<p>12. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of ventral valve.
+<i>f</i>, foramen; <i>d</i>, deltidium; <i>t</i>, teeth; <i>a</i>, adductor impressions
+(=occlusors, <i>Hancock</i>); <i>c</i>, divaricator (=cardinal muscles,
+<i>King</i>, = muscles diducteurs principaux, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>c&rsquo;</i>, accessory
+divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b</i>,
+ventral adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du
+pedoncule paire supérieure, <i>Gratiolet</i>); <i>b&rsquo;</i>, peduncular muscle.</p>
+<p>13. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Interior of dorsal valve.
+<i>c, c&rsquo;</i>, cardinal process; <i>b&rsquo;, b&rsquo;</i>, hinge-plate; <i>s</i>, dental sockets;
+<i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>a, a&rsquo;</i>, adductor impressions; <i>c</i>, accessory
+divaricator; <i>b</i>, peduncle muscles; <i>ss</i>, septum.</p>
+<p>14. <i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Longitudinal section of
+valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; <i>l</i>, loop; <i>q</i>, crura; <i>ss</i>,
+septum; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p>
+<p>15. <i>Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea</i>. Interior of dorsal valve. <i>l</i>, loop;
+<i>b</i>, hinge-plate; <i>c</i>, cardinal process.</p>
+<p>16. Loop of <i>Terebratulina caput serpentis</i>.</p>
+<p>17. Longitudinal section of <i>Terebratella dorsata</i>. (References as in
+fig. 14.)</p>
+<p>18. Longitudinal section of <i>Magas pumilus</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:311px; height:326px" src="images/img361b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>.
+Interior of dorsal valve, to show the position
+of the labial appendages. <i>v</i>, Mouth.
+(A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show
+the brachial membrane and a portion of the
+spiral extremities of the arms.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:266px; height:387px" src="images/img361c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>.
+Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p><i>d</i>, <i>h</i>, Brachial appendages.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, c&rsquo;, Divaricator muscles.</p>
+<p><i>s</i>, Septum.</p>
+<p><i>v</i>, Mouth.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>, Exremity of alimentary tube.</p></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">The penduncular muscules have
+been purposely omitted.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:298px; height:652px" src="images/img362a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;A diagram of the left half
+of an <i>Argiope</i> (<i>Megathyris</i>), which has
+been bisected in the median plane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>&ensp;1. The ventral valve.</p>
+<p>&ensp;2. The dorsal valve.</p>
+<p>&ensp;3. The pedicle.</p>
+<p>&ensp;4. The mouth.</p>
+<p>&ensp;5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore.</p>
+<p>&ensp;6. Tentacles.</p>
+<p>&ensp;7. Ovary in dorsal valve.</p>
+<p>&ensp;8. Liver diverticula.</p>
+<p>&ensp;9. Occlusor muscle&mdash;its double origin is shown.</p>
+<p>10. Internal opening of left nephridium.</p>
+<p>11. External opening of the same.</p>
+<p>12. Ventral adjustor.</p>
+<p>13. Divaricator muscle.</p>
+<p>14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.</p>
+<p>15. The heart.</p>
+<p>16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:286px; height:516px" src="images/img362b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Diagrammatic section
+through an arm of the lophophore of
+<i>Crania</i>. Magnified; after Blochmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>&ensp;1. The lip.</p>
+<p>&ensp;2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line.</p>
+<p>&ensp;3. Great arm-sinus.</p>
+<p>&ensp;4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres.</p>
+<p>&ensp;5. Tentacular canal.</p>
+<p>&ensp;6. External tentacular muscle.</p>
+<p>&ensp;7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the small arm-sinus.</p>
+<p>&ensp;8. Chief arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>&ensp;9. Secondary arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>10. Under arm-nerve.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains
+prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle
+secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated
+by calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite
+surrounded by a cuticular
+mesh work; the
+whole is nourished and
+kept alive by processes,
+which in <i>Crania</i> are
+branched; these perforate
+the shell and
+permit the access of the
+coelomic fluid throughout
+its substance. These
+canals are closed externally
+and are absent
+in <i>Rhynchonella</i>, where
+the amount of calcareous
+deposit is small.
+In <i>Lingula</i> the shell is
+composed of alternate
+layers of chitin and of
+phosphate of lime. The
+free edges of the mantle
+often bear chitinous
+bristles or setae which
+project beyond the shell.
+As in the case of the Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the
+adult is not a direct derivative of the youngest shell of
+the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species is
+protected by an embryonic shell called the &ldquo;protegulum,&rdquo;
+which sometimes persists in
+the umbones of the adult
+shells but is more usually
+worn off. In all species it
+has the same shape, a shape
+which has been retained in
+the adult by the Lower
+Cambrian genus <i>Iphidea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The body of the Brachiopod
+usually occupies about the
+posterior half of the space
+within the shell. The anterior
+half of this space is
+lined by the inner wall of
+the mantle and is called the
+mantle cavity. This cavity
+lodges the arms, which are
+curved and coiled in different
+ways in different genera.
+The water which bears the
+oxygen for respiration and
+the minute organisms upon
+which the Brachiopod feeds is
+swept into the mantle cavity
+by the action of the cilia
+which cover the arms, and
+the eggs and excreta pass out
+into the same cavity. The
+mouth lies in the centre of
+the anterior wall of the
+body. Its two lips fusing
+together at the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called
+arms. These arms, which together form the lophophore,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page362" id="page362"></a>362</span>
+may be, as in <i>Cistella</i>, applied flat to the inner surface of the
+dorsal mantle fold, but more usually they are raised free from
+the body like a pair of moustaches, and as they are usually far
+too long to lie straight in the mantle cavity, they are folded or
+coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in many cases supports
+the arms has been mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p>A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it
+consists of a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective
+tissue not uncommon in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which
+is traversed by certain canals whose nature is considered below
+under the section (<i>The Body Cavity</i>) devoted to the coelom.
+Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter, the pre-oral
+rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral rim is
+composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number
+some thousands, and they
+are usually bent over and
+tend to form a closed
+cylinder of the gutter.
+Each of these tentacles
+(fig. 22) is hollow, and it
+contains a diverticulum
+from the coelom, a branch
+of the vascular system,
+a nerve and some muscle-fibres.
+Externally on two
+sides and on the inner
+surface the tentacles are
+ciliated, and the cilia
+are continued across the
+gutter to the lip and even
+on the outer surface of
+the latter. These cilia
+pass on any diatoms and
+other minute organism
+which come within their
+range of action to the
+capacious oval mouth,
+which appears as a mere
+deepening of the gutter
+in the middle line. In
+<i>Terebratulina,
+Rhynchonella, Lingula</i>, and
+possibly other genera,
+the arms can be unrolled
+and protruded from the
+opened shell; in this case
+the tentacles also
+straighten themselves and
+wave about in the water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Body Cavity.</i>&mdash;The
+various internal organs of
+the brachiopod body, the
+alimentary canal and liver,
+the excretory organs, the
+heart, numerous muscles
+and the reproductive
+organs, are enclosed in a
+cavity called the body
+cavity, and since this cavity
+(i.) is derived from the
+archicoel and is from the
+first surrounded by meroblast,
+(ii.) communicates
+with the exterior through
+the nephridia or excretory
+organs, and (iii.) gives rise
+by the proliferation of the
+cells which line it to the
+ova and spermatoza, it is of
+the nature of a true coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber
+surrounding the alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally
+into the sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial
+cells lining the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated
+fluid contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a
+great tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic
+cavity there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards
+as coelomic, but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests
+largely on histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation
+is wanting. These spaces are as follows:&mdash;(i.) the great
+arm-sinus; (ii.) the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus
+and the peri-oesophageal sinus, and in <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, and,
+to a less extent, in <i>Crania</i>, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of the
+general body cavity which in <i>Crania</i> are separated off and contain
+muscles, &amp;c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists. The
+great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the fold
+or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated groove
+in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off
+from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic
+space nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate
+with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms
+of the lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind
+diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the
+blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth
+where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another
+they open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and
+partly walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This
+sinus is continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal
+sinus, and thus the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the
+relations of the so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In <i>Crania</i>
+it is completely shut off from the main coelom, but in <i>Lingula</i> it
+communicates freely with this cavity. In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>
+there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which traverses
+the supporting tissue
+of the edge of the mantle
+and contains muscle-fibres.
+It opens into the peri-oesophageal
+sinus. It is
+better developed and more
+spacious in <i>Lingula</i> than
+in <i>Discinisca.</i> In <i>Crania</i>,
+where only indications of the
+lip-sinus occur, there are two
+other closed spaces. The
+posterior occlusor muscles
+lie in a special closed
+space which Blochmann also
+regards as coelomic. The
+posterior end of the intestine
+is similarly surrounded by
+a closed coelomic space
+known as the peri-anal sinus
+in which the rectum lies
+freely, unsupported by
+mesenteries. All these
+spaces contain a similar
+coagulable fluid with sparse
+corpuscles, and all are lined
+by ciliated cells. There is
+further a great tendency for
+the endothelial cells to form
+muscles, and this is especially
+pronounced in the small
+arm-sinus, where a conspicuous
+muscle is built up.
+The mantle-sinuses which
+form the chief spaces in the
+mantle are diverticula of the
+main coelomic cavity. In
+<i>Discinisca</i> they are provided
+with a muscular valve placed
+at their point of origin. They
+contain the same fluid as the
+general coelom. The stalk
+is an extension of the ventral
+body-wall, and contains
+a portion of the coelom
+which, in <i>Discinisca</i> and
+<i>Lingula</i>, remains in communication
+with the general
+body cavity.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Alimentary Canal</i>.&mdash;
+The mouth, which is quite
+devoid of armature, leads
+imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus.
+The latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the
+broad ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes
+into an intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short,
+finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is
+longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In
+<i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> the anus lies to the right in the mantle-cavity,
+but in <i>Crania</i> it opens medianly into a posterior extension of the
+same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine caused by the
+lateral position of the anus in the two genera just named, Brachiopods
+are bilaterally symmetrical animals.</p>
+
+<p>The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad
+duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which
+may branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page363" id="page363"></a>363</span>
+the space in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes,
+which may be found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a
+large part of the digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach,
+oesophagus and intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The
+intestine is slung by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which
+divides the body cavity into two symmetrically shaped halves;
+it is &ldquo;stayed&rdquo; by two transverse septa, the anterior or gastroparietal
+band running from the stomach to the body wall and the
+posterior or ileoparietal band running from the intestine to the body
+wall. None of these septa is complete, and the various parts of
+the central body cavity freely communicate with one another. In
+<i>Rhynchonella</i>, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the internal
+opening of the anterior pair is supported by the gastroparietal band
+and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal band. The latter
+pair alone persists in all other genera.</p>
+
+<p>The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped
+nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the
+mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and
+devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow
+or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act
+as ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circulatory System.</i>&mdash;The structures formerly regarded as pseudohearts
+have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart
+was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases
+escaped the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884,
+however, observed this organ in the living animal in species of the
+following genera:&mdash;<i>Terebratulina, Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>], <i>Rhynchonella,
+Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>), <i>Lingula</i>, and <i>Crania</i> (fig. 21). It
+consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal side
+of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations
+of <i>Terebratulina</i> made by quickly removing the viscera and examining
+them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the pulsations,
+which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:280px; height:238px" src="images/img363a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 23.&mdash;<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>)
+<i>psittacea.</i> Interior of dorsal
+valve, <i>s</i>, Sockets; <i>b</i>, dental plates;
+<i>V</i>, mouth; <i>de</i>, labial appendage in
+its natural position; <i>d</i>, appendage
+extended or unrolled.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A vessel&mdash;the dorsal vessel&mdash;runs forward from the heart
+along the dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel
+is nothing but a split between the right and left folds of the
+mesentery, and its cavity is thus a remnant of the blastocoel.
+A similar primitive arrangement is thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the
+genital arteries. Anteriorly the dorsal vessel splits into a right
+and a left half, which enter the small arm-sinus and, running
+along it, give off a blind branch to each tentacle (fig. 21). The
+right and left halves are connected ventrally to the oesophagus
+by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in the immediate
+neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular ring around
+the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second
+median vessel which divides almost at once
+into a right and a left half, each of which again divides into two
+vessels which run to the dorsal and ventral mantles respectively.
+The dorsal branch sends a blind twig into each of the diverticula
+of the dorsal mantle-sinus, the ventral branch supplies the nephridia
+and neighbouring parts before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle.
+Both dorsal and ventral branches supply the generative organs.</p>
+
+<p>The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles
+is not yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is
+a remarkable fact that in <i>Discinisca</i>, although the vessels to the
+lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart
+or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muscles.</i>&mdash;The number and position of the muscles differ materially
+in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been
+grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which
+each division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist
+who has written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed
+different names for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising
+is much to be regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus
+<i>Terebratula</i> may be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles
+are stated by A. Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected
+with the opening and closing of the valves, or with their attachment
+to or movements upon the peduncle. First of all, the adductors
+or occlusors consist of two muscles, which, bifurcating near the
+centre of the shell cavity, produce a large quadruple impression
+on the internal surface of the small valve (fig. 13, <i>a</i>, <i>a&rsquo;</i>), and a single
+divided one towards the centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12,
+<i>a</i>). The function of this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves.
+Two other pairs have been termed <i>divaricators</i> by Hancock, or
+<i>cardinal muscles</i> (&ldquo;muscles diducteurs&rdquo; of Gratiolet), and have
+for function the opening of the valves. The divaricators proper are
+stated by Hancock to arise from the ventral valve, one on each
+side, a little in advance of and close to the adductors, and after
+rapidly diminishing in size become attached to the cardinal process,
+a space or prominence between the sockets in the dorsal valve.
+The <i>accessory divaricators</i> are, according to the same authority, a
+pair of small muscles which have their ends attached to the ventral
+valve, one on each side of the median line, a little behind the united
+basis of the adductors, and again to the extreme point of the cardinal
+process. Two pairs of muscles, apparently connected with the
+peduncle and its limited movements, have been minutely described
+by Hancock as having one of their extremities attached to this organ.
+The <i>dorsal adjusters</i> are fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle,
+and are again inserted into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve.
+The <i>ventral adjusters</i> are considered to pass from the inner extremity
+of the peduncle, and to become attached by one pair of their extremities
+to the ventral valve, one on each side and a little behind
+the expanded base of the divaricators. The function of these muscles,
+according to the same authority, is not only that of erecting the shell;
+they serve also to attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect
+the steadying of it upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting
+they can cause a slight rotation of the animal in its stalk.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:444px; height:291px" src="images/img363b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 24.&mdash;<i>Magellania</i> [<i>Waldheimia</i>] <i>flavescens</i>. Diagram showing
+the muscular system. (After Hancock.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>M, Ventral,</p>
+<p>N, Dorsal valve,</p>
+<p><i>l</i>, Loop.</p>
+<p>V, Mouth.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>Z, Extremity of intestine,</p>
+<p><i>c</i>, Divaricators.</p>
+<p><i>c&prime;</i>, Accessory divaricators.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Adductor.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 33%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>b</i>, Ventral adjusters.</p>
+<p><i>b&prime;</i>, Peduncular muscles.</p>
+<p><i>b&Prime;</i>, Dorsal adjusters.</p>
+<p>P, Peduncle.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division
+composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for
+certain unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing
+the different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong
+and tight interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth
+and sockets, many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves
+but slightly. In some species, such as <i>Thecidea</i>, the animal could
+raise its dorsal valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one
+(fig. 4).</p>
+
+<table class="pic" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:509px; height:378px" src="images/img363c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Figs.</span> 25, 26. <i>Lingula anatina.</i></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>25, Interior of ventral valve.</p>
+<p>26, Interior of dorsal valve.</p>
+<p><i>g</i>, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves).</p>
+<p><i>h</i>, Central muscles (close valves).</p>
+<p><i>i</i>, Transmedial or sliding muscles.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>b</i>, Parietal band.</p>
+<p><i>j, k, l</i>, Lateral muscles (<i>j</i>, anteriors; <i>k</i>, middles; <i>l</i>,
+outsiders), enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other.</p>
+<p><br />(After King.)</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:255px; height:579px" src="images/img364a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 27.&mdash;<i>Lingula anatina</i>.
+Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The
+letters indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>A, Dorsal,</p>
+<p>B, Ventral valve.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Peduncle.</p>
+<p><i>e</i>, Heart.</p>
+<p><i>a</i>, Alimentary tube.</p>
+<p><i>z</i>, Anal aperture.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">In the Ecardines, of which <i>Lingula</i> and <i>Discina</i> may be quoted
+as examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page364" id="page364"></a>364</span>
+or valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one,
+and individualizes their respective functions as follows:&mdash;Three pairs
+are <i>lateral</i>, having their members limited to the sides of the shell;
+one pair are <i>transmedians</i>, each member passing across the middle
+of the reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the
+umbonal cavity. The <i>central</i> and <i>umbonal</i> muscles effect the direct
+opening and closing of the shell, the <i>laterals</i> enable the valves to
+move forward and backward on each other, and the <i>transmedians</i>
+allow the similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from
+each other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated,
+that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long
+a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves
+sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually
+observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the
+animal perform the operation. They mention that it is never done
+suddenly or by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one
+side several times and back again on each other, at the same time
+opening gradually in the transverse direction till they rest opposite
+to one another and widely apart. Those who have not seen the
+animal in life, or who did not believe in the possibility of the valves
+crossing each other with a slight obliquity, would not consent to
+appropriating any of its muscles
+to that purpose, and consequently
+attributed to all the lateral muscles
+the simple function of keeping
+the valves in an opposite position,
+or holding them adjusted.
+We have not only the observations
+of Semper and Morse, but
+the anatomical investigations of
+King, to confirm the sliding
+action or lateral divarication of
+the valves of <i>Lingula</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Testicardines, where no
+such sliding action of the valves
+was necessary or possible, no
+muscles for such an object were
+required, consequently none took
+rise from the lateral portions of
+the valves as in <i>Lingula</i>; but
+in an extinct group, the <i>Trimerellidae</i>,
+which seems to be somewhat
+intermediate in character
+between the Ecardines and Testicardines,
+have been found certain
+scars, which appear to
+have been produced by rudimentary
+lateral muscles, but it is
+doubtful (considering the shells
+are furnished with teeth, though
+but rudely developed) whether
+such muscles enabled the valves,
+as in <i>Lingula</i>, to move forward
+and backward upon each other.
+<i>Crania</i> in life opens its valves
+by moving upon the straight
+hinge, without sliding the valve.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>nervous system</i> of Brachiopods
+has, as a rule, maintained
+its primitive connexion with the
+external epithelium. In a few
+places it has sunk into the connective-tissue
+supporting layer
+beneath the ectoderm, but the
+chief centres still remain in the
+ectoderm, and the fibrils forming
+the nerves are for the most
+part at the base of the ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus
+is a thin commissure which passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve.
+This latter includes in its course numerous ganglion cells,
+and forms, according to F. Blochmann, the immensely long drawn out
+supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief arm-nerve traverses the lophophore,
+being situated between the great arm-sinus and the base of the
+lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a branch to each tentacle, and these
+all anastomose at the base of the tentacles with the second nerve
+of the arm, the so-called secondary arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve,
+this strand runs through the lophophore, parallel indeed
+with the former except near the middle line, where it passes ventrally
+to the oesophagus. The lophophore is supplied by yet a third nerve,
+the under arm-nerve, which is less clearly defined than the others,
+and resembles a moderate aggregation of the nerve fibrils, which seem
+everywhere to underlie the ectoderm, and which in a few cases are
+gathered up into nerves. The under arm-nerve, which lies between
+the small arm-sinus and the surface, supplies nerves to the muscles of
+both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28). Medianly, it has its origin in the
+sub-oesophageal ganglion, which, like the supra-oesophageal, is
+drawn out laterally, though not to the same extent. In the middle
+line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is small; the ganglion is in
+fact drawn out into two halves placed on either side of the body.
+From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia numerous nerves arise.
+Passing from the middle line outwards they are&mdash;(i.) the median
+pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle; (ii.) numerous
+small nerves&mdash;the circum-oesophageal commissures&mdash;which pass
+round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal
+ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its
+muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal
+mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves
+to the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the
+various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round
+the edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of
+the nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another
+concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:299px; height:364px" src="images/img364b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 28.&mdash;Diagram of nervous
+system of <i>Crania</i>; from the dorsal
+side.  The nerves running to the
+dorsal parts are white, with black
+edges; those running to the ventral
+parts are solid black. Magnified. (After
+Blochmann.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><p>&ensp;1. Oesophagus.</p>
+<p>&ensp;2. Supra-oesophageal commisure.</p>
+<p>&ensp;3. Circum-oesophageal commisure.</p>
+<p>&ensp;4. Under arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>&ensp;5. Great arm-sinus.</p>
+<p>&ensp;6. Small arm-sinus.</p>
+<p>&ensp;7. Tentacle.</p>
+<p>&ensp;8. Lip of lophophore.</p>
+<p>&ensp;9. Infra-oesophageal commisure.</p>
+<p>10. Chief arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>11. Secondary arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>12. Nerves to tentacles.</p>
+<p>13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.</p>
+<p>14. Dorsal lateral nerve.</p>
+<p>15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve.</p>
+<p>16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle.</p>
+<p>17. Anterior occlusor muscle.</p>
+<p>18. Posterior occlusor muscle.</p>
+<p>19. Obliquus superior muscle.</p>
+<p>20. Levator brachii muscle.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The above account applies more particularly to <i>Crania</i>, but in the
+main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been investigated.
+In <i>Discinisca</i> and <i>Lingula</i>, however, the sub-oesophageal
+ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives off two
+posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in <i>Lingula</i> unite and
+form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the adult.
+The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very specialized
+sense organs are found in the adult.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>histology</i> of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many
+primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has
+especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus
+of nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places
+gathered up into nerves, and the great development of connective
+tissue, are worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of
+hyaline supporting tissue,
+embedded in which are
+scattered cells and fibres.
+The lophophore and stalk
+are largely composed of this
+tissue. The ectodermal cells
+are large, ciliated, and
+amongst the ciliated cells
+glandular cells are scattered.
+The chitinous chaetae have
+their origin in special ectodermal
+pits, at the base of
+which is one large cell which
+is thought to secrete the
+chaeta, as in Chaetopods.
+These pits are not isolated,
+but are connected by an
+ectodermal ridge, which
+grows in at the margin of
+the mantle and forms a continuous
+band somewhat resembling
+the ectodermal
+primordium of vertebrate
+teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The ovary and testes are
+heaped-up masses of red or
+yellow cells due to a proliferation
+of the cells lining
+the coelom. There are four
+of such masses, two dorsal
+and two ventral, and as a
+rule they extend between
+the outer and inner layer of
+the mantle lining the shells.
+The ova and the spermatozoa
+dehisce into the body cavity
+and pass to the exterior
+through the nephridia. Fertilization
+takes place outside
+the body, and in
+some species the early stages
+of development take place
+in a brood-pouch which is
+essentially a more or less
+deep depression of the body-wall
+median in <i>Thecidea</i>,
+while in <i>Cistella</i> (? <i>Argiope</i>)
+there is one such pouch on
+each side, just below the
+base of the arms, and into
+these the nephridia open.
+The developing ova are
+attached by little stalks to
+the walls of these pouches.
+In spite of some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods
+which have been carefully investigated have been found to be male
+or female. Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:605px; height:267px" src="images/img365a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 29.&mdash;Three larvae stages of <i>Megathyris</i> (<i>Argiope</i>). A, Larva which has
+just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a somewhat later stage;
+C, the fully formed embryo just before fixing&mdash;the neo-embryo of Beecher.
+Highly magnified.<br /><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>1. Anterior segment.</p>
+<p>2. Second or mantle-forming segment.</p>
+<p>3. Third or stalk-forming segment.</p>
+<p>4. Eye-spots.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p>5. Setae.</p>
+<p>6. Nerve mass (?).</p>
+<p>7. Alimentary canal.</p>
+<p>8. Muscles.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:305px; height:218px" src="images/img365b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 30.&mdash;Stages in the fixing and
+metamorphosis of <i>Terebratulina</i>. Highly
+magnified. (From Morse.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to
+rest.</p>
+<p>B, C, D, Stages showing the turning
+forward of the second or mantle segment.</p>
+<p>E, Completion of this.</p>
+<p>F, Young Brachiopod.</p>
+<p>1, 2, 3, The first, second and third
+segments.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Embryology.</i>&mdash;With the exception of Yatsu&rsquo;s article on the development
+of <i>Lingula</i> (<i>J. Coll. Sci., Japan</i>, xvii., 1901-1903) and E.G.
+Conklin&rsquo;s on &ldquo;Terebratulina septentrionalis&rdquo; (<i>P. Amer. Phil. Soc.</i>
+xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge of
+the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky&rsquo;s
+researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on <i>Megathyris</i>
+(<i>Argiope</i>) and Yatsu&rsquo;s just mentioned are the most complete as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page365" id="page365"></a>365</span>
+regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula
+is formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two
+coelomic sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial
+segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three
+segments. The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to
+muscles which enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one
+another (fig. 29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch,
+which is a lateral or median cavity in the body of the female,
+and lead a free swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment
+broadens and becomes umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of
+cilia round the rim and smaller cilia on the general surface. By the
+aid of these cilia the larva swims actively, but owing to its minute
+size it covers very little distance, and this probably accounts for the
+fact that where brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many
+in one spot. The head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually
+testing the ground (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards
+like a skirt surrounding the third segment, which is destined
+to form the stalk. It bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced
+chaetae. After a certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to
+some stone or rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward
+over the head and forms the mantle. What goes on within the
+mantle is unknown, but presumably the head is absorbed. The
+chaetae drop off, and the lophophore is believed to arise from
+thickenings which appear in the dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton
+Expedition brought back, and H. Simroth (<i>Ergeb. Plankton Expedition</i>,
+ii., 1897) has described, a few larval brachiopods of undetermined
+genera, two of which at least were pelagic, or at any rate taken
+far from the coast. These
+larvae, which resemble
+those described by Fritz
+Müller (<i>Arch. Naturg.</i>,
+1861-1862), have their
+mantle turned over their
+head and the larval shell
+well developed. No stalk
+has been seen by Simroth
+or Fritz Müller, but in
+other respects the larva
+resembles the stages in the
+development of <i>Megathyris</i>
+and <i>Terebratulina</i> which
+immediately precede fixation.
+The cirri or tentacles,
+of which three or four
+pairs are present, are capable
+of being protruded,
+and the minute larva
+swims by means of the
+ciliary action they produce.
+It can retract the tentacles,
+shut its shell, and sink to
+the bottom.</p>
+
+<p>C.E.E. Beecher (<i>Amer.
+Jour. Sci.</i> ser. 3, xli. and
+xliv.) has classified with
+appropriate names the various stages through which Brachiopod
+larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the
+second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the
+Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops
+a larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed
+the larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have
+disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the
+lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal
+mantle lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost
+all the families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout
+the group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian
+genus <i>Iphidea</i> [<i>Paterina</i>], and the Phylembryo is
+frequently referred to as the <i>Paterina</i> stage. In some
+orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an <i>Obolella</i>
+stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not
+universal. The larva now assumes specific characters
+and is practically adult.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:315px; height:293px" src="images/img365c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 31.&mdash;Shell of larval Brachiopod.
+Phylembryo stage. (From Simroth.)<br />
+1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Classification</i>.&mdash;Beecher&rsquo;s division of the Brachiopoda
+into four orders is based largely on the character of
+the aperture through which the stalk or pedicle leaves
+the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it is necessary
+to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are
+not used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular
+pedicle-opening seen in <i>Orthis</i>, &amp;c., has been
+named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke the delthyrium.
+In some less primitive genera, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Terebratula</i>, that
+type of opening is found in the young stages only; later
+it becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out
+from the sides of the delthyrium. These plates are
+secreted by the ventral lobe of the mantle, and were
+named by von Buch in 1834 the &ldquo;deltidium.&rdquo; The
+form of the deltidium varies in different genera. The
+two plates may meet in the middle line, and leave only
+a small oval opening near the centre for the pedicle,
+as in <i>Rhynchonella</i>; or they may meet only near the
+base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of
+the circular pedicle-opening, as in <i>Terebratula</i>; or the
+right plate may remain quite distinct from the left
+plate, as in <i>Terebratella</i>. The pro-deltidium, a term introduced
+by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small embryonic plate originating
+on the dorsal side of the body. It subsequently becomes attached
+to the ventral valve, and
+develops into the pseudo-deltidium,
+in the Neotremata
+and the Protremata.
+The pseudo-deltidium (so
+named by Bronn in 1862)
+is a single plate which
+grows from the apex of
+the delthyrium downwards,
+and may completely
+close the
+aperture. The pseudo-deltidium
+is sometimes
+reabsorbed in the adult.
+In the Telotremata
+neither pro-deltidium nor
+pseudo-deltidium is
+known. In the Atremata
+the pro-deltidium does
+not become fixed to the
+ventral valve, and does
+not develop into a pseudo-deltidium.
+The American
+use of the term deltidium for the structure which Europeans call
+the pseudo-deltidium makes for confusion. The development
+of the brachial supports has been studied by Friele, Fischer and
+Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by Beecher (<i>Trans.
+Connect. Acad.</i> ix., 1893; reprinted in <i>Studies in Evolution</i>, 1901).</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:216px; height:190px" src="images/img365d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 32.&mdash;Diagram of the
+pedicle-opening of <i>Rhynchonella</i>.
+Magnified.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>1. Umbo of ventral valve.</p>
+<p>2. Deltidium.</p>
+<p>3. Margin of delthyrium.</p>
+<p>4. Pedicle-opening.</p>
+<p>5. Dorsal valve.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped
+together, as the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines&mdash;the Tretenterata
+of Davidson&mdash;and the orders Protremata and Telotremata,
+as the Articulata or Testicardines&mdash;
+the Clistenterata of Davidson. The
+following scheme of classification is
+based on Beecher&rsquo;s and Schubert&rsquo;s.
+Recent families are printed in italic
+type.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">Class I. <span class="sc">Ecardines (Inarticulata)</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">ORDER I. Atremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Inarticulate
+Brachiopoda, with the
+pedicle passing out between the umbones,
+the opening being shared by
+both valves. Pro-deltidium attached
+to dorsal valves. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Paterinidae,
+Obolidae, Trimerellidae,
+Lingulellidae, <i>Lingulidae</i>,
+Ligulasmatidae.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">ORDER II. Neotremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;More
+or less circular, cone-shaped,
+inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle
+passes out at right angles to the plane
+of junction of the valves of the shell;
+the opening is confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form
+of a slit, or may be closed by the development of a special plate
+called the listrium, or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page366" id="page366"></a>366</span>
+to ventral valve. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Acrotretidae, Siphonotretidae,
+Trematidae, <i>Discinidae, Craniidae</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">Class II. <span class="sc">Testicardines (Articulata)</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">ORDER III. Protremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Articulate Brachiopoda,
+with pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open
+at the hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium,
+which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating
+on the dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral
+valve. FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Kutorginidae, Eichwaldiidae, Billingsellidae,
+Strophomenidae, <i>Thecidiidae</i>, Productidae, Richthofenidae,
+Orthidae, Clitambonitidae, Syntrophiidae, Porambonitidae, Pentameridae.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">ORDER IV. Telotremata</span> (Beecher).&mdash;Articulate Brachiopoda,
+with the pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve,
+and placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no
+pro-deltidium.  Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &amp;c.
+FAMILIES.&mdash;<span class="sc">Protorhynchidae, <i>Rhynchonellidae</i>, Centronellidae,
+<i>Terebratulidae</i>, Stringocephalidae, Megalanteridae,
+<i>Terebratellidae</i>, Atrypidae, Spiriferidae, Athyridae.</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Affinities</i>.&mdash;Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the
+Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been
+wanting.  Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the
+Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the
+Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata.  None of these
+alliances has borne close scrutiny.  The suggestion to place Brachiopods
+with the Polyzoa, <i>Phoronis, Rhabdopleura</i> and <i>Cephalodiscus</i>,
+in the Phylum Podaxonia made in <i>Ency. Brit.</i>  (vol.  xix, ninth edition,
+pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and until we have a fuller
+account of the embryology of some one form, preferably an
+Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very isolated one.
+It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to belong
+to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with three
+segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in several
+of the larger groups.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distribution.</i>&mdash;Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian,
+and reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which
+upwards of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous
+in the Devonian period; at present they are represented by some
+140 recent species.  The following have been found in the British
+area, as defined by A.M. Norman, <i>Terebratulina caput-serpentis</i> L.,
+<i>Terebratula</i> (<i>Gwynia</i>) <i>capsula</i> Jeff.,
+<i>Magellania</i> (<i>Macandrevia</i>) <i>cranium</i> Müll.,
+<i>M. septigera</i> Lovén,
+<i>Terebratella spitzbergenensis</i> Dav.,
+<i>Megathyris decollata</i> Chemn.,
+<i>Cistella cistellula</i> S. Wood,
+<i>Cryptopora gnomon</i> Jeff.,
+<i>Rhynchonella</i> (<i>Hemithyris</i>) <i>psittacea</i> Gmel.,
+<i>Crania anomala</i> Müll.,
+and <i>Discinisca atlantica</i> King. About one-half
+the 120 existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line.  Below
+150 fathoms they are rare, but a few such as <i>Terebratulina wyvillei</i> are
+found down to 2000 fathoms.  <i>Lingula</i> is essentially a very shallow
+water form.  As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ
+from those of the southern.  A large number of specimens of a
+species are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading
+is during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously
+can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried
+some little distance by currents.</p>
+
+<p>Undue stress is often laid on the fact that <i>Lingula</i> has come down to
+us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst <i>Crania</i>, and forms
+very closely resembling <i>Discina</i> and <i>Rhynchonella</i>, are
+found from the Ordovician strata onwards.  The former statement
+is, however, true of animals from other classes at least as highly
+organized as Brachiopods, <i>e.g.</i>  the Gasteropod <i>Capulus</i>, whilst most
+of the invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by
+forms which do not differ from their existing representatives in any
+important respect.</p>
+
+<p>A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be
+found in Davidson&rsquo;s Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods,
+<i>Pal. Soc.  Mon.</i>  vi., 1886.  The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda,
+by the same author, <i>Tr. Linn. Soc. London</i>, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv.,
+1886-1888, must on no account be omitted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. E. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACHISTOCHRONE<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachistos">&#946;&#961;&#940;&#967;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, shortest, and
+<span class="grk" title="chronos">&#967;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694
+to denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed
+point to another in the shortest time.  When the directive force
+is constant, the curve is a cycloid (<i>q.v.</i>); under other conditions,
+spirals and other curves are described (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mechanics</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACHYCEPHALIC<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (Gr.  for short-headed), a term invented
+by Andreas Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width
+from side to side was little less than the length from front to
+back, their ratio being as 80 to 100, as in those of the Mongolian
+type.  Thus taking the length as 100, if the width exceeds 80,
+the skull is to be classed as brachycephalic.  The prevailing form
+of the head of civilized races is brachycephalic.  It is supposed
+that a brachycephalic race inhabited Europe before the Celts.
+Among those peoples whose heads show marked brachycephaly
+are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians, Bavarians,
+Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Craniometry</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKYLOGUS<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="brachys">&#946;&#961;&#945;&#967;&#973;&#962;</span>, short, and <span class="grk" title="logos">&#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>, word),
+title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work containing
+a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some
+writers have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian,
+and others have treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th
+century. The earliest extant edition of this work was published
+at Lyons in 1549, under the title of <i>Corpus Legum per modum
+Institutionum</i>; and the title <i>Brachylogus totius Juris Civilis</i>
+appears for the first time in an edition published at Lyons in
+1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great
+probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence
+that it was composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le
+Débonnaire (778-840), as it contains a Lombard law of that
+king&rsquo;s, which forbids the testimony of a clerk to be received
+against a layman. On the other hand its style and reasoning
+is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and 11th
+centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author
+has not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of
+the Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion
+that he wrote before that school became dominant at Bologna.
+Savigny, who traced the history of the <i>Brachylogus</i> with great
+care, is disposed to think that it is the work of Irnerius himself
+(<i>Geschichte des röm. Rechts im Mittelalter</i>). Its value is chiefly
+historical, as it furnishes evidence that a knowledge of Justinian&rsquo;s
+legislation was always maintained in northern Italy. The author
+of the work has adopted the <i>Institutes</i> of Justinian as the basis
+of it, and draws largely on the <i>Digest</i>, the <i>Code</i> and the
+<i>Novels</i>; while certain passages, evidently taken from the
+<i>Sententiae Receptae</i> of Julius Paulus, imply that the author
+was also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled
+by order of Alaric II.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under
+the title of <i>Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis</i>. See also
+H. Fitting, <i>Über die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten
+Brachylogus</i> (Berlin, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKET,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> in architecture and carpentering, a projecting
+feature either in wood or metal for holding things together or
+supporting a shelf. The same feature in stone is called a &ldquo;console&rdquo;
+(<i>q.v.</i>). In furniture it is a small ornamental shelf for a
+wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks, china or other bric-à-brac.
+The word has been referred to &ldquo;brace,&rdquo; clamp, Lat. <i>bracchium</i>,
+arm, but the earliest form &ldquo;bragget&rdquo; (1580) points to the true
+derivation from the Fr. <i>braguette</i>, or Span. <i>bragueta</i>
+(Lat. <i>bracae</i>, breeches), used both of the front part of a pair
+of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development is
+not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed
+connexion with &ldquo;brace.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKET-FUNGI.<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> The term &ldquo;bracket&rdquo; has been given
+to those hard, woody fungi that grow on trees or timber in
+the form of semicircular brackets. They belong to the order
+<i>Polyporeae</i>, distinguished by the layer of tubes or pores on
+the under surface within which the spores are borne. The
+mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues
+of the tree, and often destroys it; the &ldquo;bracket&rdquo; represents
+the fruiting stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain
+entrance to other trees by some wound or cut surface; hence
+the need of careful forestry. Many of these woody fungi persist
+for several years, and a new layer of pores is superposed on
+the previous season&rsquo;s growth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKLESHAM BEDS,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> in geology, a series of clays and
+marls, with sandy and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of
+the Hampshire Basin, England. They are well developed in
+the Isle of Wight and on the mainland opposite; and receive
+their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in Sussex.
+The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil mollusca
+are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the
+<i>Palaeophis</i>, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera
+also occur. The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay
+above and the Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below.
+In the London Basin these beds are represented only by thin
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page367" id="page367"></a>367</span>
+sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group. In the Paris Basin
+the &ldquo;Calcaire grossier&rdquo; lies upon the same geological horizon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Dixon, <i>Geology of Sussex</i> (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards
+and S.V. Wood, &ldquo;Monograph of Eocene Mollusca,&rdquo; <i>Palaeontographical Soc.</i>
+vol. i. (1847-1877); &ldquo;Geology of the Isle of Wight,&rdquo; <i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i>
+(2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, &ldquo;The Geology of the Country around Southampton,&rdquo;
+<i>Mem. Geol. Survey</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON,<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (<i>c.</i> 1540-1617),
+English lord chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton
+of Ridley, Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded,
+but, according to Wood,<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> when he became a commoner at Brasenose
+College, Oxford, in 1556, he was about seventeen. He entered
+Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1559, and was called to the bar in 1572, being
+chosen a governor of the society in 1580, Lent reader in 1582,
+and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained legal renown and a large
+practice, and tradition relates that his skilful conduct of a case
+against the crown gained the notice of Elizabeth, who is reported
+to have declared: &ldquo;In my troth he shall never plead against me
+again.&rdquo; Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was made
+solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments
+of 1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended
+in the House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons
+desired that he should return to their house, the Lords refusing
+on the ground that he was called by the queen&rsquo;s writ to attend in
+the Lords before his election by the House of Commons.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He took
+part in the trial of Mary, queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that
+in her indictment she should only be styled &ldquo;commonly called
+queen of Scots,&rdquo; to avoid scruples about judging a sovereign.
+He conducted several other state prosecutions. On the 2nd of
+June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted
+and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April
+1594 he became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596
+lord keeper of the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining,
+however, a commoner as Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in
+the Lords as such during the whole reign of Elizabeth. He kept
+in addition the mastership of the rolls, the whole work of the
+chancery during this period falling on his shoulders and sometimes
+causing inconvenience to suitors<a name="fa3n" id="fa3n" href="#ft3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a>. His promotion was welcomed
+from all quarters. &ldquo;I think no man,&rdquo; wrote a contemporary to
+Essex, &ldquo;ever came to this dignity with more applause than this
+worthy gentleman.&rdquo;<a name="fa4n" id="fa4n" href="#ft4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Egerton became one of the queen&rsquo;s most trusted advisers and
+one of the greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was
+a leading member of the numerous special commissions, including
+the ecclesiastical commission, and was the queen&rsquo;s interpreter
+in her communications to parliament. In 1598 he was employed
+as a commissioner for negotiating with the Dutch, obtaining
+great credit by the treaty then effected, and in 1600 in the same
+capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of his unlawful
+marriage with his second wife, in a private house without banns,
+the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and
+was obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.<a name="fa5n" id="fa5n" href="#ft5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+He was a firm friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate
+Essex. He sought to moderate his violence and rashness, and
+after the scene in the council in July 1598, when the queen struck
+Essex and bade him go and be hanged, he endeavoured to reconcile
+him to the queen in an admirable letter which has often been
+printed.<a name="fa6n" id="fa6n" href="#ft6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the arrival of Essex in London without leave from
+Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported the queen&rsquo;s
+just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity to
+the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House
+from the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the
+lord keeper used his influence to recover for him the queen&rsquo;s
+favour and gave him kindly warnings concerning the necessity
+for caution in his conduct. On the 5th of June 1600 he presided
+over the court held at his house, which deprived Essex of his
+offices except that of master of the horse, treating him with
+leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only that of
+disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he
+attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to
+bring Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601,
+the day fixed for the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers
+of state visited Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of
+the tumultuous assemblage. His efforts to persuade Essex to
+speak with him privately and explain his &ldquo;griefs,&rdquo; and to refrain
+from violence, and his appeal to the company to depart peacefully
+on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and he was imprisoned by
+Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill him and to throw
+the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he abandoned
+all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his trial.
+On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber,
+exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of
+Thomas Lea to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.<a name="fa7n" id="fa7n" href="#ft7n"><span class="sp">7</span></a> In
+July 1602, a few months before her death, Elizabeth visited the
+lord keeper at his house at Harefield in Middlesex, and he was
+one of those present during her last hours who received her
+faltering intimation as to her successor.</p>
+
+<p>On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed
+lord keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in
+May 1603, and the chamberlainship of Chester in August. On
+the 21st of July he was created Baron Ellesmere, and on the
+24th lord chancellor. His support of the king&rsquo;s prerogative was
+too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of the harsh
+penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the
+legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the
+prisoner &ldquo;might be his last work to conclude his services.&rdquo;<a name="fa8n" id="fa8n" href="#ft8n"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+In May 1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet
+for questioning the authority of the earl marshal&rsquo;s court. In
+1604 he came into collision with the House of Commons. Sir
+Francis Goodwin, an outlaw, having been elected for Buckinghamshire
+contrary to the king&rsquo;s proclamation, the chancellor
+cancelled the return when made according to custom into
+chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons,
+however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin
+to his seat, and though the matter was in the present instance
+compromised by the choice of a third party, they secured for
+the future the right of judging in their own elections. He was
+at one with James in desiring to effect the union between
+England and Scotland, and served on the commission in 1604;
+and the English merchants who opposed the union and community
+of trade with the Scots were &ldquo;roundly shaken by him.&rdquo;
+In 1608, in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the
+assistance of the fourteen judges, that those born after the
+accession of James I. to the throne of England were English
+subjects and capable of holding lands in England; and he
+compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle Thomas,
+whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not,
+however, always show obedience to the king&rsquo;s wishes. He opposed
+the latter&rsquo;s Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of
+James&rsquo;s most peremptory commands and threats, refused to put
+the great seal to the pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated
+as high steward in the trial of the latter and his countess
+for the murder of Overbury. He was a rigid churchman, hostile
+to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics. He fully approved
+of the king&rsquo;s unfriendly attitude towards the former,
+adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared,
+in admiration of James&rsquo;s theological reasoning on this occasion,
+that he had never understood before the meaning of the legal
+maxim, <i>Rex est mixta persona cum sacerdote</i>. In 1605 he opposed
+the petition for the restitution of deprived Puritan ministers,
+and obtained an opinion from the judges that the petition was
+illegal. He supported the party of Abbot against Laud at
+Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness of the latter
+to be president of St John&rsquo;s College. In 1605 he directed the
+judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.</p>
+
+<p>His vigorous and active public career closed with a great
+victory gained over the common law and his formidable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page368" id="page368"></a>368</span>
+antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The chancellor&rsquo;s court of equity
+had originated in the necessity for a tribunal to decide cases not
+served by the common law, and to relax and correct the rigidity
+and insufficiency of the latter&rsquo;s procedure. The two jurisdictions
+had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar complaining
+of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor, and
+the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of
+justice in the courts of common law. The disputes between the
+courts, concerning which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated
+with the chancellor and Sir Edward Coke,<a name="fa9n" id="fa9n" href="#ft9n"><span class="sp">9</span></a> the lord chief justice,
+came to a crisis in 1616, when the court of chancery granted relief
+against judgments at common law in the cases of <i>Heath v. Rydley</i>
+and <i>Courtney v. Granvil</i>. This relief was declared
+by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be illegal, and a
+counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against the
+parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury,
+however, refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite
+of Coke&rsquo;s threats and assurances that the chancellor was dead,
+and the dispute was referred to the king himself, who after
+consulting his counsel and on Bacon&rsquo;s advice decided in favour
+of equity. The chancellor&rsquo;s triumph was a great one, and from
+this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court of chancery was
+unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his
+dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the <i>commendams</i>,
+agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge&rsquo;s duty to communicate
+with the king, before giving judgments in which his interests
+were concerned, and in November warned the new lord chief
+justice against imitating the errors of his predecessor and
+especially his love of &ldquo;popularity.&rdquo;<a name="fa10n" id="fa10n" href="#ft10n"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Writing in 1609 to
+Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had long
+been a thorn in his flesh) as a &ldquo;frantic, turbulent and idle
+broken brayned fellow,&rdquo; apologizing for so often troubling
+Salisbury on this subject, &ldquo;no fit exercise for a chancellor and a
+treasurer.&rdquo;<a name="fa11n" id="fa11n" href="#ft11n"><span class="sp">11</span></a> He now summoned Coke before him and communicated
+to him the king&rsquo;s dissatisfaction with his <i>Reports</i>,
+desiring, however, to be spared further service in his disgracing.
+After several petitions for leave to retire through failing health,
+he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617, delivered up to James the
+great seal, which he had held continuously for the unprecedented
+term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of November 1616
+he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took
+place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his
+decease James sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper,
+with the gift of an earldom, and the presidentship of the council
+with a pension of £3000 a year, which the dying man declined
+as earthly vanities with which he had no more concern. He was
+buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.</p>
+
+<p>As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the
+long line of illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive
+or improper use of his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous
+case which precipitated the contest between the courts was a
+clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly fit for the chancellor&rsquo;s
+intervention. He refused to answer any communications from
+suitors in his court,<a name="fa12n" id="fa12n" href="#ft12n"><span class="sp">12</span></a> and it was doubtless to Ellesmere (as
+weeding out the &ldquo;enormous sin&rdquo; of judicial corruption)<a name="fa13n" id="fa13n" href="#ft13n"><span class="sp">13</span></a> that
+John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire.
+He gained Camden&rsquo;s admiration, who records an anagram on his
+name, &ldquo;Gestat Honorem.&rdquo; Bacon, whose merit he had early
+recognized, and whose claims to the office of solicitor-general
+he had unavailingly supported both in 1594 and 1606, calls him
+&ldquo;a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the state,&rdquo; and speaks
+with gratitude of his &ldquo;fatherly kindness.&rdquo; Ben Jonson, among
+the poets, extolled in an epigram his &ldquo;wing&rsquo;d judgements,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;purest hands,&rdquo; and constancy. Though endowed with considerable
+oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition
+and affected to despise eloquence as &ldquo;not decorum for judges,
+that ought to respect the Matter and not the Humours of the
+Hearers.&rdquo;<a name="fa14n" id="fa14n" href="#ft14n"><span class="sp">14</span></a> Like others of his day he hoped to see a codification
+of the laws,<a name="fa15n" id="fa15n" href="#ft15n"><span class="sp">15</span></a> and appears to have had greater faith in judge-made
+law than in statutes of the realm, advising the parliament
+(October 27, 1601) &ldquo;that laws in force might be revised and
+explained and no new laws made,&rdquo; and describing the Statute
+of Wills passed in Henry VIII.&rsquo;s reign as the &ldquo;ruin of ancient
+families&rdquo; and &ldquo;the nurse of forgeries.&rdquo; In the thirty-eighth
+year of Elizabeth he drew up rules for procedure in the Star
+Chamber,<a name="fa16n" id="fa16n" href="#ft16n"><span class="sp">16</span></a> restricting the fees, and in the eighth of James I.
+ordinances for remedying abuses in the court of chancery. In
+1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post Nati,
+which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship.
+The following have been ascribed to him:&mdash;<i>The Privileges and
+Prerogatives of the High Court of Chancery</i> (1641);
+<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of the Lord Chancellor</i>
+(1651)&mdash;denied by Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in
+<i>A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the Rolls</i>
+(1728) to be Lord Ellesmere&rsquo;s work;
+<i>Observations on Lord Coke&rsquo;s Reports</i>, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710),
+the only evidence of his authorship being apparently that the MS.
+was in his handwriting; four MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. <i>The
+Prerogative Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery</i>
+and <i>The Power of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on
+Magna Charta, &amp;c.</i>, Sept. 1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and
+<i>An Abridgment of Lord Coke&rsquo;s Reports</i>
+(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of
+<i>Certain Observations concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor</i>,
+Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also <i>Life of Egerton</i>, p. 80, note T,
+catalogue of Harleian collection,
+and Walpole&rsquo;s <i>Royal and Noble Authors</i>, 1806, ii. 170).</p>
+
+<p>He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter
+of Thomas Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons
+and a daughter. The elder son, Thomas, predeceased him,
+leaving three daughters. The younger, John, succeeded his
+father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was created earl of Bridgewater,
+and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley (daughter of his
+father&rsquo;s third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby), was the
+ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (<i>q.v.</i>), whose male
+line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and
+Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere
+(<i>q.v.</i>), descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and
+co-heir of the 1st duke of Bridgewater.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written,
+for which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very
+scantily calendared in <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24, and
+app. pt. vii. p. 126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of
+personal and family matters intended for a separate projected <i>Life</i>
+which was never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the
+Camden Society in 1840.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Athenae Oxon.</i> (Bliss), ii. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> D&rsquo;Ewes&rsquo;s <i>Parliaments of Elizabeth</i>, 441, 442.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3n" id="ft3n" href="#fa3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1601-1603, p. 191.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4n" id="ft4n" href="#fa4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Birch&rsquo;s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, i. 479.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5n" id="ft5n" href="#fa5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. p. 24.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6n" id="ft6n" href="#fa6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> T. Birch&rsquo;s <i>Mem. of Queen Elizabeth</i>, ii. 384.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7n" id="ft7n" href="#fa7n"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Cal. of St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8n" id="ft8n" href="#fa8n"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>State Trials</i>, ii. 909.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9n" id="ft9n" href="#fa9n"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 381.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10n" id="ft10n" href="#fa10n"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Cal. St. Pap., Dom.</i>, 1611-1618, p. 407.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11n" id="ft11n" href="#fa11n"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Lansdowne MS.</i> 91, f. 41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12n" id="ft12n" href="#fa12n"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> app. pt. vii. p. 156.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13n" id="ft13n" href="#fa13n"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Life of Donne</i>, by E. Gosse, i. 43.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14n" id="ft14n" href="#fa14n"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Judgment on the Post Nati.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15n" id="ft15n" href="#fa15n"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16n" id="ft16n" href="#fa16n"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Harleian MS.</i> 2310, f. i.;
+Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, ix. 56.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACKLEY,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough in the
+southern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England,
+59 m. N.W. by W. from London by the Great Central railway;
+served also by a branch of the London &amp; North-Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St Peter, the body of which
+is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful Early English
+tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by William
+of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his
+great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th
+century, called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman
+and Early English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on.
+The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
+Area, 3489 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl
+Alberie, from whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence
+to the families of De Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments
+were held in 1249 and 1267, and others were prohibited in 1222
+and 1244. The market, formerly held on Sunday, was changed
+in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of <i>Quo Warranto</i>
+Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a fair
+on St Andrew&rsquo;s day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary
+granted two fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page369" id="page369"></a>369</span>
+James II. incorporated the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen,
+and 26 burgesses, granted three new fairs and confirmed the
+old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four fairs to the earl
+of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new charter of
+incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors
+under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (<i>Brit.</i>
+p. 430) says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for
+wool. It first sent members to parliament in 1547, and continued
+to send two representatives till disfranchised by the Reform
+Act of 1832. The town formerly had a considerable woollen
+and lace-making trade.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACQUEMOND, FÉLIX<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> (1833-&emsp;&emsp;), French painter and etcher,
+was born in Paris. He was trained in early youth as a
+trade lithographer, until Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him
+to his studio. His portrait of his grandmother, painted by him
+at the age of nineteen, attracted Théophile Gautier&rsquo;s attention
+at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and etching about
+1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the revival of
+the etcher&rsquo;s art in France. Altogether he has produced over eight
+hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of
+contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations
+of other artists&rsquo; paintings, especially those of Meissonier,
+Gustave Moreau and Corot. After having been attached
+to the Sèvres porcelain factory in 1870, he accepted a post as art
+manager of the Paris <i>atelier</i> of the firm of Haviland of Limoges.
+He was connected by a link of firm friendship with Manet, Whistler,
+and all the other fighters in the impressionist cause, and received
+all the honours that await the successful artist in France,
+including the grade of officer of the Legion of Honour in 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRACTON, HENRY DE<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (d. 1268), English judge and writer
+on English law. His real name was Bratton, and in all
+probability he derived it either from Bratton Fleming or from
+Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in Devonshire. It is
+only after his death that his name appears as &ldquo;Bracton.&rdquo; He
+seems to have entered the king&rsquo;s service as a clerk under the
+patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal
+justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to
+appear as a justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268
+he was steadily employed as a justice of assize in the
+south-western counties, especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall.
+During the earlier part of this period he was also sitting as a
+judge in the king&rsquo;s central court, and was there hearing those
+pleas which &ldquo;followed the king&rdquo;; in other words, he was a
+member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon
+to be distinguished as the king&rsquo;s bench. From this position
+he retired or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly
+before the meeting of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258.
+Whether his disappearance is to be connected with the political
+events of this turbulent time is uncertain. He continued to take
+the assizes in the south-west, and in 1267 he was a member of
+a commission of prelates, barons and judges appointed to hear
+the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon de Montfort.
+In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261 rector
+of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having
+resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral;
+he also held a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham.
+Already in 1245 he enjoyed a dispensation enabling him to
+hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He died in 1268 and was
+buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a chantry for his
+soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of Thorverton.</p>
+
+<p>His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of
+England which is sufficiently described elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English
+Law</a></span>). The main part of it seems to have been compiled between
+1250 and 1256; but apparently it is an unfinished work. This
+may be due to the fact that when he ceased to be a member
+of the king&rsquo;s central court Bracton was ordered to surrender
+certain judicial records which he had been using as raw material.
+Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best
+work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This
+text was reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English
+translation was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are
+numerous, and a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton&rsquo;s
+<i>Note-Book</i> (ed. Maitland, 1887); <i>Bracton and Azo</i> (Selden Society,
+1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADAWL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (from &ldquo;brad,&rdquo; a flat nail, and &ldquo;awl,&rdquo; a piercing
+tool), a small tool used for boring holes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tool</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK, EDWARD<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (1695?-1755), British general, was
+born in Perthshire, Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of
+Major-General Edward Braddock (d. 1725), and joined the
+Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a lieutenant-colonel
+he served under the prince of Orange in Holland during the siege
+of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy of the
+14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed
+shortly afterwards to command against the French in
+America, he landed in Virginia in February 1755. After some
+months of preparation, in which he was hampered by administrative
+confusion and want of resources, he took the field with
+a picked column, in which George Washington served as a
+volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg,
+Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of
+July and almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade
+of French and Indians. The troops were completely surprised
+and routed, and Braddock, rallying his men time after time,
+fell at last mortally wounded. He was carried off the field
+with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was buried at Great
+Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its retreat
+to reorganize. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seven Years&rsquo; War</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADDOCK,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg.
+Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900) 15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 19,357. Braddock is served by the Pennsylvania,
+the Baltimore &amp; Ohio, and the Pittsburg &amp; Lake
+Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of steel&mdash;especially
+steel rails; among its other manufactures are pig-iron,
+wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and
+electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the
+borough&rsquo;s factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a
+Carnegie library. Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular
+resort. The municipality owns and operates the water-works.
+Braddock was named in honour of the English general Edward
+Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site of
+the present borough at the hands of a force of French and
+Indians. The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th
+century, and was incorporated in 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (1837-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+novelist, daughter of Henry Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon
+Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward Braddon, prime
+minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She began at
+an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced
+her first novel, <i>The Trail of the Serpent</i>. In the same year
+appeared <i>Garibaldi</i>, accompanied by <i>Olivia</i>, and other poems,
+chiefly narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving
+more notice than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a
+novelist was made by a favourable review in <i>The Times of Lady
+Audley&rsquo;s Secret</i>. <i>Aurora Floyd</i>, a novel with a strong affinity
+to <i>Madame Bovary</i>, followed, and achieved equal success. Its
+immediate successors, <i>Eleanor&rsquo;s Victory, John Marchmont&rsquo;s
+Legacy, Henry Dunbar</i>, remain with her former works the best-known
+of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a
+large and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body
+of readers of fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic
+in plot and character, conventional in their views of life, they are
+yet distinguished by constructive skill and opulence of invention.
+For a considerable time Miss Braddon conducted <i>Belgravia</i>,
+in which several of her novels appeared. In 1874 she married
+Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B. Maxwell, afterwards
+becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper correspondent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">BRADFORD, JOHN<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr,
+was born at Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry
+VIII., and educated at the local grammar school. Being a good
+penman and accountant, he became secretary to Sir John
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page370" id="page370"></a>370</span>
+Harrington, paymaster of the English forces in France. Bradford
+at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to support
+his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the
+money entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution.
+In April 1547 he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began
+to study law; but finding divinity more congenial, he removed,
+in the following year, to St Catharine&rsquo;s Hall, Cambridge, where
+he studied with such assiduity that in little more than a year
+he was admitted by special grace to the degree of master of arts,
+and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke Hall, the fellowship
+being &ldquo;worth seven pound a year.&rdquo; One of his pupils was John
+Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the
+see of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain.
+In 1553 he was also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became
+one of the most popular preachers in the kingdom, earning high
+praise from John Knox. Soon after the accession of Mary he
+was arrested on a charge of sedition, and confined in the Tower
+and the king&rsquo;s bench prison for a year and a half. During this
+time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in various
+parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January
+1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as
+chief, and, refusing to retract his principles, was condemned
+as a heretic and burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st
+of July 1555.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts,
+letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker
+Society (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33698-h.htm or 33698-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/9/33698/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
+
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img252a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img252a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d5875f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img252a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img252b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img252b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d7c20e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img252b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img252c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img252c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f29962f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img252c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img253a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img253a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0fc83c2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img253a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img253b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img253b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf37a4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img253b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img253c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img253c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e5b9d31
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img253c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img253d.jpg b/33698-h/images/img253d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..badc8e9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img253d.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img253e.jpg b/33698-h/images/img253e.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b8c82c7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img253e.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img257.jpg b/33698-h/images/img257.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6a1bec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img257.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img310.jpg b/33698-h/images/img310.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e8d367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img310.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img326.jpg b/33698-h/images/img326.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..189bcdb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img326.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img327.jpg b/33698-h/images/img327.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8dc80dc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img327.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img333.jpg b/33698-h/images/img333.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d77c7b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img333.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img340a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img340a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e00ffe8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img340a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img340b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img340b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aaa1414
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img340b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img348.jpg b/33698-h/images/img348.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..04f9b13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img348.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img359a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img359a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..061a647
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img359a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img359b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img359b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f7a811
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img359b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img359c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img359c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d8ae905
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img359c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img360.jpg b/33698-h/images/img360.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dad6be9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img360.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img361a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img361a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7f0ce4f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img361a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img361b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img361b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4e44a17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img361b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img361c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img361c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..082776c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img361c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img362a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img362a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f33f682
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img362a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img362b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img362b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d4d738
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img362b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img363a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img363a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b56af6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img363a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img363b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img363b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bed218
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img363b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img363c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img363c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2a5a582
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img363c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img364a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img364a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6bf263
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img364a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img364b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img364b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..21d6c87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img364b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img365a.jpg b/33698-h/images/img365a.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ce15b73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img365a.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img365b.jpg b/33698-h/images/img365b.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..023f391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img365b.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img365c.jpg b/33698-h/images/img365c.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f840bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img365c.jpg
diff --git a/33698-h/images/img365d.jpg b/33698-h/images/img365d.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa66a06
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698-h/images/img365d.jpg
diff --git a/33698.txt b/33698.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..618597c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,17659 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3
+       "Borgia, Lucrezia" to "Bradford, John"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: September 10, 2010 [EBook #33698]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE BOROUGH: "In London in the 13th century there was a regular
+      system for the admission of new members to the borough..." 'London'
+      amended from 'Londom'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME IV, SLICE III
+
+     Borgia, Lucrezia to Bradford, John
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  BORGIA, LUCREZIA                 BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE
+  BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL          BOULTON, MATTHEW
+  BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO             BOUND
+  BORGO SAN DONNINO                BOUNDS, BEATING THE
+  BORGU                            BOUNTY
+  BORIC ACID                       BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER
+  BORING                           BOURBON
+  BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV         BOURBON, CHARLES
+  BORISOGLYEBSK                    BOURBON-LANCY
+  BORKU                            BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT
+  BORKUM                           BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS
+  BORLASE, WILLIAM                 BOURCHIER, ARTHUR
+  BORMIO                           BOURCHIER, THOMAS
+  BORN, IGNAZ                      BOURDALOUE, LOUIS
+  BORNA                            BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS
+  BORNE, KARL LUDWIG               BOURG-EN-BRESSE
+  BORNEO                           BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE
+  BORNHOLM                         BOURGEOIS
+  BORNIER, HENRI                   BOURGES
+  BORNU                            BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH
+  BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH  BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE
+  BORODINO                         BOURKE
+  BOROLANITE                       BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR
+  BORON                            BOURNE, VINCENT
+  BOROUGH, STEVEN                  BOURNE (town)
+  BOROUGH                          BOURNE (stream)
+  BOROUGHBRIDGE                    BOURNEMOUTH
+  BOROUGH ENGLISH                  BOURNONITE
+  BORROMEAN ISLANDS                BOURREE
+  BORROMEO, CARLO                  BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE
+  BORROMINI, FRANCESCO             BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE
+  BORROW, GEORGE HENRY             BOURSAULT, EDME
+  BORSIPPA                         BOURSE
+  BORT                             BOURSSE, ESAIAS
+  BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN      BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE
+  BORZHOM                          BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH
+  BOS, LAMBERT                     BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE
+  BOSA                             BOUTS-RIMES
+  BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA   BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL
+  BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME   BOUVARDIA
+  BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN           BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH
+  BOSCASTLE                        BOUVIER, JOHN
+  BOSCAWEN, EDWARD                 BOUVINES
+  BOSCH, JEROM                     BOVEY BEDS
+  BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH          BOVIANUM
+  BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA           BOVIDAE
+  BOSPORUS                         BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM
+  BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS               BOVILLAE
+  BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH  BOW
+  BOSS                             BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD
+  BOSSI, GIUSEPPE                  BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL
+  BOSSU, RENE LE                   BOWDLER, THOMAS
+  BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE          BOWDOIN, JAMES
+  BOSTANAI                         BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE
+  BOSTON, THOMAS                   BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN
+  BOSTON (Lincolnshire, England)   BOWEN, FRANCIS
+  BOSTON (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)   BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON
+  BOSTON (game of cards)           BOWER, WALTER
+  BOSTONITE                        BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT
+  BOSTROM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB       BOWIE, JAMES
+  BOSWELL, JAMES                   BOW-LEG
+  BOSWORTH, JOSEPH                 BOWLES, SAMUEL
+  BOTANY                           BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE
+  BOTANY BAY                       BOWLINE
+  BOTHA, LOUIS                     BOWLING
+  BOTHNIA, GULF OF                 BOWLING GREEN (Kentucky, U.S.A.)
+  BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN          BOWLING GREEN (Ohio, U.S.A.)
+  BOTHWELL (town)                  BOWLS
+  BOTOCUDOS                        BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE
+  BOTORI                           BOWRING, SIR JOHN
+  BOTOSHANI                        BOWTELL
+  BO-TREE                          BOWYER, WILLIAM
+  BOTRYTIS                         BOX
+  BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO  BOXING
+  BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI              BOXWOOD
+  BOTTICELLI, SANDRO               BOYACA
+  BOTTIGER, KARL AUGUST            BOYAR
+  BOTTLE                           BOY-BISHOP
+  BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS              BOYCE, WILLIAM
+  BOTTLENOSE WHALE                 BOYCOTT
+  BOTTOMRY                         BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON
+  BOTZARIS, MARCO                  BOYD, ROBERT BOYD
+  BOTZEN                           BOYD, ZACHARY
+  BOUCHARDON, EDME                 BOYDELL, JOHN
+  BOUCHER, FRANCOIS                BOYER, ALEXIS
+  BOUCHER, JONATHAN                BOYER, JEAN PIERRE
+  BOUCHER DE CREVCOEUR, JACQUES    BOYLE, JOHN J.
+  BOUCHES-DU-RHONE                 BOYLE, ROBERT
+  BOUCHOR, MAURICE                 BOYLE (town)
+  BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOEL    BOYNE
+  BOUCICAULT, DION                 BOYS' BRIGADE
+  BOUCICAUT, JEAN                  BOZDAR
+  BOUDIN, EUGENE                   BOZRAH
+  BOUDINOT, ELIAS                  BRABANT (duchy)
+  BOUE, AMI                        BRABANT (Belgium)
+  BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANCOIS        BRABANT, NORTH
+  BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN        BRACCIANO
+  BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE   BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO
+  BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY           BRACE, CHARLES LORING
+  BOUGIE                           BRACE, JULIA
+  BOUGUER, PIERRE                  BRACE
+  BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM      BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE
+  BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE              BRACELET
+  BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE        BRACHIOPODA
+  BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR   BRACHISTOCHRONE
+  BOUILLON                         BRACHYCEPHALIC
+  BOUILLOTTE                       BRACKYLOGUS
+  BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS            BRACKET
+  BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI           BRACKET-FUNGI
+  BOULANGER                        BRACKLESHAM BEDS
+  BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST         BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON
+  BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, JOSEPH     BRACKLEY
+  BOULDER (Colorado, U.S.A.)       BRACQUEMOND, FELIX
+  BOULDER (large stone)            BRACTON, HENRY DE
+  BOULDER CLAY                     BRADAWL
+  BOULE                            BRADDOCK, EDWARD
+  BOULEVARD                        BRADDOCK
+  BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES            BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH
+  BOULOGNE                         BRADFORD, JOHN
+  BOULOGNE-SUR-MER
+
+
+
+
+BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519), duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Cardinal
+Rodrigo Borgia, afterwards Pope Alexander VI. (q.v.), by his mistress
+Vanozza dei Cattanei, was born at Rome in 1480. Her early years were
+spent at her mother's house near her father's splendid palace; but later
+she was given over to the care of Adriana de Mila, a relation of
+Cardinal Borgia and mother-in-law of Giulia Farnese, another of his
+mistresses. Lucrezia was educated according to the usual curriculum of
+Renaissance ladies of rank, and was taught languages, music, embroidery,
+painting, &c.; she was famed for her beauty and charm, but the corrupt
+court of Rome in which she was brought up was not conducive to a good
+moral education. Her father at first contemplated a Spanish marriage for
+her, and at the age of eleven she was betrothed to Don Cherubin de
+Centelles, a Spanish nobleman. But the engagement was broken off almost
+immediately, and Lucrezia was married by proxy to another Spaniard, Don
+Gasparo de Procida, son of the count of Aversa. On the death of Innocent
+VIII. (1492), Cardinal Borgia was elected pope as Alexander VI., and,
+contemplating a yet more ambitious marriage for his daughter, he
+annulled the union with Procida; in February 1493 Lucrezia was betrothed
+to Giovanni Sforza, lord of Pesaro, with whose family Alexander was now
+in close alliance. The wedding was celebrated in June; but when the
+pope's policy changed and he became friendly to the king of Naples, the
+enemy of the house of Sforza, he planned the subjugation of the vassal
+lords of Romagna, and Giovanni, feeling his position insecure, left Rome
+for Pesaro with his wife. By Christmas 1495 they were back in Rome; the
+pope had all his children around him, and celebrated the carnival with a
+series of magnificent festivities. But he decided that he had done with
+Sforza, and annulled the marriage on the ground of the husband's
+impotence (March 1497). In order to cement his alliance with Naples, he
+married Lucrezia to Alphonso of Aragon, duke of Bisceglie, a handsome
+youth of eighteen, related to the Neapolitan king. But he too realized
+the fickleness of the Borgias' favour when Alexander backed up Louis
+XII. of France in the latter's schemes for the conquest of Naples.
+Bisceglie fled from Rome, fearing for his life, and the pope sent
+Lucrezia to receive the homage of the city of Spoleto as governor. On
+her return to Rome in 1499, her husband, who really loved her, was
+induced to join her once more. A year later he was murdered by the order
+of her brother Cesare. After the death of Bisceglie, Lucrezia retired to
+Nepi, and then returned to Rome, where she acted for a time as regent
+during Alexander's absence. The latter now was anxious for a union
+between his daughter and Alphonso, son and heir to Ercole d'Este, duke
+of Ferrara. The negotiations were somewhat difficult, as neither
+Alphonso nor his father was anxious for a connexion with the house of
+Borgia, and Lucrezia's own reputation was not unblemished. However, by
+bribes and threats the opposition was overcome, and in September 1501
+the marriage was celebrated by proxy with great magnificence in Rome. On
+Lucrezia's arrival at Ferrara she won over her reluctant husband by her
+youthful charm (she was only twenty-two), and from that time forth she
+led a peaceful life, about which there was hardly a breath of scandal.
+On the death of Ercole in 1505, her husband became duke, and she
+gathered many learned men, poets and artists at her court, among whom
+were Ariosto, Cardinal Bembo, Aldus Manutius the printer, and the
+painters Titian and Dosso Dossi. She devoted herself to the education of
+her children and to charitable works; the only tragedy connected with
+this period of her life is the murder of Ercole Strozzi, who is said to
+have admired her and fallen a victim to Alphonso's jealousy. She died on
+the 24th of June 1519, leaving three sons and a daughter by the duke of
+Ferrara, besides one son Rodrigo by the duke of Bisceglie, and possibly
+another of doubtful paternity. She seems to have been a woman of very
+mediocre talents, and only played a part in history because she was the
+daughter of Alexander VI. and the sister of Cesare Borgia. While she was
+in Rome she was probably no better and no worse than the women around
+her, but there is no serious evidence for the charges of incest with her
+father and brothers which were brought against her by the
+scandal-mongers of the time.
+
+  See the bibliographies for ALEXANDER VI. and BORGIA, CESARE; and
+  especially F. Gregorovius's _Lucrezia Borgia_ (Stuttgart, 1874), the
+  standard work on the subject; also W. Gilbert's _Lucrezia Borgia,
+  Duchess of Ferrara_ (London, 1869), which, while containing much
+  information, is quite without historic value; and G. Campori's "Una
+  Vittima della Storia, Lucrezia Borgia," in the _Nuova Antologia_
+  (August 31, 1866), which aims at the rehabilitation of Lucrezia.
+       (L. V.*)
+
+
+
+
+BORGLUM, SOLON HANNIBAL (1868-   ), American sculptor, was born in
+Ogden, Utah, on the 22nd of December 1868, the son of a Danish
+wood-carver. He studied under Louis F. Rebisso in the Cincinnati art
+school in 1895-1897, and under Fremiet in Paris. He took as his chief
+subjects incidents of western life, cowboys and Indians, with which he
+was familiar from his years on the ranch; notably "Lassoing Wild
+Horses," "Stampeding Wild Horses," "Last Round-up," "On the Border of
+White Man's Land," and "Burial on the Plains." His elder brother, Gutzon
+Borglum (b. 1867), also showed himself an artist of some originality.
+
+
+
+
+BORGOGNONE, AMBROGIO (fl. 1473-1524), Italian painter of the Milanese
+school, whose real name was Ambrogio Stefani da Fossano, was
+approximately contemporary with Leonardo da Vinci, but represented, at
+least during a great part of his career, the tendencies of Lombard art
+anterior to the arrival of that master--the tendencies which he had
+adopted and perfected from the hands of his predecessors Foppa and
+Zenale. We are not precisely informed of the dates either of the death
+or the birth of Borgognone, who was born at Fossano in Piedmont, and
+whose appellation was due to his artistic affiliation to the Burgundian
+school. His fame is principally associated with that of one great
+building, the Certosa, or church and convent of the Carthusians at
+Pavia, for which he worked much and in many different ways. It is
+certain, indeed, that there is no truth in the tradition which
+represents him as having designed, in 1473, the celebrated facade of the
+Certosa itself. His residence there appears to have been of eight years'
+duration, from 1486, when he furnished the designs of the figures of the
+virgin, saints and apostles for the choir-stalls, executed in _tarsia_
+or inlaid wood work by Bartolommeo Pola, till 1494, when he returned to
+Milan. Only one known picture, an altar-piece at the church San
+Eustorgio, can with probability be assigned to a period of his career
+earlier than 1486. For two years after his return to Milan he worked at
+the church of San Satiro in that city. From 1497 he was engaged for some
+time in decorating with paintings the church of the Incoronata in the
+neighbouring town at Lodi. Our notices of him thenceforth are few and
+far between. In 1508 he painted for a church in Bergamo; in 1512 his
+signature appears in a public document of Milan; in 1524--and this is
+our last authentic record--he painted a series of frescoes illustrating
+the life of St Sisinius in the portico of San Simpliciano at Milan.
+Without having produced any works of signal power or beauty, Borgognone
+is a painter of marked individuality. He holds an interesting place in
+the most interesting period of Italian art. The National Gallery,
+London, has two fair examples of his work --the separate fragments of a
+silk banner painted for the Certosa, and containing the heads of two
+kneeling groups severally of men and women; and a large altar-piece of
+the marriage of St Catherine, painted for the chapel of Rebecchino near
+Pavia. But to judge of his real powers and peculiar ideals--his system
+of faint and clear colouring, whether in fresco, tempera or oil; his
+somewhat slender and pallid types, not without something that reminds us
+of northern art in their Teutonic sentimentality as well as their
+Teutonic fidelity of portraiture; the conflict of his instinctive love
+of placidity and calm with a somewhat forced and borrowed energy in
+figures where energy is demanded, his conservatism in the matter of
+storied and minutely diversified backgrounds--to judge of these
+qualities of the master as they are, it is necessary to study first the
+great series of his frescoes and altar-pieces at the Certosa, and next
+those remains of later frescoes and altar-pieces at Milan and Lodi, in
+which we find the influence of Leonardo and of the new time mingling
+with, but not expelling, his first predilections.
+
+
+
+
+BORGO SAN DONNINO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the
+province of Parma, 14 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Parma. Pop. (1901)
+town, 6251; commune, 12,109. It occupies the site of the ancient
+Fidentia, on the Via Aemilia; no doubt, as its name shows, of Roman
+origin. Here M. Lucullus defeated the democrats under Carbo in 82 B.C. It
+was independent under Vespasian, but seems soon to have become a village
+dependent on Parma. Its present name comes from the martyrdom of S.
+Domninus under Maximian in A.D. 304. The cathedral, erected in honour of
+this saint, is one of the finest and best-preserved Lombardo-Romanesque
+churches of the 11th-13th centuries in north Italy. The upper part of the
+facade is incomplete, but the lower, with its three portals and
+sculptures, is very fine; the interior is simple and well-proportioned,
+and has not been spoilt by restorations. For the _benitier_, a work of
+the early 11th century, see _Rassegna d'Arte_, 1905, 180. Not far from
+the town is the small church of S. Antonio del Viennese, a 13th-century
+structure in brick (_ib_., 1906, 22). The Palazzo Comunale, in the
+Gothic-Lombard style, is a work of the 14th century. Borgo S. Donnino is
+an important centre for the produce and cattle of Emilia.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BORGU, or BARBA, an inland country of West Africa. The western part is
+included in the French colony of Dahomey (q.v.); the eastern division
+forms the Borgu province of the British protectorate of Nigeria. Borgu
+is bounded N.E. and E. by the Niger, S. by the Yoruba country, N.W. by
+Gurma. The country consists of an elevated plain traversed by rivers
+draining north or east to the Niger. The water-parting between the Niger
+basin and the coast streams of Dahomey and Lagos runs north-east and
+south-west near the western frontier. In about 10 deg. N., below the
+town of Bussa, rapids block the course of the Niger, navigable up to
+that point from the sea. The soil is mostly fertile, and is fairly
+cultivated, producing in abundance millet, yams, plantains and limes.
+The acacia tree is common, and from it gum-arabic of good quality is
+obtained. From the nut of the horse-radish tree ben oil is expressed.
+Cattle are numerous and of excellent breed, and game is abundant. Borgu
+is inhabited by a number of pagan negro tribes, several of whom were
+dependent on the chief of Nikki, a town in the centre of the country,
+the chief being spoken of as sultan of Borgu. The king of Bussa was
+another more or less powerful potentate. In the early years of the 19th
+century Borgu was invaded by the Fula (q.v.), but the Bariba (as the
+people are called collectively) maintained their independence. In 1894
+Borgu became the object of rivalry between France and England. The Royal
+Niger Company, which had already concluded a treaty of protection with
+the king of Bussa, sent out Captain (afterwards Sir) F.D. Lugard to
+negotiate treaties with the king of Nikki and other chiefs, and Lugard
+succeeded in doing so a few days before the arrival of French
+expeditions from the west. Disregarding the British treaties, French
+officers concluded others with various chiefs, invaded Bussa and
+established themselves at various points on the Niger. To defend British
+interests, the West African Frontier Force was raised locally under
+Lugard's command, and a period of great tension ensued, British and
+French troops facing one another at several places. A conflict was,
+however, averted, and by the convention of June 1898 the western part of
+Borgu was declared French and the eastern British, the French
+withdrawing from all places on the lower Niger.
+
+The British portion of Borgu has an area of about 12,000 sq. m. Up to
+the period of inclusion within the protectorate of Nigeria little or
+nothing was known of the country, though there were interesting legends
+of the antiquity of its history. The population was entirely
+independent, and resisted with success not only the Fula from the north
+but also the armies of Dahomey and Mossi from the south and west.
+Travellers who attempted to penetrate this country had never returned.
+Since 1898 the country has been opened, and from being the most lawless
+and truculent of people the Bariba have become singularly amenable and
+law-abiding. Provincial courts are established, but there is little
+crime in the province. The British garrisons have been replaced by civil
+police. The assessment of taxes under British administration was
+successfully carried out in 1904, and taxes are collected without
+trouble. In south Borgu the people are agricultural but not industrious
+or inclined for trade. In the north there are some pastoral settlements
+of Fula. The Bariba themselves remain agricultural. Cart-roads have been
+constructed between the town of Kiama and the Niger. The agricultural
+resources of Borgu are great, and as the population increases with the
+cessation of war and by immigration the country should show marked
+development. Shea trees are abundant. Elephants are still to be found in
+the fifty-mile strip of forest land which stretches between the Niger
+and the interior of the province. The forest contains valuable sylvan
+products, and there are great possibilities for the cultivation of
+rubber. There are also extensive areas of fine land suitable for cotton,
+with the waterway of the Niger close at hand. Labour might be brought
+from Yorubaland close by, and a Yoruba colony has been experimentally
+started. (See NIGERIA and BUSSA.)
+
+
+
+
+BORIC ACID, or BORACIC ACID, H3BO3, an acid obtained by dissolving boron
+trioxide in water. It was first prepared by Wilhelm Homberg (1652-1715)
+from borax, by the action of mineral acids, and was given the name _sal
+sedativum Hombergi_. The presence of boric acid or its salts has been
+noted in sea-water, whilst it is also said to exist in plants and
+especially in almost all fruits (A.H. Allen, _Analyst_, 1904, 301). The
+free acid is found native in certain volcanic districts such as Tuscany,
+the Lipari Islands and Nevada, issuing mixed with steam from fissures
+in the ground; it is also found as a constituent of many minerals
+(borax, boracite, boronatrocalcite and colemanite).
+
+The chief source of boric acid for commercial purposes is the Maremma of
+Tuscany, an extensive and desolate tract of country over which jets of
+vapour and heated gases (_soffioni_) and springs of boiling water spurt
+out from chasms and fissures. In some places the fissures open directly
+into the air, but in other parts of the district they are covered by
+small muddy lakes (_lagoni_). The soffioni contain a small quantity of
+boric acid (usually less than 0.1%), together with a certain amount of
+ammoniacal vapours. In order to obtain the acid, a series of basins is
+constructed over the vents, and so arranged as to permit of the passage
+of water through them by gravitation. Water is led into the highest
+basin and by the action of the heated gases is soon brought into a state
+of ebullition; after remaining in this basin for about a day, it is run
+off into the second one and is treated there in a similar manner. The
+operation is carried on through the entire series, until the liquor in
+the last basin contains about 2% of boric acid. It is then run into
+settling tanks, from which it next passes into the evaporating pans,
+which are shallow lead-lined pans heated by the gases of the soffioni.
+These pans are worked on a continuous system, the liquor in the first
+being concentrated and run off into a second, and so on, until it is
+sufficiently concentrated to crystallize. The crystals are purified by
+recrystallization from water. Artificial soffioni are sometimes prepared
+by boring through the rock until the fissures are reached, and the water
+so obtained is occasionally sufficiently impregnated with boric acid to
+be evaporated directly. Boric acid is also obtained from
+boronatrocalcite by treatment with sulphuric acid, followed by the
+evaporation of the solution so obtained. The residue is then heated in a
+current of superheated steam, in which the boric acid volatilizes and
+distils over. It may also be obtained by the decomposition of boracite
+with hot hydrochloric acid. In small quantities, it may be prepared by
+the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated solution
+of borax.
+
+  Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + 5H2O = Na2SO4 + 4H3BO3.
+
+  Boric acid crystallizes from water in white nacreous laminae belonging
+  to the triclinic system; it is difficultly soluble in cold water, but
+  dissolves readily in hot water. It is one of the "weak" acids, its
+  dissociation constant being only 0.08169 (J. Walker, _Jour. of Chem.
+  Soc._, 1900, lxxvii. 5), and consequently its salts are appreciably
+  hydrolysed in aqueous solution. The free acid turns blue litmus to a
+  claret colour. Its action upon turmeric is characteristic; a turmeric
+  paper moistened with a solution of boric acid turns brown, the colour
+  becoming much darker as the paper dries; while the addition of sodium
+  or potassium hydroxide turns it almost black. Boric acid is easily
+  soluble in alcohol, and if the vapour of the solution be inflamed it
+  burns with a characteristic vivid green colour. The acid on being
+  heated to 100 deg. C. loses water and is converted into _metaboric
+  acid_, HBO3; at 140 deg. C., _pyroboric acid_, H2B4O7, is produced; at
+  still higher temperatures, boron trioxide is formed. The salts of the
+  normal or orthoboric acid in all probability do not exist; metaboric
+  acid, however, forms several well-defined salts which are readily
+  converted, even by carbon dioxide, into salts of pyroboric acid. That
+  orthoboric acid is a tribasic acid is shown by the formation of ethyl
+  orthoborate on esterification, the vapour density of which corresponds
+  to the molecular formula B(OC2H5)3; the molecular formula of the acid
+  must consequently be B(OH)3 or H3BO3. The metallic borates are
+  generally obtained in the hydrated condition, and with the exception
+  of those of the alkali metals, are insoluble in water. The most
+  important of the borates is sodium pyroborate or borax (q.v.).
+
+  Borax and boracic acid are feeble but useful antiseptics. Hence they
+  may be used to preserve food-substances, such as milk and butter (see
+  ADULTERATION). In medicine boracic acid is used in solution to relieve
+  itching, but its chief use is as a mild antiseptic to impregnate lint
+  or cotton-wool. Recent work has shown it is too feeble to be relied
+  upon alone, but where really efficient antiseptics, such as mercuric
+  chloride and iodide, and carbolic acid, have been already employed,
+  boracic acid (which, unlike these, is non-poisonous and non-irritant)
+  may legitimately be used to maintain the aseptic or non-bacterial
+  condition which they have obtained. Borax taken internally is of some
+  value in irritability of the bladder, but as a urinary antiseptic it
+  is now surpassed by several recently introduced drugs, such as
+  urotropine.
+
+
+
+
+BORING. The operations of deep boring are resorted to for ascertaining
+the nature, thickness and extent of the various geological formations
+underlying the surface of the earth. Among the purposes for which boring
+is specifically employed are: (1) prospecting or searching for mineral
+deposits; (2) sinking petroleum, natural gas, artesian or salt wells;
+(3) determining the depth below the surface of bed-rock or other firm
+substratum, together with the character of the overlying materials,
+preparatory to mining or civil engineering operations; (4) carrying on
+geological or other scientific explorations.
+
+Prospecting by boring is practised most successfully in the case of
+mineral deposits of large area, which are nearly horizontal, or at least
+not highly inclined; e.g. deposits of coal, iron, lead and salt. Wide,
+flat beds of such minerals may be pierced at any desired number of
+points. The depth at which each hole enters the deposit and the
+thickness of the mineral itself are readily ascertained, so that a map
+may be constructed with some degree of accuracy. Samples of the mineral
+are also secured, furnishing data as to the value of the deposit. While
+boring is sometimes adopted for prospecting irregular and steeply
+inclined mineral deposits of small area, the results are obviously less
+trustworthy than under the conditions named above, and may be actually
+misleading unless a large number of holes are bored. Incidentally,
+bore-holes supply information as to the character and depth of the
+valueless depositions of earth or rock overlying the mineral deposit.
+Such data assist in deciding upon the appropriate method for, and in
+estimating the cost of, sinking shafts or driving tunnels for the
+development and exploitation of the deposit. In sinking petroleum wells,
+boring serves not only for discovering the oil-bearing strata but also
+for extracting the oil. This industry has become of great importance in
+many parts of the United States, in southern Russia and elsewhere. Rock
+salt deposits are sometimes worked through bore-holes, by introducing
+water and pumping out the solution of brine for further treatment. The
+sinking of artesian wells is another application of boring. They are
+often hundreds, and sometimes thousands, of feet in depth. A well in St
+Louis, Missouri, has a depth of 3843 ft.
+
+Boring is useful in mines themselves for a variety of purposes, such as
+exploring the deposit ahead of the workings, searching for neighbouring
+veins, and sounding the ground on approaching dangerous inundated
+workings. In the coal regions of Pennsylvania, bore-holes are often sunk
+for carrying steam pipes and hoisting ropes underground at points remote
+from a shaft.
+
+Several of the methods of boring in soft ground are employed in
+connexion with civil engineering operations; as for ascertaining the
+depth below the surface to solid rock, preparatory to excavating for and
+designing deep foundations for heavy structures, and for estimating the
+cost of large scale excavations in earth and rock.
+
+Lastly, a number of deep holes have been bored for geological
+exploration or for observing the increase of temperature in depth in the
+earth's crust; for example, at Paruschowitz, Silesia, about 6700 ft.
+deep; at Leipzig, Germany, 6265 ft.; near Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, 5532
+ft.; and at Wheeling, West Virginia, nearly 5000 ft. The two last
+mentioned were intended to obtain as complete a knowledge as possible of
+the bituminous coal and oil-bearing formations.
+
+There are five methods of boring, viz.: by (1) earth augers, (2) drive
+pipes, (3) long, jointed rods and drop drill, (4) the rope system, in
+which the rods are replaced by rope, (5) rotary drills. The first two
+methods are adapted to soft or earthy soils only; the others are for
+rock.
+
+  1. _Earth augers_ comprise spiral and pod augers. The ordinary spiral
+  auger resembles the wood auger commonly used by carpenters. It is
+  attached to the rod or stem by a socket joint, successive sections of
+  rod being added as the hole is deepened. The auger is rotated by means
+  of horizontal levers, clamped to the rod--by hand for holes of small
+  diameter (2 to 6 in.), the larger sizes (8 to 16 in.) by horse power.
+  Clayey, cohesive soils, containing few stones, are readily bored;
+  stony ground with difficulty. The operation of the auger is
+  intermittent. After a few revolutions it is raised and emptied, the
+  soil clinging between the spirals. Depths to 50 or 60 ft. are usually
+  bored by hand; deeper holes by horse power. For sandy, non-cohesive
+  soils, the auger may be encircled by a close-fitting sheet-iron
+  cylinder to prevent the soil from falling out.
+
+  Pod augers generally vary in diameter from 8 to 20 in. A common form
+  (fig. l) consists of two curved iron plates, one attached to the rod
+  rigidly, the other by hinge and key. By being turned through a few
+  revolutions the pod is filled, and is then raised and emptied. For
+  boring in sandy soils, the open sides are closed by hinged plates.
+  Fig. 2 shows another type of pod auger. For holes of large diameter
+  earth augers are handled with the aid of a light derrick.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. Pod Auger.]
+
+  2. _Drive pipes_ are widely used, both for testing the depth and
+  character of soft material overlying solid rock and as a necessary
+  preliminary to rock boring, when some thickness of surface soil must
+  first be passed through. In its simplest form the drive pipe consists
+  of one or more lengths of wrought iron pipe, open at both ends and
+  from 1/2 in. to 6 in. diameter. When of small size the pipe is driven
+  by a heavy hammer; for deep and large holes, a light pile-driver
+  becomes necessary. The lower end of the pipe is provided with an
+  annular steel shoe; the upper end has a drivehead for receiving the
+  blows of the hammer. Successive lengths are screwed on as required.
+  For shallow holes the pipe is cleaned out by a "bailer" or
+  "sand-pump"--a cylinder 4 to 6 ft. long, with a valve in the lower
+  end. It is lowered at intervals, filled by being dashed up and down,
+  and then raised and emptied. If, after reaching some depth, the
+  external frictional resistance prevents the pipe from sinking farther,
+  another pipe of small diameter may be inserted and the driving
+  continued. Drive pipes are often sunk by applying weights at the
+  surface and slowly rotating by a lever. Two pipes are then used, one
+  inside the other. Water is pumped down the inner pipe, thus loosening
+  the soil, raising the debris and increasing the speed of driving. The
+  "driven well" for water supply is an adaptation of the drive pipe and
+  put down in the same way.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3. Drill Bit.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4. Rod Joint.]
+
+  3. _Drill and Rods._--This method has long been used in Europe and
+  elsewhere for deep boring. In the United States it is rarely employed
+  for depths greater than 200 or 300 ft. The usual form of cutting tool
+  or drill is shown in fig. 3. The iron rods are from 1 to 2 in. square,
+  in long lengths with screw joints (fig. 4). Wooden rods are
+  occasionally used. For shallow holes (50 to 75 ft.) the work is done
+  by hand, one or two cross-bars being clamped to the rod. The men
+  alternately raise and drop the drill, meanwhile slowly walking around
+  and around to rotate the bit and so keep the hole true. The cuttings
+  are cleaned out by a bailer, as for drive pipes.
+
+  In boring by hand, the practical limit of depth is soon reached, on
+  account of the increasing weight of the rods. For going deeper a
+  "spring-pole" may be used. This is a tapering pole, say 30 ft. long
+  and 5 or 6 in. diameter at the small end. It rests in an inclined
+  position on a fulcrum set about 10 ft. from the butt, the latter being
+  firmly fixed. The rods are suspended from the end of the pole, which
+  extends at a height of several feet over the mouth of the hole. With
+  the aid of the spring of the pole the strokes are produced by a slight
+  effort on the part of the driller. Average speeds of 6 to 10 ft. per
+  10 hours are easily made, to depths of 200 to 250 ft.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5. Sliding Link.]
+
+  For deep boring the rod system requires a more elaborate plant. The
+  rods are suspended from a heavy "walking beam" or lever, usually
+  oscillated by a steam engine. By means of a screw-feed device, the
+  rods, which are rotated slightly after every stroke, are gradually fed
+  down as the hole is deepened, length after length being added. A tall
+  derrick carries the sheaves and ropes by which the rods and tools are
+  manipulated. The drill bit cannot be attached rigidly to the rods as
+  in shallow boring, because the momentum of the heavy moving parts,
+  transmitted directly to the bit as the blow is struck, would cause
+  excessive vibration and breakage. It becomes necessary, therefore, to
+  introduce a sliding-link joint between the rods and bit. One form of
+  link is shown in fig. 5. On striking its blow, the bit comes to rest,
+  while the rods continue to descend to the end of the stroke, the upper
+  member of the link sliding down upon the lower. Then, on the up stroke
+  the lower link, with the bit, is raised for delivering another blow.
+  For large holes the striking weight is, say, 800 to 1000 lb., length
+  of stroke 2-1/2 to 5 ft., and speed from 20 to 30 strokes per minute.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6. Kind Free-Falling Tool.]
+
+  By using the sliding link the cross-section and weight of the rods may
+  be greatly reduced, the only strain being that of tension. To deliver
+  a sharp, effective blow, however, the rods must drop with a quick
+  stroke, which brings a heavy strain upon the operating machinery. For
+  overcoming this difficulty, various "free-falling tools" have been
+  devised. By these the bit is allowed to fall by gravity; the rod
+  follows on its measured down stroke, and picks up the bit.
+  Free-falling tools are of two classes: (1) those by which the bit is
+  released automatically; (2) those operated by a sudden twist imparted
+  to the rod by the drillman. One of the best known of the first class
+  is the Kind free-fall (fig. 6). The shank of the bit is gripped and
+  released by the jaws J, J, worked through a toggle joint by movements
+  of the disk D. When the rod begins its downward stroke, the resistance
+  of the water in the hole slightly raises D, thus opening the jaws and
+  releasing the bit, which falls by gravity. On reaching the end of the
+  stroke the jaws again catch the shank of the bit and raise it for
+  delivering another blow. The Fabian free-fall may be noted as an
+  example of the second class (see Kohler, _Lehrbuch der Bergbaukunde_,
+  p. 57). Tools are sometimes used for cutting an annular groove in the
+  bottom of the hole, and raising to the surface the core so formed, for
+  observing the character of the rock.
+
+  4. _Rope and Drop Tools._--This method was long ago used in China.
+  Because of its extensive application in the oil-fields it is generally
+  designated in the United States as the "oil-well system." In its
+  various modifications it is often employed also in general prospecting
+  of mineral deposits and in sinking artesian, natural gas and salt
+  wells. One of its forms is known in England as the Mather & Platt
+  system.
+
+  The chief point of difference from rod-boring is the substitution of
+  rope for the jointed rods. For deep boring it possesses the advantage
+  of saving the large amount of time consumed in raising and lowering
+  the rods, as required whenever the hole is to be cleaned out, or a
+  dull bit replaced, since the tools are rapidly run up or down by means
+  of the rope with which they are operated while drilling. The speed of
+  rope-boring is therefore but little affected by increase of depth,
+  while with rod-boring it falls off rapidly. In its simplest form the
+  so-called "string of tools," suspended from the rope, is composed of
+  the bit or drill, jars and rope-socket. The jars are a pair of sliding
+  links, similar to those used for rod-boring, but serving a different
+  purpose, viz. to produce a sharp shock on the upward stroke, as the
+  jars come together, for loosening the bit should it tend to stick fast
+  in the hole. A heavy bar (auger stem) is generally inserted between
+  the jars and bit, for increasing the force of the blow. The weight of
+  another bar above the jars (sinker-bar) keeps the rope taut. The
+  length of stroke and feed are regulated by the "temper-screw" (fig.
+  7), a feed device resembling that used for rod-boring. Clamped to it
+  is the drill rope, which is let out at intervals, as the hole is
+  deepened. The bits usually range from 3 to 8 in. diameter, the speed
+  of boring being generally between 20 and 40 ft. per 24 hours,
+  according to the kind of rock. A great variety of special "fishing
+  tools" are made, for use in case of breakage of parts in the hole or
+  other accident.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7. Temper Screw.]
+
+  5. _Diamond Drill._--The methods described above are capable of boring
+  holes vertically downward only. By the diamond drill, holes can be
+  bored in any direction, from vertically downward to vertically upward.
+  It has the further advantage of making an annular hole from which is
+  obtained a core, furnishing a practically complete cross-section of
+  the strata penetrated; the thickness and character of each stratum are
+  shown, together with its depth below the surface. Thus, the diamond
+  drill is peculiarly well adapted for prospecting mineral deposits from
+  which samples are desired. The first practical application of diamonds
+  for drilling in rock was made in 1863 by Professor Rudolph Leschot, a
+  civil engineer of Paris.
+
+  The apparatus consists essentially of a line of hollow rods, coupled
+  by screw joints, an annular steel bit or crown, set with diamonds,
+  being attached to the lower end. By means of a small engine on the
+  surface the rods are rapidly rotated and fed down automatically as the
+  hole deepened. The speed of rotation is from 300 to 800 revolutions
+  per minute, depending on the character of the rock and diameter of the
+  bit. While boring a stream of water is forced down the hollow rods by
+  a pump, passing back to the surface through the annular space between
+  the rods and the walls of the drill hole. The cuttings are thus
+  carried to the surface, leaving the bottom of the hole clean and
+  unobstructed. For recovering the core and inspecting the bit and
+  diamonds, the rods are raised at every 3 to 8 ft. of depth. This is
+  done by a small drum and rope, operated by the driving engine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Little Champion Rock Drill.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+  Diamond drills of standard designs (fig. 8) bore holes from 1-9/16 to
+  2-3/4 in. diameter, yielding cores of 1 to 1-15/16 in. diameter, and
+  are capable of reaching depths of a few hundred to 4000 ft. or more.
+  They require from 8 to 30 boiler horse-power. Large machines will bore
+  shallower holes up to 6, 9 or even 12 in. diameter. For operating in
+  underground workings of mines, small and compact machines are
+  sometimes mounted on columns (fig. 9). They bore 1-1/4 to 1-9/16 in.
+  holes to depths of 300 to 400 ft., cores being 7/8 to 1 in. diameter.
+  Hand-power drills are also built. In the South African goldfields
+  several diamond drill holes from 4500 to 5200 ft. deep have been
+  successfully bored. Rates of advance for core-drilling to moderate
+  depths range usually from 2 to 3 ft. per hour, including ordinary
+  delays, though in favourable rock much higher speeds are often
+  attained. In deep holes the speeds diminish, because of time consumed
+  in raising and lowering the rods. If no core is desired a "solid bit"
+  is used. The drilling then proceeds faster, as it is only necessary to
+  raise the rods occasionally, for examining the condition of the bit.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10. Diamond Drill Bit.]
+
+  The driving engine has two inclined cylinders, coupled to a
+  crank-shaft, by which, through gearing, the drill-rod is rotated. The
+  rods are wrought iron or steel tubes, in 5 to 10 ft. lengths. For
+  producing the feed two devices are employed, the differential screw
+  and hydraulic cylinder. For the _differential feed_ (fig. 9) the
+  engine has a hollow left-hand threaded screw-shaft, to which the rods
+  are coupled. This shaft is driven by a spline and bevel gearing and is
+  supported by a threaded feed-nut, carried in the lower bearing. Geared
+  to the screw-shaft is a light counter-shaft. By properly proportioning
+  the number of teeth in the system of gear-wheels, the feed-nut is
+  caused to revolve a little faster than the screw-shaft, so that the
+  drill-rod is fed downward a small fraction of an inch for each
+  revolution. To vary the rate of feed, as suitable for different rocks,
+  three pairs of gears with different ratios of teeth are provided. The
+  screw-shaft and gearing are carried by a swivel-head, which can be
+  rotated in a vertical plane, for boring holes at an angle.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11. Core Lifter and Barrel.]
+
+  The _hydraulic feed_ is an improvement on the above, in that the rate
+  of feed is independent of the rotative speed of the rods and can be
+  adjusted with the utmost nicety. There are either one or two feed
+  cylinders, supplied with water from the pump. The rod, while rotating
+  freely, is supported by the feed cylinder piston and caused to move
+  slowly downward by allowing the water to pass from the lower to the
+  upper part of the cylinder. A valve regulates the passage of the water
+  and hence the rate of feed.
+
+  The bit (fig. 10 and fig. 11, B) is of soft steel, set with six to
+  eight or more diamonds according to its diameter. The diamonds,
+  usually from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 carats in size, are carefully set in the
+  bit, projecting but slightly from its surface. Two kinds of diamonds
+  are used, "carbons" and "borts." The carbons are opaque, dark in
+  colour, tougher than the brilliant, and have no cleavage planes. They
+  are therefore suitable for drilling in hard rock. Borts are rough,
+  imperfect brilliants, and are best used for the softer rocks. As the
+  bit wears, the stones must be reset from time to time. The wear of
+  carbons in a well-set bit is small, though extremely variable. Above
+  the bit are the core-lifter and core-barrel. The core-lifter (fig. 11,
+  A) is a device for gripping and breaking off the core and raising it
+  to the surface. The barrel, 3 to 10 ft. long, fits closely in the hole
+  and is often spirally grooved for the passage of the water and debris.
+  It serves partly as a guide, tending to keep the hole straight, partly
+  for holding and protecting the core.
+
+  Diamond drills do not work satisfactorily in broken, fissured rock, as
+  the carbons are liable to be injured, loosened or torn from their
+  settings. In these circumstances, and for soft rocks, the diamond bit
+  may be replaced by a steel toothed bit. Another apparatus for
+  core-drilling is the Davis Calyx drill. For hard rock it has an
+  annular bit, accompanied by a quantity of chilled steel shot; for soft
+  rock, a toothed bit is used.
+
+  Diamond drill holes are rarely straight, and usually deviate
+  considerably from the direction in which they are started. Very deep
+  holes have been found to vary as much as 45 deg. and even 60 deg. from
+  their true direction. This is due to the fact that the rods do not fit
+  closely in the hole and therefore bend. It is also likely to occur in
+  drilling through inclined strata, specially when of different degrees
+  of hardness. By using a long and closely fitting core-barrel the
+  liability to deviation is reduced, but cannot be wholly prevented.
+  Holes which are nearly horizontal always deflect upward, because the
+  sag of the rods tilts up the bit. Diamond drill holes should therefore
+  always be surveyed. This is done by lowering into the hole instruments
+  for observing at a number of successive points the direction and
+  degree of deviation.[1] If accurately surveyed a crooked hole may be
+  quite as useful as a straight one.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For further information on boring see _Trans. Amer.
+  Inst. Mining Engs._ vol. ii. p. 241, vol. xxvii. p. 123; C. le Neve
+  Foster, _Text-book of Ore and Stone Mining_, chap. iii.; _Gluckauf_,
+  9th December 1899, 20th and 27th May 1905; _Scientific American_, 21st
+  August 1886; _Engineering and Mining Jour._ vol. lviii. p. 268, vol.
+  lxx. p. 699, vol. lxxx. p. 920; _Trans. Inst. Mining Engs._, England,
+  vol. xxiii. p. 685; _School of Mines Quarterly_, N. Y., vol. xvi. p.
+  1; _Zeitschr. fur Berg- Hutten- und Salinenwesen_, vol. xxv. p. 29;
+  Denny, "Diamond Drilling," _Mines and Minerals_, vol. xx., August
+  1899, p. 7, to January 1900, p. 241; _Mining Jour._, 26th January
+  1901; _Mining and Scientific Press_, 28th November 1903, p. 353; _Ost.
+  Zeitschr. fur Berg- und Huttenwesen_, 21st May, 4th June 1904; _Trans.
+  Inst. Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xii. p. 301; _Engineering
+  Magazine_, March 1896, p. 1075.     (R. P.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Brough, _Mine Surveying_, pp. 276-278; Marriott, _Trans. Inst.
+    Mining and Metallurgy_, vol. xiv. p. 255.
+
+
+
+
+BORIS FEDOROVICH GODUNOV, tsar of Muscovy (c. 1551-1605), the most
+famous member of an ancient, now extinct, Russian family of Tatar
+origin, which migrated from the Horde to Muscovy in the 14th century.
+Boris' career of service began at the court of Ivan the Terrible. He is
+mentioned in 1570 as taking part in the Serpeisk campaign as one of the
+archers of the guard. In 1571 he strengthened his position at court by
+his marriage with Maria, the daughter of Ivan's abominable favourite
+Malyuta Skuratov. In 1580 the tsar chose Irene, the sister of Boris, to
+be the bride of the tsarevich Theodore, on which occasion Boris was
+promoted to the rank of _boyar_. On his deathbed Ivan appointed Boris
+one of the guardians of his son and successor; for Theodore, despite his
+seven-and-twenty years, was of somewhat weak intellect. The reign of
+Theodore began with a rebellion in favour of the infant tsarevich
+Demetrius, the son of Ivan's fifth wife Marie Nagaya, a rebellion
+resulting in the banishment of Demetrius, with his mother and her
+relations, to their appanage at Uglich. On the occasion of the tsar's
+coronation (May 31, 1584), Boris was loaded with honours and riches, yet
+he held but the second place in the regency during the lifetime of his
+co-guardian Nikita Romanovich, on whose death, in August, he was left
+without any serious rival. A conspiracy against him of all the other
+great boyars and the metropolitan Dionysy, which sought to break Boris'
+power by divorcing the tsar from Godunov's childless sister, only ended
+in the banishment or tonsuring of the malcontents. Henceforth Godunov
+was omnipotent. The direction of affairs passed entirely into his hands,
+and he corresponded with foreign princes as their equal. His policy was
+generally pacific, but always most prudent. In 1595 he recovered from
+Sweden the towns lost during the former reign. Five years previously he
+had defeated a Tatar raid upon Moscow, for which service he received the
+title of _sluga_, an obsolete dignity even higher than that of boyar.
+Towards Turkey he maintained an independent attitude, supporting an
+anti-Turkish faction in the Crimea, and furnishing the emperor with
+subsidies in his war against the sultan. Godunov encouraged English
+merchants to trade with Russia by exempting them from tolls. He
+civilized the north-eastern and south-eastern borders of Muscovy by
+building numerous towns and fortresses to keep the Tatar and Finnic
+tribes in order. Samara, Saratov, and Tsaritsyn and a whole series of
+lesser towns derive from him. He also re-colonized Siberia, which had
+been slipping from the grasp of Muscovy, and formed scores of new
+settlements, including Tobolsk and other large centres. It was during
+his government that the Muscovite church received its patriarchate,
+which placed it on an equality with the other Eastern churches and
+emancipated it from the influence of the metropolitan of Kiev. Boris'
+most important domestic reform was the _ukaz_ (1587) forbidding the
+peasantry to transfer themselves from one landowner to another, thus
+binding them to the soil. The object of this ordinance was to secure
+revenue, but it led to the institution of serfdom in its most grinding
+form. The sudden death of the tsarevich Demetrius at Uglich (May 15,
+1591) has commonly been attributed to Boris, because it cleared his way
+to the throne; but this is no clear proof that he was personally
+concerned in that tragedy. The same may be said of the many, often
+absurd, accusations subsequently brought against him by jealous rivals
+or ignorant contemporaries who hated Godunov's reforms as novelties.
+
+On the death of the childless tsar Theodore (January 7, 1598),
+self-preservation quite as much as ambition constrained Boris to seize
+the throne. Had he not done so, lifelong seclusion in a monastery would
+have been his lightest fate. His election was proposed by the patriarch
+Job, who acted on the conviction that Boris was the one man capable of
+coping with the extraordinary difficulties of an unexampled situation.
+Boris, however, would only accept the throne from a _Zemsky Sobor_, or
+national assembly, which met on the 17th of February, and unanimously
+elected him on the 21st. On the 1st of September he was solemnly crowned
+tsar. During the first years of his reign he was both popular and
+prosperous, and ruled the people excellently well. Enlightened as he
+was, he fully recognized the intellectual inferiority of Russia as
+compared with the West, and did his utmost to bring about a better state
+of things. He was the first tsar to import foreign teachers on a great
+scale, the first to send young Russians abroad to be educated, the first
+to allow Lutheran churches to be built in Russia. He also felt the
+necessity of a Baltic seaboard, and attempted to obtain Livonia by
+diplomatic means. He cultivated friendly relations with the
+Scandinavians, in order to intermarry if possible with foreign royal
+houses, so as to increase the dignity of his own dynasty. That Boris was
+one of the greatest of the Muscovite tsars there can be no doubt. But
+his great qualities were overbalanced by an incurable suspiciousness,
+which made it impossible for him to act cordially with those about him.
+His fear of possible pretenders induced him to go so far as to forbid
+the greatest of the boyars to marry. He also encouraged informers and
+persecuted suspects on their unsupported statements. The Romanov family
+in especial suffered severely from these delations. Boris died suddenly
+(April 13, 1605), leaving one son, Theodore II., who succeeded him for a
+few months and then was foully murdered by the enemies of the Godunovs.
+
+  See Platon Vasilievich Pavlov, _On the Historical Significance of the
+  Reign of Boris Godunov_ (Rus.) (Moscow, 1850); Sergyei Mikhailivich
+  Solovev, _History of Russia_ (Rus.) (2nd ed., vols. vii.-viii., St
+  Petersburg, 1897).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BORISOGLYEBSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tambov, 100 m.
+S.S.E. of the city of that name, in 51 deg. 22' N. lat. and 43 deg. 4'
+E. long. It was founded in 1646 to defend the southern frontiers of
+Muscovy against the Crimean Tatars, and in 1696 was surrounded by wooden
+fortifications. The principal industries are the preparation of wool,
+iron-casting, soap-boiling, tallow-melting, and brick-making; and there
+is an active trade in grain, wool, cattle, and leather, and two
+important annual fairs. Pop. (1867) 12,254; (1897) 22,370.
+
+
+
+
+BORKU, or BORGU, a region of Central Africa between 17 deg. and 19 deg.
+N. and 18 deg. and 21 deg. E., forming part of the transitional zone
+between the arid wastes of the Sahara and the fertile lands of the
+central Sudan. It is bounded N. by the Tibesti Mountains, and is in
+great measure occupied by lesser elevations belonging to the same
+system. These hills to the south and east merge into the plains of Wadai
+and Darfur. South-west, in the direction of Lake Chad, is the Bodele
+basin. The drainage of the country is to the lake, but the numerous
+khors with which its surface is scored are mostly dry or contain water
+for brief periods only. A considerable part of the soil is light sand
+drifted about by the wind. The irrigated and fertile portions consist
+mainly of a number of valleys separated from each other by low and
+irregular limestone rocks. They furnish excellent dates. Barley is also
+cultivated. The northern valleys are inhabited by a settled population
+of Tibbu stock, known as the Daza, and by colonies of negroes; the
+others are mainly visited by nomadic Berber and Arab tribes. The
+inhabitants own large numbers of goats and asses.
+
+A caravan route from Barca and the Kufra oasis passes through Borku to
+Lake Chad. The country long remained unknown to Europeans. Gustav
+Nachtigal spent some time in it in the year 1871, and gave a valuable
+account of the region and its inhabitants in his book, _Sahara und
+Sudan_ (Berlin, 1879-1889). In 1899 Borku, by agreement with Great
+Britain, was assigned to the French sphere of influence. The country,
+which had formerly been periodically raided by the Walad Sliman Arabs,
+was then governed by the Senussi (q.v.), who had placed garrisons in the
+chief centres of population. From it raids were made on French
+territory. In 1907 a French column from Kanem entered Borku, but after
+capturing Ain Galakka, the principal Senussi station, retired. Borku is
+also called Borgu, but must not be confounded with the Borgu (q.v.) west
+of the Niger.
+
+  A summary of Nachtigal's writing on Borku will be found in section 28
+  of _Gustav Nachtigal's Reisen in der Sahara und im Sudan_ (1 vol.),
+  arranged by Albert Frankel (Leipzig, 1887). See also an article (with
+  map) by Commdt. Bordeaux in _La Geographie_, Oct. 1908.
+
+
+
+
+BORKUM, an island of Germany, in the North Sea, belonging to the
+Prussian province of Hanover, the westernmost of the East Frisian chain,
+lying between the east and west arms of the estuary of the Ems, and
+opposite to the Dollart. Pop. about 2500. The island is 5 m. long and
+2-1/2 m. broad, is a favourite summer resort, and is visited annually by
+about 20,000 persons. There is a daily steamboat service with Emden,
+Leer and Hamburg during the summer months. The island affords pasture
+for cattle, and a breeding-place for sea-birds.
+
+
+
+
+BORLASE, WILLIAM (1695-1772), English antiquary and naturalist, was born
+at Pendeen in Cornwall, of an ancient family, on the 2nd of February
+1695. He was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and in 1719 was
+ordained. In 1722 he was presented to the rectory of Ludgvan, and in
+1732 he obtained in addition the vicarage of St Just, his native parish.
+In the parish of Ludgvan were rich copper works, abounding with mineral
+and metallic fossils, of which he made a collection, and thus was led to
+study somewhat minutely the natural history of the county. In 1750 he
+was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1754 he published, at
+Oxford, his _Antiquities of Cornwall_ (2nd ed., London, 1769). His next
+publication was _Observations on the Ancient and Present State of the
+Islands of Scilly, and their Importance to the Trade of Great Britain_
+(Oxford, 1756). In 1758 appeared his _Natural History of Cornwall_. He
+presented to the Ashmolean museum, Oxford, a variety of fossils and
+antiquities, which he had described in his works, and received the
+thanks of the university and the degree of LL.D. He died on the 31st of
+August 1772. Borlase was well acquainted with most of the leading
+literary men of the time, particularly with Alexander Pope, with whom he
+kept up a long correspondence, and for whose grotto at Twickenham he
+furnished the greater part of the fossils and minerals.
+
+  Borlase's letters to Pope, St Aubyn and others, with answers, fill
+  several volumes of MS. There are also MS. notes on Cornwall, and a
+  complete unpublished treatise _Concerning the Creation and Deluge_.
+  Some account of these MSS., with extracts from them, was given in the
+  _Quarterly Review_, October 1875. Borlase's memoirs of his own life
+  were published in Nichol's _Literary Anecdotes_, vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+BORMIO (Ger. _Worms_), a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Sondrio, 41-1/2 m. N.E. of the town of Sondrio. Pop. (1901) 1814. It is
+situated in the Valtellina (the valley of the Adda), 4020 ft. above
+sea-level, at the foot of the Stelvio pass, and, owing to its position,
+was of some military importance in the middle ages. It contains
+interesting churches and picturesque towers. A cemetery of pre-Roman
+date was discovered at Bormio in 1820.
+
+The baths of Bormio, 2 m. farther up the valley, are mentioned by Pliny
+and Cassiodorus, the secretary of Theodoric, and are much frequented.
+
+
+
+
+BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742-1791), Austrian mineralogist and
+metallurgist, was born of a noble family at Karlsburg, in Transylvania,
+on the 26th of December 1742. Educated in a Jesuit college in Vienna, he
+was for sixteen months a member of the order, but left it and studied
+law at Prague. Then he travelled extensively in Germany, Holland and
+France, studying mineralogy, and on his return to Prague in 1770 entered
+the department of mines and the mint. In 1776 he was appointed by Maria
+Theresa to arrange the imperial museum at Vienna, where he was nominated
+to the council of mines and the mint, and continued to reside until his
+death on the 24th of July 1791. He introduced a method of extracting
+metals by amalgamation (_Uber das Anquicken der Erze_, 1786), and other
+improvements in mining and other technical processes. His publications
+also include _Lithophylacium Bornianum_ (1772-1775) and _Bergbaukunde_
+(1789), besides several museum catalogues. Von Born attempted satire
+with no great success. _Die Staatsperucke_, a tale published without his
+knowledge in 1772, and an attack on Father Hell, the Jesuit, and king's
+astronomer at Vienna, are two of his satirical works. Part of a satire,
+entitled _Monachologia_, in which the monks are described in the
+technical language of natural history, is also ascribed to him. Von Born
+was well acquainted with Latin and the principal modern languages of
+Europe, and with many branches of science not immediately connected with
+metallurgy and mineralogy. He took an active part in the political
+changes in Hungary. After the death of the emperor Joseph II., the diet
+of the states of Hungary rescinded many innovations of that ruler, and
+conferred the rights of denizen on several persons who had been
+favourable to the cause of the Hungarians, and, amongst others, on von
+Born. At the time of his death in 1791, he was employed in writing a
+work entitled _Fasti Leopoldini_, probably relating to the prudent
+conduct of Leopold II., the successor of Joseph, towards the Hungarians.
+
+
+
+
+BORNA, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Wyhra at its
+junction with the Pleisse, 17 m. S. by E. of Leipzig by rail. Pop.
+(1905) 9176. The industries include peat-cutting, iron foundries, organ,
+pianoforte, felt and shoe factories.
+
+
+
+
+BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786-1837), German political writer and satirist,
+was born on the 6th of May 1786 at Frankfort-On-Main, where his father,
+Jakob Baruch, carried on the business of a banker. He received his early
+education at Giessen, but as Jews were ineligible at that time for
+public appointments in Frankfort, young Baruch was sent to study
+medicine at Berlin under a physician, Markus Herz, in whose house he
+resided. Young Baruch became deeply enamoured of his patron's wife, the
+talented and beautiful Henriette Herz (1764-1847), and gave vent to his
+adoration in a series of remarkable letters. Tiring of medical science,
+which he had subsequently pursued at Halle, he studied constitutional
+law and political science at Heidelberg and Giessen, and in 1811 took
+his doctor's degree at the latter university. On his return to
+Frankfort, now constituted as a grand duchy under the sovereignty of the
+prince bishop Karl von Dalberg, he received (1811) the appointment of
+police actuary in that city. The old conditions, however, returned in
+1814 and he was obliged to resign his office. Embittered by the
+oppression under which the Jews suffered in Germany, he engaged in
+journalism, and edited the Frankfort liberal newspapers,
+_Staatsristretto_ and _Die Zeitschwingen_. In 1818 he became a convert
+to Lutheran protestantism, changing his name from Lob Baruch to Ludwig
+Borne. This step was taken less out of religious conviction than, as in
+the case of so many of his descent, in order to improve his social
+standing. From 1818 to 1821 he edited _Die Wage_, a paper distinguished
+by its lively political articles and its powerful but sarcastic
+theatrical criticisms. This paper was suppressed by the police
+authorities, and in 1821 Borne quitted for a while the field of
+publicist writing and led a retired life in Paris, Hamburg and
+Frankfort. After the July Revolution (1830), he hurried to Paris,
+expecting to find the newly-constituted state of society somewhat in
+accordance with his own ideas of freedom. Although to some extent
+disappointed in his hopes, he was not disposed to look any more kindly
+on the political condition of Germany; this lent additional zest to the
+brilliant satirical letters (_Briefe aus Paris_, 1830-1833, published
+Paris, 1834), which he began to publish in his last literary venture,
+_La Balance_, a revival under its French name of _Die Wage_. The _Briefe
+aus Paris_ was Borne's most important publication, and a landmark in the
+history of German journalism. Its appearance led him to be regarded as
+one of the leaders of the new literary party of "Young Germany." He died
+at Paris on the 12th of February 1837.
+
+Borne's works are remarkable for brilliancy of style and for a thorough
+French vein of satire. His best criticism is to be found in his
+_Denkrede auf Jean Paul_ (1826), a writer for whom he had warm sympathy
+and admiration, in his _Dramaturgische Blatter_ (1829-1834), and the
+witty satire, _Menzel der Franzosenfresser_ (1837). He also wrote a
+number of short stories and sketches, of which the best known are the
+_Monographie der deutschen Postschnecke_ (1829) and _Der Esskunstler_
+(1822).
+
+  The first edition of his _Gesammelte Schriften_ appeared at Hamburg
+  (1829-1834) in 14 volumes, followed by 6 volumes of _Nachgelassene
+  Schriften_ (Mannheim, 1844-1850); more complete is the edition in 12
+  volumes (Hamburg, 1862-1863), reprinted in 1868 and subsequently. The
+  latest complete edition is that edited by A. Klaar (8 vols., Leipzig,
+  1900). For further biographical matter see K. Gutzkow, _Bornes Leben_
+  (Hamburg, 1840), and M. Holzmann, _L. Borne, sein Leben und sein
+  Wirken_ (Berlin, 1888). _Bornes Briefe an Henriette Herz_ (1802-1807),
+  first published in 1861, have been re-edited by L. Geiger (Oldenburg,
+  1905), who has also published Borne's _Berliner Briefe_ (1828)
+  (Berlin, 1905). See also Heine's witty attack on Borne (_Werke_, ed.
+  Elster, vii.), G. Gervinus' essay in his _Historiche Schriften_
+  (Darmstadt, 1838), and the chapters in G. Brandes, _Hovedstromninger i
+  det 19 de Aarhundredes Litteratur_ vol. vi. (Copenhagen, 1890, German
+  trans. 1891; English trans. 1905), and in J. Proelss, _Das junge
+  Deutschland_ (Stuttgart, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+BORNEO, a great island of the Malay Archipelago, extending from 7 deg.
+N. to 4 deg. 20' S., and from 108 deg. 53' to 119 deg. 22' E. It is 830
+m. long from N.E. to S.W., by 600 m. in maximum breadth. Its area
+according to the calculations of the Topographical Bureau of Batavia
+(1894) comprises 293,496 sq. m. These figures are admittedly
+approximate, and Meyer, who is generally accurate, gives the area of
+Borneo at 289,860 sq. m. It is roughly, however, five times as large as
+England and Wales. Politically Borneo is divided into four portions: (1)
+British North Borneo, the territory exploited and administered by the
+Chartered British North Borneo Company, to which a separate section of
+this article is devoted; (2) Brunei (q.v.), a Malayan sultanate under
+British protection; (3) Sarawak (q.v.), the large territory ruled by
+raja Brooke, and under British protection in so far as its foreign
+relations are concerned; and (4) Dutch Borneo, which comprises the
+remainder and by far the largest and most valuable portion of the
+island.
+
+_Physical Features_.--The general character of the country is
+mountainous, though none of the ranges attains to any great elevation,
+and Kinabalu, the highest peak in the island, which is situated near its
+north-western extremity, is only 13,698 ft. above sea-level. There is no
+proper nucleus of mountains whence chains ramify in different
+directions. The central and west central parts of the island, however,
+are occupied by three mountain chains and a plateau. These chains are:
+(1) the folded chain of the upper Kapuas, which divides the western
+division of Dutch Borneo from Sarawak, extends west to east, and attains
+near the sources of the Kapuas river a height of 5000 to 6000 ft.; (2)
+the Schwaner chain, south of the Kapuas, whose summits range from 3000
+to 7500 ft., the latter being the height of Bukit Raja, a plateau which
+divides the waters of the Kapuas from the rivers of southern Borneo; and
+(3) the Muller chain, between the eastern parts of the Madi plateau
+(presently to be mentioned) and the Kapuas chain, a volcanic region
+presenting heights, such as Bukit Terata (4700 ft.), which were once
+active but are now long extinct volcanos. The Madi plateau lies between
+the Kapuas and the Schwaner chains. Its height is from 3000 to 4000 ft.,
+and it is clothed with tropical high fens. These mountain systems are
+homologous in structure with those, not of Celebes or of Halmahera, but
+of Malacca, Banka and Billiton. From the eastern end of the Kapuas
+mountains there are further to be observed: (1) A chain running
+north-north-east, which forms the boundary between Sarawak and Dutch
+Borneo, the highest peak of which, Gunong Tebang, approaches 10,000 ft.
+This chain can hardly be said to extend continuously to the extreme
+north of the island, but it carries on the line of elevation towards the
+mountains of Sarawak to the west, and those of British North Borneo to
+the north, of which latter Kinabalu is the most remarkable. The
+mountains of North Borneo are more particularly referred to in the
+portion of this article which deals with that territory. (2) A chain
+which runs eastward from the central mountains and terminates in the
+great promontory of the east coast, known variously as Cape Kanior or
+Kaniungan. (3) A well-marked chain running in a south-easterly direction
+among the congeries of hills that extend south-eastward from the central
+mountains, and attaining, near the southern part of the east coast,
+heights up to and exceeding 6000 ft.
+
+_Coasts._--Resting on a submarine plateau of no great depth, the coasts
+of Borneo are for the most part rimmed round by low alluvial lands, of a
+marshy, sandy and sometimes swampy character. In places the sands are
+fringed by long lines of _Casuarina_, trees; in others, and more
+especially in the neighbourhood of some of the river mouths, there are
+deep banks of black mud covered with mangroves; in others the coast
+presents to the sea bold headlands, cliffs, mostly of a reddish hue,
+sparsely clad with greenery, or rolling hills covered by a growth of
+rank grass. The depth of the sea around the shore rarely exceeds a
+maximum depth of 1 to 3 fathoms, and the coast as a whole offers few
+accessible ports. The towns and seaports are to be found as a rule at or
+near the mouths of those rivers which are not barricaded too efficiently
+by bars formed of mud or sand. All round the long coast-line of Dutch
+Borneo there are only seven ports of call, which are habitually made use
+of by the ships of the Dutch Packet Company. They are Pontianak,
+Banjermasin, Kota Bharu, Pasir, Samarinda, Beru and Bulungan. The
+islands off the coast are not numerous. Excluding some of alluvial
+formation at the mouths of many of the rivers, and others along the
+shore which owe their existence to volcanic upheaval, the principal
+islands are Banguey and Balambangan at the northern extremity, Labuan
+(q.v.), a British colony off the west coast of the territory of North
+Borneo, and the Karimata Islands off the south-west coast. On Great
+Karimata is situated the village of Palembang with a population of about
+500 souls employed in fishing, mining for iron, and trading in forest
+produce.
+
+[Illustration: BORNEO]
+
+_Rivers_.--The rivers play a very important part in the economy of
+Borneo, both as highways and as lines along which run the main arteries
+of population. Hydrographically the island may be divided into five
+principal versants. Of these the shortest embraces the north-western
+slope, north of the Kapuas range, and discharges its waters into the
+China Sea. The most important of its rivers are the Sarawak, the
+Batang-Lupar, the Sarebas, the Rejang (navigable for more than 100 m.),
+the Baram, the Limbang or Brunei river, and the Padas. The rivers of
+British North Borneo to the north of the Padas are of no importance and
+of scant practical utility, owing to the fact that the mountain range
+here approaches very closely to the coast with which it runs parallel.
+In the south-western versant the largest river is the Kapuas, which,
+rising near the centre of the island, falls into the sea between Mampawa
+and Sukadana after a long and winding course. This river, of volume
+varying with the tide and the amount of rainfall, is normally navigable
+by small steamers and native prahus, of a draught of 4 to 5 ft., for
+300 to 400 m., that is to say, from Pontianak up to Sintang, and thence
+as far as Benut. The middle part of this river, wider and more shallow
+than the lower reaches, gives rise to a region of inundation and lakes
+which extend as far as the northern mountain chain. Among its
+considerable tributaries may be mentioned the southern Melawi with its
+affluent the Penuh. It reaches the sea through several channels in a
+wide marshy delta. The Sambas, north of the Kapuas, is navigable in its
+lower course for vessels drawing 25 ft. Rivers lying to the south of the
+Kapuas, but of less importance in the way of size, commerce and
+navigation, are the Simpang, Pawanand Kandawangan, in the neighbourhood
+of whose mouths, or upon the adjacent coast, the principal native
+villages are situated in each case. The Barito, which is the principal
+river of the southern versant, takes its rise in the Kuti Lama Lake, and
+falls into the Java Sea in 114 deg. 30' E. Its upper reaches are greatly
+impeded by rocks, rapids and waterfalls, but the lower part of its
+course is wide, and traverses a rich, alluvial district, much of which
+is marshy. Cross branches unite it with two rivers of considerable size
+towards the west, the Kapuas Murung or Little Dyak, and the Kahayan or
+Great Dyak. The Katingan or Mendawei, the Sampit, Pembuang or Surian and
+the Kota Waringin are rivers that fall into the sea farther to the west.
+The rivers of the southern versant are waters of capacious drainage, the
+basin of the Kahayan having, for instance, an area of 16,000 sq. m., and
+the Barito one of 38,000 sq. m. These rivers are navigable for
+two-thirds of their course by steamers of a fair size, but in many cases
+the bars at their mouths present considerable difficulties to ships
+drawing anything over 8 or 9 ft. Most of the larger affluents of the
+Barito are also navigable throughout the greater part of their courses.
+The south-eastern like the north-western corner of the island is watered
+by a considerable number of short mountain streams. The one great river
+of the eastern versant is the Kutei or Mahakan, which, rising in the
+central mountains, flows east with a sinuous course and falls by
+numerous mounts into the Straits of Madassar. At a great distance from
+its mouth it has still a depth of three fathoms, and in all its physical
+features it is comparable to the Kapuas and Barito. The Kayan or
+Bulungan river is the only other in the eastern versant that calls for
+mention. Most of the rivers of the northern versant are comparatively
+small, as the island narrows into a kind of promontory. Of these the
+Kinabatangan in the territory of British North Borneo is the most
+important. Lakes are neither numerous nor very large. In most cases they
+are more fittingly described as swamps. In the flood area of the upper
+Kapuas, of which mention has already been made, there occurs Lake Luar,
+and there are several lake expanses of a similar character in the basins
+of the Barito and Kutei rivers. The only really fine natural harbour in
+the island of which any use has been made is that of Sandakan, the
+principal settlement of the North Borneo Company on the north coast.
+
+  _Geology._--The geology of Borneo is very imperfectly known. The
+  mountain range which lies between Sarawak and the Dutch possessions,
+  and may be looked upon as the backbone of the island, consists chiefly
+  of crystalline schists, together with slates, sandstones and
+  limestones. All these beds are much disturbed and folded. The
+  sedimentary deposits were formerly believed to be Palaeozoic, but
+  Jurassic fossils have since been found in them, and it is probable
+  that several different formations are represented. Somewhat similar
+  rocks appear to form the axis of the range in south-east Borneo, and
+  possibly of the Tampatung Mountains. But the Muller range, the Madi
+  plateau, and the Schwaner Mountains of west Borneo, consist chiefly of
+  almost undisturbed sedimentary and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. The
+  low-lying country between the mountain ranges is covered for the most
+  part by Tertiary and Quaternary deposits, but Cretaceous beds occur at
+  several localities. Some of the older rocks of the mountain regions
+  have been referred to the Devonian, but the evidence cannot be
+  considered conclusive. _Vertebraria_ and _Phyllotheca_, plants
+  characteristic of the Indian Gondwana series, have been recorded in
+  Sarawak; and marine forms, similar to those of the lower part of the
+  Australian Carboniferous system, are stated to occur in the limestone
+  of north Borneo. _Pseudomonotis salinaria_, a Triassic form, has been
+  noted from the schists of the west of Borneo. In the Kapoewas district
+  radiolarian cherts supposed to be of Jurassic age are met with.
+  Undoubted Jurassic fossils, belonging to several horizons, have been
+  described from west Borneo and Sarawak. The Cretaceous beds, which
+  have long been known in west Borneo, are comparatively little
+  disturbed. They consist for the most part of marls with _Orbitolina
+  concava_, and are referred to the Cenomanian. Cretaceous beds of
+  somewhat later date are found in the Marpapura district in south-east
+  Borneo. The Tertiary system includes conglomerates, sandstones,
+  limestones and marls, which appear to be of Eocene, Oligocene and
+  Miocene age. They contain numerous seams of coal. The Tertiary beds
+  generally lie nearly horizontal and form the lower hills, but in the
+  Madi plateau and the Schwaner range they rise to a height of several
+  thousand feet. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary and late Cretaceous age are
+  extensively developed, especially in the Muller Mountains. The whole
+  of this consists of tuffs and lavas, andesites prevailing in the west
+  and rhyolites and dacites in the east.
+
+_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of Borneo is great and varied. It
+includes diamonds, the majority of which, however, are of a somewhat
+yellow colour, gold, quicksilver, cinnabar, copper, iron, tin, antimony,
+mineral oils, sulphur, rock-salt, marble and coal. The exploitation of
+the mines suffers in many cases from the difficulties and expense of
+transport, the high duties payable in Dutch Borneo to the native
+princes, the competition among the rival companies, and often the
+limited quantities of the minerals found in the mines. The districts of
+Sambas and Landak in the west, the Kahayan river, the mountain valleys
+of the extreme south-east and parts of Sarawak furnish the largest
+quantities of gold, which is obtained for the most part from alluvial
+washings. The Borneo Company is engaged in working gold-mines in the
+upper part of the Sarawak valley, and the prospects of the enterprise,
+which is conducted on a fairly extensive scale, are known to be
+encouraging. Diamonds are also found widely distributed and mainly in
+the same regions as the gold. The Kapuas valley has so far yielded the
+largest quantity, and Pontianak is, for diamonds, the principal port of
+export. Considerable progress has been made in the development of the
+oil-fields in Dutch Borneo, and the _Nederlandsch Indische Industrie en
+Handel Maatschappij_, the Dutch business of the Shell Transport and
+Trading Company, increased its output from 123,592 tons in 1901 to
+285,720 tons in 1904, and showed further satisfactory increase
+thereafter. This company owns extensive oil-fields at Balik Papan and
+Sanga-Sanga. The quality of the oil varies in a remarkable way according
+to the depth. The upper stratum is struck at a depth of 600 to 700 ft.,
+and yields a natural liquid fuel of heavy specific gravity. The next
+source is met with at about 1200 ft., yielding an oil which is much
+lighter in weight and, as such, more suitable for treatment in the
+refinery. The former oil is almost invariably of an asphalte basis,
+whereas the latter sometimes is found to contain a considerable
+percentage of paraffin wax. The average daily production is very high,
+owing to a large number of the wells flowing under the natural pressure
+of the gas. There is every reason to believe that the oil-fields of
+Dutch Borneo have a great future. Coal mines have, in many instances,
+been opened and abandoned, failure being due to the difficulty of
+production. Coal of good quality has been found in Pengaron and
+elsewhere in the Banjermasin district, but most Borneo coal is
+considerably below this average of excellence. It has also been found in
+fair quantities at various places in the Kutei valley and in Sarawak.
+The coalmines of Labuan have been worked spasmodically, but success has
+never attended the venture. Sadong yields something under 130 tons a
+day, and the Brooketown mine, the property of the raja of Sarawak,
+yields some 50 tons a day of rather indifferent coal. The discovery that
+Borneo produced antimony was made in 1825 by John Crawfurd, the
+orientalist, who learned in that year that a quantity had been brought
+to Singapore by a native trader as ballast. The supply is practically
+unlimited and widely distributed. The principal mine is at Bidi in
+Sarawak.
+
+_Climate and Health_.--As is to be anticipated, having regard to its
+insular position and to the fact that the equator passes through the
+very middle of the island, the climate is at once hot and very damp. In
+the hills and in the interior regions are found which may almost be
+described as temperate, but on the coasts the atmosphere is dense, humid
+and oppressive. Throughout the average temperature is from 78 deg. to 80
+deg. F., but the thermometer rarely falls below 70 deg., except in the
+hills, and occasionally on exceptional days mounts as high as 96 deg. in
+the shade. The rainy westerly winds (S.W. and N.W.) prevail at all the
+meteorological stations, not the comparatively dry south-east wind. Even
+at Banjermasin, near the south coast, the north-west wind brings
+annually a rainfall of 60 in., as against 33 in. of rain carried by the
+south-east wind. The difference between the seasons is not rigidly
+marked. The climate is practically unchanging all the year round, the
+atmosphere being uniformly moist, and though days of continuous downpour
+are rare, comparatively few days pass without a shower. Most rain falls
+between November and May, and at this season the torrents are tremendous
+while they last, and squalls of wind are frequent and violent, almost
+invariably preceding a downpour. Over such an extensive area there is,
+of course, great variety in the climatic character of different
+districts, especially when viewed in relation to health. Some places,
+such as Bidi in Sarawak, for instance, are notoriously unhealthy; but
+from the statistics of the Dutch government, and the records of Sarawak
+and British North Borneo, it would appear that the European in Borneo
+has in general not appreciably more to fear than his fellow in Java, or
+in the Federated Malay States of the Malayan Peninsula. Among the native
+races the prevailing diseases, apart from those of a malarial origin,
+are chiefly such as arise from bad and insufficient food, from
+intemperance, and from want of cleanliness. The habit of allowing their
+meat to putrefy before regarding it as fit for food, and of encouraging
+children of tender age to drink to intoxication, accounts for absence of
+old folk and the heavy mortality which are to be observed among the
+Muruts of British North Borneo and some of the other more debased tribes
+of the interior of the island. Scrofula and various forms of lupus are
+common among the natives throughout the country and especially in the
+interior; elephantiasis is frequently met with on the coast. Smallpox,
+dysentery and fevers, frequently of a bilious character, are endemic and
+occasionally epidemic. Cholera breaks out from time to time and works
+great havoc, as was the case in 1903 when one of the raja of Sarawak's
+punitive expeditions was stricken while ascending the Limbang river by
+boat, and lost many hundreds of its numbers before the coast could be
+regained. Ophthalmia is common and sometimes will attack whole tribes.
+About one sixth of the native population of the interior, and a smaller
+proportion of those living on the coast, suffer from a kind of ringworm
+called _kurap_, which also prevails almost universally among the Sakai
+and Semang, the aboriginal hill tribes of the Malayan Peninsula. The
+disease is believed to be aggravated by chronic anaemia. Consumption is
+not uncommon.
+
+_Fauna_.--The fauna of Borneo comprises a large variety of species, many
+of which are numerically of great importance. Among the quadrupeds the
+most remarkable is the orang-utan (Malay, _orang utan_, i.e. jungle
+man), as the huge ape, called _mias_ or _mayas_ by the natives, is named
+by Europeans. Numerous species of monkey are found in Borneo, including
+the wahwah, a kind of gibbon, a creature far more human in appearance
+and habits than the orang-utan, and several _Semnopitheci_, such as the
+long-nosed ape and the golden-black or _chrysomelas_. The large-eyed
+_Stenops tardigradus_ also deserves mention. The larger beasts of prey
+are not met with, and little check is therefore put on the natural
+fecundity of the graminivorous species. A small panther and the clouded
+tiger (so called)--_Felis macroscelis_--are the largest animals of the
+cat kind that occur in Borneo. The Bengal tiger is not found. The Malay
+or honey-bear is very common. The rhinoceros and the elephant both occur
+in the northern part of the island, though both are somewhat rare, and
+in this connexion it should be noted that the distribution of quadrupeds
+as between Borneo, Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsula is somewhat
+peculiar and seemingly somewhat capricious. Many quadrupeds, such as the
+honey-bear and the rhinoceros, are common to all, but while the tiger is
+common both in the Malayan Peninsula and in Sumatra, it does not occur
+in Borneo; the elephant, so common in the peninsula, and found in
+Borneo, is unknown in Sumatra; and the orang-utan, so plentiful in parts
+of Borneo and parts of Sumatra, has never been discovered in the Malay
+Peninsula. It has been suggested, but with very scant measure of
+probability, that the existence of elephants in Borneo, whose
+confinement to a single district is remarkable and unexplained, is due
+to importation; and the fact is on record that when Magellan's ships
+visited Brunei in 1522 tame elephants were in use at the court of the
+sultan of Brunei. Wild oxen of the Sunda race, not to be in any way
+confounded with the Malayan _seladang_ or gaur, are rare, but the whole
+country swarms with wild swine, and the _babirusa_, a pig with curious
+horn-like tusks, is not uncommon. Alligators are found in most of the
+rivers, and the gavial is less frequently met with. Three or four
+species of deer are common, including the mouse-deer, or _plandok_, an
+animal of remarkable grace and beauty, about the size of a hare but
+considerably less heavy. Squirrels, flying-squirrels, porcupines,
+civet-cats, rats, bats, flying-foxes and lizards are found in great
+variety; snakes of various kinds, from the boa-constrictor downward, are
+abundant, while the forests swarm with tree-leeches, and the marshes
+with horse-leeches and frogs. A remarkable flying-frog was discovered by
+Professor A.R. Wallace. Birds are somewhat rare in some quarters. The
+most important are eagles, kites, vultures, falcons, owls, horn-bills,
+cranes, pheasants (notably the argus, fire-back and peacock-pheasants),
+partridges, ravens, crows, parrots, pigeons, woodpeckers, doves, snipe,
+quail and swallows. Of most of these birds several varieties are met
+with. The _Cypselus esculentus_, or edible-nest swift, is very common,
+and the nests, which are built mostly in limestone caves, are esteemed
+the best in the archipelago. Mosquitoes and sand-flies are the chief
+insect pests, and in some districts are very troublesome. Several kinds
+of parasitic jungle ticks cause much annoyance to men and to beasts.
+There are also two kinds of ants, the semut api ("fire ant") and the
+_semut lada_ ("pepper ant"), whose bites are peculiarly painful.
+Hornets, bees and wasps of many varieties abound. The honey and the wax
+of the wild bee are collected by the natives. Butterflies and moths are
+remarkable for their number, size, variety and beauty. Beetles are no
+less numerously represented, as is to be expected in a country so richly
+wooded as Borneo. The swamps and rivers, as well as the surrounding
+seas, swarm with fish. The _siawan_ is a species of fish found in the
+rivers and valued for its spawn, which is salted. The natives are expert
+and ingenious fishermen. Turtles, trepang and pearl-shell are of some
+commercial importance.
+
+The dog, the cat, the pig, the domestic fowl (which is not very
+obviously related to the bantam of the woods), the buffalo, a smaller
+breed than that met with in the Malayan Peninsula, and in some districts
+bullocks of the Brahmin breed and small horses, are the principal
+domestic animals. The character of the country and the nomadic habits of
+many of the natives of the interior, who rarely occupy their villages
+for more than a few years in succession, have not proved favourable to
+pastoral modes of life. The buffaloes are used not only in agriculture,
+but also as beasts of burden, as draught-animals and for the saddle.
+Horses, introduced by Europeans and owned only by the wealthier classes,
+are found in Banjermasin and in Sarawak. In British North Borneo, and
+especially in the district of Tempasuk on the north-west coast, Borneo
+ponies, bred originally, it is supposed, from the stock which is
+indigenous to the Sulu archipelago, are common.
+
+_Flora_.--The flora of Borneo is very rich, the greater portion of the
+surface of the island being clothed in luxuriant vegetation. The king of
+the forest is the _tapan_, which, rising to a great height without fork
+or branch, culminates in a splendid dome of foliage. The official seats
+of some of the chiefs are constructed from the wood of this tree.
+Iron-wood, remarkable for the durability of its timber, is abundant; it
+is used by the natives for the pillars of their homes and forms an
+article of export, chiefly to Hong-Kong. It is rivalled in hardness by
+the _kayu tembesu_. In all, about sixty kinds of timber of marketable
+quality are furnished in more or less profusion, but the difficulty of
+extraction, even in the regions situated in close proximity to the large
+waterways, renders it improbable that the timber trade of Borneo will
+attain to any very great dimensions until other and easier sources of
+supply have become exhausted. Palm-trees are abundant in great variety,
+including the _nipah_, which is much used for thatching, the cabbage,
+fan, sugar, coco and sago palms. The last two furnish large supplies of
+food to the natives, some copra is exported, and sago factories, mostly
+in the hands of Chinese, prepare sago for the Dutch and British markets.
+Gutta-percha (_getah percha_ in the vernacular), camphor, cinnamon,
+cloves, nutmegs, gambir and betel, or areca-nuts, are all produced in
+the island; most of the tropical fruits flourish, including the
+much-admired but, to the uninitiated, most evil-smelling durian, a large
+fruit with an exceedingly strong outer covering composed of stout
+pyramidal spikes, which grows upon the branches of a tall tree and
+occasionally in falling inflicts considerable injuries upon passers-by.
+Yams, several kinds of sweet potatoes, melons, pumpkins, cucumbers,
+pineapples, bananas and mangosteens are cultivated, as also are a large
+number of other fruits. Rice is grown in irrigated lands near the rivers
+and in the swamps, and also in rude clearings in the interior;
+sugar-cane of superior quality in Sambas and Montrado; cotton, sometimes
+exported in small quantities, on the banks of the Negara, a tributary of
+the Barito; tobacco, used very largely now in the production of cigars,
+in various parts of northern Borneo; and tobacco for native consumption,
+which is of small commercial importance, is cultivated in most parts of
+the island. Indigo, coffee and pepper have been cultivated since 1855 in
+the western division of Dutch Borneo. Among the more beautiful of the
+flowering plants are rhododendrons, orchids and pitcher-plants--the
+latter reaching extraordinary development, especially in the northern
+districts about Kinabalu. Epiphytous plants are very common, many that
+are usually independent assuming here the parasitic character; the
+_Vanda lowii_, for example, grows on the lower branches of trees, and
+its strange pendent flower-stalks often hang down so as almost to reach
+the ground. Ferns are abundant, but not so varied as in Java.
+
+_Population._--The population of Borneo is not known with any approach
+to accuracy, but according to the political divisions of the island it
+is estimated as follows:--
+
+  Dutch Borneo             1,130,000
+  British North Borneo       200,000
+  Sarawak                    500,000
+  Brunei                      20,000
+
+No effective census of the population has ever been taken, and vast
+areas in Dutch Borneo and in British North Borneo remain unexplored, and
+free from any practical authority or control. In Sarawak, owing to the
+high administrative genius of the first raja and his successor, the
+natives have been brought far more completely under control, but the
+raja has never found occasion to utilize the machinery of his government
+for the accurate enumeration of his subjects.
+
+Dutch Borneo is divided for administrative purposes into two divisions,
+the western and the south and eastern respectively. Of the two, the
+former is under the more complete and effective control. The estimated
+population in the western division is 413,000 and in the south and
+eastern 717,000. Europeans number barely 1000; Arabs about 3000, and
+Chinese, mainly in the western division, over 40,000. In both divisions
+there is an average density of little more than 1 to every 2 sq. m. The
+sparseness of the population throughout the Dutch territory is due to a
+variety of causes--to the physical character of the country, which for
+the most part restricts the area of population to the near neighbourhood
+of the rivers; to the low standard of civilization to which the majority
+of the natives have attained and the consequent disregard of sanitation
+and hygiene; to wars, piracy and head-hunting, the last of which has not
+even yet been effectually checked among some of the tribes of the
+interior; and to the aggression and oppressions in earlier times of
+Malayan, Arab and Bugis settlers. Among the natives, more especially of
+the interior, an innate restlessness which leads to a life of spasmodic
+nomadism, poverty, insufficient nourishment, an incredible improvidence
+which induces them to convert into intoxicating liquor a large portion
+of their annual crops, feasts of a semi-religious character which are
+invariably accompanied by prolonged drunken orgies, and certain
+superstitions which necessitate the frequent procuration of abortion,
+have contributed to check the growth of population. In Sambas, Montrado
+and some parts of Pontianak, the greater density of the population is
+due to the greater fertility of the soil, the opening of mines, the
+navigation and trade plied on the larger rivers, and the concentration
+of the population at the junctions of rivers, the mouths of rivers and
+the seats of government. Of the chief place in the western division,
+Pontianak has about 9000 inhabitants; Sambas about 8000; Montrado,
+Mampawa and Landak between 2000 and 4000 each; and in the south and
+eastern division there are Banjermasin with nearly 50,000 inhabitants;
+Marabahan, Amuntai, Negara, Samarinda and Tengarung with populations of
+from 5000 to 10,000 inhabitants each. In Amuntai and Martapura early
+Hindu colonization, of which the traces and the influence still are
+manifest, the fertile soil, trade and industry aided by navigable
+rivers, have co-operated towards the growth of population to a degree
+which presents a marked contrast to the conditions in the interior parts
+of the Upper Barito and of the more westerly rivers. Only a very small
+proportion of the Europeans in Dutch Borneo live by agriculture and
+industry, the great majority of them being officials. The Arabs and
+Chinese are engaged in trading, mining, fishing and agriculture. Of the
+natives fully 90% live by agriculture, which, however, is for the most
+part of a somewhat primitive description. The industries of the natives
+are confined to such crafts as spinning and weaving and dyeing, the
+manufacture of iron weapons and implements, boat- and shipbuilding, &c.
+More particularly in the south-eastern division, and especially in the
+districts of Negara, Banjermasin, Amuntai and Martapura, shipbuilding,
+iron forging, gold- and silversmith's work, and the polishing of
+diamonds, are industries of high development in the larger centres of
+population.
+
+_Races._--The peoples of Borneo belong to a considerable variety of
+races, of different origin and degrees of civilization. The most
+important numerically are the Dyaks, the Dusuns and Muruts of the
+interior, the Malays, among whom must be counted such Malayan tribes as
+the Bajaus, Ilanuns, &c., the Bugis, who were originally immigrants from
+Celebes, and the Chinese. The Dutch, and to a minor extent the Arabs,
+are of importance on account of their political influence in Dutch
+Borneo, while the British communities have a similar importance in
+Sarawak and in British North Borneo. Accounts of the Malays, Dyaks and
+Bugis are given under their several headings, and some information
+concerning the Dusuns and Muruts will be found in the section below,
+which deals with British North Borneo. The connexion of the Chinese with
+Borneo calls for notice here. They seem to have been the first civilized
+people who had dealings with Borneo, if the colonization of a portion of
+the south-eastern corner of the island by Hindus be excepted. The
+Chinese annals speak of tribute paid to the empire by Pha-la on the
+north-east coast of the island as early as the 7th century, and later
+documents mention a Chinese colonization in the 15th century. The
+traditions of the Malays and Dyaks seem to confirm the statements, and
+many of the leading families of Brunei in north-west Borneo claim to
+have Chinese blood in their veins, while the annals of Sulu record an
+extensive Chinese immigration about 1575. However this may be, it is
+certain that the flourishing condition of Borneo in the 16th and 17th
+centuries was largely due to the energy of Chinese settlers and to trade
+with China. In the 18th century there was a considerable Chinese
+population settled in Brunei, engaged for the most part in planting and
+exporting pepper, but the consistent oppression of the native rajas
+destroyed their industry and led eventually to the practical extirpation
+of the Chinese. The Malay chiefs of other districts encouraged
+immigration from China with a view to developing the mineral resources
+of their territories, and before long Chinese settlers were to be found
+in considerable numbers in Sambas, Montrado, Pontianak and elsewhere.
+They were at first forbidden to engage in commerce or agriculture, to
+carry firearms, to possess or manufacture gunpowder. About 1779 the
+Dutch acquired immediate authority over all strangers, and thus assumed
+responsibility for the control of the Chinese, who presently proved
+themselves somewhat troublesome. Their numbers constantly increased and
+were reinforced by new immigrants, and pushing inland in search of fresh
+mineral-bearing areas, they contracted frequent intermarriages with the
+Dyaks and other non-Mahommedan natives. They brought with them from
+China their aptitude for the organization of secret societies which,
+almost from the first, assumed the guise of political associations.
+These secret societies furnished them with a machinery whereby
+collective action was rendered easy, and under astute leaders they
+offered a formidable opposition to the Dutch government. Later, when
+driven into the interior and eventually out of Dutch territory, they
+cost the first raja of Sarawak some severe contests before they were at
+last reduced to obedience. Serious disturbances among the Chinese are
+now in Borneo matters of ancient history, and to-day the Chinaman forms
+perhaps the most valuable element in the civilization and development of
+the island, just as does his fellow in the mining states of the Malayan
+Peninsula. They are industrious, frugal and intelligent; the richer
+among them are excellent men of business and are peculiarly equitable in
+their dealings; the majority of all classes can read and write their own
+script, and the second generation acquires an education of an European
+type with great facility. The bulk of the shopkeeping, trading and
+mining industries, so long as the mining is of an alluvial character, is
+in Chinese hands. The greater part of the Chinese on the west coast are
+originally drawn from the boundaries of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si. They
+are called Kehs by the Malays, and are of the same tribes as those which
+furnish the bulk of the workers to the tin mines of the Malay Peninsula.
+They are a rough and hardy people, and are apt at times to be
+turbulent. The shopkeeping class comes mostly from Fuh-kien and the
+coast districts of Amoy. They are known to the Borneans as Ollohs.
+
+_History._--As far as is known, Borneo never formed a political unity,
+and even its geographical unity as an island is a fact unappreciated by
+the vast majority of its native inhabitants. The name of Kalamantan has
+been given by some Europeans (on what original authority it is not
+possible now to ascertain) as the native name for the island of Borneo
+considered as a whole; but it is safe to aver that among the natives of
+the island itself Borneo has never borne any general designation. To
+this day, among the natives of the Malayan Archipelago, men speak of
+going to Pontianak, to Sambas or to Brunei, as the case may be, but make
+use of no term which recognizes that these localities are part of a
+single whole. The only archaeological remains are a few Hindu temples,
+and it is probable that the early settlement of the south-eastern
+portion of the island by Hindus dates from some time during the first
+six centuries of our era. There exist, however, no data, not even any
+trustworthy tradition, from which to reconstruct the early history of
+Borneo. Borneo began to be known to Europeans after the fall of Malacca
+in 1511, when Alphonso d'Albuquerque despatched Antonio d'Abreu with
+three ships in search of the Molucca or Spice Islands with instructions
+to establish friendly relations with all the native states that he might
+encounter on his way. D'Abreu, sailing in a south-easterly direction
+from the Straits of Malacca, skirted the southern coast of Borneo and
+laid up his ships at Amboyna, a small island near the south-western
+extremity of Ceram. He returned to Malacca in 1514, leaving one of his
+captains, Francisco Serrano, at Ternate, where Magellan's followers
+found him in 1521. After Magellan's death, his comrades sailed from the
+Moluccas across the Celebes into the Sulu Sea, and were the first white
+men who are known to have visited Brunei on the north-west coast of
+Borneo, where they arrived in 1522. Pigafetta gives an interesting
+account of the place and of the reception of the adventurers by the
+sultan. The Molucca Islands being, at that time, the principal objective
+of European traders, and the route followed by Magellan's ships being
+frequently used, Borneo was often touched at during the remainder of the
+16th century, and trade relations with Brunei were successfully
+established by the Portuguese. In 1573 the Spaniards tried somewhat
+unsuccessfully to obtain a share of this commerce, but it was not until
+1580, when a dethroned sultan appealed to them for assistance and by
+their agency was restored to his own, that they attained their object.
+Thereafter the Spaniards maintained a fitful intercourse with Brunei,
+varied by not infrequent hostilities, and in 1645 a punitive expedition
+on a larger scale than heretofore was sent to chastise Brunei for
+persistent acts of piracy. No attempt at annexation followed upon this
+action, commerce rather than territory being at this period the prime
+object of both the Spaniards and the Portuguese, whose influence upon
+the natives was accordingly proportionately small. The only effort at
+proselytizing of which we have record came to an untimely end in the
+death of the Theatine monk, Antonio Ventimiglia, who had been its
+originator. Meanwhile the Dutch and British East India Companies had
+been formed, had destroyed the monopoly so long enjoyed by the
+Portuguese, and to a less extent the Spaniards, in the trade of the
+Malayan Archipelago, and had gained a footing in Borneo. The
+establishment of Dutch trading-posts on the west coast of Borneo dates
+from 1604, nine years after the first Dutch fleet, under Houtman, sailed
+from the Texel to dispute with the Portuguese the possession of the
+Eastern trade, and in 1608 Samuel Blommaert was appointed Dutch
+resident, or head factor, in Landak and Sukedana. The first appearance
+of the British in Borneo dates from 1609, and by 1698 they had an
+important settlement at Banjermasin, whence they were subsequently
+expelled by the influence of the Dutch, who about 1733 obtained from the
+sultan a trading monopoly. The Dutch, in fact, speedily became the
+predominant European race throughout the Malay Archipelago, defeating
+the British by superior energy and enterprise, and the trading-posts all
+along the western and southern coasts of Borneo were presently their
+exclusive possessions, the sultan of Bantam, who was the overlord of
+these districts, ceding his rights to the Dutch. The British meanwhile
+had turned their attention to the north of the island, over which the
+sultan of Sulu exercised the rights of suzerain, and from him, in 1759,
+Alexander Dalrymple obtained possession of the island of Balambangan,
+and the whole of the north-eastern promontory. A military post was
+established, but it was destroyed in 1775 by the natives under the
+_dato'_, or vassal chiefs, who resented the cession of their territory.
+This mishap rendered a treaty, which had been concluded in 1774 with the
+sultan of Brunei, practically a dead letter, and by the end of the
+century British influence in Borneo was to all intents and purposes at
+an end. The Dutch also mismanaged their affairs in Borneo and suffered
+from a series of misfortunes which led Marshal Daendels in 1809 to order
+the abandonment of all their posts. The natives of the coasts of Borneo,
+assisted and stimulated by immigrants from the neighbouring islands to
+the north, devoted themselves more and more to organized piracy, and
+putting to sea in great fleets manned by two and three thousand men on
+cruises that lasted for two and even three years, they terrorized the
+neighbouring seas and rendered the trade of civilized nations almost
+impossible for a prolonged period. During the occupation of Java by the
+British an embassy was despatched to Sir Stamford Raffles by the sultan
+of Banjermasin asking for assistance, and in 1811 Alexander Hare was
+despatched thither as commissioner and resident. He not only obtained
+for his government an advantageous treaty, but secured for himself a
+grant of a district which he proceeded to colonize and cultivate. About
+the same time a British expedition was also sent against Sambas and a
+post established at Pontianak. On the restoration of Java to the Dutch
+in 1816, all these arrangements were cancelled, and the Dutch government
+was left in undisputed possession of the field. An energetic policy was
+soon after adopted, and about half the kingdom of Banjermasin was
+surrendered to the Dutch by its sultan in 1823, further concessions
+being made two years later. Meanwhile, George Muller, while exploring
+the east coast, obtained from the sultan of Kutei an acknowledgment of
+Dutch authority, a concession speedily repented by its donor, since the
+enterprising traveller was shortly afterwards killed. The outbreak of
+war in Java caused Borneo to be more or less neglected by the Dutch for
+a considerable period, and no effective check was imposed upon the
+natives with a view to stopping piracy, which was annually becoming more
+and more unendurable. On the rise of Singapore direct trade had been
+established with Sarawak and Brunei, and it became a matter of moment to
+British merchants that this traffic should be safe. In 1838 Sir James
+Brooke, an Englishman, whose attention had been turned to the state of
+affairs in the Eastern Archipelago, set out for Borneo, determined, if
+possible, to remedy the evil. By 1841 he had obtained from the sultan of
+Brunei the grant of supreme authority over Sarawak, in which state, on
+the sultan's behalf, he had waged a successful war, and before many
+years had elapsed he had, with the aid of the British government,
+succeeded in suppressing piracy (see BROOKE, SIR JAMES; and SARAWAK). In
+1847 the sultan of Brunei agreed to make no cession of territory to any
+nation or individual without the consent of Great Britain. Since then
+more and more territory has been ceded by the sultans of Brunei to the
+raja of Sarawak and to British North Borneo, and to-day the merest
+remnant of his once extensive state is left within the jurisdiction of
+the sultan. The treaty in 1847 put an end once for all to the hopes
+which the Dutch had cherished of including the whole island in their
+dominions, but it served also to stimulate their efforts to consolidate
+their power within the sphere already subjected to their influence.
+Gunong Tebur, Tanjong, and Bulungan had made nominal submission to them
+in 1834, and in 1844 the sultan of Kutei acknowledged their
+protectorate, a treaty of a similar character being concluded about the
+same time with Pasir. The boundaries of British and Dutch Borneo were
+finally defined by a treaty concluded on the 20th of June 1891. In spite
+of this, however, large areas in the interior, both in Dutch Borneo and
+in the territory owned by the British North Borneo Company, are still
+only nominally under European control, and have experienced few direct
+effects of European administration.
+
+
+BRITISH NORTH BORNEO OR SABAH
+
+Sabah is the name applied by the natives to certain portions of the
+territory situated on the north-western coast of the island, and
+originally in no way included the remainder of the country now owned by
+the British North Borneo Company. It has become customary, however, for
+the name to be used by Europeans in Borneo to denote the whole of the
+company's territory, and little by little the more educated natives are
+insensibly adopting the practice.
+
+_History._--As has been seen, the British connexion with northern and
+north-western Borneo terminated with the 18th century, nor was it
+resumed until 1838, when Raja Brooke set out for Brunei and Sarawak. The
+island of Labuan (q.v.) was occupied by the British as a crown colony in
+1848, and this may be taken as the starting-point of renewed British
+relations with that portion of northern Borneo which is situated to the
+north of Brunei. In 1872 the Labuan Trading Company was established in
+Sandakan, the fine harbour on the northern coast which was subsequently
+the capital of the North Borneo Company's territory. In 1878, through
+the instrumentality of Mr (afterwards Sir) Alfred Dent, the sultan of
+Sulu was induced to transfer to a syndicate, formed by Baron Overbeck
+and Mr Dent, all his rights in North Borneo, of which, as has been seen,
+he had been from time immemorial the overlord. The chief promoters of
+this syndicate were Sir Rutherford Alcock, Admiral the Hon. Sir Harry
+Keppel, who at an earlier stage of his career had rendered great
+assistance to the first raja of Sarawak in the suppression of piracy,
+and Mr Richard B. Martin. Early in 1881 the British North Borneo
+Provisional Association, Limited, was formed to take over the concession
+which had been obtained from the sultan of Sulu, and in November of that
+year a petition was addressed to Queen Victoria praying for a royal
+charter. This was granted, and subsequently the British North Borneo
+Company, which was formed in May 1882, took over, in spite of some
+diplomatic protests on the part of the Dutch and Spanish governments,
+all the sovereign and territorial rights ceded by the original grants,
+and proceeded under its charter to organize the administration of the
+territory. The company subsequently acquired further sovereign and
+territorial rights from the sultan of Brunei and his chiefs in addition
+to some which had already been obtained at the time of the formation of
+the company. The Putatan river was ceded in May 1884, the Padas
+district, including the Padas and Kalias rivers, in November of the same
+year, the Kawang river in February 1885, and the Mantanani islands in
+April 1885. In 1888, by an agreement with the "State of North Borneo,"
+the territory of the company was made a British protectorate, but its
+administration remained entirely in the hands of the company, the crown
+reserving only control of its foreign relations, and the appointment of
+its governors being required to receive the formal sanction of the
+secretary of state for the colonies. In 1890 the British government
+placed the colony of Labuan under the administration of the company, the
+governor of the state of North Borneo thereafter holding a royal
+commission as governor of Labuan in addition to his commission from the
+company. This arrangement held good until 1905, when, in answer to the
+frequently and strongly expressed desire of the colonists, Labuan was
+removed from the jurisdiction of the company and attached to the colony
+of the Straits Settlements. In March 1898 arrangements were made whereby
+the sultan of Brunei ceded to the company all his sovereign and
+territorial rights to the districts situated to the north of the Padas
+river which up to that time had been retained by him. This had the
+effect of rounding off the company's territories, and had the additional
+advantage of doing away with the various no-man's lands which had long
+been used by the discontented among the natives as so many Caves of
+Adullam. The company's acquisition of territory was viewed with
+considerable dissatisfaction by many of the natives, and this found
+expression in frequent acts of violence. The most noted and the most
+successful of the native leaders was a Bajau named Mat Saleh (Mahomet
+Saleh), who for many years defied the company, whose policy in his
+regard was marked by considerable weakness and vacillation. In 1898 a
+composition was made with him, the terms of which were unfortunately not
+defined with sufficient clearness, and he retired into the Tambunan
+country, to the east of the range which runs parallel with the west
+coast, where for a period he lorded it unchecked over the Dusun tribes
+of the valley. In 1899 it was found necessary to expel him, since his
+acts of aggression and defiance were no longer endurable. A short, and
+this time a successful campaign followed, resulting, on the 31st of
+January 1900, in the death of Mat Saleh, and the destruction of his
+defences. Some of his followers who escaped raided the town of Kudat on
+Marudu Bay in April of the same year, but caused more panic than damage,
+and little by little during the next years the last smouldering embers
+of rebellion were extinguished. At the present time, though effective
+administration of the more inaccessible districts of the interior cannot
+be said to have been established even yet, the pacification of the
+native population is to all intents and purposes complete. The Tambunan
+district, the last stronghold of Mat Saleh, is now thoroughly settled.
+It is some 500 sq. m. in extent, and carries a population of perhaps
+12,000.
+
+_Geography._--The state of North Borneo may roughly be said to form a
+pentagon of which three sides, the north-west, north-east and east are
+washed by the sea, while the remaining two sides, the south-west and the
+south, are bordered respectively by the Malayan sultanate of Brunei, and
+by the territories of the raja of Sarawak and of the Dutch government.
+The boundary between the company's territory and the Dutch government is
+defined by the treaty concluded in June 1891, of which mention has
+already been made.
+
+The total area of the company's territory is estimated at about 31,000
+sq. m., with a coast-line of over 900 m. The greater portion is
+exceedingly hilly and in parts mountainous, and the interior consists
+almost entirely of highlands with here and there open valleys and
+plateaus of 50 to 60 sq. m. in extent. On the west coast the mountain
+range, as already noted, runs parallel with the seashore at a distance
+from it of about 15 m. Of this range the central feature is the mountain
+of Kinabalu, which is composed of porphyritic granite and igneous rocks
+and attains to a height of 13,698 ft. Mount Madalon, some 15 or 20 m. to
+the north, is 5000 ft. in height, and inland across the valley of the
+Pagalan river, which runs through the Tambunan country and falls into
+the Padas, rises the peak of Trus Madi, estimated to be 11,000 ft. above
+sea-level. The valley of the Pagalan is itself for the most part from
+1000 to 2000 ft. above the sea, forming a string of small plateaus
+marking the sites of former lakes. From the base of Trus Madi to the
+eastern coast the country consists of huddled hills broken here and
+there by regions of a more mountainous character. The principal plateaus
+are in the Tambunan and Kaningau valleys, in the basin of the Pagalan,
+and the Ranau plain to the eastward of the base of Kinabalu. Similar
+plateaus of minor importance are to be found dotted about the interior.
+The proximity of the mountain range to the seashore causes the rivers of
+the west coast, with the single exception of the Padas, to be rapid,
+boulder-obstructed, shallow streams of little value as means of
+communication for a distance of more than half a dozen miles from their
+mouths. The Padas is navigable for light-draught steam-launches and
+native boats for a distance of nearly 50 m. from its mouth, and smaller
+craft can be punted up as far as Rayoh, some 15 m. farther, but at this
+point its bed is obstructed by impassable falls and rapids, which are of
+such a character that nothing can even be brought down them. Even below
+Rayoh navigation is rendered difficult and occasionally dangerous by
+similar obstructions. The other principal rivers of the west coast are
+the Kalias, Kimanis, Benoneh, Papar, Kinarut, Putatan, Inaman,
+Mengkabong, Tampasuk and Pandasan, none of which, however, is of any
+great importance as a means of communication. There is a stout breed of
+pony raised along the Tampasuk, which is also noted for the Kalupis
+waterfall (1500 ft.), one of the highest in the world, though the volume
+of water is not great. Here also are the principal Bajau settlements.
+Throughout the Malayan Archipelago the words _Bajau_ and _perompak_
+(pirate) are still used as synonymous terms. At the northern extremity
+of the island Marudu Bay receives the waters of the Marudu which rises
+on the western side of Mount Madalon. On the east coast the principal
+rivers are the Sugut, which rises in the hills to the east of Kinabalu
+and forms its delta near Torongohok or Pura-Pura Island; the Labuk,
+which has its sources 70 m. inland and debouches into Labuk Bay; and the
+Kinabatangan, the largest and most important river in the territory,
+which is believed to have its rise eastward of the range of which Trus
+Madi is the principal feature, and is navigable by steamer for a
+considerable distance and by native boats for a distance of over 100 m.
+from its mouth. Some valuable tobacco land, which, however, is somewhat
+liable to flood, and some remarkable burial-caves are found in the
+valley of the Kinabatangan. The remaining rivers of the east coast are
+the Segamah, which rises west of Darvel Bay, the Kumpong, and the
+Kalabakang, which debouches into Cowie Harbour. Taking it as a whole,
+the company's territory is much less generously watered than are other
+parts of Borneo, which again compares unfavourably in this respect with
+the Malayan states of the peninsula. Many of the rivers, especially
+those of the west coast, are obstructed by bars at their mouths that
+render them difficult of access. Several of the natural harbours of
+North Borneo, on the other hand, are accessible, safe and commodious.
+Sandakan Harbour, on the north-east coast (5 deg. 40' N., 118 deg. 10'
+E.), runs inland for some 17 m. with a very irregular outline broken by
+the mouths of numerous creeks and streams. The mouth, only 2 m. across,
+is split into two channels by the little, high, bluff-like island of
+Barhala. The depth in the main entrance varies from 10 to 17 fathoms,
+and vessels drawing 20 ft. can advance half-way up the bay. The
+principal town in the territory, and the seat of government (though an
+attempt has been unsuccessfully made to transfer this to Jesselton on
+the west coast), is Sandakan, situated just inside the mouth of the
+Sarwaka inlet. At Silam, on Darvel Bay, there is good anchorage; and
+Kudat in Marudu Bay, first surveyed by Commander Johnstone of H.M.S.
+"Nigeria" in 1881, is a small but useful harbour.
+
+_Climate and Population._--The climate of North Borneo is tropical, hot,
+damp and enervating. The rainfall is steady and not usually excessive.
+The shade temperature at Sandakan ordinarily ranges from 72 deg. to 94
+deg. F. The population of the company's territory is not known with any
+approach to accuracy, but is estimated, somewhat liberally, to amount to
+175,000, including 16,000 Chinese. Of this total about three-fourths are
+found in the districts of the west coast. The seashore and the country
+bordering closely on the west coast are inhabited chiefly by Dusuns, by
+Kadayans, by Bajaus and Ilanuns--both Malayan tribes--and by Brunei
+Malays. The east coast is very sparsely populated and its inhabitants
+are mostly Bajaus and settlers from the neighbouring Sulu archipelago.
+The interior is dotted with infrequent villages inhabited by Dusuns or
+by Muruts, a village ordinarily consisting of a single long hut divided
+up into cubicles, one for the use of each family, opening out on to a
+common verandah along which the skulls captured by the tribe are
+festooned. It has been customary to speak of these tribes as belonging
+to the Dyak group, but the Muruts would certainly seem to be the
+representatives of the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, and there
+is much reason to think that the Dusuns also must be classed as distinct
+from the Dyaks. The Dusun language, it is interesting to note, presents
+very curious grammatical complications and refinements such as are not
+to be found among the tongues spoken by any of the other peoples of the
+Malayan Archipelago or the mainland of south-eastern Asia. Dusuns and
+Muruts alike are in a very low state of civilization, and both indulge
+inordinately in the use of intoxicating liquors of their own
+manufacture.
+
+_Settlements and Communication._--The company possesses a number of
+small stations along the coast, of which Sandakan, with a population of
+9 500, is the most important. The remainder which call for separate
+mention are Lahat Datu on Darvel Bay on the east coast; Kudat on Marudu
+Bay and Jesselton on Gaya Bay on the west coast. A railway of
+indifferent construction runs along the west coast from Jesselton to
+Weston on Brunei Bay, with a branch along the banks of the Padas to
+Tenom above the rapids. It was originally intended that this should
+eventually be extended across the territory to Cowie Harbour (Sabuko
+Bay) on the east coast, but the extraordinary engineering difficulties
+which oppose themselves to such an extension, the sparse population of
+the territory, and the failure of the existing line to justify the
+expectations entertained by its designers, combine to render the
+prosecution of any such project highly improbable. Sandakan is connected
+by telegraph with Mempakul on the west coast whence a cable runs to
+Labuan and so gives telegraphic communication with Singapore. The
+overland line from Mempakul to Sandakan, however, passes through
+forest-clad and very difficult country, and telegraphic communication is
+therefore subject to very frequent interruption. Telegraphic
+communication between Mempakul and Kudat, via Jesselton, has also been
+established and is more regularly and successfully maintained. The only
+roads in the territory are bridle-paths in the immediate vicinity of the
+company's principal stations. The Sabah Steamship Company, subsidized by
+the Chartered Company, runs steamers along the coast, calling at all the
+company's stations at which native produce is accumulated. A German firm
+runs vessels at approximately bi-monthly intervals from Singapore to
+Labuan and thence to Sandakan, calling in on occasion at Jesselton and
+Kudat _en route_. There is also fairly frequent communication between
+Sandakan and Hong-Kong, a journey of four days' steaming.
+
+_Products and Trade._--The capabilities of the company's territory are
+only dimly known. Coal has been found in the neighbourhood of Cowie
+Harbour and elsewhere, but though its quality is believed to be as good
+as that exported from Dutch Borneo, it is not yet known whether it
+exists in payable quantities. Gold has been found in alluvial deposits
+on the banks of some of the rivers of the east coast, but here again the
+quantity available is still in serious doubt. The territory as a whole
+has been very imperfectly examined by geologists, and no opinion can at
+present be hazarded as to the mineral wealth or poverty of the company's
+property. Traces of mineral oil, iron ores, copper, zinc and antimony
+have been found, but the wealth of North Borneo still lies mainly in its
+jungle produce. It possesses a great profusion of excellent timber, but
+the difficulty of extraction has so far restricted the lumber industry
+within somewhat modest limits. Gutta, rubber, rattans, mangrove-bark,
+edible nuts, guano, edible birds'-nests, &c., are all valuable articles
+of export. The principal cultivated produce is tobacco, sago, cocoanuts,
+coffee, pepper, gambier and sugar-canes. Of these the tobacco and the
+sago are the most important. Between 1886 and 1900 the value of the
+tobacco crop increased from L471 to L200,000.
+
+As is common throughout Malayan lands, the trade of North Borneo is
+largely in the hands of Chinese shopkeepers who send their agents inland
+to attend the _Tamus_ (Malay, _temu_, to meet) or fairs, which are the
+recognized scenes of barter between the natives of the interior and
+those of the coast. At Sandakan there is a Chinese population of over
+2000.
+
+_Administration._--For administrative purposes the territory is divided
+into nine provinces: Alcock and Dewhurst in the north; Keppel on the
+west; Martin in the centre; Myburgh, Mayne and Elphinstone on the east
+coast; and Dent and Cunliffe in the south. The boundaries of these
+provinces, however, are purely arbitrary and not accurately defined. The
+form of government is modelled roughly upon the system adopted in the
+Malay States of the peninsula during the early days of their
+administration by British residents. The government is vested primarily
+in the court of directors appointed under the company's charter, which
+may be compared to the colonial office in its relation to a British
+colony, though the court of directors interests itself far more closely
+than does the colonial department in the smaller details of local
+administration. The supreme authority on the spot is represented by the
+governor, under whom are the residents of Kudat, Darvel Bay and Keppel,
+officers who occupy much the same position as that usually known by the
+title of magistrate and collector. The less important districts are
+administered by district magistrates, who also collect the taxes. The
+principal departments, whose chiefs reside at the capital, are the
+treasury, the land and survey, the public works, the constabulary, the
+medical and the judicial. The secretariat is under the charge of a
+government secretary who ranks next in precedence to the governor.
+Legislation is by the proclamation of the governor, but there is a
+council, meeting at irregular intervals, upon which the principal heads
+of departments and one unofficial member have seats. The public service
+is recruited by nomination by the court of directors. The governor is
+the chief judge of the court of appeal, but a judge who is subordinate
+to him takes all ordinary supreme court cases. The laws are the Indian
+Penal and Civil Procedure Codes and Evidence Acts, supplemented by a few
+local laws promulgated by proclamation. There is an Imam's court for the
+trial of cases affecting Mahommedan law of marriage, succession, &c. The
+native chiefs are responsible to the government for the preservation of
+law and order in their districts. They have restricted judicial powers.
+The constabulary numbers some 600 men and consists of a mixed force of
+Sikhs, Pathans, Punjabi Mahommedans, Dyaks and Malays, officered by a
+few Europeans. There is a Protestant mission which supports a
+church--the only stone building in the territory--and a school at
+Sandakan, with branches at Kudat, Kaningau and Tambunan. The Roman
+Catholic mission maintains an orphanage, a church and school at
+Sandakan, and has missions among the Dusuns at several points on the
+west coast and in the Tambunan country. Its headquarters are at Kuching
+in Sarawak. The Chinese have their joss-houses and the Mahommedans a few
+small mosques, but the vast majority of the native inhabitants are
+pagans who have no buildings set apart for religious purposes.
+
+_Finance and Money._--The principal sources of revenue are the licences
+granted for the importation and retailing of opium, wine and spirits,
+which are in the hands of Chinese; a customs duty of 5% on imports; an
+export tax of 5% on jungle produce; a poll-tax sanctioned by ancient
+native custom; and a stamp duty. A land revenue is derived from the sale
+of government lands, from quit rents and fees of transfer, &c. Judicial
+fees bring in a small amount, and the issue and sale of postage and
+revenue stamps have proved a fruitful source of income. The people of
+the country are by no means heavily taxed, a large number of the natives
+of the interior escaping all payment of dues to the company, the revenue
+being for the most part contributed by the more civilized members of the
+community residing in the neighbourhood of the company's stations. There
+are bank agencies in Sandakan, and the company does banking business
+when required. The state, which has adopted the penny postage, is in the
+Postal Union, and money orders on North Borneo are issued in the United
+Kingdom and in most British colonies and vice versa. Notes issued by the
+principal banks in Singapore were made current in North Borneo in 1900.
+There is also a government note issue issued by the company for use
+within the territory only. The currency is the Mexican and British
+dollar, the company issuing its own copper coin--viz. cents and half
+cents. It is proposed to adopt the coinage of the Straits Settlements,
+and measures have been taken with a view to the accomplishment of this.
+In the interior the principal medium of exchange among the natives is
+the large earthenware jars, imported originally, it is believed, from
+China, which form the chief wealth both of tribes and individuals.
+     (H. Cl.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Among early works may be mentioned, S. Blommaert,
+  _Discours ende ghelegentheyt van het eylandt Borneo int Jear 1609_;
+  _Hachelyke reystogt van Jacob Jansz. de Roy na Borneo en Atchin in het
+  jaar 1691_; Beeckman, _Visit to Borneo_, 1718, in J. Pinkerton's
+  _General Collections_ (1808-1814); F. Valentijn in _Ond en Nieuw Oost
+  Indien_ (Dordrecht, 1724-1726). See also H. Keppel, _Expedition to
+  Borneo of H.M.S. "Dido"_ (London, 1846); R. Mundy, _Narrative of
+  Events in Borneo and Celebes_ (London, 1848); F.S. Marryat,
+  _Borneo_, &c. (1848); P.J. Veth, _Borneo's Westerafdeeling_
+  (Zalt-Bommel, 1854 and 1856); S. Muller, _Reizen en onderzoekingen in
+  den Indischen Archipel_ (Amsterdam, 1857); C. Bock, _Head-hunters of
+  Borneo_ (London, 1881), and _Reis in Oost en Zuid-Borneo_ (The Hague,
+  1887); J. Hatton, _The New Ceylon, a Sketch of British North Borneo_
+  (London, 1882); F. Hatton, _North Borneo_ (London, 1885); T. Posewitz,
+  _Borneo... Verbreitung der nutzbaren Mineralien_ (Berlin, 1889), Eng.
+  trans., _Borneo; its Geology and Mineral Resources_ (London, 1892); J.
+  Whitehead, _Exploration of Mount Kini Balu_ (London, 1893); Mrs W.B.
+  Pryor, _A Decade in Borneo_ (London, 1894); H. Ling Roth, _The Natives
+  of Sarawak and North Borneo_ (London, 1896); G.A.F. Molengraaf,
+  _Geologische Verkinningstochten in Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden, 1900,
+  Eng. trans. 1902); A.W. Niewenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leiden,
+  1901), and _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leiden, 1904), &c.; W.H. Furness,
+  _Home Life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (London, 1902); O. Beccari, _Nelle
+  Foreste di Borneo_ (Florence, 1902), Eng. trans., _Wanderings in the
+  Great Forests of Borneo_ (London, 1904); D. Cator, _Everyday Life
+  among the Head-hunters_ (London, 1905). For geology, besides the works
+  of Posewitz and Molengraaf already cited, see R.B. Newton in _Geol.
+  Mag_., 1897, pp. 407-415, and _Proc. Malac. Soc_., London, vol. v.
+  (1902-1903), pp. 403-409. A series of papers on the palaeontology of
+  the island will be found in the several volumes of the _Samml. Geol_.
+  R. Mus., Leiden.
+
+
+
+
+BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic Sea, 22 m. S.E. of the Swedish coast,
+belonging to Denmark, lying on 15 deg. E., and between 55 deg. and 55
+deg. 18' N., and measuring 24 m. from S.E. to N.W. and 19 (extreme) from
+E. to W. Pop. (1901) 40,889. The surface is generally hilly; the scenery
+is fine in the north, where the cliffs reach a height of 135 ft., and
+the granite hill of Helligdomsklipper dominates the island. Besides
+freestone, exported for building, limestone, blue marble, and
+porcelain-clay are worked. A little coal is found and used locally, but
+it is not of good quality. Oats, flax and hemp are cultivated. The
+inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fishing, brewing, distillation
+and the manufacture of earthenware. Weaving and clock-making are also
+carried on to some extent. The capital is Ronne (115 m. by sea from
+Copenhagen), and there are five other small towns on the
+island--Svanike, Nekso, Hasle, Allinge, and Sandvig. A railway connects
+Ronne with Nekso (22 m. E. by S.), where a bust commemorates J.N.
+Madvig, the philologist, who was born there in 1804 (d. 1886). Blanch's
+Hotel, 10 m. N. of Ronne, is the most favoured resort on the island,
+which attracts many visitors. On the north-west coast are the ruins of
+the castle of Hammershus, which was built in 1158, and long served as a
+state prison; while another old castle, erected by Christian V. in 1684,
+and important as commanding the entrance to the Baltic, is situated on
+Christianso, one of a small group of islands 15 m. E. by N. The island
+of Bornholm has had an eventful history. In early times it was long the
+independent seat of marauding Vikings. In the 12th century it became a
+fief of the archbishop of Lund. In 1510 it was captured by the Hanseatic
+League, in 1522 it came under Danish sway, and in 1526 it was made
+directly subject to the city of Lubeck. In 1645 the Swedes took it by
+storm, and their possession of it was confirmed by the peace of Roskilde
+in 1658; but the sympathies of the people were with Denmark, and a
+popular insurrection succeeded in expelling the Swedish forces, the
+island coming finally into the possession of Denmark in 1660.
+
+
+
+
+BORNIER, HENRI, VICOMTE DE (1825-1901) French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Lunel (Herault) on the 25th of December 1825. He came to Paris
+in 1845 With the object of studying law, but in that year he published a
+volume of verse, _Les Premieres Feuilles_, and the Comedie Francaise
+accepted a play of his entitled _Le Mariage de Luther_. He was given a
+post in the library of the Arsenal, where he served for half a century,
+becoming director in 1889. In 1875 was produced at the Theatre Francais
+his heroic drama in verse, _La Fille de Roland_. The action of the play
+turns on the love of Gerald, son of the traitor Ganelon, for the
+daughter of Roland. The patriotic subject and the nobility of the
+character of Gerald, who renounces Berthe when he learns his real
+origin, procured for the piece a great success. The conflict between
+honour and love and the grandiose sentiment of the play inevitably
+provoked comparison with Corneille. The piece would indeed be a
+masterpiece if, as its critics were not slow to point out, the verse had
+been quite equal to the subject. Among the numerous other works of M. de
+Bornier should be mentioned: _Dimitri_ (1876), libretto of an opera by
+M.V. de Joncieres; and the dramas, _Les Noces d'Allila_ (1880) and
+_Mahomet_ (1888). The production of this last piece was forbidden in
+deference to the representations of the Turkish ambassador. Henri de
+Bornier was critic of the _Nouvelle Revue_ from 1879 to 1887. His
+_Poesies completes_ were published in 1894. He died in January 1901.
+
+
+
+
+BORNU, a country in the Central Sudan, lying W. and S. of Lake Chad. It
+is bounded W. and S. by the Hausa states and N. by the Sahara. Formerly
+an independent Mahommedan sultanate it has been divided between Great
+Britain, Germany and France. To France has fallen a portion of northern
+Bornu and also Zinder (q.v.), a tributary state to the north-west, while
+the south-west part is incorporated in the German colony of Cameroon.
+Three-fourths of Bornu proper, some 50,000 sq. m., forms part of the
+British protectorate of Nigeria.
+
+Bornu is for the most part an alluvial plain, the country sloping
+gradually to Lake Chad, which formerly spread over a much larger area
+than it now occupies. The Komadugu (i.e. river) Waube--generally known
+as the Yo--and its tributaries rise in the highlands which, beyond the
+western border of Bornu, form the watershed between the Niger and Chad
+systems, and flow north and east across the plains to Lake Chad, the Yo
+in its last few miles marking the frontier between the French and
+British possessions. In the south-west a part of Bornu drains to the
+Benue. The rivers are intermittent, and water in southern Bornu is
+obtained only from wells, which are sunk to a great depth. The vast
+plain of Bornu is stoneless, except for rare outcrops of ironstone, and
+consists of the porous fissured black earth called "cotton soil" in
+India, alternating with, or more probably overlaid by, sand. Throughout
+the flat country water is apparently found everywhere at a depth of 54
+ft., corresponding to the level of Chad. Towards Damjiri in the
+north-west the country becomes more broken, hilly and timbered. In the
+south limestone is found near Gujba and also along the Gongola tributary
+of the Benue. A forest of red and green barked acacia, yielding the
+species of gum most valuable in the market, extends from the Gongola to
+Gujba. Immense baobabs (_Adansonia digitata_), fine tamarinds and a few
+trees of the genus _Ficus_ are met with in the south. North of Maifoni
+(latitude 12 deg. N.) the baobab ceases, except at Kuka, where extensive
+plantations have been made, and its place is taken by the _Kigelia_ and
+also by a very handsome species of _Diospyros_. North of Kuka is a dense
+belt of _Hyphaene_ palm with fine tamarinds and figs. Cotton and indigo
+grow wild, and afford the materials for the cloths, finely dyed with
+blue stripes, which form the staple fabric of the country. On the shores
+of Lake Chad the cotton grown is of a peculiarly fine quality. Rice and
+wheat of excellent quality are raised, but in small quantities, the
+staple food being a species of millet called _gussub_, which is made
+into a kind of paste and eaten with butter or honey. Ground-nuts, yams,
+sweet potatoes, several sorts of beans and grains, peppers, onions,
+water-melons and tomatoes are grown. Of fruit trees the country
+possesses the lime and fig.
+
+Wild animals, in great numbers, find both food and cover in the
+extensive districts of wood and marsh. Lions, giraffes, elephants,
+hyenas, crocodiles, hippopotami, antelopes, gazelles and ostriches are
+found. The horse, the camel and the ox are the chief domestic animals;
+all are used as beasts of burden. The country abounds with bees, and
+honey forms one of the chief Bornuese delicacies.
+
+The climate, especially from March to the end of June, is oppressively
+hot, rising sometimes to 105 deg. and 107 deg., and even during most of
+the night not falling much below 100 deg. In May the wet season begins,
+with violent storms of thunder and lightning. In the end of June the
+rivers and lakes begin to overflow, and for several months the rains,
+accompanied with sultry weather, are almost incessant. The inhabitants
+at this season suffer greatly from fevers. In October the rains abate;
+cool, fresh winds blow from the west and north-west; and for several
+months the climate is healthy and agreeable.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, of whom the great majority profess
+Mahommedanism, are divided into Negroes and those of mixed blood, i.e.
+Negro and Berber, Arab or other crossing. The total population of
+British Bornu is estimated at 500,000. The dominant tribe, called
+Bornuese, Berberi or Kanuri, a Negro race with an infusion of Berber
+blood, have black skins, large mouths, thick lips and broad noses, but
+good teeth and high foreheads. The females add to their want of beauty
+by extensive tattooing; they also stain their faces with indigo, and dye
+their front teeth black and their canine teeth red. The law allows
+polygamy, but the richest men have seldom more than two or three wives.
+The marriage ceremonies last for a whole week, the first three days
+being spent in feasting on the favourite national dishes, and the others
+appropriated to certain symbolical rites. A favourite amusement is the
+watching of wrestling matches. A game bearing some resemblance to chess,
+played with beans and holes in the sand, is also a favourite occupation.
+
+The pastoral districts of the country are occupied by the Shuwas, who
+are of Arab origin, and speak a well-preserved dialect of Arabic. Of the
+date of their immigration from the East there is no record; but they
+were in the country as early as the middle of the 17th century. They are
+divided into numerous distinct clans. Their villages in general consist
+of rudely constructed huts, of an exaggerated conical form. Another
+tribe, called La Salas, inhabits a number of low fertile islands in Lake
+Chad, separated from the mainland by fordable channels.
+
+The Bornuese are noted horsemen, and in times of war the horses, as well
+as the riders, used to be cased in light iron mail. The Shuwas, however,
+are clad only in a light shirt, and the Kanembu spearmen go almost
+naked, and fight with shield and spear. It is indispensable to a chief
+of rank that he should possess a huge belly, and when high feeding
+cannot produce this, padding gives the appearance of it. Notwithstanding
+the heat of the climate, the body is enveloped in successive robes, the
+number indicating the rank of the wearer. The head likewise is enclosed
+in numerous turbans. The prevailing language in Bornu is the Kanuri. It
+has no affinity, according to Heinrich Barth, with the great Berber
+family. A grammar was published in 1854 by S.W. Koelle, as well as a
+volume of tales and fables, with a translation and vocabulary.
+
+The towns in Bornu, which have populations varying from 10,000 to 50,000
+or more, are surrounded with walls 35 or 40 ft. in height and 20 ft. in
+thickness, having at each of the four corners a triple gate, composed of
+strong planks of wood, with bars of iron. The abodes of the principal
+inhabitants form an enclosed square, in which are separate houses for
+each of the wives; the chief's palace consists of turrets connected
+together by terraces. These are well built of a reddish clay, highly
+polished, so as to resemble stucco; the interior roof, though composed
+only of branches, is tastefully constructed. Maidugari, which in 1908
+became the seat of the native government, is a thriving commercial town
+some 70 m. south-west of Lake Chad. The former capital, Kuka (q.v.), and
+Ngornu (the town of "blessing"), are near the shores of Lake Chad. On
+the Yo are still to be seen extensive remains of Old Bornu or Birni and
+Gambarou or Ghambaru, which were destroyed by the Fula about 1809.
+Dikwa, the capital chosen by Rabah (see below), lies in the German part
+of Bornu.
+
+_History._--The history of Bornu goes back to the 9th century A.D., but
+its early portions are very fragmentary and dubious. The first dynasty
+known is that of the Sefuwa or descendants of Sef, which came to the
+throne in the person of Dugu or Duku, and had its capital at Njimiye
+(Jima) in Kanem on the north-east shores of Lake Chad. The Sefuwa are of
+Berber origin, the descent from Sef, the Himyaritic ruler, being
+mythical. From this Berber strain comes the name Berberi or
+Ba-Berberche, applied by the Hausa to the inhabitants of Bornu.
+Mahommedanism was adopted towards the end of the 11th century, and has
+since continued the religion of the country. From 1194 to 1220 reigned
+Selma II., under whom the power of the kingdom was greatly extended; and
+Dunama II., his successor was also a powerful and warlike prince. In
+the following reigns the prosperity of the country began to diminish,
+and about 1386 the dynasty was expelled from Njimiye, and forced to seek
+refuge in the western part of its territory by the invasion of the
+Bulala. Mai Ali (I.) Ghajideni, who founded the city of Birni, rendered
+his country once more redoubtable and strong. His successor, Idris II.,
+completely vanquished the Bulala and subjugated Kanem; and under
+Mahommed V., the next monarch, Bornu reached its highest pitch of
+greatness. At this period Zinder became a tributary state. A series of
+for the most part peaceful reigns succeeded till about the middle of the
+18th century, when Ali (IV.) Omarmi entered upon a violent struggle with
+the Tuareg or Imoshagh. Under his son Ahmed (about 1808) the kingdom
+began to be harassed by the Fula, who had already conquered the Hausa
+country. Expelled from his capital by the invaders, Ahmed was only
+restored by the assistance of the fakir Mahommed al-Amin al-Kanemi, who,
+pretending to a celestial mission, hoisted the green flag of the
+Prophet, and undertook the deliverance of his country. The Fula appear
+to have been taken by surprise, and were in ten months driven completely
+out of Bornu. The conqueror invested the nearest heir of the ancient
+kings with all the appearance of sovereignty--reserving for himself,
+however, under the title of sheik, all its reality. The court of the
+sultan (_shehu_) was established at New Bornu, or Birni, which was made
+the capital, the old city having been destroyed during the Fula
+invasion; while the sheik, in military state, took up his residence at
+the new city of Kuka. Fairly established, he ruled the country with a
+rod of iron, and at the same time inspired his subjects with a
+superstitious notion of his sanctity. His zeal was peculiarly directed
+against moral or religious offences. The most frivolous faults of women,
+as talking too loud, and walking in the street unveiled, rendered the
+offender liable to public indictment, while graver errors were visited
+with the most ignominious punishments, and often with death itself.
+Kanemi died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son, Sheik Omar, who
+altogether abolished the nominal kingship of the Sefuwa.
+
+During Omar's reign, which lasted about fifty years, Bornu was visited
+by many Europeans, who reached it via Tripoli and the Sahara. The first
+to enter the country were Walter Oudney, Hugh Clapperton and Dixon
+Denham (1823). They were followed in 1851-1855 by Heinrich Barth. Later
+travellers included Gerhard Rohlfs (1866) and Gustav Nachtigal. All
+these travellers were well received by the Kanuri, whose power from the
+middle of the 19th century began to decay. This was foreseen by Barth;
+and Nachtigal, who in 1870 conveyed presents sent by King William of
+Prussia, in acknowledgment of the sheik's kindness to many German
+explorers, writes thus in December 1872:
+
+  "The rapid declension of Bornu is an undeniable and lamentable fact.
+  It is taking place with increasing rapidity, and the boundless
+  weakness of Sheik Omar--otherwise so worthy and brave a man--must bear
+  almost all the blame. His sons and ministers plunder the provinces in
+  an almost unheard-of manner; trade and intercourse are almost at a
+  standstill; good faith and confidence exist no more. The indolence of
+  the court avoids military expeditions, and anarchy and a lack of
+  security on the routes are the consequences.... Thus the sheik and the
+  land grow poorer and poorer, and public morality sinks lower and
+  lower."
+
+After the visit of Nachtigal the country was visited by no European
+traveller until 1892, when Colonel P.L. Monteil resided for a time at
+Kuka during his great journey from the Senegal to Tripoli. The French
+traveller noticed many signs of decadence, the energy of the people
+being sapped by luxury, while a virtual anarchy prevailed owing to
+rivalries and intrigues among members of the royal family. The chief of
+Zinder had ceased to pay tribute, and the sultan was not strong enough
+to exact it by force. At the same time a danger was threatening from the
+south-east, where the negro adventurer Rabah, once a slave of Zobeir
+Pasha, was menacing the kingdom of Bagirmi. After making himself master
+of the fortified town of Manifa, Rabah proceeded against Bornu,
+defeating the army of the sultan Ahsem in two pitched battles. In
+December 1893 Ahsem fled from Kuka, which was entered by Rabah and soon
+afterwards destroyed, the capital being transferred to Dikwa in the
+south-east of the kingdom. These events ruined for many years the trade
+between Tripoli and Kuka by the long-established route via Bilma. Rabah
+had raised a large, well-drilled army, and proved a formidable opponent
+to the French in their advance on Lake Chad from the south. However in
+1900 he was killed at Kussuri near the lower Shari, by the combined
+forces of three French expeditions which had been converging from the
+Congo, the Sahara and the Niger.
+
+By an Anglo-French agreement of 1898 the tributary state of Zinder in
+the north had been included in the French sphere, and after the defeat
+of Rabah French military expeditions occupied both the German and
+British portions of Bornu, but in 1902 on the appearance of British and
+German expeditions the French withdrew to their own country east of the
+Shari. The British placed on the throne of Bornu Shehu Garbai, a
+descendant of the ancient sultans, and Kuka was again chosen as the
+capital of the state. From that date British Bornu has been under
+administrative control. It has been divided into East and West Bornu,
+the line of division being fixed approximately at longitude 12 deg., and
+placed under the administration of a resident. Maifoni and Kuka were
+selected for British stations in the east, and Damjiri and Gujba in the
+west. Garrisons are quartered at these points. The province has been
+mapped, and a network of tracks available for wheeled transport has been
+made through it. Water communication with the Benue and Niger has been
+opened through the Gongola river. The _shehu_, who took the oath of
+allegiance to the British crown on the occasion of his formal
+installation in November 1904, is maintained in all local dignity as a
+native chief, and co-operates loyally with the British administration.
+Peace has prevailed in Bornu since the British occupation, and it is
+estimated that the population has increased by immigration to about 50%
+more than it was in 1902. The people are industrious. Extensive areas
+are being brought under cultivation, and taxes are collected without
+difficulty. Owing to its increasing commercial importance, the native
+capital was in 1908 transferred to Maidugari (see also NIGERIA:
+_History;_ and RABAH).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Heinrich Barth's _Travels in North and Central Africa_
+  (1857, new ed., London, 1890) contains an exact picture of the state
+  in the period (c. 1850) preceding its decay. The earlier _Travels_ of
+  Denham and Clapperton (London, 1828) may also be consulted, as well as
+  Rohlfs, _Land und Volk in Afrika_ (Bremen, 1870); Nachtigal, _Sahara
+  und Sudan_, vol. i. (Berlin, 1879); and Monteil, _de St.-Louis a
+  Tripoli par le lac Tchad_ (Paris, 1895). For later information consult
+  Lady Lugard's _A Tropical Dependency_ (London, 1905), and the _Annual
+  Reports_, from 1900 onward, on Northern Nigeria, issued by the
+  Colonial Office, London.     (F. L. L.)
+
+
+
+
+BORODIN, ALEXANDER PORFYRIEVICH (1834-1887), Russian musical composer,
+natural son of a Russian prince, was born in St Petersburg on the 12th
+of November 1834. He was brought up to the medical profession, and in
+1862 was appointed assistant professor of chemistry at the St Petersburg
+academy of medicine. He wrote several works on chemistry, and took a
+leading part in advocating women's education, helping to found the
+school of medicine for women, and lecturing there from 1872 till his
+death. But he is best known as a musician. His interest in music was
+indeed stimulated from 1862 onwards by his friendship with Balakirev,
+and from 1863 by his marriage with a lady who was an accomplished
+pianist; but in his earlier years he had been proficient both in playing
+the piano, violin, 'cello and other instruments, and also in composing;
+and during life he did his best to pursue his studies in both music and
+chemistry with equal enthusiasm. Like other Russian composers he owed
+much to the influence of Liszt at Weimar. His first symphony was written
+in 1862-1867; his opera _Prince Igor_, begun in 1869, was left
+unfinished at his death, and was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and
+Glazounov (1889); his symphonic sketch, "In the Steppes" (1880) is,
+however, his best-known work. Borodin also wrote a second symphony
+(1871-1877), part of a third (orchestrated after his death by
+Glazounov), and a few string quartets and some fine songs. His music is
+characteristically Russian, and of an advanced modern type. He died
+suddenly at St Petersburg, on the 28th of February 1887.
+
+
+
+
+BORODINO, a village of Russia, 70 m. W. by S. of Moscow, on the
+Kolotscha, an affluent of the river Moskva, famous as the scene of a
+great battle between the army of Napoleon and the Russians under Kutusov
+on the 7th of September 1812. Though the battle is remembered chiefly
+for the terrible losses incurred by both sides, in many respects it is
+an excellent example of Napoleon's tactical methods. After preliminary
+fighting on the 5th of September both sides prepared for battle on the
+6th, Napoleon holding back in the hope of confirming the enemy in his
+resolution to fight a decisive battle. For the same reason the French
+right wing, which could have manoeuvred the Russians from their
+position, was designedly weakened. The Russian right, bent back at an
+angle and strongly posted, was also neglected, for Napoleon intended to
+make a direct frontal attack. The enemy's right centre near the village
+of Borodino was to be attacked by the viceroy of Italy, Eugene, who was
+afterwards to roll up the Russian line towards its centre, the so-called
+"great redoubt," which was to be attacked directly from the front by Ney
+and Junot. Farther to the French right, Davout was to attack frontally a
+group of field works on which the Russian left centre was formed; and
+the extreme right of the French army was composed of the weak corps of
+Poniatowski. The cavalry corps were assigned to the various leaders
+named, and the Guard was held in reserve. The whole line was not more
+than about 2 m. long, giving an average of over 20 men per yard. When
+the Russians closed on their centre they were even more densely massed,
+and their reserves were subjected to an effective fire from the French
+field guns. At 6 A.M. on the 7th of September the French attack began.
+By 8 A.M. the Russian centre was driven in, and though a furious
+counter-attack enabled Prince Bagration's troops to win back their
+original line, fresh French troops under Davout and Ney drove them back
+again. But the Russians, though they lost ground elsewhere, still clung
+to the great redoubt, and for a time the advance of the French was
+suspended by Napoleon's order, owing to a cavalry attack by the Russians
+on Eugene's extreme left. When this alarm was ended the advance was
+resumed. Napoleon had now collected a sufficient target for his guns. A
+terrific bombardment by the artillery was followed by the decisive
+charge of the battle, made by great masses of cavalry. The horsemen,
+followed by the infantry, charged at speed, broke the Russian line in
+two, and the French squadrons entered the gorge of the great redoubt
+just as Eugene's infantry climbed up its faces. In a fearful _melee_ the
+Russian garrison of the redoubt was almost annihilated. The defenders
+were now dislodged from their main line and the battle was practically
+at an end. Napoleon has been criticized for not using the Guard, which
+was intact, to complete the victory. There is, however, no evidence that
+any further expenditure of men would have had good results. Napoleon had
+imposed his will on the enemy so far that they ceded possession of
+Moscow without further resistance. That the defeat and losses of the
+Russian field army did not end the war was due to the national spirit of
+the Russians, not to military miscalculations of Napoleon. Had it not
+been for this spirit, Borodino would have been decisive of the war
+without'the final blow of the Guard. As it was, the Russians lost about
+42,000 men out of 121,000; Napoleon's army (of which one-half consisted
+of the contingents of subject allies-Germany, Poland, Switzerland,
+Holland, &c.) 32,000 out of 130,000 (Berndt, _Zahl im Kriege_). On the
+side of the French 31 general officers were killed, wounded or taken,
+and amongst the killed were General Montbrun, who fell at the head of
+his cavalry corps, and Auguste Caulaincourt, who took Montbrun's place
+and fell in the _melee_ in the redoubt. The Russians lost 22 generals,
+amongst them Prince Bagration, who died of his wounds after the battle,
+and to whose memory a monument was erected on the battle-field by the
+tsar Nicholas I.
+
+
+
+
+BOROLANITE, one of the most remarkable rocks of the British Isles, found
+on the shores of Loch Borolan in Sutherlandshire, after which it has
+been named. In this locality there is a considerable area of granite
+rich in red alkali felspar, and passing, by diminution in the amount of
+its quartz, into quartz-syenites (nordmarkites) and syenites. At the
+margins of the outcrop patches of nepheline-syenite occur; usually the
+nepheline is decomposed, but occasionally it is well-preserved; the
+other ingredients of the rock are brown garnet (melanite) and aegirine.
+The abundance of melanite is very unusual in igneous rocks, though some
+syenites, leucitophyres, and aegirine-felsites resemble borolanite in
+this respect. In places the nepheline-syenite assumes the form of a dark
+rock with large rounded white spots. These last consist of an
+intermixture of nepheline or sodalite and alkali-felspar. From the
+analogy of certain leucite-syenites which are known in Arkansas, it is
+very probable that these spots represent original leucites which have
+been changed into aggregates of the above-named minerals. They resemble
+leucite in their shape, but have not yet been proved to have its
+crystalline outlines. The "pseudo-leucites," as they have been called,
+measure one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch across. The dark matrix
+consists of biotite, aegirine-augite and melanite. Connected with the
+borolanite there are other types of nepheline-syenite and pegmatite. In
+Finland, melanite-bearing nepheline rocks have been found and described
+as Ijolite, but the only other locality for melanite-leucite-syenite is
+Magnet Cove in Arkansas.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+BORON (symbol B, atomic weight 11), one of the non-metallic elements,
+occurring in nature in the form of boracic (boric) acid, and in various
+borates such as borax, tincal, boronatrocalcite and boracite. It was
+isolated by J. Gay Lussac and L. Thenard in 1808 by heating boron
+trioxide with potassium, in an iron tube. It was also isolated at about
+the same time by Sir H. Davy, from boracic acid. It may be obtained as a
+dark brown amorphous powder by placing a mixture of 10 parts of the
+roughly powdered oxide with 6 parts of metallic sodium in a red-hot
+crucible, and covering the mixture with a layer of well-dried common
+salt. After the vigorous reaction has ceased and all the sodium has been
+used up, the mass is thrown into dilute hydrochloric acid, when the
+soluble sodium salts go into solution, and the insoluble boron remains
+as a brown powder, which may by filtered off and dried. H. Moissan
+(_Ann. Chim. Phys._, 1895, 6, p. 296) heats three parts of the oxide
+with one part of magnesium powder. The dark product obtained is washed
+with water, hydrochloric acid and hydrofluoric acid, and finally
+calcined again with the oxide or with borax, being protected from air
+during the operation by a layer of charcoal. Pure amorphous boron is a
+chestnut-coloured powder of specific gravity 2.45; it sublimes in the
+electric arc, is totally unaffected by air at ordinary temperatures, and
+burns on strong ignition with production of the oxide B2O3 and the
+nitride BN. It combines directly with fluorine at ordinary temperature,
+and with chlorine, bromine and sulphur on heating. It does not react
+with the alkali metals, but combines with magnesium at a low red heat to
+form a boride, and with other metals at more or less elevated
+temperatures. It reduces many metallic oxides, such as lead monoxide and
+cupric oxide, and decomposes water at a red heat. Heated with sulphuric
+acid and with nitric acid it is oxidized to boric acid, whilst on fusion
+with alkaline carbonates and hydroxides it gives a borate of the alkali
+metal. Like silicon and carbon, very varying values had been given for
+its specific heat, until H.F. Weber showed that the specific heat
+increases rapidly with increasing temperature. By strongly heating a
+mixture of boron trioxide and aluminium, protected from the air by a
+layer of charcoal, F. Wohler and H. Sainte-Claire Deville obtained a
+grey product, from which, on dissolving out the aluminium with sodium
+hydroxide, they obtained a crystalline product, which they thought to be
+a modification of boron, but which was shown later to be a mixture of
+aluminium borides with more or less carbon. Boron dissolves in molten
+aluminium, and on cooling, transparent, almost colourless crystals are
+obtained, possessing a lustre, hardness and refractivity near that of
+the diamond. In 1904 K.A. Kuhne (D.R.P. 147,871) described a process in
+which external heating is not necessary, a mixture of aluminium
+turnings, sulphur and boric acid being ignited by a hot iron rod, the
+resulting aluminium sulphide, formed as a by-product, being decomposed
+by water.
+
+  Boron hydride has probably never been isolated in the pure condition;
+  on heating boron trioxide with magnesium filings, a magnesium boride
+  Mg3B2 is obtained, and if this be decomposed with dilute hydrochloric
+  acid a very evil-smelling gas, consisting of a mixture of hydrogen and
+  boron hydride, is obtained. This mixture burns with a green flame
+  forming boron trioxide; whilst boron is deposited on passing the gas
+  mixture through a hot tube, or on depressing a cold surface in the gas
+  flame. By cooling it with liquid air Sir W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield
+  obtained from it a gas of composition B3H3. The mixture probably
+  contained also some BH3 (W. Ramsay and H.S. Hatfield, _Proc. Chem.
+  Soc._, 17, p. 152). Boron fluoride BF3 was first prepared in 1808 by
+  Gay Lussac and L. Thenard and is best obtained by heating a mixture of
+  the trioxide and fluorspar with concentrated sulphuric acid. It is a
+  colourless pungent gas which is exceedingly soluble in water. It fumes
+  strongly in air, and does not attack glass. It rapidly absorbs the
+  elements of water wherever possible, so that a strip of paper plunged
+  into the gas is rapidly charred. It does not burn, neither does it
+  support combustion. A saturated solution of the gas, in water, is a
+  colourless, oily, strongly fuming liquid which after a time
+  decomposes, with separation of metaboric acid, leaving hydrofluoboric
+  acid HF.BF3 in solution. This acid cannot be isolated in the free
+  condition, but many of its salts are known. Boron fluoride also
+  combines with ammonia gas, equal volumes of the two gases giving a
+  white crystalline solid of composition BF3.NH3; with excess of ammonia
+  gas, colourless liquids BF3.2NH3 and BF3.3NH3 are produced, which on
+  heating lose ammonia and are converted into the solid form.
+
+  Boron chloride BCl3 results when amorphous boron is heated in chlorine
+  gas, or more readily, on passing a stream of chlorine over a heated
+  mixture of boron trioxide and charcoal, the volatile product being
+  condensed in a tube surrounded by a freezing mixture. It is a
+  colourless fuming liquid boiling at 17-18 deg. C, and is readily
+  decomposed by water with formation of boric and hydrochloric acids. It
+  unites readily with ammonia gas forming a white crystalline solid of
+  composition 2BCl3.3NH3.
+
+  Boron bromide BBr3 can be formed by direct union of the two elements,
+  but is best obtained by the method used for the preparation of the
+  chloride. It is a colourless fuming liquid boiling at 90.5 deg. C.
+  With water and with ammonia it undergoes the same reactions as the
+  chloride. Boron and iodine do not combine directly, but gaseous
+  hydriodic acid reacts with amorphous boron to form the iodide, BI3,
+  which can also be obtained by passing boron chloride and hydriodic
+  acid through a red-hot porcelain tube. It is a white crystalline solid
+  of melting point 43 C.; it boils at 210 deg. C., and it can be
+  distilled without decomposition. It is decomposed by water, and with a
+  solution of yellow phosphorus in carbon bisulphide it gives a red
+  powder of composition PBI2, which sublimes _in vacuo_ at 210 deg. C.
+  to red crystals, and when heated in a current of hydrogen loses its
+  iodine and leaves a residue of boron phosphide PB.
+
+  Boron nitride BN is formed when boron is burned either in air or in
+  nitrogen, but can be obtained more readily by heating to redness in a
+  platinum crucible a mixture of one part of anhydrous borax with two
+  parts of dry ammonium chloride. After fusion, the melt is well washed
+  with dilute hydrochloric acid and then with water, the nitride
+  remaining as a white powder. It can also be prepared by heating
+  borimide B2(NH)3; or by heating boron trioxide with a metallic
+  cyanide. It is insoluble in water and unaffected by most reagents, but
+  when heated in a current of steam or boiled for some time with a
+  caustic alkali, slowly decomposes with evolution of ammonia and the
+  formation of boron trioxide or an alkaline borate; it dissolves slowly
+  in hydrofluoric acid.
+
+  Borimide B2(NH)3 is obtained on long heating of the compound B2S3.6NH2
+  in a stream of hydrogen, or ammonia gas at 115-120 deg. C. It is a
+  white solid which decomposes on heating into boron nitride and
+  ammonia. Long-continued heating with water also decomposes it slowly.
+
+  Boron sulphide B2S3 can be obtained by the direct union of the two
+  elements at a white heat or from the tri-iodide and sulphur at 440
+  deg. C., but is most conveniently prepared by heating a mixture of the
+  trioxide and carbon in a stream of carbon bisulphide vapour. It forms
+  slightly coloured small crystals possessing a strong disagreeable
+  smell, and is rapidly decomposed by water with the formation of boric
+  acid and sulphuretted hydrogen. A pentasulphide B2S5 is prepared, in
+  an impure condition, by heating a solution of sulphur in carbon
+  bisulphide with boron iodide, and forms a white crystalline powder
+  which decomposes under the influence of water into sulphur,
+  sulphuretted hydrogen and boric acid.
+
+  Boron trioxide B2O3 is the only known oxide of boron; and may be
+  prepared by heating amorphous boron in oxygen, or better, by strongly
+  igniting boric acid. After fusion the mass solidifies to a transparent
+  vitreous solid which dissolves readily in water to form boric acid
+  (q.v.); it is exceedingly hygroscopic and even on standing in moist
+  air becomes opaque through absorption of water and formation of boric
+  acid. Its specific gravity is 1.83 (J. Dumas). It is not volatile
+  below a white heat, and consequently, if heated with salts of more
+  volatile acids, it expels the acid forming oxide from such salts; for
+  example, if potassium sulphate be heated with boron trioxide, sulphur
+  trioxide is liberated and potassium borate formed. It also possesses
+  the power of combining with most metallic oxides at high
+  temperatures, forming borates, which in many cases show characteristic
+  colours. Many organic compounds of boron are known; thus, from the
+  action of the trichloride on ethyl alcohol or on methyl alcohol, ethyl
+  borate B(OC2H5)3 and methyl borate B(OCH3)3 are obtained. These are
+  colourless liquids boiling at 119 deg. C. and 72 deg. C. respectively,
+  and both are readily decomposed by water. By the action of zinc methyl
+  on ethyl borate, in the requisite proportions, boron trimethyl is
+  obtained, thus:--2B(OC2H5)2 + 6Zn(CH3)2 = 2B(CH3)3 +
+
+         / CH3
+  + 6Zn <
+         \ OC2H5
+
+  as a colourless spontaneously inflammable gas of unbearable smell.
+  Boron triethyl B(C2H5)3 is obtained in the same manner, by using zinc
+  ethyl. It is a colourless spontaneously inflammable liquid of boiling
+  point 95 deg. C. By the action of one molecule of ethyl borate on two
+  molecules of zinc ethyl, the compound B(C2H5)2.OC2H5 diethylboron
+  ethoxide is obtained as a colourless liquid boiling at 102 deg. C. By
+  the action of water it is converted into B(C2H5)2.OH, and this latter
+  compound on exposure to air takes up oxygen slowly, forming the
+  compound B.C2H5.OC2H5.OH, which, with water, gives B(C2H5).(OH)2. From
+  the condensation of two molecules of ethyl borate with one molecule of
+  zinc ethyl the compound B2.C2H5.(OC2H5)5 is obtained as a colourless
+  liquid of boiling point. 112 deg. C. Boron triethyl and boron
+  trimethyl both combine with ammonia.
+
+  The atomic weight of boron has been determined by estimating the water
+  content of pure borax (J. Berzelius), also by conversion of anhydrous
+  borax into sodium chloride (W. Ramsay and E. Aston) and from analysis
+  of the bromide and chloride (Sainte-Claire Deville); the values
+  obtained ranging from 10.73 to 11.04. Boron can be estimated by
+  precipitation as potassium fluoborate, which is insoluble in a mixture
+  of potassium acetate and alcohol. For this purpose only boric acid or
+  its potassium salt must be present; and to ensure this, the borate can
+  be distilled with sulphuric acid and methyl alcohol and the volatile
+  ester absorbed in potash.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH [BURROUGH, BURROWE, BORROWS], STEVEN (1525-1584), English
+navigator, was born at Northam in Devonshire on the 25th of September
+1525. In 1553 he took part in the expedition which was despatched from
+the Thames under Sir Hugh Willoughby to look for a northern passage to
+Cathay and India, serving as master of the "Edward Bonaventure," on
+which Richard Chancellor sailed as pilot in chief. Separated by a storm
+from the "Bona Esperanza" and the "Bona Confidentia," the other two
+ships of the expedition, Borough proceeded on his voyage alone, and
+sailing into the White Sea, in the words of his epitaph, "discouered
+Moscouia by the Northerne sea passage to St Nicholas" (Archangel). In a
+second expedition, made in the "Serchthrift" in 1556, he discovered Kara
+Strait, between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach island. In 1560 he was in
+charge of another expedition to Russia, and, probably in 1558, he also
+made a voyage to Spain. At the beginning of 1563 he was appointed chief
+pilot and one of the four masters of the queen's ships in the Medway,
+and in this office he spent the rest of his life. He died on the 12th of
+July 1584, and was buried at Chatham. His son, Christopher Borough,
+wrote a description of a trading expedition made in 1579-1581 from the
+White Sea to the Caspian and back.
+
+His younger brother, WILLIAM BOROUGH, born in 1536, also at Northam,
+served as an ordinary seaman in the "Edward Bonaventure" on her voyage
+to Russia in 1553, and subsequently made many voyages to St Nicholas.
+Later he transferred his services from the merchant adventurers to the
+crown. As commander of the "Lion" he accompanied Sir Francis Drake in
+his Cadiz expedition of 1587, but he got himself into trouble by
+presuming to disagree with his chief concerning the wisdom of the attack
+on Lagos. He died in 1599. He was the author of _A Discourse of the
+Variation of the Compas, or Magneticall Needle_ (1581), and some of the
+charts he made are preserved at the British Museum and Hatfield.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH (A.S. nominative _burh_, dative _byrig_, which produces some of
+the place-names ending in _bury_, a sheltered or fortified place, the
+camp of refuge of a tribe, the stronghold of a chieftain; of. Ger.
+_Burg_, Fr. _bor_, _borc_, _bourg_), the term for a town, considered as
+a unit of local government.
+
+_History of the English Borough._--After the early English settlement,
+when Roman fortifications ceased to shelter hostile nations, their
+colonies and camps were used by the Anglo-Saxon invaders to form tribal
+strongholds; nevertheless burhs on the sites of Roman colonies show no
+continuity with Roman municipal organization. The resettlement of the
+Roman Durovernum as the burh of the men of (East) Kent, under a changed
+name, the name "burh of the men of Kent," Cant-wara-byrig (Canterbury),
+illustrates this point. The burh of the men of West Kent was
+Hrofesceaster (Durobrivae), Rochester, and many other _ceasters_ mark
+the existence of a Roman camp occupied by an early English burh. The
+tribal burh was protected by an earthen wall, and a general obligation
+to build and maintain burhs at the royal command was enforced by
+Anglo-Saxon law. Offences in disturbance of the peace of the burh were
+punished by higher fines than breaches of the peace of the "ham" or
+ordinary dwelling. The burh was the home of the king as well as the
+asylum of the tribe, and there is reason to think that the boundary of
+the borough was annually sanctified by a religious ceremony, and hence
+the long retention of a processional perambulation. Possibly the "hedge"
+or "wall" of the borough gave it, besides safety, a sanctity analogous
+to that enjoyed by the Germanic assembly while gathered within its
+"hedge," which the priests solemnly set up when the assembly gathered,
+and removed when it was over. While the "peace" of the Germanic assembly
+was essentially temporary, the "peace" of the burh was sacred all the
+year round. Its "hedge" was never removed. The sanctity of the burh was
+enjoyed by all the dwellings of the king, at first perhaps only during
+his term of residence. Neither in the early English language nor in the
+contemporary Latin was there any fixed usage differentiating the various
+words descriptive of the several forms of human settlement, and the
+tribal refuges cannot accordingly be clearly distinguished from villages
+or the strongholds of individuals by any purely nomenclative test. It is
+not till after the Danish invasions that it becomes easier to draw a
+distinction between the burhs that served as military strongholds for
+national defence and the royal vills which served no such purpose. Some
+of the royal vills eventually entered the class of boroughs, but by
+another route, and for the present the private stronghold and the royal
+dwelling may be neglected. It was the public stronghold and the
+administrative centre of a dependent district which was the source of
+the main features peculiar to the borough.
+
+Many causes tended to create peculiar conditions in the boroughs built
+for national defence. They were placed where artificial defence was most
+needed, at the junction of roads, in the plains, on the rivers, at the
+centres naturally marked out for trade, seldom where hills or marshes
+formed a sufficient natural defence. The burhs drew commerce by every
+channel; the camp and the palace, the administrative centre, the
+ecclesiastical centre (for the mother-church of the state was placed in
+its chief burh), all looked to the market for their maintenance. The
+burh was provided by law with a mint and royal moneyers and exchangers,
+with an authorized scale for weights and measures. Mercantile
+transactions in the burhs or _ports_, as they were called when their
+commercial rather than their military importance was accentuated, were
+placed by law under special legal privileges in order no doubt to secure
+the king's hold upon his toll. Over the burh or port was set a reeve, a
+royal officer answerable to the king for his dues from the burh, his
+rents for lands and houses, his customs on commerce, his share of the
+profits from judicial fines. At least from the 10th century the burh had
+a "moot" or court, the relation of which to the other courts is matter
+of speculation. A law of Edgar, about 960, required that it should meet
+three times a year, these being in all likelihood assemblies at which
+attendance was compulsory on all tenants of the burghal district, when
+pleas concerning life and liberty and land were held, and men were
+compelled to find pledges answerable for their good conduct. At these
+great meetings the borough reeve (_gerefa_) presided, declaring the law
+and guiding the judgments given by the suitors of the court. The reeve
+was supported by a group of assistants, called in Devon the "witan," in
+the boroughs of the Danelaw by a group of (generally twelve) "lawmen,"
+in other towns probably by a group of aldermen, senior burgesses, with
+military and police authority, whose office was in some cases
+hereditary. These persons assisted the reeve at the great meetings of
+the full court, and sat with him as judges at the subordinate meetings
+which were held to settle the unfinished causes and minor causes. There
+was no compulsion on those not specially summoned to attend these extra
+meetings. At these subordinate jurisdictional assemblies, held in
+public, and acting by the same authority as the annual gathering of all
+the _burh-wara_, other business concerning borough administration was
+decided, at least in later days, and it is to these assemblies that the
+origin of the town council may in many cases be ascribed. In the larger
+towns the division into wards, with a separate police system, can be
+traced at an early time, appearing as a unit of military organization,
+answerable for the defence of a gate of the town. The police system of
+London is described in detail in a record of 930-940. Here the free
+people were grouped in associations of ten, each under the
+superintendence of a headman. The bishops and reeves who belonged to the
+"court of London" appear as the directors of the system, and in them we
+may see the aldermen of the wards of a later time. The use of the word
+_bertha_ for ward at Canterbury, and the fact that the London wardmoot
+at a later time was used for the frankpledge system as well as for the
+organization of the muster, point to a connexion between the military
+and the police systems in the towns. At the end of the 9th and beginning
+of the 10th century there is evidence of a systematic "timbering" of new
+burhs, with the object of providing strongholds for the defence of
+Wessex against the Danes, and it appears that the surrounding districts
+were charged with their maintenance. In charters of this period a "haw,"
+or enclosed area within a burh, was often conveyed by charter as if it
+were an apanage of the lands in the neighbourhood with which it was
+conveyed; the Norman settlers who succeeded to lands in the county
+succeeded therewith to houses in the burhs, for a close association
+existed between the "thegns" of the shire and the shirestow, an
+association partly perhaps of duty and also of privilege. The king
+granted borough "haws" as places of refuge in Kent, and in London he
+gave them with commercial privileges to his bishops. What has been
+called the "heterogeneous" tenure of the shirestow, one of the most
+conspicuous characteristics of that particular type of borough, was
+further increased by the liberty which some burgesses enjoyed to
+"commend" themselves to a lord of their own choosing, promising to that
+lord suit and service and perhaps rent in return for protection. Over
+these burgesses the lords could claim jurisdictional rights, and these
+were in some cases increased by royal grants of special rights within
+certain "sokes." The great boroughs were honeycombed with sokes, or
+areas of seignorial jurisdiction, within which the royal reeve's
+authority was greatly restricted while that of the lord's reeve took
+precedence. Even the haws, being "burhs" or strongholds within a
+stronghold, enjoyed a local "peace" which protected from official
+intrusion. Besides heterogeneity of tenure and jurisdiction in the
+borough, there was also heterogeneity of status; there were burh-thegns
+and cnihts, mercatores, burgesses of various kinds, the three groups
+representing perhaps military, commercial and agricultural elements. The
+burh generally shows signs of having been originally a village
+settlement, surrounded by open fields, of which the borough boundary
+before 1835 will suggest the outline. This area was as a rule eventually
+the area of borough jurisdiction. There is some evidence pointing to the
+fact that the restriction of the borough authority to this area is not
+ancient, but due to the Norman settlement. The wide districts over which
+the boroughs had had authority were placed under the control of the
+Norman castle which was itself built by means of the old English levy of
+"burh-work." The borough court was allowed to continue its work only
+within its own immediate territory, and, to prevent conflict, the castle
+was placed outside the borough. Losing their place in the national
+scheme of defence, the burgess "cnihts" made commerce their principal
+object under the encouragement of the old privileges of the walled
+place.
+
+Besides the great co-operative strongholds in which many lords had
+burgesses, there were small boroughs held by a single lord. In many
+cases boroughs of this "seignorial" type were created upon the royal
+estates. Out of the king's vill, as a rule the jurisdictional centre of
+a hundred, there was sometimes created a borough. The lines of division
+before Domesday Book are obscure, but it is probable that in some cases,
+by a royal grant of jurisdiction, the inhabitants of a populous royal
+vill, where a hundred court for the district was already held, were
+authorized to establish a permanent court, for the settlement of their
+disputes, distinct from the hundred court of the district. Boroughs of
+this type with a uniform tenure were created not only on the king's
+estates but also on those of his tenants-in-chief, and in 1086 they were
+probably already numerous. A borough was usually, though perhaps not
+invariably, the companion of a Norman castle. In some cases a French
+"bourg" was created by the side of an English borough, and the two
+remained for many generations distinct in their laws and customs: in
+other cases a French "bourg" was settled by the side of an English
+village. A large number of the followers of the Norman lords had been
+almost certainly town-dwellers in their own country, and lost none of
+their burghal privileges by the migration. Every castle needed for its
+maintenance a group of skilled artisans, and the lords wished to draw to
+the castle gates all kinds of commodities for the castle's provision.
+The strength of the garrison made the neighbourhood of the castle a
+place of danger to men unprotected by legal privilege; and in order to
+invite to its neighbourhood desirable settlers, legal privileges similar
+to those enjoyed in Norman or English boroughs were guaranteed to those
+who would build on the plots which were offered to colonists. A low
+fixed rental, release from the renders required of villeins, release
+from the jurisdiction of the castle, and the creation of a separate
+borough jurisdiction, with or without the right to choose their own
+officers, rules fixing the maximum of fees and fines, or promising
+assessment of the fines by the burgesses themselves, the cancelling of
+all the castellan's rights, especially the right to take a forced levy
+of food for the castle from all within the area of his jurisdiction,
+freedom from arbitrary tallage, freedom of movement, the right to
+alienate property and devise land, these and many other privileges named
+in the early seignorial charters were what constituted the Norman _liber
+burgus_ of the seignorial type. Not all these privileges were enjoyed by
+all boroughs; some very meagre releases of seignorial rights accompanied
+the lord's charter which created a borough and made burgesses out of
+villeins. However liberal the grant, the lord or his reeve still
+remained in close personal relation with the burgesses of such places,
+and this character, together with the uniformity of their tenure,
+continued to hold them apart from the boroughs of the old English type,
+where all varieties of personal relationship between the lords and their
+groups of tenants might subsist. The royal charters granting the right
+to retain old customs prevented the systematic introduction into the old
+boroughs of some of the incidents of feudalism. Rights of the king took
+precedence of those of the lord, and devise with the king's consent was
+legal. By these means the lords' position was weakened, and other
+seignorial claims were later evaded or contested. The rights which the
+lords failed to keep were divided between the king and the municipality;
+in London, for instance, the king obtained all escheats, while the
+borough court secured the right of wardship of burgess orphans.
+
+From Norman times the yearly profit of the royal boroughs was as a rule
+included in the general "farm" rendered for the county by the sheriff;
+sometimes it was rendered by a royal farmer apart from the county-farm.
+The king generally accepted a composition for all the various items due
+from the borough. The burgesses were united in their efforts to keep
+that composition unchanged in amount, and to secure the provision of the
+right amount at the right time for fear that it should be increased by
+way of punishment. The levy of fines on rent arrear, and the distraints
+for debt due, which were obtained through the borough court, were a
+matter of interest to the burgesses of the court, and first taught the
+burgesses co-operative action. Money was raised, possibly by order of
+the borough court, to buy a charter from the king giving the right to
+choose officers who should answer directly to the exchequer and not
+through the sheriff of the county. The sheriff was in many cases also
+the constable of the castle, set by the Normans to overawe the English
+boroughs; his powers were great and dangerous enough to make him an
+officer specially obnoxious to the boroughs. Henry I. about 1131 gave
+the London citizens the right to choose their own sheriffs and a
+justiciar answerable for keeping the pleas of the crown. In 1130 the
+Lincoln citizens paid to hold their city in chief of the king. By the
+end of the 12th century many towns paid by the hand of their own reeves,
+and John's charters began to make rules as to the freedom of choice to
+be allowed in the nomination of borough officers and as to the royal
+power of dismissal. In Richard I.'s reign London imitated the French
+communes in styling the chief officer a mayor; in 1208 Winchester also
+had a mayor, and the title soon became no rarity. The chartered right to
+choose two or more citizens to keep the pleas of the crown gave to many
+boroughs the control of their coroners, who occupied the position of the
+London justiciar of earlier days, subject to those considerable
+modifications which Henry II.'s systematization of the criminal law had
+introduced. Burgesses who had gone for criminal and civil justice to
+their own court in disputes between themselves, or between themselves
+and strangers who were in their town, secured confirmation of this right
+by charter, not to exclude the justices in eyre, but to exempt
+themselves from the necessity of pleading in a distant court. The
+burgess, whether plaintiff or defendant, was a privileged person, and
+could claim in this respect a "benefit" somewhat similar to the benefit
+of clergy. In permitting the boroughs to answer through their own
+officers for his dues, the king handed over to the boroughs the farming
+of his rents and a large number of rights which would eventually prove
+to be sources of great profit.
+
+No records exist showing the nature of municipal proceedings at the time
+of the first purchase of charters. Certain it is that the communities in
+the 12th century became alive to the possibilities of their new
+position, that trade received a new impulse, and the vague
+constitutional powers of the borough court acquired a new need for
+definition. At first the selection of officers who were to treat with
+the exchequer and to keep the royal pleas was almost certainly
+restricted to a few rich persons who could find the necessary
+securities. Nominated probably in one of the smaller judicial
+assemblies, the choice was announced at the great Michaelmas assembly of
+the whole community, and it is not till the next century that we hear of
+any attempt of the "vulgus" to make a different selection from that of
+the magnates. The "vulgus" were able to take effective action by means
+of the several craft organizations, and first found the necessity to do
+so when taxation was heavy or when questions of trade legislation were
+mooted (see GILDS). The taxation of the boroughs in the reign of Henry
+II. was assessed by the king's justices, who fixed the sums due _per
+capita_; but if the borough made an offer of a gift, the assessment was
+made by the burgesses. In the first case the taxation fell on the
+magnates. In the levy _per communam_ the assessment was made through the
+wardmoots (in London) and the burden fell on the poorer class. In Henry
+II.'s reign London was taxed by both methods, the _barones majores_ by
+head, the _barones minores_ through the wardmoot. The pressure of
+taxation led in the 13th century to a closer definition of the burghal
+constitutions; the commons sought to get an audit of accounts, and (in
+London) not only to hear but to treat of municipal affairs. By the end
+of the century London had definitely established two councils, that of
+the mayor and aldermen, representing the old borough court, and a common
+council, representing the voice of the commonalty, as expressed through
+the city wards. The choice of councillors in the wards rested probably
+with the aldermen and the ward jury summoned by them to make the
+presentments. In some cases juries were summoned not to represent
+different areas but different classes; thus at Lincoln there were in
+1272 juries of the rich, the middling and the poor, chosen presumably by
+authority from groups divided by means of the tax roll. Elsewhere the
+several groups of traders and artisans made of their gilds all-powerful
+agencies for organizing joint action among classes of commons united by
+a trade interest, and the history of the towns becomes the history of
+the struggle between the gilds which captured control of the council
+and the gilds which were excluded therefrom. Many municipal revolutions
+took place, and a large number of constitutional experiments were tried
+all over the country from the 13th century onward. Schemes which
+directed a gradual co-optation, two to choose four, these six to choose
+more, and so in widening circles from a centre of officialdom, found
+much favour throughout the middle ages. A plan, like the London plan, of
+two companies, alderman and council, was widely favoured in the 14th
+century, perhaps in imitation of the Houses of Lords and Commons. The
+mayor was sometimes styled the "sovereign" and was given many
+prerogatives. Great respect was paid to the "ancients," those, namely,
+who had already held municipal office. Not till the 15th century were
+orderly arrangements for counting "voices" arrived at in a few of the
+most highly developed towns, and these were used only in the small
+assemblies of the governing body, not in the large electoral assemblies
+of the people.
+
+In London in the 13th century there was a regular system for the
+admission of new members to the borough "franchise," which was at first
+regarded not as conferring any form of suffrage but as a means to secure
+a privileged position in the borough court and in the trade of the
+borough. Admission could be obtained by inheritance, by purchase or
+gift, in some places by marriage, and in London, at least from 1275, by
+a municipal register of apprenticeship. The new freeman in return for
+his privileges was bound to share with the other burgesses all the
+burdens of taxation, control, &c., which fell upon burgesses. Personal
+service was not always necessary, and in some towns there were many
+non-resident burgesses. When in later times admission to this freedom
+came to be used as means to secure the parliamentary franchise, the
+freedom of the borough was freely sold and given. The elections in which
+the commons of the boroughs first took interest were those of the
+borough magistrates. Where the commons succeeded for a time in asserting
+their right to take part in borough elections they were rarely able to
+keep it, not in all cases perhaps because their power was feared, but
+sometimes because of the riotous proceedings which ensued. These led to
+government interference, which no party in the borough desired. The
+possibility of a forfeiture of their enfranchised position made the
+burgesses on the whole fairly submissive. In the 13th century London
+repeatedly was "taken into the king's hand," subjected to heavy fines
+and put under the constable of the Tower. In the 15th century
+disturbances in the boroughs led to the issue of new constitutions, some
+of which were the outcome of royal charters, others the result of
+parliamentary legislation. The development of the law of corporations
+also at this time compelled the boroughs to seek new charters which
+should satisfy the now exacting demands of the law. The charters of
+incorporation were issued at a time when the state was looking more and
+more to the borough authorities as part of its executive and judicial
+staff, and thus the government was closely interested in the manner of
+their selection. The new charters were drafted in such a way as to
+narrow the popular control. The corporations were placed under a council
+and in a number of cases popular control was excluded altogether, the
+whole system being made one of co-optation. The absence of popular
+protest may be ascribed in part to the fact that the old popular control
+had been more nominal than real, and the new charter gave as a rule two
+councils of considerable size. These councils bore a heavy burden of
+taxation in meeting royal loans and benevolences, paying _per capita_
+like the magnates of the 12th century, and for a time there is on the
+whole little evidence of friction between the governors and the
+governed. Throughout, popular opinion in the closest of corporations had
+a means of expression, though none of execution, in the presentments of
+the leet juries and sessions juries. By means of their "verdicts" they
+could use threats against the governing body, express their resentment
+against acts of the council which benefited the governing body rather
+than the town, and call in the aid of the justices of assize where the
+members of the governing body were suspected of fraud. Elizabeth
+repeatedly declared her dislike of incorporations "because of the
+abuses committed by their head rulers," but in her reign they were
+fairly easily controlled by the privy council, which directed their
+choice of members of parliament and secured supporters of the government
+policy to fill vacancies on the borough bench. The practice in Tudor and
+Stuart charters of specifying by name the members of the governing body
+and holders of special offices opened the way to a "purging" of the
+hostile spirits when new charters were required. There were also rather
+vaguely worded clauses authorizing the dismissal of officers for
+misconduct, though as a rule the appointments were for life. When under
+the Stuarts and under the Commonwealth political and religious feeling
+ran high in the boroughs, use was made of these clauses both by the
+majority on the council and by the central government to mould the
+character of the council by a drastic "purging." Another means of
+control first used under the Commonwealth was afforded by the various
+acts of parliament, which subjected all holders of municipal office to
+the test of an oath. Under the Commonwealth there was no improvement in
+the methods used by the central government to control the boroughs. All
+opponents of the ruling policy were disfranchised and disqualified for
+office by act of parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were
+to be tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals
+gave them opportunity to control the borough policy. Few Commonwealth
+charters have been preserved, though several were issued in response to
+the requests of the corporations.
+
+In some cases the charters used words which appeared to point to an
+opportunity for popular elections in boroughs where a usage of election
+by the town council had been established. In 1598 the judges gave an
+opinion that the town councils could by by-law determine laws for the
+government of the town regardless of the terms of the charter. In the
+18th century the judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage
+of popular election was established, there were means of controlling the
+result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations, though their
+right to choose a member of parliament might be doubtful, had the sole
+right to admit new burgesses, and in order to determine parliamentary
+elections they enfranchised non-residents. Where conflicts arose over
+the choice of a member, and two selections were made, the matter came
+before the House of Commons. On various occasions the House decided in
+favour of the popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the
+town council, on the general principle that neither the royal charter
+nor a by-law could curtail this particular franchise. But as each case
+was separately determined by a body swayed by the dominant political
+party, no one principle was steadily adhered to in the trial of election
+petitions. The royal right to create boroughs was freely used by
+Elizabeth and James I. as a means of securing a submissive parliament.
+The later Stuarts abandoned this method, and the few new boroughs made
+by the Georges were not made for political reasons. The object of the
+later Stuarts was to control the corporations already in existence, not
+to make new ones. Charles II. from the time of his restoration decided
+to exercise a strict control of the close corporations in order to
+secure not only submissive parliaments, but also a pliant executive
+among the borough justices, and pliant juries, which were impanelled at
+the selection of the borough officers. In 1660 it was made a rule that
+all future charters should reserve expressly to the crown the first
+nomination of the aldermen, recorder and town-clerk, and a proviso
+should be entered placing with the common council the return of the
+member of parliament. The Corporation Act of 1661 gave power to royal
+commissioners to settle the composition of the town councils, and to
+remove all who refused the sacraments of the Church of England or were
+suspected of disaffection, even though they offered to take the
+necessary oaths. Even so the difficulty of securing submissive juries
+was again so great in 1682 that a general attack on the borough
+franchises was begun by the crown. A London jury having returned a
+verdict hostile to the crown, after various attempts to bend the city to
+his will, Charles II. issued a _quo warranto_ against the mayor and
+commonalty in order to charge the citizens with illegal encroachments
+upon their chartered rights. The want of a sound philosophical
+principle in the laws which were intended to regulate the actions of
+organized groups of men made it easy for the crown judges to find flaws
+in the legality of the actions of the boroughs, and also made it
+possible for the Londoners to argue that no execution could be taken
+against the mayor, commonalty and citizens, a "body politic invisible";
+that the indictment lay only against every particular member of the
+governing body; and that the corporation as a corporation was incapable
+of suffering a forfeiture or of making a surrender. The judges gave a
+judgment for the king, the charters were forfeited and the government
+placed with a court of aldermen of the king's own choosing. Until James
+II. yielded, there was no common council in London. The novelty of the
+proceedings of Charles II. and James II. lay in using the weapon of the
+_quo warranto_ systematically to ensure a general revocation of
+charters. The new charters which were then granted required the king's
+consent for the more important appointments, and gave him power to
+remove officers without reason given. Under James II. in 1687 six
+commissioners were appointed to "regulate" the corporations and remove
+from them all persons who were opposed to the abolition of the penal
+laws against Catholics. The new appointments were made under a writ
+which ran, "We will and require you to elect" (a named person). When
+James II. sought to withdraw from his disastrous policy, he issued a
+proclamation (October 17, 1688) restoring to the boroughs their ancient
+charters. The governing charter thenceforth in many boroughs, though not
+in all, was the charter which had established a close corporation, and
+from this time on to 1835 the boroughs made no progress in
+constitutional growth. The tendency for the close corporation to treat
+the members of the governing body as the only corporators, and to
+repudiate the idea that the corporation was answerable to the
+inhabitants of the borough if the corporate property was squandered,
+became more and more manifest as the history of the past slipped into
+oblivion. The corporators came to regard themselves as members of a
+club, legally warranted in dividing the lands and goods of the same
+among themselves whensoever such a division should seem profitable. Even
+where the constitution of the corporation was not close by charter, the
+franchise tended to become restricted to an ever-dwindling electorate,
+as the old methods for the extension of the municipal franchise by other
+means than inheritance died out of use. At Ipswich in 1833 the "freemen"
+numbered only one fifty-fifth of the population. If the electorate was
+increased, it was increased by the wholesale admission to the freedom of
+voters willing to vote as directed by the corporation at parliamentary
+elections. The growth of corruption in the boroughs continued unchecked
+until the era of the Reform Bill. Several boroughs had by that time
+become insolvent, and some had recourse to their member of parliament to
+eke out their revenues. In Buckingham the mayor received the whole town
+revenue without rendering account; sometimes, however, heavy charges
+fell upon the officers. Before the Reform era dissatisfaction with the
+corporations was mainly shown by the number of local acts of parliament
+which placed under the authority of special commissioners a variety of
+administrative details, which if the corporation had not been suspected
+would certainly have been assigned to its care. The trust offered
+another convenient means of escape from difficulty, and in some towns
+out of the trust was developed a system of municipal administration
+where there was no recognized corporation. Thus at Peterborough the
+feoffees who had succeeded to the control of certain ancient charities
+constituted a form of town council with very restricted powers. In the
+17th century Sheffield was brought under the act "to redress the
+misemployment of lands given to charitable uses," and the municipal
+administration of what had been a borough passed into the hands of the
+trustees of the Burgery or town trust.
+
+The many special authorities created under act of parliament led to much
+confusion, conflict and overlapping, and increased the need for a
+general reform. The reform of the boroughs was treated as part of the
+question of parliamentary reform. In 1832 the exclusive privileges of
+the corporations in parliamentary elections having been abolished and
+male occupiers enfranchised, the question of the municipal franchise was
+next dealt with. In 1833 a commission inquired into the administration
+of the municipal corporations. The result of the inquiry was the
+Municipal Corporations Act 1835, which gave the municipal franchise to
+the ratepayers. In all the municipal corporations dealt with by the act,
+the town council was to consist of a mayor, aldermen and councillors,
+and the councils were given like powers, being divided into those with
+and those without a commission of the peace. The minutes were to be open
+to the inspection of any burgess, and an audit of accounts was required.
+The exclusive rights of retail trading, which in some towns were
+restricted to freemen of the borough, were abolished. The system of
+police, which in some places was still medieval in character, was placed
+under the control of the council. The various privileged areas within
+the bounds of a borough were with few exceptions made part of the
+borough. The powers of the council to alienate corporate property were
+closely restricted. The operations of the act were extended by later
+legislation, and the divers amendments and enactments which followed
+were consolidated in the Municipal Corporations Act 1882.     (M. Bat.)
+
+_Irish Boroughs._--In Ireland the earliest traces of burghal life are
+connected with the maritime settlements on the southern and eastern
+coast. The invasion of Henry II. colonized these Ostman ports with
+Anglo-Norman communities, who brought with them, or afterwards obtained,
+municipal charters of a favourable kind. The English settlement
+obviously depended on the advantages which the burgesses possessed over
+the native population outside. Quite different from these were the new
+close boroughs which during the plantation of Ulster James I. introduced
+from England. The conquest was by this time completed, and by a rigorous
+enforcement of the Supremacy and Uniformity Acts the existing liberties
+of the older boroughs were almost entirely withdrawn. By the new rules
+published (in terms of the Act of Settlement and Explanation) in 1672
+resident traders were permitted to become freemen, but neither this
+regulation nor the ordinary admissions through birth, marriage and
+apprenticeship succeeded in giving to Ireland free and vigorous
+municipalities. The corrupt admission of non-resident freemen, in order
+to outvote the ancient freeholders in parliamentary elections, and the
+systematic exclusion of Roman Catholics, soon divorced the "commonalty"
+from true local interests, and made the corporations, which elected
+themselves or selected the constituency, dangerously unpopular.
+
+_Scottish Boroughs._--In Scotland burghs or burrows are divided into
+royal burghs, burghs of regality and burghs of barony. The first were
+erected by royal charter, and every burgess held direct of the crown. It
+was, therefore, impossible to subfeu the burgh lands,--a distinction
+still traceable in modern conveyancing. Where perhaps no charter ever
+existed, the law on proof of immemorial possession of the privileges of
+a royal burgh has presumed that a charter of erection once existed. The
+charter gave power to elect provost, bailies and council, a power long
+exercised under the act of 1469, which directed the new council to be
+chosen annually by the retiring council, and the magistrates by both
+councils. The jurisdiction of these magistrates, which was specially
+reserved in the act of 1747 abolishing heritable jurisdictions, was
+originally cumulative with, and as large as, that of the sheriff. It is
+now confined to police offences, summary ejections, orders for _interim_
+aliment (for prisoners), payment of burgh dues and delivery of title
+deeds. Three head courts were held in the year, at which all burgesses
+were obliged to attend, and at which public business was done and
+private transactions were ratified. There were three classes of
+burgesses--burgesses _in sua arte_, members of one or other of the
+corporations; burgesses who were gild brothers; and simple burgesses.
+The Leges Burgorum apparently contemplate that all respectable
+inhabitants should have the franchise, but a ceremony of admission was
+required, at which the applicant swore fealty and promised to watch and
+ward for the community, and to pay his "maill" to the king. These
+borough maills, or rents, and the great and small customs of burghs,
+formed a large part of the royal revenue, and, although frequently
+leased or feued out for a fixed duty, were on the accession of James I.
+annexed to the crown as an alimentary fund. Burgh customs still stand in
+the peculiar position of being neither adjudgeable nor arrestable; they
+are therefore bad security. The early charters contain the usual
+privileges of holding a market, of exemption from toll or tribute, and
+that distraint will be allowed only for the burgess's own debts. There
+was also the usual strife between the gildry and the craftsmen, who were
+generally prohibited from trading, and of whom dyers, fleshers and
+shoemakers were forbidden to enter the gildry. Deacons, wardens and
+visitors were appointed by the crafts, and the rate of wages was fixed
+by the magistrates. The crafts in Scotland were frequently incorporated,
+not by royal charter, but, as in the case of the cordiners of Edinburgh,
+by seals of cause from the corporation. The trade history of the free
+burghs is very important. Thus in 1466 the privilege of importing and
+exporting merchandise was confined to freemen, burgesses and their
+factors. Ships were directed to trade to the king's free burghs, there
+to pay the customs, and to receive their _cocquets_ or custom-house
+seals; and in 1503 persons dwelling outside burghs were forbidden to
+"use any merchandise," or to sell wine or staple goods. An act of 1633,
+erroneously called a _Ratification_ of the privileges of burghs,
+extended these privileges of buying and selling to retail as well as
+wholesale trade, but restricted their enjoyment to royal burghs.
+Accordingly, in 1672, a general declaratory act was passed confirming to
+the freemen in royal burghs the wholesale trade in wine, wax, silk,
+dyeing materials, &c., permitting generally to all persons the export of
+native raw material, specially permitting the burgesses of barony and
+regality to export their own manufactures, and such goods as they may
+buy in "markets," and to import against these consignments certain
+materials for tillage, building, or for use in their own manufactures,
+with a general permission to retail all commodities. This extraordinary
+system was again changed in 1690 by an act which declared that freemen
+of royal burghs should have the sole right of importing everything by
+sea or land except bestial, and also of exporting by sea everything
+which was not native raw material, which might be freely exported by
+land. The gentry were always allowed to import for their personal
+consumption and to export an equal quantity of commodities. The act
+mentions that the royal burghs as an estate of the kingdom contributed
+one-sixth part of all public impositions, and were obliged to build and
+maintain prison-houses. Some of these trade privileges were not
+abolished till 1846.
+
+In the north of Scotland there was an association of free burghs called
+the Hanse or _Ansus_; and the lord chamberlain, by his _Iter_, or
+circuit of visitation, maintained a common standard of right and duties
+in all burghs, and examined the state of the "common good," the accounts
+of which in 1535 were appointed to be laid before the auditors in
+exchequer. The chamberlain latterly presided in the Curia Quatuor
+Burgorum (Edinburgh, Berwick, Stirling, Roxburgh), which not only made
+regulations in trade, but decided questions of private right (e.g.
+succession), according to the varying customs of burghs. This court
+frequently met at Haddington; in 1454 it was fixed at Edinburgh. The
+more modern convention of royal burghs (which appeared as a judicial
+_persona_ in the Court of Session so late as 1839) probably dates from
+the act of James III. (1487, c. 111), which appointed the commissioners
+of burghs, both north and south, to meet yearly at Inverkeithing "to
+treat of the welfare of merchandise, the good rule and statutes for the
+common profit of burghs, and to provide for remeid upon the skaith and
+injuries sustained within the burghs." Among the more important
+functions of this body (on whose decrees at one time summary diligence
+proceeded) were the prohibition of undue exactions within burghs, the
+revisal of the "set" or mode of municipal election, and the _pro rata_
+division among the burghs of the parliamentary subsidy required from the
+third estate. The reform of the municipalities, and the complete
+representation of the mercantile interests in the united parliament,
+deprived this body of any importance.
+
+Burghs of regality and of barony held in vassalage of some great
+lordship, lay or ecclesiastical, but were always in theory or in
+practice created by crown grant. They received jurisdiction in civil and
+criminal matters, generally cumulative with that of the baron or the
+lord of regality, who in some cases obtained the right of nominating
+magistrates. Powers to hold markets and to levy customs were likewise
+given to these burghs.
+
+The Scottish burghs emerged slowly into political importance. In 1295
+the procurators of six burghs ratified the agreement for the marriage of
+Edward Baliol; and in 1326 they were recognized as a third estate,
+granting a tenth penny on all rents for the king's life, if he should
+apply it for the public good. The commissioners of burghs received from
+the exchequer their costages or expenses of attending parliament. The
+burghs were represented in the judicial committee, and in the committee
+on articles appointed during the reign of James V. After the
+Reformation, in spite of the annexation of kirk lands to the crown, and
+the increased burdens laid on temporal lands, the proportion of general
+taxation borne by the burghs (viz. 1s. 6d.) was expressly preserved by
+act 1587, c. 112. The number of commissioners, of course, fluctuated
+from time to time. Cromwell assigned ten members to the Scottish burghs
+in the second parliament of Three Nations (1654). The general practice
+until 1619 had been, apparently, that each burgh should send two
+members. In that year (by an arrangement with the convention of burghs)
+certain groups of burghs returned one member, Edinburgh returning two.
+Under art. 22 of the treaty of Union the number of members for royal
+burghs was fixed at fifteen, who were elected in Edinburgh by the
+magistrates and town council, and in the groups of burghs by delegates
+chosen ad hoc.     (W. C. S.)
+
+  See C. Gross, _Bibliography of British Municipal History_ (1897),
+  which contains all needful references up to that date; F.W. Maitland,
+  _Township and Borough_ (1898); A. Ballard, _Domesday Boroughs_ (1904);
+  M. Bateson, _Borough Customs_ (1904-1906); S. and B. Webb, _English
+  Local Government_ (3 vols., 1906-1908). For the character of the
+  modern Scottish burgh see Mabel Atkinson, _Local Government in
+  Scotland_ (Edinburgh, 1904), where other works are mentioned.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGHBRIDGE, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the
+West Riding of Yorkshire, England; 22 m. N.W. of York on a branch of the
+North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 830. It lies in the central plain of
+Yorkshire, on the river Ure near its confluence with the Swale. It is in
+the parish of Aldborough, the village of that name (q.v.), celebrated
+for its Roman remains, lying a mile south-east.
+
+  About half a mile to the west of Boroughbridge there are three upright
+  stones called the Devil's Arrows, which are of uncertain origin but
+  probably of the Celtic period. The manor of Boroughbridge, then called
+  Burc, was held by Edward the Confessor and passed to William the
+  Conqueror, but suffered so much from the ravages of his soldiers that
+  by 1086 it had decreased in value from L10 to 55 s. When the site of
+  the Great North Road was altered, towards the end of the 11th century,
+  a bridge was built across the Ure, about half a mile above the Roman
+  bridge at Aldborough, and called Burgh bridge or Ponteburgem. This
+  caused a village to spring up, and it afterwards increased so much as
+  to become a market town. In 1229 Boroughbridge, as part of the manor
+  of Aldborough, was granted to Hubert de Burgh, but was forfeited a few
+  years later by his son who fought against the king at Evesham. It then
+  remained a royal manor until Charles I. granted it to several citizens
+  of London, from whom it passed through numerous hands to the present
+  owner. The history of Boroughbridge during the early 14th century
+  centres round the war with Scotland, and culminates with the battle
+  fought there in 1321. When in 1317 the Scots invaded England, they
+  penetrated as far south as Boroughbridge and burnt the town.
+  Boroughbridge was evidently a borough by prescription, and as such was
+  called upon to return two members to parliament in 1299. It was not
+  represented again until 1553, when the privilege was revived. The town
+  was finally disfranchised in 1832. In 1504 the bailiff and inhabitants
+  of Boroughbridge received a grant of two fairs, and Charles II. in
+  1670 created three new fairs in the borough, on the 12th of June, the
+  5th of August and the 12th of October, and leased them to Francis
+  Calvert and Thomas Wilkinson for ninety-nine years.
+
+
+
+
+BOROUGH ENGLISH, a custom prevailing in certain ancient English
+boroughs, and in districts attached to them (where the lands are held in
+socage), and also in certain copyhold manors (chiefly in Surrey,
+Middlesex, Suffolk and Sussex), by which in general lands descend to the
+youngest son, to the exclusion of all the other children, of the person
+dying seised and intestate. Descent to the youngest brother to the
+exclusion of all other collaterals, where there is no issue, is
+sometimes included in the general definition, but this is really a
+special custom to be proved from the court-rolls of the manor and from
+local reputation--a custom which is sometimes extended to the youngest
+sister, uncle, aunt. Generally, however, Borough English, apart from
+specialties, may be said to differ from gavelkind in not including
+collaterals. It is often found in connexion with the distinct custom
+that the widow shall take as dower the whole and not merely one-third of
+her husband's lands.
+
+The origin of the custom of Borough English has been much disputed.
+Though frequently claimed to be of Saxon origin, there is no direct
+evidence of such being the case. The first mention of the custom in
+England occurs in Glanvil, without, however, any explanation as to its
+origin. Littleton's explanation, which is the more usually accepted, is
+that custom casts the inheritance upon the youngest, because after the
+death of his parents he is least able to support himself, and more
+likely to be left destitute of any other support. Blackstone derived
+Borough English from the usages of pastoral life, the elder sons
+migrating and the youngest remaining to look after the household. C.I.
+Elton claims it to be a survival of pre-Aryan times. It was referred to
+by the Normans as "the custom of the English towns." In the Yearbook of
+22 Edward IV. fol. 32b it is described as the custom of Nottingham,
+which is made clear by the report of a trial in the first year of Edward
+III. where it was found that in Nottingham there were two districts, the
+one the _Burgh-Frauncoyes_, the other the _Burgh-Engloyes_, where
+descent was to the youngest son, from which circumstance the custom has
+derived its name. On the European continent the custom of junior-rights
+is not unknown, more particularly in Germany, and it has by some been
+ascribed to the _jus primae noctis_ (q.v.). It is also said to exist
+amongst the Mongols.
+
+  See also GAVELKIND; INHERITANCE; PRIMOGENITURE; TENURE; Blackstone's
+  _Commentaries_; Coke's _Institutes_; Comyn's _Digest of the Law_;
+  Elton's _Origin of English History_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of
+  English Law_.
+
+
+
+
+BORROMEAN ISLANDS, a group of four islands on the W. side of Lago
+Maggiore off Baveno and Stresa. The southernmost, the Isola Bella, is
+famous for its chateau and terraced gardens, constructed by Count
+Vitaliano Borromeo (d. 1690). To the N.W. is the Isola dei Pescatori,
+containing a fishing village; and to the N.E. of this the Isola Madre,
+the largest of the group, with a chateau and garden; and to the N.
+again, off Pallanza, is the little Isola S. Giovanni.
+
+
+
+
+BORROMEO, CARLO (1538-1584), saint and cardinal of the Roman Catholic
+Church, son of Ghiberto Borromeo, count of Arona, and Margarita de'
+Medici, was born at the castle of Arona on Lago Maggiore on the 2nd of
+October 1538. When he was about twelve years old, Giulio Cesare Borromeo
+resigned to him an abbacy, the revenue of which he applied wholly in
+charity to the poor. He studied the civil and canon law at Pavia. In
+1554 his father died, and, although he had an elder brother, Count
+Federigo, he was requested by the family to take the management of their
+domestic affairs. After a time, however, he resumed his studies, and in
+1559 he took his doctor's degree. In 1560 his uncle, Cardinal Angelo de'
+Medici, was raised to the pontificate as Pius IV. Borromeo was made
+prothonotary, entrusted with both the public and the privy seal of the
+ecclesiastical state, and created cardinal with the administration of
+Romagna and the March of Ancona, and the supervision of the Franciscans,
+the Carmelites and the knights of Malta. He was thus at the age of
+twenty-two practically the leading statesman of the papal court. Soon
+after he was raised to the archbishopric of Milan. In compliance with
+the pope's desire, he lived in great splendour; yet his own temperance
+and humility were never brought into question. He established an academy
+of learned persons, and published their memoirs as the _Noctes
+Vaticanae_. About the same time he also founded and endowed a college at
+Pavia, which he dedicated to Justina, virgin and martyr. On the death of
+his elder brother Federigo, he was advised to quit the church and
+marry, that his family might not become extinct. He declined the
+proposal, however, and became henceforward still more fervent in
+exercises of piety, and more zealous for the welfare of the church.
+Owing to his influence over Pius IV., he was able to facilitate the
+final deliberations of the council of Trent, and he took a large share
+in the drawing up of the Tridentine catechism (_Catechismus Romanus_).
+
+On the death of Pius IV. (1566), the skill and diligence of Borromeo
+contributed materially to suppressing the cabals of the conclave.
+Subsequently he devoted himself wholly to the reformation of his
+diocese, which had fallen into a most unsatisfactory condition owing to
+the prolonged absences of its previous archbishops. He made a series of
+pastoral visits, and restored decency and dignity to divine service. In
+conformity with the decrees of the council of Trent, he cleared the
+cathedral of its gorgeous tombs, rich ornaments, banners, arms, sparing
+not even the monuments of his own relatives. He divided the nave of the
+church into two compartments for the separation of the sexes. He
+extended his reforms to the collegiate churches (even to the
+fraternities of penitents and particularly that of St John the Baptist),
+and to the monasteries. The great abuses which had overrun the church at
+this time arose principally from the ignorance of the clergy. Borromeo,
+therefore, established seminaries, colleges and communities for the
+education of candidates for holy orders. The most remarkable, perhaps,
+of his foundations was the fraternity of the Oblates, a society whose
+members were pledged to give aid to the church when and where it might
+be required. He further paved the way for the "Golden" or "Borromean"
+league formed in 1586 by the Swiss Catholic cantons of Switzerland to
+expel heretics if necessary by armed force.
+
+In 1576, when Milan was visited by the plague, he went about giving
+directions for accommodating the sick and burying the dead, avoiding no
+danger and sparing no expense. He visited all the neighbouring parishes
+where the contagion raged, distributing money, providing accommodation
+for the sick, and punishing those, especially the clergy, who were
+remiss in discharging their duties. He met with much opposition to his
+reforms. The governor of the province, and many of the senators,
+apprehensive that the cardinal's ordinances and proceedings would
+encroach upon the civil jurisdiction, addressed remonstrances and
+complaints to the courts of Rome and Madrid. But Borromeo had more
+formidable difficulties to struggle with, in the inveterate opposition
+of several religious orders, particularly that of the Humiliati
+(Brothers of Humility). Some members of that society formed a conspiracy
+against his life, and a shot was fired at him in the archiepiscopal
+chapel under circumstances which led to the belief that his escape was
+miraculous. The number of his enemies was increased by his successful
+attack on his Jesuit confessor Ribera, who with other members of the
+college of Milan was found to be guilty of unnatural offences. His
+manifold labours and austerities appear to have shortened his life. He
+was seized with an intermittent fever, and died at Milan on the 4th of
+November 1584. He was canonized in 1610, and his feast is celebrated on
+the 4th of November.
+
+Besides the _Nodes Vaticanae_, to which he appears to have contributed,
+the only literary relics of this intrepid and zealous reformer are some
+homilies, discourses and sermons, with a collection of letters. His
+sermons, which have little literary merit, were published by J.A. Sax (5
+vols., Milan, 1747-1748), and have been translated into many languages.
+The record of his episcopate is to be found in the two volumes of the
+_Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis_ (Milan, 1599). Contrary to his last
+wishes a memorial was erected to him in Milan cathedral, as well as a
+statue 70 ft. high on the hill above Arona, by his admirers who regarded
+him as the leader of a Counter-Reformation.
+
+His nephew, Federigo Borromeo (1564-1631), was archbishop of Milan from
+1595, and in 1609 founded the Ambrosian library in that city.
+
+  See G.P. Giussano, _Vita di S. Carlo Borromeo_ (1610, Eng. ed. by H.E.
+  Manning, London, 1884); A. Sala, _Documenti circa la vita e la gesta
+  di Borromeo_ (4 vols., Milan, 1857-1859); Chanoine Silvain, _Histoire
+  de St Charles Borromee_ (Milan, 1884); and A. Cantono, _Un grande
+  riformatore del secolo XVI_ (Florence, 1904); article "Borromaus" in
+  Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+BORROMINI, FRANCESCO (1599-1667), Italian architect, was born at Bissone
+in 1599. He was the chief representative of the style known in
+architecture as "baroque," which marked a fearless and often reckless
+departure from the traditional laws of the Renaissance, and often
+obtained originality only at the cost of beauty or wisdom. One of the
+main opponents of this style was Barocchio (q.v.). Borromini was much
+employed in the middle of the 17th century at Rome. His principal works
+are the church of St Agnese in Piazza Navona, the church of La Sapienza
+in Rome, the church of San Carlino alle Fontane, the church of the
+Collegio di Propaganda, and the restoration of San Giovanni in Laterano.
+He died by his own hand at Rome in 1667. Engravings of his chief
+compositions are to be found in the posthumous work, _Francisci
+Borromini opus Architectonicum_ (1727).
+
+
+
+
+BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (1803-1881), English traveller, linguist and
+author, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 5th of July 1803, of a
+middle-class Cornish family. His father was a recruiting officer, and
+his mother a Norfolk lady of French extraction. From 1816 to 1818 Borrow
+attended, with no very great profit, the grammar school at Norwich.
+After leaving school he was articled to a firm of Norwich solicitors,
+where he neglected the law, but gave a great deal of desultory attention
+to languages. He was encouraged in these studies by William Taylor, the
+friend of Southey. On the death of his father, in 1824 he went to London
+to seek his fortune as a literary adventurer. In 1826 he published a
+volume of _Romantic Ballads_ translated from the Danish. Engaged by Sir
+Richard Phillips, the publisher, as a hack-writer at starvation wages,
+his experiences in London were bitter indeed. His struggles at last
+became so dire that if he would escape Chatterton's doom, he must leave
+London and either return to Norwich and share his mother's narrow
+income, or turn to account in some way the magnificent physical strength
+with which nature had endowed him. Determining on the latter of these
+courses, he left London on tramp. As he stood considerably more than 6
+ft. in height, was a fairly trained athlete, and had a countenance of
+extraordinary impressiveness, if not of commanding beauty--Greek in type
+with a dash of the Hebrew--we may assume that there had never before
+appeared on the English high-roads so majestic-looking a tramp as he
+who, on an afternoon in May, left his squalid lodging with bundle and
+stick to begin life on the roads. Shaping his course to the south-west,
+he soon found himself on Salisbury Plain. And then his extraordinary
+adventures began. After a while he became a travelling hedge-smith, and
+it was while pursuing this avocation that he made the acquaintance of
+the splendid road-girl, born at Long Melford workhouse, whom he has
+immortalized under the name of Isopel Berners. He was now brought much
+into contact with the gipsies, and this fact gave him the most important
+subject-matter for his writings. For picturesque as is Borrow's style,
+it is this subject-matter of his, the Romany world of Great Britain,
+which--if his pictures of that world are true--will keep his writings
+alive. Now that the better class of gipsies are migrating so rapidly to
+America that scarcely any are left in England, Borrow's pictures of them
+are challenged as being too idealistic. It is unfortunate that no one
+who knew Borrow, and the gryengroes or horse-dealers with whom he
+associated, and whom he depicted, has ever written about him and them.
+Full of "documents" as is Dr Knapp's painstaking biography, it cannot be
+said to give a vital picture of Borrow and his surroundings during this
+most interesting period of his life. It is this same peculiar class of
+gipsies (the gryengroes) with whom the present writer was brought into
+contact, and he can only refer, in justification of Borrow's
+descriptions of them, to certain publications of his own, where the
+whole question is discussed at length, and where he has set out to prove
+that Borrow's pictures of the section of the English gipsies he knew are
+not idealized. But there is one great blemish in _all_ Borrow's dramatic
+scenes of gipsy life, wheresoever they may be laid. This was pointed
+out by the gentleman who "read" _Zincali_ for Mr Murray, the
+publisher:--
+
+  "The dialogues are amongst the best parts of the book; but in several
+  of them the tone of the speakers, of those especially who are in
+  humble life, is too correct and elevated, and therefore out of
+  character. This takes away from their effect. I think it would be very
+  advisable that Mr Borrow should go over them with reference to this
+  point, simplifying a few of the terms of expression and introducing a
+  few contractions--_don'ts, can'ts_, &c. This would improve them
+  greatly."
+
+It is the same with his pictures of the English gipsies. The reader has
+only to compare the dialogues between gipsies given in that photographic
+study of Romany life, _In Gipsy Tents_, by F.H. Groome, with the
+dialogues in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_, to see how the illusion in
+Borrow's narrative is disturbed by the uncolloquial locutions of the
+speakers. It is true, no doubt, that all Romanies, especially perhaps
+the English and Hungarian, have a passion for the use of high-sounding
+words, and the present writer has shown this in his remarks upon the
+Czigany Czindol, who is said to have taught the Czigany language to the
+archduke Joseph, often called the "Gipsy Archduke." But after all
+allowance is made for this racial peculiarity, Borrow's presentation of
+it considerably weakens our belief in Mr and Mrs Petulengro, Ursula, and
+the rest, to find them using complex sentences and bookish words which,
+even among English people, are rarely heard in conversation. As to the
+deep impression that Borrow made upon his gipsy friends, that is partly
+explained by the singular nobility of his appearance, for the gipsies of
+all countries are extremely sensitive upon matters of this kind. The
+silvery whiteness of the thick crop of hair which Borrow retained to the
+last seemed to add in a remarkable way to the nobility of his hairless
+face, but also it gave to the face a kind of strange look "not a bit
+like a Gorgio's," to use the words of one of his gipsy friends.
+Moreover, the shy, defiant, stand-off way which Borrow assumed in the
+company of his social equals left him entirely when he was with the
+gipsies. The result of this was that these wanderers knew him better
+than did his own countrymen.
+
+Seven years after the events recorded in _Lavengro_ and _The Romany Rye_
+Borrow obtained the post of agent to the Bible Society, in which
+capacity he visited St Petersburg (1833-1835) (where he published
+_Targum_, a collection of translations), and Spain, Portugal and Morocco
+(1835-1839). From 1837 to 1839 he acted as correspondent to the _Morning
+Herald_. The result of these travels and adventures was the publication,
+in 1841, of _Zincali, or The Gypsies in Spain_, the original MS. of
+which, in the hands of the present writer, shows how careful was
+Borrow's method of work. In 1843 appeared _The Bible in Spain_, when
+suddenly Borrow became famous. Every page of the book glows with
+freshness, picturesqueness and vivacity. In 1840 he married Mary Clarke,
+the widow of a naval officer, and permanently settled at Oulton Broad,
+near Lowestoft, with her and her daughter. Here he began to write again.
+Very likely Borrow would never have told the world about his vagabond
+life in England as a hedge-smith had not _The Bible in Spain_ made him
+famous as a wanderer. _Lavengro_ appeared in 1851 with a success which,
+compared with that of _The Bible in Spain_, was only partial. He was
+much chagrined at this, and although _Lavengro_ broke off in the midst
+of a scene in the Dingle, and only broke off there because the three
+volumes would hold no more, it was not until 1857 that he published the
+sequel, _The Romany Rye_. In 1844 he travelled in south-eastern Europe,
+and in 1854 he made a tour with his step-daughter in Wales. This tour he
+described in _Wild Wales_, published in 1862. In 1874 he brought out a
+volume of ill-digested material upon the Romany tongue, _Romano
+Lavo-lil, or Word-book of the Gypsy Language_, a book which has been
+exhaustively analysed and criticized by Mr John Sampson. In the summer
+of 1874 he left London, bade adieu to Mr Murray and a few friends, and
+returned to Oulton. On the 26th of July 1881 he was found dead in his
+house at Oulton, in his seventy-ninth year.
+
+Borrow was indisputably a linguist of wide knowledge, though he was not
+a scholar in the strict sense. The variety of his attainments is shown
+by his translation of the Church of England _Homilies_ into Manchu, of
+the Gospel of St Luke into the Git dialect of the Gitanos, of _The
+Sleeping Bard_ from the Cambrian-British, and of _Bluebeard_ into
+Turkish. But it is not Borrow's linguistic accomplishments that have
+kept his name fresh, and will continue to keep it fresh for many a
+generation to come. It is his character, his unique character as
+expressed, or partially expressed, in his books. Among all the
+"remarkable individuals" (to use his favourite expression) who during
+the middle of the 19th century figured in the world of letters, Borrow
+was surely the most eccentric, the most whimsical, and in many ways the
+most extraordinary. There was scarcely a point in which he resembled any
+other writer of his time. With regard to _Lavengro_ and _The Romany
+Rye_, there has been very much discussion as to how much _Dichtung_ is
+mingled with the _Wahrheit_ in those fascinating books. Had it not been
+for the amazingly clumsy pieces of fiction which he threw into the
+narrative, few readers would have doubted the autobiographical nature of
+the two books. Such incidents as are here alluded to shed an air of
+unreality over the whole. It has been said by Dr Knapp that Borrow never
+created a character, and that to one who thoroughly knows the times and
+Borrow's writings the originals are easily recognizable. This is true,
+no doubt, as regards people whom he knew at Norwich, and indeed
+generally as regards those he knew before the period of his gipsy
+wanderings. It must not be supposed, however, that such a character as
+the man who "touched" to avert the evil chance is in any sense a
+portrait of an individual with whom he had been brought into contact.
+The character has so many of Borrow's own eccentricities that it might
+rather be called a portrait of himself. There was nothing that Borrow
+strove against with more energy than the curious impulse, which he seems
+to have shared with Dr Johnson, to touch the objects along his path in
+order to save himself from the evil chance. He never conquered the
+superstition. In walking through Richmond Park with the present writer
+he would step out of his way constantly to touch a tree, and he was
+offended if the friend he was with seemed to observe it. Many of the
+peculiarities of the man who taught himself Chinese in order to distract
+his mind from painful thoughts were also Borrow's own. (T. W.-D.)
+
+
+
+
+BORSIPPA (_Barsip_ in the Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions; _Borsif_
+in the Talmud; mod. Birs or Birs-Nimrud), the Greek name of an ancient
+city about 15 m. S.W. of Babylon and 10 m. from Hillah, on the Nahr
+Hindieh, or Hindieh canal, formerly known as "the Euphrates of
+Borsippa," and even during the Arabic period called "the river of Birs."
+Borsippa was the sister city of Babylon, and is often called in the
+inscriptions Babylon II., also the "city without equal." Its patron god
+was Nebo or Nabu. Like Babylon Borsippa is not mentioned in the oldest
+inscriptions, but comes into importance first after Khammurabi had made
+Babylon the capital of the whole land, somewhere before 2000 B.C. He
+built or rebuilt the temple E-Zida at this place, dedicating it,
+however, to Marduk (Bel-Merodach). But although Khammurabi himself does
+not seem to have honoured Nebo (q.v.), subsequent kings recognized him
+as the deity of E-Zida and made him the son of Marduk (q.v.). Each new
+year his image was taken to visit his father, in Babylon, who in his
+turn gave him escort homeward, and his temple was second in wealth and
+importance only to E-Saggila, the temple of Marduk in Babylon. As with
+Babylon, so with Borsippa, the time of Nebuchadrezzar was the period of
+its greatest prosperity. In general Borsippa shared the fate of Babylon,
+falling into decay after the time of Alexander, and finally in the
+middle ages into ruins. The site of the ancient city is represented by
+two large ruin mounds. Of these the north-westerly, the lower of the
+two, but the larger in superficial area, is called Ibrahim Khalil, from
+a _ziara_, or shrine, of Abraham, the friend of God, which stands on its
+highest point. According to Arabic lore, based on Jewish legends, at
+this spot Nimrod sought to throw Abraham into a fiery furnace, from
+which he was saved by the grace of God. Excavations were first conducted
+here by the French Expedition Scientifique en Mesopotamie in 1852, with
+small result. In 1879 and 1880 Hormuzd Rassam conducted more extensive,
+although unsystematic, excavations in this mound, finding a
+considerable quantity of inscribed tablets and the like, now in the
+British Museum; but by far the greater part of this ruin still remains
+unexplored. The south-westerly mound, the Birs proper, is probably the
+most conspicuous and striking ruin in all Irak. On the top of a hill
+over 100 ft. high rises a pointed mass of vitrified brick split down the
+centre, over 40 ft. high, about which lie huge masses of vitrified
+brick, some as much as 15 ft. in diameter, and also single enamelled
+bricks, generally bearing an inscription of Nebuchadrezzar, twisted,
+curled and broken, apparently by great heat. Jewish and Arabic tradition
+makes this the Tower of Babel, which was supposed to have been destroyed
+by lightning. Excavations conducted here by Sir Henry Rawlinson in 1854
+showed it to be the stage tower or _ziggurat_, called the "house of the
+seven divisions of heaven and earth," of E-Zida, the temple of Nebo. On
+a large platform rose seven solid terraces, each smaller than the one
+below it, the lowest being 272 ft. square and 26 ft. high. Each of these
+terraces was faced with bricks of a different colour. The approach to
+this _ziggurat_ was toward the north-east, and on this side lay also the
+principal rooms of the temple of which this was the tower. These rooms
+were partly excavated by Hormuzd Rassam in 1879-1880. In its final form
+this temple and tower were the work of Nebuchadrezzar, but from the clay
+cylinders found by Sir Henry Rawlinson in two of the corners of the
+tower it appears that he restored an incomplete _ziggurat_ of a former
+king, "which was long since fallen into decay." Some of the best
+authorities believe that it was this ambitious but incomplete and
+ruinous _ziggurat_, existing before the time of Nebuchadrezzar, which
+gave occasion to or afforded local attachment for the Biblical story of
+the Tower of Babel.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--H.C. Rawlinson, _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_
+  (1860); J. Oppert, _Expedition scientifique en Mesopotamie_ (Paris,
+  1863); F. Delitzsch, _Wo lag das Paradies?_ (Leipzig, 1881); J.P.
+  Peters, _Nippur_ (New York and London, 1896); H. Rassam, _Asshur and
+  the Land of Nimrod_ (London and New York, 1897); M. Jastrow, _Religion
+  of Babylonia and Assyria_ (Boston, 1898); see also BABYLON, BABEL.
+       (J. P. Pe.)
+
+
+
+
+BORT, or BOART, an inferior kind of diamond, unfit for cutting but
+useful as an abrasive agent. The typical bort occurs in small spherical
+masses, of greyish colour, rough or drusy on the surface, and showing on
+fracture a radiate crystalline structure. These masses, known in Brazil
+as bolas, are often called "shot bort" or "round bort." Much of the bort
+consists of irregular aggregates of imperfect crystals. In trade, the
+term bort is extended to all small and impure diamonds, and crystalline
+fragments of diamond, useless as gem-stones. A large proportion of the
+output of some of the South African mines consists of such material.
+This bort is crushed in steel mortars to form diamond powder, which is
+largely used in lapidaries' work.
+
+
+
+
+BORY DE SAINT-VINCENT, JEAN BAPTISTE GEORGE MARIE (1780-1846), French
+naturalist, was born at Agen in 1780. He was sent as naturalist with
+Captain Nicholas Baudin's expedition to Australia in 1798, but left the
+vessel at Mauritius, and spent two years in exploring Reunion and other
+islands. Joining the army on his return, he was present at the battles
+of Ulm and Austerlitz, and in 1808 went to Spain with Marshal Soult. His
+attachment to the Napoleonic dynasty and dislike to the Bourbons were
+shown in various ways during 1815, and his name was consequently placed
+on the list of the proscribed; but after wandering in disguise from
+place to place he was allowed quietly to return to Paris in 1820. In
+1829 he was placed at the head of a scientific expedition to the Morea,
+and in 1839 he had charge of the exploration of Algeria. He died on the
+23rd of December 1846. He was editor of the _Dictionnaire classique
+d'histoire naturelle_, and among his separate productions were:--_Essais
+sur les Iles Fortunees_ (1802); _Voyage dans les Iles d'Afrique_ (1803);
+_Voyage souterrain, ou description du plateau de Saint-Pierre de
+Maestricht et de ses vastes cryptes_ (1821); _L'Homme, essai zoologique
+sur le genre humain_ (1827); _Resume de la geographie de la Peninsule_
+(1838).
+
+
+
+
+BORZHOM, a watering-place of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government of
+Tiflis, and 93 m. by rail W. of the city of Tiflis. Pop. (1897) 5800.
+It is situated at an altitude of 2750 ft. in the Borzhom gorge, a narrow
+rift in the Little Caucasus mountains, and on the Kura. Its warm
+climate, its two hot springs (71-1/2 deg.-82 deg. Fahr.) and its
+beautiful parks make it a favourite summer resort, and give it its
+popular name of "the pearl of Caucasus." The bottled mineral waters are
+very extensively exported.
+
+
+
+
+BOS, LAMBERT (1670-1717), Dutch scholar and critic, was born at Workum
+in Friesland, where his father was headmaster of the school. He went to
+the university of Franeker (suppressed by Napoleon in 1811), and was
+appointed professor of Greek there in 1704; after an uneventful life he
+died at Franeker in 1717. His most famous work, _Ellipses Graecae_
+(1702), was translated into English by John Seager (1830); and his
+_Antiquitates Graecae_ (1714) passed through several editions. He also
+published _Vetus Testamentum_, Ex Versione lxx. Interpretum (1709);
+notes on Thomas Magister (1698); _Exercitationes Philologicae_ (1700);
+_Animadversiones ad Scriptores quosdam Graecos_ (1715); and two small
+treatises on Accents and Greek Syntax.
+
+
+
+
+BOSA, a seaport and episcopal see on the W. coast of Sardinia, in the
+province of Cagliari, 30 m. W. of Macomer by rail. Pop. (1901) 6846. The
+height above the town is crowned by a castle of the Malaspina family.
+The cathedral, founded in the 12th century, restored in the 15th, and
+rebuilt in 1806, is fine. There are some tanneries, and the fishing
+industry is important, but the coral production of Sicily has entirely
+destroyed that of Bosa since 1887. The district produces oil and wine.
+The present town of Bosa was founded in 1112 by the Malaspina, 1-1/2 m.
+from the site of the ancient town (Bosa or Calmedia), where a
+well-preserved church still exists. The old town is of Roman origin, but
+is only mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy, and as a station on the
+coast-road in the Itineraries (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ x. 7939 seq.). One of
+the inscriptions preserved in the old cathedral records the erection of
+four silver statues, of Antoninus Pius, his wife Faustina and their two
+sons.
+
+
+
+
+BOSBOOM-TOUSSAINT, ANNA LOUISA GEERTRUIDA (1812-1886), Dutch novelist,
+was born at Alkmaar in north Holland on the 16th of September 1812. Her
+father, named Toussaint, a local chemist of Huguenot descent, gave her a
+fair education, and at an early period of her career she developed a
+taste for historical research, fostered, perhaps, by a forced indoor
+life, the result of weak health. In 1851 she married the Dutch painter,
+Johannes Bosboom (1817-1891), and thereafter was known as Mrs
+Bosboom-Toussaint. Her first romance, _Almagro_, appeared in 1837,
+followed by the _Graaf van Devonshire_ (_The Earl of Devonshire_) in
+1838; the _Engelschen te Rome_ (_The English at Rome_) in 1840, and _Het
+Huis Lauernesse (The House of Lauernesse_) in 1841, an episode of the
+Reformation, translated into many European languages. These stories,
+mainly founded upon some of the most interesting epochs of Dutch
+history, betrayed a remarkable grasp of facts and situations, combined
+with an undoubted mastery over her mother tongue, though her style is
+sometimes involved, and not always faultless. Ten years (1840-1850) were
+mainly devoted to further studies, the result of which was revealed in
+1851-1854, when her _Leycester in Nederland_ (3 vols.), _Vrouwen van het
+Leycestersche Tydperk (Women of Leicester's Epoch_, 3 vols.), and
+_Gideon Florensz_ (3 vols.) appeared, a series dealing with Robert
+Dudley's adventures in the Low Countries. After 1870 Mrs
+Bosboom-Toussaint abandoned historical romance for the modern society
+novel, but her _Delftsche Wonderdokter (The Necromancer of Delft_, 1871,
+3 vols.) and _Majoor Frans_ (1875, 3 vols.) did not command the success
+of her earlier works. _Major Frank_ has been translated into English
+(1885). She died at the Hague on the 13th of April 1886. Her novels have
+been published there in a collected edition (1885-1888, 25 vols.).
+
+
+
+
+BOSC, LOUIS AUGUSTIN GUILLAUME (1759-1828), French naturalist, was born
+at Paris on the 29th of January 1759. He was educated at the college of
+Dijon, where he showed a taste for botany, and he followed up his
+studies in Paris at the Jardin des Plantes, where he made the
+acquaintance of Mme M.J.P. Roland. At the age of eighteen he obtained a
+government appointment, and he rose to be one of the chief officials in
+the postal department. Under the ministry of J.M. Roland in 1792 he also
+held the post of superintendent of prisons, but the violent outbreaks of
+1793 drove him from office, and compelled him to take refuge in flight.
+For some months he lay concealed at Sainte-Radegonde, in the forest of
+Montmorency, barely subsisting on roots and vegetables. He was enabled
+to return to Paris on the fall of Robespierre, and under the title
+_Appel a l'impartiale posterite par la citoyenne Roland_ published a
+manuscript Mme Roland had entrusted to him before her execution. Soon
+afterwards he set out for America, resolving to explore the natural
+riches of that country. The immense materials he gathered were never
+published in a complete form, but much went to enrich the works of
+B.G.E. de Lacepede, P.A. Latreille and others. After his return, on the
+establishment of the Directory, he was reinstated in his old office. Of
+this he was again deprived by the _coup d'etat_ of 1799, and for a time
+he was in great destitution; but by his copious contributions to
+scientific literature he contrived to support himself and to lay the
+foundations of a solid reputation. He was engaged on the new
+_Dictionnaire d'histoire naturelle_, and on the _Encyclopedie
+methodique_, he edited the _Dictionnaire raisonne et universel
+d'agriculture_, and was one of the editors of the _Annales de
+l'agriculture francaise_. He was made inspector of the gardens at
+Versailles, and of the public nurseries belonging to the ministry of the
+interior. The last years of his life were devoted to an elaborate work
+on the vine, for which he had amassed an immense quantity of materials,
+but his death at Paris on the 10th of July 1828 prevented its
+completion.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCAN ALMOGAVER, JUAN (1490?-1542), Spanish poet, was born about the
+close of the 15th century. He was a Catalan of patrician birth, and,
+after some years of military service, became tutor to the duke of Alva.
+His poems were published in 1543 at Barcelona by his widow. They are
+divided into sections which mark the stages of Boscan's poetical
+evolution. The first book contains poems in the old Castilian metres,
+written in his youth, before 1526, in which year he became acquainted
+with the Venetian ambassador, Andrea Navagiero, who urged him to adopt
+Italian measures, and this advice gave a new turn to Boscan's activity.
+The remaining books contain a number of pieces in the Italian manner,
+the longest of these being _Hero y Leander_, a poem in blank verse,
+based on Musaeus. Boscan's best effort, the _Octava Rima_, is a skilful
+imitation of Petrarch and Bembo. Boscan also published in 1534 an
+admirable translation of Castiglione's _Il Cortegiano_. Italian measures
+had been introduced into Spanish literature by Santillana and
+Villalpando; it is Boscan's distinction to have naturalized these forms
+definitively, and to have founded a poetic school.
+
+  The best edition of his poems is that issued at Madrid in 1875 by W.J.
+  Knapp; for his indebtedness to earlier writers, see Francesco Flamini,
+  _Studi di storia literaria italiana e straniera_ (Livorno, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+BOSCASTLE, a small seaport and watering-place in the Launceston
+parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N. of Camelford
+station on the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (civil parish of
+Forrabury, 1901) 329. The village rises steeply above a very narrow cove
+on the north coast, sheltered, but difficult of access, vessels having
+to be warped into it by means of hawsers. A mound on a hill above the
+harbour marks the site of a Norman castle. The parish church of St
+Symphorian, Forrabury, also stands high, overlooking the Atlantic from
+Willapark Point. The tower is without bells, and the tradition that a
+ship bearing a peal hither was wrecked within sight of the harbour, and
+that the lost bells may still be heard to toll beneath the waves, has
+been made famous by a ballad of the Cornish poet Robert Stephen Hawker,
+vicar of Moorwinstow. The coast scenery near Boscastle is severely
+beautiful, with abrupt cliffs fully exposed to the sea, and broken only
+by a few picturesque inlets such as Crackington Cove and Pentargan Cove.
+Inland are bare moors, diversified by narrow dales.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCAWEN, EDWARD (1711-1761), British admiral, was born on the 19th of
+August 1711. He was the third son of Hugh, 1st Viscount Falmouth. He
+early entered the navy, and in 1739 distinguished himself at the taking
+of Porto Bello. At the siege of Cartagena, in March 1741, at the head of
+a party of seamen, he took a battery of fifteen 24-pounders, while
+exposed to the fire of another fort. On his return to England in the
+following year he married, and entered parliament as member for Truro.
+In 1744 he captured the French frigate "Medee," commanded by M. de
+Hocquart, the first ship taken in the war. In May 1747 he signalized
+himself in the engagement off Cape Finisterre, and was wounded in the
+shoulder with a musket-ball. Hocquart again became his prisoner, and the
+French ships, ten in number, were taken. On the 15th of July he was made
+rear-admiral and commander-in-chief of the expedition to the East
+Indies. On the 29th of July 1748 he arrived off Fort St David's, and
+soon after laid siege to Pondicherry; but the sickness of his men and
+the approach of the monsoons led to the raising of the siege. Soon
+afterwards he received news of the peace, and Madras was delivered up to
+him by the French. In April 1750 he arrived in England, and was the next
+year made one of the lords of the Admiralty, and chosen an elder brother
+of the Trinity House. In February 1755 he was appointed vice-admiral,
+and in April he intercepted the French squadron bound to North America,
+and took the "Alcide" and "Lys" of sixty-four guns each. Hocquart became
+his prisoner for the third time, and Boscawen returned to Spithead with
+his prizes and 1500 prisoners. For this exploit, he received the thanks
+of parliament. In 1758 he was appointed admiral of the blue and
+commander-in-chief of the expedition to Cape Breton, when, in
+conjunction with General Amherst, he took the fortress of Louisburg, and
+the island of Cape Breton--services for which he again received the
+thanks of the House of Commons. In 1759, being appointed to command in
+the Mediterranean, he pursued the French fleet, commanded by M. de la
+Clue, and after a sharp engagement in Lagos Bay took three large ships
+and burnt two, returning to Spithead with his prizes and 2000 prisoners.
+The victory defeated the proposed concentration of the French fleet in
+Brest to cover an invasion of England. In December 1760 he was appointed
+general of the marines, with a salary of L3000 per annum, and was also
+sworn a member of the privy council. He died at his seat near Guildford
+on the 10th of January 1761.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCH (or Bos), JEROM (c. 1460-1518), the name generally given, from his
+birthplace Hertogenbosch, to Hieronymus van Aeken, the Dutch painter. He
+was probably a pupil of Albert Ouwater, and may be called the Breughel
+of the 15th century, for he devoted himself to the invention of bizarre
+types, _diableries_, and scenes of the kind generally associated with
+Breughel, whose art is to a great extent based on Bosch's. He was a
+satirist much in advance of his time, and one of the most original and
+ingenious artists of the 15th century. He exercised great influence on
+Lucas Cranach, who frequently copied his paintings. His works were much
+admired in Spain, especially by Philip II., at whose court Bosch painted
+for some time. One of his chief works is the "Last Judgment" at the
+Berlin gallery, which also owns a little "St Jerome in the Desert." "The
+Fall of the Rebellious Angels" and the "St Anthony" triptych are in the
+Brussels museum, and two important triptychs are at the Munich gallery.
+The Lippmann collection in Berlin contains an important "Adoration of
+the Magi," the Antwerp museum a "Passion," and a practically unknown
+painting from his brush is at the Naples museum.
+
+
+
+
+BOSCOVICH, ROGER JOSEPH (1711?-1787), Italian mathematician and natural
+philosopher, one of the earliest of foreign _savants_ to adopt Newton's
+gravitation theory, was born at Ragusa in Dalmatia on the 18th of May
+1711, according to the usual account, but ten years earlier according to
+Lalande (_Eloge_, 1792). In his fifteenth year, after passing through
+the usual elementary studies, he entered the Society of Jesus. On
+completing his noviciate, which was spent at Rome, he studied
+mathematics and physics at the Collegium Romanum; and so brilliant was
+his progress in these sciences that in 1740 he was appointed professor
+of mathematics in the college. For this post he was especially fitted by
+his acquaintance with recent advances in science, and by his skill in a
+classical severity of demonstration, acquired by a thorough study of the
+works of the Greek geometricians. Several years before this appointment
+he had made himself a name by an elegant solution of the problem to find
+the sun's equator and determine the period of its rotation by
+observation of the spots on its surface. Notwithstanding the arduous
+duties of his professorship he found time for investigation in all the
+fields of physical science; and he published a very large number of
+dissertations, some of them of considerable length, on a wide variety of
+subjects. Among these subjects were the transit of Mercury, the Aurora
+Borealis, the figure of the earth, the observation of the fixed stars,
+the inequalities in terrestrial gravitation, the application of
+mathematics to the theory of the telescope, the limits of certainty in
+astronomical observations, the solid of greatest attraction, the
+cycloid, the logistic curve, the theory of comets, the tides, the law of
+continuity, the double refraction micrometer, various problems of
+spherical trigonometry, &c. In 1742 he was consulted, with other men of
+science, by the pope, Benedict XIV., as to the best means of securing
+the stability of the dome of St Peter's, Rome, in which a crack had been
+discovered. His suggestion was adopted. Shortly after he engaged to take
+part in the Portuguese expedition for the survey of Brazil, and the
+measurement of a degree of the meridian; but he yielded to the urgent
+request of the pope that he would remain in Italy and undertake a
+similar task there. Accordingly, in conjunction with Christopher Maire,
+an English Jesuit, he measured an arc of two degrees between Rome and
+Rimini. The operations were begun towards the close of 1750, and were
+completed in about two years. An account of them was published in 1755,
+entitled _De Litteraria expeditione per pontificam ditionem ad
+dimetiendos duos meridiani gradus a PP. Maire et Boscovich_. The value
+of this work was increased by a carefully prepared map of the States of
+the Church. A French translation appeared in 1770. A dispute having
+arisen between the grand duke of Tuscany and the republic of Lucca with
+respect to the drainage of a lake, Boscovich was sent, in 1757, as agent
+of Lucca to Vienna, and succeeded in bringing about a satisfactory
+arrangement of the matter. In the following year he published at Vienna
+his famous work, _Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem
+virium in natura existentium_, containing his atomic theory (see
+MOLECULE). Another occasion for the exercise of his diplomatic ability
+soon after presented itself. A suspicion having arisen on the part of
+the British government that ships of war had been fitted out in the port
+of Ragusa for the service of France, and that the neutrality of Ragusa
+had thus been violated, Boscovich was selected to undertake an embassy
+to London (1760), to vindicate the character of his native place and
+satisfy the government. This mission he discharged successfully, with
+credit to himself and satisfaction to his countrymen. During his stay in
+England he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He soon after paid
+this society the compliment of dedicating to it his Latin poem, entitled
+_De Solis et Lunae Defectibus_ (London, 1764). This prolix composition,
+one of a class which at that time was much in vogue--metrical epitomes
+of the facts of science--contains in about five thousand lines,
+illustrated by voluminous notes, a compendium of astronomy. It was for
+the most part written on horseback, during the author's rides in the
+country while engaged in his meridian measurements. The book is
+characterized by G.B.J. Delambre as "uninstructive to an astronomer and
+unintelligible to any one else."
+
+On leaving England Boscovich travelled in Turkey, but ill-health
+compelled him soon to return to Italy. In 1764 he was called to the
+chair of mathematics at the university of Pavia, and this post he held,
+together with the directorship of the observatory of Brera, for six
+years. He was invited by the Royal Society of London to undertake an
+expedition to California to observe the transit of Venus in 1769; but
+this was prevented by the recent decree of the Spanish government for
+the expulsion of the Jesuits from its dominions. The vanity, egotism and
+petulance of Boscovich provoked his rivals and made him many enemies, so
+that in hope of peace he was driven to frequent change of residence.
+About 1770 he removed to Milan, where he continued to teach and to hold
+the directorship of the observatory of Brera; but being deprived of his
+post by the intrigues of his associates he was about to retire to his
+native place, when the news reached him (1773) of the suppression of his
+order in Italy. Uncertainty as to his future led him to accept an
+invitation from the king of France to Paris, where he was naturalized
+and was appointed director of optics for the marine, an office
+instituted for him, with a pension of 8000 livres. He remained there ten
+years, but his position became irksome, and at length intolerable. He
+continued, however, to devote himself diligently to the pursuits of
+science, and published many remarkable memoirs. Among them were an
+elegant solution of the problem to determine the orbit of a comet from
+three observations, and memoirs on the micrometer and achromatic
+telescopes. In 1783 he returned to Italy, and spent two years at
+Bassano, where he occupied himself with the publication of his _Opera
+pertinentia ad opticam et astronomiam, &c._, which appeared in 1785 in
+five volumes quarto. After a visit of some months to the convent of
+Vallombrosa, he went to Milan and resumed his literary labours. But his
+health was failing, his reputation was on the wane, his works did not
+sell, and he gradually sank a prey to illness and disappointment. He
+fell into melancholy, imbecility, and at last madness, with lucid
+intervals, and died at Milan on the 15th (13th) of February 1787. In
+addition to the works already mentioned Boscovich published _Elementa
+universae matheseos_ (1754), the substance of the course of study
+prepared for his pupils; and a narrative of his travels, entitled
+_Giornale di un viaggio da Constantinopoli in Polonia_, of which several
+editions and a French translation appeared. His latest labour was the
+editing of the Latin poems of his friend Benedict Stay on the philosophy
+of Descartes, with scientific annotations and supplements.
+     (W. L. R. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, or BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA, two provinces formerly
+included in European Turkey, which now, together with Dalmatia, form the
+southernmost territories of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The name
+_Herzegovina_ is also written _Hertzegovina, Hertsegovina_ or, in
+Croatian, _Hercegovina_. In shape roughly resembling an equilateral
+triangle, with base uppermost, Bosnia and Herzegovina cover an area of
+19,696 sq. m., in the north-west of the Balkan Peninsula. They are
+bounded N. and N.W. by Croatia-Slavonia; W. and S.W. by Dalmatia; S.E.
+by Montenegro and the Sanjak of Novibazar; and N.E. by Servia. Opposite
+to the promontory of Sabbioncello, and at the entrance to the Bocche di
+Cattaro, the frontier of Herzegovina comes down to the Adriatic; but
+these two strips of coast do not contain any good harbour, and extend
+only for a total distance of 14-1/2 m. Bosnia is altogether an inland
+territory.
+
+1. _Physical Features._--Along the Dalmatian border, and through the
+centre of Bosnia, runs the backbone of the Dinaric Alps, which attain
+their greatest altitudes (6000-7500 ft.) near Travnik, Serajevo and
+Mostar. There are numerous high valleys shut in among the mountains of
+this range; the most noteworthy being the plain of Livno, which lies
+parallel to the Dalmatian border, at a height of 500 ft. above the sea.
+The zone of highlands throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina reaches a mean
+altitude of 1500 ft., while summits of more than 4000 ft. occur
+frequently. To the north-east of the Dinaric Alps extends a region of
+mountain, moor and forest, with deeply sunk alluvial basins, which
+finally expand into the lowlands of the Posavina, or Vale of the Save,
+forming the southernmost fringe of the Hungarian Alfold. Bosnia belongs
+wholly to the watershed of the Save, and its rivers to the Danubian
+system, no large stream finding a way to the Adriatic. The Save flows
+eastward along the northern frontier for 237 m. It is joined by four
+main tributaries, the Drina, Bosna, Vrbas and Una. The Drina is formed
+on the Montenegrin frontier by the united streams of the Tara and Piva;
+curving north-eastwards past Visegrad, it marches for 102 m. with
+Servian territory, and falls into the Save at Racha, after a total
+course of 155 m. The Bosna issues from many springs near Serajevo, and
+winds for 107 m. northward, through a succession of fertile glens,
+reaching the Save 1 m. west of Samac. Farther west, the Vrbas cuts a
+channel through the Dinaric Alps, and, after passing Jajce and
+Banjaluka, meets the Save 94 m. from its own headwaters. The Una rises
+on the Croatian border, and, after skirting the Pljesevica Planina, in
+Croatia, turns sharply to the north-east; serving as a frontier stream
+for 37 m. before entering the Save at Jasenovac. Its length is 98 m. At
+Novi it is joined by the Sana, a considerable affluent.
+
+Herzegovina, which lies south of Bosnia, in a parallelogram defined by
+Montenegro, Dalmatia, the Dinaric Alps, and an irregular line drawn from
+a point 25 m. west-north-west of Mostar to the bend of the river
+Narenta, differs in many respects from the larger territory. Its
+mountains, which belong to the Adriatic watershed, and form a
+continuation of the Montenegrin highlands, are less rounded and more
+dolomitic in character. They descend in parallel ridges of grey Karst
+limestone, south-westwards to the sea; their last summits reappear in
+the multitude of rocky islands along the Dalmatian littoral. As in the
+peaks of Orjen, Orobac, Samotica and Veliki Kap, their height often
+exceeds 6000 ft. West of the Narenta, their flanks are in places covered
+with forests of beech and pine, but north-east of that river they
+present for the most part a scene of barren desolation. Their monotony
+is varied only by the fruitful river-valleys and _poljes_, or upland
+hollows, where the smaller towns and villages are grouped; the districts
+or cantons thus formed are walled round by a natural rampart of
+limestone. These _poljes_ may be described as oases in what is otherwise
+a desert expanse of mountains. The surface of some, as notably the
+_Mostarsko Blato_, lying west of Mostar, is marshy, and in spring forms
+a lake; others are watered by streams which disappear in swallow-holes
+of the rock, and make their way by underground channels either to the
+sea or the Narenta. The most conspicuous example of these is the
+Trebinjcica, which disappears in two swallow-holes in Popovopolye, and
+after making its way by a subterranean passage through a range of
+mountains, wells up in the mighty source of Ombla near Ragusa, and
+hurries in undiminished volume to the Adriatic. The Narenta, or Neretva,
+is the one large river of Herzegovina which flows above ground
+throughout its length. Rising on the Montenegrin border, under the
+Lebrsnik mountains, it flows north-westwards at the foot of the Dinaric
+Alps; and, near Konjica, sweeps round suddenly to the south, and falls
+into the Adriatic near Metkovic, after traversing 125 m. North of
+Mostar, it cleaves a passage through the celebrated Narenta defile, a
+narrow gorge, 12 m. long, overshadowed by mountains which rise on either
+side and culminate in Lupoglav (6796 ft.) on the east, and Cvrstnica
+(7205 ft.) on the west.
+
+2. _Geology and Minerals._--Geologically, the highlands of Bosnia and
+Herzegovina are to be regarded, in both their orographic and tectonic
+character, as a continuation of the South Alpine calcareous belt. Along
+the west frontier there appear broad and strongly marked zones of
+Cretaceous limestone, alternating with Jurassic and Triassic, joined by
+a strip of Palaeozoic formations running from the north-west corner of
+Bosnia. Next, proceeding from this region in an easterly direction, are
+the Neogene freshwater formations, filling up the greatest part of the
+north-east of Bosnia, as also a zone of flysch intermingled with several
+strips of eruptive rock. In the south-east of Bosnia the predominant
+formations are Triassic and Palaeozoic strata with red sandstone and
+quartzite. Along the whole northern rim of Bosnia, as also in the
+fluvial and Karst valleys (_poljes_), are found diluvial and alluvial
+formations, interrupted at one place by an isolated granite layer.
+Bosnia is rich in minerals, including coal, iron, copper, chrome,
+manganese, cinnabar, zinc and mercury, besides marble and much excellent
+building stone. Among the mountains, gold and silver were worked by the
+Romans, and, in the middle ages, by the Ragusans. After 1881 the Mining
+Company of Bosnia began to develop the coal and iron fields; and from
+1886 its operations were continued by the government. Valuable salt is
+obtained from the pits at Dolnja Tuzla, and the southern part of
+Herzegovina yields asphalt and lignite. Mineral springs also abound, and
+those of Ilidze, near Serajevo, have been utilized since the days of
+the Romans; but the majority remained unexploited at the beginning of
+the 20th century.
+
+3. _Climate._--In climate Bosnia differs considerably from Herzegovina.
+In both alike the _scirocco_, bringing rain from the south-west, is a
+prevalent wind, as well as the _bora_, the fearful north-north-easter of
+Illyria, which, sweeping down the lateral valleys of the Dinaric Alps,
+overwhelms everything in its path. The snow-fall is slight, and, except
+on a few of the loftier peaks, the snow soon melts. In Bosnia the
+weather resembles that of the south Austrian highlands, generally mild,
+though apt to be bitterly cold in winter. In Serajevo the mean annual
+temperature is 50 deg. Fahr. Herzegovina has more affinity to the
+Dalmatian mountains, oppressively hot in summer, when the mercury often
+rises beyond 110 deg. Fahr. The winter rains of the Karst region show
+that it belongs to the sub-tropical climatic zone.
+
+4. _Fauna._--In 1893 the bones of a cave-bear (_Ursus spelaeus_) were
+taken from a cavern of the Bjelasnica range, in Herzegovina, a discovery
+without parallel in the Balkan Peninsula. Of existing species the bear,
+wild-boar, badger, roe-deer and chamois may occasionally be seen in the
+remotest wilds of mountain and forest. Hares are uncommon, and the last
+red-deer was shot in 1814; but wolves, otters and squirrels abound.
+Snipe, woodcock, ducks and rails, in vast flocks, haunt the banks of the
+Drina and Save; while the crane, pelican, wild-swan and wild-goose are
+fairly plentiful. The lammergeier (_Gypaetus barbatus_) had almost
+become extinct in 1900; but several varieties of eagle and falcon are
+left. Falconry was long a pastime of the Moslem landlords. The
+destruction of game, recklessly carried out under Turkish rule, is
+prevented by the laws of 1880, 1883 and 1893, which enforced a close
+time, and rendered shooting-licences necessary. The list of reptiles
+includes the venomous _Vipera ammodytes_ and _Pelias berus_, while
+scorpions and lizards infest the stony wastes of the Karst. In the
+museum at Serajevo there is a large entomological collection, including
+the remarkable _Pogonus anophthalmus_, from the underground Karst caves.
+The caves are rich in curious kinds of fish, _Paraphoxinus Gethaldii_,
+which is unknown elsewhere, _Chondrostoma phoximus, Phoxinellus
+alepidatus_ and others, which are caught and eaten by the peasantry. In
+Herzegovina, although many of the high mountain tarns are unproductive,
+the eel-fisheries of the Narenta are of considerable value.
+Leech-gathering is a characteristic Bosnian industry. The streams of
+both territories yield excellent trout and crayfish; salmon, sturgeon
+and sterlet, from the Danube, are netted in the Save.
+
+
+  Forests.
+
+5. _Flora._--Serajevo museum has a collection of the Bosnian flora,
+representing over 3000 species; among them, the rare _Veronica crinita,
+Pinus leucodermis, Picea omorica_ and _Daphne Blagayana_. About 50% of
+the occupied territory is clothed with forest. "Bosnia begins with the
+forest," says a native proverb, "Herzegovina with the rock"; and this
+account is, broadly speaking, accurate, although the Bosnian Karst is as
+bare as that of Herzegovina. Below the mountain crests, where only the
+hardiest lichens and mosses can survive, comes a belt of large timber,
+including many giant trees, 200 ft. high, and 20 ft. in girth at the
+level of a man's shoulder. Dense brushwood prevails on the foothills.
+There are three main zones of woodland. Up to 2500 ft. among the ranges
+of northern Bosnia, the sunnier slopes are overgrown by oaks, the
+shadier by beeches. Farther south, in central Bosnia, the oak rarely
+mounts beyond the foothills, being superseded by the beech, elm, ash,
+fir and pine, up to 5000 ft. The third zone is characterized by the
+predominance, up to 6000 ft., of the fir, pine and other conifers. In
+all three zones occur the chestnut, aspen, willow (especially _Salix
+laurea_), hornbeam, birch, alder, juniper and yew; while the mountain
+ash, hazel, wild plum, wild pear and other wild fruit trees are found at
+rarer intervals. Until 1878 the forests were almost neglected;
+afterwards, the government was forced to levy a graduated tax on goats,
+owing to the damage they inflicted upon young trees, and to curtail the
+popular rights of cutting timber and fir-wood and of pasturage. These
+measures were largely successful, but in 1902 the export of oak staves
+was discontinued owing to a shortage of supply.
+
+6. _Agriculture._--In 1895, according to the agricultural survey, the
+surface of Bosnia and Herzegovina was laid out as follows:--
+
+                         Acres.
+  Plough-land.         2,355,499
+  Garden-ground.         103,040
+  Meadow.                739,200
+  Vineyards.              12,598
+  Pasture.             1,875,840
+  Forest.              5,670,619
+  Unproductive.          210,998
+
+Apart from the arid wastes of the Karst, the soil is well adapted for
+the growing of cereals, especially Indian corn; olives, vines,
+mulberries, figs, pomegranates, melons, oranges, lemons, rice and
+tobacco flourish in Herzegovina and the more sheltered portions of
+Bosnia. Near Doboj, on the Bosna, there is a state sugar-refinery, for
+which beetroot is largely grown in the vicinity. _Pyrethrum
+cinerariaefolium_ is exported for the manufacture of insect-powder, and
+sunflowers are cultivated for the oil contained in their seeds. The
+plum-orchards of the Posavina furnish prunes and a spirit called
+_slivovica, shlivovitsa_ or _sliwowitz_. This district is the
+headquarters of a thriving trade in pigs. Poultry, bees and silkworms
+are commonly kept. On the whole agriculture is backward, despite the
+richness of the soil; for the cultivators are a very conservative race,
+and prefer the methods and implements of their ancestors. Many
+improvements were, nevertheless, introduced by the government after
+1878. Machinery was lent to the farmers, and free grants of seed were
+made. Model farms were established at Livno and at Gacko, on the
+Montenegrin border; a school of viticulture near Mostar; a model
+poultry-farm at Prijedor, close to the Croatian boundary; a school of
+agriculture and dairy farming at Ilidze; and another school at Modric,
+near the mouth of the Bosna, where a certain number of village
+schoolmasters are annually trained, for six weeks, in practical
+husbandry. Seed is distributed, and agricultural machinery lent, by the
+government. To better the breeds of live-stock, a stud-farm was opened
+near Serajevo, and foreign horses, cattle, sheep and poultry are
+imported.
+
+7. _Land Tenure._--The _zadruga_, or household community, more common in
+Servia (q.v.), survives to a small extent in Bosnia and Herzegovina;
+but, as a rule, the tenure of land resembles the system called
+_metayage_. At the time of the Austrian occupation (1878) it was
+regulated by a Turkish enactment[1] of the 12th of September 1859. Apart
+from gardens and house-property, all land was, according to this
+enactment, owned by the state; in practice, it was held by the Moslem
+_begs_ or _beys_ (nobles) and _agas_ (landlords), who let it to the
+peasantry. The landlord received from his tenant (_kmet_) a fixed
+percentage, usually one third (_tretina_), of the annual produce; and,
+of the remaining two thirds, the cash equivalent of one tenth
+(_desetina_) went to the state. The amount of the _desetina_ was always
+fixed first, and served as a basis for the assessment of the _tretina_,
+which, however, was generally paid in kind. At any time the tenant could
+relinquish his holding; but he could only be evicted for refusing to pay
+his _tretina_, for wilful neglect of his land or for damage done to it.
+The landlord was bound to keep his tenants' dwellings and outhouses in
+repair. Should he desire to sell his estates, the right of pre-emption
+belonged to the tenants, or, in default, to the neighbours. Thus foreign
+speculators in land were excluded, while a class of peasant proprietors
+was created; its numbers being increased by the custom that, if any man
+reclaimed a piece of waste land, it became his own property after ten
+years. The Turkish land-system remained in force during the entire
+period of the occupation (1878-1908). It had worked, on the whole,
+satisfactorily; and between 1885 and 1895 the number of peasants farming
+their own land rose from 117,000 to 200,000. One conspicuous feature of
+the Bosnian land-system is the Moslem _Vakuf_, or ecclesiastical
+property, consisting of estates dedicated to such charitable purposes as
+poor-relief, and the endowment of mosques, schools, hospitals,
+cemeteries and baths. It is administered by a central board of Moslem
+officials, who meet in Sarajevo, under state supervision. Its income
+rose to L25,000 in 1895, having quadrupled itself in ten years. The
+_Vakuf_ tenants were at that time extremely prosperous, for their rent
+had been fixed for ten years in advance on the basis of the year's
+harvest, and so had not risen proportionately to the value of their
+holdings.
+
+8. _Industries and Commerce._--Beside agriculture, which employed over
+88% of the whole population in 1895, the other industries are
+insignificant. Chief among them are weaving and leather and metal work,
+carried on by the workmen in their own houses. There are also government
+workshops, opened with a view to a higher technical and artistic
+development of the house industry. More particularly, chased and inlaid
+metallic wares, _bez_ (thin cotton) and carpet-weaving receive
+government support. Besides the sugar-refinery already mentioned, there
+were in 1900 four tobacco factories, a national printing-press, an
+annular furnace for brick-burning, an iron-foundry and several
+blast-furnaces, under the management of the state. Among the larger
+private establishments there existed in the same year seven breweries,
+one brandy distillery, two jam, two soap and candle factories, two
+building and furniture works, a factory for spinning thread, one iron
+and steel works, one paper and one ammonia and soda factory, and one
+mineral-oil refinery.
+
+In respect of foreign trade Bosnia and Herzegovina were in 1882 included
+in the customs and commercial system of Austria-Hungary, to the
+extinction of all intermediate imposts. Since 1898 special statistics
+have been drawn up respecting their trade also with Austria and Hungary.
+According to these statistics the most important articles of export are
+coal and turf, fruit, minerals, soda, iron and steel, and cattle. Other
+articles of export are chemicals, dyeing and tanning stuffs, tobacco,
+sugar-beet and kitchen-salt. The imports consist principally of food
+stuffs, building materials, drinks, sugar, machinery, glass, fats,
+clothes, wooden and stone wares, and various manufactured goods.
+
+There is a national bank in Serajevo, which carries on a hypothecary
+credit business and manages the wholesale trade of the tobacco
+factories. There are savings banks in Banjaluka, Bjelina and Brcka.
+
+9. _Communications._--The construction of carriage-roads, wholly
+neglected by the Turks, was carried out on a large scale by the
+Austrians. Two railways were also built, in connexion with the Hungarian
+state system. One crosses the Una at Kostajnica, and, after skirting the
+right bank of that river as far as Novi, strikes eastward to Banjaluka.
+The other, a narrow-gauge line, crosses the Save at Bosna Brod, and
+follows the Bosna to Serajevo, throwing out branches eastward beyond
+Dolnja Tuzla, and westward to Jajce and Bugojno. It then pierces through
+the mountains of northern Herzegovina, traverses the Narenta valley, and
+runs almost parallel with the coast to Trebinje, Ragusa and the Bocche
+di Cattaro. Up to this point the railways of the occupied territory were
+complete in 1901. A farther line, from Serajevo to the frontiers of
+Servia and Novibazar, was undertaken in 1902, and by 1906 782 m. of
+railway were open. Small steamers ply on the Drina, Save and Una, but
+the Bosna, though broad from its very source, is, like the Vrbas, too
+full of shallows to be utilized; while the Narenta only begins to be
+navigable when it enters Dalmatia. All the railway lines, like the
+postal, telegraphic and telephonic services, are state property. In many
+of the principal towns there are also government hotels.
+
+Serajevo, with 41,543 inhabitants in 1895, is the capital of the
+combined provinces, and other important places are Mostar (17,010), the
+capital of Herzegovina, Banjaluka (14,812), Dolnja Tuzla (11,034),
+Travnik (6626), Livno (5273), Visoko(5000), Foca (4217), Jajce (3929)
+and Trebinje (2966). All these are described in separate articles.
+
+10. _Population and National Characteristics._--In 1895 the population,
+which tends to increase slowly, with a preponderance of males over
+females, numbered 1,568,092. The alien element is small, consisting
+chiefly of Austro-Hungarians, gipsies, Italians and Jews. Spanish is a
+comomon language of the Jews, whose ancestors fled hither, during the
+16th century, to escape the Inquisition. The natives are officially
+described as Bosniaks, but classify themselves according to religion.
+Thus the Roman Catholics prefer the name of Croats, Hrvats or Latins;
+the Orthodox, of Serbs; the Moslems, of Turks. All alike belong to the
+Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; and all speak a language
+almost identical with Servian, though written by the Roman Catholics in
+Latin instead of Cyrillic letters. A full account of this language, and
+its literature, is given under SERVIA and CROATIA-SLAVONIA. To avoid
+offending either "Serbs" or "Croats," it is officially designated
+"Bosnisch." In some parts of Herzegovina the dress, manners and physical
+type of the peasantry are akin to those of Montenegro. The Bosnians or
+Bosniaks resemble their Servian kinsfolk in both appearance and
+character. They have the same love for poetry, music and romance; the
+same intense pride in their race and history; many of the same
+superstitions and customs. The Christians retain the Servian costume,
+modified in detail, as by the occasional use of the turban or fez. The
+"Turkish" women have in some districts abandoned the veil; but in others
+they even cover the eyes when they leave home. Polygamy is almost
+unknown, possibly because many of the "Turks" are descended from the
+austere Bogomils, who were, in most cases, converted to Islam, but more
+probably because the "Turks" are as a rule too poor to provide for more
+than one wife on the scale required by Islamic law. In general, the
+people of Bosnia and Herzegovina are sober and thrifty, subsisting
+chiefly on Indian corn, dried meat, milk and vegetables. Their houses
+are built of timber and thatch, or clay tiles, except in the Karst
+region, where stone is more plentiful than wood. Family ties are strong,
+and the women are not ill-treated, although they share in all kinds of
+manual labour.
+
+11. _Government._--At the time of the Austrian annexation in 1908, the
+only remaining token of Ottoman suzerainty was that the foreign consuls
+received their _exequatur_ from Turkey, instead of Austria; otherwise
+the government of the country was conducted in the name of the Austrian
+emperor, through the imperial minister of finance at Vienna, who
+controlled the civil service for the occupied territory. Its central
+bureau, with departments of the interior, religion and education,
+finance and justice, was established at Serajevo; and its members were
+largely recruited among the Austrian Slavs, who were better able than
+the Germans to comprehend the local customs and language. A consultative
+assembly, composed of the highest ecclesiastical authorities, together
+with 12 popular representatives, also met at Serajevo. For
+administrative purposes the country was divided into 6 districts or
+prefectures (_kreise_), which were subdivided into 49 subprefectures
+(_bezirke_).
+
+Every large town has a mayor and deputy mayor, appointed by the
+government, and a town council, of whom one third are similarly
+appointed, while the citizens choose the rest; a proportionate number of
+councillors representing each religious community. To ensure economy,
+the decisions of this body are supervised by a government commissioner.
+The commune is preserved, somewhat as in Servia (q.v.), but with
+modified powers. Each district has its court of law, where cases are
+tried by three official judges and two assessors, selected from the
+leading citizens. The assessors vote equally with the judges, and three
+votes decide the verdict. Except where the litigants and witnesses are
+German, the Serbo-Croatian language is used. An appeal, on points of law
+alone, may be carried to the supreme court in Serajevo, and there tried
+by five judges without assessors. In cases not involving a sum greater
+than 300 florins (L25), no appeal will lie; and where only 50 florins
+(L4:3:4) are in question, the case is summarily decided at the
+_Bagatelle Gericht_, or court for trifling cases. The number of lawyers
+admitted to practice is strictly limited. As far as possible, the
+Turkish law was retained during the period of occupation; all cases
+between Moslems were settled in separate courts by Moslem judges,
+against whom there was an appeal to the supreme court, aided by
+assessors. All able-bodied males are liable, on reaching their 21st
+year, for 3 years' service with the colours, and 9 years in the reserve.
+The garrison numbers about 20,000 Austrian troops, and there are 7100
+native troops. The principal military stations are Bjelina, Zvornik,
+Visegrad, Gorazda, Foca, Bilek, Avtovac and Trebinje, along the eastern
+frontier; Mostar and Stolac in the south; Livno in the west; and Bihac
+in the north.
+
+12. _Religion._--In 1895 43% of the population were Orthodox Christians,
+35% Moslems and 21% Roman Catholics. The patriarch of Constantinople is
+the nominal head of the Orthodox priesthood; but by an arrangement
+concluded in 1879, his authority was delegated to the Austrian emperor,
+in exchange for a revenue equal to the tribute previously paid by the
+clergy of the provinces; and his nominations for the metropolitanate of
+Serajevo, and the bishoprics of Dolnja Tuzla, Banjaluka and Mostar
+require the imperial assent. Under Turkish rule the communes chose their
+own parish priests, but this right is now vested in the government. The
+Roman Catholics have an archbishop in Serajevo, a bishop in Mostar and
+an apostolic administrator in Banjaluka. Serajevo is also the seat of
+the Jewish chief rabbi; and of the highest Moslem ecclesiastic, or
+_reis-el-ulema_, who with his council is nominated and paid by the
+government. The inferior Moslem clergy draw their stipends from the
+_Vakuf_. Considerable bitterness prevails between the rival confessions,
+each aiming at political ascendancy, but the government favours none. In
+order to conciliate even the Moslems, who include the bulk of the great
+landholders and of the urban population, its representatives visit the
+mosques in state on festivals; grants are made for the Mecca pilgrimage;
+and even the howling Dervishes in Serajevo are maintained by the state.
+
+13. _Education._--Education for boys and girls between the ages of seven
+and fifteen is free, but not compulsory. The state supports primary
+schools (352 in 1905), where reading, writing, arithmetic and history
+are taught; and separate instruction is given by the Orthodox, Roman
+Catholic, Jewish and Moslem clergy. There are also various private
+schools, belonging to the different religious communities. These receive
+a grant from the government, which nevertheless encourages all parents
+to send their children to its own schools. One of the earliest and
+best-known private schools is the orphanage at Serajevo, founded in 1869
+by two English ladies, Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie. In the Moslem
+schools, which, in 1905, comprised 855 _mektebs_ or primary schools, and
+41 _madrasas_ or high schools, instruction is usually given in Turkish
+or Arabic; while in Orthodox schools the books are printed in Cyrillic
+characters.
+
+For higher education there were in 1908 three gymnasia, a real-school at
+Banjaluka, a technical college and a teachers' training-college at
+Serajevo, where, also, is the state school for Moslem law-students,
+called _scheriatschule_ from the _sheri_ or Turkish code; and various
+theological, commercial and art institutes. Promising pupils are
+frequently sent to Vienna University, with scholarships, which may be
+forfeited if the holders engage in political agitation.
+
+14. _Antiquities._--Up to 1900 no traces of palaeolithic man had been
+discovered in Bosnia or Herzegovina; but many later prehistoric remains
+are preserved in Serajevo museum. The neolithic station of Butmir, near
+Ilidze, was probably a lake-dwellers' colony, and has yielded numerous
+stone and horn implements, clay figures and pottery. Not far off,
+similar relics were found at Sobunar, Zlatiste and Debelobrdo; iron and
+bronze ornaments, vessels and weapons, often of elaborate design, occur
+in the huts and cemeteries of Glasinac, and in the cemetery of Jezerine,
+where they are associated with objects in silver, tin, amber, glass, &c.
+Among the numerous finds made in other districts may be mentioned the
+discovery, at Vrankamer, near Bihac, of 98 African coins, the oldest of
+which dates from 300 B.C. Many vestiges of Roman rule survive, such as
+roads, mines, ruins, tombs, coins, frescoes and inscriptions. Such
+remains occur frequently near Bihac, Foca, Livno, Jajce and Serajevo;
+and especially near the sources of the Drina. The period between the
+downfall of Roman power, late in the 5th century, and the growth of a
+Bosnian state, in the 11th, is poorer in antiquities. The later middle
+ages are represented by several monasteries, and many castles, such as
+those of Dervent, Doboj, Maglaj, Zepce and Vranduk, on the Bosna; Bihac,
+on the Una; Prijedor and Kljuc, on the Sana; and Stolac, Gabela,
+Irebinje and Konjica, in Herzegovina. The bridge across the Narenta, at
+Konjica, is said to date from the 10th century. A group of signs carved
+on some rocks near Visegrad have been regarded as cuneiform writing, but
+are probably medieval masonic symbols. In a few cases, such as the
+Begova Dzamia at Serajevo, the Foca mosques and the Mostar bridge, the
+buildings raised by the Turks are of high architectural merit. More
+remarkable are the tombstones, generally measuring 6 ft. in length, 3 in
+height and 3 in breadth, which have been supposed to mark the graves of
+the Bogomils. These are, as a rule, quite unadorned, a few only being
+decorated with rude has-reliefs of animals, plants, weapons, the
+crescent and star, or, very rarely, the cross.
+
+
+  Formation of the Banate.
+
+15. _History._--Under Roman rule Bosnia had no separate name or history,
+and until the great Slavonic immigration of 636 it remained an
+undifferentiated part of Illyria (q.v.). Owing to the scarcity of
+authoritative documents, it is impossible to describe in detail the
+events of the next three centuries. During this period Bosnia became the
+generally accepted name for the valley of the Bosna (ancient
+_Basanius_); and subsequently for several outlying and tributary
+principalities, notably those of Soli, afterwards Tuzla; Usora, along
+the south-eastern bank of the Save; Donji Kraj, the later Krajina,
+Kraina or Turkish Croatia, in the north-west; and Rama, the modern
+district of Livno. The old Illyrian population was rapidly absorbed or
+expelled, its Latin institutions being replaced by the autonomous tribal
+divisions, or _Zupanates_, of the Slavs. Pressure from Hungary and
+Byzantium gradually welded these isolated social units into a single
+nation, whose ruler was known as the Ban (q.v.). But the central power
+remained weak, and the country possessed no strong natural frontiers. It
+seems probable that the bans were originally viceroys of the Croatian
+kings, who resumed their sovereignty over Bosnia from 958 to 1010.
+Thenceforward, until 1180, the bans continued subject to the Eastern
+empire or Hungary, with brief intervals of independence. The territory
+now called Herzegovina was also subject to various foreign powers. It
+comprised the principalities of Tribunia or Travunja, with its capital
+at Trebinje; and Hlum or Hum, the Zachlumia of Constantine
+Porphyrogenitus, who gives a clear picture of this region as it was in
+the 10th century.[2]
+
+
+  Religious controversies.
+
+The schism between Eastern and Western Christendom left Bosnia divided
+between the Greek and Latin Churches. Early in the 12th century a new
+religion, that of the Bogomils (q.v.), was introduced, and denounced as
+heretical. Its converts nevertheless included many of the Bosnian nobles
+and the ban Kulin (1180-1204), whose reign was long proverbial for its
+prosperity, owing to the flourishing state of commerce and agriculture,
+and the extensive mining operations carried on by the Ragusans. An
+unusually able ruler, connected by marriage with the powerful Servian
+dynasty of Nemanya, and by treaty with the republic of Ragusa,[3] Kulin
+perceived in the new doctrines a barrier between his subjects and
+Hungary. He was compelled to recant, under strong pressure from Pope
+Innocent III. and Bela III. of Hungary; but, despite all efforts,
+Bogomilism incessantly gained ground. In 1232 Stephen, the successor of
+Kulin, was dethroned by the native magnates, who chose instead Matthew
+Ninoslav, a Bogomil. This event illustrates the three dominant
+characteristics of Bosnian history: the strength of the aristocracy; the
+corresponding weakness of the central authority, enhanced by the lack of
+any definite rule of inheritance; and the supreme influence of religion.
+Threatened by Pope Gregory IX. with a crusade, Ninoslav was baptized,
+only to abjure Christianity in 1233. For six years he withstood the
+Hungarian crusaders, led by Kaloman, duke of Croatia; in 1241 the Tatar
+invasion of Hungary afforded him a brief respite; and in 1244 peace was
+concluded after a Bosnian campaign against Croatia. A renewal of the
+crusade proving equally vain, in 1247 Pope Innocent III. entered into
+friendly negotiations with the ban, whose country was for the moment an
+independent and formidable state. The importance attached to its
+conversion is well attested by the correspondence of Pope Gregory IX.
+with Ninoslav and various Bosnian ecclesiastics.[4]
+
+
+  Period of Hungarian supremacy.
+
+On the death of Ninoslav in 1250, vigorous efforts were made to
+exterminate the Bogomil heresy; and to this end, Bela IV., who appeared
+as the champion of Roman Catholicism, secured the election of his
+nominee Prijesda to the banate. Direct Hungarian suzerainty lasted until
+1299, the bans preserving only a shadow of their former power. From 1299
+to 1322 the country was ruled by the Croatian princes, Paul and Mladen
+Subic, who, though vassals of Hungary, reunited the provinces of Upper
+and Lower Bosnia, created by the Hungarians in order to prevent the
+growth of a dangerous national unity. A rising of the native magnates in
+1322 resulted in the election of the Bogomil, Stephen Kotromanic, last
+and greatest of the Bosnian bans.
+
+
+  Stephen Kotromanic.
+
+At this period the Servian empire had reached its zenith; Hungary,
+governed by the feeble monarch, Charles Robert of Anjou, was striving to
+crush the insurgent magnates of Croatia; Venice, whose commercial
+interests were imperilled, desired to restore peace and maintain the
+balance of power. Dread of Servia impelled Kotromanic to aid Hungary. In
+an unsuccessful war against the Croats (1322-26), from which Venice
+derived the sole advantage, the ban appears to have learned the value of
+sea-power; immediately afterwards he occupied the principality of Hlum
+and the Dalmatian littoral between Spalato and the river Narenta. Ragusa
+furnished him with money and a fleet, in return for a guarantee of
+protection; commercial treaties with Venice further strengthened his
+position; and the Vatican, which had instigated the Croats to invade the
+dominions of their heretical neighbour (1337-40), was conciliated by his
+conversion to Roman Catholicism. Defeated by the Servian tsar Dushan,
+and driven to ally himself with Servia and Venice against Louis I. of
+Hungary, Kotromanic returned to his allegiance in 1344. Four years later
+his influence brought about a truce between Hungary and the Venetians,
+who had agreed with Bosnia for mutual support against the Croats; and in
+1353, the year of his death, his daughter Elizabeth was married to King
+Louis.
+
+
+  Establishment of the Bosnian kingdom.
+
+Stephen Tvrtko, the nephew and successor of Kotromanic, was a minor, and
+for thirteen years his mother, Helena, acted as regent. Confronted by
+civil war, and deprived of Hlum by the Hungarians, she was compelled to
+acknowledge the suzerainty of Stephen Dushan, and afterwards of Louis.
+But in 1366 Tvrtko overcame all opposition at home, and forthwith
+embarked on a career of conquest, recapturing Hlum and annexing part of
+Dalmatia. The death of Stephen Dushan, in 1356, had left his empire
+defenceless against the Hungarians, Turks and other enemies; and to win
+help from Bosnia the Servian tsar Lazar ceded to Tvrtko a large tract of
+territory, including the principality of Tribunia. In 1376 Tvrtko was
+crowned as "Stephen I., king of Bosnia, Servia, and all the Sea-coast,"
+although Lazar retained his own title and a diminished authority. The
+death of Louis in 1392, the regency of his widow Elizabeth, and a fresh
+outbreak in Croatia, enabled Tvrtko to fulfil his predecessor's designs
+by establishing a maritime state. With Venetian aid he wrested from
+Hungary the entire Adriatic littoral between Fiume and Cattaro, except
+the city of Zara; thus adding Dalmatia to his kingdom at the moment when
+Servia was lost through the Ottoman victory of Kossovo (1389). At his
+coronation he had proclaimed his purpose to revive the ancient Servian
+empire; in 1378 he had married the daughter of the last Bulgarian tsar;
+and it is probable that he dreamed of founding an empire which should
+extend from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. The disaster of Kossovo,
+though fatal to his ambition, did not immediately react on Bosnia
+itself; and when Tvrtko died in 1391, his kingdom was still at the
+summit of its prosperity.
+
+
+  Decline of the Bosnian kingdom.
+
+Kotromanic and Tvrtko had known how to crush or conciliate their
+turbulent magnates, whose power reasserted itself under Dabisa (Stephen
+II., 1391-1398), a brother of Tvrtko. Sigismond of Hungary profited by
+the disorder that ensued to regain Croatia and Dalmatia; and in 1398 the
+Turks, aided by renegade Slavs,[5] overran Bosnia. Ostoja (Stephen III.,
+1398-1418), an illegitimate son of Tvrtko, proved a puppet in the hands
+of Hrvoje Vukcic, duke of Spalato, Sandalj Hranic,[6] and other leaders
+of the aristocracy, who fought indifferently against the Turks, the
+Hungarians, the king or one another. Some upheld a rival claimant to the
+throne in Tvrtkovic, a legitimate son of Tvrtko, and all took sides in
+the incessant feud between Bogomils and Roman Catholics. During the
+reigns of Ostojic (Stephen IV., 1418-1421) and Tvrtkovic (Stephen V.,
+1421-1444) Bosnia was thus left an easy prey to the Turks, who exacted a
+yearly tribute, after again ravaging the country, and carrying off many
+thousands of slaves, with a vast store of plunder.
+
+
+  Turkish conquest.
+
+The losses inflicted on the Turks by Hunyadi Janos, and the attempt to
+organize a defensive league among the neighbouring Christian lands,
+temporarily averted the ruin of Bosnia under Thomas Ostojic (Stephen
+VI., 1444-1461). Hoping to gain active support from the Vatican, Ostojic
+renounced Bogomilism, and persecuted his former co-religionists, until
+the menace of an insurrection forced him to grant an amnesty. His
+position was endangered by the growing power of his father-in-law,
+Stephen Vukcic, an ardent Bogomil, who had united Tribunia and Hlum into
+a single principality. Vukcic--or _Cosaccia_, as he is frequently called
+by the contemporary chroniclers, from his birthplace, Cosac--was the
+first and last holder of the title "Duke of St Sava," conferred on him
+by the emperor Frederick III. in 1448; and from this title is derived
+the name _Herzegovina_, or "the Duchy." Hardly had the king become
+reconciled with this formidable antagonist, when, in 1453, the death of
+Hunyadi, and the fall of Constantinople, left Bosnia defenceless against
+the Turks. In 1460 it was again invaded. Venice and the Papacy were
+unable, and Hungary unwilling, to render assistance; while the Croats
+proved actively hostile. Ostojic died in 1461, and his successor
+Tomasevic (Stephen VII., 1461-1463) surrendered to the Turks and was
+beheaded. Herzegovina, where Vukcic offered a desperate resistance, held
+out until 1483; but apart from the heroic defence of Jajce, the efforts
+of the Bosnians were feeble and inglorious, many of the Bogomils joining
+the enemy. From 1463 the greater part of the country submitted to the
+Turks; but the districts of Jajce and Srebrenica were occupied by
+Hungarian garrisons, and organized as a separate "banate" or "kingdom of
+Bosnia," until 1526, when the Hungarian power was broken at Mohacs. In
+1528 Jajce surrendered, after repelling every attack by the Turkish
+armies for 65 years.
+
+The fall of Jajce was the consummation of the Turkish conquest. It was
+followed by the flight of large bodies of Christian refugees. Many of
+the Roman Catholics withdrew into Croatia-Slavonia and south Hungary,
+where they ultimately fell again under Ottoman dominion. Others found
+shelter in Rome or Venice, and a large number settled in Ragusa, where
+they doubtless contributed to the remarkable literary development of the
+16th and 17th centuries in which the use of the Bosnian dialect was a
+characteristic feature. Some of the most daring spirits waged war on
+their conquerors from Clissa in Dalmatia, and afterwards from Zengg in
+maritime Croatia, where they formed the notorious pirate community of
+the Uskoks (q.v.). There was less inducement for the Orthodox
+inhabitants to emigrate, because almost all the neighbouring lands were
+governed by Moslems or Roman Catholics; and at home the peasants were
+permitted to retain their creed and communal organization. Judged by its
+influence on Bosnian politics, the Orthodox community was relatively
+unimportant at the Turkish conquest; and its subsequent growth is
+perhaps due to the official recognition of the Greek Church, as the
+representative of Christianity in Turkey. The Christian aristocracy lost
+its privileges, but its ancient titles of duke (_vojvod_) and count
+(_knez_) did not disappear. The first was retained by the leaders who
+still carried on the struggle for liberty in Montenegro; the second was
+transferred to the headmen of the communes. Many of the Franciscans
+refused to abandon their work, and in 1463 they received a charter from
+the sultan Mahomet II., which is still preserved in the monastery of
+Fojnica, near Travnik. This toleration of religious orders, though it
+did not prevent occasional outrages, remained to the last characteristic
+of Turkish policy in Bosnia; and even in 1868 a colony of Trappist monks
+was permitted to settle in Banjaluka.
+
+
+  Bosnia under Turkish rule.
+
+The Turkish triumph was the opportunity of the Bogomils, who
+thenceforth, assuming a new character, controlled the destinies of their
+country for more than three centuries. Bosnia was regarded by successive
+sultans as the gateway into Hungary; hatred of the Hungarians and their
+religion was hereditary among the Bogomils. Thus the desire for
+vengeance and the prospect of a brilliant military career impelled the
+Bogomil magnates to adopt the creed of Islam, which, in its austerity,
+presented some points of resemblance to their own doctrines. The nominal
+governor of the country was the Turkish _vali_, who resided at Banjaluka
+or Travnik, and rarely interfered in local affairs, if the taxes were
+duly paid. Below him ranked the newly converted Moslem aristocracy, who
+adopted the dress, titles and etiquette of the Turkish court, without
+relinquishing their language or many of their old customs. They dwelt in
+fortified towns or castles, where the vali was only admitted on
+sufferance for a few days; and, at the outset, they formed a separate
+military caste, headed by 48 _kapetans_--landholders exercising
+unfettered authority over their retainers and Christian serfs, but
+bound, in return, to provide a company of mounted troops for the service
+of their sovereign. Their favourite pursuits were fighting, either
+against a common enemy or among themselves, hunting, hawking and
+listening to the minstrels who celebrated their exploits. Their yearly
+visits to Serajevo assumed in time the character of an informal
+parliament, for the discussion of national questions; and their rights
+tended always to increase, and to become hereditary, in fact, though not
+in law. In every important campaign of the Turkish armies, these
+descendants of the Bogomils were represented; they amassed considerable
+wealth from the spoils of war, and frequently rose to high military and
+administrative positions. Thus, in 1570, Ali Pasha, a native of
+Herzegovina, became grand vizier; and he was succeeded by the
+distinguished soldier and statesman, Mahomet Beg Sokolovic, a Bosnian.
+Below the feudal nobility and their Moslem soldiers came the Christian
+serfs, tillers of the soil and taxpayers, whose lives and property were
+at the mercy of their lords. The hardships of their lot, and, above all,
+the system by which the strongest of their sons were carried off as
+recruits for the corps of janissaries (q.v.), frequently drove them to
+brigandage, and occasionally to open revolt.
+
+
+  External history 1528-1821.
+
+These conditions lasted until the 19th century, and meanwhile the
+country was involved in the series of wars waged by the Turks against
+Austria, Hungary and Venice. In the Krajina and all along the
+Montenegrin frontier, Moslems and Christians carried on a ceaseless
+feud, irrespective of any treaties concluded by their rulers; while the
+Turkish campaigns in Hungary provided constant occupation for the nobles
+during a large part of the 16th and 17th centuries. But after the
+Ottoman defeat at Vienna in 1683, the situation changed. Instead of
+extending the foreign conquests of their sultan, the Bosnians were hard
+pressed to defend their own borders. Zvornik fell before the
+Austro-Hungarian army in 1688, and the Turkish vali, who was still
+officially styled the "vali of Hungary," removed his headquarters from
+Banjaluka to Travnik, a more southerly, and therefore a safer capital.
+Two years later, the imperial troops reached Dolnja Tuzla, and retired
+with 3000 Roman Catholic emigrants. Serajevo was burned in 1697 by
+Eugene of Savoy, who similarly deported 40,000 Christians. The treaties
+of Carlowitz (1699) and Passarowitz (1718) deprived the Turks of all the
+Primorje, or littoral of Herzegovina, except the narrow enclaves of Klek
+and Suttorina, left to sunder the Ragusan dominions from those of
+Venice. At the same time a strip of territory in northern Bosnia was
+ceded to Austria, which was thus able to control both banks of the Save.
+This territory was restored to Turkey in 1739, at the peace of
+Belgrade;[7] but in 1790 it was reoccupied by Austrian troops. Finally,
+in 1791, the treaty of Sistova again fixed the line of the Save and Una
+as the Bosnian frontier.
+
+
+  Moslem rebellions.
+
+The reform of the Ottoman government contemplated by the sultan Mahmud
+II. (1808-1839) was bitterly resented in Bosnia, where Turkish prestige
+had already been weakened by the establishment of Servian autonomy under
+Karageorge. Many of the janissaries had married and settled on the land,
+forming a strongly conservative and fanatical caste, friendly to the
+Moslem nobles, who now dreaded the curtailment of their own privileges.
+Their opportunity came in 1820, when the Porte was striving to repress
+the insurrections in Moldavia, Albania and Greece. A first Bosnian
+revolt was crushed in 1821; a second, due principally to the massacre of
+the janissaries, was quelled with much bloodshed in 1827. After the
+Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29, a further attempt at reform was initiated
+by the sultan and his grand vizier, Reshid Pasha. Two years later came a
+most formidable outbreak; the sultan was denounced as false to Islam,
+and the Bosnian nobles gathered at Banjaluka, determined to march on
+Constantinople, and reconquer the Ottoman empire for the true faith. A
+holy war was preached by their leader, Hussein Aga Berberli, a brilliant
+soldier and orator, who called himself _Zmaj Bosanski_, the "Dragon of
+Bosnia," and was regarded by his followers as a saint. The Moslems of
+Herzegovina, under Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovic, remained loyal to the Porte,
+but in Bosnia Hussein Aga encountered little resistance. At Kossovo he
+was reinforced by 20,000 Albanians, led by the rebel Mustapha Pasha; and
+within a few weeks the united armies occupied the whole of Bulgaria, and
+a large part of Macedonia. Their career was checked by Reshid Pasha, who
+persuaded the two victorious commanders to intrigue against one another,
+secured the division of their forces, and then fell upon each in turn.
+The rout of the Albanians at Prilipe and the capture of Mustapha at
+Scutari were followed by an invasion of Bosnia. After a desperate
+defence, Hussein Aga fled to Esseg in Croatia-Slavonia; his appeal for
+pardon was rejected, and in 1832 he was banished for life to Tribizond.
+The power of the Bosnian nobles, though shaken by their defeat, remained
+unbroken; and they resisted vigorously when their kapetanates were
+abolished in 1837; and again when a measure of equality before the law
+was conceded to the Christians in 1839. In Herzegovina, Ali Pasha
+Rizvanbegovic reaped the reward of his fidelity. He was left free to
+tyrannize over his Christian subjects, a king in all but name. In 1840
+he descended from his mountain stronghold of Stolac to wage war upon the
+vladika Peter II. of Montenegro, and simultaneously to suppress a
+Christian rising. Peace was arranged at Ragusa in 1842, and it was
+rumoured that Ali had concluded a secret alliance with Montenegro,
+hoping to shake off the suzerainty of the sultan, and to found an
+entirely independent kingdom. It is impossible to verify this charge,
+but during the troubled years that ensued, Ali pursued an elaborate
+policy of intrigue. He sent large bribes to influential persons at
+Constantinople; he aided the Turkish vali to repress the Christians, who
+had again revolted; and he supported the Bosnian nobles against reforms
+imposed by the vali. At last, in 1850, a Turkish army was despatched to
+restore quiet. Ali Pasha openly professed himself a loyal subject, but
+secretly sent reinforcements to the rebel aristocracy. The Turks proved
+everywhere successful. After a cordial reception by their commander Omer
+or Omar Pasha, Ali was imprisoned; he was shortly afterwards
+assassinated, lest his lavish bribery of Turkish officials should
+restore him to favour, and bring disgrace on his captor (March 1851).
+
+
+  Condition of the serfs.
+
+The downfall of the Moslem aristocracy resulted in an important
+administrative change: Serajevo, which had long been the commercial
+centre of the country, and the jealously guarded stronghold of the
+nobles, superseded Travnik as the official capital, and the residence of
+the vali. A variety of other reforms, including the reorganization of
+Moslem education, were introduced by Omer Pasha, who governed the
+country until 1860. But as the administration grew stronger, the
+position of the peasantry became worse. They had now to satisfy the
+imperial tax-farmers and excisemen, as well as their feudal lords. The
+begs and agas continued to exact their forced labour and one-third of
+their produce; the central government imposed a tithe which had become
+an eighth by 1875. Three kinds of cattle-tax, the tax for exemption from
+military service, levied on every newborn male, forced labour on the
+roads, forced loan of horses, a heavy excise on grapes and tobacco, and
+a variety of lesser taxes combined to burden the Christian serfs; but
+even more galling than the amount was the manner in which these dues
+were exacted--the extortionate assessments of tax-farmers and excisemen,
+the brutal licence of the soldiery who were quartered on recalcitrant
+villagers. A crisis was precipitated by the example of Servian
+independence, the hope of Austrian intervention, and the public
+bankruptcy of Turkey.
+
+
+  Christian rising of 1875.
+
+Sporadic insurrections had already broken out among the Bosnian
+Christians, and on the 1st of July 1875 the villagers of Nevesinje,
+which gives its name to a mountain range east of Mostar, rose against
+the Turks. Within a few weeks the whole country was involved. The
+Herzegovinians, under their leaders Peko Pavlovic, Socica, Ljubibratic,
+and others, held out for a year against all the forces that Turkey could
+despatch against them.[8] In July 1876 Servia and Montenegro joined the
+struggle, and in April 1877 Russia declared war on the sultan.
+
+
+  Austro-Hungarian occupation, 1878-1908.
+
+The Austro-Hungarian occupation, authorized on the 13th of July 1878 by
+the treaty of Berlin (arts. 23 and 26), was not easily effected; and,
+owing to the difficulty of military operations among the mountains, it
+was necessary to employ a force of 200,000 men. Haji Loja, the native
+leader, was supported by a body of Albanians and mutinous Turkish
+troops, while the whole Moslem population bitterly resented the proposed
+change. The losses on both sides were very heavy, and, besides those who
+fell in battle, many of the insurgents were executed under martial law.
+But after a series of stubbornly contested engagements, the Austrian
+general, Philippovic, entered Serajevo on the 19th of August, and ended
+the campaign on the 20th of September, by the capture of Bihac in the
+north-west, and of Klobuk in Herzegovina. The government of the country
+was then handed over to the imperial ministry of finance; but the
+bureaucratic methods of the finance ministers, Baron von Hoffmann and
+Joseph de Szlavy, resulted only in the insurrection of 1881-82. Order
+was restored in June 1882, when the administration was entrusted to
+Benjamin von Kallay (q.v.), as imperial minister of finance. Kallay
+retained this position until his death on the 13th of July 1903, when he
+was succeeded by Baron Stephan Burian de Rajecz. During this period life
+and property were rendered secure, and great progress was achieved, on
+the lines already indicated, in creating an efficient civil service,
+harmonizing Moslem law with new enactments, promoting commerce, carrying
+out important public works, and reorganizing the fiscal and educational
+systems. All classes and creeds were treated impartially; and, although
+the administration has been reproached alike for undue harshness and
+undue leniency, neither accusation can be sustained. Critics have also
+urged that Kallay fostered the desire for material welfare at the cost
+of every other national ideal; that, despite his own popularity, he
+never secured the goodwill of the people for Austria-Hungary; that he
+left the agrarian difficulty unsolved, and the hostile religious
+factions unreconciled. These charges are not wholly unfounded; but the
+chief social and political evils in Bosnia and Herzegovina may be traced
+to historical causes operative long before the Austro-Hungarian
+occupation, and above all to the political ambition of the rival
+churches. Justly to estimate the work done by Kallay, it is only
+necessary to point to the contrast between Bosnia in 1882 and Bosnia in
+1903; for in 21 years the anarchy and ruin entailed by four centuries of
+misrule were transformed into a condition of prosperity unsurpassed in
+south-eastern Europe.
+
+
+  Austrian annexation.
+
+It was no doubt natural that Austrian statesmen should wish to end the
+anomalous situation created by the treaty of Berlin, by incorporating
+Bosnia and Herzegovina into the Dual Monarchy. The treaty had
+contemplated the evacuation of the occupied provinces after the
+restoration of order and prosperity; and this had been expressly
+stipulated in an agreement signed by the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman
+plenipotentiaries at Berlin, as a condition of Turkish assent to the
+provisions of the treaty. But the Turkish reform movement of 1908 seemed
+to promise a revival of Ottoman power, which might in time have enabled
+the Turks to demand the promised evacuation, and thus to reap all the
+ultimate benefits of the Austrian administration. The reforms in Turkey
+certainly encouraged the Serb and Moslem inhabitants of the occupied
+territory to petition the emperor for the grant of a constitution
+similar to that in force in the provinces of Austria proper. But the
+Austro-Hungarian government, profiting by the weakness of Russia after
+the war with Japan, and aware that the proclamation of Bulgarian
+independence was imminent, had already decided to annex Bosnia and
+Herzegovina, in spite of the pledges given at Berlin, and although the
+proposal was unpopular in Hungary. Its decision, after being
+communicated to the sovereigns of the powers signatory to the treaty of
+Berlin, in a series of autograph letters from the emperor Francis
+Joseph, was made known to Bosnia and Herzegovina in an imperial rescript
+published on the 7th of October 1908. The Serb and Moslem delegates, who
+had started on the same day for Budapest, to present their petition to
+the emperor, learned from the rescript that the government intended to
+concede to their compatriots "a share in the legislation and
+administration of provincial affairs, and equal protection for all
+religious beliefs, languages and racial distinctions." The separate
+administration was, however, to be maintained, and the rescript did not
+promise that the new provincial diet would be more than a consultative
+assembly, elected on a strictly limited franchise.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--G. Capus, _A travers la Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_
+  (Paris, 1896) contains a detailed and fully illustrated account of the
+  combined provinces, their resources and population. J. Asboth, _An
+  Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina_ (London, 1890) is
+  valuable for details of local history, antiquities and topography: A.
+  Bordeaux, _La Bosnie populaire_ (Paris, 1904) for social life and
+  mining. Much information is also contained in the works by Lamouche,
+  Miller, Thomson, Joanne, Cambon, Millet, Hamard and Laveleye, cited
+  under the heading BALKAN PENINSULA. See also B. Nikasinovic, _Bosnien
+  und die Herzegovina unter der Verwaltung der osterreich-ungarischen
+  Monarchie_ (Berlin, 1901, &c.), and M. Oransz, _Auf dem Rade durch
+  Kroatien und Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1903). The best map is that of the
+  Austrian General Staff. See also for geology, J. Cvijic,
+  _Morphologische und glaciale Studien aus Bosnien_ (Vienna, 1900); F.
+  Katzer, _Geologischer Fuhrer durch Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Serajevo,
+  1903); P. Ballif, _Wasserbauten in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna,
+  1896). Sport: "Snaffle," _In the Land of the Bora_ (London, 1897).
+  Agriculture and Commerce: annual British consular reports, and the
+  official _Ergebnisse der Viehzahlungen_ (1879 and 1895), and
+  _Landwirtschaft in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (1899). The chief official
+  publications are in German. For antiquities, see R. Munro, _Through
+  Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_ (Edinburgh, 1900); A.J. Evans,
+  _Illyrian Letters_ (London, 1878); W. Radimsky, _Die neolithische
+  Station von Butmir_ (Vienna 1895-1898); P. Ballif, _Romische Strassen
+  in Bosnien und Herzegovina_ (Vienna, 1893, &c.). No adequate history
+  of Bosnia was published up to the 20th century; but the chief
+  materials for such a work are contained in the following books:--A.
+  Theiner, _Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia_
+  (Rome, 1860) and _Vetera monumenta Slavorum Meridionalium_ (1. Rome,
+  1863; 2. Agram, 1875),--these are collections of Latin documents from
+  the Vatican library; V. Makushev, _Monumenta historica Slavorum
+  Meridionalium_ (Belgrade, 1885); Y. Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti
+  spectantia ad historiam Serborum_, &c. (Belgrade, 1860-1862); F.
+  Miklosich, _Monumenta Serbica_ (Vienna, 1858). Other important
+  authorities are G. Lucio, _De Regno Dalmatiae et Croatiae_ (Amsterdam,
+  1666); M. Orbini, _Regno degli Slavi_ (Pesaro 1601); D. Farlatus and
+  others, _Illyricum Sacrum_ (Venice, 1751-1819); C. du Fresne du Cange,
+  _Illyricum vetus et novum_ (1746); M. Simek, _Politische Geschichte
+  des Konigreiches Bosnien und Rama_ (Vienna, 1787). The best modern
+  history, though valueless for the period after 1463, is by P.
+  Coquelle, _Histoire du Montenegro et de la Bosnie_ (Paris, 1895). See
+  also V. Klaic, _Geschichte Bosniens_ (Leipzig 1884). J. Spalaikovitch
+  (Spalajkovic), in _La Bosnie et l'Herzegovine_ (Paris, 1897), give a
+  critical account of the Austro-Hungarian administration.
+       (K. G. J.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This was soon modified in detail. Arrears of debt, for instance,
+    were made recoverable for one year only, instead of the ten years
+    allowed by Turkish law.
+
+  [2] _De Administrando Imperio_, 33 and 34. The names of _Chulmia_ and
+    _Chelmo_, applied to this region by later Latin and Italian
+    chroniclers, are occasionally adopted by English writers.
+
+  [3] For the commercial and political relations of Ragusa and Bosnia,
+    see L. Villari, _The Republic of Ragusa_ (London, 1904).
+
+  [4] Given by Theiner, _Vetera monumenta Hungariam ... illustrantia_,
+    173-185.
+
+  [5] This is the first recorded instance of such an alliance. The
+    Slavs were probably Bogomils.
+
+  [6] These magnates played a considerable part in the politics of
+    south-eastern Europe; see especially their correspondence with the
+    Venetian Republic, given by Shafarik, _Acta archivi Veneti_, &c.
+
+  [7] For details of these events see Umar Effendi, _History of the War
+    in Bosnia_ (1737-1739). Translated by C. Fraser (London, 1830).
+
+  [8] For the Christian rebellion and its causes, see A.J. Evans,
+    _Through Bosnia and Herzegovina on Foot_ (London, 1876); and W.J.
+    Stillman, _Herzegovina and the Late Uprising_ (London, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+  BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. [Greek: Bosporos] = ox-ford, traditionally
+  connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer,
+  crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings). By the ancients this
+  name, signifying a strait, was especially applied to the _Bosporus
+  Cimmerius_ (see below), and the _Bosporus Thracius_; but when used
+  without any adjective it now denotes the latter, which unites the
+  Black Sea with the Sea of Marmora and forms part of the boundary
+  between Europe and Asia. The channel is 18 m. long, and has a maximum
+  breadth at the northern entrance of 2-3/4 m., a minimum breadth of
+  about 800 yds., and a depth varying from 20 to 66 fathoms in
+  mid-stream. In the centre there is a rapid current from the Black Sea
+  to the Sea of Marmora, but a counter-current sets in the opposite
+  direction below the surface and along the shores. The surface current
+  varies in speed, but averages nearly 3 m. an hour; though at narrow
+  places it may run at double this pace. The strait is very rarely
+  frozen over, though history records a few instances; and the Golden
+  Horn, the inlet on either side of which Constantinople lies, has been
+  partially frozen over occasionally in modern times. The shores of the
+  Bosporus are composed in the northern portion of different volcanic
+  rocks, such as dolerite, granite and trachyte; but along the remaining
+  course of the channel the prevailing formations are Devonian,
+  consisting of sandstones, marls, quartzose conglomerates, and
+  calcareous deposits of various kinds. The scenery on both sides is of
+  the most varied and beautiful description, many villages lining each
+  well-wooded shore, while on the European side are numerous fine
+  residences of the wealthy class of Constantinople. The Bosporus is
+  under Turkish dominion, and by treaty of 1841, confirmed by the treaty
+  of Berlin in 1878 and at other times, no ship of war other than
+  Turkish may pass through the strait (or through the Dardanelles)
+  without the countenance of the Porte. (See also CONSTANTINOPLE.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS, the ancient name for the Straits of Kerch or
+Yenikale, connecting the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov; the Cimmerii
+(q.v.) were the ancient inhabitants. The straits are about 25 m. long
+and 2-1/2 m. broad at the narrowest, and are formed by an eastern
+extension of the Crimea and the peninsula of Taman, a kind of
+continuation of the Caucasus. This in ancient times seems to have formed
+a group of islands intersected by arms of the Hypanis or Kuban and
+various sounds now silted up. The whole district was dotted with Greek
+cities; on the west side, Panticapaeum (Kerch, q.v.), the chief of all,
+often itself called Bosporus, and Nymphaeum (Eltegen); on the east
+Phanagoria (Sennaja), Cepi, Hermonassa, Portus Sindicus, Gorgippia
+(Anapa). These were mostly settled by Milesians, Panticapaeum in the 7th
+or early in the 6th century B.C., but Phanagoria (c. 540 B.C.) was a
+colony of Teos, and Nymphaeum had some connexion with Athens--at least
+it appears to have been a member of the Delian Confederacy. The towns
+have left hardly any architectural or sculptural remains, but the
+numerous barrows in their neighbourhood have yielded very beautiful
+objects now mostly preserved in the Hermitage in St Petersburg. They
+comprise especially gold work, vases exported from Athens, textiles and
+specimens of carpentry and marquetry. The numerous terra-cottas are
+rather rude in style.
+
+According to Diodorus Siculus (xii. 31) the locality was governed from
+480 to 438 B.C. by the Archaeanactidae, probably a ruling family, who
+gave place to a tyrant Spartocus (438-431 B.C.), apparently a Thracian.
+He founded a dynasty which seems to have endured until c. 110 B.C. The
+Spartocids have left many inscriptions which tell us that the earlier
+members of the house ruled as archons of the Greek cities and kings of
+various native tribes, notably the Sindi of the island district and
+other branches of the Maitae (Maeotae). The text of Diodorus, the
+inscriptions and the coins do not supply sufficient material for a
+complete list of them. Satyrus (431-387), the successor of Spartocus,
+established his rule over the whole district, adding Nymphaeum to his
+dominions and laying siege to Theodosia, which was a serious commercial
+rival by reason of its ice-free port and direct proximity to the
+cornfields of the eastern Crimea. It was reserved for his son Leucon
+(387-347) to take this city. He was succeeded by his two sons
+conjointly, Spartocus II. and Paerisades; the former died in 342 and his
+brother reigned alone until 310. Then followed a civil war in which
+Eumelus (310-303) was successful. His successor was Spartocus III.
+(303-283) and after him Paerisades II. Succeeding princes repeated the
+family names, but we cannot assign them any certain order. We know only
+that the last of them, a Paerisades, unable to make headway against the
+power of the natives, called in the help of Diophantus, general of
+Mithradates VI. (the Great) of Pontus, promising to hand over his
+kingdom to that prince. He was slain by a Scythian Saumacus who led a
+rebellion against him. The house of Spartocus was well known as a line
+of enlightened and wise princes; although Greek opinion could not deny
+that they were, strictly speaking, tyrants, they are always described as
+dynasts. They maintained close relations with Athens, their best
+customers for the Bosporan corn export, of which Leucon I. set the
+staple at Theodosia, where the Attic ships were allowed special
+privileges. We have many references to this in the Attic orators. In
+return the Athenians granted him Athenian citizenship and set up decrees
+in honour of him and his sons. Mithradates the Great entrusted the
+Bosporus Cimmerius to his son Machares, who, however, deserted to the
+Romans. But even when driven out of his own kingdom by Pompey,
+Mithradates was strong enough to regain the Bosporus Cimmerius, and
+Machares slew himself. Subsequently the Bosporans again rose in revolt
+under Pharnaces, another of the old king's sons. After the death of
+Mithradates (B.C. 63), this Pharnaces (63-47) made his submission to
+Pompey, but tried to regain his dominion during the civil war. He was
+defeated by Caesar at Zela, and on his return to Rome was slain by a
+pretender Asander who married his daughter Dynamis, and in spite of
+Roman nominees ruled as archon, and later as king, until 16 B.C. After
+his death Dynamis was compelled to marry an adventurer Scribonius, but
+the Romans under Agrippa interfered and set Polemon (14-8) in his place.
+To him succeeded Aspurgus (8 B.C.-A.D. 38?), son of Asander, who founded
+a line of kings which endured with certain interruptions until A.D. 341.
+These kings, who mostly bore the Thracian names of Cotys, Rhescuporis,
+Rhoemetalces, and the native name Sauromates, claimed descent from
+Mithradates the Great, and used the Pontic era (starting from 297 B.C.)
+introduced by him, regularly placing dates upon their coins and
+inscriptions. Hence we know their names and dates fairly well, though
+scarcely any events of their reigns are recorded. Their kingdom covered
+the eastern half of the Crimea and the Taman peninsula, and extended
+along the east coast of the Sea of Azov to Tanais at the mouth of the
+Don, a great mart for trade with the interior. They carried on a
+perpetual war with the native tribes, and in this were supported by
+their Roman suzerains, who even lent the assistance of garrison and
+fleet. At times rival kings of some other race arose and probably
+produced some disorganization. At one of these periods (A.D. 255) the
+Goths and Borani were enabled to seize Bosporan shipping and raid the
+shores of Asia Minor. With the last coin of the last Rhescuporis, A.D.
+341, materials for a connected history of the Bosporus Cimmerius come to
+an end. The kingdom probably succumbed to the Huns established in the
+neighbourhood. In later times it seems in some sort to have been revived
+under Byzantine protection, and from time to time Byzantine officers
+built fortresses and exercised authority at Bosporus, which was
+constituted an archbishopric. They also held Ta Matarcha on the Asiatic
+side of the strait, a town which in the 10th and 11th centuries became
+the seat of the Russian principality of Tmutarakan, which in its turn
+gave place to Tatar domination.
+
+The Bosporan kingdom is interesting as the first Hellenistic state, the
+first, that is to say, in which a mixed population adopted the Greek
+language and civilization. It depended for its prosperity upon the
+export of wheat, fish and slaves, and this commerce supported a class
+whose wealth and vulgarity are exemplified by the contents of the
+numerous tombs to which reference has been made. In later times a Jewish
+element was added to the population, and under its influence were
+developed in all the cities of the kingdom, especially Tanais, societies
+of "worshippers of the highest God," apparently professing a monotheism
+which without being distinctively Jewish or Christian was purer than any
+found among the inhabitants of the Empire.
+
+We possess a large series of coins of Panticapaeum and other cities from
+the 5th century B.C. The gold _staters_ of Panticapaeum bearing Pan's
+head and a griffin are specially remarkable for their weight and fine
+workmanship. We have also coins with the names of the later Spartocids
+and a singularly complete series of dated _solidi_ issued by the later
+or Achaemenian dynasty; in them may be noticed the swift degeneration of
+the gold _solidus_ through silver and potin to bronze (see also
+NUMISMATICS).
+
+  See, for history, introduction to V.V. Latyshev, _Inscrr. orae
+  Septent. Ponti Euxini_, vol. ii. (St Petersburg, 1890); art.
+  "Bosporus" (2) by C.G. Brandis in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencycl._ vol.
+  iii. 757 (Stuttgart, 1899); E.H. Minns, _Scythians and Greeks_
+  (Cambridge, 1907). For inscriptions, Latyshev as above and vol. iv.
+  (St Petersburg, 1901). Coins: B. Koehne, _Musee Kotschoubey_ (St
+  Petersburg, 1855). Religious Societies: E. Schurer in _Sitzber. d. k.
+  pr. Akad. d. Wissenschaft zu Berlin_ (1897), i. pp. 200-227.
+  Excavations: _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (St Petersburg, 1854,
+  repr. Paris, 1892) and _Compte rendu_ and _Bulletin de la Commission
+  Imp. Archeologique de St. Petersbourg_.     (E. H. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSQUET, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1810-1861), French marshal, entered the
+artillery in 1833, and a year later went to Algeria. Here he soon did
+good service, and made himself remarkable not only for technical skill
+but the moral qualities indispensable for high command. Becoming captain
+in 1839, he greatly distinguished himself at the actions of Sidi-Lakhdar
+and Oued-Melah. He was soon afterwards given the command of a battalion
+of native _tirailleurs_, and in 1843 was thanked in general orders for
+his brilliant work against the Flittahs. In 1845 he became
+lieutenant-colonel, and in 1847 colonel of a French line regiment. In
+the following year he was in charge of the Oran district, where his
+swift suppression of an insurrection won him further promotion to the
+grade of general of brigade, in which rank he went through the campaign
+of Kabulia, receiving a severe wound. In 1853 he returned to France
+after nineteen years' absence, a general of division. Bosquet was
+amongst the earliest chosen to serve in the Crimean War, and at the
+battle of the Alma his division led the French attack. When the
+Anglo-French troops formed the siege of Sevastopol, Bosquet's corps of
+two divisions protected them against interruption. His timely
+intervention at Inkerman (November 5, 1854) secured the victory for the
+allies. During 1855 Bosquet's corps occupied the right wing of the
+besieging armies opposite the Mamelon and Malakov. He himself led his
+corps at the storming of the Mamelon (June 7), and at the grand assault
+of the 8th of September he was in command of the whole of the storming
+troops. In the struggle for the Malakov he received another serious
+wound. At the age of forty-five Bosquet, now one of the foremost
+soldiers in Europe, became a senator and a marshal of France, but his
+health was broken, and he lived only a few years longer. He had the
+grand cross of the Bath, the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, and
+the Medjidieh of the 1st class.
+
+
+
+
+BOSS. (1) (From the O. Eng. _boce_, a swelling, cf. Ital. _bozza_, and
+Fr. _bosse_, possibly connected with the O. Ger. _bozan_, to beat), a
+round protuberance; the projecting centre or "umbo" of a buckler; in
+geology a projection of rock through strata of another species; in
+architecture, the projecting keystone of the ribs of a vault which masks
+their junction; the term is also applied to similar projecting blocks at
+every intersection. The boss was often richly carved, generally with
+conventional foliage but sometimes with angels, animals or grotesque
+figures. The boss was also employed in the flat timber ceilings of the
+15th century, where it formed the junction of cross-ribs. (2) (From the
+Dutch _baas_, a word used by the Dutch settlers in New York for
+"master," and so generally used by the Kaffirs in South Africa;
+connected with the Ger. _Base_, cousin, meaning a "chief kinsman," the
+head of a household or family), a colloquial term, first used in
+America, for an employer, a foreman, and generally any one who gives
+orders, especially in American political slang for the manager of a
+party organization.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSI, GIUSEPPE (1777-1816), Italian painter and writer on art, was born
+at the village of Busto Arsizio, near Milan. He was educated at the
+college of Monza; and his early fondness for drawing was fostered by the
+director of the college, who supplied him with prints after the works of
+Agostino Caracci for copies. He then studied at the academy of Brera at
+Milan, and about 1795 went to Rome, where he formed an intimate
+friendship with Canova. On his return to Milan he became assistant
+secretary, and then secretary, of the Academy of Fine Arts. He rendered
+important service in the organization of this new institution. In 1804,
+in conjunction with Oriani, he drew up the rules of the three academies
+of art of Bologna, Venice and Milan, and soon after was rewarded with
+the decoration of the Iron Crown. On the occasion of the visit of
+Napoleon I. to Milan in 1805, Bossi exhibited a drawing of the Last
+Judgment of Michelangelo, and pictures representing Aurora and Night,
+Oedipus and Creon, and the Italian Parnassus. By command of Prince
+Eugene, viceroy of Italy, Bossi undertook to make a copy of the Last
+Supper of Leonardo, then almost obliterated, for the purpose of getting
+it rendered in mosaic. The drawing was made from the remains of the
+original with the aid of copies and the best prints. The mosaic was
+executed by Raffaelli, and was placed in the imperial gallery of Vienna.
+Bossi made another copy in oil, which was placed in the museum of Brera.
+This museum owed to him a fine collection of casts of great works of
+sculpture acquired at Paris, Rome and Florence. Bossi devoted a large
+part of his life to the study of the works of Leonardo; and his last
+work was a series of drawings in monochrome representing incidents in
+the life of that great master. He left unfinished a large cartoon in
+black chalk of the Dead Christ in the bosom of Mary, with John and the
+Magdalene. In 1810 he published a special work in large quarto, entitled
+_Del Cenacolo di Leonardo da Vinci_, which had the merit of greatly
+interesting Goethe. His other works are _Delle Opinioni di Leonardo
+intorno alla simmetria de' corpi umani_ (1811), and _Del Tipo dell' arte
+della pittura_ (1816). Bossi died at Milan on the 15th of December 1816.
+A monument by Canova was erected to his memory in the Ambrosian library,
+and a bust was placed in the Brera.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSU, RENE LE (1631-1680), French critic, was born in Paris on the 16th
+of March 1631. He studied at Nanterre, and in 1649 became one of the
+regular canons of Sainte-Genevieve. He wrote _Parallele des principes de
+la physique d'Aristote et de celle de Rene Descartes_ (1674), and a
+_Traite du poeme epique_, highly praised by Boileau, the leading
+doctrine of which was that the subject should be chosen before the
+characters, and that the action should be arranged without reference to
+the personages who are to figure in the scene. He died on the 14th of
+March 1680.
+
+
+
+
+BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704), French divine, orator and writer,
+was born at Dijon on the 27th of September 1627. He came of a family of
+prosperous Burgundian lawyers; his father was a judge of the parliament
+(a provincial high court) at Dijon, afterwards at Metz. The boy was sent
+to school with the Jesuits of Dijon till 1642, when he went up to the
+college of Navarre in Paris to begin the study of theology; for a pious
+mother had brought him up to look on the priesthood as his natural
+vocation. At Navarre he gained a great reputation for hard work;
+fellow-students nicknamed him _Bos suetus aratro_--an ox broken in to
+the plough. But his abilities became known beyond the college walls. He
+was taken up by the Hotel de Rambouillet, a great centre of aristocratic
+culture and the original home of the _Precieuses_. Here he became the
+subject of a celebrated experiment. A dispute having arisen about
+extempore preaching, the boy of sixteen was put up, late one night, to
+deliver an impromptu discourse. He acquitted himself as well as in more
+conventional examinations. In 1652 he took a brilliant degree in
+divinity, and was ordained priest. The next seven years he spent at
+Metz, where his father's influence had got him a canonry at the early
+age of thirteen; to this was now added the more important office of
+archdeacon. He was plunged at once into the thick of controversy; for
+nearly half Metz was Protestant, and Bossuet's first appearance in print
+was a refutation of the Huguenot pastor Paul Ferry (1655). To reconcile
+the Protestants with the Roman Church became the great object of his
+dreams; and for this purpose he began to train himself carefully for the
+pulpit, an all-important centre of influence in a land where political
+assemblies were unknown, and novels and newspapers scarcely born. Not
+that he reached perfection at a bound. His youthful imagination was
+unbridled, and his ideas ran easily into a kind of paradoxical subtlety,
+redolent of the divinity school. But these blemishes vanished when he
+settled in Paris (1659), and three years later mounted the pulpit of the
+Chapel Royal.
+
+In Paris the congregations had no mercy on purely clerical logic or
+clerical taste; if a preacher wished to catch their ear, he must manage
+to address them in terms they would agree to consider sensible and
+well-bred. Not that Bossuet thought too much of their good opinion.
+Having very stern ideas of the dignity of a priest, he refused to
+descend to the usual devices for arousing popular interest. The
+narrative element in his sermons grows shorter with each year. He never
+drew satirical pictures, like his great rival Bourdaloue. He would not
+write out his discourses in full, much less learn them off by heart: of
+the two hundred printed in his _Works_ all but a fraction are rough
+drafts. No wonder ladies like Mme de Sevigne forsook him, when
+Bourdaloue dawned on the Paris horizon in 1669; though Fenelon and La
+Bruyere, two much sounder critics, refused to follow their example.
+Bossuet possessed the full equipment of the orator, voice, language,
+flexibility and strength. He never needed to strain for effect; his
+genius struck out at a single blow the thought, the feeling and the
+word. What he said of Martin Luther applies peculiarly to himself: he
+could "fling his fury into theses," and thus unite the dry light of
+argument with the fire and heat of passion. These qualities reach their
+highest point in the _Oraisons funebres_. Bossuet was always best when
+at work on a large canvas; besides, here no conscientious scruples
+intervened to prevent him giving much time and thought to the artistic
+side of his subject. For the _Oraison_, as its name betokened, stood
+midway between the sermon proper and what would nowadays be called a
+biographical sketch. At least, that was what Bossuet made it; for on
+this field he stood not merely first, but alone. His three great
+masterpieces were delivered at the funerals of Henrietta Maria, widow of
+Charles I. (1669), her daughter, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1670),
+and the great soldier Conde (1687).
+
+Apart from these state occasions, Bossuet seldom appeared in a Paris
+pulpit after 1669. In that year he was gazetted bishop of Condom in
+Gascony, though he resigned the charge on being appointed tutor to the
+dauphin, only child of Louis XIV., and now a boy of nine (1670). The
+choice was scarcely fortunate. Bossuet unbent as far as he could, but
+his genius was by no means fitted to enter into the feelings of a child;
+and the dauphin was a cross, ungainly, sullen lad, who grew up to be a
+merely genealogical incident at his father's court. Probably no one was
+happier than the tutor, when his charge's sixteenth birthday came round,
+and he was promptly married off to a Bavarian princess. Still the nine
+years at court were by no means wasted. Hitherto Bossuet had published
+nothing, except his answer to Ferry. Now he sat down to write for his
+pupil's instruction--or rather, to fit himself to give that
+instruction--a remarkable trilogy. First came the _Traite de la
+connaissance de Dieu et de soi-meme_, then the _Discours sur l'histoire
+universelle_, lastly the _Politique tiree de l'Ecriture Sainte_. The
+three books fit into each other. The _Traite_ is a general sketch of the
+nature of God and the nature of man. The _Discours_ is a history of
+God's dealings with humanity in the past. The _Politique_ is a code of
+rights and duties drawn up in the light thrown by those dealings. Not
+that Bossuet literally supposed that the last word of political wisdom
+had been said by the Old Testament. His conclusions are only "drawn from
+Holy Scripture," because he wished to gain the highest possible sanction
+for the institutions of his country--to hallow the France of Louis XIV.
+by proving its astonishing likeness to the Israel of Solomon. Then, too,
+the veil of Holy Scripture enabled him to speak out more boldly than
+court-etiquette would have otherwise allowed, to remind the son of Louis
+XIV. that kings have duties as well as rights. Louis had often forgotten
+these duties, but Louis' son would bear them in mind. The tutor's
+imagination looked forward to a time when France would blossom into
+Utopia, with a Christian philosopher on the throne. That is what made
+him so stalwart a champion of authority in all its forms: _"le roi,
+Jesus-Christ et l'Eglise, Dieu en ces trois noms"_, he says in a
+characteristic letter. And the object of his books is to provide
+authority with a rational basis. For Bossuet's worship of authority by
+no means killed his confidence in reason; what it did was to make him
+doubt the honesty of those who reasoned otherwise than himself. The
+whole chain of argument seemed to him so clear and simple. Philosophy
+proved that a God exists, and that He shapes and governs the course of
+human affairs. History showed that this governance is, for the most
+part, indirect, exercised through certain venerable corporations, as
+well civil as ecclesiastical, all of which demand implicit obedience as
+the immediate representatives of God. Thus all revolt, whether civil or
+religious, is a direct defiance of the Almighty. Cromwell becomes a
+moral monster, and the revocation of the edict of Nantes is "the
+greatest achievement of the second Constantine." Not that Bossuet
+glorified the _status quo_ simply as a clerical bigot. The France of his
+youth had known the misery of divided counsels and civil war; the France
+of his manhood, brought together under an absolute sovereign, had
+suddenly shot up into a splendour only comparable with ancient Rome. Why
+not, then, strain every nerve to hold innovation at bay and prolong that
+splendour for all time? Bossuet's own _Discours sur l'histoire
+universelle_ might have furnished an answer, for there the fall of many
+empires is detailed. But then the _Discours_ was composed under a single
+preoccupation. To Bossuet the establishment of Christianity was the one
+point of real importance in the whole history of the world. Over Mahomet
+and the East he passed without a word; on Greece and Rome he only
+touched in so far as they formed part of the _Praeparatio Evangelica_.
+And yet his _Discours_ is far more than a theological pamphlet. Pascal,
+in utter scorn for science, might refer the rise and fall of empires to
+Providence or chance--the nose of Cleopatra, or "a little grain of sand"
+in the English lord protector's veins. Bossuet held fast to his
+principle that God works through secondary causes. "It is His will that
+every great change should have its roots in the ages that went before
+it." Bossuet, accordingly, made a heroic attempt to grapple with origins
+and causes, and in this way his book deserves its place as one of the
+very first of philosophic histories.
+
+From writing history he turned to history in the making. In 1681 he was
+gazetted bishop of Meaux; but before he could take possession of his
+see, he was drawn into a violent quarrel between Louis XIV. and the pope
+(see GALLICANISM). Here he found himself between two fires. To support
+the pope meant supporting the Jesuits; and he hated their casuists and
+_devotion aisee_ almost as much as Pascal himself. To oppose the pope
+was to play into the hands of Louis, who was frankly anxious to humble
+the Church before the State. So Bossuet steered a middle course. Before
+the general assembly of the French clergy he preached a great sermon on
+the unity of the Church, and made it a magnificent plea for compromise.
+As Louis insisted on his clergy making an anti-papal declaration,
+Bossuet got leave to draw it up, and made it as moderate as he could.
+And when the pope declared it null and void, he set to work on a
+gigantic _Defensio Cleri Gallicani_, only published after his death.
+
+The Gallican storm a little abated, he turned back to a project very
+near his heart. Ever since the early days at Metz he had been busy with
+schemes for uniting the Huguenots to the Roman Church. In 1668 he
+converted Turenne; in 1670 he published an _Exposition de la foi
+catholique_, so moderate in tone that adversaries were driven to accuse
+him of having fraudulently watered down the Roman dogmas to suit a
+Protestant taste. Finally in 1688 appeared his great _Histoire des
+variations des eglises protestantes_, perhaps the most brilliant of all
+his works. Few writers could have made the Justification controversy
+interesting or even intelligible. His argument is simple enough. Without
+rules an organized society cannot hold together, and rules require an
+authorized interpreter. The Protestant churches had thrown over this
+interpreter; and Bossuet had small trouble in showing that, the longer
+they lived, the more they varied on increasingly important points. For
+the moment the Protestants were pulverized; but before long they began
+to ask whether variation was necessarily so great an evil. Between 1691
+and 1701 Bossuet corresponded with Leibnitz with a view to reunion, but
+negotiations broke down precisely at this point. Individual Roman
+doctrines Leibnitz thought his countrymen might accept, but he flatly
+refused to guarantee that they would necessarily believe to-morrow what
+they believe to-day. "We prefer," he said, "a church eternally variable
+and for ever moving forwards." Next, Protestant writers began to
+accumulate some startling proofs of Rome's own variations; and here they
+were backed up by Richard Simon, a priest of the Paris Oratory, and the
+father of Biblical criticism in France. He accused St Augustine,
+Bossuet's own special master, of having corrupted the primitive doctrine
+of Grace. Bossuet set to work on a _Defense de la tradition_, but Simon
+calmly went on to raise issues graver still. Under a veil of politely
+ironical circumlocutions, such as did not deceive the bishop of Meaux,
+he claimed his right to interpret the Bible like any other book. Bossuet
+denounced him again and again; Simon told his friends he would wait
+until "the old fellow" was no more. Another Oratorian proved more
+dangerous still. Simon had endangered miracles by applying to them lay
+rules of evidence, but Malebranche abrogated miracles altogether. It was
+blasphemous, he argued, to suppose that the Author of nature would break
+through a reign of law He had Himself established. Bossuet might
+scribble _nova, mira, falsa_, in the margins of his book and urge on
+Fenelon to attack them; Malebranche politely met his threats by saying
+that to be refuted by such a pen would do him too much honour. These
+repeated checks soured Bossuet's temper. In his earlier controversies he
+had borne himself with great magnanimity, and the Huguenot ministers he
+refuted found him a kindly advocate at court. Even his approval of the
+revocation of the edict of Nantes stopped far short of approving
+dragonades within his diocese of Meaux. But now his patience was wearing
+out. A dissertation by one Father Caffaro, an obscure Italian monk,
+became his excuse for writing certain violent _Maximes sur la comedie_
+(1694) wherein he made an outrageous attack on the memory of Moliere,
+dead more than twenty years. Three years later he was battling with
+Fenelon over the love of God, and employing methods of controversy at
+least as odious as Fenelon's own (1697-1699). All that can be said in
+his defence is that Fenelon, four-and-twenty years his junior, was an
+old pupil, who had suddenly grown into a rival; and that on the matter
+of principle most authorities thought him right.
+
+Amid these gloomy occupations Bossuet's life came slowly to an end. Till
+he was over seventy he had scarcely known what illness was; but in 1702
+he was attacked by the stone. Two years later he was a hopeless invalid,
+and on the 12th of April 1704 he passed quietly away. Of his private
+life there is little to record. Meaux found him an excellent and devoted
+bishop, much more attentive to diocesan concerns than his more stirring
+occupations would seem to allow. In general society he was kindly and
+affable enough, though somewhat ill at ease. Until he was over forty, he
+had lived among purely ecclesiastical surroundings; and it was probably
+want of self-confidence, more than want of moral courage, that made him
+shut his eyes a little too closely to the disorders of Louis XIV.'s
+private life. After all, he was not the king's confessor; and to
+"reform" Louis, before age and Mme de Maintenon had sobered him down,
+would have taxed the powers of Daniel or Ezekiel. But in his books
+Bossuet was anything but timid. All of them, even the attacks on Simon,
+breathe an air of masculine belief in reason, rare enough among the
+apologists of any age. Bossuet would willingly have undertaken, as
+Malebranche actually undertook, to make an intelligent Chinaman accept
+all his ideas, if only he could be induced to lend them his attention.
+But his best praise is to have brought all the powers of language to
+paint an undying picture of a vanished world, where religion and
+letters, laws and science, were conceived of as fixed unalterable
+planets, circling for ever round one central Sun.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The best edition of Bossuet's sermons is the _OEuvres
+  oratoires de Bossuet_, edited by Abbe Lebarq, in 6 vols. (Paris,
+  1890-1896). His complete works were edited by Lachat, in 31 vols.
+  (Paris, 1862-1864). A complete list of the innumerable works relating
+  to him will be found in the _Bossuet_ number of the _Bibliotheque des
+  bibliographies critiques_, compiled by Canon Charles Urbain, and
+  published by the Societe des Etudes Historiques (Paris, 1900). The
+  general reader will find all he requires in the respective studies of
+  M. Rebelliau, _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1900), and M. Gustave Lanson,
+  _Bossuet_ (Paris, 1901). In English there is a modest _Bossuet_ by Mrs
+  Sidney Lear (London, 1874), and two remarkable studies by Sir J.
+  Fitz-James Stephen in the second volume of his _Horae Sabbaticae_
+  (London, 1892).     (St. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSTANAI, the name of the first exilarch under Mahommedan rule, in the
+middle of the 7th century. The exilarchs had their seat in Persia, and
+were practically the secular heads of the Jewish community in the
+Orient.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732), Scottish divine, was born at Duns on the
+17th of March 1676. His father, John Boston, and his mother, Alison
+Trotter, were both Covenanters. He was educated at Edinburgh, and
+licensed in 1697 by the presbytery of Chirnside. In 1699 he became
+minister of the small parish of Simprin, where there were in all "not
+more than 90 examinable persons." In 1704 he found, while visiting a
+member of his flock, a book which had been brought into Scotland by a
+commonwealth soldier. This was the famous _Marrow of Modern Divinity_,
+by Edward Fisher, a compendium of the opinions of leading Reformation
+divines on the doctrine of grace and the offer of the Gospel. Its object
+was to demonstrate the unconditional freeness of the Gospel. It cleared
+away such conditions as repentance, or some degree of outward or inward
+reformation, and argued that where Christ is heartily received, full
+repentance and a new life follow. On Boston's recommendation, Hog of
+Carnock reprinted _The Marrow_ in 1718; and Boston also published an
+edition with notes of his own. The book, being attacked from the
+standpoint of high Calvinism, became the standard of a far-reaching
+movement in Scottish Presbyterianism. The "Marrow men" were marked by
+the zeal of their service and the effect of their preaching. As they
+remained Calvinists they could not preach a universal atonement; they
+were in fact extreme particular redemptionists. In 1707 Boston was
+translated to Ettrick. He distinguished himself by being the only member
+of the assembly who entered a protest against what he deemed the
+inadequate sentence passed on John Simson, professor of divinity at
+Glasgow, who was accused of heterodox teaching on the Incarnation. He
+died on the 20th of May 1732. His books, _The Fourfold State, The Crook
+in the Lot_, and his _Body of Divinity_ and _Miscellanies_, long
+exercised a powerful influence over the Scottish peasantry.
+
+  His _Memoirs_ were published in 1776 (ed. G.D. Low, 1908). An edition
+  of his works in 12 volumes appeared in 1849.     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, a municipal and parliamentary borough and seaport of
+Lincolnshire, England, on the river Witham, 4 m. from its mouth in the
+Wash, 107 m. N. of London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901)
+15,667. It lies in a flat agricultural fen district, drained by numerous
+cuts, some of which are navigable. The church of St Botolph is a superb
+Decorated building, one of the largest and finest parish churches in
+the kingdom. A Decorated chapel in it, formerly desecrated, was restored
+to sacred use by citizens of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in 1857, in
+memory of the connexion of that city with the English town. The western
+tower, commonly known as Boston Stump, forms a landmark for 40 m. Its
+foundations were the first to be laid of the present church (which is on
+the site of an earlier one), but the construction was arrested until the
+Perpendicular period, of the work of which it is a magnificent example.
+It somewhat resembles the completed tower of Antwerp cathedral, and is
+crowned by a graceful octagonal lantern, the whole being nearly 290 ft.
+in height. The church of Skirbeck, 1 m. south-east, though extensively
+restored, retains good Early English details. Other buildings of
+interest are the guildhall, a 15th-century structure of brick;
+Shodfriars Hall, a half-timbered house adjacent to slight remains of a
+Dominican priory; the free grammar school, founded in 1554, with a fine
+gateway of wrought iron of the 17th century brought from St Botolph's
+church; and the Hussey Tower of brick, part of a mansion of the 16th
+century. Public institutions include a people's park and large municipal
+buildings (1904).
+
+As a port Boston was of ancient importance, but in the 18th century the
+river had silted up so far as to exclude vessels exceeding about 50
+tons. In 1882-1884 a dock some 7 acres in extent was constructed, with
+an entrance lock giving access to the quay sides for vessels of 3000
+tons. The bed of the river was deepened to 27 ft. for 3 m. below the
+town, and a new cut of 3 m. was made from the mouth into deep water. An
+iron swing-bridge connects the dock with the Great Northern railway.
+There is a repairing slipway accommodating vessels of 800 tons. Imports,
+principally timber, grain, cotton and linseed, increased owing to these
+improvements from L116,179 in 1881 to L816,698 in 1899; and exports
+(coal, machinery and manufactured goods) from L83,000 in 1883 to
+L261,873 in 1899. The deep-sea and coastal fisheries are important.
+Engineering, oil-cake, tobacco, sail and rope works are the principal
+industries in the town. Boston returns one member to parliament. The
+parliamentary borough falls within the Holland or Spalding division of
+the county. The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18
+councillors. Area, 2727 acres.
+
+  Boston (Icanhoe, St Botolph or Botolph's Town) derives its name from
+  St Botolph, who in 654 founded a monastery here, which was destroyed
+  by the Danes, 870. Although not mentioned in Domesday, Boston was
+  probably granted as part of Skirbeck to Alan, earl of Brittany. The
+  excellent commercial position of the town at the mouth of the Witham
+  explains its speedy rise into importance. King John by charter of 1204
+  granted the bailiff of Boston sole jurisdiction in the town. By the
+  13th century it was a great commercial centre second only to London in
+  paying L780 for two years to the fifteenth levied in 1205, and Edward
+  III. made it a staple port for wool in 1369. The Hanseatic and Flemish
+  merchants largely increased its prosperity, but on the withdrawal of
+  the Hanseatic League about 1470 and the break-up of the gild system
+  Boston's prosperity began to wane, and for some centuries it remained
+  almost without trade. Nevertheless it was raised to the rank of a free
+  borough by Henry VIII.'s charter of 1546, confirmed by Edward VI. in
+  1547, by Mary in 1553, by Elizabeth (who granted a court of admiralty)
+  in 1558 and 1573, and by James I. in 1608. Boston sent members to the
+  great councils in 1337, 1352 and 1353; and from 1552 to 1885 two
+  members were returned to each parliament. The Redistribution Act 1885
+  reduced the representation to one member. In 1257 a market was granted
+  to the abbot of Crowland and in 1308 to John, earl of Brittany. The
+  great annual mart was held before 1218 and attended by many German and
+  other merchants. Two annual fairs and two weekly markets were granted
+  by Henry VIII.'s charter, and are still held. The Great Mart survives
+  only in the Beast Mart held on the 11th of December.
+
+  See Pishey Thompson, _History and Antiquities of Boston and the
+  Hundred of Skirbeck_ (Boston, 1856); George Jebb, _Guide to the Church
+  of St Botolph, with Notes on the History of Boston; Victoria County
+  History: Lincolnshire_.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, the capital of the state of Massachusetts, U.S.A., in Suffolk
+county; lat. 42 deg. 21' 27.6" N., long. 71 deg. 3' 30" W. Pop. (1900)
+560,892, (197,129 being foreign born); (1905, state census) 595,580;
+(1910), 670,585. Boston is the terminus of the Boston & Albany (New York
+Central), the Old Colony system of the New York, New Haven & Hartford,
+and the Boston & Maine railway systems, each of which controls several
+minor roads once independent. The city lies on Massachusetts bay, on
+what was once a pear-shaped peninsula attached to the mainland by a
+narrow, marshy neck, often swept by the spray and water. On the north is
+the Charles river, which widens here into a broad, originally much
+broader, inner harbour or back-bay. The surface of the peninsula was
+very hilly and irregular, the shore-line was deeply indented with coves,
+and there were salt marshes that fringed the neck and the river-channel
+and were left oozy by the ebbing tides. Until after the War of
+Independence the primitive topography remained unchanged, but it was
+afterwards subjected to changes greater than those effected on the site
+of any other American city. The area of the original Boston was only 783
+acres, but by the filling in of tidal flats (since 1804) this was
+increased to 1829 acres; while the larger corporate Boston of the
+present day--including the annexed territories of South Boston (1804),
+Roxbury (1868), Charlestown, Dorchester, Brighton and West Roxbury
+(1874)--comprehends almost 43 sq. m. The beautiful Public Garden and the
+finest residential quarter of the city--the Back Bay, so called from
+that inner harbour from whose waters it was reclaimed (1856-1886)--stand
+on what was once the narrowest, but to-day is the widest and fairest
+portion of the original site. Whole forests, vast quarries of granite,
+and hills of gravel were used in fringing the water margins,
+constructing wharves, piers and causeways, redeeming flats, and
+furnishing piling and solid foundations for buildings. At the edge of
+the Common, which is now well within the city, the British troops in
+1775 took their boats on the eve of the battle of Lexington; and the
+post-office, now in the very heart of the business section of the city,
+stands on the original shore-line. The reclaimed territory is level and
+excellently drained. The original territory still preserves to a large
+degree its irregularity of surface, but its hills have been much
+degraded or wholly razed. Beacon Hill, so called from its ancient use as
+a signal warning station, is still the most conspicuous topographical
+feature of the city, but it has been changed from a bold and picturesque
+eminence into a gentle slope. After the great fire of 1872 it became
+possible, in the reconstruction of the business district, to widen and
+straighten its streets and create squares, and so provide for the
+traffic that had long outgrown the narrow, crooked ways of the older
+city. Atlantic Avenue, along the harbour front, was created, and
+Washington Street, the chief business artery, was largely remade after
+1866. It is probable that up to 1875, at least, there had been a larger
+outlay of labour, material and money, in reducing, levelling and
+reclaiming territory, and in straightening and widening thoroughfares[1]
+in Boston, than had been expended for the same purposes in all the other
+chief cities of the United States together. Washington Street, still
+narrow, is perhaps the most crowded and congested thoroughfare in
+America. The finest residence streets are in the Back Bay, which is laid
+out, in sharp contrast with the older quarters, in a regular,
+rectangular arrangement. The North End, the original city and afterwards
+the fashionable quarter, is now given over to the Jews and foreign
+colonies.
+
+The harbour islands, three of which have been ceded to the United States
+for the purpose of fortification, are numerous, and render the
+navigation of the shipping channels difficult and easily guarded. Though
+tortuous of access, the channels afford a clear passage of 27-35 ft.
+since great improvements were undertaken by the national government in
+1892, 1899, 1902 and 1907, and the harbour, when reached, is secure. It
+affords nearly 60 sq. m. of anchorage, but the wharf line, for lack of
+early reservation, is not so large as it might and should have been. The
+islands in the harbour, now bare, were for the most part heavily wooded
+when first occupied. It has been found impossible to afforest them on
+account of the roughness of the sea-air, and the wash from their bluffs
+into the harbour has involved large expense in the erection of
+sea-walls. Castle Island has been fortified since the earliest days;
+Fort Independence, on this island, and Forts Winthrop and Warren on
+neighbouring islands, constitute permanent harbour defences. The broad
+watercourses around the peninsula are spanned by causeways and bridges,
+East Boston only, that the harbours may be open to the navy-yard at
+Charlestown, being reached by ferry (1870), and by the electric subway
+under the harbour. At the Charlestown navy-yard (1800) there are docks,
+manufactories, foundries, machine-shops, ordnance stores, rope-walks,
+furnaces, casting-pits, timber sheds, ordnance-parks, ship-houses, &c.
+The famous frigate "Independence" was launched here in 1814, the more
+famous "Constitution" having been launched while the yard was still
+private in 1797. The first bridge over the Charles, to Charlestown, was
+opened in 1786. The bridge of chief artistic merit is the Cambridge
+Bridge (1908), which replaced the old West Boston Bridge, and is one
+feature of improvements long projected for the beautifying of the
+Charles river basin.
+
+Comparatively few relics of the early town have been spared by time and
+the improvements of the modern city. Three cemeteries remain
+intact--King's chapel burying ground, with the graves of John Winthrop
+and John Cotton; the Old Granary burial ground in the heart of the city,
+where Samuel Sewall, the parents of Franklin, John Hancock, James Otis
+and Samuel Adams are buried; and Copp's Hill burial ground, containing
+the tombs of the Mathers. Christ church (1723) is the oldest church of
+the city; in its tower the signal lanterns were displayed for Paul
+Revere on the night of the 18th of April 1775. The Old South church
+(1730-1782), the old state house (1748, restored 1882), and Faneuil Hall
+(1762-1763, enlarged 1805, reconstructed 1898) are rich in memorable
+associations of the period preceding the War of Independence. The second
+was the seat of the royal government of Massachusetts during the
+provincial period, and within its walls from 1760 to 1775 the questions
+of colonial dependence or independence probably first came into evident
+conflict. The Old South church has many associations; it was, for
+instance, the meeting-place of the people after the "Boston Massacre" of
+1770, when they demanded the removal of the British troops from the
+city; and here, too, were held the meetings that led up to the "Boston
+Tea Party" of 1773. Faneuil Hall (the original hall of the name was
+given to the city by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, in 1742) is
+associated, like the Old South, with the patriotic oratory of
+revolutionary days and is called "the cradle of American liberty." Its
+association with reform movements and great public issues of later times
+is not less close and interesting.[2] The adjoining Quincy market may be
+mentioned because its construction (1826) was utilized to open six new
+streets, widen a seventh, and secure flats, docks and wharf rights--all
+without laying tax or debt upon the city. The original King's chapel
+(1688, present building 1749-1754) was the first Episcopal church of
+Boston, which bitterly resented the action of the royal governor in 1687
+in using the Old South for the services of the Church of England. The
+new state house, the oldest portion of which (designed by Charles
+Bulfinch) was erected in 1795-1798, was enlarged in 1853-1856, and again
+by a huge addition in 1889-1898 (total cost about $6,800,000 to 1900).
+Architecturally, everything is subordinated to a conformity with the
+style of the original portion; and its gilded dome is a conspicuous
+landmark. Other buildings of local importance are the city hall (1865);
+the United States government building (1871-1878, cost about
+$6,000,000); the county court-house (1887-1893, $2,250,000); the
+custom-house (1837-1848); and the chamber of commerce (1892).
+
+Copley Square, in the Back Bay, is finely distinguished by a group of
+exceptional buildings: Trinity church, the old Museum of Fine Arts, the
+public library and the new Old South church. Trinity (1877, cost
+$800,000), in yellowish granite with dark sandstone trimmings, the
+masterpiece of H.H. Richardson, is built in the Romanesque style of
+southern France; it is a Latin cross surmounted by a massive central
+tower, with smaller towers and an adjacent chapel reached by open
+cloisters that distribute the balance (see ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig.
+137). It has windows by La Farge, William Morris, Burne-Jones and
+others.
+
+The library (1888-1895; cost $2,486,000, exclusive of the site, given
+by the state) is a dignified, finely proportioned building of
+pinkish-grey stone, built in the style of the Italian Renaissance,
+suggesting a Florentine palace. It has an imposing exterior (see
+ARCHITECTURE, Plate XVI. fig. 135), a beautiful inner court, and notable
+decorative features and embellishments, including bronze doors by D.C.
+French, a statue of Sir Henry Vane by Macmonnies, a fine staircase in
+Siena marble, some characteristic decorative panels by Puvis de
+Chavannes (illustrating the history of science and literature), and
+other notable decorative paintings by John S. Sargent (on the history of
+religion), Edwin A. Abbey (on the quest of the Holy Grail). The old
+Museum of Fine Arts (1876) is a red brick edifice in modern Gothic
+style, with trimmings of light stone and terra-cotta. The new Old South
+(the successor of the Old South, which is now a museum) is a handsome
+structure of Italian Gothic style, with a fine campanile. The dignified
+buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are near. In
+Huntington Avenue, at its junction with Massachusetts Avenue, is another
+group of handsome new buildings, including Horticultural Hall, Symphony
+Hall (1900) and the New England Conservatory of Music. In the Back Bay
+Fens, reclaimed swamps laid out by F.L. Olmsted, still other groups
+have formed--among others those of the marble buildings of the Harvard
+medical school; Fenway Court, a building in the style, internally, of a
+Venetian palace, that houses the art treasures of Mrs. J.L. Gardner,
+and Simmons College. Here, too, is the new building (1908) of the Museum
+of Fine Arts. Throughout the Fens excellently effective use is being
+made of monumental buildings grouped in ample grounds.
+
+Boston compares favourably with other American cities in the character
+of its public and private architecture. The height of buildings in the
+business section is limited to 125 ft., and in some places to 90 ft.
+
+One of the great public works of Boston is its subway for electric
+trams, about 3 m. long, in part with four tracks and in part with two,
+constructed since 1895 at a cost of about $7,500,000 up to 1905. The
+branch to East Boston (1900-1904) passes beneath the harbour bed and
+extends from Scollay Square, Boston, to Maverick Square, East Boston; it
+was the first all-cement tunnel (diameter, 23.6 ft.) in the world. The
+subway was built by the city, but leased and operated by a private
+company on such terms as to repay its cost in forty years. Another
+tunnel has been added to the system, under Washington Street. The narrow
+streets and the traffic congestion of the business district presented
+difficult problems of urban transit, but the system is of exceptional
+efficiency. There is an elevated road whose trains, like the surface
+cars, are accommodated in the centre of the city by the subway. All the
+various roads--surface, elevated (about 7 m., built 1896-1901), and
+subway--are controlled, almost wholly, by one company. They all connect
+and interchange passengers freely; so that the ordinary American
+five-cent fare enables a passenger to travel between almost any two
+points over an area of 100 sq. m. The two huge steam-railway stations of
+the Boston & Maine and the Boston & Albany systems also deserve mention.
+The former (the North, or Union station, 1893) covers 9 acres and has 23
+tracks; the latter (the South Terminal, 1898), one of the largest
+stations in the world, covers 13 acres and has 32 tracks, and is used by
+the Boston & Albany and by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways.
+
+A noteworthy feature of the metropolitan public water service was begun
+in 1896 in the Wachusett lake reservoir at Clinton, on the Nashua river.
+The basin here excavated by ten years of labour, lying 385 ft. above
+high-tide level of Boston harbour, has an area of 6.5 sq. m., an average
+depth of 46 ft., and a capacity of 63,068,000,000 gallons of water. It
+is the largest municipal reservoir in the world[3], yet it is only part
+of a system planned for the service of the metropolitan area.
+
+The park system is quite unique among American cities. The Common, a
+park of 48 acres, in the centre of the city, has been a public
+reservation since 1634, and no city park in the world is cherished more
+affectionately for historical associations. Adjoining it is the Public
+Garden of 24 acres (1859), part of the made area of the city.
+Commonwealth Avenue, one of the Back Bay streets running from the foot
+of the Public Garden, is one of the finest residence streets of the
+country. It is 240 ft. wide, with four rows of trees shading the parking
+of its central mall, and is a link through the Back Bay Fens with the
+beautiful outer park system. The park system consists of two concentric
+rings, the inner being the city system proper, the outer the
+metropolitan system undertaken by the commonwealth in co-operation with
+the city. The former has been laid out since 1875, and includes upwards
+of 2300 acres, with more than 100 m. of walks, drives and rides. Its
+central ornament is Franklin Park (527 acres). The metropolitan system,
+which extends around the city on a radius of 10 to 12 m., was begun in
+1893. It embraces over 10,000 acres, including the Blue Hill reservation
+(about 5000 acres), the highest land in eastern Massachusetts, a
+beautiful reservation of forest, crag and pond known as Middlesex Fells,
+two large beach bath reservations on the harbour at Revere and Hull
+(Nantasket), and the boating section of the Charles river. At the end of
+1907 more than $13,000,000 had been expended on the system. Including
+the local parks of the cities and towns of the metropolitan district
+there are over 17,000 acres of pleasure grounds within the metropolitan
+park district. Boston was the pioneer municipality of the country in the
+establishment of open-air gymnasiums. A great improvement, planned for
+many years, was brought nearer by the completion of the new Cambridge
+Bridge. This improvement was projected to include the damming of the
+Charles river, and the creation of a great freshwater basin, with
+drive-ways of reclaimed land along the shores, and other adornments,
+somewhat after the model of the Alster basins at Hamburg.
+
+_Art and Literature._--The Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870
+(though there were art exhibits collected from 1826 onward) and its
+present building was erected in 1908. It has one of the finest
+collections of casts in existence, a number of original pieces of Greek
+statuary, the second-best collection in the world of Aretine ware, the
+finest collection of Japanese pottery, and probably the largest and
+finest of Japanese paintings in existence. Among the memorials to men of
+Massachusetts (a large part of them Bostonians) commemorated by
+monuments in the Common, the Public Garden, the grounds of the state
+house, the city hall, and other public places of the city, are statues
+of Charles Sumner, Josiah Quincy and John A. Andrew by Thomas Ball; of
+Generals Joseph Hooker and William F. Bartlett, and of Rufus Choate by
+Daniel C. French; of W.L. Garrison and Charles Devens by Olin L. Warner;
+of Samuel Adams by Anne Whitney; of John Winthrop and Benjamin Franklin
+by R.S. Greenough; of Edward Everett (W.W. Story), Colonel W. Prescott
+(Story), Horace Mann (E. Stebbins), Daniel Webster (H. Powers), W.E.
+Channing (H. Adams), N.P. Banks (H.H. Kitson), Phillips Brooks (A. St
+Gaudens), and J.B. O'Reilly (D.C. French).
+
+Among other important monuments are a group by J.Q.A. Ward
+commemorating the first proof of the anaesthetic properties of ether,
+made in 1846 in the Massachusetts General Hospital by Dr W.T.G.
+Morton; an emancipation group of Thomas Ball with a portrait statue of
+Lincoln; a fine equestrian statue, by the same sculptor, of Washington,
+one of the best works in the country (1869); an army and navy monument
+in the Common by Martin Millmore, in memory of the Civil War; another
+(1888) recording the death of those who fell in the Boston Massacre of
+1770; statues of Admiral D.G. Farragut (H.H. Kitson), Leif Ericson
+(Anne Whitney), and Alexander Hamilton (W. Rimmer); and a magnificent
+bronze bas-relief (1897) by Augustus St Gaudens commemorating the
+departure from Boston of Colonel Robert G. Shaw with the first regiment
+of negro soldiers enlisted in the Civil War. There is an art department
+of the city government, under unpaid commissioners, appointed by the
+mayor from candidates named by local art and literary institutions; and
+without their approval no work of art can now become the property of the
+city.
+
+The public library, containing 922,348 volumes in January 1908, is the
+second library of the country in size, and is the largest free
+circulating library in the world (circulation 1907, 1,529,111 volumes).
+There was a public municipal library in Boston before 1674--probably in
+1653; but it was burned in 1747 and was apparently never replaced. The
+present library (antedated by several circulating, social and
+professional collections) may justly be said to have had its origin in
+the efforts of the Parisian, Alexandre Vattemare (1796-1864), from 1830
+on, to foster international exchanges. From 1847 to 1851 he arranged
+gifts from France to American libraries aggregating 30,655 volumes, and
+a gift of 50 volumes by the city of Paris in 1843 (reciprocated in 1849
+with more than 1000 volumes contributed by private citizens) was the
+nucleus of the Boston public library. Its legal foundation dates from
+1848. Among the special collections are the George Ticknor library of
+Spanish and Portuguese books (6393 vols.), very full sets of United
+States and British public documents, the Bowditch mathematical library
+(7090 vols.), the Galatea collection on the history of women (2193
+vols.), the Barton library, including one of the finest existing
+collections of Shakespeariana (3309 vols., beside many in the general
+library), the A.A. Brown library of music (9886 vols.), a very full
+collection on the anthropology and ethnology of Europe, and more than
+100,000 volumes on the history, biography, geography and literature of
+the United States. The library is supported almost entirely by municipal
+appropriations, though holding also considerable trust funds ($388,742
+in 1905). The other notable book-collections of the city include those
+of the Athenaeum, founded in 1807 (about 230,000 vols. and pamphlets),
+the Massachusetts Historical Society (founded 1791; 50,300), the Boston
+medical library (founded 1874; about 80,000), the New England
+Historic-Genealogical Society (founded 1845; 33,750 volumes and 34,150
+pamphlets), the state library (founded 1826; 140,000), the American
+Academy of Arts and Sciences (founded 1780; 30,000), the Boston Society
+of Natural History (founded 1830; about 35,000 volumes and 27,000
+pamphlets).
+
+The leading educational institutions are the Massachusetts Institute of
+Technology, the largest purely scientific and technical school in the
+country, opened to students (including women) in 1865, four years after
+the granting of a charter to Prof. W.B. Rogers, the first president;
+Boston University (chartered in 1869; Methodist Episcopal;
+co-educational); the New England Conservatory of Music (co-educational;
+private; 1867, incorporated 1880), the largest in the United States,
+having 2400 students in 1905-1906; the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy
+(1852); the Massachusetts Normal Art School (1873); the School of
+Drawing and Painting (1876) of the Museum of Fine Arts; Boston College
+(1860), Roman Catholic, under the Society of Jesus; St John's
+Theological Seminary (1880), Roman Catholic; Simmons College (1899) for
+women, and several departments of Harvard University. The Institute of
+Technology has an exceptional reputation for the wide range of its
+instruction and its high standards of scholarship. It was a pioneer in
+introducing as a feature of its original plans laboratory instruction in
+physics, mechanics and mining. The architects of the United States navy
+are sent here for instruction in their most advanced courses. Boston
+University was endowed by Isaac Rich (1801-1872), a Boston
+fish-merchant, Lee Claflin (1791-1871), a shoe manufacturer and a
+benefactor of Wesleyan University and of Wilbraham Seminary, and Jacob
+Sleeper. It has been co-educational from the beginning. Its faculties of
+theology--founded in 1841 at Newbury, Vt., as the Biblical Institute; in
+1847-1867 in Concord, N.H.; and in 1867-1871 the Boston Theological
+Seminary--law, music, medicine, liberal arts and agriculture (at
+Amherst, in association with the Massachusetts Agricultural College),
+all antedate 1876. The funds for Simmons College were left by John
+Simmons in 1870, who wished to found a school to teach the professions
+and "branches of art, science and industry best calculated to enable the
+scholars to acquire an independent livelihood." The Lowell Institute
+(q.v.), established in 1839 (by John Lowell, Jr., who bequeathed
+$237,000 for the purpose), provides yearly courses of free public
+lectures, and its lecturers have included many of the leading scholars
+of America and Europe. During each winter, also, a series of public
+lectures on American history is delivered in the Old South meeting
+house. The public schools, particularly the secondary schools, enjoy a
+very high reputation. The new English High and Latin school, founded in
+1635, is the oldest school of the country. A girls' Latin school, with
+the same standards as the boys' school, was established in 1878 (an
+outcome of the same movement that founded Radcliffe College). There are
+large numbers of private schools, in art, music and academic studies.
+
+In theatrical matters Boston is now one of the chief American centres.
+The Federal Street theatre--the first regular theatre--was established
+in 1794, the old Puritan feeling having had its natural influence in
+keeping Boston behind New York and Philadelphia in this respect. The
+dramatic history of the city is largely associated with the Boston
+Museum, built in 1841 by Moses Kimball on Tremont Street, and rebuilt in
+1846 and 1880; here for half a century the principal theatrical
+performances were given (see an interesting article in the _New England
+Magazine_, June 1903), in later years under the management of R.
+Montgomery Field, until in 1903 the famous Boston Museum was swept away,
+as other interesting old places of entertainment (the old Federal Street
+theatre, the Tremont theatre, &c.) had been, in the course of further
+building changes. The Boston theatre dates from 1854, and there were
+seventeen theatres altogether in 1900.
+
+As a musical centre Boston rivals New York. Among musical organizations
+may be mentioned the Handel and Haydn Society (1815), the Harvard
+Musical Association (1837), the Philharmonic (1880) and the Symphony
+Orchestra, organized in 1881 by the generosity of Henry Lee Higginson.
+This orchestra has done much for music not only in Boston but in the
+United States generally. In 1908 the Boston Opera Company was
+incorporated, and an opera house has been erected on the north side of
+Huntington Avenue.
+
+Boston was the undisputed literary centre of America until the later
+decades of the 19th century, and still retains a considerable and
+important colony of writers and artists. Its ascendancy was identical
+with the long predominance of the New England literary school, who lived
+in Boston or in the country round about. Two Boston periodicals (one no
+longer so) that still hold an exceptional position in periodical
+literature, the _North American Review_ (1815) and the _Atlantic
+Monthly_ (1857), date from this period. The great majority of names in
+the long list of worthies of the commonwealth--writers, statesmen,
+orators, artists, philanthropists, reformers and scholars, are
+intimately connected with Boston. Among the city's daily newspapers the
+_Boston Herald_ (1846), the _Boston Globe_, the _Evening Transcript_
+(1830), the _Advertiser_ (1813) and the _Post_ (1831) are the most
+important.
+
+_Industry and Commerce._--Boston is fringed with wharves. Commercial
+interests are largely concentrated in East Boston. Railway connexion
+with Worcester, Lowell and Providence was opened in 1835; with Albany,
+N.Y., and thereby with various lines of interior communication, in 1841
+(double track, 1868); with Fitchburg, in 1845; and in 1851 connexion was
+completed with the Great Lakes and Canada. In 1840 Boston was selected
+as the American terminus of the Cunard Line, the first regular line of
+trans-Atlantic steamers. The following decade was the most active of the
+city's history as regards the ocean carrying trade. Boston ships went to
+all parts of the globe. The Cunard arrangement was the first of various
+measures that worked for a commercial rapprochement between the New
+England states and Canada, culminating in the reciprocity treaty of
+1854, and Boston's interests are foremost to-day in demanding a return
+to relations of reciprocity. Beginning about 1855 the commerce of the
+port greatly declined. The Cunard service has not been continuous. In
+1869 there was not one vessel steaming directly for Europe; in 1900
+there were 973 for foreign ports. Great improvements of the harbour were
+undertaken in 1902 by the United States government, looking to the
+creation of two broad channels 35 ft. deep. Railway rates have also been
+a matter of vital importance in recent years; Boston, like New York,
+complaining of discriminations in favour of Philadelphia, Baltimore, New
+Orleans and Galveston. Boston also feels the competition of Montreal and
+Portland; the Canadian roads being untrammelled in the matter of freight
+differentials. Boston is the second import port of the United States,
+but its exports in 1907 were less than those of Philadelphia, of
+Galveston, or of New Orleans. The total tonnage in foreign trade
+entering and leaving in 1907 was 5,148,429 tons; and in the same year
+9616 coasting vessels (tonnage, 10,261,474) arrived in Boston. The value
+of imports and exports for 1907 were respectively $123,414,168 and
+$104,610,908. Fibres and vegetable grasses, wool, hides and skins,
+cotton, sugar, iron and steel and their manufactures, chemicals, coal,
+and leather and its manufactures are the leading imports; provisions,
+leather and its manufactures, cotton and its manufactures, breadstuffs,
+iron and steel and their manufactures are the leading exports. In the
+exportation of cattle, and of the various meat and dairy products
+classed as provisions, Boston is easily second to New York. It is the
+largest wool and the largest fish market of the United States, being in
+each second in the world to London only.
+
+Manufacturing is to-day the most distinctive industry, as was commerce
+in colonial times. The value of all manufactured products from
+establishments under the "factory system" in 1900 was $162,764,523; in
+1905 it was $184,351,163. Among the leading and more distinctive items
+were printing and publishing ($21,023,855 in 1905); sugar and molasses
+refining ($15,746,547 in 1900; figures not published in 1905 because of
+the industry being in the hands of a single owner); men's clothing (in
+1900, $8,609,475, in 1905, $11,246,004); women's clothing (in 1900,
+$3,258,483, in 1905, $5,705,470); boots and shoes (in 1900, $3,882,655,
+in 1905, $5,575,927); boot and shoe cut stock (in 1905, $5,211,445);
+malt liquors (in 1900, $7,518,668, in 1905, $6,715,215); confectionery
+(in 1900, $4,455,184, in 1905, $6,210,023); tobacco products (in 1900,
+$3,504,603, in 1905, $4,592,698); pianos and organs ($3,670,771 in
+1905); other musical instruments and materials (in 1905, $231,780);
+rubber and elastic goods (in 1900, $3,139,783, in 1905, $2,887,323);
+steam fittings and heating apparatus (in 1900, $2,876,327, in 1905,
+$3,354,020); bottling, furniture, &c. Art tiles and pottery are
+manufactured in Chelsea. Shipbuilding and allied industries early became
+of great importance. The Waltham watch and the Singer sewing-machine had
+their beginning in Boston in 1850. The making of the Chickering pianos
+goes back to 1823, and of Mason & Hamlin reed organs to 1854; these are
+to-day very important and distinctive manufactures of the city. The
+ready-made clothing industry began about 1830.
+
+_Government._--Beyond a recognition of its existence in 1630, when it
+was renamed, Boston can show no legal incorporation before 1822;
+although the uncertain boundaries between the powers of colony and
+township prompted repeated petitions to the legislature for
+incorporation, beginning as early as 1650. In 1822 Boston became a city.
+Thus for nearly two centuries it preserved intact its old "town"
+government, disposing of all its affairs in the "town-meeting" of its
+citizens. Excellent political training such a government unquestionably
+offered; but it became unworkable as disparities of social condition
+increased, as the number of legal voters (above 7000 in 1822) became
+greater, and as the population ceased to be homogeneous in blood. All
+the citizens did not assemble; on the contrary ordinary business seldom
+drew out more than a hundred voters, and often a mere handful. From very
+early days executive officers known as "select-men," constables, clerks
+of markets, hog reeves, packers of meat and fish, &c., were chosen; and
+the select-men, particularly, gained power as the attendance of the
+freemen on meetings grew onerous. Interested cliques could control the
+business of the town-meeting in ordinary times, and boisterousness
+marred its democractic excellence in exciting times. Large sums were
+voted loosely, and expended by executive boards without any budgetary
+control. The whole system was full of looseness, complexity and
+makeshifts. But the tenacity with which it was clung to, proved that it
+was suited to the community; and whether helpful or harmful to, it was
+not inconsistent with, the continuance of growth and prosperity. Various
+other Massachusetts townships, as they have grown older, have been
+similarly compelled to abandon their old form of government. The powers
+of the old township were much more extensive than those of the present
+city of Boston, including as they did the determination of the residence
+of strangers, the allotment of land, the grant of citizenship, the
+fixing of wages and prices, of the conditions of lawsuits and even a
+voice in matters of peace and war. The city charter was revised in 1854,
+and again reconstructed in important particulars by laws of 1885
+separating the executive and legislative powers, and by subsequent acts.
+A complete alteration of the government has indeed been effected since
+1885. Boston proper is only the centre of a large metropolitan area,
+closely settled, with interests in large part common. This metropolitan
+area, within a radius of approximately 10 m. about the state house,
+contained in 1900 about 40% of the population of the state. In the last
+two decades of the 19th century the question of giving to this greater
+city some general government, fully consolidated or of limited powers,
+was a standing question of expediency. The commonwealth has four times
+recognized a community of metropolitan interests in creating state
+commissions since 1882 for the union of such interests, beginning with a
+metropolitan health district in that year. The metropolitan water
+district (1895) included in 1908 Boston and seventeen cities or
+townships in its environs; the metropolitan sewerage district (1889)
+twenty four; the park service (1893) thirty-nine. Local sentiment was
+firmly against complete consolidation. The creation of the state
+commissions, independent of the city's control, but able to commit the
+city indefinitely by undertaking expensive works and new debt, was
+resented. Independence is further curtailed by other state boards
+semi-independent of the city--the police commission of three members
+from 1885 to 1906, and in 1906 a single police commissioner, appointed
+by the governor, a licensing board of three members, appointed by the
+governor; the transit commission, &c. There are, further, county offices
+(Suffolk county comprises only Boston, Chelsea, Revere and Winthrop),
+generally independent of the city, though the latter pays practically
+all the bills.
+
+A new charter went into effect in 1910. It provided for municipal
+elections in January; for the election of a mayor for four years; for
+his recall at the end of two years if a majority of the registered
+voters so vote in the state election in November in the second year of
+his term; for the summary removal for cause by the mayor of any
+department head or other of his appointees, for a city council of one
+chamber of nine members, elected at large each for three years; for
+nomination by petition; for a permanent finance commission appointed by
+the governor; for the confirmation of the mayor's appointments by the
+state civil service commission; for the mayor's preparation of the
+annual budget (in which items may be reduced but not increased by the
+council), and for his absolute veto of appropriations except for school
+use. The school committee (who serve gratuitously) appoint the
+superintendent and supervisors of schools. The number of members of the
+school-board was in 1905 reduced from twenty-four to five, elected by
+the city at large, and serving for one, two or three years; at the same
+time power was centralized in the hands of the superintendent of
+schools. Civil service reform principles cover the entire municipal
+administration. The city's work is done under an eight-hour law.
+
+An analysis of city election returns for the decade 1890-1899 showed
+that the interest of the citizens was greatest in the choice of a
+president; then, successively, in the choice of a mayor, a governor, the
+determination of liquor-license questions by referendum, and the
+settlement of other referenda. On 21 referenda, 10 being questions of
+license, the ratio of actual to registered voters ranged on the latter
+from 57.00 to 75.38% (mean 61.15), and on other referenda from 75.63 to
+33.40 (mean 61.39),--the mean for all, 64.18. But the average of two
+presidential votes was 85.37%; and the maxima, minima and means for
+mayors and governors were respectively 83.86, 74.99, 78.36 and 84.73,
+61.78, 75.72. Of those who might, only some 50 to 65% actually register.
+Women vote for school committee-men (categories as above, 95.18, 59.62,
+76.49%). On a referendum in 1895 on the expediency of granting municipal
+suffrage to women only 59.08% of the women who were registered voted,
+and probably less than 10% of those entitled to be registered.
+
+Hospitals, asylums, refuges and homes, pauper, reformatory and penal
+institutions, flower missions, relief associations, and other charitable
+or philanthropic organizations, private and public, number several
+hundreds. The Associated Charities is an incorporated organization for
+systematizing the various charities of the city. The Massachusetts
+general hospital (1811-1821)--with a branch for mental and nervous
+diseases, McLean hospital (1816), in the township of Belmont
+(post-office, Waverley) about 6 m. W.N.W. of Boston; the Perkins
+Institution and Massachusetts school for the blind (1832), famous for
+its conduct by Samuel G. Howe, and for association with Laura Bridgman
+and Helen Keller; the Massachusetts school for idiotic and feebleminded
+children (1839); and the Massachusetts charitable eye and ear infirmary
+(1824), all receive financial aid from the commonwealth, which has
+representation in their management. The city hospital dates from 1864. A
+floating hospital for women and children in the summer months, with
+permanent and transient wards, has been maintained since 1894
+(incorporated 1901). Boston was one of the first municipalities of the
+country to make provision for the separate treatment of juvenile
+offenders; in 1906 a juvenile court was established. A People's Palace
+dedicated to the work of the Salvation Army, and containing baths,
+gymnasium, a public hall, a library, sleeping-rooms, an employment
+bureau, free medical and legal bureaus, &c., was opened in 1906. Simmons
+College and Harvard University maintain the Boston school for social
+workers (1904). Beneficent social work out of the more usual type is
+directed by the music and bath departments of the city government. In
+the provision of public gymnasiums and baths (1866) Boston was the
+pioneer city of the country, and remains the most advanced. The beach
+reservations of the metropolitan park system at Revere and Nantasket,
+and several smaller city beaches are a special feature of this service.
+Benjamin Franklin, who was born and spent his boyhood in Boston, left
+L1000 to the city in his will; it amounted in 1905 to $403,000, and
+constituted a fund to be used for the good of the labouring class of the
+city.
+
+  Largely owing to activity in public works Boston has long been the
+  most expensively governed of American cities. The average yearly
+  expenditure for ten years preceding 1904 was $27,354,416, exclusive of
+  payments on funded and floating debts. The running expenses
+  _per-capita_ in 1900 were $35.23; more than twice the average of 86
+  leading cities of the country (New York, $23.92; Chicago, $11.62).
+  Schools, police, charities, water, streets and parks are the items of
+  heaviest cost. The cost of the public schools for the five years from
+  1901-1902 to 1906-1907 was $27,883,937, of which $7,057,895.42 was for
+  new buildings; the cost of the police department was $11,387,314.66
+  for the six years 1902-1907; and of the water department $4,941,343.37
+  for the six years 1902-1907; of charities and social work a much
+  larger sum. The remaking of the city was enormously expensive,
+  especially the alteration of the streets after 1866, when the city
+  received power to make such alterations and assess a part of the
+  improvements upon abutting estates. The creation of the city
+  water-system has also been excessively costly, and the total cost up
+  to the 31st of January 1908 of the works remaining to the city after
+  the creation of the metropolitan board in 1898 was about $17,000,000.
+  The metropolitan water board--of whose expenditures Boston bears only
+  a share--expended from 1895 to 1900 $20,693,870; and the system was
+  planned to consume finally probably 40 millions at least. The city
+  park system proper had cost $16,627,033 up to 1899 inclusive; and the
+  metropolitan parks $13,679,456 up to 1907 inclusive. There are no
+  municipal lighting-plants; but the companies upon which the city
+  depends for its service are (with all others) subject to the control
+  of a state commission. In 1885 a state law placed a limit on the
+  contractable debt and upon the taxation rate of the city. Revenues
+  were not realized adequate to its lavish undertakings, and loans were
+  used to meet current expenses. The limits were altered subsequently,
+  but the net debt has continued to rise. In 1822 it was $100,000; in
+  1850, $6,195,144; in 1886, $24,712,820; in 1904, $58,216,725; in 1907,
+  $70,781,969 (gross debt, $104,206,706)--this included the debt of
+  Suffolk county which in 1907 was $3,517,000. The chief objects for
+  which the city debt was created were in 1907, in millions of dollars:
+  highways, 24.07, parks, 16.29, drainage and sewers, 15.05, rapid
+  transit, 13.57 and water-works, 4.53. Boston paid in 1907 36% of all
+  state taxes, and about 33, 62, 47 and 79% respectively of the
+  assessments for the metropolitan sewer, parks, boulevards and water
+  services. About a third of its revenue goes for such uses or for
+  Suffolk county expenditures over which it has but limited control. The
+  improvement of the Back Bay and of the South Boston flats was in
+  considerable measure forced upon the city by the commonwealth. The
+  debt per capita is as high as the cost of current administration
+  relatively to other cities. The average interest rate on the city
+  obligations in 1907 was about 3.7%. The city's tax valuation in 1907
+  was $1,313,471,556 (in 1822, $42,140,200; in 1850, $180,000,500), of
+  which only $242,606,856 represented personalty; although in the
+  judgment of the city board of trade such property cannot by any
+  possibility be inferior in value to realty.
+
+_Population._--Up to the War of Independence the population was not only
+American, but it was in its ideas and standards essentially Puritan;
+modern liberalism, however, has introduced new standards of social life.
+In 1900 35.1% of the inhabitants were foreign-born, and 72.2% wholly or
+in part of foreign parentage. Irish, English-Canadian, Russian, Italian,
+English and German are the leading races. Of the foreign-born population
+these elements constituted respectively 35.6, 24.0, 7.6, 7.0, 6.7 and
+5.3%. Large foreign colonies, like adjoining but unmixing nations,
+divide among themselves a large part of the city, and give to its life a
+cosmopolitan colour of varied speech, opinion, habits, traditions,
+social relations and religions. Most remarkable of all, the Roman
+Catholic churches, in this stronghold of exiled Puritanism where
+Catholics were so long under the heavy ban of law, outnumber those of
+any single Protestant denomination; Irish Catholics dominate the
+politics of the city, and Protestants and Catholics have been aligned
+against each other on the question of the control of the public schools.
+Despite, however, its heavy foreign admixture the old Americanism of the
+city remains strikingly predominant. The population of Boston at the end
+of each decennial period since 1790 was as follows:--(1790), 18,320;
+(1800), 24,937; (1810), 33,787; (1820), 43,298; (1830), 61,392; (1840),
+93,383; (1850), 136,881; (1860), 177,840; (1870), 250,526; (1880),
+362,839; (1890), 448,477; (1900), 560,892.
+
+_History._--John Smith visited Boston Harbour in 1614, and it was
+explored in 1621 by a party from Plymouth. There were various attempts
+to settle about its borders in the following years before John Endecott
+in 1628 landed at Salem as governor of the colony of Massachusetts bay,
+within which Boston was included. In June 1630 John Winthrop's company
+reached Charlestown. At that time a "bookish recluse," William Blaxton
+(Blackstone), one of the several "old planters" scattered about the bay,
+had for several years been living on Boston peninsula. The location
+seemed one suitable for commerce and defence, and the Winthrop party
+chose it for their settlement. The triple summit of Beacon Hill, of
+which no trace remains to-day (or possibly a reference to the three
+hills of the then peninsula, Beacon, Copp's and Fort) led to the
+adoption of the name Trimountaine for the peninsula,--a name perpetuated
+variously in present municipal nomenclature as in Tremont; but on the
+17th of September 1630, the date adopted for anniversary celebrations,
+it was ordered that "Trimountaine shall be called Boston," after the
+borough of that name in Lincolnshire, England, of which several of the
+leading settlers had formerly been prominent citizens.[4]
+
+For several years it was uncertain whether Cambridge, Charlestown or
+Boston should be the capital of the colony, but in 1632 the General
+Court agreed "by general consent, that Boston is the fittest place for
+public meetings of any place in the Bay." It rapidly became the
+wealthiest and most populous. Throughout the 17th century its history is
+so largely that of Massachusetts generally that they are inseparable.
+Theological systems were largely concerned. The chief features of this
+epoch --the Antinomian dissensions, the Quaker and Baptist persecutions,
+the witchcraft delusion (four witches were executed in Boston, in 1648,
+1651, 1656, 1688) &c.--are referred to in the article MASSACHUSETTS
+(q.v.). In 1692 the first permanent and successful printing press was
+established; in 1704 the first newspaper in America, the _Boston
+News-Letter_, which was published weekly until 1776. Puritanism steadily
+mellowed under many influences. By the turn of the first century bigotry
+was distinctly weakened. Among the marks of the second half of the 17th
+century was growing material prosperity, and there were those who
+thought their fellows unduly willing to relax church tests of fellowship
+when good trade was in question. There was an unpleasant Englishman who
+declared in 1699 that he found "Money Their God, and Large Possessions
+the only Heaven they Covet." Prices were low, foreign commerce was
+already large, business thriving; wealth gave social status; the
+official British class lent a lustre to society; and Boston "town" was
+drawing society from the "country." Of the two-score or so of families
+most prominent in the first century hardly one retained place in the
+similar list for the early years of the second. Boston was a prosperous,
+thrifty, English country town, one traveller thought. Another, Daniel
+Neal, in 1720, found Boston conversation "as polite as in most of the
+cities and towns in England, many of their merchants having the
+advantage of a free conversation with travellers; so that a gentleman
+from London would almost think himself at home at Boston, when he
+observes the number of people, their houses, their furniture, their
+tables, their dress and conversation, which perhaps is as splendid and
+showy as that of the most considerable tradesmen in London."
+
+The population, which was almost stationary through much of the century,
+was about 20,000 in the years immediately before the War of
+Independence. At this time Boston was the most flourishing town of North
+America. It built ships as cheaply as any place in the world, it carried
+goods for other colonies, it traded--often evading British laws--with
+Europe, Guinea, Madagascar and above all with the West Indies. The
+merchant princes and social leaders of the time are painted with
+elaborate show of luxury in the canvases of Copley. The great English
+writers of Queen Anne's reign seem to have been but little known in the
+colony, and the local literature, though changed somewhat in character,
+showed but scant improvement. About the middle of the century
+restrictions upon the press began to disappear. At the same time
+questions of trade, of local politics, finally of colonial autonomy, of
+imperial policy, had gradually, but already long since, replaced
+theology in leading interest. In the years 1760-1776 Boston was the most
+frequently recurring and most important name in British colonial
+history. Sentiments of limited independence of the British government
+had been developing since the very beginning of the settlement (see
+MASSACHUSETTS), and their strength in 1689 had been strikingly exhibited
+in the local revolution of that year, when the royal governor, Sir
+Edmund Andros, and other high officials, were frightened into surrender
+and were imprisoned. This movement, it should be noted, was a popular
+rising, and not the work of a few leaders.
+
+The incidents that marked the approach of the War of Independence need
+barely be adverted to. Opposition to the measures of the British
+government for taxing and oppressing the colonies began in Boston. The
+argument of Otis on the writs of assistance was in 1760-1761. The Stamp
+Act, passed in 1765, was repealed in 1766; it was opposed in Boston by a
+surprising show of determined and unified public sentiment. Troops were
+first quartered in the town in 1768. In 1770, on the 5th of March, in a
+street brawl, a number of citizens were killed or wounded by the
+soldiers, who fired into a crowd that were baiting a sentry. This
+incident is known as the "Boston Massacre." The Tea Act of 1773 was
+defied by the emptying into the harbour of three cargoes of tea on the
+16th of December 1773, by a party of citizens disguised as Indians,
+after the people in town-meeting had exhausted every effort, through a
+period of weeks, to procure the return of the tea-ships to England. To
+this act Great Britain replied by various penal regulations and
+reconstructive acts of government. She quartered troops in Boston; she
+made the juries, sheriffs and judges of the colony dependent on the
+royal officers; she ordered capital offenders to be tried in Nova Scotia
+or England; she endeavoured completely to control or to abolish
+town-meetings; and finally, by the so-called "Boston Port Bill," she
+closed the port of Boston on the 1st of June 1774. Not even a ferry, a
+scow or other boat could move in the harbour. Marblehead and Salem were
+made ports of entry, and Salem was made the capital. But they would not
+profit by Boston's misfortune. The people covenanted not to use British
+goods and to suspend trade with Great Britain. From near neighbours and
+from distant colonies came provisions and encouragement. In October
+1774, when General Gage refused recognition to the Massachusetts general
+court at Salem, the members adjourned to Concord as the first provincial
+congress. Finally came war, with Lexington and Bunker Hill, and
+beleaguerment by the colonial army; until on the 17th of March 1776 the
+British were compelled by Washington to evacuate the city. With them
+went about 1100 Tory refugees, many of them of the finest families of
+the city and province. The evacuation closed the heroic period of
+Boston's history. War did not again approach the city.
+
+The years from 1776 to the end of "town" government in 1822 were marked
+by slow growth and prosperity. Commerce and manufactures alike took
+great impetus. Direct trade with the East Indies began about 1785, with
+Russia in 1787. A Boston vessel, the "Columbia" (Captain Robert Gray),
+opened trade with the north-west coast of America, and was the first
+American ship to circumnavigate the globe (1787-1790). In 1805 Boston
+began the export of ice to Jamaica, a trade which was gradually extended
+to Cuba, to ports of the southern states, and finally to Rio de Janeiro
+and Calcutta (1833), declining only after the Civil War; it enabled
+Boston to control the American trade of Calcutta against New York
+throughout the entire period. But of course it was far less important
+than various other articles of trade in the aggregate values of
+commerce. It was Boston commerce that was most sorely hurt by the
+embargo and non-importation policy of President Jefferson. In
+manufactures the foundation was laid of the city's wealth. In politics
+the period is characterized by Boston's connexion with the fortunes of
+the Federalist party. The city was warmly in favour of the adoption of
+the federal constitution of 1787; even Samuel Adams was rejected for
+Congress because he was backward in its support. It was the losses
+entailed upon her commerce by the commercial policy of Jefferson's
+administration that embittered Boston against the Democratic-Republican
+party and put her public men in the forefront of the opposition to its
+policies that culminated in lukewarmness toward the War of 1812, and in
+the Hartford Convention of 1814.
+
+Some mention must be made of the Unitarian movement. Unitarian
+tendencies away from the Calvinism of the old Congregational churches
+were plainly evident about 1750, and it is said by Andrew P. Peabody
+(1811-1893) that by 1780 nearly all the Congregational pulpits around
+Boston were filled by Unitarians. Organized Unitarianism in Boston dates
+from 1785. In 1782 King's chapel (Episcopal) became Unitarian, and in
+1805 one of that faith was made professor of divinity in Harvard. But
+the Unitarianism of those times, even the Unitarianism of Channing, was
+very different from that of to-day. Theodore Parker and Channing have
+been the greatest leaders. The American Unitarian Association, organized
+in 1825, has always retained its headquarters in Boston. The theological
+and philosophical developments of the second quarter of the 19th century
+were characterized by the transcendental movement (see MASSACHUSETTS).
+
+In the period from 1822 to the Civil War anti-slavery is the most
+striking feature of Boston's annals. Garrison established the Liberator
+in 1831; W.E. Channing became active in the cause of abolition in 1835,
+and Wendell Phillips a little later. In 1835 a mob, composed in part of
+wealthy and high-standing citizens, attacked a city-building, and
+dragged Garrison through the streets until the mayor secured his safety
+by putting him in gaol. But times changed. In 1850 a reception was given
+in Faneuil Hall in honour of the English anti-slavery leader, George
+Thompson, whose reported intention to address Bostonians in 1835
+precipitated the riot of that year. In 1851 the Court House was
+surrounded with chains to prevent the "rescue" of a slave (Sims) held
+for rendition under the Fugitive Slave Law; another slave (Shadrach) was
+released this same year, and in 1854 there was a riot and intense
+excitement over the rendition of Anthony Burns. Boston had long since
+taken her place in the very front of anti-slavery ranks, and with the
+rest of Massachusetts was playing somewhat the same part as in the years
+before the War of Independence.
+
+Later events of importance have already been indicated in essentials. On
+the 9th-10th of November 1872 a terrible fire swept the business part of
+the city, destroying hundreds of buildings of brick and granite, and
+inflicting a loss of some $75,000,000. Within two years the whole area,
+solidly rebuilt and with widened and straightened streets, showed no
+traces of the ruin except an appearance superior in all respects to that
+presented before the fire. The expense of this re-creation probably
+duplicated, at least, the loss from the conflagration. Since this time
+there has been no set-back to the prosperity of the city. But it is not
+upon material prosperity that Boston rests its claims for consideration.
+It prides itself on its schools, its libraries, its literary traditions,
+its splendid public works and its reputation as the chief centre of
+American culture.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See the annual _City Documents_; also Justin Winsor
+  (ed.) _The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk County ...
+  1630-1880_ (4 vols., Boston, 1880-1881), a work that covers every
+  phase of the city's growth, history and life; S.A. Drake, _The History
+  and Antiquities of ... Boston_ (2 vols., Boston, 1854; and later
+  editions), and _Old Landmarks and Historic Personages of Boston_
+  (Boston, 1873, and later editions); Josiah Quincy, _A Municipal
+  History of ... Boston ... to ... 1830_ (Boston, 1852); C.W. Ernst,
+  _Constitutional History of Boston_ (Boston, 1894); H.H. Sprague, _City
+  Government in Boston--its Rise and Development_ (Boston, 1890); E.E.
+  Hale, _Historic Boston and its Neighbourhood_ (New York, 1898), and L.
+  Swift, _Literary Landmarks of Boston_ (Boston, 1903). A great mass of
+  original historical documents have been published by the registry
+  department of the city government since 1876 (34 v. to 1905). Boston
+  has been described in many works of fiction, and the reader may be
+  referred to the novels of E.L. Bynner, to L. Maria Childs' _The
+  Rebels_, to J.F. Cooper's _Lionel Lincoln_, to the early novels of
+  W.D. Howells (also those of Arlo Bates), to O.W. Holmes' _Poet_ and
+  _Autocrat_, and Hawthorne's _Scarlet Letter_, as pictures of Boston
+  life at various periods since early colonial days.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] On the alteration of streets alone $26,691,496 were expended from
+    1822 to 1880.
+
+  [2] Faneuil Hall is the headquarters of the Ancient and Honourable
+    Artillery Company of Boston, the oldest military organization of the
+    country, organized in 1638.
+
+  [3] The dam is 1250 ft. long, with a maximum height of 129 ft., only
+    750 ft. having a depth of more than 40 ft. from high water to rock.
+    The entire surface of the basin was scraped to bed rock, sand or
+    mineral earth, this alone costing $3,000,000. Connected with the
+    reservoir is an aqueduct, of which 2 m. are tunnel and 7 m. covered
+    masonry. The metropolitan system as planned in 1905 for the near
+    future contemplated storage for 80,000,000,000 gallons, reservoirs
+    holding 2,200,000,000 gallons for immediate use, aqueducts capable of
+    carrying 420,000,000 gallons daily, and a minimum daily supply of
+    173,000,000 gallons.
+
+  [4] In 1851 the mayor of the English Boston sent over a copy of that
+    city's seals, framed in oak from St Botolph's church, of which John
+    Cotton, the famous Boston divine (he came over in 1633) had been
+    vicar. The seals now hang in the city hall. In 1855 a number of
+    Americans, including Charles Francis Adams and Edward Everett, and
+    also various descendants of Cotton, united to restore the south-west
+    chapel of St Botolph's church, and to erect in it a memorial tablet
+    to Cotton's memory. The total amount raised by subscription for this
+    purpose was L673.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTON, a game of cards invented during the last quarter of the 18th
+century. It is said to have originated in Boston, Massachusetts, during
+the siege by the British. It seems to have been invented by the officers
+of the French fleet which lay for a time off the town of Marblehead, and
+the name of the two small islands in Marblehead harbour which have, from
+the period of the American Revolution, been called Great and Little
+Misery, correspond with expressions used in the game. William Tudor, in
+his _Letters on the Eastern States_, published in 1821, states somewhat
+differently that "A game of cards was invented in Versailles and called
+in honour of the town, Boston; the points of the game are allusive,
+'great independence,' 'little independence,' 'great misery,' 'little
+misery,' &c. It is composed partly of whist and partly of quadrille,
+though partaking mostly of the former." The game enjoyed an
+extraordinary vogue in high French society, where it was the fashion at
+that time to admire all things American. "The ladies... filled my
+pockets with bon-bons, and ... called me _'le petit Bostonien.'_ It was
+indeed by the name of Bostonian that all Americans were known in France
+then. The war having broken out in Boston and the first great battle
+fought in its neighbourhood, gave to that name universal celebrity. A
+game invented at that time, played with cards, was called 'Boston,' and
+is to this day (1830) exceedingly fashionable at Paris by that
+appellation" (_Recollections of Samuel Breck_, Philadelphia, 1877).
+There was a tradition that Dr Franklin was fond of the game and even
+that he had a hand in its invention. At the middle of the 19th century
+it was still popular in Europe, and to a less degree in America, but its
+favour has steadily declined since then.
+
+  The rules of Boston recognized in English-speaking countries differ
+  somewhat from those in vogue in France. According to the former, two
+  packs of 52 cards are used, which rank as in whist, both for cutting
+  and dealing. Four players take part, and there are usually no
+  partners. Counters are used, generally of three colours and values,
+  and each hand is settled for as soon as finished. The entire first
+  pack is dealt out by fours and fives, and the second pack is cut for
+  the trump, the suit of the card turned being "first preference," the
+  other suit of the same colour "second preference" or "colour," while
+  the two remaining suits are "plain suits." The eldest hand then
+  announces that he will make a certain number of tricks provided he may
+  name the trump, or lose a certain number without trumps. The different
+  bids are called by various names, but the usual ones are as
+  follows:--To win five tricks, "Boston." (To win) "six tricks." (To
+  win) "seven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after discarding one card
+  that is not shown, "little _misere_." (To win) "eight tricks." (To
+  win) "nine tricks." To lose every trick, "grand _misere_." (To win)
+  "ten tricks." (To win) "eleven tricks." To lose twelve tricks, after
+  discarding one card that is not shown, the remaining twelve cards
+  being exposed on the table but not liable to be called, "little
+  spread." (To win) "twelve tricks." To lose every trick with exposed
+  cards, "grand spread." To win thirteen tricks, "grand slam." If a
+  player does not care to bid he may pass, and the next player bids.
+  Succeeding players may "overcall," _i.e_. overbid, previous bidders.
+  Players passing may thereafter bid only "_miseres_." If a player bids
+  seven but makes ten he is paid for the three extra tricks, but on a
+  lower scale than if he had bid ten. If no bid should be made, a
+  "_misere partout_" (general poverty) is often played, the trump being
+  turned down and each player striving to take as few tricks as
+  possible. Payments are made by each loser according to the value of
+  the winner's bid and the overtricks he has scored. There are regular
+  tables of payments. In America overtricks are not usually paid for. In
+  French Boston the knave of diamonds arbitrarily wins over all other
+  cards, even trumps. The names of the different bids remind one of the
+  period of the American Revolution, including "Independence,"
+  "Philadelphia," "Souveraine," "Concordia," &c. Other variations of the
+  game are _Boston de Fontainebleau_ and Russian Boston.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTONITE, in petrology, a fine-grained, pale-coloured, grey or pinkish
+rock, which consists essentially of alkali-felspar (orthoclase,
+microperthite, &c.). Some of them contain a small amount of interstitial
+quartz (quartz bostonites); others have a small percentage of lime,
+which occasions the presence of a plagioclase felspar (maenite,
+gauteite, lime-bostonite). Other minerals, except apatite, zircon and
+magnetite, are typically absent. They have very much the same
+composition as the trachytes; and many rocks of this series have been
+grouped with these or with the orthophyres. Typically they occur as
+dikes or as thin sills, often in association with nepheline-syenite; and
+they seem to bear a complementary relationship to certain types of
+lamprophyre, such as camptonite and monchiquite. Though nowhere very
+common they have a wide distribution, being known from Scotland, Wales,
+Massachusetts, Montreal, Portugal, Bohemia, &c. The lindoites and
+quartz-lindoites of Norway are closely allied to the bostonites.
+
+
+
+
+BOSTROM, CHRISTOFFER JACOB (1797-1866), Swedish philosopher, was born at
+Pitea and studied at Upsala, where from 1840 to 1863 he was professor of
+practical philosophy. His philosophy, as he himself described it, is a
+thoroughgoing rational idealism founded on the principle that the only
+true reality is spiritual. God is Infinite Spirit in whom all existence
+is contained, and is outside the limitations of time and space. Thus
+Bostrom protests not only against empiricism but also against those
+doctrines of Christian theology which seemed to him to picture God as
+something less than Pure Spirit. In ethics the highest aim is the
+direction of actions by reason in harmony with the Divine; so the
+state, like the individual, exists solely in God, and in its most
+perfect form consists in the harmonious obedience of all its members to
+a constitutional monarch; the perfection of mankind as a whole is to be
+sought in a rational orderly system of such states in obedience to
+Universal Reason. This system differs from Platonism in that the "ideas"
+of God are not archetypal abstractions but concrete personalities.
+
+  Bostrom's writings were edited by H. Edfeldt (2 vols., Upsala, 1883).
+  For his school see SWEDEN: _Literature_; also H. Hoffding, _Filosofien
+  i Sverig_ (German trans. in _Philos. Monatsheften_, 1879), and
+  _History of Mod. Philos._ (Eng. trans., 1900), p. 284; R. Falckenberg,
+  _Hist. of Phil._ (Eng. trans., 1895); A. Nyblaeus, _Om den Bostromske
+  filosofien_ (Lund, 1883), and _Karakteristik af den Bostromska
+  filosofien_ (Lund, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+BOSWELL, JAMES (1740-1795), Scottish man of letters, the biographer of
+Samuel Johnson, was born at Edinburgh on the 29th of October 1740. His
+grandfather was in good practice at the Scottish bar, and his father,
+Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, was also a noted advocate, who, on his
+elevation to the supreme court in 1754, took the name of his Ayrshire
+property as Lord Auchinleck. A Thomas Boswell (said upon doubtful
+evidence to have been a minstrel in the household of James IV.) was
+killed at Flodden, and since 1513 the family had greatly improved its
+position in the world by intermarriage with the first Scots nobility. In
+contradiction to his father, a rigid Presbyterian Whig, James was "a
+fine boy, wore a white cockade, and prayed for King James until his
+uncle Cochrane gave him a shilling to pray for King George, which he
+accordingly did" ("Whigs of all ages are made in the same way" was
+Johnson's comment). He met one or two English boys, and acquired a
+"tincture of polite letters" at the high school in Edinburgh. Like R.L.
+Stevenson, he early frequented society such as that of the actors at the
+Edinburgh theatre, sternly disapproved of by his father. At the
+university, where he was constrained for a season to study civil law, he
+met William Johnson Temple, his future friend and correspondent. The
+letters of Boswell to his "Atticus" were first published by Bentley in
+1857. One winter he spent at Glasgow, where he sat under Adam Smith, who
+was then lecturing on moral philosophy and rhetoric.
+
+In 1760 he was first brought into contact with "the elegance, the
+refinement and the liberality" of London society, for which he had long
+sighed. The young earl of Eglintoun took him to Newmarket and introduced
+him into the society of "the great, the gay and the ingenious." He wrote
+a poem called "The Cub at Newmarket," published by Dodsley in 1762, and
+had visions of entering the Guards. Reclaimed with some difficulty by
+his father from his rakish companions in the metropolis, he contrived to
+alleviate the irksomeness of law study in Edinburgh by forcing his
+acquaintance upon the celebrities then assembled in the northern
+capital, among them Kames, Blair, Robertson, Hume and Sir David
+Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), of whose sayings on the Northern Circuit he
+kept a brief journal. Boswell had already realized his vocation, the
+exercise of which was to give a new word to the language. He had begun
+to Boswellize. He was already on the track of bigger game--the biggest
+available in the Britain of that day. In the spring of 1763 Boswell came
+to a composition with his father. He consented to give up his pursuit of
+a guidon in the Guards and three and sixpence a day on condition that
+his father would allow him to study civil law on the continent. He set
+out in April 1763 by "the best road in Scotland" with a servant, on
+horseback like himself, in "a cocked hat, a brown wig, brown coat made
+in the court fashion, red vest, corduroy small clothes and long military
+boots." On Monday, the 16th of May 1763, in the back shop of Tom Davies
+the bookseller, No. 8 Russell Street, Covent Garden, James Boswell first
+met "Dictionary Johnson," the great man of his dreams, and was severely
+buffeted by him. Eight days later, on Tuesday, the 24th of May, Boswell
+boldly called on Mr Johnson at his chambers on the first floor of No. 1
+Inner Temple Lane. On this occasion Johnson pressed him to stay; on the
+13th of June he said, "Come to me as often as you can"; on the 25th of
+June Boswell gave the great man a little sketch of his own life, and
+Johnson exclaimed with warmth, "Give me your hand; I have taken a
+liking to you." Boswell experienced a variety of sensations, among which
+exultation was predominant. Some one asked, "Who is this Scotch cur at
+Johnson's heels?" "He is not a cur," replied Goldsmith, "he is only a
+bur. Tom Davies flung him at Johnson in sport, and he has the faculty of
+sticking." Johnson was fifty-four at this time and Boswell twenty-three.
+After June 1763 they met on something like 270 subsequent days. These
+meetings formed the memorable part of Boswell's life, and they are told
+inimitably in his famous biography of his friend.
+
+The friendship, consecrated by the most delightful of biographies, and
+one of the most gorgeous feasts in the whole banquet of letters, was not
+so ill-assorted as has been inconsiderately maintained. Boswell's
+freshness at the table of conversation gave a new zest to every maxim
+that Johnson enunciated, while Boswell developed a perfect genius for
+interpreting the kind of worldly philosophy at which Johnson was so
+unapproachable. Both men welcomed an excuse for avoiding the task-work
+of life. Johnson's favourite indulgence was to talk; Boswell's great
+idea of success to elicit memorable conversation. Boswell is almost
+equally admirable as a reporter and as an interviewer, as a collector
+and as a researcher. He prepared meetings for Johnson, he prepared
+topics for him, he drew him out on questions of the day, he secured a
+copy of his famous letter to Lord Chesterfield, he obtained an almost
+verbatim report of Johnson's interview with the king, he frequented the
+tea-table of Miss Williams, he attended the testy old scholar on lengthy
+peregrinations in the Highlands and in the midlands. "Sir," said Johnson
+to his follower, "you appear to have only two subjects, yourself and me,
+and I am sick of both." Yet thorough as the scheme was from the outset,
+and admirable as was the devotedness of the biographer, Boswell was far
+too volatile a man to confine himself to any one ambition in life that
+was not consistent with a large amount of present fame and notoriety. He
+would have liked to Boswellize the popular idol Wilkes, or Chatham, or
+Voltaire, or even the great Frederick himself. As it was, during his
+continental tour he managed in the autumn of 1765 to get on terms with
+Pasquale di Paoli, the leader of the Corsican insurgents in their unwise
+struggle against Genoa. After a few weeks in Corsica he returned to
+London in February 1766, and was received by Johnson with the utmost
+cordiality. In accordance with the family compact referred to, he was
+now admitted advocate at Edinburgh, and signalized his return to the law
+by an enthusiastic pamphlet entitled _The Essence of the Douglas Cause_
+(November 1767), in which he vigorously repelled the charge of imposture
+from the youthful claimant. In the same year he issued a little book
+called _Dorando_, containing a history of the Douglas cause in the guise
+of a Spanish tale, and bringing the story to a conclusion by the triumph
+of Archibald Douglas in the law courts. Editors who published extracts
+while the case was still _sub judice_ were censured severely by the
+court of session; but though his identity was notorious the author
+himself escaped censure. In the spring of 1768 Boswell published through
+the Foulis brothers of Glasgow his _Account of Corsica, Journal of a
+Tour to that Island, and Memoirs of Pascal Paoli_. The liveliness of
+personal impression which he managed to communicate to all his books
+gained for this one a deserved success, and the _Tour_ was promptly
+translated into French, German, Italian and Dutch. Walpole and others,
+jeered, but Boswell was talked about everywhere, as Paoli Boswell or
+Paoli's Englishman, and to aid the mob in the task of identifying him at
+the Shakespeare jubilee of 1769 he took the trouble to insert a placard
+in his hat bearing the legend "Corsica Boswell." The amazing costume of
+"a Corsican chief" which he wore on this occasion was described at
+length in the magazines.
+
+On the 25th of November 1769, after a short tour in Ireland undertaken
+to empty his head of Corsica (Johnson's emphatic direction), Boswell
+married his cousin Margaret Montgomery at Lainshaw in Ayrshire. For some
+years henceforth his visits to London were brief, but on the 30th of
+April 1773 he was present at his admission to the Literary Club, for
+which honour he had been proposed by Johnson himself, and in the autumn
+of this year in the course of his tour to the Hebrides Johnson visited
+the Boswells in Ayrshire. Neither Boswell's father nor his wife shared
+his enthusiasm for the lexicographer. Lord Auchinleck remarked that
+Jamie was "gane clean gyte ... And whose tail do ye think he has pinned
+himself to now, man? A dominie, an auld dominie, that keepit a schule
+and ca'd it an academy!" Housewives less prim than Mrs Boswell might
+have objected to Johnson's habit of turning lighted candles upside down
+when in the parlour to make them burn better. She called the great man a
+bear. Boswell's _Journal of a Tour in the Hebrides_ was written for the
+most part during the journey, but was not published until the spring of
+1786. The diary of Pepys was not then known to the public, and Boswell's
+indiscretions as to the emotions aroused in him by the neat ladies'
+maids at Inveraray, and the extremity of drunkenness which he exhibited
+at Corrichatachin, created a literary sensation and sent the _Tour_
+through three editions in one year. In the meantime his pecuniary and
+other difficulties at home were great; he made hardly more than L100 a
+year by his profession, and his relations with his father were
+chronically strained. In 1775 he began to keep terms at the Inner Temple
+and managed to see a good deal of Johnson, between whom and John Wilkes
+he succeeded in bringing about a meeting at the famous dinner at Dilly's
+on the 15th of May 1776. On the 30th of August 1782 his father died,
+leaving him an estate worth L1600 a year. On the 30th of June 1784,
+Boswell met Johnson for the last time at a dinner at Sir Joshua
+Reynolds's. He accompanied him back in the coach from Leicester Square
+to Bolt Court. "We bade adieu to each other affectionately in the
+carriage. When he had got down upon the foot pavement he called out
+'Fare you well'; and without looking back, sprung away with a kind of
+pathetic briskness, if I may use that expression, which seemed to
+indicate a struggle to conceal uneasiness, and impressed me with a
+foreboding of our long, long separation." Johnson died that year, and
+two years later the Boswells moved to London. In 1789 Mrs Boswell died,
+leaving five children. She had been an excellent mother and a good wife,
+despite the infidelities and drunkenness of her husband, and from her
+death Boswell relapsed into worse excesses, grievously aggravated by
+hypochondria. He died of a complication of disorders at his house in
+Great Poland Street on the 19th of May 1795, and was buried a fortnight
+later at Auchinleck.
+
+Up to the eve of his last illness Boswell had been busy upon his magnum
+opus, _The Life of Samuel Johnson_, which was in process of
+crystallization to the last. The first edition was published in two
+quarto volumes in an edition of 1700 copies on the 16th of May 1791. He
+was preparing a third edition when he died; this was completed by his
+friend Edmund Malone, who brought out a fifth edition in 1807. That of
+James Boswell junior (the editor of Malone's _Variorum Shakespeare_,
+1821) appeared in 1811.
+
+The _Life of Johnson_ was written on a scale practically unknown to
+biographers before Boswell. It is a full-length with all the blotches
+and pimples revealed ("I will not make my tiger a cat to please
+anybody," wrote "Bozzy"). It may be overmuch an exhibition of oddities,
+but it is also, be it remembered, a pioneer application of the
+experimental method to the determination of human character. Its size
+and lack of divisions (to divide it into chapters was an original device
+of Croker's) are a drawback, and have prevented Boswell's _Life_ from
+that assured triumph abroad which has fallen to the lot of various
+English classics such as _Robinson Crusoe_ or _Gulliver's Travels_. But
+wherever English is spoken, it has become a veritable sacred book and
+has pervaded English life and thought in the same way, that the Bible,
+Shakespeare and Bunyan have done. Boswell has successfully (to use his
+own phrase) "Johnsonized" Britain, but has not yet Johnsonized the
+planet. The model originally proposed to himself by Boswell was Mason's
+_Life of Gray_, but he far surpassed that, or indeed any other, model.
+The fashion that Boswell adopted of giving the conversations not in the
+neutral tints of _oratio obliqua_ but in full _oratio recta_ was a
+stroke of genius. But he is far from being the mere mechanical
+transmitter of good things. He is a dramatic and descriptive artist of
+the first order. The extraordinary vitality of his figures postulates a
+certain admixture of fiction, and it is certain that Boswell exaggerates
+the sympathy expressed in word or deed by Johnson for some of his own
+tenderer foibles. But, on the whole, the best judges are of opinion that
+Boswell's accuracy is exceptional, as it is undoubtedly seconded by a
+power of observation of a singular retentiveness and intensity. The
+difficulty of dramatic description can only be realized, as Jowett well
+pointed out, by those who have attempted it, and it is not until we
+compare Boswell's reports with those of less skilful hearers that we can
+appreciate the skill with which the essence of a conversation is
+extracted, and the whole scene indicated by a few telling touches. The
+result is that Johnson, not, it is true, in the early days of his
+poverty, total idleness and the pride of literature, but in the fulness
+of fame and competence of fortune from 1763 to 1784, is better known to
+us than any other man in history. The old theory to explain such a
+marvel (originally propounded by Gray when the _Tour in Corsica_
+appeared) that "any fool may write a valuable book by chance" is now
+regarded as untenable. If fool is a word to describe Boswell (and his
+folly was at times transcendent) he wrote his great book because and not
+in despite of the fact that he was one. There can be no doubt, in fact,
+that he was a biographical genius, and that he arranged his
+opportunities just as he prepared his transitions and introduced those
+inimitable glosses by which Johnson's motives are explained, his state
+of mind upon particular occasions indicated, and the general feeling of
+his company conveyed. This remarkable literary faculty, however, was but
+a fraction of the total make-up requisite to produce such a masterpiece
+as the _Life_. There is a touch of genius, too, in the naif and
+imperturbable good nature and persistency ("Sir, I will not be baited
+with 'what' and 'why.' 'Why is a cow's tail long?' 'Why is a fox's tail
+bushy?'"), and even in the abnegation of all personal dignity, with
+which Boswell pursued his hero. As he himself said of Goldsmith, "He had
+sagacity enough to cultivate assiduously the acquaintance of Johnson,
+and his faculties were gradually enlarged." Character, the vital
+principle of the individual, is the _ignis fatuus_ of the mechanical
+biographer. Its attainment may be secured by a variety of means--witness
+Xenophon, Cellini, Aubrey, Lockhart and Froude--but it has never been
+attained with such complete intensity as by Boswell in his _Life of
+Johnson_. The more we study Boswell, the more we compare him with other
+biographers, the greater his work appears.
+
+  The eleventh edition of Boswell's _Johnson_ was brought out by John
+  Wilson Croker in 1831; in this the original text is expanded by
+  numerous letters and variorum anecdotes and is already knee-deep in
+  annotation. Its blunders provoked the celebrated and mutually
+  corrective criticisms of Macaulay and Carlyle. Its value as an
+  unrivalled granary of Johnsoniana, stored opportunely before the last
+  links with a Johnsonian age had disappeared, has not been adequately
+  recognized. A new edition of the original text was issued in 1874 by
+  Percy Fitzgerald (who has also written a useful life of James Boswell
+  in 2 vols., London, 1891); a six-volume edition, including the _Tour_
+  and Johnsoniana, was published by the Rev. Alexander Napier in 1884;
+  the definitive edition is that by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 6 vols., 1887,
+  with copious annotations and a model index. A generously illustrated
+  edition was completed in 1907 in two large volumes by Roger Ingpen,
+  and reprints of value have also been edited by R. Carruthers (with
+  woodcuts), A. Birrell, Mowbray Morris (Globe edition) and Austin
+  Dobson. A short biography of Boswell was written in 1896 by W. Keith
+  Leask. Boswell's commonplace-book was published in 1876, under the
+  title of _Boswelliana_, with a memoir by the Rev. C. Rogers.
+       (T. Se.)
+
+
+
+
+BOSWORTH, JOSEPH (1789-1876), British Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born in
+Derbyshire in 1789. Educated at Repton, whence he proceeded to Aberdeen
+University, he became in 1817 vicar of Little Horwood, Buckinghamshire,
+and devoted his spare time to literature and particularly to the study
+of Anglo-Saxon. In 1823 appeared his _Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar_.
+In 1829 Bosworth went to Holland as chaplain, first at Amsterdam and
+then at Rotterdam. He remained in Holland until 1840, working there on
+his _Dictionary of the Anglo-Saxon Language_ (1838), his best-known
+work. In 1857 he became rector of Water Shelford, Buckinghamshire, and
+in the following year was appointed Rawlinson professor of Anglo-Saxon
+at Oxford. He gave to the university of Cambridge in 1867 L10,000 for
+the establishment of a professorship of Anglo-Saxon. He died on the
+27th of May 1876, leaving behind him a mass of annotations on the
+Anglo-Saxon charters.
+
+
+
+
+BOTANY (from Gr. [Greek: botanae], plant; [Greek: bodkein], to graze),
+the science which includes everything relating to the vegetable kingdom,
+whether in a living or in a fossil state. It embraces a consideration of
+the external forms of plants--of their anatomical structure, however
+minute--of the functions which they perform --of their arrangement and
+classification--of their distribution over the globe at the present and
+at former epochs--and of the uses to which they are subservient. It
+examines the plant in its earliest state of development, and follows it
+through all its stages of progress until it attains maturity. It takes a
+comprehensive view of all the plants which cover the earth, from the
+minutest organism, only visible by the aid of the microscope, to the
+most gigantic productions of the tropics. It marks the relations which
+subsist between all members of the plant world, including those between
+existing groups and those which are known only from their fossilized
+remains preserved in the rocks. We deal here with the history and
+evolution of the science.
+
+The plants which adorn the globe more or less in all countries must
+necessarily have attracted the attention of mankind from the earliest
+times. The science that treats of them dates back to the days of
+Solomon, who "spake of trees, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop on
+the wall." The Chaldaeans, Egyptians and Greeks were the early
+cultivators of science, and botany was not neglected, although the study
+of it was mixed up with crude speculations as to vegetable life, and as
+to the change of plants into animals. About 300 years before Christ
+Theophrastus wrote a _History of Plants_, and described about 500
+species used for the treatment of diseases. Dioscorides, a Greek writer,
+who appears to have flourished about the time of Nero, issued a work on
+Materia Medica. The elder Pliny described about a thousand plants, many
+of them famous for their medicinal virtues. Asiatic and Arabian writers
+also took up this subject. Little, however, was done in the science of
+botany, properly so called, until the 16th century of the Christian era,
+when the revival of learning dispelled the darkness which had long hung
+over Europe. Otto Brunfels, a physician of Bern, has been looked upon as
+the restorer of the science in Europe. In his _Herbarium_, printed at
+Strassburg (1530-1536), he gave descriptions of a large number of
+plants, chiefly those of central Europe, illustrated by beautiful
+woodcuts. He was followed by other writers,--Leonhard Fuchs, whose
+_Historia Stirpium_ (Basel, 1542) is worthy of special note for its
+excellent woodcuts; Hieronymus Bock, whose _Kreutter Buch_ appeared in
+1539; and William Turner, "The Father of English Botany," the first part
+of whose _New Herbal_, printed in English, was issued in 1551. The
+descriptions in these early works were encumbered with much medicinal
+detail, including speculations as to the virtues of plants. Plants which
+were strikingly alike were placed together, but there was at first
+little attempt at systematic classification. A crude system, based on
+the external appearance of plants and their uses to man, was gradually
+evolved, and is well illustrated in the _Herbal_, issued in 1597 by John
+Gerard (1545-1612), a barber-surgeon, who had a garden in Holborn, and
+was a keen student of British plants.
+
+One of the earliest attempts at a methodical arrangement of plants was
+made in Florence by Andreas Caesalpinus (1519-1603), who is called by
+Linnaeus _primus verus systematicus_. In his work _De Plantis_,
+published at Florence in 1583, he distributed the 1520 plants then known
+into fifteen classes, the distinguishing characters being taken from the
+fruit.
+
+John Ray (1627-1705) did much to advance the science of botany, and was
+also a good zoologist. He promulgated a system which may be considered
+as the dawn of the "natural system" of the present day (Ray, _Methodus
+Plantarum_, 1682). He separated flowering from flowerless plants, and
+divided the former into Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. His orders (or
+"classes") were founded to some extent on a correct idea of the
+affinities of plants, and he far outstripped his contemporaries in his
+enlightened views of arrangement.
+
+About the year 1670 Dr Robert Morison[1] (1620-1683), the first
+professor of botany at Oxford, published a systematic arrangement of
+plants, largely on the lines previously suggested by Caesalpinus. He
+divided them into eighteen classes, distinguishing plants according as
+they were woody or herbaceous, and taking into account the nature of the
+flowers and fruit. In 1690 Rivinus[2] promulgated a classification
+founded chiefly on the forms of the flowers. J.P. de Tournefort[3]
+(1656-1708), who about the same time took up the subject of vegetable
+taxonomy, was long at the head of the French school of botany, and
+published a systematic arrangement in 1694-1700. He described about 8000
+species of plants, and distributed them into twenty-two classes, chiefly
+according to the form of the corolla, distinguishing herbs and
+under-shrubs on the one hand from trees and shrubs on the other. The
+system of Tournefort was for a long time adopted on the continent, but
+was ultimately displaced by that of Carl von Linne, or Linnaeus (q.v.;
+1707-1778).
+
+The system of Linnaeus was founded on characters derived from the
+stamens and pistils, the so-called sexual organs of the flower, and
+hence it is often called the sexual system. It is an artificial method,
+because it takes into account only a few marked characters in plants,
+and does not propose to unite them by natural affinities. It is an index
+to a department of the book of nature, and as such is useful to the
+student. It does not aspire to any higher character, and although it
+cannot be looked upon as a scientific and natural arrangement, still it
+has a certain facility of application which at once commended it. It
+does not of itself give the student a view of the true relations of
+plants, and by leading to the discovery of the name of a plant, it is
+only a stepping-stone to the natural system. Linnaeus himself claimed
+nothing higher for it. He says--"Methodi Naturalis fragmenta studiose
+inquirenda sunt. Primum et ultimum hoc in botanicis desideratum est.
+Natura non facit saltus. Plantae omnes utrinque affinitatem monstrant,
+uti territorium in mappa geographica." Accordingly, besides his
+artificial index, he also promulgated fragments of a natural method of
+arrangement.
+
+The Linnean system was strongly supported by Sir James Edward Smith
+(1759-1828), who adopted it in his _English Flora_, and who also became
+possessor of the Linnean collection. The system was for a long time the
+only one taught in the schools of Britain, even after it had been
+discarded by those in France and in other continental countries.
+
+The foundation of botanic gardens during the 16th and 17th centuries did
+much in the way of advancing botany. They were at first appropriated
+chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants. This was especially the
+case at universities, where medical schools existed. The first botanic
+garden was established at Padua in 1545, and was followed by that of
+Pisa. The garden at Leiden dates from 1577, that at Leipzig from 1579.
+Gardens also early existed at Florence and Bologna. The Montpellier
+garden was founded in 1592, that of Giessen in 1605, of Strassburg in
+1620, of Altdorf in 1625, and of Jena in 1629. The Jardin des Plantes at
+Paris was established in 1626, and the Upsala garden in 1627. The
+botanic garden at Oxford was founded in 1632. The garden at Edinburgh
+was founded by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in 1670, and,
+under the name of the Physic Garden, was placed under the
+superintendence of James Sutherland, afterwards professor of botany in
+the university. The garden at Kew dates from about 1730, when Frederick,
+prince of Wales, obtained a long lease of Kew House and its gardens from
+the Capel family. After his death in 1751 his widow, Princess Augusta of
+Saxe-Gotha, showed great interest in their scientific development, and
+in 1759 engaged William Aiton to establish a Physic Garden. The garden
+of the Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin was opened about 1796; that of
+Trinity College, Dublin, in 1807; and that of Glasgow in 1818. The
+Madrid garden dates from 1763, and that of Coimbra from 1773. Jean
+Gesner (1709-1790), a Swiss physician and botanist, states that at the
+end of the 18th century there were 1600 botanic gardens in Europe.
+
+A new era dawned on botanical classification with the work of Antoine
+Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836). His uncle, Bernard de Jussieu, had
+adopted the principles of Linnaeus's _Fragmenta_ in his arrangement of
+the plants in the royal garden at the Trianon. At an early age Antoine
+became botanical demonstrator in the Jardin des Plantes, and was thus
+led to devote his time to the science of botany. Being called upon to
+arrange the plants in the garden, he necessarily had to consider the
+best method of doing so, and, following the lines already suggested by
+his uncle, adopted a system founded in a certain degree on that of Ray,
+in which he embraced all the discoveries in organography, adopted the
+simplicity of the Linnean definitions, and displayed the natural
+affinities of plants. His _Genera Plantarum_, begun in 1778, and finally
+published in 1789, was an important advance, and formed the basis of all
+natural classifications. One of the early supporters of this natural
+method was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841), who in 1813
+published his _Theorie elementaire de la botanique_, in which he showed
+that the affinities of plants are to be sought by the comparative study
+of the form and development of organs (morphology), not of their
+functions (physiology). His _Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni
+Vegetabilis_ was intended to embrace an arrangement and description of
+all known plants. The work was continued after his death, by his son
+Alphonse de Candolle, with the aid of other eminent botanists, and
+embraces descriptions of the genera and species of the orders of
+Dicotyledonous plants. The system followed by de Candolle is a
+modification of that of Jussieu.
+
+In arranging plants according to a natural method, we require to have a
+thorough knowledge of structural and morphological botany, and hence we
+find that the advances made in these departments have materially aided
+the efforts of systematic botanists.
+
+Robert Brown (1773-1858) was the first British botanist to support and
+advocate the natural system of classification. The publication of his
+_Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae_ (in 1810), according to the natural
+method, led the way to the adoption of that method in the universities
+and schools of Britain. In 1827 Brown announced his important discovery
+of the distinction between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, and the
+philosophical character of his work led A. von Humboldt to refer to him
+as "Botanicorum facile princeps." In 1830 John Lindley published the
+first edition of his _Introduction to the Natural System_, embodying a
+slight modification of de Candolle's system. From the year 1832 up to
+1859 great advances were made in systematic botany, both in Britain and
+on the continent of Europe. The _Enchiridion_ and _Genera Plantarum_ of
+S.L. Endlicher (1804-1849), the _Prodromus_ of de Candolle, and the
+_Vegetable Kingdom_ (1846) of J. Lindley became the guides in systematic
+botany, according to the natural system.
+
+The least satisfactory part of all these systems was that concerned with
+the lower plants or Cryptogams as contrasted with the higher or
+flowering plants (Phanerogams). The development of the compound
+microscope rendered possible the accurate study of their life-histories;
+and the publication in 1851 of the results of Wilhelm Hofmeister's
+researches on the comparative embryology of the higher Cryptogamia shed
+a flood of light on their relationships to each other and to the higher
+plants, and supplied the basis for the distinction of the great groups
+Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogamae, the last named
+including Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.
+
+A system of classification for the Phanerogams, or, as they are
+frequently now called, Spermatophyta (seed-plants), which has been much
+used in Great Britain and in America, is that of Bentham and Hooker,
+whose _Genera Plantarum_ (1862-1883) is a descriptive account of all the
+genera of flowering plants, based on their careful examination. The
+arrangement is a modification of that adopted by the de Candolles.
+Another system differing somewhat in detail is that of A.W. Eichler
+(Berlin, 1883), a modified form of which was elaborated by Dr Adolf
+Engler of Berlin, the principal editor of _Die natrurliche
+Pflanzenfamilien_.
+
+The study of the anatomy and physiology of plants did not keep pace with
+the advance in classification. Nehemiah Grew and his contemporary
+Marcello Malpighi were the earliest discoverers in the department of
+plant anatomy. Both authors laid an account of the results of their
+study of plant structure before the Royal Society of London almost at
+the same time in 1671. Malpighi's complete work, _Anatome Plantarum_,
+appeared in 1675 and Grew's _Anatomy of Plants_ in 1682. For more than a
+hundred years the study of internal structure was neglected. In 1802
+appeared the _Traite d'anatomie et de physiologie vegetale_ of C.F.B. de
+Mirbel (1776-1854), which was quickly followed by other publications by
+Kurt Sprengel, L.C. Treviranus (1779-1864), and others. In 1812 J.J.
+P. Moldenhawer isolated cells by maceration of tissues in water. The
+work of F.J.F. Meyen and H. von Mohl in the middle of the 19th century
+placed the study of plant anatomy on a more scientific basis. Reference
+must also be made to M.J. Schleiden (1804-1881) and F. Unger
+(1800-1870), while in K.W. von Nageli's investigations on molecular
+structure and the growth of the cell membrane we recognize the origin of
+modern methods of the study of cell-structure included under cytology
+(q.v.). The work of Karl Sanio and Th. Hartig advanced knowledge on the
+structure and development of tissues, while A. de Bary's _Comparative
+Anatomy of the Phanerogams and Ferns_ (1877) supplied an admirable
+presentation of the facts so far known. Since then the work has been
+carried on by Ph. van Tieghem and his pupils, and others, who have
+sought to correlate the large mass of facts and to find some general
+underlying principles (see PLANTS: _Anatomy of_).
+
+The subject of fertilization was one which early excited attention. The
+idea of the existence of separate sexes in plants was entertained in
+early times, long before separate male and female organs had been
+demonstrated. The production of dates in Egypt, by bringing two kinds of
+flowers into contact, proves that in very remote periods some notions
+were entertained on the subject. Female date-palms only were cultivated,
+and wild ones were brought from the desert in order to fertilize them.
+Herodotus informs us that the Babylonians knew of old that there were
+male and female date-trees, and that the female required the concurrence
+of the male to become fertile. This fact was also known to the
+Egyptians, the Phoenicians and other nations of Asia and Africa. The
+Babylonians suspended male clusters from wild dates over the females;
+but they seem to have supposed that the fertility thus produced depended
+on the presence of small flies among the wild flowers, which, by
+entering the female flowers, caused them to set and ripen. The process
+was called palmification. Theophrastus, who succeeded Aristotle in his
+school in the 114th Olympiad, frequently mentions the sexes of plants,
+but he does not appear to have determined the organs of reproduction.
+Pliny, who flourished under Vespasian, speaks particularly of a male and
+female palm, but his statements were not founded on any real knowledge
+of the organs. From Theophrastus down to Caesalpinus, who died at Rome
+in 1603, there does not appear to have been any attention paid to the
+reproductive organs of plants. Caesalpinus had his attention directed to
+the subject, and he speaks of a halitus or emanation from the male
+plants causing fertility in the female.
+
+Nehemiah Grew seems to have been the first to describe, in a paper on
+the _Anatomy of Plants_, read before the Royal Society in November 1676,
+the functions of the stamens and pistils. Up to this period all was
+vague conjecture. Grew speaks of the _attire_, or the stamens, as being
+the male parts, and refers to conversations with Sir Thomas Millington,
+Sedleian professor at Oxford, to whom the credit of the sexual theory
+seems really to belong. Grew says that "when the attire or apices break
+or open, the globules or dust falls down on the seedcase or uterus, and
+touches it with a prolific virtue." Ray adopted Grew's views, and states
+various arguments to prove their correctness in the preface to his work
+on European plants, published in 1694. In 1694 R.J. Camerarius,
+professor of botany and medicine at Tubingen, published a letter on the
+sexes of plants, in which he refers to the stamens and pistils as the
+organs of reproduction, and states the difficulties he had encountered
+in determining the organs of Cryptogamic plants. In 1703 Samuel Morland,
+in a paper read before the Royal Society, stated that the farina
+(pollen) is a congeries of seminal plants, one of which must be conveyed
+into every ovum or seed before it can become prolific. In this
+remarkable statement he seems to anticipate in part the discoveries
+afterwards made as to pollen tubes, and more particularly the peculiar
+views promulgated by Schleiden. In 1711 E.F. Geoffrey, in a memoir
+presented to the Royal Academy at Paris, supported the views of Grew and
+others as to the sexes of plants. He states that the germ is never to be
+seen in the seed till the apices (anthers) shed their dust; and that if
+the stamina be cut out before the apices open, the seed will either not
+ripen, or be barren if it ripens. He mentions two experiments made by
+him to prove this--one by cutting off the staminal flowers in Maize, and
+the other by rearing the female plant of Mercurialis apart from the
+male. In these instances most of the flowers were abortive, but a few
+were fertile, which he attributes to the dust of the apices having been
+wafted by the wind from other plants.
+
+Linnaeus took up the subject in the inauguration of his sexual system.
+He first published his views in 1736, and he thus writes--"Antheras et
+stigmata constituere sexum plantarum, a palmicolis, Millingtono, Grewio,
+Rayo, Camerario, Godofredo, Morlando, Vaillantio, Blairio, Jussievio,
+Bradleyo, Royeno, Logano, &c., detectum, descriptum, et pro infallibili
+assumptum; nec ullum, apertis oculis considerantem cujuscunque plantae
+flores, latere potest." He divided plants into sexual and asexual, the
+former being Phanerogamous or flowering, and the latter Cryptogamous or
+flowerless. In the latter division of plants he could not detect stamens
+and pistils, and he did not investigate the mode in which their germs
+were produced. He was no physiologist, and did not promulgate any views
+as to the embryogenic process. His followers were chiefly engaged in the
+arrangement and classification of plants, and while descriptive botany
+made great advances the physiological department of the science was
+neglected. His views were not, however, adopted at once by all, for we
+find Charles Alston stating arguments against them in his _Dissertation
+on the Sexes of Plants_. Alston's observations were founded on what
+occurred in certain unisexual plants, such as Mercurialis, Spinach,
+Hemp, Hop and Bryony. The conclusion at which he arrives is that the
+pollen is not in all flowering plants necessary for impregnation, for
+fertile seeds can be produced without its influence. He supports
+parthenogenesis in some plants. Soon after the promulgation of
+Linnaeus's method of classification, the attention of botanists was
+directed to the study of Cryptogamic plants, and the valuable work of
+Johann Hedwig (1730-1799) on the reproductive organs of mosses made its
+appearance in 1782. He was one of the first to point out the existence
+of certain cellular bodies in these plants which appeared to perform the
+functions of reproductive organs, and to them the names of antheridia
+and pistillidia were given. This opened up a new field of research, and
+led the way in the study of Cryptogamic reproduction, which has since
+been much advanced by the labours of numerous botanical inquiries. The
+interesting observations of Morland, already quoted, seem to have been
+neglected, and no one attempted to follow in the path which he had
+pointed out. Botanists were for a long time content to know that the
+scattering of the pollen from the anther, and its application to the
+stigma, were necessary for the production of perfect seed, but the
+stages of the process of fertilization remained unexplored. The matter
+seemed involved in mystery, and no one attempted to raise the veil which
+hung over the subject of embryogeny. The general view was, that the
+embryo originated in the ovule, which was in some obscure manner
+fertilized by the pollen.
+
+In 1815 L.C. Treviranus, professor of botany in Bonn, roused the
+attention of botanists to the development of the embryo, but although he
+made valuable researches, he did not add much in the way of new
+information. In 1823 G.B. Amici discovered the existence of pollen
+tubes, and he was followed by A.T. Brongniart and R. Brown. The latter
+traced the tubes as far as the nucleus of the ovule. These important
+discoveries mark a new epoch in embryology, and may be said to be the
+foundation of the views now entertained, which were materially aided by
+the subsequent elucidation of the process of cytogenesis, or
+cell-development, by Schleiden, Schwann, Mohl and others. The whole
+subject of fertilization and development of the embryo has been more
+recently investigated with great assiduity and zeal, as regards both
+cryptogamous and phanerogamous plants, and details must be sought in the
+various special articles. The observations of Darwin as to the
+fertilization of orchids, _Primula, Linum_ and _Lythrum_, and other
+plants, and the part which insects take in this function, gave an
+explanation of the observations of Christian Konrad Sprengel, made at
+the close of the 18th century, and opened up a new phase in the study of
+botany, which has been followed by Hermann Muller, Federico Delpino and
+others, and more recently by Paul Knuth.
+
+One of the earliest workers at plant physiology was Stephen Hales. In
+his _Statical Essays_ (1727) he gave an account of numerous experiments
+and observations which he had made on the nutrition of plants and the
+movement of sap in them. He showed that the gaseous constituents of the
+air contribute largely to the nourishment of plants, and that the leaves
+are the organs which elaborate the food; the importance of leaves in
+nutrition had been previously pointed out by Malpighi in a short account
+of nutrition which forms an appendix to his anatomical work. The birth
+of modern chemistry in the work of J. Priestley and Lavoisier, at the
+close of the 18th century, made possible the scientific study of
+plant-nutrition, though Jan Ingenhousz in 1779 discovered that plants
+incessantly give out carbonic acid gas, but that the green leaves and
+shoots only exhale oxygen in sunlight or clear daylight, thereby
+indicating the distinction between assimilation of carbonic acid gas
+(photosynthesis) and respiration. N.T. de Saussure (1767-1845) gave
+precision to the science of plant-nutrition by use of quantitative
+methods. The subjects of plant nutrition and respiration were further
+studied by R.J.H. Dutrochet towards the middle of the century, and
+Liebig's application of chemistry to agriculture and physiology put
+beyond question the parts played by the atmosphere and the soil in the
+nutrition of plants.
+
+The phenomena of movements of the organs of plants attracted the
+attention of John Ray (1693), who ascribed the movements of the leaf of
+Mimosa and others to alteration in temperature. Linnaeus also studied
+the periodical movements of flowers and leaves, and referred to the
+assumption of the night-position as the sleep-movement. Early in the
+19th century Andrew Knight showed by experiment that the vertical growth
+of stems and roots is due to the influence of gravitation, and made
+other observations on the relation between the position assumed by plant
+organs and external directive forces, and later Dutrochet, H. von Mohl
+and others contributed to the advance of this phase of plant physiology.
+Darwin's experiments in reference to the movements of climbing and
+twining plants, and of leaves in insectivorous plants, have opened up a
+wide field of inquiry as to the relation between plants and the various
+external factors, which has attracted numerous workers. By the work of
+Julius Sachs and his pupils plant physiology was established on a
+scientific basis, and became an important part of the study of plants,
+for the development of which reference may be made to the article
+PLANTS: _Physiology_. The study of form and development has advanced
+under the name "morphology," with the progress of which are associated
+the names of K. Goebel, E. Strasburger, A. de Bary and others, while
+more recently, as cytology (q.v.), the intimate study of the cell and
+its contents has attracted considerable attention.
+
+The department of geographical botany made rapid advance by means of the
+various scientific expeditions which have been sent to all quarters of
+the globe, as well as by individual effort (see PLANTS: _Distribution_)
+since the time of A. von Humboldt. The question of the mode in which the
+floras of islands and of continents have been formed gave rise to
+important speculations by such eminent botanical travellers as Charles
+Darwin, Sir J.D. Hooker, A.R. Wallace and others. The connexion
+between climate and vegetation has also been studied. Quite recently
+under the name of "Ecology" or "Oecology" the study of plants in
+relation to each other and to their environment has become the subject
+of systematic investigation.
+
+The subject of palaeontological botany (see PALAEOBOTANY) has been
+advanced by the researches of both botanists and geologists. The nature
+of the climate at different epochs of the earth's history has also been
+determined from the character of the flora. The works of A.T.
+Brongniart, H.R. Goeppert and W.P. Schimper advanced this department of
+science. Among others who contributed valuable papers on the subject may
+be noticed Oswald Heer (1809-1883), who made observations on the Miocene
+flora, especially in Arctic regions; Gaston de Saporta (1823-1895), who
+examined the Tertiary flora; Sir J.W. Dawson and Leo Lesquereux, and
+others who reported on the Canadian and American fossil plants. In Great
+Britain also W.C. Williamson, by his study of the structure of the
+plants of the coal-measures, opened up a new line of research which has
+been followed by Bertrand Renault, D.H. Scott, A.C. Seward and others,
+and has led to important discoveries on the nature of extinct groups of
+plants and also on the phylogeny of existing groups.
+
+Botany may be divided into the following departments:--
+
+1. Structural, having reference to the form and structure of the various
+parts, including (a) Morphology, the study of the general form of the
+organs and their development--this will be treated in a series of
+articles dealing with the great subdivisions of plants (see ANGIOSPERMS,
+GYMNOSPERMS, PTERIDOPHYTA, BRYOPHYTA, ALGAE, LICHENS, FUNGI and
+BACTERIOLOGY) and the more important organs (see STEM, LEAF, ROOT,
+FLOWER, FRUIT); (b) Anatomy, the study of internal structure, including
+minute anatomy or histology (see PLANTS: _Anatomy_).
+
+2. Cytology (q.v.), the intimate structure and behaviour of the cell and
+its contents--protoplasm, nucleus, &c.
+
+3. Physiology, the study of the life-functions of the entire plant and
+its organs (see PLANTS: _Physiology_).
+
+4. Systematic, the arrangement and classification of plants (see PLANTS:
+_Classification_).
+
+5. Distribution or Geographical Botany, the consideration of the
+distribution of plants on the earth's surface (see PLANTS:
+_Distribution_).
+
+6. Palaeontology, the study of the fossils found in the various strata
+of which the earth is composed (see PALAEOBOTANY).
+
+7. Ecology or Oecology, the study of plants in relation to each other
+and to their environment (see PLANTS: _Ecology_).
+
+Besides these departments which deal with Botany as a science, there are
+various applications of botany, such as forestry (see FORESTS AND
+FORESTRY), agriculture (q.v.), horticulture (q.v.), and materia medica
+(for use in medicine; see the separate articles on each plant).
+     (A. B. R.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Morison, _Pradudia Botanica_ (1672); _Plantarum Historia
+    Universalis_ (1680).
+
+  [2] Rivinus (Augustus Quirinus) paterno nomine Bachmann, _Introductio
+    genetatis in Rem Herbariam_ (Lipsiae, 1690).
+
+  [3] Tournefort, _Elemens de botanique_ (1694); _Institutiones Rei
+    Herbariae_ (1700).
+
+
+
+
+BOTANY BAY, an inlet on the coast of Cumberland county, New South Wales,
+Australia, 5 m. south of the city of Sydney. On its shore is the
+township of Botany, forming a suburb of Sydney, with which it is
+connected by a tramway. It was first visited by Captain Cook in 1770,
+who landed at a spot marked by a monument, and took possession of the
+territory for the crown. The bay received its name from Joseph Banks,
+the botanist of the expedition, on account of the variety of its flora.
+When, on the revolt of the New England colonies, the convict
+establishments in America were no longer available (see DEPORTATION and
+NEW SOUTH WALES), the attention of the British government, then under
+the leadership of Pitt, was turned to Botany Bay; and in 1787 Commodore
+Arthur Phillip was commissioned to form a penal settlement there.
+Finding, on his arrival, however, that the locality was ill suited for
+such a purpose, he removed northwards to the site of the present city of
+Sydney. The name of Botany Bay seems to have struck the popular fancy,
+and continued to be used in a general way for any convict establishment
+in Australia. The transportation of criminals to New South Wales was
+discontinued in 1840.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHA, LOUIS (1862-   ), Boer general and statesman, was the son of one
+of the "Voortrekkers," and was born on the 27th of September 1862 at
+Greytown (Natal). He saw active service in savage warfare, and in 1887
+served as a field-cornet. Subsequently he settled in the Vryheid
+district, which he represented in the Volksraad of 1897. In the war of
+1899 he served at first under Lucas Meyer in northern Natal, but soon
+rose to higher commands. He was in command of the Boers at the battles
+of Colenso and Spion Kop, and these victories earned him so great a
+reputation that on the death of P.J. Joubert, Botha was made
+commander-in-chief of the Transvaal Boers. His capacity was again
+demonstrated in the action of Belfast-Dalmanutha (August 23-28, 1900),
+and after the fall of Pretoria he reorganized the Boer resistance with a
+view to prolonged guerrilla warfare. In this task, and in the subsequent
+operations of the war, he was aided by his able lieutenants de la Rey
+and de Wet. The success of his measures was seen in the steady
+resistance offered by the Boers to the very close of the three years'
+war. He was the chief representative of his countrymen in the peace
+negotiations of 1902, after which, with de Wet and de la Rey, he visited
+Europe in order to raise funds to enable the Boers to resume their
+former avocations. In the period of reconstruction under British rule,
+General Botha, who was still looked upon as the leader of the Boer
+people, took a prominent part in politics, advocating always measures
+which he considered as tending to the maintenance of peace and good
+order and the re-establishment of prosperity in the Transvaal. After the
+grant of self-government to the Transvaal in 1907, General Botha was
+called upon by Lord Selborne to form a government, and in the spring of
+the same year he took part in the conference of colonial premiers held
+in London. During his visit to England on this occasion General Botha
+declared the whole-hearted adhesion of the Transvaal to the British
+empire, and his intention to work for the welfare of the country
+regardless of racial differences. (See TRANSVAAL: _History_.)
+
+
+
+
+BOTHNIA, GULF OF, the northern part of the Baltic Sea (q.v.). The name
+is preserved from the former territory of Bothnia, of which the western
+part is now included in Sweden, the eastern in Finland.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHWELL, JAMES HEPBURN, 4TH EARL OF, duke of Orkney and Shetland (c.
+1536-1578), husband of Mary, queen of Scots, son of Patrick, 3rd earl of
+Bothwell, and of Agnes, daughter of Henry, Lord Sinclair, was born about
+1536. His father, Patrick, the 3rd earl (c. 1512-1556), was the only son
+of Adam, the 2nd earl, who was killed at Flodden, and the grandson of
+Patrick (d. c. 1508), 3rd Lord Hailes and 1st earl of Bothwell. It was
+this Patrick who laid the foundation of the family fortunes. Having
+fought against King James III. at the battle of Sauchieburn in 1488, he
+was rewarded by the new king, James IV., with the earldom of Bothwell,
+the office of lord high admiral and other dignities. He also received
+many grants of land, including the lordship of Bothwell, which had been
+taken from John Ramsay, Lord Bothwell (d. 1513), the favourite of James
+III.
+
+James Hepburn succeeded in 1556 to his father's titles, lands and
+hereditary offices, including that of lord high admiral of Scotland.
+Though a Protestant, he supported the government of Mary of Guise,
+showed himself violently anti-English, and led a raid into England,
+subsequently in 1559 meeting the English commissioners and signing
+articles for peace on the border. The same year he seized L1000 secretly
+sent by Elizabeth to the lords of the congregation. In retaliation Arran
+occupied and stripped his castle at Crichton, whereupon Bothwell in
+November sent Arran a challenge, which the latter declined. In December
+he was sent by the queen dowager to secure Stirling, and in 1560 was
+despatched on a mission to France, visiting Denmark on the way, where he
+either married or seduced Anne, daughter of Christopher Thorssen, whom
+he afterwards deserted, and who came to Scotland in 1563 to obtain
+redress. He joined Mary at Paris in September, and in 1561 was sent by
+her as a commissioner to summon the parliament; in February he arrived
+in Edinburgh and was chosen a privy councillor on the 6th of September.
+He now entered into obligations to keep the peace with his various
+rivals, but was soon implicated in riots and partisan disorders, and was
+ordered in December to leave the city. In March 1562, having made up his
+quarrel with Arran, he was accused of having proposed to the latter a
+project for seizing the queen, and in May he was imprisoned in Edinburgh
+castle, whence he succeeded in escaping on the 28th of August. On the
+23rd of September he submitted to the queen. Murray's influence,
+however, being now supreme, he embarked in December for France, but was
+driven by storms on to Holy Island, where he was detained, and was
+subsequently, on the 18th of January 1564, seized at Berwick and sent by
+Elizabeth to the Tower, whence he was soon liberated and proceeded to
+France. After these adventures he returned to Scotland in March 1565,
+but withdrew once more before the superior strength of his opponents to
+France. The same year, however, he was recalled by Mary to aid in the
+suppression of Murray's rebellion, successfully eluding the ships of
+Elizabeth sent to capture him. As lieutenant of the Marches he was
+employed in settling disputes on the border, but used his power to
+instigate thieving and disorders, and is described by Cecil's
+correspondents as "as naughty a man as liveth and much given to the most
+detestable vices," "as false as a devil," "one that the godly of this
+whole nation hath a cause to curse for ever."[1] In February 1566
+Bothwell, in spite of his previous matrimonial engagements--and he had
+also been united by "handfasting" to Janet Betoun of Cranstoun
+Riddell--married Jane, daughter of George Gordon, 4th earl of Huntly.
+Notwithstanding his insulting language concerning Mary and the fact that
+he was the "stoutest" in refusing mass, he became one of her chief
+advisers, but his complete ascendancy over her mind and affections dates
+from the murder of Rizzio on the 9th of March 1566. The queen required a
+protector, whom she found, not in the feeble Darnley, nor in any of the
+leaders of the factions, but in the strong, determined earl who had ever
+been a stanch supporter of the throne against the Protestant party and
+English influence. In Bothwell also, "the glorious, rash and hazardous
+young man," romantic, handsome, charming even in his guilt, Mary gained
+what she lacked in her husband, a lover. He now stood forth as her
+champion; Mary took refuge with him at Dunbar, presented him, among
+other estates, with the castle there and the chief lands of the earldom
+of March, and made him the most powerful noble in the south of Scotland.
+Her partiality for him increased as her contempt and hatred of Darnley
+became more confirmed. On the 7th of October he was dangerously wounded,
+and the queen showed her anxiety for his safety by riding 40 miles to
+visit him, incurring a severe illness. In November she visited him at
+Dunbar, and in December took place the conference at Craigmillar at
+which both were present, and at which the disposal of Darnley was
+arranged, Bothwell with some others subsequently signing the bond to
+accomplish his murder. He himself superintended all the preparations,
+visiting Darnley with Mary on the night of the crime, Sunday, 9th of
+February 1567, attending the queen on her return to Holyrood for the
+ball, and riding back to Kirk o' Field to carry out the crime. After the
+explosion he hurried back to Holyrood and feigned surprise at the
+receipt of the news half an hour later, ascribing the catastrophe to
+"the strangest accident that ever chancit, to wit, the fouder
+(lightning) came out of the luft (sky) and had burnt the king's
+house."[2]
+
+Bothwell's power was now greater, and the queen's affection for him more
+ardent than ever. She was reported to have said that she cared not to
+lose France, England and her own country for him, and would go with him
+to the world's end in a white petticoat ere she left him.[3] He was
+gratified with further rewards, and his success was clouded by no stings
+of conscience or remorse. According to Melville he had designs on the
+life of the young prince. On the demand of Lennox, Darnley's father,
+Bothwell was put upon his trial in April, but Lennox, having been
+forbidden to enter the city with more than six attendants, refused to
+attend, and Bothwell was declared not guilty. The queen's intention to
+marry Bothwell, which had been kept a strict secret before the issue of
+the trial, was now made public. On the 19th of April he obtained the
+consent and support of the Protestant lords, who signed a bond in his
+favour. On the 24th he seized Mary's willing person near Edinburgh, and
+carried her to his castle at Dunbar. On the 3rd of May Bothwell's
+divorce from his wife was decreed by the civil court, on the ground of
+his adultery with a maidservant, and on the 7th by the Roman Catholic
+court on the ground of consanguinity. Archbishop Hamilton, however, who
+now granted the decree, had himself obtained a papal dispensation for
+the marriage,[4] and in consequence it is extremely doubtful whether
+according to the Roman Catholic law Bothwell and Mary were ever husband
+and wife. On the 12th Bothwell was created duke of Orkney and Shetland
+and the marriage took place on the 15th according to the Protestant
+usage, the Roman Catholic rite being performed, according to some
+accounts, afterwards in addition.[5]
+
+Bothwell's triumph, however, was shortlived. The nobles, both Protestant
+and Roman Catholic, now immediately united to effect his destruction. In
+June Mary and Bothwell fled from Holyrood to Borthwick Castle, whence
+Bothwell, on the place being surrounded by Morton and his followers,
+escaped to Dunbar, Mary subsequently joining him. Thence they marched
+with a strong force towards Edinburgh, meeting the lords on the 15th of
+June at Carberry Hill. Bothwell invited any one of the nobles to single
+combat, but Mary forbade the acceptance of the challenge. Meanwhile,
+during the negotiations, the queen's troops had been deserting; a
+surrender became inevitable, and Bothwell returned to Dunbar, parting
+from Mary for ever. Subsequently Bothwell left Dunbar for the north,
+visited Orkney and Shetland, and in July placed himself at the head of a
+band of pirates, and after eluding all attempts to capture him, arrived
+at Karm Sound in Norway. Here he was confronted by his first wife or
+victim, Anne Thorssen, whose claims he satisfied by the gift of a ship
+and promises of an annuity, and on his identity becoming known he was
+sent by the authorities to Copenhagen, where he arrived on the 30th of
+September. He wrote _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_, exhibiting
+himself as the victim of the malice of his enemies, and gained King
+Frederick II.'s goodwill by an offer to restore the Orkneys and
+Shetlands to Denmark. In consequence the king allowed him to remain at
+Copenhagen, and refused all requests for his surrender. In January 1568
+he was removed to Malmoe in Sweden. He corresponded frequently with
+Mary, but there being no hopes whatever of his restoration, and a new
+suitor being found in the duke of Norfolk, Mary demanded a divorce, on
+pleas which recall those of Henry VIII. in the matter of Catherine of
+Aragon. The divorce was finally granted by the pope in September 1570 on
+the ground of her prenuptial ravishment by Bothwell,[6] and met with no
+opposition from the latter. After the downfall of Mary, Bothwell's good
+treatment came to an end, and on the 16th of June 1573 he was removed to
+the castle of Dragsholm or Adelersborg in Zealand. Here the close and
+solitary confinement, and the dreary and hopeless inactivity to which he
+was condemned, proved a terrible punishment for the full-blooded,
+energetic and masterful Bothwell. He sank into insanity, and died on the
+14th of April 1578. He was buried at the church of Faareveille, where a
+coffin, doubtfully supposed to be his, was opened in 1858. A portrait
+was taken of the head of the body found therein, now in the museum of
+the Society of Antiquaries in Scotland. His so-called death-bed
+confession is not genuine.
+
+He left no lawful descendants; but his nephew, FRANCIS STEWART HEPBURN,
+who, through his father, John Stewart, prior of Coldingham, was a
+grandson of King James V., and was thus related to Mary, queen of Scots,
+and the regent Murray, was in 1581 created earl of Bothwell. He was lord
+high admiral of Scotland, and was a person of some importance at the
+court of James VI. during the time when the influence of the Protestants
+was uppermost. He was anxious that Mary Stuart's death should be
+avenged by an invasion of England, and in 1589 he suffered a short
+imprisonment for his share in a rising. By this time he had completely
+lost the royal favour. Again imprisoned, this time on a charge of
+witchcraft, he escaped from captivity in 1591, and was deprived by
+parliament of his lands and titles; as an outlaw his career was one of
+extraordinary lawlessness. In 1591 he attempted to seize Holyrood
+palace, and in 1593 he captured the king, forcing from him a promise of
+pardon. But almost at once he reverted to his former manner of life,
+and, although James failed to apprehend him, he was forced to take
+refuge in France about 1595. He died at Naples before July 1614. This
+earl had three sons, but his titles were never restored.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ and
+  authorities; _Les Affaires du comte de Boduel_ (written January 1568,
+  publ. Bannatyne Club, 1829); "Memoirs of James, Earl of Bothwell," in
+  G. Chalmers's _Life of Mary, Queen of Scots_ (1818); _Life of
+  Bothwell_, by F. Schiern (trans. 1880); _Pieces et documents relatifs
+  au comte de Bothwell_, by Prince A. Lobanoff (1856); _Appendix to the
+  Hist. of Scotland_, by G. Buchanan (1721); _Sir James Melville's
+  Memoirs_ (Bannatyne Club, 1827); _A Lost Chapter in the Hist. of Mary,
+  Queen of Scots_, by J. Stuart (1874); J.H. Burton's _Hist. of
+  Scotland_ (1873); A. Lang's _Hist. of Scotland_, ii. (1902);
+  _Archaeologia_, xxxviii. 308; _Cal. of State Papers, Foreign,
+  Scottish, Venetian_, vii; _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, xix. and xx.,
+  _Domestic, Border Papers_; _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of
+  Salisbury_, i. ii. See also MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Cal. of State Papers, Scottish, i. 679._
+
+  [2] _Sir James Melville's Mem. 174._
+
+  [3] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1566-1568_, p. 212.
+
+  [4] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ Rep. ii. p. 177.
+
+  [5] _Cal. of State Pap., Scottish_, ii. 333.
+
+  [6] _Cal. of State Pap., Foreign, 1569-1571_, p. 372.
+
+
+
+
+BOTHWELL, a town of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop. of town (1901) 3015; of
+parish (1901) 45,905. The town lies on the right bank of the Clyde, 9 m.
+E. S. E. of Glasgow by the North British and Caledonian railways. Owing
+to its pleasant situation it has become a residential quarter of
+Glasgow. The choir of the old Gothic church of 1398 (restored at the end
+of the 19th century) forms a portion of the parish church. Joanna
+Baillie, the poetess, was born in the manse, and a memorial has been
+erected in her honour. The river is crossed by a suspension bridge as
+well as the bridge near which, on the 22nd of June 1679, was fought the
+battle of Bothwell Bridge between the Royalists, under the duke of
+Monmouth, and the Covenanters, in which the latter lost 500 men and 1000
+prisoners. Adjoining this bridge, on the level north-eastern bank, is
+the castle that once belonged to James Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh (fl.
+1566-1580), the assassin of the regent Murray; and near the present
+farmhouse the South Calder is spanned by a Roman bridge. The picturesque
+ruins of Bothwell Castle occupy a conspicuous position on the side of
+the river, which here takes the bold sweep famed in Scottish song as
+Bothwell bank. The fortress belonged to Sir Andrew Moray, who fell at
+Stirling in 1297, and passed by marriage to the Douglases. The lordship
+was bestowed in 1487 on Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Lord Hailes, 1st earl of
+Bothwell, who resigned it in 1491 in favour of Archibald Douglas, 5th
+earl of Angus. It thus reverted to the Douglases and now belongs to the
+earl of Home, a descendant. The castle is a fine example of Gothic, and
+mainly consists of a great oblong quadrangle, flanked on the south side
+by circular towers. At the east end are the remains of the chapel. A
+dungeon bears the nickname of "Wallace's Beef Barrel." The unpretending
+mansion near by was built by Archibald Douglas, 1st earl of Forfar
+(1653-1712). The parish of Bothwell contains several flourishing towns
+and villages, all owing their prosperity to the abundance of coal, iron
+and oil-shale. The principal places, most of which have stations on the
+North British or Caledonian railway or both, are Bothwell Park, Carfin,
+Chapelhall, Bellshill (pop. 8786), Holytown, Mossend, Newarthill,
+Uddingston (pop. 7463), Clydesdale, Hamilton Palace, Colliery Rows and
+Tennochside.
+
+
+
+
+BOTOCUDOS (from Port. _botoque_, a plug, in allusion to the wooden disks
+or plugs worn in their lips and ears), the foreign name for a tribe of
+South American Indians of eastern Brazil, also known as the Aimores or
+Aimbores. They appear to have no collective tribal name for themselves.
+Some are called Nac-nanuk or Nac-poruk, "sons of the soil." The name
+Botocudos cannot be traced much farther back than the writings of Prince
+Maximilian von Neuwied (_Reise nach Bresilien_, Frankfort-On-Main,
+1820). When the Portuguese adventurer Vasco Fernando Coutinho reached
+the east coast of Brazil in 1535, he erected a fort at the head of
+Espirito Santo Bay to defend himself against "the Aimores and other
+tribes." The original home of the tribe comprised most of the present
+province of Espirito Santo, and reached inland to the headwaters of Rio
+Grande (Belmonte) and Rio Doce on the eastern slopes of the Serra do
+Espinhacao, but the Botocudos are now mainly confined to the country
+between Rio Pardo and Rio Doce, and seldom roam westward beyond Serra
+dos Aimores into Minas Geraes. It was in the latter district that at the
+close of the 18th century they came into collision with the whites, who
+were attracted thither by the diamond fields.
+
+The Botocudos are nomads, wandering naked in the woods and living on
+forest products. They are below the medium height, but broad-shouldered
+and remarkable for the muscular development and depth of their chests.
+Their arms and legs are, however, soft and fleshy, and their feet and
+hands small. Their features, which vary individually almost as much as
+those of Europeans, are broad and flat, with prominent brow, high
+cheek-bones, small bridgeless nose, wide nostrils and slight projection
+of the jaws. They are longheaded, and their hair is coarse, black and
+lank. Their colour is a light yellowish brown, sometimes almost
+approaching white. The general yellow tint emphasizes their Mongolic
+appearance, which all travellers have noticed. The Botocudos were
+themselves greatly struck by the Chinese coolies, whom they met in
+Brazilian seaports, and whom they at once accepted as kinsmen (Henri
+Hollard, _De l'homme et des races humaines_, Paris, 1853).[1] Some few
+Botocudos have settled and become civilized, but the great bulk of them,
+numbering between twelve and fourteen thousand, are still the wildest of
+savages. During the earlier frontier wars (1790-1820) every effort was
+made to extirpate them. They were regarded by the Portuguese as no
+better than wild beasts. Smallpox was deliberately spread among them;
+poisoned food was scattered in the forests; by such infamous means the
+coast districts about Rios Doce and Belmonte were cleared, and one
+Portuguese commander boasted that he had either slain with his own hands
+or ordered to be butchered many hundreds of them. Their implements and
+domestic utensils are all of wood; their only weapons are reed spears
+and bows and arrows. Their dwellings are rough shelters of leaf and
+bast, seldom 4 ft. high. So far as the language of the Botocudos is
+known, it would appear that they have no means of expressing the
+numerals higher than one. Their only musical instrument is a small
+bamboo nose-flute. They attribute all the blessings of life to the
+"day-fire" (sun) and all evil to "night-fire" (moon). At the graves of
+the dead they keep fires burning for some days to scare away evil
+spirits, and during storms and eclipses arrows are shot into the sky to
+drive away demons.
+
+The most conspicuous feature of the Botocudos is the _tembeitera_, or
+wooden plug or disk which is worn in the lower lip and the lobe of the
+ear. This disk, made of the specially light and carefully dried wood of
+the barriguda tree (_Chorisia ventricosa_), is called by the natives
+themselves _embure_, whence Augustin Saint Hilaire suggests the probable
+derivation of their name Aimbore (_Voyages dans l'interieur du Bresil
+1816-1821_, Paris, 1830). It is worn only in the under-lip, now chiefly
+by women, but formerly by men also. The operation for preparing the lip
+begins often as early as the eighth year, when an initial boring is made
+by a hard pointed stick, and gradually extended by the insertion of
+larger and larger disks or plugs, sometimes at last as much as 3 in. in
+diameter. Notwithstanding the lightness of the wood the _tembeitera_
+weighs down the lip, which at first sticks out horizontally and at last
+becomes a mere ring of skin around the wood. Ear-plugs are also worn, of
+such size as to distend the lobe down to the shoulders. Ear-ornaments of
+like nature are common in south and even central America, at least as
+far north as Honduras. When Columbus discovered this latter country
+during his fourth voyage (1502) he named part of the seaboard _Costa de
+la Oreja_, from the conspicuously distended ears of the natives. Early
+Spanish explorers also gave the name _Orejones_ or "big-eared" to
+several Amazon tribes.
+
+  See A.R. Wallace, _Travels on the Amazon_ (1853-1900); H.H. Bancroft,
+  _Hist. of Pacific States_ (San Francisco, 1882), vol. i. p. 211; A.H.
+  Keane, "On the Botocudos" in _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ vol. xiii.
+  (1884); J.R. Peixoto, _Novos Estudios Craniologicos sobre os Botocuds_
+  (Rio Janeiro, 1882); Prof. C.F. Hartt, _Geology and Physical Geography
+  of Brazil_ (Boston, 1870), pp. 577-606.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A parallel case is that of the Bashkir soldiers of Orenburg, who
+    formed part of the Russian army sent to put down the Hungarian revolt
+    of 1848, and who recognized their Ugrian kinsmen in the Zeklars and
+    other Magyars settled in the Danube basin.
+
+
+
+
+BOTORI, a Japanese game played at the naval, military and other schools,
+by two sides of equal number, usually about one hundred, each of which
+defends a pole about 8 ft. high firmly set in the ground, the poles
+being about 200 yds. distant from each other. The object of each party
+is to overthrow the adversaries' pole while keeping their own upright.
+Pulling, hauling and wrestling are allowed, but no striking or kicking.
+The players resort to all kinds of massed formations to arrive at the
+enemies' pole, and frequently succeed in passing over their heads and
+shoulders one or more comrades, who are thus enabled to reach the pole
+and bear it down unless pulled off in time by its defenders. A game
+similar in character is played by the Sophomore and Freshman classes of
+Amherst College (Massachusetts), called the "Flag-rush." It was
+instituted at the instance of the faculty to take the place of the
+traditional "Cane-rush," a general _melee_ between the two classes for
+the ultimate possession of a stout walking-stick, which became so rough
+that students were frequently seriously injured. In the "Flag-rush" a
+small flag is set upon a padded post about 6 ft. high, and is defended
+by one class while the other endeavours, as at Botori, to overthrow it.
+If the flag is not captured or torn down within a certain time the
+defending side wins.
+
+
+
+
+BOTOSHANI (_Botosani_), the capital of the department of Botoshani,
+Rumania; on a small tributary of the river Jijia, and in one of the
+richest agricultural and pastoral regions of the north Moldavian hills.
+Pop. (1900) 32,193. Botoshani is commercially important as the town
+through which goods from Poland and Galicia pass in transit for the
+south; being situated on a branch railway between Dorohoi and on the
+main line from Czernowitz to Galatz. It has extensive starch and flour
+mills; and Botoshani flour is highly prized in Rumania, besides being
+largely exported to Turkey and the United Kingdom. Botoshani owes its
+name to a Tatar chief, Batus or Batu Khan, grandson of Jenghiz Khan, who
+occupied the country in the 13th century. There are large colonies of
+Armenians and Jews.
+
+
+
+
+BO-TREE, or BODHI-TREE, the name given by the Buddhists of India and
+Ceylon to the Pipul or sacred wild fig (_Ficus religiosa_). It is
+regarded as sacred, and one at least is planted near each temple. These
+are traditionally supposed to be derived from the original one, the
+Bodhi-tree of Buddhist annals, beneath which the Buddha is traditionally
+supposed to have attained perfect knowledge. The Bo-tree at the ruined
+city of Anuradhapura, 80 m. north of Kandy, grown from a branch of the
+parent-tree sent to Ceylon from India by King Asoka in the 3rd century
+B.C., is said to have been planted in 288 B.C., and is to this day
+worshipped by throngs of pilgrims who come long distances to pray before
+it. Usually a bo-tree is planted on the graves of the Kandy priests.
+
+
+
+
+BOTRYTIS, a minute fungus which appears as a brownish-grey mould on
+decaying vegetation or on damaged fruits. Under a hand-lens it is seen
+to consist of tiny, upright, brown stalks which are branched at the
+tips, each branchlet being crowned with a naked head of pale-coloured
+spores. It is a very common fungus, growing everywhere in the open or in
+greenhouses, and can be found at almost any season. It has also a bad
+record as a plant disease. If it once gains entrance into one of the
+higher plants, it spreads rapidly, killing the tissues and reducing them
+to a rotten condition. Seedling pines, lilies and many other cultivated
+plants are subject to attack by _Botrytis_, Some of the species exist in
+two other growth-forms, so different in appearance from the _Botrytis_
+that they have been regarded as distinct plants:--a sclerotium, which is
+a hard compact mass of fungal filaments, or mycelium, that can retain
+its vitality for a considerable time in a resting condition; and a
+stalked _Peziza_, or cup-fungus, which grows out of the sclerotium. The
+latter is the perfect form of fruit. The _Botrytis_ mould is known as
+the conidial form.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTA, CARLO GIUSEPPE GUGLIELMO (1766-1837), Italian historian, was born
+at San Giorgio Canavese in Piedmont. He studied medicine at the
+university of Turin, and obtained his doctor's degree when about twenty
+years of age. Having rendered himself obnoxious to the government during
+the political commotions that followed the French Revolution, he was
+imprisoned for over a year; and on his release in 1795 he withdrew to
+France, only to return to his native country as a surgeon in the French
+army, whose progress he followed as far as Venice. Here he joined the
+expedition to Corfu, from which he did not return to Italy till 1798. At
+first he favoured French policy in Italy, contributed to the annexation
+of Piedmont by France in 1799, and was an admirer of Napoleon; but he
+afterwards changed his views, realizing the necessity for the union of
+all Italians and for their freedom from foreign control. After the
+separation of Piedmont from France in 1814 he retired into private life,
+but, fearing persecution at home, became a French citizen. In 1817 he
+was appointed rector of the university of Rouen, but in 1822 was removed
+owing to clerical influence. Amid all the vicissitudes of his early
+manhood Botta had never allowed his pen to be long idle, and in the
+political quiet that followed 1816 he naturally devoted himself more
+exclusively to literature. In 1824 he published a history of Italy from
+1789 to 1814 (4 vols.), on which his fame principally rests; he himself
+had been an eyewitness of many of the events described. His continuation
+of Guicciardini, which he was afterwards encouraged to undertake, is a
+careful and laborious work, but is not based on original authorities and
+is of small value. Though living in Paris he was in both these works the
+ardent exponent of that recoil against everything French which took
+place throughout Europe. A careful exclusion of all Gallicisms, as a
+reaction against the French influences of the day, is one of the marked
+features of his style, which is not infrequently impassioned and
+eloquent, though at the same time cumbrous, involved and ornate. Botta
+died at Paris in August 1837, in comparative poverty, but in the
+enjoyment of an extensive and well-earned reputation.
+
+His son, Paul Emile Botta (1802-1870), was a distinguished traveller and
+Assyrian archaeologist, whose excavations at Khorsabad (1843) were among
+the first efforts in the line of investigation afterwards pursued by
+Layard.
+
+  The works of Carlo Botta are _Storia naturale e medica dell' Isola di
+  Corfu_ (1798); an Italian translation of Born's _Joannis Physiophili
+  specimen monachologiae_ (1801); _Souvenirs d'un voyage en Dalmatie_
+  (1802); _Storia della guerra dell' Independenza d'America_ (1809);
+  _Camillo_, a poem (1815); _Storia d'Italia dal 1789 al 1814_ (1824,
+  new ed., Prato, 1862); _Storia d'ltalia in continuazione al
+  Guicciardini_ (1832, new ed., Milan, 1878). See C. Dionisiotti, _Vita
+  di Carlo Botta_ (Turin, 1867); C. Pavesio, _Carlo Botta e le sue opere
+  storiche_ (Florence, 1874); Scipione Botta, _Vita privata di Carlo
+  Botta_ (Florence, 1877); A. d'Ancona c O. Bacci, _Manuela della
+  Letteratura Italiana_ (Florence, 1894), vol. v. pp. 245 seq.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTESINI, GIOVANNI (1823-1889), Italian contrabassist and musical
+composer, was born at Crema in Lombardy on the 24th of December 1823. He
+studied music at the Milan Conservatoire, devoting himself especially to
+the double-bass, an instrument with which his name is principally
+associated. On leaving Milan he spent some time in America and also
+occupied the position of principal double-bass in the theatre at Havana.
+Here his first opera, _Cristoforo Colombo_, was produced in 1847. In
+1849 he made his first appearance in England, playing double-bass solos
+at one of the Musical Union concerts. After this he made frequent visits
+to England, and his extraordinary command of his unwieldy instrument
+gained him great popularity in London and the provinces. Apart from his
+triumphs as an executant, Bottesini was a conductor of European
+reputation, and earned some success as a composer, though his work had
+not sufficient individuality to survive the changes of taste and
+fashion. He was conductor at the Theatre des Italiens in Paris from 1855
+to 1857, where his second opera, _L'Assedio di Firenze_, was produced
+in 1856. In 1861 and 1862 he conducted at Palermo, supervising the
+production of his opera _Marion Delorme_ in 1862, and in 1863 at
+Barcelona. During these years he diversified the toils of conducting by
+repeated concert tours through the principal countries of Europe. In
+1871 he conducted a season of Italian opera at the Lyceum theatre in
+London, during which his opera _Ali Baba_ was produced, and at the close
+of the year he was chosen by Verdi to conduct the first performance of
+_Aida_, which took place at Cairo on 27th December 1871. Bottesini wrote
+three operas besides those already mentioned: _Il Diavolo della Notte_
+(Milan, 1859); _Vinciguerra_ (Paris, 1870); and _Ero e Leandro_ (Turin,
+1880), the last named to a libretto by Arrigo Boito, which was
+subsequently set by Mancinelli. He also wrote _The Garden of Olivet_, a
+devotional oratorio (libretto by Joseph Bennett), which was produced at
+the Norwich festival in 1887, a concerto for the double-bass, and
+numerous songs, and minor instrumental pieces. Bottesini died at Parma
+on the 7th of July 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTICELLI, SANDRO, properly ALESSANDRO DI MARIANO DEI FILIPEPI
+(1444-1510). Florentine painter, was born at Florence in 1444, in a
+house in the Via Nuova, Borg' Ognissanti. This was the home of his
+father, Mariano di Vanni dei Filipepi, a struggling tanner. Sandro, the
+youngest child but one of his parents, derived the name Botticelli, by
+which he was commonly known, not, as related by Vasari, from a goldsmith
+to whom he was apprenticed, but from his eldest brother Giovanni, a
+prosperous broker, who seems to have taken charge of the boy, and who
+for some reason bore the nickname _Botticello_ or Little Barrel. A
+return made in 1457 by his father describes Sandro as aged thirteen,
+weak in health, and still at school (if the words _sta al legare_ are to
+be taken as a misspelling of _sta al leggere_, otherwise they might
+perhaps mean that he was apprenticed either to a jeweller or a
+bookbinder). One of his elder brothers, Antonio, who afterwards became a
+bookseller, was at this time in business as a goldsmith and
+gold-leaf-beater, and with him Sandro was very probably first put to
+work. Having shown an irrepressible bent towards painting, he was
+apprenticed in 1458-1459 to Fra Filippo Lippi, in whose workshop he
+remained as an assistant apparently until 1467, when the master went to
+carry out a commission for the decoration with frescoes of the cathedral
+church of Spoleto. During his apprentice years Sandro was no doubt
+employed with other pupils upon the great series of frescoes in the
+choir of the Pieve at Prato upon which his master was for long
+intermittently engaged. The later among these frescoes in many respects
+anticipate, by charm of sentiment, animation of movement and rhythmic
+flutter of draperies, some of the prevailing characteristics of Sandro's
+own style. One of Sandro's earliest extant pictures, the oblong
+"Adoration of the Magi" at the National Gallery, London (No. 592, long
+ascribed in error to Filippino), shows him almost entirely under the
+influence of his first master. Left in Florence on Fra Filippo's
+departure to Spoleto, he can be traced gradually developing his
+individuality under various influences, among which that of the
+realistic school of the Pollaiuoli is for some time the strongest. From
+that school he acquired a knowledge of bodily structure and movement,
+and a searching and expressive precision of linear draughtsmanship,
+which he could never have learnt from his first master. The Pollaiuolo
+influence dominates, with some slight admixture of that of Verrocchio,
+in the fine figure of Fortitude, now in the Uffizi, which was painted by
+Botticelli for the Mercanzia about 1470; this is one of a series of the
+seven Virtues, of which the other six, it seems, were executed by Piero
+Pollaiuolo from the designs of his brother Antonio. The same influence
+is again very manifest in the two brilliant little pictures at the
+Uffizi in which the youthful Botticelli has illustrated the story of
+Judith and Holofernes; in his injured portrait of a man holding a medal
+of Cosimo de' Medici, No. 1286 at the Uffizi; and in his life-sized "St
+Sebastian" at Berlin, which we know to have been painted for the church
+of Sta Maria Maggiore in 1473. Tradition and internal evidence seem also
+to point to Botticelli's having occasionally helped, in his earliest or
+Pollaiuolo period, to furnish designs to the school of engravings in
+Florence which had been founded by the goldsmith Maso Finiguerra.
+
+Some authorities hold that he must have attended for a while the
+much-frequented workshop of Verrocchio. But the "Fortitude" is the only
+authenticated early picture in which the Verrocchio influence is really
+much apparent; the various other pictures on which this opinion is
+founded, chiefly Madonnas dispersed among the museums of Naples,
+Florence, Paris and elsewhere, have been shown to be in all probability
+the work not of Sandro himself, but of an anonymous artist, influenced
+partly by him and partly by Verrocchio, whose individuality it has been
+endeavoured to reconstruct under the provisional name of Amico di
+Sandro. At the same time we know that the young Botticelli stood in
+friendly relations with some of the pupils in Verrocchio's workshop,
+particularly with Leonardo da Vinci. Among the many "Madonnas" which
+bear Botticelli's name in galleries public and private, the earliest
+which carries the unmistakable stamp of his own hand and invention is
+that which passed from the Chigi collection at Rome to that of Mrs
+Gardner at Boston. At the beginning of 1474 he entered into an agreement
+to work at Pisa, both in the Campo Santo and in the chapel of the
+Incoronata in the Duomo, but after spending some months in that city
+abandoned the task, we know not why. Next in the order of his preserved
+works comes probably the much-injured round of the "Adoration of the
+Magi" in the National Gallery (No. 1033), long ascribed in error, like
+the earlier oblong panel of the same subject, to Filippino Lippi. (To
+about this date is assigned by some the well-known "Assumption of the
+Virgin surrounded with the heavenly hierarchies," formerly at Hamilton
+Palace and now in the National Gallery [No. 1126]; but recent criticism
+has proved that the tradition is mistaken which since Vasari's time has
+ascribed this picture to Botticelli, and that it is in reality the work
+of a subordinate painter somewhat similarly named, Francesco Botticini.)
+
+A more mature and more celebrated "Adoration of the Magi" than either of
+those in the National Gallery is that now in the Uffizi, which
+Botticelli painted for Giovanni Lami, probably in 1477, and which was
+originally placed over an altar against the front wall of the church of
+Sta Maria Novella to the right inside the main entrance. The scene is
+here less crowded than in some other of the master's representations of
+the subject, the conception entirely sane and masculine, with none of
+those elements of bizarre fantasy and over-strained sentiment to which
+he was sometimes addicted and which his imitators so much exaggerated;
+the execution vigorous and masterly. The picture has, moreover, special
+interest as containing lifelike portraits of some of the chief members
+of the Medici family. Like other leading artists of his time in
+Florence, Botticelli had already begun to profit by the patronage of
+this family. For the house of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in the Via Larga he
+painted a decorative piece of Pallas with lance and shield (not to be
+confounded with the banner painted with a similar allegoric device of
+Pallas by Verrocchio, to be carried by Giuliano de' Medici in the famous
+tournament in 1475 in which he wore the favour of La Bella Simonetta,
+the wife of his friend Marco Vespucci). This Pallas by Botticelli is now
+lost, as are several other decorative works in fresco and panel recorded
+to have been done by him for Lorenzo Il Magnifico between 1475 and
+Lorenzo's death in 1492. But Sandro's more especial patron, for whom
+were executed several of his most important still extant works, was
+another Lorenzo, the son of Pierfrancesco de' Medici, grandson of a
+natural brother of Cosimo _Pater Patriae_, and inheritor of a vast share
+of the family estates and interests. For the villa of this younger
+Lorenzo at Castello Botticelli painted about 1477-1478 the famous
+picture of "Primavera" or Spring now in the Academy at Florence. The
+design, inspired by Poliziano's poem the "Giostra," with reminiscences
+of Lucretius and of Horace (perhaps also, as has lately been suggested,
+of the late Latin "Mythologikon" of Fulgentius) thrown in, is of an
+enchanting fantasy, and breathes the finest and most essential spirit of
+the early Renaissance at Florence. Venus fancifully draped, with Cupid
+hovering above her, stands in a grove of orange and myrtle and welcomes
+the approach of Spring, who enters heralded by Mercury, with Flora and
+Zephyrus gently urging her on. In pictures like this and in the later
+"Birth of Venus," the Florentine genius, brooding with passion on the
+little that it really yet knew of the antique, and using frankly and
+freshly the much that it was daily learning of the truths of bodily
+structure and action, creates a style wholly new, in which something of
+the strained and pining mysticism of the middle ages is intimately and
+exquisitely blended with the newly awakened spirit of naturalism and the
+revived pagan delight in bodily form and movement and richness of linear
+rhythm. In connexion with this and other classic and allegoric pictures
+by the master, much romantic speculation has been idly spent on the
+supposition that the chief personages were figured in the likeness of
+Giuliano de' Medici and Simonetta Vespucci. Simonetta in point of fact
+died in 1476, Giuliano was murdered in 1478; the web of romance which
+has been spun about their names in modern days is quite unsubstantial;
+and there is no reason whatever why Botticelli should have introduced
+the likenesses of these two supposed lovers (for it is not even certain
+that they were lovers at all) in pictures all of which were demonstrably
+painted after the death of one and most of them after the death of both.
+
+The tragedy of Giuliano's assassination by the Pazzi conspirators in
+1478 was a public event which certainly brought employment to
+Botticelli. After the capture and execution of the criminals he was
+commissioned to paint their effigies hanging by the neck on the walls of
+the Palazzo del Podesta, above the entrance of what was formerly the
+Dogana. In the course of Florentine history public buildings had on
+several previous occasions received a similar grim decoration: the last
+had been when Andrea del Castagno painted in 1434 the effigies, hanging
+by the heels, of the chief citizens outlawed and expelled on the return
+of Cosimo de' Medici. Perhaps from the time of this Pazzi commission may
+be dated the evidences which are found in some of Botticelli's work of a
+closer study than heretofore of the virile methods and energetic types
+of Castagno. His frescoes of the hanged conspirators held their place
+for sixteen years only, and were destroyed in 1494 in consequence of
+another revolution in the city's politics. Two years later (1480) he
+painted in rivalry with Ghirlandaio a grand figure of St Augustine on
+the choir screen of the Ognissanti; now removed to another part of the
+church. About the same time we find clear evidence of his contributing
+designs to the workshops of the "fine-manner" engravers in the shape of
+a beautiful print of the triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne adapted from an
+antique sarcophagus (the only example known is in the British Museum),
+as well as in nineteen small cuts executed for the edition of Dante with
+the commentary of Landino printed at Florence in 1481 by Lorenzo della
+Magna. This series of prints was discontinued after canto xix., perhaps
+because of the material difficulties involved by the use of line
+engravings for the decoration of a printed page, perhaps because the
+artist was at this time called away to Rome to undertake the most
+important commission of his life. Due possibly to the same call is the
+unfinished condition of a much-damaged, crowded "Adoration of the Magi"
+by Botticelli preserved in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have
+influenced Leonardo da Vinci in his own Adoration (which in like manner
+remains unfinished) of nearly the same date, also at the Uffizi.
+
+The task with which Botticelli was charged at Rome was to take part with
+other leading artists of the time (Ghirlandaio, Cosimo Rosselli,
+Perugino and Pinturicchio) in the decoration of Sixtus IV.'s chapel at
+the Vatican, the ceiling of which was afterwards destined to be the
+field of Michelangelo's noblest labours. Internal evidence shows that
+Sandro and his assistants bore a chief share in the series of papal
+portraits which decorate the niches between the windows. His share in
+the decoration of the walls with subjects from the Old and the New
+Testament consists of three frescoes, one illustrating the history of
+Moses (several episodes of his early life arranged in a single
+composition); another the destruction of Korah, Dathan and Abiram; a
+third the temptation of Christ by Satan (in this case the main theme is
+relegated to the background, while the foreground is filled with an
+animated scene representing the ritual for the purification of a
+leper). On these three frescoes Botticelli laboured for about a year and
+a half at the height of his powers, and they may be taken as the central
+and most important productions of his career, though they are far from
+being the best-known, and from their situation on the dimmed and stained
+walls of the chapel are by no means easy of inspection. Skill in the
+interlinking of complicated groups; in the principal actors energy of
+dramatic action and expression not yet overstrained, as it came to be in
+the artist's later work; an incisive vigour of portraiture in the
+personages of the male bystanders; in the faces and figures of the women
+an equally vital grasp of the model, combined with that peculiar strain
+of haunting and melancholy grace which is this artist's own; the most
+expressive care and skill in linear draughtsmanship, the richest and
+most inventive charm in fanciful costume and decorative colouring, all
+combine to distinguish them. During this time of his stay in Rome
+(1481-1482) Botticelli is recorded also to have painted another
+"Adoration of the Magi," his fifth or sixth embodiment of the same
+subject; this has been identified, no doubt rightly, with a picture now
+in the Hermitage gallery at St Petersburg.
+
+Returning to Florence towards the end of 1482, Botticelli worked there
+for the next ten years, until the death of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492,
+with but slight variations in manner and sentiment, in the now formed
+manner of his middle life. Some of the recorded works of this time have
+perished; but a good many have been preserved, and except in the few
+cases where the dates of commission and payment can be established by
+existing records, their sequence can only be conjectured from internal
+evidence. A scheme of work which he was to have undertaken with other
+artists in the Sala dei Gigli in the Palazzo Pubblico came to nothing
+(1483); a set of important mythologic frescoes carried out by him in the
+vestibule of a villa of Lorenzo Il Magnifico at Spedaletto near Volterra
+in 1484 has been destroyed by the effects first of damp and then of
+fire. To 1482-1483 belongs the fine altar-piece of San Barnabo (a
+Madonna and Child with six saints and four angels), now in the academy
+at Florence. Very nearly of the same time must be the most popular and
+most often copied, though very far from the best-preserved, of his
+works, the round picture of the Madonna with singing angels in the
+Uffizi, known, from the text written in the open choir-book, as the
+"Magnificat." Somewhere near this must be placed the beautiful and
+highly finished drawing of "Abundance," which has passed through the
+Rogers, Morris Moore and Malcolm collections into the British Museum, as
+well as a small Madonna in the Poldi-Pezzoli collection at Milan, and
+the fine full-faced portrait of a young man, probably some pupil or
+apprentice in the studio, at the National Gallery (No. 626). For the
+marriage of Antonio Pucci to Lucrezia Dini in 1483 Botticelli designed,
+and his pupils or assistants carried out, the interesting and dramatic
+set of four panels illustrating Boccaccio's tale of Nastagio
+degl'Onesti, which were formerly in the collection of Mr Barker and are
+now dispersed. His magnificent and perfectly preserved altar-piece of
+the Madonna between the two saints John, now in the Berlin gallery, was
+painted for the Bardi chapel in the church of San Spirito in 1486. In
+the same year he helped to celebrate the marriage of Lorenzo Tornabuoni
+with Giovanna degli Albizzi by an exquisite pair of symbolical frescoes,
+the remains of which, after they had been brought to light from under a
+coat of whitewash on the walls of the Villa Lemmi, were removed in 1882
+to the Louvre. Within a few years of the same date (1485-1488) should
+apparently be placed that second masterpiece of fanciful classicism done
+for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco's villa at Castello, the "Birth of Venus,"
+now in the Uffizi, the design of which seems to have been chiefly
+inspired by the "Stanze" of Poliziano, perhaps also by the _Pervigilium
+Veneris_; together with the scarcely less admirable "Mars and Venus" of
+the National Gallery, conceived in the master's peculiar vein of virile
+sanity mingled with exquisite caprice; and the most beautiful and
+characteristic of all his Madonnas, the round of the "Virgin with the
+Pomegranate" (Uffizi). The fine picture of "Pallas and the Centaur,"
+rediscovered after an occultation of many years in the private
+apartments of the Pitti Palace, would seem to belong to about 1488, and
+to celebrate the security of Florentine affairs and the quelling of the
+spirit of tumult in the last years of the power of the great Lorenzo
+(1488-1490). "The Annunciation" from the convent of Cestello, now in the
+Uffizi, shows a design adapted from Donatello, and expressive, in its
+bending movements and vehement gestures, of that agitation of spirit the
+signs of which become increasingly perceptible in Botticelli's work from
+about this time until the end. The great altar-piece at San Marco with
+its _predelle_, commissioned by the Arte della Seta in 1488 and finished
+in 1490, with the incomparable ring of dancing and quiring angels
+encircling the crowned Virgin in the upper sky, is the last of
+Botticelli's altar-pieces on a great scale. To nearly the same date
+probably belongs his deeply felt and beautifully preserved small
+painting of the "Last Communion of St Jerome" belonging to the Marchese
+Farinola.
+
+In 1490 Botticelli was called to take part with other artists in a
+consultation as to the completion of the facade of the Duomo, and to
+bear a share with Alessio Baldovinetti and others in the mosaic
+decorations of the chapel of San Zenobio in the same church. The death
+of Lorenzo Il Magnifico in 1492, and the accession to chief power of his
+worthless son Piero, soon plunged Florence into political troubles, to
+which were by and by added the profound spiritual agitation consequent
+upon the preaching and influence of Savonarola. Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco
+de' Medici, who with his brother Giovanni was in a position of political
+rivalry against their cousin Piero, continued his patronage of
+Botticelli; and it was for him, apparently chiefly between the years
+1492 and 1495, that the master undertook to execute a set of drawings in
+illustration of Dante on a far more elaborate and ambitious plan than
+the little designs for the engraver which had been interrupted in 1481.
+Eighty-five of these drawings are in the famous manuscript acquired for
+the Berlin museum at the sale of the Hamilton Palace collection in 1882,
+and eleven more in the Vatican library at Rome. The series is one of the
+most interesting that has been preserved by any ancient master;
+revealing an intimate knowledge of and profound sympathy with the text;
+full of Botticelli's characteristic poetic yearning and vehemence of
+expression, his half-childish intensity of vision; exquisite in
+lightness of touch and in swaying, rhythmical grace of linear
+composition and design. These gifts were less suited on the whole to the
+illustration of the Hell than of the later parts of the poem, and in the
+fiercer episodes there is often some puerility and inadequacy of
+invention. Throughout the Hell and Purgatory Botticelli maintains a
+careful adherence to the text, illustrating the several progressive
+incidents of each canto on a single page in the old-fashioned way. In
+the Paradise he gives a freer rein to his invention, and his designs
+become less a literal illustration of the text than an imaginative
+commentary on it. Almost all interest is centred on the persons of Dante
+and Beatrice, who are shown us again and again in various phases of
+ascending progress and rapt contemplation, often with little more than a
+bare symbolical suggestion of the beatific visions presented to them.
+Most of the drawings remain in pen outline only over a light preliminary
+sketch with the lead stylus; all were probably intended to be finished
+in colour, as a few actually are. To the period of these drawings
+(1492-1497) would seem to belong the fine and finely preserved small
+round of the "Virgin and Child with Angels" at the Ambrosiana, Milan,
+and the famous "Calumny of Apelles" at the Uffizi, inspired no doubt by
+some contemporary translation of the text by Lucian, and equally
+remarkable by a certain feverish energy in its sentiment and
+composition, and by its exquisite finish and richness of execution and
+detail. Probably the small "St Augustine" in the Uffizi, the injured
+"Judith with the head of Holofernes" in the Kaufmann collection at
+Berlin, and the "Virgin and Child with St John," belonging to Mr
+Heseltine in London, are works of the same period.
+
+Simone di Mariano, a brother of Botticelli long resident at Naples,
+returned to Florence in 1493 and shared Sandro's home in the Via Nuova.
+He soon became a devoted follower of Savonarola, and has left a
+manuscript chronicle which is one of the best sources for the history of
+the friar and of his movement. Sandro himself seems to have remained
+aloof from the movement almost until the date of the execution of
+Savonarola and his two followers in 1498. At least there is clear
+evidence of his being in the confidence and employ of Lorenzo di
+Pierfrancesco so late as 1496 and 1497, which he could not possibly have
+been had he then been an avowed member of the party of the Piagnoni. It
+was probably the enforced departure of Lorenzo from Florence in 1497
+that brought to a premature end the master's great undertaking on the
+illustration of Dante. After Lorenzo's return, following on the
+overthrow and death of Savonarola in 1498, we find no trace of any
+further relations between him and Botticelli, who by that time would
+seem to have become a declared devotee of the friar's memory and an
+adherent, like his brother, of the defeated side. During these years of
+swift political and spiritual revolution in Florence, documents give
+some glimpses of him: in 1497 as painting in the monastery of Monticelli
+a fresco of St Francis which has perished; in the winter of the same
+year as bound over to keep the peace with, a neighbour living next to
+the small suburban villa which Sandro held jointly with his brother
+Simone in the parish of San Sepolcro; in 1499 as paying belated
+matriculation fees to the gild of doctors and druggists (of which the
+painters were a branch); and again in 1499 as carrying out some
+decorative paintings for a member of the Vespucci family. It has been
+suggested, probably with reason, that portions of these decorations are
+to be recognized in two panels of dramatic scenes from Roman history,
+one illustrating the story of Virginia, which has passed with the
+collection of Senatore Morelli into the gallery at Bergamo, the other a
+history of Lucretia formerly belonging to Lord Ashburnham, which passed
+into Mrs Gardner's collection at Boston. These and the few works still
+remaining to be mentioned are all strongly marked by the strained
+vehemence of design and feeling characteristic of the master's later
+years, when he dramatizes his own high-strung emotions in figures flung
+forward and swaying out of all balance in the vehemence of action, with
+looks cast agonizingly earthward or heavenward, and gestures of wild
+yearning or appeal. These characters prevail still more in a small Pieta
+at the Poldi-Pezzoli gallery, probably a contemporary copy of one which
+the master is recorded to have painted for the Panciatichi chapel in the
+church of Sta Maria Maggiore; they are present to a degree even of
+caricature in the larger and coarser painting of the same subject which
+bears the master's name in the Munich gallery, but is probably only a
+work of his school. The mystic vein of religious and political
+speculation into which Botticelli had by this time fallen has its finest
+illustration in the beautiful symbolic "Nativity" which passed in
+succession from the Aldobrandini, the Ottley, and the Fuller Maitland
+collections into the National Gallery in 1882, with the apocalyptic
+inscription in Greek which the master has added to make his meaning
+clear (No. 1034). In a kindred vein is a much-injured symbolic
+"Magdalene at the foot of the Cross" in private possession at Lyons.
+Among extant pictures those which from internal evidence we must put
+latest in the master's career are three panels illustrating the story of
+St Zenobius, of which one is at Dresden and the other two in the
+collection of Dr Mond in London. The documentary notices of him after
+1500 are few. In 1502 he is mentioned in the correspondence of Isabella
+d'Este, marchioness of Gonzaga, and in a poem by Ugolino Verino. In
+1503-1504 he served on the committee of artists appointed to decide
+where the colossal David of Michelangelo should be placed. In these and
+the following years we find him paying fees to the company of St Luke,
+and the next thing recorded of him is his death, followed by his burial
+in the Ortaccio or garden burial-ground of the Ognissanti, in May 1510.
+
+The strong vein of poetical fantasy and mystical imagination in
+Botticelli, to which many of his paintings testify, and the capacity for
+religious conviction and emotional conversion which made of him an
+ardent, if belated, disciple of Savonarola, coexisted in him, according
+to all records, with a strong vein of the laughing humour and love of
+rough practical and verbal jesting which belonged to the Florentine
+character in his age. His studio in the Via Nuova is said to have been
+the resort, not only of pupils and assistants, of whom a number seem to
+have been at all times working for him, but of a company of more or less
+idle gossips with brains full of rumour and tongues always wagging.
+Vasari's account of the straits into which he was led by his absorption
+in the study of Dante and his adhesion to the sect of Savonarola are
+evidently much exaggerated, since there is proof that he lived and died,
+not rich indeed, but possessed of property enough to keep him from any
+real pinch of distress. The story of his work and life, after having
+been the subject in recent years of much half-informed study and
+speculation, has at length been fully elucidated in the work of Mr H.P.
+Horne cited below,--a masterpiece of documentary research and critical
+exposition.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Vasari, _Le Opere_ (ed. Milanesi), vol. iii.;
+  Crowe-Cavalcaselle, _Hist. of Painting in Italy_, vol. ii.; Fr.
+  Lippmann, _Botticellis Zeichnungen zu Dantes Gottlicher Komodie_; Dr
+  Karl Woermann, "Sandro Botticelli" (in Dohme, _Kunst u. Kunstler_); Dr
+  Hermann Ulmann, _Sandro Botticelli_; Dr E. Steinmann, _Sandro
+  Botticelli_ (in Knackfuss series, valuable for the author's
+  elucidation of the Sixtine frescoes); I.B. Supino, _Sandro
+  Botticelli_; Bernhard Berenson, _The Drawings of Florentine Painters;
+  The Florentine Painters of the Renaissance_ (2nd ed.); _The Study and
+  Criticism of Italian Art_; papers in the _Burlington Magazine_, the
+  _Gazette des Beaux-Arts_ (to this critic is due the first systematic
+  attempt to discriminate between the original work of Botticelli and
+  that of his various pupils); J. Mesnil, _Miscellanea d'Arte_ and
+  papers in the _Rivista d'Arte_, &c.; W. Warburg, _Sandro Botticelli's
+  "Geburt der Venus" and "Fruhling"_; Julia Cartwright (Mrs Ady), _The
+  Life and Art of Sandro Botticelli_ (1904); F. Wickhoff in the
+  _Jahrbuch der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen_ (1906); Herbert P.
+  Horne, _Alessandro Filipepi commonly called Sandro Botticelli_ (1908);
+  this last authority practically supersedes all others.     (S. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOTTIGER, KARL AUGUST (1760-1835), German archaeologist, was born at
+Reichenbach on the 8th of June 1760. He was educated at the school of
+Pforta, and the university of Leipzig. After holding minor educational
+posts, he obtained in 1791, through the influence of Herder, the
+appointment of rector of the gymnasium at Weimar, where he entered into
+a circle of literary men, including Wieland, Schiller, and Goethe. He
+published in 1803 a learned work, _Sabina, oder Morgenszenen im
+Putzzimmer einer reichen Romerin_, a description of a wealthy Roman
+lady's toilette, and a work on ancient art, _Griechische Vasengemalde_.
+At the same time he assisted in editing the _Journal des Luxus und der
+Moden_, the _Deutsche Merkur_, and the _London and Paris_. In 1804 he
+was called to Dresden as superintendent of the studies of the court
+pages, and received the rank of privy councillor. In 1814 he was made
+director of studies at the court academy, and inspector of the Museum of
+Antiquities. He died at Dresden on the 17th of November 1835. His chief
+works are:--_Ideen zur Archaologie der Malerei_, i. (1811) (no more
+published); _Kunstmythologie_ (1811); _Vorlesungen und Aufsatze zur
+Alterthumskunde_ (1817); _Amalthea_ (1821-1825); _Ideen zur
+Kunstmythologie_ (1826-1836). The _Opuscula et Carmina Latina_ were
+published separately in 1837; with a collection of his smaller pieces,
+_Kleine Schriften_ (1837-1838), including a complete list of his works
+(56 pages). His biography was written by his son Karl Wilhelm Bottiger
+(1790-1862), for some time professor of history at Erlangen, and author
+of several valuable histories (_History of Germany_, _History of
+Saxony_, _History of Bavaria_, _Universal History of Biographies_).
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. _butta_, a flask;
+cf. Eng. "butt"), a vessel for containing liquids, generally as opposed
+to one for drinking from (though this probably is not excluded), and
+with a narrow neck to facilitate closing and pouring. The first bottles
+were probably made of the skins of animals. In the _Iliad_ (iii. 247)
+the attendants are represented as bearing wine for use in a bottle made
+of goat's skin. The ancient Egyptians used skins for this purpose, and
+from the language employed by Herodotus (ii. 121), it appears that a
+bottle was formed by sewing up the skin and leaving the projection of
+the leg and foot to serve as a vent, which was hence termed [Greek:
+podeon]. The aperture was closed with a plug or a string. Skin bottles
+of various forms occur on Egyptian monuments. The Greeks and Romans also
+were accustomed to use bottles made of skins; and in the southern parts
+Europe they are still used for the transport of wine. The first of
+explicit reference to bottles of skin in Scripture occurs in Joshua (ix.
+4), where it is said that the Gibeonites took "old sacks upon their
+asses, and wine-bottles _old and rent and bound up_." The objection to
+putting "new wine into old bottles" (Matt. ix. 17) is that the skin,
+already stretched and weakened by use, is liable to burst under the
+pressure of the gas from new wine. Skins are still most extensively used
+throughout western Asia for the conveyance and storage of water. It is
+an error to represent the bottles of the ancient Hebrews as being made
+exclusively of skins. In Jer. xix. 1 the prophet speaks of "a potter's
+earthen vessel." The Egyptians (see EGYPT: _Art and Archaeology_)
+possessed vases and bottles of hard stone, alabaster, glass, ivory,
+bone, porcelain, bronze, silver and gold, and also of glazed pottery or
+common earthenware. In modern times bottles are usually made of glass
+(q.v.), or occasionally of earthenware. The glass bottle industry has
+attained enormous dimensions, whether for wine, beer, &c., or mineral
+waters; and labour-saving machinery for filling the bottles has been
+introduced, as well as for corking or stoppering, for labelling and for
+washing them.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Skin Bottles, from specimens at Pompeii and
+Herculaneum.]
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLE-BRUSH PLANTS, a genus of Australian plants, known botanically as
+_Callistemon_, and belongiug to the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). They take
+their name from the resemblance of the head of flowers to a
+bottle-brush. They are well known in cultivation as greenhouse shrubs;
+the flower owes its beauty to the numerous long thread-like stamens
+which far exceed the small petals. _Callistemon salignus_ is a valuable
+hard wood.
+
+
+
+
+BOTTLENOSE WHALE (_Hyperoodon rostratus_), a member of the sperm-whale
+family, which is an inhabitant of the North Atlantic, passing the summer
+in the Spitzbergen seas and going farther south in winter. It resembles
+the sperm-whale in possessing a large store of oil in the upper part of
+the head, which yields spermaceti when refined; on this account, and
+also for the sake of the blubber, which supplies an oil almost
+indistinguishable from sperm-oil, this whale became the object of a
+regular chase in the latter half of the 19th century. In length these
+whales vary between 20 ft. and 30 ft.; and in colour from black on the
+upper surface in the young to light brown in old animals, the
+under-parts being greyish white. There is no notch between the flukes,
+as in other whales, but the hinder part of the tail is rounded.
+Bottlenoses feed on cuttle-fishes and squills, and are practically
+toothless; the only teeth which exist in the adult being a small pair at
+the front of the lower jaw, concealed beneath the gum during life.
+Examples have frequently been recorded on the British coasts. In
+November 1904 a female, 24 ft. long, and a calf 15 ft. long were driven
+ashore at Whitstable. (See CETACEA.)
+
+
+
+
+BOTTOMRY, a maritime contract by which a ship (or bottom) is
+hypothecated in security for money borrowed for expenses incurred in the
+course of her voyage, under the condition that if she arrive at her
+destination the ship shall be liable for repayment of the loan, together
+with such premium thereon as may have been agreed for; but that if the
+ship be lost, the lender shall have no claim against the borrower either
+for the sum advanced or for the premium. The freight may be pledged as
+well as the ship, and, if necessary, the cargo also. In some cases the
+personal obligation of the shipmaster is also included. When money is
+borrowed on the security of the cargo alone, it is said to be taken up
+at _respondentia_; but it is now only in rare and exceptional cases
+that it could be competent to the shipmaster to pledge the cargo, except
+under a general bottomry obligation, along with the ship and freight. In
+consideration of the risks assumed by the lender, the bottomry premium
+(sometimes termed _maritime interest_) is usually high, varying of
+course with the nature of the risk and the difficulty of procuring
+funds.
+
+A bottomry contract may be written out in any form which sufficiently
+shows the conditions agreed on between the parties; but it is usually
+drawn up in the form of a _bond_ which confers a maritime lien (q.v.).
+The document must show, either by express terms or from its general
+tenor, that the risk of loss is assumed by the lender,--this being the
+consideration for which the high premium is conceded. The lender may
+transfer the bond by indorsation, in the same manner as a bill of
+exchange or bill of lading, and the right to recover its value becomes
+vested in the indorsees. (See BOND.)
+
+According to the law of England, a bottomry contract remains in force so
+long as the ship exists _in the form of a ship_, whatever amount of
+damage she may have sustained. Consequently, the "constructive total
+loss" which is recognized in marine insurance, when the ship is damaged
+to such an extent that she is not worth repairing, is not recognized in
+reference to bottomry, and will not absolve the borrower from his
+obligation. But if the ship go to pieces, the borrower is freed from all
+liability under the bottomry contract; and the lender is not entitled to
+receive any share of the proceeds of such of the ship's stores or
+materials as may have been saved from the wreck. Money advanced on
+bottomry is not liable in England for general average losses. If the
+ship should _deviate_ from the voyage for which the funds were advanced,
+her subsequent loss will not discharge the obligation of the borrower
+under the bottomry contract. If she should not proceed at all on her
+intended voyage, the lender is not entitled to recover the bottomry
+premium in addition to his advance, but only the ordinary rate of
+interest for the temporary loan. As the bottomry premium is presumed, in
+every case, to cover the risks incurred by the lender, he is not
+entitled to charge the borrower with the premium which he may pay for
+_insurance_ of the sum advanced, in addition to that stipulated in the
+bond.
+
+The contract of bottomry seems to have arisen from the custom of
+permitting the master of a ship, when in a foreign country, to pledge
+the ship in order to raise money for repairs, or other extraordinary
+expenditures rendered necessary in the course of the voyage.
+Circumstances often arise, in which, without the exercise of this power
+on the part of the master, it would be impossible to provide means for
+accomplishing the voyage; and it is better that the master should have
+authority to burden the ship, and, if necessary, the freight and cargo
+also, in security for the money which has become requisite, than that
+the adventure should be defeated by inability to proceed. But the right
+of the master to pledge the ship or goods must always be created by
+necessity; if exercised without necessity the contract will be void.
+Accordingly, the master of a British ship has no power to grant a
+bottomry bond at a British port, or at any foreign port where he might
+raise funds on the personal credit of the shipowners. Neither has he any
+power to pledge the ship or goods for private debts of his own, but only
+for such supplies as are indispensable for the purposes of the voyage.
+And in all cases he ought, if possible, to communicate with the owners
+of the ship, and with the proprietor of the cargo before pledging their
+property ("The Bonaparte," 1853, 8 Moo. P.C. 473; "The Staffordshire,"
+1872, L.R. 4 P.C. 194). Increased facility of communication, by
+telegraph and otherwise, has given additional stringency to this rule,
+and caused a decline in the practice of giving bottomry bonds.
+
+The bottomry lender must use reasonable diligence to ascertain that a
+real necessity exists for the loan; but he is not bound to see to the
+application of the money advanced. If the lender has originally advanced
+the funds on the personal credit of the owner he is not entitled to
+require a bottomry obligation. A bond procured from the shipmaster by
+improper compulsion would be void.
+
+The power of the master to pledge the cargo depends upon there being
+some reasonable prospect of benefit to it by his so doing. He has no
+such power except in virtue of circumstances which may oblige him to
+assume the character of _agent for the cargo_, in the absence of any
+other party authorized to act on its behalf. Under ordinary
+circumstances he is not at liberty to pledge the cargo for repairs to
+the ship. If indeed the goods be of a perishable nature, and if it be
+impossible to get the ship repaired in sufficient time to obviate
+serious loss on them by delay, without including them under the bottomry
+contract, he has power to do so, because it may fairly be assumed, in
+the case supposed, that the cargo will be benefited by this procedure.
+The general principle is, that the master must act for the cargo, with a
+reasonable view to the interests of its proprietors, under the whole
+circumstances of the case. When he does this his proceedings will be
+sustained; but should he manifestly prejudice the interests of the cargo
+by including it under bottomry for the mere purpose of relieving the
+ship, or of earning the freight, the owners of the cargo will not be
+bound by the bottomry contract. Any bottomry or respondentia bond may be
+good in part or bad in part, according as the master may have acted
+_within_ or _beyond_ the scope of his legitimate authority in granting
+it. If two or more bottomry bonds have been granted at different stages
+of the voyage, and the value of the property be insufficient to
+discharge them all, the last-dated bond has the priority of payment, as
+having furnished the means of preserving the ship, and thereby
+preventing the total loss of the security for the previous bonds.
+
+When the sum due under a bottomry bond over ship, freight and cargo is
+not paid at the stipulated time, proceedings may be taken by the
+bondholder for recovery of the freight and for the sale of the ship; and
+should the proceeds of these be insufficient to discharge the claim, a
+judicial sale of the cargo may be resorted to. As a general rule the
+value of the ship and freight must be exhausted before recourse can be
+taken against the cargo. A bottomry bond gives no remedy to the lenders
+against the owners of the ship or cargo personally. The whole liability
+under it may be met by the surrender of the property pledged, whether
+the value so surrendered covers the amount of the bond or not. But the
+owners of the ship, though not liable to the bondholder for more than
+the value of the ship and freight, may be further liable to the
+proprietors of the cargo for any sum in excess of the cargo's proper
+share of the expenses, taken by the bondholder out of the proceeds of
+the cargo to satisfy the bond after the ship and freight have been
+exhausted.
+
+The bottomry premium must be ultimately paid by the parties for whose
+benefit the advances were obtained, as ascertained on the final
+adjustment of the average expenditures at the port of destination.
+
+  The practice of pledging property subject to maritime risks was common
+  among the ancient Greeks, being known as [Greek: ekdosis] or [Greek:
+  daneion] (see Demosthenes' speeches _Pro Phormione, Contra Lacritum_
+  and _In Dionysodorum_); it passed into Roman law as _foenus nauticum_
+  or _usura maritima_.
+
+  See also LIEN: _Maritime_; and generally Abbott on _Shipping_ (14th
+  ed., 1901).
+
+
+
+
+BOTZARIS [BOZZARIS], MARCO (c. 1788-1823), leader in the War of Greek
+Independence, born at Suli in Albania, was the second son of Kitzo
+Botzaris, murdered at Arta in 1809 by order of Ali of Iannina. In 1803,
+after the capture of Suli by Ali Pasha, Marco, with the remnant of the
+Suliots, crossed over to the Ionian Islands, where he ultimately took
+service in an Albanian regiment in French pay. In 1814 he joined the
+Greek patriotic society known as the _Hetairia Philike_, and in 1820,
+with other Suliots, made common cause with Ali of Iannina against the
+Ottomans. On the outbreak of the Greek revolt, he distinguished himself
+by his courage, tenacity and skill as a partisan leader in the fighting
+in western Hellas, and was conspicuous in the defence of Missolonghi
+during the first siege (1822-1823). On the night of the 21st of August
+1823 he led the celebrated attack at Karpenisi of 350 Suliots on 4000
+Albanians who formed the vanguard of the army with which Mustai Pasha
+was advancing to reinforce the besiegers. The rout of the Turks was
+complete; but Botzaris himself fell. His memory is still celebrated in
+popular ballads in Greece. Marco Botzaris's brother Kosta (Constantine),
+who fought at Karpenisi and completed the victory, lived to become a
+general and senator in the Greek kingdom. He died at Athens on the 13th
+of November 1853. Marco's son, Dimitri Botzaris, born in 1813, was three
+times minister of war under the kings Otho and George. He died at Athens
+on the 17th of August 1870.
+
+
+
+
+BOTZEN, or BOZEN (Ital. _Bolzano_), a town in the Austrian province of
+Tirol, situated at the confluence of the Talfer with the Eisak, and a
+short way above the junction of the latter with the Adige or Etsch. It
+is built at a height of 869 ft., and is a station on the Brenner
+railway, being 58 m. S. of that pass and 35 m. N. of Trent. In 1900 it
+had a population of 13,632, Romanist and mainly German-speaking, though
+the Italian element is said to be increasing. Botzen is a Teutonic town
+amid Italian surroundings. It is well built, and boasts of a fine old
+Gothic parish church, dating from the 14th and 15th centuries, opposite
+which a statue was erected in 1889 to the memory of the famous
+_Minnesanger_, Walther von der Vogelweide, who, according to some
+accounts, was born (c. 1170) at a farm above Waidbruck, to the north of
+Botzen. Botzen is the busiest commercial town in the German-speaking
+portion of Tirol, being admirably situated at the junction of the
+Brenner route from Germany to Italy with that from Switzerland down the
+Upper Adige valley or the Vintschgau. Hence the transit trade has always
+been very considerable (it has four large fairs annually), while the
+local wine is mentioned as early as the 7th century. Lately its
+prosperity has been increased by the rise into favour as a winter resort
+of the village of Gries, on the other bank of the Talfer, and now
+practically a suburb of Botzen.
+
+The _pons Drusi_ (probably over the Adige, just below Botzen) is
+mentioned in the 4th century by the _Peutinger Table_. In the 7th to 8th
+centuries Botzen was held by a dynasty of Bavarian counts. But in 1027,
+with the rest of the diocese of Trent, it was given by the emperor
+Conrad II. to the bishop of Trent. From 1028 onwards it was ruled by
+local counts, the vassals of the bishops, but after Tirol fell into the
+hands of the Habsburgers (1363) their power grew at the expense of that
+of the bishops. In 1381 Leopold granted to the citizens the privilege of
+having a town council, while in 1462 the bishops resigned all rights of
+jurisdiction over the town to the Habsburgers, so that its later history
+is merged in that of Tirol.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHARDON, EDME (1698-1762), French sculptor, was esteemed in his day
+the greatest sculptor of his time. Born at Chaumont, he became the pupil
+of Guillaume Coustou and gained the _prix de Rome_ in 1722. Resisting
+the tendency of the day he was classic in his taste, pure and chaste,
+always correct, charming and distinguished, a great stickler for all the
+finish that sand-paper could give. During the ten years he remained at
+Rome, Bouchardon made a striking bust of Pope Benedict XIII. (1730). In
+1746 he produced his first acclaimed masterpiece, "Cupid fashioning a
+Bow out of the Club of Hercules," perfect in its grace, but cold in the
+purity of its classic design. His two other leading _chefs-d'oeuvre_ are
+the fountain in the rue de Grenelle, Paris, the first portions of which
+had been finished and exhibited in 1740, and the equestrian statue of
+Louis XV., a commission from the city of Paris. This superb work, which,
+when the model was produced, was declared the finest work of its kind
+ever produced in France, Bouchardon did not live to finish, but left its
+completion to Pigalle. It was destroyed during the Revolution.
+
+  Among the chief books on the sculptor and his art are _Vie d'Edme
+  Bouchardon_, by le comte de Caylus (Paris, 1762); _Notice sur Edme
+  Bouchardon, sculpteur_, by E. Jolibois (Versailles, 1837); _Notice
+  historique sur Edme Bouchardon_, by J. Carnandet (Paris, 1855); and
+  _French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th Century_, by Lady Dilke
+  (London, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER, FRANCOIS (1703-1770), French painter, was born in Paris, and at
+first was employed by Jean Francois Cars (1670-1739), the engraver,
+father of the engraver Laurent Cars (1699-1771), to make designs and
+illustrations for books. In 1727, however, he went to Italy, and at
+Rome became well known as a painter. He returned to Paris in 1731 and
+soon became a favourite in society. His picture "Rinaldo and Armida"
+(1734) is now in the Louvre. He was made inspector of the Gobelins
+factory in 1755 and court painter in 1765, and was employed by Madame de
+Pompadour both to paint her portrait and to execute various decorative
+works. He died in 1770. His Watteau-like style and graceful
+voluptuousness gave him the title of the Anacreon of painting, but his
+repute declined until recent years. The Wallace collection, at Hertford
+House, has some of his finest pictures, outside the Louvre. His etchings
+were also numerous and masterly.
+
+  See Antoine Bret's notice in the _Necrologe des hommes celebres_ for
+  1771, and the monographs by the brothers de Goncourt and Paul Mantz.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER, JONATHAN (1738-1804), English divine and philologist, was born
+in the hamlet of Blencogo, near Wigton, Cumberland, on the 12th of March
+1738. He was educated at the Wigton grammar school, and about 1754 went
+to Virginia, where he became a private tutor in the families of Virginia
+planters. Among his charges was John Parke Custis, the step-son of
+George Washington, with whom he began a long and intimate friendship.
+Returning to England, he was ordained by the bishop of London in March
+1762, and at once sailed again for America, where he remained until 1775
+as rector of various Virginia and Maryland parishes, including Hanover,
+King George's county, Virginia, and St Anne's at Annapolis, Maryland. He
+was widely known as an eloquent preacher, and his scholarly attainments
+won for him the friendship and esteem of some of the ablest scholars in
+the colonies. During his residence in Maryland he vigorously opposed the
+"vestry act," by which the powers and emoluments of the Maryland pastors
+were greatly diminished. When the struggle between the colonies and the
+mother country began, although he felt much sympathy for the former, his
+opposition to any form of obstruction to the Stamp Act and other
+measures, and his denunciation of a resort to force created a breach
+between him and his parish, and in a fiery farewell discourse preached
+after the opening of hostilities he declared that no power on earth
+should prevent him from praying and shouting "God save the King." In the
+succeeding autumn he returned to England, where his loyalism was
+rewarded by a government pension. In 1784 he became vicar of Epsom in
+Surrey, where he continued until his death on the 27th of April 1804,
+becoming known as one of the most eloquent preachers of his day. He was
+an accomplished writer and scholar, contributed largely to William
+Hutchinson's _History of the County of Cumberland_ (2 vols., 1704 seq.),
+and published _A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American
+Revolution_ (1797), dedicated to George Washington, and consisting of
+thirteen discourses delivered in America between 1763 and 1775. His
+philological studies, to which the last fourteen years of his life were
+devoted, resulted in the compilation of "A Glossary of Provincial and
+Archaic Words," intended as a supplement to Dr Johnson's _Dictionary_,
+but never published except in part, which finally in 1831 passed into
+the hands of the English compilers of Webster's _Dictionary_, by whom it
+was utilized.
+
+His son, BARTON BOUCHER (1794-1865), rector of Fonthill Bishops,
+Wiltshire, in 1856, was well known as the author of religious tracts,
+hymns and novels.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHER DE CREVCOEUR DE PERTHES, JACQUES (1788-1868), French geologist
+and antiquary, was born on the 10th of September 1788 at Rethel,
+Ardennes, France. He was the eldest son of Jules Armand Guillaume
+Boucher de Crevecoeur, botanist and customs officer, and of
+Etienne-Jeanne-Marie de Perthes (whose surname he was authorized by
+royal decree in 1818 to assume in addition to his father's). In 1802 he
+entered government employ as an officer of customs. His duties kept him
+for six years in Italy, whence returning (in 1811) he found rapid
+promotion at home, and finally was appointed (March 1825) to succeed his
+father as director of the _douane_ at Abbeville, where he remained for
+the rest of his life, being superannuated in January 1853, and dying on
+the 5th of August 1868. His leisure was chiefly devoted to the study of
+what was afterwards called the Stone Age, "antediluvian man," as he
+expressed it. About the year 1830 he had found, in the gravels of the
+Somme valley, flints which in his opinion bore evidence of human
+handiwork; but not until many years afterwards did he make public the
+important discovery of a worked flint implement with remains of
+elephant, rhinoceros, &c., in the gravels of Menchecourt. This was in
+1846. A few years later he commenced the issue of his monumental work,
+_Antiquites celtiques et an ediluviennes_ (1847, 1857, 1864; 3 vols.), a
+work in which he was the first to establish the existence of man in the
+Pleistocene or early Quaternary period. His views met with little
+approval, partly because he had previously propounded theories regarding
+the antiquity of man without facts to support them, partly because the
+figures in his book were badly executed and they included drawings of
+flints which showed no clear sign of workmanship. In 1855 Dr Jean Paul
+Rigollot (1810-1873), of Amiens, strongly advocated the authenticity of
+the flint implements; but it was not until 1858 that Hugh Falconer
+(q.v.) saw the collection at Abbeville and induced Prestwich (q.v.) in
+the following year to visit the locality. Prestwich then definitely
+agreed that the flint implements were the work of man, and that they
+occurred in undisturbed ground in association with remains of extinct
+mammalia. In 1863 his discovery of a human jaw, together with worked
+flints, in a gravel-pit at Moulin-Quignon near Abbeville seemed to
+vindicate Boucher de Perthes entirely; but doubt was thrown on the
+antiquity of the human remains (owing to the possibility of interment),
+though not on the good faith of the discoverer, who was the same year
+made an officer of the Legion of Honour together with Quatrefages his
+champion. Boucher de Perthes displayed activity in many other
+directions. For more than thirty years he filled the presidential chair
+of the Societe d'Emulation at Abbeville, to the publications of which he
+contributed articles on a wide range of subjects. He was the author of
+several tragedies, two books of fiction, several works of travel, and a
+number of books on economic and philanthropic questions. To his
+scientific books may be added _De l'homme antedilumen et de ses oeuvres_
+(Paris, 1860).
+
+  See Alcius Ledien, _Boucher de Perthes; sa vie, ses oeuvres, sa
+  correspondence_ (Abbeville, 1885); Lady Prestwich, "Recollections of
+  M. Boucher de Perthes" (with portrait) in _Essays Descriptive and
+  Biographical_ (1901).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHES-DU-RHONE, a maritime department of south-eastern France situated
+at the mouth of the Rhone. Area, 2026 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 765,918. Formed
+in 1790 from western Provence, it is bounded N. by Vaucluse, from which
+it is separated by the Durance, E. by Var, W. by Card, and S. by the
+Mediterranean, along which its seaboard stretches for about 120 m. The
+western portion consists of the Camargue (q.v.), a low and marshy plain
+enclosed between the Rhone and the Petit-Rhone, and comprising the Rhone
+delta. A large portion of its surface is covered by lagoons and pools
+(etangs), the largest of which is the Etang de Vaccares; to the east of
+the Camargue is situated the remarkable stretch of country called the
+Crau, which is strewn with pebbles like the sea-beach; and farther east
+and north there are various ranges of mountains of moderate elevation
+belonging to the Alpine system. The Etang de Berre, a lagoon covering an
+area of nearly 60 sq. m., is situated near the sea to the south-east of
+the Crau. A few small tributaries of the Rhone and the Durance, a number
+of streams, such as the Arc and the Touloubre, which flow into the Etang
+de Berre, and the Huveaune, which finds its way directly to the sea, are
+the only rivers that properly belong to the department.
+
+Bouches-du-Rhone enjoys the beautiful climate of the Mediterranean
+coast, the chief drawback being the mistral, the icy north-west wind
+blowing from the central plateau of France. The proportion of arable
+land is small, though the quantity has been considerably increased by
+artificial irrigation and by the draining of marshland. Cereals, of
+which wheat and oats are the commonest, are grown in the Camargue and
+the plain of Aries, but they are of less importance than the olive-tree,
+which is grown largely in the east of the department and supplies the
+oil-works of Marseilles. The vine is also cultivated, the method of
+submersion being used as a safeguard against phylloxera. In the cantons
+of the north-west large quantities of early vegetables are produced. Of
+live-stock, sheep alone are raised to any extent. Almonds, figs, capers,
+mulberry trees and silkworms are sources of considerable profit. Iron is
+worked, but the most important mines are those of lignite, in which
+between 2000 and 3000 workmen are employed; the department also produces
+bauxite, building-stone, lime, cement, gypsum, clay, sand and gravel and
+marble. The salt marshes employ many workmen, and the amount of sea-salt
+obtained exceeds in quantity the produce of any other department in
+France. Marseilles, the capital, is by far the most important industrial
+town. In its oil-works, soap-works, metallurgical works, shipbuilding
+works, distilleries, flour-mills, chemical works, tanneries, engineering
+and machinery works, brick and tile works, manufactories of preserved
+foods and biscuits, and other industrial establishments, is concentrated
+most of the manufacturing activity of the department. To these must be
+added the potteries of the industrial town of Aubagne, the silk-works in
+the north-west cantons, and various paper and cardboard manufactories,
+while several of the industries of Marseilles, such as the distilling of
+oil, metal-founding, shipbuilding and soap-making, are common to the
+whole of Bouches-du-Rhone. Fishing is also an important industry.
+Cereals, flour, silk, woollen and cotton goods, wine, brandy, oils,
+soap, sugar and coffee are chief exports; cereals, oil-seeds, wine and
+brandy, raw sugar, cattle, timber, silk, wool, cotton, coal, &c., are
+imported. The foreign commerce of the department, which is principally
+carried on in the Mediterranean basin, is for the most part concentrated
+in the capital; the minor ports are Martigues, Cassis and La Ciotat.
+Internal trade is facilitated by the canal from Aries to Port-de-Bouc
+and two smaller canals, in all about 35 m. in length. The Rhone and the
+Petit-Rhone are both navigable within the department.
+
+Bouches-du-Rhone is divided into the three arrondissements of
+Marseilles, Aix and Arles (33 cantons, 111 communes). It belongs to the
+archiepiscopal province of Aix, to the region of the XV. army corps, the
+headquarters of which are at Marseilles, and to the _academie_
+(educational division) of Aix. Its court of appeal is at Aix.
+Marseilles, Aix, Arles, La Ciotat, Martigues, Salon, Les Saintes-Maries,
+St Remy, Les Baux and Tarascon, the principal places, are separately
+noticed. Objects of interest elsewhere may be mentioned. Near
+Saint-Chamas there is a remarkable Roman bridge over the Touloubre,
+which probably dates from the 1st century B.C. and is thus the oldest in
+France. It is supported on one semicircular span and has triumphal
+arches at either end. At Vernegues there are remains of a Roman temple
+known as the "Maison-Basse." The famous abbey of Montmajour, of which
+the oldest parts are the Romanesque church and cloister, is 2-1/2 m.
+from Arles. At Orgon there are the ruins of a chateau of the 15th
+century, and near La Roque d'Antheron the church and other buildings of
+the Cistercian abbey of Silvacane, founded in the 12th century.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHOR, MAURICE (1855-   ), French poet, was born on the 15th of
+December 1855 in Paris. He published in succession _Chansons joyeuses_
+(1874), _Poemes de l'amour et de la mer_ (1875), _Le Faust moderne_
+(1878) in prose and verse, and _Les Contes parisiens_ (1880) in verse.
+His _Aurore_ (1883) showed a tendency to religious mysticism, which
+reached its fullest expression in _Les Symboles_ (1888; new series,
+1895), the most interesting of his works. Bouchor (whose brother, Joseph
+Felix Bouchor, b. 1853, became well known as an artist) was a sculptor
+as well as a poet, and he designed and worked the figures used in his
+charming pieces as marionettes, the words being recited or chanted by
+himself or his friends behind the scenes. These miniature dramas on
+religious subjects, _Tobie_ (1889), _Noel_ (1890) and _Sainte Cecile_
+(1892), were produced in Paris at the Theatre des Marionnettes. A
+one-act verse drama by Bouchor, Conte de Noel, was played at the Theatre
+Francais in 1895, but _Dieu le veut_ (1888) was not produced. In
+conjunction with the musician Julien Tiersot (b. 1857), he made efforts
+for the preservation of the French folk-songs, and published _Chants
+populaires pour les ecoles_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOUCHOTTE, JEAN BAPTISTE NOEL (1754-1840), French minister, was born at
+Metz on the 25th of December 1754. At the outbreak of the Revolution he
+was a captain of cavalry, and his zeal led to his being made colonel and
+given the command at Cambrai. When Dumouriez delivered up to the
+Austrians the minister of war, the marquis de Beurnonville, in April
+1793, Bouchotte, who had bravely defended Cambrai, was called by the
+Convention to be minister of war, where he remained until the 31st of
+March 1794. The predominant role of the Committee of Public Safety
+during that period did not leave much scope for the new minister, yet he
+rendered some services in the organization of the republican armies, and
+chose his officers with insight, among them Kleber, Massena, Moreau and
+Bonaparte. During the Thermidorian reaction, in spite of his
+incontestable honesty, he was accused by the anti-revolutionists. He was
+tried by the tribunal of the Eure-et-Loire and acquitted. Then he
+withdrew from politics, and lived in retirement until his death on the
+8th of June 1840.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCICAULT, DION (1822-1890), Irish actor and playwright, was born in
+Dublin on the 26th of December 1822, the son of a French refugee and an
+Irish mother. Before he was twenty he was fortunate enough to make an
+immediate success as a dramatist with _London Assurance_, produced at
+Covent Garden on the 4th of March 1841, with a cast that included
+Charles Matthews, William Farren, Mrs Nesbitt and Madame Vestris. He
+rapidly followed this with a number of other plays, among the most
+successful of the early ones being _Old Heads and Young Hearts_, _Louis
+XI_., and _The Corsican Brothers_. In June 1852 he made his first
+appearance as an actor in a melodrama of his own entitled _The Vampire_
+at the Princess's theatre. From 1853 to 1869 he was in the United
+States, where he was always a popular favourite. On his return to
+England he produced at the Adelphi a dramatic adaptation of Gerald
+Griffin's novel, _The Collegians_, entitled _The Colleen Bawn_. This
+play, one of the most successful of modern times, was performed in
+almost every city of the United Kingdom and the United States, and made
+its author a handsome fortune, which he lost in the management of
+various London theatres. It was followed by _The Octoroon_ (1861), the
+popularity of which was almost as great. Boucicault's next marked
+success was at the Princess's theatre in 1865 with _Arrah-na-Pogue_, in
+which he played the part of a Wicklow carman. This, and his admirable
+creation of Con in his play _The Shaughraun_ (first produced at Drury
+Lane in 1875), won him the reputation of being the best stage Irishman
+of his time. In 1875 he returned to New York City and finally made his
+home there, but he paid occasional visits to London, where his last
+appearance was made in his play, _The Jilt_, in 1886. _The Streets of
+London_ and _After Dark_ were two of his late successes as a dramatist.
+He died in New York on the 18th of September 1890. Boucicault was twice
+married, his first wife being Agnes Robertson, the adopted daughter of
+Charles Kean, and herself an actress of unusual ability. Three children,
+Dion (b. 1859), Aubrey (b. 1868) and Nina, also became distinguished in
+the profession.
+
+
+
+
+BOUCICAUT, JEAN [JEAN LE MEINGRE, called BOUCICAUT] (c. 1366-1421),
+marshal of France, was the son of another Jean le Meingre, also known as
+Boucicaut, marshal of France, who died on the 15th of March 1368 (N.S.).
+At a very early age he became a soldier; he fought in Normandy, in
+Flanders and in Prussia, distinguishing himself at the battle of
+Roosebeke in 1382; and then after a campaign in Spain he journeyed to
+the Holy Land. Boucicaut's great desire appears to have been to fight
+the Turk, and in 1396 he was one of the French soldiers who marched to
+the defence of Hungary and shared in the Christian defeat at Nicopolis,
+where he narrowly escaped death. After remaining for some months a
+captive in the hands of the sultan, he obtained his ransom and returned
+to France; then in 1399 he was sent at the head of an army to aid the
+Eastern emperor, Manuel II., who was harassed by the Turks. Boucicaut
+drove the enemy from his position before Constantinople and returned to
+France for fresh troops, but instead of proceeding again to eastern
+Europe, he was despatched in 1401 to Genoa, who in 1396 had placed
+herself under the dominion of France. Here he was successful in
+restoring order and in making the French occupation effective, and he
+was soon able to turn his attention to the defence of the Genoese
+possessions in the Mediterranean. The energy which he showed in this
+direction involved him not only in a quarrel with Janus, king of Cyprus,
+but led also to a short war with Venice, whose fleet he encountered off
+Modon in the Archipelago in October 1403. This battle has been claimed
+by both sides as a victory. Peace was soon made with the republic, and
+then in 1409, while the marshal was absent on a campaign in northern
+Italy, Genoa threw off the French yoke, and Boucicaut, unable to reduce
+her again to submission, retired to Languedoc. He fought at Agincourt,
+where he was taken prisoner, and died in England. Boucicaut, who was
+very skilful in the tournament, founded the order of the _Dame blanche a
+l'ecu vert_, a society the object of which was to defend the wives and
+daughters of absent knights.
+
+  There is in existence an anonymous account of Boucicaut's life and
+  adventures, entitled _Livre des faits du bon messire Jean le Meingre
+  dit Boucicaut_, which was published in Paris by T. Godefroy in 1620.
+  See J. Delaville le Roulx, _La France en Orient: expeditions du
+  marechal Boucicaut_ (Paris, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+BOUDIN, EUGENE (1824-1898), French painter of the _paysage de mer_, was
+the son of a pilot. Born at Honfleur he was cabin-boy for a while on
+board the rickety steamer that plied between Havre and Honfleur across
+the estuary of the Seine. But before old age came on him, Boudin's
+father abandoned seafaring, and the son gave it up too, having of course
+no real vocation for it, though he preserved to his last days much of a
+sailor's character,--frankness, accessibility, open-heartedness. Boudin
+the elder now established himself as stationer and frame-maker; this
+time in the greater seaport town of Havre; and Eugene helped in the
+little business, and, in stolen hours, produced certain drawings. That
+was a time at which the romantic outlines of the Norman coast engaged
+Isabey, and the green wide valleys of the inland country engaged Troyon;
+and Troyon and Isabey, and Millet too, came to the shop at Havre. Young
+Boudin found his desire to be a painter stimulated by their influence;
+his work made a certain progress, and the interest taken in the young
+man resulted in his being granted for a short term of years by the town
+of his adoption a pension, that he might study painting. He studied
+partly in Paris; but whatever individuality he possessed in those years
+was hidden and covered, rather than disclosed. An instance of tiresome,
+elaborate labour--good enough, no doubt, as groundwork, and not out of
+keeping with what at least was the popular taste of that day--is his
+"Pardon of Sainte Anne de la Palud," a Breton scene, of 1858, in which
+he introduced the young Breton woman who was immediately to become his
+wife. This conscientious and unmoving picture hangs in the museum of
+Havre, along with a hundred later, fresher, thoroughly individual
+studies and sketches, the gift of Boudin's brother, Louis Boudin, after
+the painter's death. Re-established at Honfleur, Boudin was married and
+poor. But his work gained character and added, to merely academic
+correctness, character and charm. He was beginning to be himself by 1864
+or 1865--that was the first of such periods of his as may be accounted
+good--and, though not at that time so fully a master of transient
+effects of weather as he became later, he began then to paint with a
+success genuinely artistic the scenes of the harbour and the estuary,
+which no longer lost vivacity by deliberate and too obvious
+completeness. The war of 1870-71 found Boudin impecunious but great, for
+then there had well begun the series of freshly and vigorously conceived
+canvases and panels, which record the impressions of a precursor of the
+Impressionists in presence of the Channel waters, and of those autumn
+skies, or skies of summer, now radiant, now uncertain, which hung over
+the small ports and the rocky or chalk-cliff coasts, over the
+watering-places, Trouville, Dieppe, and over those larger harbours, with
+_port_ and _avant-port_ and _bassin_, of Dunkirk, of Havre. In the war
+time, Boudin was in Brittany and then in the Low Countries. About
+1875-1876 he was at Rotterdam and Bordeaux. That great bird's-eye
+vision of Bordeaux which is in the Luxembourg dates from these years,
+and in these years he was at Rotterdam, the companion of Jongkind, with
+whom he had so much in common, but whose work, like his, free and
+fearless and unconventional, can never be said with accuracy to have
+seriously influenced his own. Doing excellent things continually through
+all the 'seventies, when he was in late middle age--gaining scope in
+colour, having now so many notes--faithful no longer wholly to his
+amazing range of subtle greys, now blithe and silvery, now nobly
+deep--sending to the Salon great canvases, and to the few enlightened
+people who would buy them of him the _toile_ or panel of most moderate
+size on which he best of all expressed himself--Boudin was yet not
+acceptable to the public or to the fashionable dealer. The late
+'eighties had to come and Boudin to be elderly before there was a sale
+for his work at any prices that were in the least substantial. Broadly
+speaking his work in those very 'eighties was not so good as the labour,
+essentially delicate and fresh and just, of some years earlier, nor had
+it always the attractiveness of the impulsive deliverances of some years
+later, when the inspired sketch was the thing that he generally stopped
+at. Old age found him strong and receptive. Only in the very last year
+of his life was there perceptible a positive deterioration. Not very
+long before it, Boudin, in a visit to Venice, had produced impressions
+of Venice for which much more was to be said than that they were not
+Ziem's. And the deep colouring of the South, on days when the sunshine
+blazes least, had been caught by him and presented nobly at Antibes and
+Villefranche. At last, resorting to the south again as a refuge from
+ill-health, and recognizing soon that the relief it could give him was
+almost spent, he resolved that it should not be for him, in the words of
+Maurice Barres, a "_tombe fleurie_," and he returned, hastily, weak and
+sinking, to his home at Deauville, that he might at least die within
+sight of Channel waters and under Channel skies. As a "marine
+painter"--more properly as a painter of subjects in which water must
+have some part, and as curiously expert in the rendering of all that
+goes upon the sea, and as the painter too of the green banks of tidal
+rivers and of the long-stretched beach, with crinolined Parisienne noted
+as ably as the sailor-folk--Boudin stands alone. Beside him others are
+apt to seem rather theatrical--or if they do not romance they appear,
+perhaps, to chronicle dully. The pastels of Boudin--summary and economic
+even in the 'sixties, at a time when his painted work was less
+free--obtained the splendid eulogy of Baudelaire, and it was no other
+than Corot who, before his pictures, said to him: "You are the master of
+the sky."
+
+  See also Gustave Cahen, _Eugene Boudin_ (Paris, 1899); Arsene
+  Alexandre, _Essais_; Frederick Wedmore, _Whistler and Others_ (1906).
+      (F. We.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUDINOT, ELIAS (1740-1821), American revolutionary leader, was born at
+Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of Huguenot descent, on the 2nd of May 1740.
+He studied law at Princeton, New Jersey, in the office of Richard
+Stockton, whose sister Hannah he married in 1762, and in November 1760
+he was licensed as a counsellor and attorney-at-law, afterwards
+practising at Elizabethtown, New Jersey. On the approach of the War of
+Independence he allied himself with the conservative Whigs. He was a
+deputy to the provincial congress of New Jersey from May to August 1775,
+and from May 1777 until July 1778 was the commissary-general of
+prisoners, with the rank of colonel, in the continental army. He was one
+of the New Jersey members of the continental congress in 1778 and again
+from 1781 until 1783, and from November 1782 until October 1783 was
+president of that body, acting also for a short time, after the
+resignation of Robert R. Livingston, as secretary for foreign affairs.
+From 1789 to 1795 he sat as a member of the national House of
+Representatives, and from 1795 until 1805 he was the director of the
+United States mint at Philadelphia. He took an active part in the
+founding of the American Bible Society in 1816, of which he became the
+first president. He was a trustee and a benefactor of the college of New
+Jersey (afterwards Princeton University). In reply to Thomas Paine's
+_Age of Reason_, he published the _Age of Revelation_ (1790); he also
+published a volume entitled _A Star in the West, or a Humble Attempt to
+Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel_ (1816), in which he
+endeavours to prove that the American Indians may be the ten lost
+tribes. Boudinot died at Burlington, New Jersey, on the 24th of October
+1821.
+
+  See _The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias
+  Boudinot_, edited by J.J. Boudinot (Boston and New York, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+BOUE, AMI (1794-1881), Austrian geologist, was born at Hamburg on the
+16th of March 1794, and received his early education there and in Geneva
+and Paris. Proceeding to Edinburgh to study medicine at the university,
+he came under the influence of Robert Jameson, whose teachings in
+geology and mineralogy inspired his future career. Boue was thus led to
+make geological expeditions to various parts of Scotland and the
+Hebrides, and after taking his degree of M.D. in 1817 he settled for
+some years in Paris. In 1820 he issued his _Essai geologique sur
+l'Ecosse_, in which the eruptive rocks in particular were carefully
+described. He travelled much in Germany, Austria and southern Europe,
+studying various geological formations, and becoming one of the pioneers
+in geological research; he was one of the founders of the Societe
+Geologique de France in 1830, and was its president in 1835. In 1841 he
+settled in Vienna, and became naturalized as an Austrian. He died on the
+21st of November 1881. To the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna he
+communicated important papers on the geology of the Balkan States
+(1859-1870), and he also published _Memoires geologiques et
+paleontologiques_ (Paris, 1832) and _La Turquie d'Europe; observations
+sur la geographie, la geologie, l'histoire naturelle, &c._ (Paris,
+1840).
+
+
+
+
+BOUFFLERS, LOUIS FRANCOIS, DUC DE, comte de Cagny (1644-1711), marshal
+of France, was born on the 10th of January 1644. He entered the army and
+saw service in 1663 at the siege of Marsal, becoming in 1669 colonel of
+dragoons. In the conquest of Lorraine (1670) he served under Marshal de
+Crequi. In Holland he served under Turenne, frequently distinguishing
+himself by his skill and bravery; and when Turenne was killed by a
+cannon-shot in 1675 he commanded the rear-guard during the retreat of
+the French army. He was already a brigadier, and in 1677 he became
+_marechal de camp_. He served throughout the campaigns of the time with
+increasing distinction, and in 1681 became lieutenant-general. He
+commanded the French army on the Moselle, which opened the War of the
+League of Augsburg with a series of victories; then he led a corps to
+the Sambre, and reinforced Luxemburg on the eve of the battle of
+Fleurus. In 1691 he acted as lieutenant-general under the king in
+person; and during the investment of Mons he was wounded in an attack on
+the town. He was present with the king at the siege of Namur in 1692,
+and took part in the victory of Steinkirk. For his services he was
+raised in 1692 to the rank of marshal of France, and in 1694 was made a
+duke. In 1694 he was appointed governor of French Flanders and of the
+town of Lille. By a skilful manoeuvre he threw himself into Namur in
+1695, and only surrendered to his besiegers after he had lost 8000 of
+his 13,000 men. In the conferences which terminated in the peace of
+Ryswick he had a principal share. During the following war, when Lille
+was threatened with a siege by Marlborough and Eugene, Boufflers was
+appointed to the command, and made a most gallant resistance of three
+months. He was rewarded and honoured by the king for his defence of
+Lille, as if he had been victorious. It was indeed a species of triumph;
+his enemy, appreciating his merits, allowed him to dictate his own terms
+of capitulation. In 1708 he was made a peer of France. In 1709, when the
+affairs of France were threatened with the most urgent danger, Boufflers
+offered to serve under his junior, Villars, and was with him at the
+battle of Malplaquet. Here he displayed the highest skill, and after
+Villars was wounded he conducted the retreat of the French army without
+losing either cannon or prisoners. He died at Fontainebleau on the 22nd
+of August 1711.
+
+  See F...., _Vie du Mal. de Boufflers_ (Lille, 1852), and Pere
+  Delarue's and Pere Poisson's _Oraisons funebres du Mal. B._ (1712).
+
+
+
+
+
+BOUFFLERS, STANISLAS JEAN, CHEVALIER DE (1737-1815), French statesman
+and man of letters, was born near Nancy on the 31st of May 1738. He was
+the son of Louis Francois, marquis de Boufflers. His mother, Marie
+Catherine de Beauveau Craon, was the mistress of Stanislas Leszczynski,
+and the boy was brought up at the court of Luneville. He spent six
+months in study for the priesthood at Saint Sulpice, Paris, and during
+his residence there he put in circulation a story which became extremely
+popular, _Aline, reine de Golconde_. Boufflers did not, however, take
+the vows, as his ambitions were military. He entered the order of the
+Knights of Malta, so that he might be able to follow the career of arms
+without sacrificing the revenues of a benefice he had received in
+Lorraine from King Stanislas. After serving in various campaigns he
+reached the grade of _marechal de camp_ in 1784, and in the next year
+was sent to West Africa as governor of Senegal. He proved an excellent
+administrator, and did what he could to mitigate the horrors of the
+slave trade; and he interested himself in opening up the material
+resources of the colony, so that his departure in 1787 was regarded as a
+real calamity by both colonists and negroes. The _Memoires secrets_ of
+Bachaumont give the current opinion that Boufflers was sent to Senegal
+because he was in disgrace at court; but the real reason appears to have
+been a desire to pay his debts before his marriage with Mme de Sabran,
+which took place soon after his return to France. Boufflers was admitted
+to the Academy in 1788, and subsequently became a member of the
+states-general. During the Revolution he found an asylum with Prince
+Henry of Prussia at Rheinsberg. At the Restoration he was made
+joint-librarian of the Bibliotheque Mazarine. His wit and his skill in
+light verse had won him a great reputation, and he was one of the idols
+of the Parisian salons. His paradoxical character was described in an
+epigram attributed to Antoine de Rivarol, "_abbe libertin, militaire
+philosophe, diplomate chansonnier, emigre patriote, republicain
+courtisan_." He died in Paris on the 18th of January 1815.
+
+  His _OEuvres completes_ were published under his own supervision in
+  1803. A selection of his stories in prose and verse was edited by
+  Eugene Asse in 1878; his _Poesies_ by O. Uzanne in 1886; and the
+  _Correspondance inedite de la comtesse de Sabran et du chevalier de
+  Boufflers_ (1778-1788), by E. de Magnieu and Henri Prat in 1875.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE (1729-1811), French navigator, was born
+at Paris on the 11th of November 1729. He was the son of a notary, and
+in early life studied law, but soon abandoned the profession, and in
+1753 entered the army in the corps of musketeers. At the age of
+twenty-five he published a treatise on the integral calculus, as a
+supplement to De l'Hopital's treatise, _Des infiniment petits_. In 1755
+he was sent to London as secretary to the French embassy, and was made a
+member of the Royal Society. In 1756 he went to Canada as captain of
+dragoons and aide-de-camp to the marquis de Montcalm; and having
+distinguished himself in the war against England, was rewarded with the
+rank of colonel and the cross of St Louis. He afterwards served in the
+Seven Years' War from 1761 to 1763. After the peace, when the French
+government conceived the project of colonizing the Falkland Islands,
+Bougainville undertook the task at his own expense. But the settlement
+having excited the jealousy of the Spaniards, the French government gave
+it up to them, on condition of their indemnifying Bougainville. He was
+then appointed to the command of the frigate "La Boudeuse" and the
+transport "L'Etoile," and set sail in December 1766 on a voyage of
+discovery round the world. Having executed his commission of delivering
+up the Falkland Islands to the Spanish, Bougainville proceeded on his
+expedition, and touched at Buenos Aires. Passing through the Straits of
+Magellan, he visited the Tuamotu archipelago, and Tahiti, where the
+English navigator Wallis had touched eight months before. He proceeded
+across the Pacific Ocean by way of the Samoan group, which he named the
+Navigators Islands, the New Hebrides and the Solomon Islands. His men
+now suffering from scurvy, and his vessels requiring refitting, he
+anchored at Buru, one of the Moluccas, where the governor of the Dutch
+settlement supplied his wants. It was the beginning of September, and
+the expedition took advantage of the easterly monsoon, which carried
+them to Batavia. In March 1769 the expedition arrived at St Malo, with
+the loss of only seven out of upwards of 200 men. Bougainville's account
+of the voyage (Paris, 1771) is written with simplicity and some humour.
+After an interval of several years, he again accepted a naval command
+and saw much active service between 1779 and 1782. In the memorable
+engagement of the 12th of April 1782, in which Rodney defeated the comte
+de Grasse, near Martinique, Bougainville, who commanded the "Auguste,"
+succeeded in rallying eight ships of his own division, and bringing them
+safely into St Eustace. He was created _chef d'escadre_, and on
+re-entering the army, was given the rank of _marechal de camp_. After
+the peace he returned to Paris, and obtained the place of associate of
+the Academy. He projected a voyage of discovery towards the north pole,
+but this did not meet with support from the French government.
+Bougainville obtained the rank of vice-admiral in 1791; and in 1792,
+having escaped almost miraculously from the massacres of Paris, he
+retired to his estate in Normandy. He was chosen a member of the
+Institute at its formation, and returning to Paris became a member of
+the Board of Longitude. In his old age Napoleon I. made him a senator,
+count of the empire, and member of the Legion of Honour. He died at
+Paris on the 31st of August 1811. He was married and had three sons, who
+served in the French army.
+
+Bougainville's name is given to the largest member of the Solomon
+Islands, which belongs to Germany; and to the strait which divides it
+from the British island of Choiseul. It is also applied to the strait
+between Mallicollo and Espiritu Santo Islands of the New Hebrides group,
+and the South American climbing plant _Bougainvillea_, often cultivated
+in greenhouses, is named after him.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGHTON, GEORGE HENRY (1834-1905), Anglo-American painter, was born in
+England, but his parents went to the United States in 1839, and he was
+brought up at Albany, N.Y. He studied art in Paris in 1861-62, and
+subsequently lived mainly in London; he was much influenced by Frederick
+Walker, and the delicacy and grace of his pictures soon made his
+reputation. He was elected an A.R.A. in 1879, and R.A. in 1896, and a
+member of the National Academy of Design in New York in 1871. His
+pictures of Dutch life and scenery were especially characteristic; and
+his subject-pictures, such as the "Return of the Mayflower" and "The
+Scarlet Letter," were very popular in America.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGIE, a seaport of Algeria, chief town of an arrondissement in the
+department of Constantine, 120 m. E. of Algiers. The town, which is
+defended by a wall built since the French occupation, and by detached
+forts, is beautifully situated on the slope of Mount Guraya. Behind it
+are the heights of Mounts Babor and Tababort, rising some 6400 ft. and
+crowned with forests of pinsapo fir and cedar. The most interesting
+buildings in the town are the ancient forts, Borj-el-Ahmer and
+Abd-el-Kader, and the kasbah or citadel, rectangular in form, flanked by
+bastions and towers, and bearing inscriptions stating that it was built
+by the Spaniards in 1545. Parts of the Roman wall exist, and
+considerable portions of that built by the Hammadites in the 11th
+century. The streets are very steep, and many are ascended by stairs.
+The harbour, sheltered from the east by a breakwater, was enlarged in
+1897-1902. It covers 63 acres and has a depth of water of 23 to 30 ft.
+Bougie is the natural port of Kabylia, and under the French rule its
+commerce--chiefly in oils, wools, hides and minerals--has greatly
+developed; a branch railway runs to Beni Mansur on the main line from
+Constantine to Oran. Pop. (1906) of the town, 10,419; of the commune,
+17,540; of the arrondissement, which includes eight communes, 37,711.
+
+Bougie, if it be correctly identified with the Saldae of the Romans, is
+a town of great antiquity, and probably owes its origin to the
+Carthaginians. Early in the 5th century Genseric the Vandal surrounded
+it with walls and for some time made it his capital. En-Nasr
+(1062-1088), the most powerful of the Berber dynasty of Hammad, made
+Bougie the seat of his government, and it became the greatest commercial
+centre of the North African coast, attaining a high degree of
+civilization. From an old MS. it appears that as early as 1068 the
+heliograph was in common use, special towers, with mirrors properly
+arranged, being built for the purpose of signalling. The Italian
+merchants of the 12th and 13th centuries owned numerous buildings in the
+city, such as warehouses, baths and churches. At the end of the 13th
+century Bougie passed under the dominion of the Hafsides, and in the
+15th century it became one of the strongholds of the Barbary pirates. It
+enjoyed partial independence under amirs of Hafside origin, but in
+January 1510 was captured by the Spaniards under Pedro Navarro. The
+Spaniards strongly fortified the place and held it against two attacks
+by the corsairs Barbarossa. In 1555, however, Bougie was taken by Salah
+Rais, the pasha of Algiers. Leo Africanus, in his _Africae descriptio_,
+speaks of the "magnificence" of the temples, palaces and other buildings
+of the city in his day (c. 1525), but it appears to have fallen into
+decay not long afterwards. When the French took the town from the
+Algerians in 1833 it consisted of little more than a few fortifications
+and ruins. It is said that the French word for a candle is derived from
+the name of the town, candles being first made of wax imported from
+Bougie.
+
+
+
+
+BOUGUER, PIERRE (1698-1758), French mathematician, was born on the 16th
+of February 1698. His father, John Bouguer, one of the best
+hydrographers of his time, was regius professor of hydrography at
+Croisic in lower Brittany, and author of a treatise on navigation. In
+1713 he was appointed to succeed his father as professor of hydrography.
+In 1727 he gained the prize given by the Academie des Sciences for his
+paper "On the best manner of forming and distributing the masts of
+ships"; and two other prizes, one for his dissertation "On the best
+method of observing the altitude of stars at sea," the other for his
+paper "On the best method of observing the variation of the compass at
+sea." These were published in the _Prix de l'Academie des Sciences_. In
+1729 he published _Essai d'optique sur la gradation de la lumiere_, the
+object of which is to define the quantity of light lost by passing
+through a given extent of the atmosphere. He found the light of the sun
+to be 300 times more intense than that of the moon, and thus made some
+of the earliest measurements in photometry. In 1730 he was made
+professor of hydrography at Havre, and succeeded P.L.M. de Maupertuis as
+associate geometer of the Academie des Sciences. He also invented a
+heliometer, afterwards perfected by Fraunhofer. He was afterwards
+promoted in the Academy to the place of Maupertuis, and went to reside
+in Paris. In 1735 Bouguer sailed with C.M. de la Condamine for Peru, in
+order to measure a degree of the meridian near the equator. Ten years
+were spent in this operation, a full account of which was published by
+Bouguer in 1749, _Figure de la terre determinee_. His later writings
+were nearly all upon the theory of navigation. He died on the 15th of
+August 1758.
+
+  The following is a list of his principal works:--_Traite d'optique sur
+  la gradation de la lumiere_ (1729 and 1760); _Entretiens sur la cause
+  d'inclinaison des orbites des planetes_ (1734); _Traite de navire,
+  &c._ (1746, 4to); _La Figure de la terre determinee, &c._ (1749), 4to;
+  _Nouveau traite de navigation, contenant la theorie et la pratique du
+  pilotage_ (1753); _Solution des principaux problemes sur la manoeuvre
+  des vaisseaux_ (1757); _Operations faites pour la verification du
+  degre du meridien entre Paris et Amiens_, par Mess. Bouguer, Camus,
+  Cassini et Pingre(1757).
+
+  See J.E. Montucla, _Histoire des mathematiques_ (1802).
+
+
+
+
+BOUGUEREAU, ADOLPHE WILLIAM (1825-1905), French painter, was born at La
+Rochelle on the 30th of November 1825. From 1843 till 1850 he went
+through the course of training at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, and in 1850
+divided the Grand Prix de Rome scholarship with Baudry, the subject set
+being "Zenobia on the banks of the Araxes." On his return from Rome in
+1855 he was employed in decorating several aristocratic residences,
+deriving inspiration from the frescoes which he had seen at Pompeii and
+Herculaneum, and which had already suggested his "Idyll" (1853). He also
+began in 1847 to exhibit regularly at the Salon. "The Martyr's Triumph,"
+the body of St Cecilia borne to the catacombs, was placed in the
+Luxembourg after being exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1855; and in
+the same year he exhibited "Fraternal Love," a "Portrait" and a
+"Study." The state subsequently commissioned him to paint the emperor's
+visit to the sufferers by the inundations at Tarascon. In 1857
+Bouguereau received a first prize medal. Nine of his panels executed in
+wax-painting for the mansion of M. Bartholomy were much
+discussed--"Love," "Friendship," "Fortune," "Spring," "Summer,"
+"Dancing," "Arion on a Sea-horse," a "Bacchante" and the "Four Divisions
+of the Day." He also exhibited at the Salon "The Return of Tobit" (now
+in the Dijon gallery). While in antique subjects he showed much grace of
+design, in his "Napoleon," a work of evident labour, he betrayed a lack
+of ease in the treatment of modern costume. Bouguereau subsequently
+exhibited "Love Wounded" (1859), "The Day of the Dead" (at Bordeaux),
+"The First Discord" (1861, in the Club at Limoges), "The Return from the
+Fields" (a picture in which Theophile Gautier recognized "a pure feeling
+for the antique"), "A Fawn and Bacchante" and "Peace"; in 1863 a "Holy
+Family," "Remorse," "A Bacchante teasing a Goat" (in the Bordeaux
+gallery); in 1864 "A Bather" (at Ghent), and "Sleep"; in 1865 "An
+Indigent Family," and a portrait of Mme Bartholomy; in 1866 "A First
+Cause," and "Covetousness," with "Philomela and Procne"; and some
+decorative work for M. Montlun at La Rochelle, for M. Emile Pereire in
+Paris, and for the churches of St Clotilde and St Augustin; and in 1866
+the large painting of "Apollo and the Muses on Olympus," in the Great
+Theatre at Bordeaux. Among other works by this artist may be mentioned
+"Between Love and Riches" (1869), "A Girl Bathing" (1870), "In Harvest
+Time" (1872), "Nymphs and Satyrs" (1873), "Charity" and "Homer and his
+Guide" (1874), "Virgin and Child," "Jesus and John the Baptist," "Return
+of Spring" (which was purchased by an American collector, and was
+destroyed by a fanatic who objected to the nudity), a "Pieta" (1876), "A
+Girl defending herself from Love" (1880), "Night" (1883), "The Youth of
+Bacchus" (1884), "Biblis" (1885), "Love Disarmed" (1886), "Love
+Victorious" (1887), "The Holy Women at the Sepulchre" and "The Little
+Beggar Girls" (1890), "Love in a Shower" and "First Jewels" (1891). To
+the Exhibition of 1900 were contributed some of Bouguereau's best-known
+pictures. Most of his works, especially "The Triumph of Venus" (1856)
+and "Charity," are popularly known through engravings. "Prayer," "The
+Invocation" and "Sappho" have been engraved by M. Thirion, "The Golden
+Age" by M. Annetombe. Bouguereau's pictures, highly appreciated by the
+general public, have been severely criticized by the partisans of a
+freer and fresher style of art, who have reproached him with being too
+content to revive the formulas and subjects of the antique. At the Paris
+Exhibition of 1867 Bouguereau took a third-class medal, in 1878 a medal
+of honour, and the same again in the Salon of 1885. He was chosen by the
+Society of French Artists to be their vice-president, a post he filled
+with much energy. He was made a member of the Legion of Honour in 1856,
+an officer of the Order 26th of July 1876, and commander 12th of July
+1885. He succeeded Isidore Pils as member of the Institute, 8th of
+January 1876. He died on the 20th of August 1905.
+
+  See Ch. Vendryes, _Catalogue illustre des oeuvres de Bouguereau_
+  (Paris, 1885); Jules Claretie, _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_
+  (Paris, 1874); P.G. Hamerton, _French Painters; Artistes modernes:
+  dictionnaire illustre des beaux-arts_ (1885); "W. Bouguereau,"
+  _Portfolio_ (1875); Emile Bayard, "William Bouguereau," _Monde
+  moderne_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+BOUHOURS, DOMINIQUE (1628-1702), French critic, was born in Paris in
+1628. He entered the Society of Jesus at the age of sixteen, and was
+appointed to read lectures on literature in the college of Clermont at
+Paris, and on rhetoric at Tours. He afterwards became private tutor to
+the two sons of the duke of Longueville. He was sent to Dunkirk to the
+Romanist refugees from England, and in the midst of his missionary
+occupations published several books. In 1665 or 1666 he returned to
+Paris, and published in 1671 _Les Entretiens d'Ariste et d'Eugene_, a
+critical work on the French language, printed five times at Paris, twice
+at Grenoble, and afterwards at Lyons, Brussels, Amsterdam, Leiden, &c.
+The chief of his other works are _La Maniere de bien penser sur les
+ouvrages d'esprit_ (1687), _Doutes sur la langue francaise_ (1674), _Vie
+de Saint Ignace de Loyola_ (1679), _Vie de Saint Francois Xavier_
+(1682), and a translation of the New Testament into French (1697). His
+practice of publishing secular books and works of devotion alternately
+led to the _mot_, _"qu'il servait le monde et le ciel par semestre."_
+Bouhours died at Paris on the 27th of May 1702.
+
+  See Georges Doucieux, _Un Jesuite homme de lettres au dix-septieme
+  siecle: Le pere Bouhours_ (1886). For a list of Bouhours' works see
+  Backer and Sommervogel, _Bibliotheque de la Compagnie de Jesus_, i.
+  pp. 1886 et seq.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILHET, LOUIS HYACINTHE (1822-1869), French poet and dramatist, was
+born at Cany, Seine Inferieure, on the 27th of May 1822. He was a
+schoolfellow of Gustave Flaubert, to whom he dedicated his first work,
+_Meloenis_ (1851), a narrative poem in five cantos, dealing with Roman
+manners under the emperor Commodus. His volume of poems entitled
+_Fossiles_ attracted considerable attention, on account of the attempt
+therein to use science as a subject for poetry. These poems were
+included also in _Festons et astragales_ (1859). As a dramatist he
+secured a success with his first play, _Madame de Montarcy_ (1856),
+which ran for seventy-eight nights at the Odeon; and _Helene Peyron_
+(1858) and _L'Oncle Million_ (1860) were also favourably received. But
+of his other plays, some of them of real merit, only the _Conjuration
+d'Amboise_ (1866) met with any great success. Bouilhet died on the 18th
+of July 1869, at Rouen. Flaubert published his posthumous poems with a
+notice of the author, in 1872.
+
+  See also Maxime du Camp, _Souvenirs litteraires_ (1882); and H. de la
+  Ville de Mirmont, _Le Poete Louis Bouilhet_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLE, FRANCOIS CLAUDE AMOUR, MARQUIS DE (1739-1800), French general.
+He served in the Seven Years' War, and as governor in the Antilles
+conducted operations against the English in the War of American
+Independence. On his return to France he was named governor of the Three
+Bishoprics, of Alsace and of Franche-Comte. Hostile to the Revolution,
+he had continual quarrels with the municipality of Metz, and brutally
+suppressed the military insurrections at Metz and Nancy, which had been
+provoked by the harsh conduct of certain noble officers. Then he
+proposed to Louis XVI. to take refuge in a frontier town where an appeal
+could be made to other nations against the revolutionists. When this
+project failed as a result of Louis XVI.'s arrest at Varennes, Bouille
+went to Russia to induce Catherine II. to intervene in favour of the
+king, and then to England, where he died in 1800, after serving in
+various royalist attempts on France. He left _Memoires sur la Revolution
+francaise depuis son origine jusqu'a la retraite du duc de Brunswick_
+(Paris, 1801).
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLON, formerly the seat of a dukedom in the Ardennes, now a small
+town in the Belgian province of Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 2721. It is most
+picturesquely situated in the valley under the rocky ridge on which are
+still the very well preserved remains of the castle of Godfrey of
+Bouillon (q.v.), the leader of the first crusade. The town, 690 ft.
+above the sea, but lying in a basin, skirts both banks of the river
+Semois which is crossed by two bridges. The stream forms a loop round
+and almost encircles the castle, from which there are beautiful views of
+the sinuous valley and the opposite well-wooded heights. The whole
+effect of the grim castle, the silvery stream and the verdant woods
+makes one of the most striking scenes in Belgium. In the 8th and 9th
+centuries Bouillon was one of the castles of the counts of Ardenne and
+Bouillon. In the 10th and 11th centuries the family took the higher
+titles of dukes of Lower Lorraine and Bouillon. These dukes all bore the
+name of Godfrey (Godefroy) and the fifth of them was the great crusader.
+He was the son of Eustace, count of Boulogne, which has led many
+commentators into the error of saying that Godfrey of Bouillon was born
+at the French port, whereas he was really born in the castle of Baisy
+near Genappe and Waterloo. His mother was Ida d'Ardenne, sister of the
+fourth Godfrey ("the Hunchback"), and the successful defence of the
+castle when a mere youth of seventeen on her behalf was the first feat
+of arms of the future conqueror of Jerusalem. This medieval fortress,
+strong by art as well as position before the invention of modern
+artillery, has since undergone numerous sieges. In order to undertake
+the crusade Godfrey sold the castle of Bouillon to the prince bishop of
+Liege, and the title of duke of Bouillon remained the appendage of the
+bishopric till 1678, or for 580 years. The bishops appointed
+"chatelains," one of whom was the celebrated "Wild Boar of the
+Ardennes," William de la Marck. His descendants made themselves
+quasi-independent and called themselves princes of Sedan and dukes of
+Bouillon, and they were even recognized by the king of France. The
+possession of Bouillon thenceforward became a constant cause of strife
+until in 1678 Louis XIV. garrisoned it under the treaty of Nijmwegen.
+From 1594 to 1641 the duchy remained vested in the French family of La
+Tour d'Auvergne, one of whom (Henry, viscount of Turenne and marshal of
+France) had married in 1591 Charlotte de la Marck, the last of her race.
+In 1676 the duke of Crequy seized it in the name of Louis XIV., who in
+1678 gave it to Godefroy Marie de La Tour d'Auvergne, whose descendants
+continued in possession till 1795. Bouillon remained French till 1814,
+and Vauban called it "the key of the Ardennes." In 1760 the elder
+Rousseau established here the famous press of the Encyclopaedists. In
+1814-1815, before the decrees of the Vienna Congress were known, an
+extraordinary attempt was made by Philippe d'Auvergne of the British
+navy, the cousin and adopted son of the last duke, to revive the ancient
+duchy of Bouillon. The people of Bouillon freely recognized him, and
+Louis XVIII. was well pleased with the arrangement, but the congress
+assigned Bouillon to the Netherlands. Napoleon III. on his way to
+Germany after Sedan slept one night in the little town, which is a
+convenient centre for visiting that battlefield.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLOTTE, a French game of cards, very popular during the Revolution,
+and again for some years from 1830. Five, four or three persons may
+play; a piquet pack is used, from which, in case five play, the sevens,
+when four the knaves, and when three the queens also, are omitted.
+Counters or chips, as in poker, are used. Before the deal each player
+"antes" one counter, after which each, the "age" passing, may "raise"
+the pot; those not "seeing the raise" being obliged to drop out. Three
+cards are dealt to each player, and a thirteenth, called the _retourne_,
+when four play, turned up. Each player must then bet, call, raise or
+drop out. When a call is made the hands are shown and the best hand
+wins. The hands rank as follows: _brelan carre_, four of a kind, one
+being the _retourne_; _simple brelan_, three of a kind, ace being high;
+_brelan favori_, three of a kind, one being the _retourne_. When no
+player holds a _brelan_ the hand holding the greatest number of pips
+wins, ace counting 11, and court cards 10.
+
+
+
+
+BOUILLY, JEAN NICOLAS (1763-1842), French author, was born near Tours on
+the 24th of January 1763. At the outbreak of the Revolution he held
+office under the new government, and had a considerable share in the
+organization of primary education. In 1799 he retired from public life
+to devote himself to literature. His numerous works include the musical
+comedy, _Pierre le Grand_ (1790), for Gretry's music, and the opera,
+_Les Deux Journees_ (1800), music by Cherubini; also _L'Abbe de l'epee_
+(1800), and some other plays; and _Causeries d'un vieillard_ (1807),
+_Contes a ma fille_ (1809), and _Les Adieux du vieux conteur_ (1835).
+His _Leonore_ (1798) formed the basis of the libretto of the _Fidelio_
+of Beethoven. Bouilly died in Paris on the 14th of April 1842.
+
+  See Bouilly, _Mes recapitulations_ (3 vols., 1836-1837); E. Legouve,
+  _Soixante ans de souvenir_ (lere partie, 1886).
+
+
+
+
+BOULAINVILLIERS, HENRI, COMTE DE (1658-1722), French political writer,
+was born at St Saire in Normandy in 1658. He was educated at the college
+of Juilly, and served in the army until 1697. He wrote a number of
+historical works (published after his death), of which the most
+important were the following: _Histoire de l'ancien gouvernement de la
+France_ (La Haye, 1727); _Etat de la France, avec des memoires sur
+l'ancien gouvernement_ (London, 1727); _Histoire de la pairie de France_
+(London, 1753); _Histoire des Arabes_ (1731). His writings are
+characterized by an extravagant admiration of the feudal system. He was
+an aristocrat of the most pronounced type, attacking absolute monarchy
+on the one hand and popular government on the other. He was at great
+pains to prove the pretensions of his own family to ancient nobility,
+and maintained that the government should be entrusted solely to men of
+his class. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1722.
+
+
+
+
+BOULANGER, the name of several French artists:--JEAN (1606-1660), a
+pupil of Guido Reni at Bologna, who had an academy at Modena; his cousin
+JEAN (1607-1680), a celebrated line-engraver; the latter's son MATTHIEU,
+another engraver; LOUIS (1806-1867), a subject-painter, the friend of
+Victor Hugo, and director of the imperial school of art at Dijon; the
+best-known, GUSTAVE RODOLPHE CLARENCE (1824-1888), a pupil of Paul
+Delaroche, a notable painter of Oriental and Greek and Roman subjects,
+and a member of the Institute (1882); and CLEMENT (1805-1842), a pupil
+of Ingres.
+
+
+
+
+BOULANGER, GEORGE ERNEST JEAN MARIE (1837-1891), French general, was
+born at Rennes on the 29th of April 1837. He entered the army in 1856,
+and served in Algeria, Italy, Cochin-China and the Franco-German War,
+earning the reputation of being a smart soldier. He was made a
+brigadier-general in 1880, on the recommendation of the duc d'Aumale,
+then commanding the VII. army corps, and Boulanger's expressions of
+gratitude and devotion on this occasion were remembered against him
+afterwards when, as war minister in M. Freycinet's cabinet, he erased
+the name of the due d'Aumale from the army list, as part of the
+republican campaign against the Orleanist and Bonapartist princes. In
+1882 his appointment as director of infantry at the war office enabled
+him to make himself conspicuous as a military reformer; and in 1884 he
+was appointed to command the army occupying Tunis, but was recalled
+owing to his differences of opinion with M. Cambon, the political
+resident. He returned to Paris, and began to take part in politics under
+the aegis of M. Clemenceau and the Radical party; and in January 1886,
+when M. Freycinet was brought into power by the support of the Radical
+leader, Boulanger was given the post of war minister.
+
+By introducing genuine reforms for the benefit of officers and common
+soldiers alike, and by laying himself out for popularity in the most
+pronounced fashion--notably by his fire-eating attitude towards Germany
+in April 1887 in connexion with the Schnaebele frontier
+incident--Boulanger came to be accepted by the mob as the man destined
+to give France her revenge for the disasters of 1870, and to be used
+simultaneously as a tool by all the anti-Republican intriguers. His
+action with regard to the royal princes has already been referred to,
+but it should be added that Boulanger was taunted in the Senate with his
+ingratitude to the duc d'Aumale, and denied that he had ever used the
+words alleged. His letters containing them were, however, published, and
+the charge was proved. Boulanger fought a bloodless duel with the baron
+de Lareinty over this affair, but it had no effect at the moment in
+dimming his popularity, and on M. Freycinet's defeat in December 1886 he
+was retained by M. Goblet at the war office. M. Clemenceau, however, had
+by this time abandoned his patronage of Boulanger, who was becoming so
+inconveniently prominent that, in May 1887, M. Goblet was not sorry to
+get rid of him by resigning. The mob clamoured for their "brav'
+general," but M. Rouvier, who next formed a cabinet, declined to take
+him as a colleague, and Boulanger was sent to Clermont-Ferrand to
+command an army corps. A Boulangist "movement" was now in full swing.
+The Bonapartists had attached themselves to the general, and even the
+comte de Paris encouraged his followers to support him, to the dismay of
+those old-fashioned Royalists who resented Boulanger's treatment of the
+duc d'Aumale. His name was the theme of the popular song of the
+moment--"C'est Boulanger qu'il nous faut"; the general and his black
+horse became the idol of the Parisian populace; and he was urged to play
+the part of a plebiscitary candidate for the presidency.
+
+The general's vanity lent itself to what was asked of it; after various
+symptoms of insubordination had shown themselves, he was deprived of
+his command in 1888 for twice coming to Paris without leave, and finally
+on the recommendation of a council of inquiry composed of five generals,
+his name was removed from the army list. He was, however, almost at once
+elected to the chamber for the Nord, his political programme being a
+demand for a revision of the constitution. In the chamber he was in a
+minority, since genuine Republicans of all varieties began to see what
+his success would mean, and his actions were accordingly directed to
+keeping the public gaze upon himself. A popular hero survives many
+deficiencies, and neither his failure as an orator nor the humiliation
+of a discomfiture in a duel with M. Floquet, then an elderly civilian,
+sufficed to check the enthusiasm of his following. During 1888 his
+personality was the dominating feature of French politics, and, when he
+resigned his seat as a protest against the reception given by the
+chamber to his revisionist proposals, constituencies vied with one
+another in selecting him as their representative. At last, in January
+1889, he was returned for Paris by an overwhelming majority. He had now
+become an open menace to the parliamentary Republic. Had Boulanger
+immediately placed himself at the head of a revolt he might at this
+moment have effected the _coup d'etat_ which the intriguers had worked
+for, and might not improbably have made himself master of France; but
+the favourable opportunity passed. The government, with M. Constans as
+minister of the interior, had been quietly taking its measures for
+bringing a prosecution against him, and within two months a warrant was
+signed for his arrest. To the astonishment of his friends, on the 1st of
+April he fled from Paris before it could be executed, going first to
+Brussels and then to London. It was the end of the political danger,
+though Boulangist echoes continued for a little while to reverberate at
+the polls during 1889 and 1890. Boulanger himself, having been tried and
+condemned _in absentia_ for treason, in October 1889 went to live in
+Jersey, but nobody now paid much attention to his doings. The world was
+startled, however, on the 30th of September 1891 by hearing that he had
+committed suicide in a cemetery at Brussels by blowing out his brains on
+the grave of his mistress, Madame de Bonnemains (_nee_ Marguerite
+Crouzet), who had died in the preceding July.
+
+  See also the article FRANCE: History; and Verly, _Le General Boulanger
+  et la conspiration monarchique_ (Paris, 1893).     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE, ANTOINE JACQUES CLAUDE JOSEPH, COMTE (1761-1840),
+French politician and magistrate, son of an agricultural labourer, was
+born at Chamousey (Vosges) on the 19th of February 1761. Called to the
+bar at Nancy in 1783, he presently went to Paris, where he rapidly
+acquired a reputation as a lawyer and a speaker. He supported the
+revolutionary cause in Lorraine, and fought at Valmy (1792) and
+Wissembourg (1793) in the republican army. But his moderate principles
+brought suspicion on him, and during the Terror he had to go into
+hiding. He represented La Meurthe in the Council of Five Hundred, of
+which he was twice president, but his views developed steadily in the
+conservative direction. Fearing a possible renewal of the Terror, he
+became an active member of the plot for the overthrow of the Directory
+in November 1799. He was rewarded by the presidency of the legislative
+commission formed by Napoleon to draw up the new constitution; and as
+president of the legislative section of the council of state he examined
+and revised the draft of the civil code. In eight years of hard work as
+director of a special land commission he settled the titles of land
+acquired by the French nation at the Revolution, and placed on an
+unassailable basis the rights of the proprietors who had bought this
+land from the government. He received the grand cross of the Legion of
+Honour and the title of count, was a member of Napoleon's privy council,
+but was never in high favour at court. After Waterloo he tried to obtain
+the recognition of Napoleon II. He was placed under surveillance at
+Nancy, and later at Halberstadt and Frankfort-on-Main. He was allowed to
+return to France in 1819, but took no further active part in politics,
+although he presented himself unsuccessfully for parliamentary election
+in 1824 and 1827. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1840. He
+published two books on English history--_Essai sur les causes qui, en
+1649, amenerent en Angleterre l'etablissement de la republique_ (Paris,
+1799), and _Tableau politique des regnes de Charles II et Jacques II,
+derniers rois de la maison de Stuart_ (The Hague, 1818)--which contained
+much indirect criticism of the Directory and the Restoration
+governments. He devoted the last years of his life to writing his
+memoirs, which, with the exception of a fragment on the _Theorie
+constitutionnelle de Sieyes_ (1836), remained unpublished.
+
+His elder son, Comte HENRI GEORGES BOULAY DE LA MEURTHE (1797-1858), was
+a constant Bonapartist, and after the election of Louis Napoleon to the
+presidency, was named (January 1849) vice-president of the republic. He
+zealously promoted popular education, and became in 1842 president of
+the society for elementary instruction.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER, a city and the county-seat of Boulder county, Colorado, U.S.A.,
+about 30 m. N.W. of Denver. Pop. (1890) 3330; (1900) 6150 (693
+foreign-born); (1910) 9539. It is served by the Union Pacific, the
+Colorado & Southern, and the Denver, Boulder & Western railways; the
+last connects with the neighbouring mining camps, and affords fine views
+of mountain scenery. Boulder lies about 5300 ft. above the sea on Middle
+Boulder Creek, a branch of the St Vrain river about 30 m. from its
+confluence with the Platte, and has a beautiful situation in the valley
+at the foot of the mountains. The state university of Colorado,
+established at Boulder by an act of 1861, was opened in 1877; it
+includes a college of liberal arts, school of medicine (1883), school of
+law (1892), college of engineering (1893), graduate school, college of
+commerce (1906), college of education (1908), and a summer school
+(1904), and has a library of about 42,000 volumes. There are a fine park
+of 2840 acres, the property of the city, and three beautiful canons near
+Boulder. At the southern limits, in a beautiful situation 400 ft. above
+the city, are the grounds of an annual summer school, the Colorado
+Chautauqua. The climate is beneficial for those afflicted with bronchial
+and pulmonary troubles; the average mean annual temperature for eleven
+years ending with 1907 was 51 deg. F. There are medicinal springs in the
+vicinity. The water-works are owned and operated by the city, the water
+being obtained from lakes at the foot of the Arapahoe Peak glacier in
+the Snowy Range, 20 m. from the city. The surrounding country is
+irrigated, and successfully combines agriculture and mining. There are
+ore sampling works and brick-making establishments. Oil and natural gas
+abound in the vicinity; there are oil refineries in the city; and in
+Boulder county, especially at Nederland, 18 m. south-west, and at
+Eldora, about 22 m. south-west of the city, has been obtained since 1900
+most of the tungsten mined in the United States; the output in 1907 was
+valued at about $520,000. The first settlement near the site of Boulder
+was made in the autumn of 1858. Placer gold was discovered on an
+affluent of Boulder Creek in January 1859. The town was laid out and
+organized in February 1859, and a city charter was secured in 1871 and
+another in 1882.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER (short for "boulder-stone," of uncertain origin; cf. Swed.
+_bullersten_, a large stone which causes a noise of rippling water in a
+stream, from _bullra_, to make a loud noise), a large stone, weathered
+or water-worn; especially a geological term for a large mass of rock
+transported to a distance from the formation to which it belongs.
+Similarly, in mining, a mass of ore found at a distance from the lode.
+
+
+
+
+BOULDER CLAY, in geology, a deposit of clay, often full of boulders,
+which is formed in and beneath glaciers and ice-sheets wherever they are
+found, but is in a special sense the typical deposit of the Glacial
+Period in northern Europe and America. Boulder clay is variously known
+as "till" or "ground moraine" (Ger. _Blocklehme_, _Geschiebsmergel_ or
+_Grundmorane_; Fr. _argile a blocaux_, _moraine profonde_; Swed.
+_Krosstenslera_). It is usually a stiff, tough clay devoid of
+stratification; though some varieties are distinctly laminated.
+Occasionally, within the boulder clay, there are irregular lenticular
+masses of more or less stratified sand, gravel or loam. As the boulder
+clay is the result of the abrasion (direct or indirect) of the older
+rocks over which the ice has travelled, it takes its colour from them;
+thus, in Britain, over Triassic and Old Red Sandstone areas the clay is
+red, over Carboniferous rocks it is often black, over Silurian rock it
+may be buff or grey, and where the ice has passed over chalk the clay
+may be quite white and chalky (chalky boulder clay). Much boulder clay
+is of a bluish-grey colour where unexposed, but it becomes brown upon
+being weathered.
+
+The boulders are held within the clay in an irregular manner, and they
+vary in size from mere pellets up to masses many tons in weight. Usually
+they are somewhat oblong, and often they possess a flat side or "sole";
+they may be angular, sub-angular, or well rounded, and, if they are hard
+rocks, they frequently bear grooves and scratches caused by contact with
+other rocks while held firmly in the moving ice. Like the clay in which
+they are borne, the boulders belong to districts over which the ice has
+travelled; in some regions they are mainly limestones or sandstones; in
+others they are granite, basalts, gneisses, &c.; indeed, they may
+consist of any hard rock. By the nature of the contained boulders it is
+often possible to trace the path along which a vanished ice-sheet moved;
+thus in the Glacial drift of the east coast of England many Scandinavian
+rocks can be recognized.
+
+With the exception of foraminifera which have been found in the boulder
+clay of widely separated regions, fossils are practically unknown; but
+in some maritime districts marine shells have been incorporated with the
+clay. See GLACIAL PERIOD; and GLACIER.
+
+
+
+
+BOULE (Gr. [Greek: boulae], literally "will," "advice"; hence a
+"council"), the general term in ancient Greece for an advisory council.
+In the loose Homeric state, as in all primitive societies, there was a
+council of this kind, probably composed of the heads of families, i.e.
+of the leading princes or nobles, who met usually on the summons of the
+king for the purpose of consultation. Sometimes, however, it met on its
+own initiative, and laid suggestions before the king. It formed a means
+of communication between the king and the freemen assembled in the
+Agora. In Dorian states this aristocratic form of government was
+retained (for the Spartan Council of Elders see GEROUSIA). In Athens the
+ancient council was called the Boule until the institution of a
+democratic council, or committee of the Ecclesia, when, for purposes of
+distinction, it was described as "the Boule on the Areopagus," or, more
+shortly, "the Areopagus" (q.v.). It must be clearly understood that the
+second, or Solonian Boule, was entirely different from the Areopagus
+which represented the Homeric Council of the King throughout Athenian
+history, even after the "mutilation" carried out by Ephialtes. Further,
+it is, as will appear below, a profound mistake to call the second Boule
+a "senate." There is no real analogy between the Roman senate and the
+Athenian council of Five Hundred.
+
+Before describing the Athenian Boule, the only one of its kind of which
+we have even fairly detailed information, it is necessary to mention
+that councils existed in other Greek states also, both oligarchic and
+democratic. A Boule was in the first place a necessary part of a Greek
+oligarchy; the transition from monarchy to oligarchy was nominally begun
+by the gradual transference of the powers of the monarch to the Boule of
+nobles. Further, in the Greek democracy, the larger democratic Boule was
+equally essential. The general assembly of the people was utterly
+unsuited to the proper management of state affairs in all their
+minutiae. We therefore find councils of both kinds in almost all the
+states of Greece. (1) At Corinth we learn that there was an oligarchic
+council of unknown numbers presided over by eight leaders (Nicol.
+Damasc. _Frag_. 60). It was probably like the old Homeric council,
+except that its constitution did not depend on a birth qualification,
+but on a high census. This was natural in Corinth where, according to
+Herodotus (ii. 167), mercantile pursuits bore no stigma. (2) From an
+inscription we learn that the Athenians, in imposing a constitution on
+Erythrae (about 450 B.C.), included a council analogous to their own.
+(3) In Elis (Thuc. v. 47) there was an aristocratic council of ninety,
+which was superseded by a popular council of six hundred (471). (4)
+Similarly in Argos there were an aristocratic council of eighty and
+later a popular council of much larger size (Thuc. v. 47). Councils are
+also found at (5) Rhodes, (6) Megalopolis (democratic), (7) Corcyra
+(democratic), (Thuc. iii. 70). Of these seven the most instructive is
+that of Erythrae, which proves that in the 5th century the Council of
+Five Hundred was so efficient in Athens that a similar body was imposed
+at Erythrae (and probably in the other tributary cities).
+
+_The Boule at Athens. History._--The origin of the second Boule, or
+Council of Four Hundred, at Athens is involved in obscurity. In the
+Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ (c. 4), it is stated that Draco
+established a council of 401, and that he transferred to it some of the
+functions of the Council of Areopagus (q.v.). It is, however, generally
+held (see DRACO) that this statement is untrue, and that it was Solon
+who first established the council as a part of the constitution.
+Thirdly, it has been held that the council was not invented either by
+Draco or by Solon, but was of older and unknown origin. Fourthly, it has
+also been maintained by some recent writers that no Boule existed before
+Cleisthenes. The principal evidence for this view is the omission of any
+reference to the Boule in one of the earliest Athenian inscriptions,
+that relating to Salamis (Hicks and Hill, No. 4), where in place of the
+customary formula of a later age, [Greek: hedoxe tae boulae kai to
+daemo], we have the formula [Greek: edochsen to daemo]. This argument is
+far from conclusive, and it is clear from the _Constitution_ (c. 20)
+that the resistance of the Boule to Cleomenes and Isagoras was anterior
+to the legislation of Cleisthenes (i.e. that the Boule in question was
+the Solonian and not the Cleisthenian). On the whole it is reasonable to
+conclude that it was Solon who invented the Boule to act as a
+semi-democratic check upon the democracy, whose power he was increasing
+at the expense of the oligarchs by giving new powers to the people in
+the Ecclesia and the Dicasteries. Practically nothing is known of the
+operations of this council until the struggle between Isagoras and
+Cleisthenes (Herod, v. 72). Solon's council had been based on the four
+Ionic tribes. When Cleisthenes created the new ten tribes in order to
+destroy the local influence of dominant families and to give the country
+demes a share in government, he changed the Solonian council into a body
+of 500 members, 50 from each tribe. This new body (see below) was the
+keystone of the Cleisthenean democracy, and may be said in a sense to
+have embodied the principle of local representation. After Cleisthenes,
+the council remained unaltered till 306 B.C., when, on the addition of
+two new tribes named after Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes,
+its numbers were increased to 600. In A.D. 126-127 the old number of 500
+was restored. A council of 750 members is mentioned in an inscription of
+the early 3rd century A.D., and about A.D. 400 the number of councillors
+had fallen to 300.
+
+
+  Solon's council.
+
+  Cleisthenes' council.
+
+_Constitution and Functions._--(a) Under Solon the council consisted of
+400 members, 100 from each of the four Ionic tribes. It is certain that
+all classes were eligible except the Thetes, but the method of
+appointment is not known. Three suggestions have been made, (1) that
+each tribe chose its representatives, (2) that they were chosen by lot
+from qualified citizens in rotation, (3) that the combined method of
+selection by lot from a larger number of elected candidates was
+employed. According to the passage in Plutarch's _Solon_ the functions
+of this body were from the first _probouleutic_ (i.e. it prepared the
+business for the Ecclesia). Others hold that this function was not
+assigned to it until the Cleisthenean reforms. When we consider,
+however, the double danger of leaving the Ecclesia in full power, and
+yet under the presidency of the aristocratic archons, it seems probable
+that the probouleutic functions were devised by Solon as a method of
+maintaining the balance. On this hypothesis the Solonian Boule was from
+the first what it certainly was later, a _committee_ of the Ecclesia,
+i.e. not a "senate." It may be regarded as certain that the system of
+Prytaneis was the invention of Cleisthenes, not of Solon. (b) Under
+Cleisthenes the council reached its full development as a democratic
+representative body. Its actual organization is still uncertain, but it
+may be inferred that it became gradually a more strictly self-existent
+body than the Solonian council. Every full citizen of thirty years of
+age was eligible, and, unlike other civil offices, it was permissible to
+serve twice, but not more than twice (_Ath. Pol._ c. 62). It may be
+regarded as certain, although our evidence is derived from inscriptions
+which date from the 3rd century B.C., that from the first the Bouleutae
+were appointed by the demes, in numbers proportionate to the size of the
+deme, and that from the first also the method of sortition was employed.
+For each councillor chosen by lot, a substitute was chosen in case of
+death or disgrace. After nomination each had to pass before the old
+council an examination in which the whole of his private life was
+scrutinized. After this, the councillors had to take an oath that they
+(1) would act according to the laws, (2) would give the best advice in
+their power, and (3) would carry out the examination of their successors
+in an impartial spirit. As symbols of office they wore wreaths; they
+received payment originally at the rate of one drachma a day,[1] at the
+end of the 4th century of five obols a day. At the end of the year of
+office each councillor had to render an account of his work, and if the
+council had done well the people voted crowns of honour. Within its own
+sphere the council exercised disciplinary control over its members by
+the device known as _Ecphyllophoria_; it could provisionally suspend a
+member, pending a formal trial before the whole council assembled _ad
+hoc_. The council had further a complete system of scribes or
+secretaries (_grammateis_), private treasury officials, and a paid
+herald who summoned the Boule and the Ecclesia. The meetings took place
+generally in the council hall (_Bouleuterion_), but on special occasions
+in the theatre, the stadium, the dockyards, the Acropolis or the
+Theseum. They were normally public, the audience being separated by a
+barrier, but on occasions of peculiar importance the public was
+excluded.
+
+
+  Prytaneis.
+
+The Ecclesia, owing to its size and constitution, was unable to meet
+more than three or four times a month; the council, on the other hand,
+was in continuous session, except on feast days. It was impossible that
+the Five Hundred should all sit every day, and, therefore, to facilitate
+the despatch of business, the system of Prytaneis was introduced,
+probably by Cleisthenes. By this system the year was divided into ten
+equal periods. During each of these periods the council was represented
+by the fifty councillors of one of the ten tribes, who acted as a
+committee for carrying on business for a tenth of the year. Each of
+these committees was led by a president (_Epistates_), who acted as
+chairman of the Boule and the Ecclesia also, and a third of its numbers
+lived permanently during their period of office in the Tholos (Dome) or
+Skias, a round building where they (with certain other officials and
+honoured citizens) dined at the public expense. In 378-377 B.C. (or
+perhaps in the archonship of Eucleides, 403) the presidency of the
+Ecclesia was transferred to the _Epistates of the Proedri_, the
+_Proedri_ being a body of nine chosen by lot by the Epistates of the
+Prytaneis from the remaining nine tribes. It was the duty of the Boule
+(i.e. the Prytany which was for the time in session) to prepare all
+business for the consideration of the Ecclesia. Their recommendation
+([Greek: probouleuma]) was presented to the popular assembly (for
+procedure, see ECCLESIA), which either passed it as it stood or made
+amendments subject to certain conditions. It must be clearly understood
+that the recommendation of the council had no intrinsic force until by
+the votes of the Ecclesia it passed into law as a psephism. But in
+addition to this function, the Council of the Five Hundred had large
+administrative and judicial control. (1) It was before the council that
+the Poletae arranged the farming of public revenues, the receipt of
+tenders for public works and the sale of confiscated property; further,
+it dealt with defaulting collectors ([Greek: eklogeis]), exacted the
+debts of private persons to the state, and probably drew up annual
+estimates. (2) It supervised the treasury payments of the Apodectae
+("Receivers") and the "Treasurers of the God." (3) From Demosthenes (_In
+Androt_.) it is clear that it had to arrange for the provision of so
+many triremes per annum and the award of the trierarchic crown. (4) It
+arranged for the maintenance of the cavalry and the special levies from
+the demes. (5) It heard certain cases of _eisangelia_ (impeachment) and
+had the right to fine up to 500 drachmas, or hand the case over to the
+Heliaea. The cases which it tried were mainly prosecutions for crimes
+against the state (e.g. treason, conspiracy, bribery). In later times it
+acted mainly as a court of first instance. Subsequently (_Ath. Pol._ c.
+45) its powers were limited and an appeal was allowed to the popular
+courts. (6) The council presided over the _dokimasia_ (consideration of
+fitness) of the magistrates; this examination, which was originally
+concerned with a candidate's moral and physical fitness, degenerated
+into a mere inquiry into his politics. (7) In foreign affairs the
+council as the only body in permanent session naturally received foreign
+envoys and introduced them to the Ecclesia. Further, the Boule, with
+the Strategi ("Generals"), took treaty oaths, after the Ecclesia had
+decided on the terms. The Xenophontic _Politeia_ states that the council
+of the 5th century was "concerned with war," but in the 4th century it
+chiefly supervised the docks and the fleet. On two occasions at least
+the council was specially endowed with full powers; Demosthenes (_De
+Fals. Leg._ p. 389) states that the people gave it full powers to send
+ambassadors to Philip, and Andocides (_De Myst._ 14 foil.) states that
+it had full power to investigate the affair of the mutilation of the
+Hermae on the night before the sailing of the Sicilian Expedition.
+
+It will be seen that this democratic council was absolutely essential to
+the working of the Athenian state. Without having any final legislative
+authority, it was a necessary part of the legislative machinery, and it
+may be regarded as certain that a large proportion of its
+recommendations were passed without alteration or even discussion by the
+Ecclesia. The Boule; was, therefore, in the strict sense a committee of
+the Ecclesia, and was immediately connected with a system of
+sub-committees which exercised executive functions.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--With this article compare ECCLESIA, STRATEGUS, ARCHON,
+  DRACO, SOLON, CLEISTHENES, where collateral information is given.
+  Besides the chief histories of Greece (Grote, ed. 1907, Meyer &c.),
+  see Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities_ (Eng. trans. by E.J. Brooks
+  and T. Nicklin, 1895); J.B. Bury, _History of Greece_ (1900); A.H.J.
+  Greenidge _Handbook of Greek Constitutional History_ (1896); J.E.
+  Sandys' edition of the _Constitution of Athens_; Boeckh, _Die
+  Staatshaushaltung der Athener_ (1886); Schumann, _Griechische
+  Altertumer_ (1897-1902); Busolt, _Die griechischen Staats- und
+  Rechtsaltertumer_ (1902). See also H. Swoboda, _Die griechischen
+  Volksbeschlusse_ (1890); Szanto, _Das griechische Burgerrecht_ (1892);
+  Perrot, _Essai sur le droit public d'Athenes_ (1869). It should be
+  observed that all works published before 1891 are so far useless that
+  they are without the information contained in the _Constitution of
+  Athens_ (q.v.). See also GREEK LAW.     (J. M. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The institution of pay for the councillors may safely be ascribed
+    to Pericles although we have no direct evidence of it before 411 B.C.
+    (Thuc. viii. 69; see PERICLES).
+
+
+
+
+BOULEVARD (a Fr. word, earlier _boulevart_, from Dutch or Ger.
+_Bollwerk_, cf. Eng. "bulwark"), originally, in fortification, an
+earthwork with a broad platform for artillery. It came into use owing to
+the width of the gangways in medieval walls being insufficient for the
+mounting of artillery thereon. The boulevard or bulwark was usually an
+earthen outwork mounting artillery, and so placed in advance as to
+prevent the guns of a besieger from battering the foot of the main
+walls. It was as a rule circular. Semicircular _demi-boulevards_ were
+often constructed round the bases of the old masonry towers with the
+same object. In modern times the word is most frequently used to denote
+a promenade laid out on the site of a former fortification, and, by
+analogy, a broad avenue in a town planted with rows of trees.
+
+
+
+
+BOULLE, ANDRE CHARLES (1642-1732), French cabinet-maker, who gave his
+name to a fashion of inlaying known as Boulle or Buhl work. The son of
+Jean Boulle, a member of a family of _ebenistes_ who had already
+achieved distinction--Pierre Boulle, who died c. 1636, was for many
+years _tourneur et menuisier du roy des cabinets d'ebene_,--he became
+the most famous of his name and was, indeed, the second
+cabinet-maker--the first was Jean Mace--who has acquired individual
+renown. That must have begun at a comparatively early age, for at thirty
+he had already been granted one of those lodgings in the galleries of
+the Louvre which had been set apart by Henry IV. for the use of the
+most talented of the artists employed by the crown. To be admitted to
+these galleries was not only to receive a signal mark of royal favour,
+but to enjoy the important privilege of freedom from the trammels of the
+trade gilds. Boulle was given the deceased Jean Mace's own lodging in
+1672 by Louis XIV. upon the recommendation, of Colbert, who described
+him as "_le plus habile ebeniste de Paris_," but in the patent
+conferring this privilege he is described also as "chaser, gilder and
+maker of marqueterie." Boulle appears to have been originally a painter,
+since the first payment to him by the crown of which there is any record
+(1669) specifies "ouvrages de peinture." He was employed for many years
+at Versailles, where the mirrored walls, the floors of "wood mosaic,"
+the inlaid panelling and the pieces in marqueterie in the Cabinet du
+Dauphin were regarded as his most remarkable work. These rooms were long
+since dismantled and their contents dispersed, but Boulle's drawings for
+the work are in the Musee des Arts Decoratifs. His royal commissions
+were, indeed, innumerable, as we learn both from the _Comptes des
+batiments_ and from the correspondence of Louvois. Not only the most
+magnificent of French monarchs, but foreign princes and the great nobles
+and financiers of his own country crowded him with commissions, and the
+_mot_ of the abbe de Marolles, "_Boulle y tourne en ovale_," has become
+a stock quotation in the literature of French cabinet-making. Yet
+despite his distinction, the facility with which he worked, the high
+prices he obtained, and his workshops full of clever craftsmen, Boulle
+appears to have been constantly short of money. He did not always pay
+his workmen, clients who had made considerable advances failed to obtain
+the fine things they had ordered, more than one application was made for
+permission to arrest him for debt under orders of the courts within the
+asylum of the Louvre, and in 1704 we find the king giving him six
+months' protection from his creditors on condition that he used the time
+to regulate his affairs or "ce scra la derniere grace que sa majeste lui
+fera la-dessus." Twenty years later one of his sons was arrested at
+Fontainebleau and kept in prison for debt until the king had him
+released. In 1720 his finances were still further embarrassed by a fire
+which, beginning in another atelier, extended to his twenty workshops
+and destroyed most of the seasoned materials, appliances, models and
+finished work of which they were full. The salvage was sold and a
+petition for pecuniary help was sent to the regent, the result of which
+does not appear. It would seem that Boulle was never a good man of
+business, but, according to his friend Mariette, many of his pecuniary
+difficulties were caused by his passion for collecting pictures,
+engravings and other objects of art--the inventory of his losses in the
+fire, which exceeded L40,000 in amount, enumerates many old masters,
+including forty-eight drawings by Raphael and the manuscript journal
+kept by Rubens in Italy. He attended every sale of drawings and
+engravings, borrowed at high interest to pay for his purchases, and when
+the next sale took place, fresh expedients were devised for obtaining
+more money. Collecting was to Boulle a mania of which, says his friend,
+it was impossible to cure him. Thus he died in 1732, full of fame, years
+and debts. He left four sons who followed in his footsteps in more
+senses than one--Jean Philippe (born before 1690, dead before 1745),
+Pierre Benoit (d. 1741), Charles Andre (1685-1749) and Charles Joseph
+(1688-1754). Their affairs were embarrassed throughout their lives, and
+the three last are known to have died in debt.
+
+All greatness is the product of its opportunities, and the elder Boulle
+was made by the happy circumstances of his time. He was born into a
+France which was just entering upon the most brilliant period of
+sumptuary magnificence which any nation has known in modern times. Louis
+XIV., so avid of the delights of the eye, by the reckless extravagance
+of his example turned the thoughts of his courtiers to domestic
+splendours which had hitherto been rare. The spacious palaces which
+arose in his time needed rich embellishment, and Boulle, who had not
+only inherited the rather flamboyant Italian traditions of the late
+Renaissance, but had _ebenisterie_ in his blood, arose, as some such man
+invariably does arise, to gratify tastes in which personal pride and
+love of art were not unequally intermingled. He was by no means the
+first Frenchman to practise the delightful art of marqueterie, nor was
+he quite the inventor of the peculiar type of inlay which is chiefly
+associated with his name; but no artist, before or since, has used these
+motives with such astonishing skill, courage and surety. He produced
+pieces of monumental solidity blazing with harmonious colour, or
+gleaming with the sober and dignified reticence of ebony, ivory and
+white metal. The Renaissance artists chiefly employed wood in making
+furniture, ornamenting it with gilding and painting, and inlaying it
+with agate, cornelian, lapis-lazuli, marble of various tints, ivory,
+tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl and various woods. Boulle improved upon
+this by inlaying brass devices into wood or tortoise-shell, which last
+he greatly used according to the design he had immediately in view,
+whether flowers, scenes, scrolls, &c.; to these he sometimes added
+enamelled metal. Indeed the use of tortoise-shell became so
+characteristic that any furniture, however cheap and common, which has a
+reddish _fond_ that might by the ignorant be mistaken for inlay, is now
+described as "Buhl"--the name is the invention of the British auctioneer
+and furniture-maker. In this process the brass is thin, and, like the
+ornamental wood or tortoise-shell, forms a veneer. In the first instance
+the production of his work was costly, owing to the quantity of valuable
+material that was cut away and wasted, and, in addition, the labour lost
+in separately cutting for each article or copy of a pattern. By a
+subsequent improvement Boulle effected an economy by gluing together
+various sheets of material and sawing through the whole, so that an
+equal number of figures and matrices were produced at one operation.
+Boulle adopted from time to time various plans for the improvement of
+his designs. He placed gold-leaf or other suitable material under the
+tortoise-shell to produce such effect as he required; he chased the
+brass-work with a graver for a like purpose, and, when the metal
+required to be fastened down with brass pins or nails, these were
+hammered flat and disguised by ornamental chasing. He also adopted, in
+relief or in the round, brass feet, brackets, edgings, and other
+ornaments of appropriate design, partly to protect the corners and edges
+of his work, and partly for decoration. He subsequently used other brass
+mountings, such as claw-feet to pedestals, or figures in high or low
+relief, according to the effect he desired to produce. These mounts in
+the pieces that undoubtedly come from Boulle's _atelier_ are nearly
+always of the greatest excellence. They were cast in the rough--the
+tools of the chaser gave them their sharpness, their minute finish,
+their jewel-like smoothness.
+
+Unhappily it is by no means easy, even for the expert, to declare the
+authenticity of a commode, a bureau, or a table in the manner of Boulle
+and to all appearance from his workshops. His sons unquestionably
+carried on the traditions for some years after his death, and his
+imitators were many and capable. A few of the more magnificent
+pedigree-pieces are among the world's mobiliary treasures. There are,
+for instance, the two famous _armoires_, which fetched L12,075 at the
+Hamilton Palace sale; the marqueterie commodes, enriched with bronze
+mounts, in the Bibliotheque Mazarine; various cabinets and commodes and
+tables in the Louvre, the Musee Cluny and the Mobilier National; the
+marriage coffers of the dauphin which were in the San Donato collection.
+There are several fine authenticated pieces in the Wallace collection at
+Hertford House, together with others consummately imitated, probably in
+the Louis Seize period. On the rare occasions when a pedigree example
+comes into the auction-room, it invariably commands a high price; but
+there can be little doubt that the most splendid and sumptuous specimens
+of Boulle are diminishing in number, while the second and third classes
+of his work are perhaps becoming more numerous. The truth is that this
+wonderful work, with its engraved or inlaid designs of Berain, its
+myriads of tiny pieces of ivory and copper, ebony and tortoise-shell,
+all kept together with glue and tiny chased nails, and applied very
+often to a rather soft, white wood, is not meet to withstand the ravages
+of time and the variations of the atmosphere. Alternate heat and
+humidity are even greater enemies of inlaid furniture than time and
+wear--such delicate things are rarely much used, and are protected from
+ordinary chances of deterioration. There is consequently reason to
+rejoice when a piece of real artistry in furniture finds its final home
+in a museum, where a degree of warmth is maintained which, however
+distressing it may be to the visitor, at least preserves the contents
+from one of the worst enemies of the collector.     (J. P.-B.)
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE, or BOULLONGNE, the name of a family of French painters. Louis
+(1609-1674), who was one of the original members of the Academy of
+Painting and Sculpture (1648), became celebrated under Louis XIV. His
+traditions were continued by his children: GENEVIEVE (1645-1708), who
+married the sculptor Jacques Clerion; MADELEINE (1646-1710), whose work
+survives in the _Trophies d'armes_ at Versailles; BON (1649-1717), a
+successful teacher and decorative artist; and LOUIS the younger
+(1654-1733), who copied Raphael's cartoons for the Gobelins tapestry,
+and besides taking a high place as a painter was also a designer of
+medals.
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE-SUR-MER, a fortified seaport of northern France and chief town
+of an arrondissement in Pas-de-Calais, situated on the shore of the
+English Channel at the mouth of the river Liane, 157 m. N.N.W. of Paris
+on the Northern railway, and 28 m. by sea S.E. of Folkestone, Kent. Pop.
+(1906) 49,636. Boulogne occupies the summit and slopes of a ridge of
+hills skirting the right bank of the Liane; the industrial quarter of
+Capecure extends along the opposite bank, and is reached by two bridges,
+while the river is also crossed by a double railway viaduct. The town
+consists of two parts, the Haute Ville and the Basse Ville. The former,
+situated on the top of the hill, is of comparatively small extent, and
+forms almost a parallelogram, surrounded by ramparts of the 13th
+century, and, outside them, by boulevards, and entered by ancient
+gateways. In this part are the law court, the chateau and the hotel de
+ville (built in the 18th century), and a belfry tower of the 13th and
+17th centuries is in the immediate neighbourhood. In the chateau (13th
+century) now used as barracks, the emperor Napoleon III was confined
+after the abortive insurrection of 1840. At some distance north-west
+stands the church of Notre-Dame, a well-known place of pilgrimage,
+erected (1827-1866) on the site of an old building destroyed in the
+Revolution, of which the extensive crypt still remains. The modern town
+stretches from the foot of the hill to the harbour, along which it
+extends, terminating in an expanse of sandy beach frequented by bathers,
+and provided with a bathing establishment and casino. It contains
+several good streets, some of which are, however, very steep. A main
+street, named successively rue de la Lampe, St Nicolas and Grande rue,
+extends from the bridge across the Liane to the promenade by the side of
+the ramparts. This is intersected first by the Quai Gambetta, and
+farther back by the rue Victor Hugo and the rue Nationale, which contain
+the principal shops. The public buildings include several modern
+churches, two hospitals and a museum with collections of antiquities,
+natural history, porcelain, &c. Connected with the museum is a public
+library with 75,000 volumes and a number of valuable manuscripts, many
+of them richly illuminated. There are English churches in the town, and
+numerous boarding-schools intended for English pupils. Boulogne is the
+seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a
+branch of the Bank of France. There are also communal colleges, a
+national school of music, and schools of hydrography, commerce and
+industry. Boulogne has for a long time been one of the most anglicized
+of French cities; and in the tourist season a continuous stream of
+English travellers reach the continent at this point.
+
+The harbour is formed by the mouth of the Liane. Two jetties enclose a
+channel leading into the river, which forms a tidal basin with a depth
+at neap-tides of 24 ft. Alongside this is an extensive dock, and behind
+it an inner port. There is also a tidal basin opening off the entrance
+channel. The depth of water in the river-harbour is 33 ft. at
+spring-tide and 24 ft. at neap-tide; in the sluice of the dock the
+numbers are 29-1/2 and 23-1/2 respectively. The commerce of Boulogne
+consists chiefly in the importation of jute, wool, woven goods of silk
+and wool skins, threads, coal, timber, and iron and steel, and the
+exportation of wine, woven goods, table fruit, potatoes and other
+vegetables, skins, motor-cars, forage and cement. The average annual
+value of the exports in the five years 1901-1905 was L10,953,000
+(L11,704,000 in the years 1896-1900), and of the imports L6,064,000
+(L7,003,000 in the years 1896-1900). From 1901 to 1905 the annual
+average of vessels entered, exclusive of fishing-smacks, was 2735,
+tonnage 1,747,699; and cleared 2750, tonnage 1,748,297. The total number
+of passengers between Folkestone and Boulogne in 1906 was 295,000 or 49%
+above the average for the years 1901-1905. These travelled by the
+steamers of the South-Eastern & Chatham railway company. The liners of
+the Dutch-American, Hamburg-American and other companies also call at
+the port. In the extent and value of its fisheries Boulogne is exceeded
+by no seaport in France. The most important branch is the
+herring-fishery; next in value is the mackerel. Large quantities of
+fresh fish are transmitted to Paris by railway, but an abundant supply
+is reserved to the town itself. The fishermen live for the most part in
+a separate quarter called La Beurriere, situated in the upper part of
+the town. In 1905 the fisheries of Boulogne and the neighbouring village
+of Etaples employed over 400 boats and 4500 men, the value of the fish
+taken being estimated at L1,025,000. Among the numerous industrial
+establishments in Boulogne and its environs may be mentioned foundries,
+cement-factories, important steel-pen manufactories, oil-works,
+dye-works, fish-curing works, flax-mills, saw-mills, and manufactories
+of cloth, fireproof ware, chocolate, boots and shoes, and soap.
+Shipbuilding is also carried on.
+
+Among the objects of interest in the neighbourhood the most remarkable
+is the Colonne de la Grande Armee, erected on the high ground above the
+town, in honour of Napoleon I., on occasion of the projected invasion of
+England, for which he here made great preparations. The pillar, which is
+of the Doric order, 166 ft. high, is surmounted by a statue of the
+emperor by A.S. Bosio. Though begun in 1804, the monument was not
+completed till 1841. On the edge of the cliff to the east of the port
+are some rude brick remains of an old building called Tour d'Ordre, said
+to be the ruins of a tower built by Caligula at the time of his intended
+invasion of Britain.
+
+Boulogne is identified with the _Gessoriacum_ of the Romans, under whom
+it was an important harbour. It is suggested that it was the _Portus
+Itius_ where Julius Caesar assembled his fleet (see ITIUS PORTUS). At an
+early period it began to be known as _Bononia_, a name which has been
+gradually modified into the present form. The town was destroyed by the
+Normans in 882, but restored about 912. During the Carolingian period
+Boulogne was the chief town of a countship that was for long the subject
+of dispute between Flanders and Ponthieu. From the year 965 it belonged
+to the house of Ponthieu, of which Godfrey of Bouillon, the first king
+of Jerusalem, was a scion. Stephen of Blois, who became king of England
+in 1135, had married Mahaut, daughter and heiress of Eustace, count of
+Boulogne. Their daughter Mary married Matthew of Alsace (d. 1173), and
+her daughter Ida (d. 1216) married Renaud of Dammartin. Of this last
+marriage was issue Mahaut, countess of Boulogne, wife of Philip Hurepel
+(d. 1234), a son of King Philip Augustus. To her succeeded the house of
+Brabant, issue of Mahaut of Boulogne, sister of Ida, and wife of Henry
+I. of Brabant; and then the house of Auvergne, issue of Alice, daughter
+of Henry I. of Brabant, inherited the Boulonnais. It remained in the
+possession of descendants of these families until Philip the Good, duke
+of Burgundy, seized upon it in 1419. In 147 7 Louis XI. of France
+reconquered it, and reunited it to the French crown, giving Lauraguais
+as compensation to Bertrand IV. de la Tour, count of Auvergne, heir of
+the house of Auvergne. To avoid doing homage to Mary of Burgundy,
+suzerain of the Boulonnais and countess of Artois, Louis XI declared the
+countship of Boulogne to be held in fee of Our Lady of Boulogne. In 1544
+Henry VIII.--more successful in this than Henry III. had been in
+1347--took the town by siege; but it was restored to France in 1550.
+From 1566 to the end of the 18th century it was the seat of a
+bishopric.
+
+
+
+
+BOULOGNE-SUR-SEINE, a town of northern France, in the department of
+Seine, on the right bank of the Seine, S.W. of Paris and immediately
+outside the fortifications. Pop. (1906) 49,412. The town has a Gothic
+church of the 14th and 15th centuries (restored in 1863) founded in
+honour of Notre-Dame of Boulogne-sur-Mer. To this fact is due the name
+of the place, which was previously called Menus-les-St Cloud. Laundrying
+is extensively carried on as well as the manufacture of metal boxes,
+soap, oil and furniture, and there are numerous handsome residences. For
+the neighbouring Bois de Boulogne see PARIS.
+
+
+
+
+BOULTON, MATTHEW (1728-1809), English manufacturer and engineer, was
+born on the 3rd of September 1728, at Birmingham, where his father,
+Matthew Boulton the elder, was a manufacturer of metal articles of
+various kinds. To this business he succeeded on his father's death in
+1759, and in consequence of its growth removed his works in 1762 from
+Snowhill to what was then a tract of barren heath at Soho, 2 mi. north
+of Birmingham. Here he undertook the manufacture of artistic objects in
+metal, as well as the reproduction of oil paintings by a mechanical
+process in which he was associated with Francis Eginton (1737-1805), who
+subsequently achieved a reputation as a worker in stained or enamelled
+glass. About 1767, Boulton, who was finding the need of improving the
+motive power for his machinery, made the acquaintance of James Watt, who
+on his side appreciated the advantages offered by the Soho works for the
+development of his steam-engine. In 1772 Watt's partner, Dr John
+Roebuck, got into financial difficulties, and Boulton, to whom he owed
+L1200, accepted the two-thirds share in Watt's patent held by him in
+satisfaction of the debt. Three years later Boulton and Watt formally
+entered into partnership, and it was mainly through the energy and
+self-sacrifice of the former, who devoted all the capital he possessed
+or could borrow to the enterprise, that the steam-engine was at length
+made a commercial success. It was also owing to Boulton that in 1775 an
+act of parliament was obtained extending the term of Watt's 1769 patent
+to 1799. In 1800 the two partners retired from the business, which they
+handed over to their sons, Matthew Robinson Boulton and James Watt
+junior. In 1788 Boulton turned his attention to coining machinery, and
+erected at Soho a complete plant with which he struck coins for the
+Sierra Leone and East India companies and for Russia, and in 1797
+produced a new copper coinage for Great Britain. In 1797 he took out a
+patent in connexion with raising water on the principle of the hydraulic
+ram. He died at Birmingham on the 18th of August 1809.
+
+
+
+
+BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. _bonde_, Med. Lat. _bodena_ or _butina_,
+a frontier line), that which serves to indicate the limit or extent of
+land. It is usually defined by a certain mark, such as a post, ditch,
+hedge, dyke, wall of stones, &c., though on the other hand it may have
+to be ascertained by reference to a plan or by measurement. In law, the
+exact boundary of land is always a matter of evidence; where no evidence
+is available, the court acts on presumption. For example, the boundary
+of land on opposite sides of a road, whether public or private, is
+presumed to be the middle line of the road. Where two fields are
+separated by a hedge and ditch the boundary line will run between the
+hedge and the ditch. Boundaries of parishes, at common law, depended
+upon ancient and immemorial custom, and in many parishes great care was
+taken to perpetuate the boundaries of the parish by perambulations from
+time to time. The confusion of local boundaries in England was the
+subject of several commissions and committees in the 19th century, and
+much information will be found in their reports (1868, 1870, 1873,
+1888). The Local Government Act 1888, ss. 50-63, contains provisions for
+the alteration of local areas.
+
+
+
+
+BOUNDS, BEATING THE, an ancient custom still observed in many English
+parishes. In former times when maps were rare it was usual to make a
+formal perambulation of the parish boundaries on Ascension day or during
+Rogation week. The latter is in the north of England still called "Gang
+Week" or "Ganging Days" from this "ganging" or procession. The priest
+of the parish with the churchwardens and the parochial officials headed
+a crowd of boys who, armed with green boughs, beat with them the parish
+border-stones. Sometimes the boys were themselves whipped or even
+violently bumped on the boundary-stones to make them remember. The
+object of taking boys was obviously to ensure that witnesses to the
+boundaries should survive as long as possible. In England the custom is
+as old as Anglo-Saxon days, as it is mentioned in laws of Alfred and
+Aethelstan. It is thought that it may have been derived from the Roman
+Terminalia, a festival celebrated on the 22nd of February in honour of
+Terminus, the god of landmarks, to whom cakes and wine were offered,
+sports and dancing taking place at the boundaries. In England a
+parish-ale or feast was always held after the perambulation, which
+assured its popularity, and in Henry VIII.'s reign the occasion had
+become an excuse for so much revelry that it attracted the condemnation
+of a preacher who declared "these solemne and accustomable processions
+and supplications be nowe growen into a right foule and detestable
+abuse." Beating the bounds had a religious side in the practice which
+originated the term Rogation, the accompanying clergy being supposed to
+beseech (_rogare_) the divine blessing upon the parish lands for the
+ensuing harvest. This feature originated in the 5th century, when
+Mamercus, bishop of Vienne, instituted special prayers and fasting and
+processions on these days. This clerical side of the parish
+bounds-beating was one of the religious functions prohibited by the
+Injunctions of Queen Elizabeth; but it was then ordered that the
+perambulation should continue to be performed as a quasi-secular
+function, so that evidence of the boundaries of parishes, &c. might be
+preserved (Gibson, _Codex juris Ecclesiastici Anglicani_ (1761) pp.
+213-214). Bequests were sometimes made in connexion with bounds-beating.
+Thus at Leighton Buzzard on Rogation Monday, in accordance with the will
+of one Edward Wilkes, a London merchant who died in 1646, the trustees
+of his almshouses accompanied the boys. The will was read and beer and
+plum rolls distributed. A remarkable feature of the bequest was that
+while the will is read one of the boys has to stand on his head.
+
+
+
+
+BOUNTY (through O. Fr. _bontet_, from Lat. _bonitas_, goodness), a gift
+or gratuity; more usually, a premium paid by a government to encourage
+some branch of production or industry, as in England in the case of the
+bounty on corn, first granted in 1688 and abolished in 1814, the
+herring-fishery bounties, the bounties on sail-cloth, linen and other
+goods. It is admitted that the giving of bounties is generally
+impolitic, though they may sometimes be justified as a measure of state.
+The most striking modern example of a bounty was that on sugar (q.v.).
+Somewhat akin to bounties are the subsidies granted to shipping (q.v.)
+by many countries. Bounties or, as they may equally well be termed,
+grants are often given, more especially in new countries, for the
+destruction of beasts of prey; in the United States and some other
+countries, bounties have been given for tree-planting; France has given
+bounties to encourage the Newfoundland fisheries.
+
+Bounty was also the name given to the money paid to induce men to enlist
+in the army or navy, and, in the United Kingdom, to the sum given on
+entering the militia reserve. During the American Civil War, many
+recruits joined solely for the sake of the bounty offered, and
+afterwards deserted; they were called "bounty-jumpers." The term bounty
+was also applied in the English navy to signify money payable to the
+officers and crew of a ship in respect of services on particular
+occasions.
+
+Queen Anne's Bounty (q.v.) is a fund applied for the augmentation of
+poor livings in the established church.
+
+King's Bounty is a grant made by the sovereign of his royal bounty to
+those of his subjects whose wives are delivered of three or more
+children at a birth.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBAKI, CHARLES DENIS SAUTER (1816-1897), French general, was born at
+Pau on the 22nd of April 1816, the son of a Greek colonel who died in
+the War of Independence in 1827. He entered St Cyr, and in 1836 joined
+the Zouaves, becoming lieutenant of the Foreign Legion in 1838, and
+aide-de-camp to King Louis Philippe. It was in the African expedition
+that he first came to the front. In 1842 he was captain in the Zouaves;
+1847, colonel of the Turcos; in 1850, lieutenant-colonel of the 1st
+Zouaves; 1851, colonel; 1854, brigadier-general. In the Crimean War he
+commanded a portion of the Algerian troops; and at the Alma, Inkerman
+and Sevastopol Bourbaki's name became famous. In 1857 he was made
+general of division, commanding in 1859 at Lyons. His success in the war
+with Italy was only second to that of MacMahon, and in 1862 he was
+proposed as a candidate for the vacant Greek throne, but declined the
+proffered honour. In 1870 the emperor entrusted him with the command of
+the Imperial Guard, and he played an important part in the fighting
+round Metz.
+
+A curious incident of the siege of Metz is connected with Bourbaki's
+name. A man who called himself Regnier,[1] about the 21st of September,
+appeared at Hastings, to seek an interview with the refugee empress
+Eugenie, and failing to obtain this he managed to get from the young
+prince imperial a signed photograph with a message to the emperor
+Napoleon. This he used, by means of a safe-conduct from Bismarck, as
+credentials to Marshal Bazaine, to whom he presented himself at Metz,
+telling him on the empress's alleged authority that peace was about to
+be signed and that either Marshal Canrobert or General Bourbaki was to
+go to Hastings for the purpose. Bourbaki at once went to England, with
+Prussian connivance, as though he had a recognized mission, only to
+discover from the empress at Hastings that a trick had been played on
+him; and as soon as he could manage he returned to France. He offered
+his services to Gambetta and received the command of the Northern Army,
+but was recalled on the 19th of November and transferred to the Army of
+the Loire. In command of the hastily-trained and ill-equipped Army of
+the East, Bourbaki made the attempt to raise the siege of Belfort,
+which, after the victory of Villersexel, ended in the repulse of the
+French in the three days' battle of the Lisaine. Other German forces
+under Manteuffel now closed upon Bourbaki, and he was eventually driven
+over the Swiss frontier with the remnant of his forces (see
+FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). His troops were in the most desperate condition,
+owing to lack of food; and out of 150,000 men under him when he started,
+only 84,000 escaped from the Germans into Swiss territory. Bourbaki
+himself, rather than submit to the humiliation of a probable surrender,
+on the 26th of January 1871 delegated his functions to General
+Clinchant, and in the night fired a pistol at his own head, but the
+bullet, owing to a deviation of the weapon, was flattened against his
+skull and his life was saved. General Clinchant carried Bourbaki into
+Switzerland, and he recovered sufficiently to return to France. In July
+1871 he again took the command at Lyons, and subsequently became
+military governor. In 1881, owing to his political opinions, he was
+placed on the retired list. In 1885 he was an unsuccessful candidate for
+the senate. He died on the 27th of September 1897. A patriotic Frenchman
+and a brilliant soldier and leader, Bourbaki, like some other French
+generals of the Second Empire whose training had been obtained in
+Africa, was found wanting in the higher elements of command when the
+European conditions of 1870 were concerned.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The whole Regnier affair remained a mystery; the man himself--who
+    on following Bourbaki to England made the impression on Lord
+    Granville (see the _Life of Lord Granville_, by Lord Fitzmaurice, ii.
+    61) of being a "swindler" but honestly wishing to serve the
+    empress--was afterwards mixed up in the Humbert frauds of 1902-1903;
+    he published his own version of the affair in 1870 in a pamphlet,
+    _Quel est votre nom?_ It has been suspected that on the part either
+    of Bazaine or of the German authorities some undisclosed intrigue was
+    on foot.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON. The noble family of Bourbon, from which so many European kings
+have sprung, took its name from Bourbon l'Archambault, chief town of a
+lordship which in the 10th century was one of the largest baronies of
+the kingdom of France. The limits of the lordship, which was called the
+Bourbonnais, were approximately those of the modern department of
+Allier, being on the N. the Nivernais and Berry, on the E. Burgundy and
+Lyonnais, on the S. Auvergne and Marche and on the W. Berry. The first
+of the long line of Bourbons known in history was Adhemar or Aimar, who
+was invested with the barony towards the close of the 9th century.
+Matilda, heiress of the first house of Bourbon, brought this lordship to
+the family of Dampierre by her marriage, in 1196, with Guy of Dampierre,
+marshal of Champagne (d. 1215). In 1272 Beatrix, daughter of Agnes of
+Bourbon-Dampierre, and her husband John of Burgundy, married Robert,
+count of Clermont, sixth son of Louis IX. (St Louis) of France. The
+elder branches of the family had become extinct, and their son Louis
+became duke of Bourbon in 1327. In 1488 the line of his descendants
+ended with Jean II., who died in that year. The whole estates passed to
+Jean's brother Pierre, lord of Beaujeu, who was married to Anne,
+daughter of Louis XI. Pierre died in 1503, leaving only a daughter,
+Suzanne, who, in 1505, married Charles de Montpensier, heir of the
+Montpensier branch of the Bourbon family. Charles, afterwards constable
+of France, who took the title of duke of Bourbon on his marriage, was
+born in 1489, and at an early age was looked upon as one of the finest
+soldiers and gentlemen in France. With the constable ended the direct
+line from Pierre I., duke of Bourbon (d. 1356). But the fourth in
+descent from Pierre's brother, Jacques, count of La Marche, Louis, count
+of Vendome and Chartres (d. 1446), became the ancestor of the royal
+house of Bourbon and of the noble families of Conde, Conti and
+Montpensier. The fourth in direct descent from Louis of Vendome was
+Antoine de Bourbon, who in 1548 married Jeanne d'Albret, heiress of
+Navarre, and became king of Navarre in 1554. Their son became king of
+France as Henry IV. Henry was succeeded by his son, Louis XIII., who
+left two sons, Louis XIV., and Philip, duke of Orleans, head of the
+Orleans branch. Louis XIV.'s son, the dauphin, died before his father,
+and left three sons, one of whom died without issue. Of the others the
+elder, Louis of Burgundy, died in 1712, and his only surviving son
+became Louis XV. The younger, Philip, duke of Anjou, became king of
+Spain, and founded the Spanish branch of the Bourbon family. Louis XV.
+was succeeded by his grandson, Louis XVI., who perished on the scaffold.
+At the restoration the throne of France was occupied by Louis XVIII.,
+brother of Louis XVI., who in turn was succeeded by his brother Charles
+X. The second son of Charles X., the duc de Berry, left a son, Henri
+Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonne d'Artois, duc de Bordeaux, and comte
+de Chambord (q.v.). From Louis XIV.'s brother, Philip, descended another
+claimant of the throne. Philip's son was the regent Orleans, whose
+great-grandson, "Philippe Egalite," perished on the scaffold in 1793.
+Egalite's son, Louis Philippe, was king of the French from 1830 to 1848;
+his grandson, Louis Philippe, comte de Paris (1838-1894), inherited on
+the death of the comte de Chambord the rights of that prince to the
+throne of France, and was called by the royalists Philip VII. He had a
+son, Louis Philippe Robert, duc d'Orleans, called by his adherents
+Philip VIII.
+
+_Spanish Branch._--Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., became
+king of Spain as Philip V., in 1700. He was succeeded in 1746 by his son
+Ferdinand VI., who died in 1759 without family, and was followed by his
+brother Charles III. Charles III.'s eldest son became Charles IV. of
+Spain in 1788, while his second son, Ferdinand, was made king of Naples
+in 1759. Charles IV. was deposed by Napoleon, but in 1814 his son,
+Ferdinand VII., again obtained his throne. Ferdinand was succeeded by
+his daughter Isabella, who in 1870 abdicated in favour of her son,
+Alphonso XII. (d. 1885). Alphonso's posthumous son became king of Spain
+as Alphonso XIII. Ferdinand's brother, Don Carlos (d. 1855), claimed the
+throne in 1833 on the ground of the Salic law, and a fierce war raged
+for some years in the north of Spain. His son Don Carlos, count de
+Montemolin (1818-1861), revived the claim, but was defeated and
+compelled to sign a renunciation. The nephew of the latter, Don Carlos
+Maria Juan Isidor, duke of Madrid, for some years carried on war in
+Spain with the object of attaining the rights contended for by the
+Carlist party.
+
+
+GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON
+
+I. _The French Bourbons_
+
+                                                        Henry IV. (1553-1610)
+                                                                 |
+                                               +-----------------+-----------------------+
+                                               |                                         |
+                                          Louis XIII.                                 Gaston,
+                                          (1601-1643)                            duke of Orleans
+                                               |                                    (1608-1660)
+                                               |
+                                       +-------+--------------------------------------------------+
+                                       |                                                          |
+                                   Louis XIV.                                                 Philip I.
+                                  (1638-1715)                                              duke of Orleans
+                                       |                                                     (1640-1701)
+                                       |                                                          |
+                               Louis the Dauphin                                              Philip II.
+                                  (1661-1711)                                        duke of Orleans,[1] the regent
+                                       |                                                     (1674-1723)
+                    +------------------+---------------+                                          |
+                    |                  |               |                                          |
+                  Louis,           Charles,         Philip,                                     Louis,
+            duke of Burgundy    duke of Berry   duke of Anjou,                             duke of Orleans
+               (1682-1712)       (1686-1714)    king of Spain                                (1703-1752)
+                    |                            as Philip V.                                     |
+                    |                            (1683-1746)                                      |
+                 Louis XV.                                                                 Louis Philippe,
+               (1710-1774)                                                                 duke of Orleans
+                    |                                                                        (1725-1785)
+                    |                                                                             |
+            Louis the Dauphin                                                         Louis Philippe, "Egalite,"
+               (1729-1765)                                                                 duke of Orleans
+                    |                                                                        (1747-1793)
+       +------------+-------------+                                                               |
+       |            |             |                                                               |
+  Louis XVI.   Louis XVIII.   Charles X.                                                   Louis Philippe,
+  (1754-1793)  (1755-1824)   (1757-1836)                                                 king of the French
+       |                          |                                                          (1773-1850)
+       |               +----------+--------+                                                      |
+       |               |                   |                  +------------------+----------------+----+------------------+---------------+
+       |               |                   |                  |                  |                     |                  |               |
+  Louis XVII.        Louis,        Charles Ferdinand,     Ferdinand,          Francis,              Antony,             Henry,          Louis,
+  (1785-1795)  duke of Angouleme     duke of Berry     duke of Orleans   prince of Joinville   duke of Montpensier  duke of Aumale  duke of Nemours
+                  (1775-1844)          (1778-1820)       (1810-1842)        (1818-1900)            (1824-1890)        (1822-1897)      (1814-1896)
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                                  |
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                        +---------+-------+
+                                           |                  |                  |                     |                        |                 |
+                                      Henry Charles,          |                Peter,               Antony,                  Gaston,           Ferdinand,
+                                  duke of Bordeaux and        |          duke of Penthievre     duke of Galliera           count of Eu,     duke of Alencon
+                                    count of Chambord         |              (b. 1845)             (b. 1866)                (b. 1842)          (b. 1844)
+                                       (1820-1883)            |                                        |                        |                 |
+                                                              |                +-----------------------+              +---------+---------+       +-------+
+                                                              |                |                       |              |         |         |               |
+                                                              |            Alphonso             Louis Ferdinand     Peter      Louis    Antony         Emmanuel,
+                                                              |           (b. 1886)                (b. 1888)      (b. 1875)  (b. 1878) (b. 1881)    duke of Vendome
+                                                              |                                                                                        (b. 1872)
+                                                              |                                                                                           |
+                                              +-------------------+-------------------+                                                                   |
+                                              |                                       |                                                                   |
+                                       Louis Philippe,                              Robert,                                                        Charles Philip,
+                                       count of Paris                           duke of Chartres                                                  duke of Nemours,
+                                         (1838-1894)                               (b. 1840)                                                          (b. 1905)
+                                              |                                       |
+                                       +------+------------+                 +--------+---------+
+                                       |                   |                 |                  |
+                                Louis Philippe,       Ferdinand,           Henry,             John,
+                                duke of Orleans  duke of Montpensier  prince of Orleans   duke of Guise
+                                   (b. 1869)          (b. 1884)         (1867-1901)         (b. 1874)
+
+
+II. The Spanish and Italian Bourbons.
+
+                                                                         Philip V., king of Spain (1683-1746)
+                                                                                          |
+                    +--------------+------------------------------------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+                    |              |                                                                                                                                        |
+               Charles III.   Ferdinand VI.                                                                                                                              Philip,
+               (1716-1788)     (1713-1759)                                                                                                                               duke of
+                    |                                                                                                                                                     Parma
+                +---+--------------------------------------------------------------------+--------------------------+                                                  (1715-1765)
+                |                                                                        |                          |                                                       |
+           Charles IV.                                                              Ferdinand I.,                Gabriel[3]                                             Ferdinand,
+           (1748-1819)                                                               king of the                (1752-1788)                                              duke of
+                |                                                                   Two Sicilies                                                                          Parma
+       +--------+------+------------------------+                                    (1751-1825)                                                                       (1765-1802)
+       |               |                        |                                        |                                                                                  |
+  Ferdinand VII.    Francis,                 Carlos,                                  Francis I.                                                                          Louis,
+  (1784-1833)       duke of                  duke of                                 (1777-1830)                                                                         king of
+       |             Cadiz                    Madrid                                     |                                                                               Erutrea
+       |           (d. 1865)                (1788-1855)                            +-----+--------+-------------+---------------------------+                         (c. 1786-1803)
+       |               |                          |                                |              |             |                           |                               |
+       |              +------------+           +--+-------------+             Ferdinand II.    Francis,      Leopold,                     Louis,                        Charles II,
+       |              |            |           |                |              (1810-1859)      count of     count of                    count of                         duke of
+  Isabella II. +   Francis       Henry,      Carlos,          Juan                 |            Trapani,     Syracuse                     Aquila                           Parma
+  (1830-1904)  | (1822-1902)     duke of     duke of       (1823-1887)             |          (1827-1892) (c. 1825-1860)                (1824-1897)                     (1799-1883)
+               |                Seville[2]   Madrid             |                  |                                                        |                               |
+               |               (1823-1870) (1818-1861)          |           +------------+-------------+----------+-----------+           +-+--------+                  Charles III,
+               |                                                |           |            |             |          |           |           |          |                    duke of
+           Alphonso XII.                        +---------------+       Francis II.    Alphonso,     Louis,    Gaetan,      Pascal,     Louis      Philip                  Parma
+            (1857-1885)                         |               |       (1836-1894)    count of     count of   count of     count of   count of   (b. 1847)             (1823-1854)
+               |                              Carlos,         Alphonso                  Castera       Trani    Gergenti      Bari       Aquila                              |
+           Alphonso XIII.                     duke of         (b. 1849)                (b. 1841)  (1838-1886) (1846-1871) (1852-1904)  (b. 1845)             +--------------+-------+
+             (b. 1886)                        Madrid                                      |                                                                  |                      |
+               |                            (b. 1848)                           +---------+---+-----------+---------+----------+--------+----------+       Robert[4]              Henry
+        +------+---------+                      |                               |             |           |         |          |        |          |       duke of               count of
+        |                |                    Jaime                         Ferdinand,     Charles     Gabriel   Francis    Philip    Renier    Gennaro     Parma                 Bardi
+     Alphonso          Jaime                (b. 1870)                        duke of       (b. 1870)  (b. 1897) (b. 1888)  (b. 1885) (b. 1883) (b. 1882)  (b. 1848)             (1851-1905)
+   prince of the     (b. 1908)                                               Calabria         |                                                               |
+     Asturias                                                                (b. 1869)     Alphonso                                                    +------+----+-----------+
+    (b. 1907)                                                                   |          (b. 1901)                                                   |           |           |
+                                                                              Roger                                                                  Henry       Joseph      Elias
+                                                                             duke of                                                               (b. 1873)    (b. 1875)  (b. 1880)
+                                                                               Noto                                                                                            |
+                                                                             (b. 1901)                                                                                      Charles
+                                                                                                                                                                           (b. 1905)
+_Neapolitan Branch._--The first Bourbon who wore the crown of Naples was
+Charles III. of Spain, who on his succession to the Spanish throne in
+1759, resigned his kingdom of Naples to his son Ferdinand. Ferdinand was
+deposed by Napoleon, but afterwards regained his throne, and took the
+title of Ferdinand I., king of the Two Sicilies. In 1825 he was
+succeeded by his son Francis, who in turn was succeeded in 1830 by his
+son Ferdinand II. Ferdinand II. died in 1859, and in the following year
+his successor Francis II. was deprived of his kingdom, which was
+incorporated into the gradually-uniting Italy.
+
+_Duchies of Lucca and Parma._--In 1748 the duchy of Parma was conferred
+on Philip, youngest son of Philip V. of Spain. He was succeeded by his
+son Ferdinand in 1765. Parma was ceded to France in 1801, Ferdinand's
+son Louis being made king of Etruria, but the French only took
+possession of the duchy after Ferdinand's death in 1802. Louis's son
+Charles Louis was forced to surrender Etruria to France in 1807, and he
+was given the duchy of Lucca by the congress of Vienna in 1815. In 1847,
+on the death of Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon, who had received Parma
+and Piacenza in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Paris of
+1814, Charles Louis succeeded to the duchies as Charles II., at the same
+time surrendering Lucca to Tuscany. In 1849 he abdicated in favour of
+his son, Charles III., who married a daughter of the duke of Berry, and
+was assassinated in 1854, being succeeded by his son Robert. In 1860 the
+duchies were annexed by Victor Emmanuel to the new kingdom of Italy.
+
+_Bastard Branches._--There are numerous bastard branches of the family
+of Bourbon, the most famous being the Vendome branch, descended from
+Caesar, natural son of Henry IV., and the Maine and Toulouse branches,
+descended from the two natural sons of Louis XIV. and Madame de
+Montespan.
+
+  See Coiffier de Moret, _Histoire du Bourbonnais et des Bourbons_ (2
+  vols., 1824); Berand, _Histoire des sires et ducs de Bourbon_ (1835);
+  Desormeaux, _Histoire de la maison de Bourbon_ (5 vols., 1782-1788);
+  Achaintre, _Histoire genealogique et chronologique de la maison royale
+  de Bourbon_ (2 vols., 1825-1826); and Dussieux, _Genealogie de la
+  maison de Bourbon_ (1872).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Philip married a natural daughter of Louis XIV., and in this way
+    the later princes of Orleans are descended from the Grand Monarque.
+
+  [2] Henry contracted a morganatic marriage, and consequently his son
+    Henry, who died in 1894, was ruled out of the succession. This branch
+    of the family is now extinct.
+
+  [3] The branch of the family descended from the infante Gabriel is
+    still flourishing, its head being Francis, duke of Marchena.
+
+  [4] By a second marriage Robert has a large family, including six
+    sons--Sixtus, Xavier, Felix, Rene, Louis and Gaetan.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1490-1527), constable of France, second son
+of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin of Auvergne, was born on
+the 17th of February 1490, his mother being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he
+married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II., duke of Bourbon, by Anne of
+France, daughter of King Louis XI., and assumed the title of duke of
+Bourbon. The addition of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships
+and other fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother
+Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest noble in
+Europe. He gained his first military experience in the Italian campaigns
+of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression of the Genoese revolt
+(1507) and contributing to the victory over the Venetians at Agnadello
+(May 14, 1509). Shortly after the accession of Francis I. Bourbon
+received the office of constable of France, and for his brilliant
+services at the battle of Marignano (September 1515) he was made
+governor of the Milanese, which he succeeded in defending against an
+attack of the emperor Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis
+and the constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill
+suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and influence
+kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not of fear. The duke
+was recalled from the government of the Milanese; his official salary
+and the sums he had borrowed for war expenses remained unpaid; and in
+the campaign in the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the
+command of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the
+constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without surviving
+issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother of the king,
+Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and at the same time to
+revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted her love. A suit was
+instituted at her instance against the duke in the parlement of Paris,
+in which Louise, as grand-daughter of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d.
+1456), claimed the female and some of the male fiefs of the duchy of
+Bourbon, while the king claimed those fiefs which were originally
+appanages, as escheating to the crown, and other claims were put
+forward. Before the parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis
+handed over to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered
+the remainder to be sequestrated.
+
+Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time had been
+coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his negotiations with the
+emperor and Henry VIII. of England. It was agreed that the constable
+should raise in his own dominions an armed force to assist the emperor
+in an invasion of France, and should receive in return the hand of
+Eleonora, queen dowager of Portugal, or of another of the emperor's
+sisters, and an independent kingdom comprising his own lands together
+with Dauphine and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity to
+Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon's plans were hampered by the
+presence of the French troops assembling for the invasion of Italy, and
+for this reason he was unable to effect a junction with the emperor's
+German troops from the east. News of the conspiracy soon reached the
+ears of Francis, who was on his way to take command of the Italian
+expedition. In an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured
+to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but without
+success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days, and after many
+vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint invasion of France by the
+emperor and his ally of England had failed signally, mainly through lack
+of money and defects of combination. In the spring of 1524, however,
+Bourbon at the head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French
+across the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded) and
+drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested Marseilles, but
+being unable to prevent the introduction of supplies by Andrea Doria,
+the Genoese admiral in the service of Francis, he was forced to raise
+the siege and retreat to the Milanese. He took part in the battle of
+Pavia (1525), where Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But
+Bourbon's troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to
+extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his kingdom and
+his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon had been offered
+the duchy of Milan by way of compensation. He now levied contributions
+from the townsmen, and demanded 20,000 ducats for the liberation of the
+chancellor Girolamo Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an
+attempt to realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But
+the sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527 Bourbon's
+army was joined by a body of German mercenaries, mostly Protestants, and
+the combined forces advanced towards the papal states. Refusing to
+recognize the truce which the viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope
+Clement VII., Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor's plan
+of attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the troops,
+starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and Spaniards and
+Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the 5th of May 1527 the
+imperial army appeared before the walls of Rome. On the following
+morning Bourbon attacked the Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling
+ladder fell mortally wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his
+_Life_ claims to have fired. After Bourbon's death his troops took and
+sacked Rome.
+
+  See E. Armstrong, _Charles V._ (London, 1902); _Cambridge Mod. Hist._
+  vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON-LANCY, a watering-place of east-central France in the department
+of Saone-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from the right bank of the Loire
+and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town,
+1896; commune, 4266. The town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in
+the Roman period, and ancient baths and other remains have been found.
+The waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking and
+bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature varies from 117
+deg. to 132 deg. F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de Sevigne, James II. of
+England, and other celebrated persons visited the springs in the 17th
+and 18th centuries. The town has a well-equipped bathing establishment,
+a large hospital, and a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as
+an archaeological museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a
+hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of the 15th
+century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also remain. The
+industries of the town include the manufacture of farm implements.
+
+In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold and a fief
+of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member of which the suffix to
+its name is derived.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of
+Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The
+town has thermal springs known in Roman times, which are used in cases
+of scrofula and rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the
+state. A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle of
+the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a cylindrical
+keep, are of interest. There are a military and a civil hospital in the
+town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity. Bourbon (_Aquae Borvonis_ or
+_Bormonis_) was anciently the capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its
+name to the great Bourbon family. The affix Archambault is the name of
+one of its early lords.
+
+
+
+
+BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of
+Haute-Marne, 35-1/2 m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres. Pop. (1906) 3738. It
+is much frequented on account of its hot saline springs, which were
+known to the Romans under the name _Aquae Borvonis_. The heat of these
+springs varies from 110 deg. to 156 deg. F. The waters are used in cases
+of lymphatic affections, scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal
+buildings are a church of the 12th century, the state
+bathing-establishment and the military hospital; there are also the
+remains of a castle. Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried
+on in the town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated
+Cistercian abbey of Morimond.
+
+
+
+
+BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864-   ), English actor, was born in Berkshire in
+1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. At the university
+he became prominent as an amateur actor in connexion with the
+O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a
+professional. He also acted with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and
+was for a while in Daly's company in America. In 1894 he married the
+actress Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress
+Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading parts
+under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both as tragedian and
+comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the London stage, and his career
+as actor-manager was remarkable for the production of a number of
+successful modern plays, by Mr Sutro and others.
+
+
+
+
+BOURCHIER, THOMAS (c. 1404-1486), English archbishop, lord chancellor
+and cardinal, was a younger son of William Bourchier, count of Eu (d.
+1420), and through his mother, Anne, a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock,
+duke of Gloucester, was a descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers
+was Henry, earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord
+Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and then
+entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and after holding some
+minor appointments he became bishop of Worcester in 1434. In the same
+year he was chancellor of the university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was
+appointed bishop of Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of
+Canterbury, becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.
+Bourchier's short term of office as chancellor coincided with the
+opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong
+partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when Richard, duke
+of York, was deprived of power in October 1456. Afterwards, in 1458, he
+helped to reconcile the contending parties, but when the war was renewed
+in 1459 he appears as a decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June
+1461, and four years later he performed a similar service for the queen,
+Elizabeth Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial
+of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he was
+created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four arbitrators
+appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of Picquigny between
+England and France. After the death of Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier
+persuaded the queen to allow her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to
+share his brother's residence in the Tower of London; and although he
+had sworn to be faithful to Edward V. before his father's death, he
+crowned Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way implicated
+in the murder of the young princes, and he was probably a participant in
+the conspiracies against Richard. The third English king crowned by
+Bourchier was Henry VII., whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in
+January 1486. The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his
+residence, Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury
+cathedral.
+
+  See W.F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-1884).
+
+
+
+
+BOURDALOUE, LOUIS (1632-1704), French Jesuit and preacher, was born at
+Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At the age of sixteen he entered the
+Society of Jesus, and was appointed successively professor of rhetoric,
+philosophy and moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His
+success as a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call
+him to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of St
+Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in popular
+estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading figures of the
+most brilliant period of Louis XIV.'s reign. He preached at the court of
+Versailles during the Advent of 1670 and the Lent of 1672, and was
+subsequently called again to deliver the Lenten course of sermons in
+1674, 1675, 1680 and 1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and
+1693. This was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to
+call the same preacher more than three times to court. On the revocation
+of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to confirm the new
+converts in the Catholic faith, and he had extraordinary success in this
+delicate mission. Catholics and Protestants were unanimous in praising
+his fiery eloquence in the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier
+in 1686. Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to
+charitable institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic
+discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He died in
+Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay in his power of
+adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and throughout his public
+career he was highly appreciated by all classes of society. His
+influence was due as much to his saintly character and to the gentleness
+of his manners as to the force of his reasoning. Voltaire said that his
+sermons surpassed those of Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however,
+practically coincided with Bourdaloue's early pulpit utterances); and
+there is little doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the
+direct appeal which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a
+superiority over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may be
+with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators, and many of
+his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authoritative source for the Sermons is the
+  edition of Pere Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed by
+  the _Pensees_, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy both as
+  to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition and as to
+  the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that the changes
+  confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal. Other editions not
+  based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed, are altogether
+  spurious (e.g. that of Abbe Sicard, 1810). Among critical works are:
+  Anatole Feugere, _Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps_ (Paris,
+  1874); Adrien Lezat, _Bourdaloue, theologien et orateur_ (Paris,
+  1874); P.M. Lauras, _Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols.,
+  Paris, 1881); Abbe Blampignon, _Etude sur Bourdaloue_ (Paris, 1886);
+  Henri Cherot, _Bourdaloue inconnu_ (Paris, 1898), and _Bourdaloue, sa
+  correspondance et ses correspondans_ (Paris, 1898-1904); L. Pauthe,
+  _Bourdaloue_ (_les maitres de la chaire au XVII^e siecle_) (Paris,
+  1900); E. Griselle, _Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa predication_
+  (2 vols., Paris, 1901), _Sermons inedits; bibliographie, &c._ (Paris,
+  1901), _Deux sermons inedits sur le royaume de Dieu_ (Lille and Paris,
+  1904); Ferdinand Castets, _Bourdaloue, la vie et la predication d'un
+  religieux au XVII^e siecle_, and _La Revue Bourdaloue_ (Paris,
+  1902-1904); C.H. Brooke, _Great French Preachers_ (sermons of
+  Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904); F. Brunetiere, "L'Eloquence de
+  Bourdaloue," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (August 1904), a general
+  inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general
+  characteristics.
+
+
+
+
+BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS (d. 1797), known as BOURDON DE L'OISE, French
+revolutionist, was _procureur_ at the parlement of Paris. He ardently
+embraced the revolutionary doctrines and took an active part in the
+insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. Representing the department of
+the Oise in the Convention, he voted for the immediate death of the
+king. He accused the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned
+against Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for his
+conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of La Rochelle.
+On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies delegated to aid Barras
+to repress the insurrection made by the commune of Paris in favour of
+Robespierre. Bourbon then became a violent reactionary, attacking the
+former members of the Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against
+the rioters of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III.
+In the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of
+"Clichyens," composed of disguised royalists, against whom the directors
+made the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor. Bourdon was arrested and
+deported to French Guiana, where he died soon after his arrival.
+
+
+
+
+BOURG-EN-BRESSE, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of
+Ain, and formerly capital of the province of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of
+Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune,
+20,045. Bourg is situated at the western base of the Jura, on the left
+bank of the Reyssouze, a tributary of the Saone. The chief of the older
+buildings is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the
+facade belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.
+In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other public
+buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. The hotel de
+ville contains a library and the Lorin museum with a collection of
+pictures, while another museum has a collection of the old costumes and
+ornaments characteristic of Bresse. Among the statues in the town there
+is one of Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat
+of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first
+instance, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
+of France. Its educational establishments include lycees for boys and
+girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist of iron goods,
+mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware, and there are flour mills
+and breweries; and there is considerable trade in grain, cattle and
+poultry. The church of Brou, a suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic
+interest. Marguerite of Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had
+intended to found a monastery on the spot, but died before her intention
+could be carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the
+16th century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of
+Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The exterior,
+especially the facade, is richly ornamented, but the chief interest lies
+in the works of art in the interior, which date from 1532. The most
+important are the three mausoleums with the marble effigies of
+Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau, and Marguerite of Austria. All
+three are remarkable for perfection of sculpture and richness of
+ornamentation. The rood loft, the oak stalls, and the reredos in the
+chapel of the Virgin are masterpieces in a similar style.
+
+Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is known of its
+early history. Raised to the rank of a free town in 1250, it was at the
+beginning of the 15th century chosen by the dukes of Savoy as the chief
+city of the province of Bresse. In 1535 it passed to France, but was
+restored to Duke Philibert Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel,
+which afterwards withstood a six months' siege by the soldiers of Henry
+IV. The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the
+inhabitants, in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,
+offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to pillage.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE (1851-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was educated for the law. After
+holding a subordinate office (1876) in the department of public works, he
+became successively prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne
+(1885), and then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.
+He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical moment of
+President Grevy's resignation. In the following year he entered the
+chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne, in opposition to General
+Boulanger, and joined the radical left. He was under-secretary for home
+affairs in the Floquet ministry of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889,
+being then returned to the chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry,
+which succeeded, he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on
+the 18th of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet of
+M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself by the
+attention he had given to educational matters. In this capacity he was
+responsible in 1890 for some important reforms in secondary education. He
+retained his office in M. Loubet's cabinet in 1892, and was minister of
+justice under M. Ribot at the end of that year, when the Panama scandals
+were making the office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically
+pressed the Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having
+put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in order to
+procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in March 1893, but again
+took office, and only retired with the rest of the Freycinet ministry. In
+November 1895 he himself formed a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type,
+the main interest of which was attached to its fall, as the result of a
+constitutional crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate
+to vote supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that popular
+opinion would enable them to override what they claimed to be an
+unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house; but the public
+was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The blow was undoubtedly
+damaging to M. Bourgeois's career as an _homme de gouvernement_. As
+minister of public instruction in the Brisson cabinet of 1898 he
+organized courses for adults in primary education. After this short
+ministry he represented his country with dignity and effect at the Hague
+peace congress, and in 1903 was nominated a member of the permanent court
+of arbitration. He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of
+the Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably in
+foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected president of the
+chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for
+the department of Marne, and in May 1906 became minister of foreign
+affairs in the Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of
+French diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGEOIS, a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a _bourg_ or
+borough in France; later the term came to have the wider significance of
+the whole class lying between the _ouvriers_ or workmen and the
+nobility, and is now used generally of the trading middle-class of any
+country. In printing, the word (pronounced burjoice') is used of a type
+coming in size between longprimer and brevier; the derivation is
+supposed to be from the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGES, a city of central France, chief town of the department of Cher,
+144 m. S. of Paris on the Orleans railway between Vierzon and Nevers.
+Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune, 44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat
+and marshy country on an eminence limited on three sides by the waters
+of the Canal Of Berry, the Yevre, the Auron, and other smaller streams
+with which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with its
+narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and east of
+which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing nurseries and
+market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground to the north and
+north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the Roman ramparts of the 4th
+century, which are for the most part built into the houses of the old
+quarter. They measure considerably less in circumference than the
+fortifications of the 13th century, remains of which in the shape of
+ruined walls and towers are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on
+which the city is built is crowned by the cathedral of St Etienne, one
+of the most important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century,
+it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period belong the
+northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking the facade and two of
+its five elaborately sculptured portals. The interior, which has double
+aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable height, and no transepts,
+contains, among many other works of art, magnificent stained glass of
+the 13th century. Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque
+construction, where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two
+lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The Jardin de
+l'Archeveche, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the choir of the
+cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The hotel Lallemant and the
+hotel Cujas (now occupied by the museum) are of the Renaissance period.
+The hotel de Jacques Coeur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII.
+and now used as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it
+has been doubted whether Jacques Coeur himself inhabited it. The mansion
+is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman fortifications
+were utilized in the construction of the south-western facade (see
+HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings surround a courtyard into
+which three staircase turrets project; one of these leads to a chapel,
+the ceiling of which is decorated by fine frescoes.
+
+Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a court of
+assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the VIII. army corps.
+It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank
+of France. Its educational institutions include an ecclesiastical
+seminary, a lycee for boys, and a college for girls, training colleges,
+and a school of industrial art. The industrial activity of Bourges
+depends primarily on its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its
+cannon-foundry and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the
+government, and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,
+and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb of
+Mazieres has large iron and engineering works, and there are
+manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods, oil-cloth,
+boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works, breweries,
+distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The town has a port on
+the canal of Berry, and does a considerable trade in grain, wine,
+vegetables, hemp and fruit.
+
+Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of _Avaricum_, capital of
+the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most important of all
+Gaul. In 52 B.C., during the war with Vercingetorix, it was completely
+destroyed by the Roman conqueror, but under Augustus it rose again into
+importance, and was made the capital of Aquitania Prima. About A.D. 250
+it became the seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being
+Ursinus. Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their
+possession till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of
+Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th century it
+became the residence of Charles VII., who thus acquired the popular
+title of "king of Bourges." In 1463 a university was founded in the city
+by Louis XI., which continued for centuries to be one of the most famous
+in France, especially in the department of jurisprudence. On many
+occasions Bourges was the seat of ecclesiastical councils--the most
+important being the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of
+the Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the
+Lutheran doctrines were condemned.
+
+
+
+
+BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852-   ), French novelist and critic, was
+born at Amiens on the 2nd of September 1852. His father, a professor of
+mathematics, was afterwards appointed to a post in the college at
+Clermont-Ferrand. Here Bourget received his early education. He
+afterwards studied at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand and at the Ecole des
+Hautes Etudes. In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, _Au bord de
+la mer_, which was followed by others, the last, _Les Aveux_, appearing
+in 1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism, and in
+1883 he published _Essais de psychologic contemporaine_, studies of
+eminent writers first printed in the _Nouvelle Revue_, and now brought
+together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit to England, and there wrote
+his first published story (_L'Irreparable_). _Cruelle Enigme_ followed
+in 1885; and _Andre Cornelis_ (1886) and _Mensonges_ (1887) were
+received with much favour. _Le Disciple_ (1889) showed the novelist in a
+graver attitude; while in 1891 _Sensations d'Italie_, notes of a tour in
+that country, revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year
+appeared the novel _Coeur de femme_, and _Nouveaux Pastels_, types of
+the characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types
+(_Pastels_, 1890). His later novels include _La Terre promise_ (1892);
+_Cosmopolis_ (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background;
+_Une Idylle tragique_ (1896); _La Duchesse bleue_ (1897); _Le Fantome_
+(1901); _Les Deux Soeurs_ (1905); and some volumes of shorter
+stories--_Complications sentimentales_ (1896), the powerful _Drames de
+famille_ (1898), _Un Homme fort_ (1900), _L'Etape_ (1902), a study of
+the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the peasant class to
+adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful study of contemporary
+manners was followed by _Un Divorce_ (1904), a defence of the Roman
+Catholic position that divorce is a violation of natural laws, any
+breach of which inevitably entails disaster. _Etudes et portraits_,
+first published in 1888, contains impressions of Bourget's stay in
+England and Ireland, especially reminiscences of the months which he
+spent at Oxford; and _Outre-Mer_ (1895), a book in two volumes, is his
+critical journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was
+admitted to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an
+officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration of the
+order ten years before.
+
+As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and his poems,
+which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are chiefly interesting
+for the light which they throw upon his mature method and the later
+products of his art. It was in criticism that his genius first found its
+true bent. The habit of close scientific analysis which he derived from
+his father, the sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a
+classical education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms,
+the taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not
+less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to be
+learned on the _boulevard_--all these combined to provide him with a
+most uncommon equipment for the critic's task. It is not surprising that
+the _Sensations d'ltalie_ (1891), and the various psychological studies,
+are in their different ways scarcely surpassed throughout the whole
+range of literature. Bourget's reputation as a novelist has long been
+assured. Deeply impressed by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal),
+he struck out on a new course at a moment when the realist school
+reigned without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover, had
+a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific basis, and
+aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable to, that of the
+writers who were depicting with an astonishing faithfulness the
+environment and the actions of a person or a society. With Bourget
+observation was mainly directed to the secret springs of human
+character. At first his purpose seemed to be purely artistic, but when
+_Le Disciple_ appeared, in 1889, the preface to that remarkable story
+revealed in him an unsuspected fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he
+has varied between his earlier and his later manner, but his work in
+general has been more seriously conceived. From first to last he has
+painted with a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women,
+whether wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not
+less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those young men
+of France to whom he makes special appeal.
+
+Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue delineation of
+one social class. The first charge can hardly be sustained. The lights
+in his books are usually low; there is a certain lack of gaiety, and the
+characters move in a world of disenchantment. But there is no despair in
+his own outlook upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other
+indictment, the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere
+framework of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of
+complicated affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which
+the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured and
+leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of humbler men and
+women. The style of all Bourget's writings is singularly graceful. His
+knowledge of the literature of other lands gives it a greater
+flexibility and a finer allusiveness than most of his contemporaries can
+achieve. The precision by which it is not less distinguished, though
+responsible for a certain over-refinement, and for some dull pages of
+the novels, is an almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a
+critic, indeed, either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be
+desired. If he is not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books
+display more ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous
+creation, it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have
+rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.
+
+  See also C. Lecigne, _L'Evolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul
+  Bourget_ (1903); Sargeret, _Les Grands Convertis_ (1906). His _Oeuvres
+  completes_ began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.
+
+
+
+
+BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE (1616-1680), Flemish mystic, was born at Lille on
+the 13th of January 1616. From an early age she was under the influence
+of religion, which took in course of time a mystical turn. Undertaking
+the work of a reformer, she visited France, Holland, England and
+Scotland. Her religious enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard
+of all sects raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her
+death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she left a
+large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly away; but in
+the early 18th century her influence revived in Scotland sufficiently to
+call forth several denunciations of her doctrines in the various
+Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701, 1709 and 1710. So far as
+appears from her writings and contemporary records, she was a visionary
+of the ordinary type, distinguished only by the audacity and persistency
+of her pretensions.
+
+  Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions and
+  opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,
+  Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679).
+  For a critical account see Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897),
+  and Etude sur Antoinette Bourignon_, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three
+  of her works at least have been translated into English:--_An
+  Abridgment of the Light of the World_ (London, 1786); _A Treatise of
+  Solid Virtue_ (1699); _The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit (1707)
+
+
+
+
+BOURKE, a town of Cowper county, New South Wales, Australia, 503 m. by
+rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614. It is situated on the south
+bank, and at the head of the ordinary winter navigation, of the Darling
+river. Very rich copper ore exists in the district in great abundance.
+Bourke is the centre of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual
+agricultural show is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of
+the Darling, 3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at
+Pera, 10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.
+
+
+
+
+BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE GHAISNE DE (1773-1846), marshal
+of France, entered the _Gardes Francaises_ of the royal army shortly
+before the Revolution, emigrated in 1789, and served with Conde and the
+army of the _emigres_ in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently
+serving as chief of staff to Scepeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil
+war in lower Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of
+April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having been made
+by Louis XVIII. a _marechal de camp_ and a knight of St Louis, he headed
+a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary successes collapsed
+(1799-1800). He then made his submission to the First Consul, married,
+and lived in Paris; but his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a
+few months later, and he remained a prisoner for more than three years,
+finally escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army
+under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered his services
+to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division. He returned to
+France with Junot after the convention of Cintra, and was promptly
+re-arrested. He was soon released, however, on Junot's demand, and was
+commissioned as an officer in the imperial army. He served in Italy for
+a time, then went on the staff of the viceroy Eugene (Beauharnais), whom
+he accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner in the
+retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French army. His
+conspicuous courage at the battle of Lutzen in 1813 led Napoleon to
+promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his splendid defence of
+Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank of general of division. At the
+first Restoration Bourmont was naturally employed by the Bourbons, to
+whose service he had devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his
+return from Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent
+request of Count Gerard, he was given a divisional command in the army
+of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign Bourmont went
+over to the enemy. It is not probable that he gave information of French
+movements to the allies, but the best that can be said in exculpation of
+his treachery is that his old friends and comrades, the royalists of
+Anjou, were again in insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead
+them. He made no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser
+of Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division of the
+royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position in the army
+which, under the command of the duc d'Angouleme, invaded Spain. He
+commanded the whole army in Spain for a time in 1824, became minister of
+war in 1829, and in 1830 was placed in command of the Algiers
+expedition. The landing of the French and the capture of Algiers were
+directed by him with complete success, and he was rewarded with the
+_baton_ of marshal. But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his
+command, and, refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced
+to resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of the
+duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal. Here, as
+always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the army of Dom Miguel
+during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after the victory of the
+constitutional party he retired to Rome. At the amnesty of 1840 he
+returned to France. He died at the chateau of Bourmont on the 27th of
+October 1846.
+
+  Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets in
+  vindication of his father's career.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE, VINCENT (1695-1747), English classical scholar, familiarly known
+as "Vinny" Bourne, was born at Westminster in 1695. In 1710 he became a
+scholar at Westminster school, and in 1714 entered Trinity College,
+Cambridge. He graduated in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years
+later. Of his afterlife exceedingly little is known. It is certain that
+he passed the greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He
+died on; the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published
+three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a very
+handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne's pieces, but also some
+that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are remarkable not only for
+perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties, but for graceful expression
+and genuine poetic feeling. A number of them are translations of English
+poems, and it is not too much to say that the Latin versions almost
+invariably surpass the originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne's,
+Beattie and Lamb have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin
+versification.
+
+  See an edition (1840) of his _Poemata_, with a memoir by John Mitford.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE, or BOURN, a market town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; lying in a fenny
+district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4361.
+The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the Great Northern railway here crosses
+the Saxby-Lynn joint line of the Great Northern and Midland companies.
+The church of St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with
+later insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a
+foundation of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings
+have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural.
+Bourne is famous through its connexion with the ardent opponent of
+William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake. Of his castle very slight
+traces remain. Bourne was also the birthplace of the Elizabethan
+statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley. The Red Hall, which now forms part of
+the railway station buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom
+Sir Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with the
+Gunpowder Plot.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNE (southern form of burn, Teutonic _born, brun, burna_), an
+intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country where the
+rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly drains away until
+the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases. A heavy rainfall will
+cause streams to run in winter from the saturated soil. These are the
+winter bournes that have given name to several settlements upon
+Salisbury Plain, such as Winterbourne Gunning. The "bourne" may also be
+a permanent "burn," but the word is usually applied to an intermittent
+stream. (2) (From the Fr. _borne_), a boundary; the first use of the
+word in English is in Lord Ferrers' translation of Forrest, 1523; the
+figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination comes from
+Shakespeare's Hamlet, "the undiscovered country, from whose bourne no
+traveller returns."
+
+
+
+
+BOURNEMOUTH, a municipal and county borough and watering-place of
+Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary borough of Christchurch,
+107-1/2 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway.
+Pop. (1901) 59,762. It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay.
+Considerable sandstone cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored
+with deep picturesque dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about
+the valley of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable
+winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a national
+sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by subscription; a pier
+was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway communication was afforded. The
+climate is remarkably equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool
+in summer; the average temperature in July is 61.7 deg. F., and in
+January 40.3 deg. The town contains numerous handsome buildings,
+including municipal buildings, churches, various places of
+entertainment, sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science
+and art school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front,
+and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome have attracted
+a large number of wealthy residents. There are piers at the town itself
+and at Boscombe, and the bathing is excellent. The parks, gardens and
+drives are extensive and pleasant. A service of electric tramways is
+maintained, notable as being the first system installed in England with
+a combination of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying
+current. There are golf links in Meyrick and Queen's parks, both laid
+out by the corporation, which has in other ways studied the
+entertainment of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and
+West, and through communications with the north are maintained by the
+Somerset & Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and Great Central
+railways. The town, which is of wholly modern and remarkably rapid
+growth (for in the middle of the 19th century the population was less
+than 1000), was incorporated in 1890, and became a county borough in
+1900. The corporation consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33
+councillors. Area, 5769 acres.
+
+
+
+
+BOURNONITE, a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead and copper with
+the formula PbCuSbS3. It is of some interest on account of the twinning
+and the beautiful development of its crystals. It was first mentioned by
+Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as "an ore of antimony," and was more
+completely described by the comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was
+named: the name given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since
+used in the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the
+mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are
+generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the basal
+pinacoid (c); numerous smooth bright faces are often developed on the
+edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned crystal is represented
+in fig. 1. Usually, however, the crystals are twinned, the twin-plane
+being a face of the prism (m); the angle between the faces of this prism
+being nearly a right angle (86 deg. 20'), the twinning gives rise to
+cruciform groups (fig. 2), and when it is often repeated the group has
+the appearance of a cog-wheel, hence the name _Radelerz_ (wheel-ore) of
+the Kapnik miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,
+which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the massive
+material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant metallic lustre
+with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2-1/2, and the specific gravity
+5.8.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Crystal of Bournonite.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Twinned Crystal of Bournonite.]
+
+At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion in
+Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and chalybite.
+Later, still better crystals were found in another Cornish mine, namely,
+Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which was worked for argentiferous
+galena. Fine crystals of large size have been found with quartz and
+chalybite in the mines at Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and
+tetrahedrite at Kapnik-Banya near Nagy-Banya in Hungary. A few other
+localities are known for this mineral.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURREE, a French name for a dance common in Auvergne and in Biscay in
+Spain; also a term for a musical composition or a dance-movement in a
+suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in quick time with two beats to the
+bar.
+
+
+
+
+BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE (1769-1834), French diplomatist,
+was born at Sens on the 9th of July 1769. He was educated at the
+military school of Brienne in Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte;
+and although the solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult,
+the two youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however, be
+added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in
+Bourrienne's memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in 1787,
+and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded to Vienna.
+He was pursuing legal and diplomatic studies there and afterwards at
+Leipzig, when the French Revolution broke out and went through its first
+phases. Not until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at
+Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a Bohemian
+life together, and among other incidents of that exciting time, they
+witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the Tuileries (June 20) and
+the overthrow of the Swiss Guards at the same spot (August 10).
+Bourrienne next obtained a diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon
+his name was placed on the list of political _emigres_, from which it
+was not removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of
+13th Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and renewed his
+acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second in command of the Army
+of the Interior and soon received the command of the Army of Italy.
+Bourrienne did not proceed with him into Italy, but was called thither
+by the victorious general at the time of the long negotiations with
+Austria (May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy was
+of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of Campo
+Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied Bonaparte to
+Egypt as his private secretary, and left a vivid, if not very
+trustworthy, account of the expedition in his memoirs. He also
+accompanied him on the adventurous return voyage to Frejus
+(September-October 1799), and was of some help in the affairs which led
+up to the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire (November) 1799. He remained by the
+side of the First Consul in his former capacity, but in the autumn of
+1802 incurred his displeasure owing to his very questionable financial
+dealings. In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free
+city of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of
+commercial war against England, known as the Continental System; but it
+is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical measures with disgust,
+but secretly relaxed them in favour of those merchants who plied him
+with _douceurs_. In the early spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon
+to order a large number of military cloaks for the army, then in East
+Prussia, he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously
+was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune while at
+Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at the close of 1810. In
+1814 he embraced the royal cause, and during the Hundred Days (1815)
+accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful;
+he died at Caen on the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a
+mental malady for two years.
+
+  The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his
+  original works, which are insignificant, but upon his _Memoires_,
+  edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which
+  have been frequently republished and translated. The best English
+  edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London,
+  1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,
+  Paris, 1899-1900). See _Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et
+  involontaires_ (Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c., for
+  a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also _Napoleon et ses
+  detracteurs_, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,
+  1888).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE (1739-1819), Swiss traveller and writer, came of
+a family which was of French origin but had taken refuge at Geneva for
+reasons connected with religion. His father was a watchmaker there, and
+he himself was educated in his native city. He was a good artist and
+etcher, and also a pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love
+of music he was made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the
+former cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself to
+the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a great passion
+ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near Geneva. In 1775 he made
+the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.) by the now usual route from
+the Pierre a Berard, on which the great flat rock known as the _Table au
+Chantre_ still preserves his memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first
+traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786),
+but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit.
+On the other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Geant
+(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also among
+the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c. He received a
+pension from Louis XVI., and was named the _historiographe des Alpes_ by
+the emperor Joseph II., who visited him at Geneva. His last visit to
+Chamonix was in 1812. His writings are composed in a naive, sentimental
+and rather pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love
+for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific
+study. His chief works are the _Description des glacieres de Savoye_,
+1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the _Description des
+Alpes pennines et rhetiennes_ (2 vols., 1781) (reprinted in 1783 under
+the title of _Nouvelle Description des vallees de glace_, and in 1785,
+with additions, in 3 vols., under the name of _Nouvelle Description des
+glacieres_), and the _Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes_, (2
+vols., 1803), while his _Itineraire de Geneve, Lausanne et Chamouni_,
+first published in 1791, went through several editions in his lifetime.
+    (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+BOURSAULT, EDME (1638-1701), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,
+was born at Mussy l'Eveque, now Mussy-sur-Seine (Aube), in October 1638.
+On his first arrival in Paris in 1651 his language was limited to a
+Burgundian patois, but within a year he produced his first comedy, _Le
+Mort vivant_. This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him
+distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Moliere in the
+_Ecole des femmes_. Boursault was persuaded that the "Lysidas" of that
+play was a caricature of himself, and attacked Moliere in _Le Portrait
+du peintre ou la contre-critique de l'Ecole des femmes_ (1663). Moliere
+retaliated in _L'Impromptu de Versailles_, and Boileau attacked
+Boursault in Satires 7 and 9. Boursault replied to Boileau in his
+_Satire des satires_ (1669), but was afterwards reconciled with him,
+when Boileau on his side erased his name from his satires. Boursault
+obtained a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which
+was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and the editor
+was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition of Conde. In 1671
+he produced a work of edification in _Ad usum Delphini: la veritable
+etude des souverains_, which so pleased the court that its author was
+about to be made assistant tutor to the dauphin when it was found that
+he was ignorant of Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre
+Huet. Perhaps in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at
+Mont-lucon about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688. Among
+his best-known plays are _Le Mercure galant_, the title of which was
+changed to _La Comedie sans titre_ (1683); _La Princesse de Cleves_
+(1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished with fresh names by
+its author, succeeded as _Germanicus; Esope a la ville_ (1690); and
+_Esope a la cour_ (1701). His lack of dramatic instinct could hardly be
+better indicated than by the scheme of his _Esope_, which allows the
+fabulist to come on the stage in each scene and recite a fable.
+Boursault died in Paris on the 15th of September 1701.
+
+  The _Oeuvres choisies_ of Boursault were published in 1811, and a
+  sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-Rene Taillandier's _Etudes
+  litteraires_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+BOURSE (from the Med. Lat. _bursa_, a purse), the French equivalent of
+the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris Exchange, or of any foreign
+money-market. The English form "burse," as in Sir Thomas Gresham's
+building, which was known as "Britain's Burse," went out of use in the
+18th century. The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from
+any connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of a
+purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family de Bursa is
+said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to have had three
+purses as a sign on the front.
+
+
+
+
+BOURSSE, ESAIAS (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born in Amsterdam. He
+was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose manner he worked for many
+years in his native town; then he took service with the Dutch East India
+Company, and died on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare,
+perhaps because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of
+them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de Hooch. Two
+of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears the false signature)
+at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now recognized as being the work of
+Boursse. His subjects are interiors with figures, painted with great
+precision and with exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection
+has his masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,
+almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting
+something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced. Other
+important examples are at the Ryks museum and at Aix-la-Chapelle.
+Boursse's "Boy blowing Soap Bubbles," in the Berlin museum, was until
+lately attributed to Vermeer of Delft. More than one picture bearing the
+false signature of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.
+
+
+
+
+BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNE (1802-1887), French
+chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1802. After studying
+at the school of mines at Saint-Etienne he went, when little more than
+twenty years old, to South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an
+English company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he was
+attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled widely in the
+northern parts of the continent. Returning to France he became professor
+of chemistry at Lyons, and in 1839 was appointed to the chair of
+agricultural and analytical chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et
+Metiers in Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where
+he sat as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed from
+his professorship on account of his political opinions, but so much
+resentment at this action was shown by scientific men in general, and
+especially by his colleagues, who threatened to resign in a body, that
+he was reinstated. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1887. His first
+papers were concerned with mining topics, and his sojourn in South
+America yielded a number of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of
+goitre in the Cordilleras, the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes,
+tropical rain, &c., which won the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From
+1836 he devoted himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and
+vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral chemistry.
+His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen in different foods,
+the amount of gluten in different wheats, investigations on the question
+whether plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere (which
+he answered in the negative), the respiration of plants, the function of
+their leaves, the action and value of manures, and other similar
+subjects. Through his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in
+Alsace, where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He
+collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an _Essai de statique
+chimique des etres organises_ (1841), and was the author of _Traite
+d'economic rurale_ (1844), which was remodelled as _Agronomie, chimie
+agricole, et physiologie_ (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., 1884), and of
+_Etudes sur la transformation du fer en acier_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH (1766-1828), German philosopher and critic, was
+born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and studied law at Gottingen.
+From 1790, however, he became a disciple of Kant, published _Aphorismen
+nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt_ (1793), and became professor of philosophy
+at Gottingen (1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a
+philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the
+"thing-in-itself" (_Ding-an-sich_). For the pure reason, as described in
+the _Kritik_, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable
+"something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication
+of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing
+but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of
+will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is
+the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge.
+This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism. Following
+this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his
+opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of
+F.H. Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Gottingen, 1868) shed
+much light on the development of his thought. His chief philosophical
+works are _Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik_ (Gottingen and Halle,
+1799); _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1806; Gottingen, 1815 and 1824); _Lehrbuch
+der philos. Vorkenntnisse_ (Gottingen, 1810 and 1820); _Lehrbuch der
+philos. Wissenschaften_ (Gottingen, 1813 and 1820). In these works he
+dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was
+the _Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit_ (Gottingen, 12
+vols., 1801-1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been
+published separately in French, Spanish and English. The _Geschichte_ is
+a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of
+equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, _Paulus Septimus_
+(Halle, 1795), _Graf Donamar_ (Gottingen, 1791) and _Ramiro_ (Leipzig,
+1804), and published a collection of poems (Gottingen, 1802).
+
+
+
+
+BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOUILLETOURTE (1581-1652), French
+statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he was councillor in the
+parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became councillor of state and a
+secretary to the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici. The connexion of his
+father, Denis Bouthillier (d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for
+him the title of secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain
+on good terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richelieu, in spite of
+their rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But his
+great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on many diplomatic
+missions, and the success of his foreign policy was due in no small
+degree to Bouthillier's ability and devotion. In 1630 he had taken part
+at Regensburg in arranging the abortive treaty between the emperor and
+France. From 1633 to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions
+in Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph. Following
+Richelieu's instructions, he negotiated the alliances which brought
+France into the Thirty Years' War. Meanwhile, at home, his tact and
+amiable disposition, as well as his reputation for straightforwardness,
+had secured for him a unique position of influence in a court torn by
+jealousies and intrigues. Trusted by the king, the confidant of
+Richelieu, the friend of Marie de' Medici, and through his son, Leon
+Bouthillier, who was appointed in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d'Orleans,
+able to bring his influence to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable
+mediator; and the personal influence thus exercised, combined with the
+fact that he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy
+of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful man in the
+kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will, and Louis XIII. named
+him a member of the council of regency which he intended should govern
+the kingdom after his death. But the king's last plans were not carried
+out, and Bouthillier was obliged to retire into private life, giving up
+his office of superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris
+on the 13th of March 1652.
+
+His son, LEON BOUTHILLIER (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny, was early
+associated with his father, who took him with him from 1629 to 1632 to
+all the great courts of Europe, instructing him in diplomacy. In 1632 he
+was named secretary of state and seconded his father's work, so that it
+is not easy always to distinguish their respective parts. After the
+death of Louis XIII. he had to give up his office; but was sent as
+plenipotentiary to the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself
+incapable, however, giving himself up to pleasure and fetes, and
+returned to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during
+the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin's exile
+(April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which came to
+nothing.
+
+
+
+
+BOUTS-RIMES, literally (from the French) "rhymed ends," the name given
+in all literatures to a kind of verses of which no better definition can
+be found than was made by Addison, in the Spectator, when he described
+them as "lists of words that rhyme to one another, drawn up by another
+hand, and given to a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the
+same order that they were placed upon the list." The more odd and
+perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to give a
+semblance of common-sense to the production. For instance, the rhymes
+_breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant, please, hope, pope_ are
+submitted, and the following stanza is the result:--
+
+  Escaping from the Indian _breeze_,
+  The vast, sententious _elephant_
+  Through groves of sandal loves to _squeeze_
+  And in their fragrant shade to _pant_;
+  Although the shelter there be _scant_,
+  The vivid odours soothe and _please_,
+  And while he yields to dreams of _hope_,
+  Adoring beasts surround their _Pope_.
+
+The invention of bouts-rimes is attributed to a minor French poet of the
+17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered. According to the
+_Menagiana_, about the year 1648, Dulot was complaining one day that he
+had been robbed of a number of valuable papers, and, in particular, of
+three hundred sonnets. Surprise being expressed at his having written so
+many, Dulot explained that they were all "blank sonnets," that is to
+say, that he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck
+every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was taken up as
+a jest. Bouts-rimes became the fashion, and in 1654 no less a person
+than Sarrasin composed a satire against them, entitled _La Defaite des
+bouts-rimes_, which enjoyed a great success. Nevertheless, they
+continued to be abundantly composed in France throughout the 17th
+century and a great part of the 18th century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans
+(d. 1716) published a collection of serious sonnets, all written to
+rhymes selected for him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor
+Marmontel, nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in
+the 19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,
+however, in the history of bouts-rimes is the fact that the elder
+Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection. He issued an
+invitation to all the poets of France to display their skill by
+composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose by the poet, Joseph
+Mery (1798-1866). No fewer than 350 writers responded to the appeal, and
+Dumas published the result, as a volume, in 1865.
+
+W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G. Rossetti's
+_Collected Works_ (1886), mentions that, especially in 1848 and 1849, he
+and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly practised their pens in writing
+sonnets to _bouts-rimes_, each giving the other the rhymes for a sonnet,
+and Dante Gabriel writing off these exercises in verse-making at the
+rate of a sonnet in five or eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti's poems
+in _The Germ_ were _bouts-rimes_ experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel's, a
+little touched up, remained in his brother's possession, but were not
+included in the _Collected Works_.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905), American statesman, was born in
+Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th of January 1818. He was reared on
+a farm, and at an early age began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass.
+There he studied law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not
+begin practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850 he
+served in the state house of representatives, and became the recognized
+leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice defeated for Congress, and
+was twice an unsuccessful candidate for governor. In 1851, however, by
+means of "Free-Soil" votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected
+by the same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active
+part in the state constitutional convention. He became a member of the
+Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853, and as its secretary in
+1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and rendered much service to the
+state's school system. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854
+had finally alienated him from the Democratic party, and he became one
+of the founders of the new Republican party in the state. He played an
+influential part in the Republican national convention in 1860, and in
+1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was appointed by
+President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal revenue, which
+department he organized. From 1863 to 1869 he was a representative in
+Congress, taking an influential part in debate, and acting as one of the
+managers of President Johnson's impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was
+secretary of the treasury in President Grant's cabinet, and from 1873
+until 1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under an
+appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second edition of the
+_United States Revised Statutes_ (1878). In 1880 he represented the
+United States before the commission appointed in accordance with the
+treaty of that year, between France and the United States, to decide the
+claims brought by French citizens against the United States for acts of
+the American authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of
+American citizens against France for acts of French authorities during
+the war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and the
+Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States of the
+Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic League,
+and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic) ticket in 1900.
+He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on the 28th of February 1905. He
+published various volumes, including _The Constitution of the United
+States at the End of the First Century_ (1895), and _Reminiscences of
+Sixty Years in Public Affairs_ (2 vols., New York, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+BOUVARDIA, a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse shrubs, belonging to
+the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of tropical America. The
+flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered clusters; the corolla
+has a large tube and a spreading four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms
+include a number of hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings
+taken off in April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame
+with a close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly into
+3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth leaf-mould
+and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature of 70 deg. by
+night and 80 deg. during the day; shade when required; syringe overhead
+in the afternoon and close the house with sun-heat. The plants should be
+topped to ensure a bushy habit, and as they grow must be shifted into
+6-in. or 7-in. pots. After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may
+remain till the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space.
+They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants put at
+once in a temperature of about 70 deg. at night, with a few degrees
+higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others are moved into
+heat to supply flowers in succession through the winter and spring.
+
+
+
+
+BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1753-1832), French admiral, son of a captain in
+the service of the French East India Company, was born on the 23rd of
+April 1753. He went to sea at the age of twelve with his father. Bouvet
+served in the East Indies in the famous campaign of 1781-83 under the
+command of Suffren, but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of
+the French Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side.
+Murder and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the
+monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet's experience were
+valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command of the
+"Audacieux" (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic. In
+the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral, and he commanded a
+division in the fleet which fought the battle of the 1st of June 1794
+against Lord Howe. Until the close of 1796 he continued in command of a
+squadron in the French Channel fleet. In the December of that year he
+was entrusted with the van division of the fleet which was sent from
+Brest to attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in
+the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the French as
+soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence which he had not been
+designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found himself at daybreak on the 17th of
+December separated with nine sail of the line from the rest of the
+fleet, opened his secret orders, and found that he was to make his way
+to Mizen Head. He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers,
+and on the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of
+the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of
+December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry Bay. On the
+24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his fleet. The continued
+storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and the awkwardness of the French
+crews, made it impossible to land the troops he had with him. On the
+evening of the 25th the storm increased to such a pitch of violence that
+the frigate in which Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea.
+The wind moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of
+the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage, steered
+for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797. His fortune had
+been very much that of his colleagues in this storm-tossed expedition,
+and on the whole he had shown more energy than most of them. He was
+wrong, however, in thinking that all his squadron had failed to keep
+their anchorage in Bantry Bay. The government, displeased by his
+precipitate return to Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards.
+He was compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon restored
+him to the service, and he commanded the squadron sent to occupy
+Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he had no further service,
+and lived in obscurity till his death on the 21st of July 1832.
+
+  Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_, vols. ii. and iii., and
+  James, _Naval History_, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of
+  June and the expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the
+  expedition in Tronde's _English in Ireland_, and it is dealt with in
+  Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+BOUVIER, JOHN (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in Codogno, France,
+in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers (his mother was a member
+of the well-known Benezet family), emigrated to America and settled in
+Philadelphia, and after varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop
+and as a country editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having
+become a citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing
+in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from 1838
+until his death was an associate justice of the court of criminal
+sessions in that city. He is best known for his able legal writings. His
+_Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United
+States of America and of the Several States of the American Union_
+(1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis Rawle, under the title
+of _Bouvier's Law Dictionary_, 2 vols., 1897) has always been a
+standard. He published also an edition of _Bacon's Abridgement of the
+Law_ (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of American law entitled
+_The Institutes of American Law_ (4 vols., 1851; new ed. 2 vols., 1876).
+
+
+
+
+BOUVINES, a village on the French-Belgian frontier between Lille and
+Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the middle ages,
+fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces of Philip Augustus,
+king of France, and those of the coalition formed against him, of which
+the principal members were the emperor and King John of England. The
+plan of campaign seems to have been designed by King John, who was the
+soul of the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to
+the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the princes
+of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should at the right
+moment march upon Paris from the north. John's part in the general
+strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in the north moved slowly.
+While John, after two inroads, turned back to his Guienne possessions on
+the 3rd of July, it was not until three weeks later that the emperor
+concentrated his forces at Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip
+Augustus had countermarched northward and concentrated an army at
+Peronne. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to
+get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July
+27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque--the same plain
+on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of Willems was fought. The
+imperial army accepted the challenge and drew up facing south-westward
+towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one
+great mass in the centre, supported by the cavalry corps under the
+emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and
+40,000 foot. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry)
+took ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,
+cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the _milice des communes_, in
+the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme in rear of
+the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French
+right, in which individual feats of knightly gallantry were more
+noticeable than any attempt at combined action. The fighting was more
+serious between the two centres; the infantry of the Low Countries, who
+were at this time almost the best in existence, drove in the French;
+Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the
+day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was
+unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.
+In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly
+defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and William Longsword, earl
+of Salisbury, the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner
+by the warlike bishop of Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the
+other wing, where the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and
+captured Count Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the
+coalition. In the centre the battle was now between the two mounted
+reserves led respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here
+too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only
+by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day was already
+decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards
+to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with
+the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King
+Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred Brabancon pikemen, and not
+only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made
+repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually,
+and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant
+schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand
+men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the _melee_; and the
+prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William
+Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed
+amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands
+of foot on either side, of whom no accurate account can be given.
+
+  See Oman, _History of the Art of War_, vii. pp. 457-480; also Kohler,
+  _Kriegsgeschichte, &c_., i. 140, and Delpech, _Tactique au XIII
+  siecle_, 127.
+
+
+
+
+BOVEY BEDS, in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and lignite, 200-300
+ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from Bovey Tracey to Newton
+Abbot in Devonshire, England. The deposit is evidently the result of the
+degradation of the neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt
+laid down in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains
+from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same geological
+horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland. Starkie Gardiner,
+however, who subsequently examined the flora, showed that it bore a
+close resemblance to that of the Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in
+this view he is supported by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made
+for the extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery
+and similar purposes. The lignite or "Bovey Coal" has at times been
+burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen's cottages,
+but it is not economical.
+
+  See S. Gardiner, _Q. J. G. S._ London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and O.
+  Heer, _Phil. Trans._, 1862; C. Reid, _Q. J. G. S._ lii., 1896, p. 490,
+  and _loc. cit._ liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is
+  given by A.W. Clayden, _The History of Devonshire Scenery_ (London,
+  1906), pp. 159-168.
+
+
+
+
+BOVIANUM, the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1) UNDECIMANORUM
+[_Boiano_], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites, 9 m. N.W. of Saepinum
+and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the important road from Beneventum to
+Corfinium, which connected the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The
+original city occupied the height (Civita) above the modern town, where
+remains of Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably
+founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat of the
+Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the name _Undecimanorum_
+when Vespasian settled the veterans of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its
+remains have been covered by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the
+mountains. Comparatively few inscriptions have been discovered. (2)
+VETUS (near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of
+Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (_Corpus Inscrip. Lat._ ix.
+Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni. It lay in a remote
+situation among the mountains, and where Bovianum is mentioned the
+reference is generally to Bovianum Undecimanorum. Remains of
+fortifications and lower down of a temple and a theatre (cf. _Romische
+Mitteilungen_, 1903, 154)--the latter remarkable for the fine
+preservation of the stone seats of the three lowest rows of the
+auditorium--are to be seen. No less than eight Oscan inscriptions have
+been found. (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BOVIDAE, the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant mammals
+typified by the common ox (_Bos taurus_), and specially characterized by
+the presence on the skulls of the males or of both sexes of a pair of
+bony projections, or cores, covered in life with hollow sheaths of horn,
+which are never branched, and at all events after a very early stage of
+existence are permanently retained. From this, which is alone sufficient
+for diagnostic purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For
+other characteristics see PECORA. The _Bovidae_ comprise a great number
+of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes and
+certain other kinds which come under neither of these designations. In
+stature they range from the size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and
+their horns vary in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of
+the oribi and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped
+structures borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu and
+other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the _Bovidae_
+present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or _Cervidae_. Both of
+these families are distributed over the whole of the northern
+hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent from Africa south of the
+Sahara and well represented in South America, the Bovidae are unknown in
+the latter area, but are extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither
+group is represented in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of
+the _Bovidae_. The present family doubtless originated in the northern
+half of the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the
+Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been but
+poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.
+
+The _Bovidae_ are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies,
+each of which is briefly noticed in the present article, while fuller
+mention of some of the more important representatives of these is made
+in other articles.
+
+The first section is that of the _Bovinae_, which includes buffaloes,
+bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built
+ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle broad, moist and
+naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands, and a large dewlap often
+developed in the males; while the tail is long and generally tufted,
+although in one instance longhaired throughout. The horns are of nearly
+equal size in both sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull,
+and may be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or
+less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous
+knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface. The tall upper
+molars have inner columns. The group is represented throughout the Old
+World as far east as Celebes, and has one living North American
+representative. All the species may be included in the genus _Bos_, with
+several subgeneric divisions (see ANOA, AUROCHS, BANTIN, BISON, BUFFALO,
+GAUR, GAYAL, OX and YAK).
+
+The second group, or _Caprinae_, includes the sheep and goats, which are
+smaller animals than most of the _Bovidae_, generally with horns in both
+sexes, but those of the females small. In the males the horns are
+usually compressed and triangular, with transverse ridges or knobs, and
+either curving backwards or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and
+when face-glands are present these are small and insignificant; while
+the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the _Bovinae_, there are
+frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ from
+those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack a distinct
+inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull it is small. The
+genera are _Ovis_ (sheep), _Capra_ (goats) and _Hemitragus_ (tahr).
+Sheep and goats are very nearly related, but the former never have a
+beard on the chin of the males, which are devoid of a strong odour; and
+their horns are typically of a different type. There are, however,
+several more or less transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats.
+The group is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in
+the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance south into
+the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers. (See
+UDAD, ARGALI, GOAT, IBEX, MOUFLON, SHEEP and TAHR.)
+
+The musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_) alone represents the family
+_Ovibovinae_, which is probably most nearly related to the next group
+(see MUSK-OX).
+
+Next come the _Rupicaprinae_, which include several genera of
+mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European chamois
+(_Rupicapra_); the other genera being the Asiatic serow, goral and
+takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain goat. These ruminants are
+best described as goat-like antelopes. (See ANTELOPE, CHAMOIS, GORAL,
+ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT, SEROW and TAKIN.)
+
+Under the indefinable term "antelope" (q.v.) may be included the seven
+remaining sections, namely _Tragelaphinae_ (kudu and eland),
+_Hippotraginae_ (sable antelope and oryx), _Antilopinae_ (black-buck,
+gazelles, &c.), _Cervicaprinae_ (reedbuck and waterbuck), _Neotraginae_
+(klipspringer and steinbok), _Cephalophinae_ (duikers and four-horned
+antelopes) and _Bubalinae_ (hartebeests and gnus).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM (1814-1873), English judge, a younger son of
+Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at All-hallows, Barking, on the
+26th of May 1814. On leaving school he was articled to a firm of
+solicitors, but entering the Middle Temple he practised for a short time
+as a special pleader below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the
+home circuit. His special training in a solicitor's office, and its
+resulting connexion, combined with a thorough knowledge of the details
+of engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing firm in
+the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive patent and
+commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in 1857 was elected
+M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons he was very zealous for
+legal reform, and the Partnership Law Amendment Act 1865, which he
+helped to pass, is always referred to as Bovill's Act. In 1866 he was
+appointed solicitor-general, an office which he vacated on becoming
+chief justice of the common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in
+November of the same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of
+November 1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable
+knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the bench his
+painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as well as his great
+patience and courtesy, gained for him the respect and affection of the
+profession.
+
+
+
+
+BOVILLAE, an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via Appia (which
+in 293 B.C. was already paved up to this point), 11 m. S.E. of Rome. It
+was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears as one of the thirty cities of
+the Latin league; after the destruction of Alba Longa the _sacra_ were,
+it was held, transferred to Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in
+inscriptions _virgines Vestales Albanae_ are mentioned, and the
+inhabitants of Bovillae are always spoken of as _Albani Longani
+Bovillenses_) and that of the _gens Iulia_. The existence of this
+hereditary worship led to an increase in its importance when the Julian
+house rose to the highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus's
+dead body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in A.D. 16 the shrine of
+the family worship was dedicated anew,[1] and yearly games in the circus
+instituted, probably under the charge of the _sodales Augustales_, whose
+official calendar has been found here. In history Bovillae appears as
+the scene of the quarrel between Milo and Clodius, in which the latter,
+whose villa lay above the town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed.
+The site is not naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications
+cannot be traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa
+as a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which
+would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak position.
+Remains of buildings of the imperial period--the circus, a small
+theatre, and edifices probably connected with the post-station--may
+still be seen on the south-west edge of the Via Appia.
+
+  See L. Canina, _Via Appia_ (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby in
+  _Melanges de l'ecole francaise de Rome_ (1903), p. 395.     (T. As.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is not likely that any remains of it now exist.
+
+
+
+
+BOW (pronounced "bo"), a common Teutonic word for anything bent[1] (O.
+Eng. _boezha_; cf. O. Sax. and O.H.G. _bogo_, M.H.G. _boge_, Mod. Ger.
+_bogen_; from O. Teut. stem _bug_- of _beugan_, Mod. Ger. _biegen_, to
+bend). Thus it is found in English compound words, e.g. "elbow,"
+"rainbow," "bow-net," "bow-window," "bow-knot," "saddle-bow," and by
+itself as the designation of a great variety of objects. The Old English
+use of "bow," or stone-bow, for "arch," now obsolete, survives in
+certain names of churches and places, e.g. Bow church (St
+Mary-in-Arcubus) in Cheapside, and Stratford-le-Bow (the
+"Stratford-atte-Bowe" of Chaucer). "Bow," however, is still the
+designation of objects so various as an appliance for shooting arrows
+(see ARCHERY), a necktie in the form of a bow-knot (i.e. a double-looped
+knot), a ring or hoop forming a handle (e.g. the bow of a watch),
+certain instruments or tools consisting of a bent piece of wood with the
+ends drawn together by a string, used for drilling, turning, &c., in
+various crafts, and the stick strung with horsehair by means of which
+the strings of instruments of the violin family are set in vibration. It
+is with this last that the present article is solely concerned.
+
+_Bow in Music_.--The modern bow (Fr. _archet_; Ger. _Bogen_; Ital.
+_arco_) consists of five parts, i.e. the "stick," the screw or
+"ferrule," the "nut," the "hair" and the "head." The stick, in
+high-grade bows, is made of Pernambuco wood (_Caesalpinia
+brasiliensis_), which alone combines the requisite lightness, elasticity
+and power of resistance; for the cheaper bows American oak is used, and
+for the double-bass bow beech. A billet rich in colouring matter and
+straight in the grain is selected, and the stick is usually cut from a
+templet so as to obtain the accurate taper, which begins about 4-1/4 in.
+from the nut, decreasing according to regular proportions from 3/8 in.
+at the screw to 3/16 at the back of the head. The stick is cut
+absolutely straight and parallel along its whole length with the fibre
+of the wood; it is then bent by heat until it is slightly convex to the
+hair and has assumed the elegant _cambrure_ first given to it by
+Francois Tourte (1747-1835). This process requires the greatest care,
+for if the fibres be not heated right through, they offer a continual
+resistance to the curve, and return after a time to the rigid straight
+line, a defect often observed in cheap bows. The sticks are now of
+either cylindrical or octagonal section, and are lapped or covered with
+gold thread or leather for some inches beyond the nut in order to afford
+a firm grip. The length of the stick was definitely and finally fixed by
+Francois Tourte at 29.34 to 29.528 in.
+
+  The centre of gravity in a well-balanced violin bow should be at 19
+  cm. (7-1/2 to 7-3/4 in.) from the nut;[2] in the violoncello bow the
+  hair measures from 60 to 62 cm. (24 to 25 in.), and the centre of
+  gravity is at from 175 to 180 mm. (7 to 7-1/4 in.) from the nut. In
+  consequence of the flexure given to the stick, Tourte found it
+  necessary to readjust the proportions and relative height of head and
+  nut, in order to keep the hair at a satisfactory distance from the
+  stick, and at the necessary angle in attacking the strings so as to
+  avoid contact between stick and strings in bowing. In order to
+  counterbalance the consequent increased weight of the head and to keep
+  the centre of gravity nearer the hand, Tourte loaded the nut with
+  metal inlays or ornamental designs.
+
+  The screw or ferrule, at the cylindrical end of the stick held by the
+  hand, provides the means of tightening or loosening the tension of the
+  hair. This screw, about 3-1/4 in. long, hidden within the stick, runs
+  through the eye of another little screw at right angles to it, which
+  is firmly embedded in the nut.
+
+  The nut is a wooden block at the screw end of the stick, the original
+  purpose of which was to keep the hair at a proper distance from the
+  stick and to provide a secure attachment for the hair. The whole nut
+  slides up and down the stick in a groove in answer to the screw, thus
+  tightening or relaxing the tension of the hair. In the nut is a little
+  cavity or chamber, into which the knotted end of the hair is firmly
+  fixed by means of a little wedge, the hair being then brought out and
+  flattened over the front of the nut like a ribbon by the pressure of a
+  flat ferrule. The mother-of-pearl slide which runs along a mortised
+  groove further protects the hair on the outside of the nut. Bows
+  having these attachments of ferrule and slide, added by Tourte at the
+  instigation of the violinist Giovanni Battista Viotti, were known as
+  _archets a recouvrements_.
+
+  The hair is chosen from the best white horsehair, and each of the 150
+  to 200 hairs which compose the half-inch wide ribbon of the bow must
+  be perfectly cylindrical and smooth. It is bought by the pound, and
+  must be very carefully sorted, for not more than one hair in ten is
+  perfectly cylindrical and fit for use on a high-grade bow. Experience
+  determines the right number of hairs, for if the ribbon be too thick
+  it hinders the vibration of the strings; if too thin the friction is
+  not strong enough to produce a good tone. Fetis gives 175 to 250 as
+  the number used in the modern bow,[3] and Julius Ruhlmann 110 to
+  120.[4] Tourte attached the greatest importance to the hairing of the
+  bow, and bestowed quite as much attention upon it as upon the stick.
+  He subjected the hair to the following process of cleansing: first it
+  was thoroughly scoured with soap and water to remove all grease, then
+  steeped in bran-water, freed from all heterogeneous matter still
+  adhering to it, and finally rinsed in pure water slightly blued. When
+  passed between the fingers in the direction from root to tip, the hair
+  glides smoothly and offers no resistance, but passed in the opposite
+  direction it feels rough, suggesting a regular succession of minute
+  projections. The outer epithelium or sheath of the hair is composed of
+  minute scales which produce a succession of infinitesimal shocks when
+  the hair is drawn across the strings; the force and uniformity of
+  these shocks, which produce series of vibrations of equal persistency,
+  is considerably heightened by the application of rosin to the hair.
+  The particles of rosin cling to the scales of the epithelium, thus
+  accentuating the projections and the energy of the attack or "bite"
+  upon the strings. With use, the scales of the epithelium wear off, and
+  then no matter how much rosin is applied, the bow fails to elicit
+  musical sounds--it is then "played out" and must be re-haired. The
+  organic construction of horsehair makes it necessary, in hairing the
+  bow, to lay the hairs in opposite directions, so that the up and down
+  strokes may be equal and a pure and even tone obtained. Waxed silk is
+  wound round both ends of the hair to form a strong knot, which is
+  afterwards covered with melted rosin and hardens with the hair into a
+  solid mass.
+
+  The head, 1 in. long and 7/16 in. wide at the plate, is cut in one
+  piece with the stick, an operation which requires delicate
+  workmanship; otherwise the head is liable to snap at this point during
+  a _sforzando_ passage. The head has a chamber and wedge contrivance
+  similar to that of the nut, in which the other end of the hair is
+  immovably fixed. The hair on the face of the head is protected by a
+  metal or ivory plate.
+
+  The model bow here described, elaborated by Francois Tourte as long
+  ago as between 1775 and 1780 according to Fetis,[5] or between 1785
+  and 1790 according to Vidal,[6] has not since been surpassed.
+
+
+That the violin and the bow form one inseparable whole becomes evident
+when we consider the history of the forerunners of the viol family:
+without the bow the ancestor of the violin would have remained a guitar;
+the bow would not have reached its present state of perfection had it
+been required only for instruments of the _rebec_ and _vielle_ type. As
+soon as the possibilities of the violin were realized, as a solo
+instrument capable, through the agency of the bow, of expressing the
+emotions of the performer, the perfecting of the bow was prosecuted in
+earnest until it was capable of responding to every shade of delicate
+thought and feeling. This accounts in a measure for the protracted
+development of the bow, which, although used long before the violin had
+been evolved, did not reach a state of perfection at the hands of Tourte
+until more than a century and a half after the Cremona master had given
+us the violin.
+
+The question of the origin of the bow still remains a matter of
+conjecture. Its appearance in western Europe seems to have coincided
+with the conquest of Spain by the Moors in the 8th century, and the
+consequent impetus their superior culture gave to arts and sciences in
+the south-west of Europe. We have, however, no well-authenticated
+representation of the bow before the 9th century in Europe; the earliest
+is the bow illustrated along with the Lyra Teutonica by Martin
+Gerbert[7], the representation being taken from a MS. at the monastery
+of St Blaise, dating in his opinion from the 9th century. On the other
+hand, Byzantine art of the 9th and 11th centuries[8] reveals
+acquaintance with a bow far in advance of most of the crude contemporary
+specimens of western Europe. The bow undoubtedly came from the East, and
+was obviously borrowed by the Greeks of Asia Minor and the Arabs from a
+common source--probably India, by way of Persia. The earliest
+representation of a bow yet discovered is to be found among the fine
+frescoes in one of the chapels of the monastery of Bawit[9] in Egypt.
+The mural paintings in question were the work of many artists, covering
+a considerable period of time. The only non-religious subject depicted
+is a picture of a youthful Orpheus, assigned by Jean Cledat to some date
+not later than the 8th century A.D., but more probably the work of a
+6th-century artist. Orpheus is holding an instrument, which appears to
+be a rebab, against his chin, in the act of bowing and stopping the
+strings. The bow is similar in shape to one shown in the Psalter of
+Labeo Notker, Leipzig, 10th century, mentioned farther on. On Indian
+sculptures of the first centuries of our era, such as the Buddhist
+_stupas_ of Amaravati, the risers of the topes of Jamal-Garhi, in the
+Yusafzai district of Afghanistan (both in the British Museum), on which
+stringed instruments abound, there is no bow. The bow has remained a
+primitive instrument in India to this day; a Hindu tradition assigns its
+invention to Ravanon, a king of Ceylon, and the instrument for which it
+was invented was called _ravanastron_; a primitive instrument of that
+name is still in use in Hindustan[10]. F.J. Fetis[11], Antoine
+Vidal[12], Edward Heron-Allen[13], and others have given the question
+some consideration, and readers who wish to pursue the matter farther
+are referred to their works.
+
+There is thus no absolute proof of the existence of the bow in primitive
+times. The earliest bow known in Europe was associated with the rebab
+(q.v.), the most widely used bowed instrument until the 12th century.
+The development of this instrument can be traced with some degree of
+certainty, but it is quite impossible to decide at what date or in what
+place the use of the bow was introduced. The bow developed very slowly
+in Europe and remained a crude instrument as long as it was applied to
+the rebab and its hybrids. Its progress became marked only from the time
+when it was applied to the almost perfect guitar (q.v.), which then
+became the guitar fiddle (q.v.), the immediate forerunner of the viols.
+
+[Illustration: Drawn from the ivory cover of the _Lothair Psalter_, by
+permission of Sir Thomas Brooke.
+
+FIG. 1.--Earliest Bow of the Cremaillere Type (c. 11th century).]
+
+The first improvement on the primitive arched bow was to provide some
+sort of handle in a straight line with the hair or string of the bow,
+such as is shown in the MS. translation of the Psalms by Labeo Notker,
+late 10th century, in the University library, Leipzig.[14] The length of
+the handle was often greatly exaggerated, perhaps by the fancy of the
+artist. Another handle (see Bodleian Library MS., N.E.D. 2, 12th
+century) was in the form of a hilt with a knob, possibly a screw-nut, in
+which the arched stick and the hair were both fixed. The first
+development of importance influencing the technique of stringed
+instruments was the attempt to find some device for controlling the
+tension of the hair. The contrivance known as _cremaillere_, which was
+the first step in this direction, seems to have been foreshadowed in the
+bows drawn in a quaint MS. of the 14th century in the British Museum
+(Sloane 3983, fol. 43 and 13) on astronomy. Forming an obtuse angle with
+the handle of the bow is a contrivance shaped like a spear-head which
+presumably served some useful purpose; if it had notches (which would be
+too small to show in the drawing), and the hair of the bow was finished
+with a loop, then we have here an early example of a device for
+controlling the tension. Another bow in the same MS. has two round knobs
+on the stick which may be assumed to have served the same purpose.
+
+[Illustriation: Drawn from bows the property of William E. Hill & Sons.
+
+FIG. 2.--A, B, Tartini Bows; C, Tourte Bow.]
+
+A very early example of the _cremaillere_ bow (fig. 1) occurs on a
+carved ivory plate ornamenting the binding of the fine Carolingian MS.
+Psalter of Lothair (A.D. 825), for some time known as the Ellis and
+White Psalter, but now in the library of Sir Thomas Brooke at Armitage
+Bridge House. The carved figure of King David, assigned from its
+characteristic pose and the treatment of the drapery to the 11th
+century, holds a stringed instrument, a rotta of peculiar shape, which
+occurs twice in other Carolingian MSS.[15] of the 9th century, but
+copied here without understanding, as though it were a lyre with many
+strings. The artist has added a bow with _cremaillere_ attachment,
+which is startling if the carving be accurately placed in the 11th
+century. The earliest representation of a _cremaillere_ bow, with this
+exception, dates from the 15th century, according to Viollet-le-Duc, who
+merely states that it was copied from a painting.[16] Fetis (op. cit. p.
+117) figures a _cremaillere_ bow which he styles "Bassani, 1680."
+Sebastian Virdung draws a bow for a _tromba marina_, with the hair and
+stick bound together with waxed cord. The hair appears to be kept more
+or less tense by means of a wedge of wood or other material forced in
+between stick and hair, the latter bulging slightly at this point like
+the string of an archery bow when the arrow is in position; this
+contrivance may be due to the fancy of the artist.
+
+The invention of a movable nut propelled by a screw is ascribed to the
+elder Tourte (fig. 2); had we not this information on the best authority
+(Vuillaume and Fetis), it might be imagined that some of the bows
+figured by Mersenne,[17] e.g. the bass viol bow KL (p. 184), and another
+KLM (p. 192), had a movable nut and screw; the nut is clearly drawn
+astride the stick as in the modern bow. Mersenne explains (p. 178) the
+construction of the bow, which consists of three parts: the _bois,
+baton_ or _brin_, the _soye_, and the _demi-roue_ or _hausse_. The term
+"half-wheel" clearly indicates that the base of the nut was cut round so
+as to fit round the stick. In the absence of any allusion to such
+ingenious mechanism as that of screw and nut, we must infer that the
+drawing is misleading and that the very decided button was only meant
+for an ornamental finish to the stick. We are informed further that _la
+soye_ was in reality hairs from the horse or some other animal, of which
+from 80 to 100 were used for each bow. The up-stroke of the bow was used
+on the weak beats, 2, 4, 6, 8, and the down-stroke on the strong beats,
+1, 3, 5, 7 (p. 185). The same practice prevailed in England in 1667,
+when Christopher Simpson wrote the _Division Viol_. He gives information
+concerning the construction of the bow in these words: "the viol-bow for
+division should be stiff but not heavy. The length (betwixt the two
+places where the hairs are fastened at each end) about seven-and-twenty
+inches. The nut should be short, the height of it about a finger's
+breadth or a little more" (p. 2).
+
+As soon as Corelli (1653-1713) formulated the principles of the
+technique of the violin, marked modifications in the construction of the
+bow became noticeable. Tartini, who began during the second decade of
+the 18th century to gauge the capabilities of the bow, introduced
+further improvements, such as a lighter wood for the stick, a straight
+contour, and a shorter head, in order to give better equilibrium. The
+Tourtes, father and son, accomplished the rest.
+
+  After Francois Tourte, the following makers are the most esteemed:
+  J.B. Vuillaume, who was directly inspired by Tourte and rendered an
+  inestimable service to violinists by working out on a scientific basis
+  the empirical taper of the Tourte stick, which was found in all his
+  bows to conform to strict ratio;[18] Dominique Peccate, apprenticed to
+  J.B. Vuillaume; Henry, 1812-1870, who signs his name and "Paris" on
+  the stick near the nut; Jacques Lefleur, 1760-1832; Francois Lupot,
+  1774-1837, the first to line the angular cutting of the nut, where it
+  slides along the stick, with a plate of metal; Simon, born 1808, who
+  also signs his bows on the stick near the nut; John Dodd of Richmond,
+  the greatest English bow-maker, who was especially renowned for his
+  violoncello bows, though his violin bows had the defect of being
+  rather short.
+
+  The violoncello bow is a little shorter than those used for violin and
+  viola, and the head and nut are deeper.
+
+  The principal models of double-bass bows in vogue at the beginning of
+  the 19th century were the _Dragonetti_, maintaining the arch of the
+  medieval bows, and the _Bottesini_, shaped and held like the violin
+  bow; the former was held over-hand with the hair inclining towards the
+  bridge, and was adopted by the Paris Conservatoire under Habeneck
+  about 1830; the great artist himself sent over the model from London.
+  Illustrations of both bows are given by Vidal (_op. cit._ pl. xviii.).
+
+  Messrs W.E. Hill & Sons probably possess the finest and most
+  representative collection of bows in the world.     (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] "Bow," the forepart or head of a ship, must be distinguished from
+    this word. It is the same word, and pronounced in the same way, as
+    "bough," an arm or limb of a tree, and represents a common Teutonic
+    word, seen in O. Eng. _bog_, Ger. _Bug_, shoulder, and is cognate
+    with Gr. [Greek: paechus], forearm. The sense of "shoulder" of a ship
+    is not found in O. Eng. _bog_. but was probably borrowed from Dutch
+    or Danish. "Bow," an inclination of the head or body, though
+    pronounced as "bough," is of the same origin as "bow," to bend.
+
+  [2] See F.J. Fetis, _Antoine Stradivari_, pp. 120-121 (Paris, 1856).
+
+  [3] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 123.
+
+  [4] J. Ruhlmann, _Die Geschichte der Bogeninstrumente_ (Brunswick,
+    1882), p. 143.
+
+  [5] Fetis, _op. cit._ p. 119.
+
+  [6] Antoine Vidal, _Les Instruments a archet_ (Paris, 1876-1878),
+    tome i. p. 269
+
+  [7] _De Cantu et Musica Sacra_ (1774), tome ii. pl. xxxii. No. 18;
+    the MS. has since perished by fire.
+
+  [8] See, for an illustration of the bowed instrument on one of the
+    sides of a Byzantine ivory casket, 9th century, in the Carrand
+    Collection, Florence, A. Venturi, _Gallerie Nazionali Italiane_, iii.
+    (Rome, 1897), plate, p. 263; and _Add. MS. 19,352, British Museum_,
+    Greek Psalter, dated 1066.
+
+  [9] See Jean Cledat, "Le Monastere et la necropole de Baouit," in
+    _Mem. de l'Inst. franc. d'archeol. orient. du Caire_, vol. xii.
+    (1904), chap. xviii. pl. lxiv. (2); also Fernand Cabrol, _Dict.
+    d'archeol. chretienne, s.v._ "Baouit."
+
+  [10] For an illustration, see Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales_
+    (Paris, 1806), vol. i. p. 182.
+
+  [11] _Op. cit._ pp. 4-10.
+
+  [12] _Op. cit._ vol. i. p. 3 and pl. ii.
+
+  [13] Edward Heron-Allen, _Violin-making as it was and is_ (London,
+    1884), pp. 37-42, figs. 5-10.
+
+  [14] MS. 774, fol. 30. For an illustration of it see Hyacinth Abele,
+    _Die Violine, ihre Geschichte und ihr Bau_ (Neuburg-a-D., 1874), pl.
+    5, No. 7.
+
+  [15] See CROWD for fig. from the Bible of Charles le Chauve; and also
+    King David in the Bible of St Paul _extra muros_, Rome (photographic
+    facsimile by J.O. Westwood, Oxford, 1876).
+
+  [16] See _Dictionnaire raisonne du mobilier francais_ (Paris, 1871),
+    vol. ii. part iv. pp. 265 D. and 266 note.
+
+  [17] Marin Mersenne, _L'Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636-1637), pp.
+    184 and 192.
+
+  [18] Vuillaume's diagram and explanation are reproduced by Fetis, op.
+    cit. pp. 125-128.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDICH, THOMAS EDWARD (1790-1824), English traveller and author, was
+born at Bristol in 1790. In 1814, through his uncle, J. Hope-Smith,
+governor of the British Gold Coast Settlements, he obtained a writership
+in the service of the African Company of Merchants and was sent to Cape
+Coast. In 1817 he was sent, with two companions, to Kumasi on a mission
+to the king of Ashanti, and chiefly through his skilful diplomacy the
+mission succeeded in its object of securing British control over the
+coast natives (see ASHANTI: _History_). In 1818 Bowdich returned to
+England, and in 1819 published an account of his mission and of the
+study he had made of the barbaric court of Kumasi, entitled _Mission
+from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, &c._ (London, 1819). His African
+collections he presented to the British Museum. Bowdich publicly
+attacked the management of the African committee, and his strictures
+were instrumental in leading the British government to assume direct
+control over the Gold Coast. From 1820 to 1822 Bowdich lived in Paris,
+studying mathematics and the natural sciences, and was on intimate terms
+with Cuvier, Humboldt and other savants. During his stay in France he
+edited several works on Africa, and also wrote scientific works. In
+1822, accompanied by his wife, he went to Lisbon, where, from a study of
+historic MSS., he published _An Account of the Discoveries of the
+Portuguese in ... Angola and Mozambique_ (London, 1824). In 1823 Bowdich
+and his wife, after some months spent in Madeira and Cape Verde Islands,
+arrived at Bathurst at the mouth of the Gambia, intending to go to
+Sierra Leone and thence explore the interior. But at Bathurst Bowdich
+died on the 10th of January 1824. His widow published an account of his
+last journey, entitled _Excursions in Madeira and Porto Santo ... to
+which is added.... A Narrative of the Continuance of the Voyage to its
+Completion, &c._ (London, 1825). Bowdich's daughter, Mrs Hutchinson
+Hale, republished in 1873, with an introductory preface, her father's
+_Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDITCH, NATHANIEL (1773-1838), American mathematician, was born at
+Salem, Massachusetts. He was bred to his father's business as a cooper,
+and afterwards apprenticed to a ship-chandler. His taste for mathematics
+early developed itself; and he acquired Latin that he might study
+Newton's _Principia_. As clerk (1795) and then as supercargo (1796,
+1798, 1799) he made four long voyages; and, being an excellent
+navigator, he afterwards (1802) commanded a vessel, instructing his
+crews in lunar and other observations. He edited two editions of
+Hamilton Moore's _Navigation_, and in 1802 published a valuable work,
+_New American Practical Navigator_, founded on the earlier treatise by
+Moore. In 1804 he became president of a Salem insurance company. In the
+midst of his active career he undertook a translation of the _Mecanique
+celeste_ of P.S. Laplace, with valuable annotations (vol. i., 1829). He
+was offered, but declined, the professorship of mathematics and
+astronomy at Harvard. Subsequently he became president of the Mechanics'
+Institute in Boston, and also of the American Academy of Arts and
+Sciences. He died at Boston on the 16th of March 1838.
+
+  A life of Bowditch was written by his son Nathaniel Ingersoll Bowditch
+  (1805-1861), and was prefixed to the fourth volume (1839) of the
+  translation of Laplace. In 1865 this was elaborated into a separate
+  biography by another son, Henry Ingersoll Bowditch (1808-1892), a
+  famous Boston physician.
+
+
+
+
+BOWDLER, THOMAS (1754-1825), editor of the "family" Shakespeare, younger
+son of Thomas Bowdler, a gentleman of independent fortune, was born at
+Ashley, near Bath, on the 11th of July 1754. He studied medicine at the
+universities of St Andrews and Edinburgh, graduating M.D. in 1776. After
+four years spent in foreign travel, he settled in London, where he
+became intimate with Mrs Montague and other learned ladies. In 1800 he
+left London to live in the Isle of Wight, and later on he removed to
+South Wales. He was an energetic philanthropist, and carried on John
+Howard's work in the prisons and penitentiaries. In 1818 he published
+_The Family Shakespeare_ "in ten volumes, in which nothing is added to
+the original text; but those words and expressions are omitted which
+cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family." Criticisms of this
+edition appeared in the _British Critic_ of April 1822. Bowdler also
+expurgated Edward Gibbon's _History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
+Empire_ (published posthumously, 1826); and he issued a selection from
+the Old Testament for the use of children. He died at Rhyddings, near
+Swansea, on the 24th of February 1825.
+
+From Bowdler's name we have the word to "bowdlerize," first known to
+occur in General Perronet Thompson's _Letters of a Representative to his
+Constituents during the Session of 1836_, printed in Thompson's
+_Exercises_, iv. 126. The official interpretation is "to expurgate (a
+book or writing) by omitting or modifying words or passages considered
+indelicate or offensive." Both the word and its derivatives, however,
+are associated with false squeamishness. In the ridicule poured on the
+name of Bowdler it is worth noting that Swinburne in "Social Verse"
+(_Studies in Prose and Poetry_, 1894, p. 98) said of him that "no man
+ever did better service to Shakespeare than the man who made it possible
+to put him into the hands of intelligent and imaginative children," and
+stigmatized the talk about his expurgations as "nauseous and foolish
+cant."
+
+
+
+
+BOWDOIN, JAMES (1726-1790), American political leader, was born of
+French Huguenot descent, in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 7th of August
+1726. He graduated at Harvard in 1745, and was a member of the lower
+house of the general court of Massachusetts in 1753-1756, and from 1757
+to 1774 of the Massachusetts council, in which, according to Governor
+Thomas Hutchinson, he "was without a rival," and, on the approach of the
+War of Independence, was "the principal supporter of the opposition to
+the government." From August 1775 until the summer of 1777 he was the
+president of the council, which had then become to a greater extent than
+formerly an executive as well as a legislative body. In 1779-1780 he was
+president of the constitutional convention of Massachusetts, also
+serving as chairman of the committee by which the draft of the
+constitution was prepared. Immediately afterward he was a member of a
+commission appointed "to revise the laws in force in the state; to
+select, abridge, alter and digest them, so as to be accommodated to the
+present government." From 1785 to 1787 he was governor of Massachusetts,
+suppressing with much vigour Shays' Rebellion, and failing to be
+re-elected largely because it was believed that he would punish the
+insurrectionists with more severity than would his competitor, John
+Hancock. Bowdoin was a member of the state convention which in February
+1788 ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution, his son being
+also a member. He died in Boston on the 6th of November 1790. He took
+much interest in natural philosophy, and presented various papers before
+the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of which he was one of the
+founders and, from 1780 to 1790, the first president. Bowdoin College
+was named in his honour.
+
+His son, JAMES BOWDOIN (1752-1811), was born in Boston on the 22nd of
+September 1752, graduated at Harvard in 1771, and served, at various
+times, as a representative, senator and councillor of the state. From
+1805 until 1808 he was the minister plenipotentiary of the United States
+in Spain. He died on Naushon Island, Dukes county, Massachusetts, on the
+11th of October 1811. To Bowdoin College he gave land, money and
+apparatus; and he made the college his residuary legatee, bequeathing to
+it his collection of paintings and drawings, then considered the finest
+in the country.
+
+
+
+
+BOWELL, SIR MACKENZIE (1823-   ), Canadian politician, son of John
+Bowell, carpenter and builder, was born at Ricking-hall, England, on the
+27th of December 1823. In 1833 he moved with his family to Belleville,
+Canada, where he finally became editor and proprietor of the
+_Intelligencer_. He was elected grand master of the Orange Association
+of British America, and was long the exponent in the Canadian parliament
+of the claims of that order. From 1867 till 1892 he represented North
+Hastings in the House, after which he retired to the senate. From 1878
+till 1891 he was minister of customs in the cabinet of Sir John
+Macdonald; then minister of militia; and under the premiership of Sir
+John Thompson, minister of trade and commerce. From December 1894 till
+April 1896 he was premier of Canada, and endeavoured to enforce remedial
+legislation in the question of the Manitoba schools. But his policy was
+unsuccessful, and he retired from the government. From 1896 till 1906 he
+led the Conservative party in the senate. In 1894 he presided over the
+colonial conference held in Ottawa, and in 1895 was created K.C.M.G.
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, CHARLES SYNGE CHRISTOPHER BOWEN, BARON (1835-1894), English
+judge, was born on the 1st of January 1835, at Woolaston in
+Gloucestershire, his father, the Rev. Christopher Bowen of Hollymount,
+Co. Mayo, being then curate of the parish. He was educated at Lille,
+Blackheath and Rugby schools, leaving the latter with a Balliol
+scholarship in 1853. At Oxford he made good the promise of his earlier
+youth, winning the principal classical scholarships and prizes of his
+time. He was made a fellow of Balliol in 1858. From Oxford Bowen went to
+London, where he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1861, and
+while studying law he wrote regularly for the _Saturday Renew_, and also
+later for the _Spectator_. For a time he had little success at the bar,
+and came near to exchanging it for the career of a college tutor, but he
+was induced by his friends, who recognized his talents, to persevere.
+Soon after he had begun to make his mark he was briefed against the
+claimant in the famous "Tichborne Case." Bowen's services to his leader,
+Sir John Coleridge, helped to procure for him the appointment of junior
+counsel to the treasury when Sir John had passed, as he did while the
+trial proceeded, from the office of solicitor-general to that of
+attorney-general; and from this time his practice became a very large
+one. The strain, however, of the Tichborne trials had been great, so
+that his physical health became unequal to the tasks which his zeal for
+work imposed upon it, and in 1879 his acceptance of a judgeship in the
+queen's bench division, on the retirement of Mr Justice Mellor, gave him
+the opportunity of comparative rest. The character of Charles Bowen's
+intellect hardly qualified him for some of the duties of a puisne judge;
+but it was otherwise when, in 1882, in succession to Lord Justice
+Holker, he was raised to the court of appeal. As a lord justice of
+appeal he was conspicuous for his learning, his industry and his
+courtesy to all who appeared before him; and in spite of failing health
+he was able to sit more or less regularly until August 1893, when, on
+the retirement of Lord Hannen, he was made a lord of appeal in ordinary,
+and a baron for life, with the title of Baron Bowen of Colwood. By this
+time, however, his health had finally broken down; he never sat as a law
+lord to hear appeals, and he gave but one vote as a peer, while his last
+public service consisted in presiding over the commission which sat in
+October 1893 to inquire into the Featherstone riots. He died on the 10th
+of April 1894.
+
+Lord Bowen was regarded with great affection by all who knew him either
+professionally or privately. He had a polished and graceful wit, of
+which many instances might be given, although such anecdotes lose force
+in print. For example, when it was suggested on the occasion of an
+address to Queen Victoria, to be presented by her judges, that a passage
+in it, "conscious as we are of our shortcomings," suggested too great
+humility, he proposed the emendation "conscious as we are of one
+another's shortcomings"; and on another occasion he defined a jurist as
+"a person who knows a little about the laws of every country except his
+own." Lord Bowen's judicial reputation will rest upon the series of
+judgments delivered by him in the court of appeal, which are remarkable
+for their lucid interpretation of legal principles as applied to the
+facts and business of life. Among good examples of his judgment may be
+cited that given in advising the House of Lords in _Angus_ v. _Dalton_
+(6 App. Cas. 740), and those delivered in _Abrath_ v. _North Eastern
+Railway_ (11 Q.B.D. 440); _Thomas_ v. _Quartermaine_ (18 Q.B.D. 685);
+_Vagliano_ v. _Bank of England_ (23 Q.B.D. 243) (in which he prepared
+the majority judgment of the court, which was held to be wrong in its
+conclusion by the majority of the House of Lords); and the _Mogul
+Steamship Company_ v. _M'Gregor_ (23 Q.B.D. 598). Of Lord Bowen's
+literary works besides those already indicated may be mentioned his
+translation of Virgil's _Eclogues_, and _Aeneid_, books i.-vi., and his
+pamphlet, _The Alabama Claim and Arbitration considered from a Legal
+Point of View._ Lord Bowen married in 1862 Emily Frances, eldest
+daughter of James Meadows Rendel, F.R.S., by whom he had two sons and a
+daughter.
+
+  See _Lord Bowen_, by Sir Henry Stewart Cunningham.
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, FRANCIS (1811-1890), American philosophical writer and
+educationalist, was born in Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 8th of
+September 1811. He graduated at Harvard in 1833, taught for two years at
+Phillips Exeter Academy, and then from 1835 to 1839 was a tutor and
+instructor at Harvard. After several years of study in Europe, he
+settled in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was editor and proprietor of
+the _North American Review_ from 1843 to 1854. In 1850 he was appointed
+professor of history at Harvard; but his appointment was disapproved by
+the board of overseers on account of reactionary political opinions he
+had expressed in a controversy with Robert Carter (1819-1879) concerning
+the Hungarian revolution. In 1853 his appointment as Alford professor of
+natural religion, moral philosophy and civil polity was approved, and he
+occupied the chair until 1889. In 1876 he was a member of the Federal
+commission appointed to consider currency reform, and wrote (1877) the
+minority report, in which he opposed the restoration of the double
+standard and the remonetization of silver. He died in Boston,
+Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1890. His writings include lives
+of Sir William Phipps, Baron von Steuben, James Otis and Benjamin
+Lincoln in Jared Sparks' "Library of American Biography"; _Critical
+Essays on the History and Present Condition of Speculative Philosophy_
+(1842); _Lowell Lectures on the Application of Metaphysical and Ethical
+Science to the Evidences of Religion_ (1849); _The Principles of
+Political Economy applied to the Condition, Resources and Institutions
+of the American People_ (1856); _A Treatise on Logic_ (1864); _American
+Political Economy_ (1870); _Modern Philosophy from Descartes to
+Schopenhauer and Hartmann_ (1877); and _Gleanings from a Literary Life,
+1838-1880_ (1880).
+
+
+
+
+BOWEN, SIR GEORGE FERGUSON (1821-1899), British colonial governor,
+eldest son of the Rev. Edward Bowen, afterwards rector of Taughboyne,
+Co. Donegal, was born on the 2nd of November 1821. Educated at
+Charterhouse school and Trinity College, Oxford, he took a first class
+in classics in 1844, and was elected a fellow of Brasenose. In 1847 he
+was chosen president of the university of Corfu. Having served as
+secretary of government in the Ionian Islands, he was appointed in 1859
+the first governor of Queensland, which colony had just been separated
+from New South Wales. He was interested in the exploration of Queensland
+and in the establishment of a volunteer force, but incurred some
+unpopularity by refusing to sanction the issue of inconvertible paper
+money during the financial crisis of 1866. In 1867 he was made governor
+of New Zealand, in which position he was successful in reconciling the
+Maoris to the English rule, and saw the end of the struggle between the
+colonists and the natives. Transferred to Victoria in 1872, Bowen
+endeavoured to reduce the expenses of the colony, and in 1879 became
+governor of Mauritius. His last official position was that of governor
+of Hong-Kong, which he held from 1882 to 1887. He was made a K.C.M.G. in
+1856, a privy councillor in 1886, and received honorary degrees from
+both Oxford and Cambridge. In December 1887 he was appointed chief of
+the royal commission which was sent to Malta with regard to the new
+constitution for the island, and all the recommendations made by him
+were adopted. He died at Brighton on the 21st of February 1899, having
+been married twice, and having had a family of one son and four
+daughters. Bowen wrote _Ithaca in 1850_ (London, 1854), translated into
+Greek in 1859; and _Mount Athos, Thessaly and Epirus_ (London, 1852);
+and he was the author of Murray's _Handbook for Greece_ (London, 1854).
+
+  A selection of his letters and despatches, _Thirty Years of Colonial
+  Government_ (London, 1889), was edited by S. Lane-Poole.
+
+
+
+
+BOWER, WALTER (1385-1449), Scottish chronicler, was born about 1385 at
+Haddington. He was abbot of Inchcolm (in the Firth of Forth) from 1418,
+was one of the commissioners for the collection of the ransom of James
+I., king of Scots, in 1423 and 1424, and in 1433 one of the embassy to
+Paris on the business of the marriage of the king's daughter to the
+dauphin. He played an important part at the council of Perth (1432) in
+the defence of Scottish rights. During his closing years he was engaged
+on his work the _Scotichronicon_, on which his reputation now chiefly
+rests. This work, undertaken in 1440 by desire of a neighbour, Sir David
+Stewart of Rosyth, was a continuation of the _Chronica Gentis Scotorum_
+of Fordun. The completed work, in its original form, consisted of
+sixteen books, of which the first five and a portion of the sixth (to
+1163) are Fordun's--or mainly his, for Bower added to them at places. In
+the later books, down to the reign of Robert I. (1371), he was aided by
+Fordun's _Gesta Annalia_, but from that point to the close the work is
+original and of contemporary importance, especially for James I., with
+whose death it ends. The task was finished in 1447. In the two remaining
+years of his life he was engaged on a reduction or "abridgment" of this
+work, which is known as the _Book of Cupar_, and is preserved in the
+Advocates' library, Edinburgh (MS. 35. 1. 7). Other abridgments, not by
+Bower, were made about the same time, one about 1450 (perhaps by Patrick
+Russell, a Carthusian of Perth) preserved in the Advocates' library (MS.
+35. 6. 7) and another in 1461 by an unknown writer, also preserved in
+the same collection (MS. 35. 5. 2). Copies of the full text of the
+_Scotichronicon_, by different scribes, are extant. There are two in the
+British Museum, in _The Black Book of Paisley_, and in Harl. MS. 712;
+one in the Advocates' library, from which Walter Goodall printed his
+edition (Edin., 1759), and one in the library of Corpus Christi,
+Cambridge.
+
+  Goodall's is the only complete modern edition of Bower's text. See
+  also W.F. Skene's edition of Fordun in the series of _Historians of
+  Scotland_ (1871). Personal references are to be found in the
+  _Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_, iii. and iv. The best recent account is
+  that by T.A. Archer in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._
+
+
+
+
+BOWERBANK, JAMES SCOTT (1797-1877), English naturalist and
+palaeontologist, was born in Bishopsgate, London, on the 14th of July
+1797, and succeeded in conjunction with his brother to his father's
+distillery, in which he was actively engaged until 1847. In early years
+astronomy and natural history, especially botany, engaged much of his
+attention; he became an enthusiastic worker at the microscope, studying
+the structure of shells, corals, moss-agates, flints, &c., and he also
+formed an extensive collection of fossils. The organic remains of the
+London Clay attracted particular attention, and about the year 1836 he
+and six other workers founded "The London Clay Club"--the members
+comprising Dr Bowerbank, Frederick E. Edwards (1799-1875), author of
+_The Eocene Mollusca_ (Palaeontograph. Soc.), Searles V. Wood, John
+Morris, Alfred White (zoologist), N.T. Wetherell, surgeon of Highgate
+(1800-1875), and James de Carle Sowerby. In 1840 Bowerbank published _A
+History of the Fossil Fruits and Seeds of the London Clay_, and two
+years later he was elected F.R.S. In 1847 he suggested the establishment
+of a society for the publication of undescribed British Fossils, and
+thus originated the Palaeontographical Society. From 1844 until 1864 he
+did much to encourage a love of natural science by being "at home" every
+Monday evening at his residence in Park Street, Islington, and
+afterwards in Highbury Grove, where the treasures of his museum, his
+microscopes, and his personal assistance were at the service of every
+earnest student. In the study of sponges he became specially interested,
+and he was author of _A Monograph of the British Spongiadae_ in 4
+vols., published by the Ray Society, 1864-1882. He retired in 1864 to St
+Leonards, where he died on the 8th of March 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BOWIE, JAMES (1796-1836), American pioneer, was born in Logan county,
+Kentucky. He was taken to Louisiana about 1802, and in 1818-1820 was
+engaged with his brothers, John J. and Rezin P., in smuggling negro
+slaves into the United States from the headquarters of the pirates led
+by Jean Lafitte on Galveston Island. Bowie removed to Texas in 1828 and
+took a prominent part in the revolt against Mexico, being present at the
+battles of Nacogdoches (1832), Concepcion (1835) and the Grass Fight
+(1835). He was one of the defenders of the Alamo (see SAN ANTONIO), but
+was ill of pneumonia at the time of the final assault on the 6th of
+March 1836, and was among the last to be butchered. Bowie's name is now
+perpetuated by a county in north-eastern Texas, and by its association
+with that of the famous hunting-knife, which he used, but probably did
+not invent.
+
+
+
+
+BOW-LEG (_Genu Varum_), a deformity characterized by separation of the
+knees when the ankles are in contact. Usually there is an outward
+curvature of both femur and tibia, with at times an interior bend of the
+latter bone. At birth all children are more or less bandy-legged. The
+child lies on its nurse's knee with the soles of the feet facing one
+another; the tibiae and femora are curved outwards; and, if the limbs
+are extended, although the ankles are in contact, there is a distinct
+space between the knee-joints. During the first year of life a gradual
+change takes place. The knee-joints approach one another; the femora
+slope downwards and inwards towards the knee-joints; the tibiae become
+straight; and the sole of the foot faces almost directly downwards.
+While these changes are occurring, the bones, which at first consist
+principally of cartilage, are gradually becoming ossified, and in a
+normal child by the time it begins to walk the lower limbs are prepared,
+both by their general direction and by the rigidity of the bones which
+form them, to support the weight of the body. If, however, the child
+attempts either as the result of imitation or from encouragement to walk
+before the normal bandy condition had passed off, the result will
+necessarily be either an arrest in the development of the limbs or an
+increase of the bandy condition. If the child is weakly, either rachitic
+or suffering from any ailment which prevents the due ossification of the
+bones, or is improperly fed, the bandy condition may remain persistent.
+Thus the chief cause of this deformity is rickets (q.v.). The remaining
+causes are occupation, especially that of a jockey, and traumatism, the
+condition being very likely to supervene after accidents involving the
+condyles of the femur. In the rickety form the most important thing is
+to treat the constitutional disease, at the same time instructing the
+mother never to place the child on its feet. In many cases this is quite
+sufficient in itself to effect a cure, but matters can be hastened
+somewhat by applying splints. When in older patients the deformity
+arises either from traumatism or occupation, the only treatment is that
+of operation.
+
+A far commoner deformity than the preceding is that known as
+_knock-knee_ (or _Genu Valgum_). In this condition there is close
+approximation of the knees with more or less separation of the feet, the
+patient being unable to bring the feet together when standing.
+Occasionally only one limb may be affected, but the double form is the
+more common. There are two varieties of this deformity: (i.) that due to
+rickets and occurring in young children (the rachitic form), and (ii.)
+that met with in adolescents and known as the static form. In young
+children it is practically always due to rickets, and the constitutional
+disease must be most rigorously dealt with. It is, however, especially
+in these cases that cod-liver oil is to be avoided, since it increases
+the body weight and so may do harm rather than good. The child if quite
+young must be kept in bed, and the limbs manipulated several times a
+day. Where the child is a little older and it is more difficult to keep
+him off his feet, long splints should be applied from the axilla or
+waist to a point several inches below the level of the foot. It is only
+by making the splints sufficiently long that a naturally active child
+can be kept at rest. The little patient should live in the open air as
+much as possible.
+
+The static form of Genu Valgum usually occurs in young adolescents,
+especially in anaemic nurse-girls, young bricklayers, and young people
+who have outgrown their strength, yet have to carry heavy weights.
+Normally in the erect posture the weight of the body is passed through
+the outer condyle of the femur rather than the inner, and this latter is
+lengthened to keep the plane of the knee-joint horizontal. This throws
+considerable strain on the internal lateral ligament of the knee-joint,
+and after standing of long duration or with undue weight the muscles of
+the inner side of the limb also become over-fatigued. Thus the ligament
+gradually becomes stretched, giving the knee undue mobility from side to
+side. If the condition be not attended to, the outer condyle becomes
+gradually atrophied, owing to the increased weight transmitted through
+it, and the inner condyle becomes lengthened. These changes are the
+direct outcome of a general law, namely, that diminished pressure
+results in increased growth, increased pressure in diminished growth.
+The best example of the former principle is the rapid growth that takes
+place in the child that is confined to bed during a prolonged illness.
+The distorted, stunted, shortened and fashionable foot of the Chinese
+lady is an example of the latter. Flat-foot (see CLUB-FOOT) and lateral
+curvature of the spine, scoliosis, are often associated with this form
+of Genu Valgum, the former being due to relaxation of ligaments, the
+latter being compensatory where the deformity only affects one leg,
+though often found merely in association with the more common bilateral
+variety. In the early stages of the static form attention to general
+health, massage and change of air, will often effect a cure. But in the
+more aggravated forms an apparatus is needed. This usually consists of
+an outside iron rod, jointed at the knee, attached above to a pelvic
+band and below to the heel of the boot. By the gradual tightening of
+padded straps passing round the limbs the bones can be drawn by degrees
+into a more natural position. But if the patient has reached such an age
+that the deformity is fixed, then the only remedy is that of operation.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLES, SAMUEL (1826-1878), American journalist, was born in
+Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 9th of February 1826. He was the son
+of Samuel Bowles (1779-1851) of the same city, who had established the
+weekly _Springfield Republican_ in 1824. The daily issue was begun in
+1844, as an evening newspaper, afterwards becoming a morning journal. To
+its service Samuel Bowles, junior, devoted his life (with the exception
+of a brief period during which he was in charge of a daily in Boston),
+and he gave the paper a national reputation by the vigour, incisiveness
+and independence of its editorial utterances, and the concise and
+convenient arrangement of its local and general news-matter. During the
+controversies affecting slavery and resulting in the Civil War, Bowles
+supported, in general, the Whig and Republican parties, but in the
+period of Reconstruction under President Grant his paper represented
+anti-administration or "Liberal Republican" opinions, while in the
+disputed election of 1876 it favoured the claims of Tilden, and
+subsequently became independent in politics. Bowles died at Springfield
+on the 16th of January 1878. During his lifetime, and subsequently, the
+_Republican_ office was a sort of school for young journalists,
+especially in the matter of pungency and conciseness of style, one of
+his maxims being "put it all in the first paragraph." Bowles published
+two books of travel, _Across the Continent_ (1865) and _The Switzerland
+of America_ (1869), which were combined into one volume under the title
+_Our New West_ (1869). He was succeeded as publisher and editor-in-chief
+of the _Republican_ by his son Samuel Bowles (b. 1851).
+
+  A eulogistic _Life and Times of Samuel Bowles_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1885), by George S. Merriam, is virtually a history of American
+  political movements after the compromise of 1850.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLES, WILLIAM LISLE (1762-1850), English poet and critic, was born at
+King's Sutton, Northamptonshire, of which his father was vicar, on the
+24th of September 1762. At the age of fourteen he entered Winchester
+school, the head-master at the time being Dr Joseph Warton. In 1781 he
+left as captain of the school, and proceeded to Trinity College, Oxford,
+where he had gained a scholarship. Two years later he won the
+chancellor's prize for Latin verse. In 1789 he published, in a small
+quarto volume, _Fourteen Sonnets_, which met with considerable favour at
+the time, and were hailed with delight by Coleridge and his young
+contemporaries. The _Sonnets_ even in form were a revival, a return to
+the older and purer poetic style, and by their grace of expression,
+melodious versification, tender tone of feeling and vivid appreciation
+of the life and beauty of nature, stood out in strong contrast to the
+elaborated commonplaces which at that time formed the bulk of English
+poetry. After taking his degree at Oxford he entered the Church, and was
+appointed in 1792 to the vicarage of Chicklade in Wiltshire. In 1797 he
+received the vicarage of Dumbleton in Gloucestershire, and in 1804 was
+presented to the vicarage of Bremhill in Wiltshire. In the same year he
+was collated by Bishop Douglas to a prebendal stall in the cathedral of
+Salisbury. In 1818 he was made chaplain to the prince regent, and in
+1828 he was elected residentiary canon of Salisbury. He died at
+Salisbury on the 7th of April 1850, aged 88.
+
+The longer poems published by Bowles are not of a very high standard,
+though all are distinguished by purity of imagination, cultured and
+graceful diction, and great tenderness of feeling. The most extensive
+were _The Spirit of Discovery_ (1804), which was mercilessly ridiculed
+by Byron; _The Missionary of the Andes_ (1815); _The Grave of the Last
+Saxon_ (1822); and _St John in Patmos_ (1833). Bowles is perhaps more
+celebrated as a critic of poetry than as a poet. In 1806 he published an
+edition of Pope's works with notes and an essay on the poetical
+character of Pope. In this essay he laid down certain canons as to
+poetic imagery which, subject to some modification, have been since
+recognized as true and valuable, but which were received at the time
+with strong opposition by all admirers of Pope and his style. The "Pope
+and Bowles" controversy brought into sharp contrast the opposing views
+of poetry, which may be roughly described as the natural and the
+artificial. Bowles maintained that images drawn from nature are
+poetically finer than those drawn from art; and that in the highest
+kinds of poetry the themes or passions handled should be of the general
+or elemental kind, and not the transient manners of any society. These
+positions were vigorously assailed by Byron, Campbell, Roscoe and others
+of less note, while for a time Bowles was almost solitary. Hazlitt and
+the _Blackwood_ critics, however, came to his assistance, and on the
+whole Bowles had reason to congratulate himself on having established
+certain principles which might serve as the basis of a true method of
+poetical criticism, and of having inaugurated, both by precept and by
+example, a new era in English poetry. Among other prose works from his
+prolific pen was a _Life of Bishop Ken_ (2 vols., 1830-1831).
+
+  His _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1855, with a memoir by G.
+  Gilfillan.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLINE (a word found in most Teutonic languages, probably connected
+with the "bow" of a ship), a nautical term for a rope leading from the
+edge of a sail to the bows, for the purpose of steadying the sail when
+sailing close to the wind--"on a bowline."
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING (Lat. _bulla_, a globe, through O. Fr. _boule_, ball), an indoor
+game played upon an alley with wooden balls and nine or ten wooden pins.
+It has been played for centuries in Germany and the Low Countries, where
+it is still in high favour, but attains its greatest popularity in the
+United States, whence it was introduced in colonial times from Holland.
+The Dutch inhabitants of New Amsterdam, now New York, were much addicted
+to it, and up to the year 1840 it was played on the green, the principal
+resort of the bowlers being the square just north of the Battery still
+called Bowling Green. The first covered alleys were made of hardened
+clay or of slate, but those in vogue at present are built up of
+alternate strips of pine and maple wood, about 1 X 3 in. in size, set on
+edge, and fastened together and to the bed of the alley with the nicest
+art of the cabinet-maker. The width of the alley is 4l-1/2 in., and its
+whole length about 80 ft. From the head, or apex, pin to the foul-line,
+over which the player may not step in delivering the ball, the distance
+is 60 ft. On each side of the alley is a 9-in. "gutter" to catch any
+balls that are bowled wide. Originally nine pins, set up in the diamond
+form, were used, but during the first part of the 19th century the game
+of "nine-pins" was prohibited by law, on account of the excessive
+betting connected with it. This ordinance, however, was soon evaded by
+the addition of a tenth pin, resulting in the game of "ten-pins," the
+pastime in vogue to-day. The ten pins are set up at the end of the alley
+in the form of a right-angled triangle in four rows, four pins at the
+back, then three, then two and one as head pin. The back row is placed 3
+in. from the alley's edge, back of which is the pin-pit, 10 in. deep and
+about 3 ft. wide. The back wall is heavily padded (often with a heavy,
+swinging cushion), and there are safety corners for the pin-boys, who
+set up the pins, call the scores and place the balls in the sloping
+"railway" which returns them to the players' end of the alley. The pins
+are made of hard maple and are 15 in. high, 2-1/4 in. in diameter at
+their base and 15 in. in circumference at the thickest point. The balls,
+which are made of some very hard wood, usually lignum vitae, may be of
+any size not exceeding 27 in. in circumference and 16-1/2 lb. in weight.
+They are provided with holes for the thumb and middle finger. As many
+may play on a side as please, five being the number for championship
+teams, though this sometimes varies. Each player rolls three balls,
+called a _frame_, and ten frames constitute a game, unless otherwise
+agreed upon. In first-class matches two balls only are rolled. If all
+ten pins are knocked down by the first ball the player makes a _strike_,
+which counts him 10 plus whatever he may make with the first two balls
+of his next frame. If, however, he should then make another strike, 10
+more are added to his score, making 20, to which are added the pins he
+may knock down with his first ball of the third frame. This may also
+score a strike, making 30 as the score of the first frame, and, should
+the player keep up this high average, he will score the maximum, 300, in
+his ten frames. If all the pins are knocked down with two balls it is
+called a _spare_, and the player may add the pins made by the first ball
+of his second frame. This seemingly complicated mode of scoring is
+comparatively simple when properly lined score-boards are used. Of
+course, if all three balls are used no strike or spare is scored, but
+the number of pins overturned is recorded. The tens of thousands of
+bowling clubs in the United States and Canada are under the jurisdiction
+of the American Bowling Congress, which meets once a year to revise the
+rules and hold contests for the national championships.
+
+  Several minor varieties of bowling are popular in America, the most in
+  vogue being "Cocked Hat," which is played with three pins, one in the
+  head-pin position and the others on either corner of the back row. The
+  pins are usually a little larger than those used in the regular game,
+  and smaller balls are used. The maximum score is 90, and all balls,
+  even those going into the gutter, are in play. "Cocked hat and
+  Feather" is similar, except that a fourth pin is added, placed in the
+  centre. Other variations of bowling are "Quintet," in which five pins,
+  set up like an arrow pointed towards the bowler, are used; the "Battle
+  Game," in which 12 can be scored by knocking down all but the centre,
+  or king, pin; "Head Pin and Four Back," in which five pins are used,
+  one in the head-pin position and the rest on the back line; "Four
+  Back"; "Five Back"; "Duck Pin"; "Head Pin," with nine pins set up in
+  the old-fashioned way, and "Candle Pin," in which thin pins tapering
+  towards the top and bottom are used, the other rules being similar to
+  those of the regular game.
+
+  The American bowling game is played to a slight extent in Great
+  Britain and Germany. In the latter country, however, the old-fashioned
+  game of nine-pins (_Kegelspiel_) with solid balls and the pins set up
+  diamond-fashion, obtains universally. The alleys are made with less
+  care than the American, being of cement, asphalt, slate or marble.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Warren county, Kentucky,
+U.S.A., on the Barren river, 113 m. S. by W. of Louisville. Pop. (1890)
+7803; (1900) 8226, of whom 2593 were negroes; (1910) 9173. The city is
+served by the Louisville & Nashville railway (which maintains car shops
+here), and by steamboats navigating the river. Macadamized or gravel
+roads also radiate from it to all parts of the surrounding country, a
+rich agricultural and live-stock raising region, in which there are
+deposits of coal, iron ore, oil, natural gas, asphalt and building
+stone. The city is the seat of Potter College (for girls; non-sectarian,
+opened 1889); of Ogden College (non-sectarian, 1877), a secondary
+school, endowed by the bequest of Major Robert W. Ogden (1796-1873); of
+the West Kentucky State Normal School, opened (as the Southern Normal
+School and Business College) at Glasgow in 1875 and removed to Bowling
+Green in 1884; and of the Bowling Green Business University, formerly a
+part of the Southern Normal School and Business College. Bowling Green
+has two parks, a large horse and mule market, and a trade in other
+live-stock, tobacco and lumber; among its manufactures are flour,
+lumber, tobacco and furniture. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works and the electric lighting plant. Bowling Green was
+incorporated in 1812. During the early part of the Civil War Bowling
+Green was on the right flank of the first line of Confederate defence in
+the West, and was for some time the headquarters of General Albert
+Sidney Johnston. It was abandoned, however, after the capture by the
+Federals of Forts Henry and Donelson.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLING GREEN, a city and the county-seat of Wood county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+20 m. S. by W. of Toledo, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop.
+(1890) 3467; (1900) 5067 (264 foreign-born); (1910) 5222. Bowling Green
+is served by the Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton and the Toledo & Ohio
+Central railways, and by the Toledo Urban & Interurban and the Lake
+Erie, Bowling Green & Napoleon electric lines, the former extending from
+Toledo to Dayton. It is situated in a rich agricultural region which
+abounds in oil and natural gas. Many of the residences and business
+places of Bowling Green are heated by a privately owned central
+hot-water heating plant. Among the manufactures are cut glass, stoves
+and ranges, kitchen furniture, guns, thread-cutting machines, brooms and
+agricultural implements. Bowling Green was first settled in 1832, was
+incorporated as a town in 1855, and became a city in 1904.
+
+
+
+
+BOWLS,
+
+  History.
+
+the oldest British outdoor pastime, next to archery, still in vogue. It
+has been traced certainly to the 13th, and conjecturally to the 12th
+century. William Fitzstephen (d. about 1190), in his biography of Thomas
+Becket, gives a graphic sketch of the London of his day and, writing of
+the summer amusements of the young men, says that on holidays they were
+"exercised in Leaping, Shooting. Wrestling, Casting of Stones [_in jactu
+lapidum_], and Throwing of Javelins fitted with Loops for the Purpose,
+which they strive to fling before the Mark; they also use Bucklers, like
+fighting Men." It is commonly supposed that by _jactus lapidum_
+Fitzstephen meant the game of bowls, but though it is possible that
+round stones may sometimes have been employed in an early variety of the
+game-and there is a record of iron bowls being used, though at a much
+later date, on festive occasions at Nairn,--nevertheless the inference
+seems unwarranted. The _jactus lapidum_ of which he speaks was probably
+more akin to the modern "putting the weight," once even called "putting
+the stone." It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in
+a rudimentary form, was played in the 13th century. A MS. of that period
+in the royal library, Windsor (No. 20, E iv.), contains a drawing
+representing two players aiming at a small cone instead of an
+earthenware ball or jack. Another MS. of the same century has a
+picture--crude, but spirited--which brings us into close touch with the
+existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack. The first
+player's bowl has come to rest just in front of the jack; the second has
+delivered his bowl and is following after it with one of those eccentric
+contortions still not unusual on modern greens, the first player
+meanwhile making a repressive gesture with his hand, as if to urge the
+bowl to stop short of his own; the third player is depicted as in the
+act of delivering his bowl. A 14th-century MS. _Book of Prayers_ in the
+Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian library at Oxford contains a
+drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt
+(_Sports and Pastimes_) suggests that the first player's bowl may have
+been regarded by the second player as a species of jack; but in that
+case it is not clear what was the first player's target. In these three
+earliest illustrations of the pastime it is worth noting that each
+player has one bowl only, and that the attitude in delivering it was as
+various five or six hundred years ago as it is to-day. In the third he
+stands almost upright; in the first he kneels; in the second he stoops,
+halfway between the upright and the kneeling position.
+
+As the game grew in popularity it came under the ban of king and
+parliament, both fearing it might jeopardize the practice of archery,
+then so important in battle; and statutes forbidding it and other sports
+were enacted in the reigns of Edward III., Richard II. and other
+monarchs. Even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow
+had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was
+continued. The discredit attaching to bowling alleys, first established
+in London in 1455, probably encouraged subsequent repressive
+legislation, for many of the alleys were connected with taverns
+frequented by the dissolute and gamesters. The word "bowls" occurs for
+the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII. confirmed
+previous enactments against unlawful games. By a further act of
+1541--which was not repealed until 1845--artificers, labourers,
+apprentices, servants and the like were forbidden to play bowls at any
+time save Christmas, and then only in their master's house and presence.
+It was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside of his own
+garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. 8d., while those
+possessed of lands of the yearly value of L100 might obtain licences to
+play on their own private greens. But though the same statute absolutely
+prohibited bowling alleys, Henry VIII. had them constructed for his own
+pleasure at Whitehall Palace, and was wont to back himself when he
+played. In Mary's reign (1555) the licences were withdrawn, the queen or
+her advisers deeming the game an excuse for "unlawful assemblies,
+conventicles, seditions and conspiracies." The scandals of the bowling
+alleys grew rampant in Elizabethan London, and Stephen Gosson in his
+_School of Abuse_ (1579) says, "Common bowling alleys are privy moths
+that eat up the credit of many idle citizens; whose gains at home are
+not able to weigh down their losses abroad; whose shops are so far from
+maintaining their play, that their wives and children cry out for bread,
+and go to bed supperless often in the year."
+
+Biased bowls were introduced in the 16th century. "A little altering of
+the one side," says Robert Recorde, the mathematician, in his _Castle of
+Knowledge_ (1556), "maketh the bowl to run biasse waies." And
+Shakespeare (_Richard II_., Act. III. Sc. 4) causes the queen to
+remonstrate, in reply to her lady's suggestion of a game at bowls to
+relieve her ennui, "'Twill make me think the world is full of rubs, and
+that my fortune runs against the bias." This passage is interesting also
+as showing that women were accustomed to play the game in those days. It
+is pleasant to think that there is foundation for the familiar story of
+Sir Francis Drake playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe as the Armada was
+beating up Channel, and finishing his game before tackling the
+Spaniards. Bowls, at that date, was looked upon as a legitimate
+amusement for Sundays,--as, indeed, were many other sports. When John
+Knox visited Calvin at Geneva one Sunday, it is said that he discovered
+him engaged in a game; and John Aylmer (1521-1594), though bishop of
+London, enjoyed a game of a Sunday afternoon, but used such language "as
+justly exposed his character to reproach." The pastime found favour with
+the Stuarts. In the _Book of Sports_ (1618), James I. recommended a
+moderate indulgence to his son, Prince Henry, and Charles I. was an
+enthusiastic bowler, unfortunately encouraging by example wagering and
+playing for high stakes, habits that ultimately brought the green into
+as general disrepute as the alley. It is recorded that the king
+occasionally visited Richard Shute, a Turkey merchant who owned a
+beautiful green at Barking Hall, and that after one bout his losses were
+L1000. He was permitted to play his favourite game to beguile the tedium
+of his captivity. The signboard of a wayside inn near Goring Heath in
+Oxfordshire long bore a portrait of the king with couplets reciting how
+his majesty "drank from the bowl, and bowl'd for what he drank." During
+his stay at the Northamptonshire village of Holdenby or Holmby--where
+Sir Thomas Herbert complains the green was not well kept--Charles
+frequently rode over to Lord Vaux's place at Harrowden, or to Lord
+Spencer's at Althorp, for a game, and, according to one account, was
+actually playing on the latter green when Cornet Joyce came to Holmby to
+remove him to other quarters. During this period gambling had become a
+mania. John Aubrey, the antiquary, chronicles that the sisters of Sir
+John Suckling, the courtier-poet, once went to the bowling-green in
+Piccadilly, crying, "for fear he should lose all their portions." If the
+Puritans regarded bowls with no friendly eye, as Lord Macaulay asserts,
+one can hardly wonder at it. But even the Puritans could not suppress
+betting. So eminently respectable a person as John Evelyn thought no
+harm in bowling for stakes, and once played at the Durdans, near Epsom,
+for L10, winning match and money, as he triumphantly notes in his
+_Diary_ for the 14th of August 1657. Samuel Pepys repeatedly mentions
+finding great people "at bowles." But in time the excesses attending the
+game rendered it unfashionable, and after the Revolution it became
+practically a pothouse recreation, nearly all the greens, like the
+alleys, having been constructed in the grounds and gardens attached to
+taverns.
+
+After a long interval salvation came from Scotland, somewhat
+unexpectedly, because although, along with its winter analogue of
+curling, bowls may now be considered, much more than golf, the Scottish
+national game, it was not until well into the 19th century that the
+pastime acquired popularity in that country. It had been known in
+Scotland since the close of the 16th century (the Glasgow kirk session
+fulminated an edict against Sunday bowls in 1595), but greens were few
+and far between. There is record of a club in Haddington in 1709, of Tom
+Bicket's green in Kilmarnock in 1740, of greens in Candleriggs and
+Gallowgate, Glasgow, and of one in Lanark in 1750, of greens in the
+grounds of Heriot's hospital, Edinburgh, prior to 1768, and of one in
+Peebles in 1775. These are, of course, mere infants compared with the
+Southampton Town Bowling Club, founded in 1299, which still uses the
+green on which it has played for centuries and possesses the quaint
+custom of describing its master, or president, as "sir," and are younger
+even than the Newcastle-on-Tyne club established in 1657. But the
+earlier clubs did nothing towards organizing the game. In 1848 and 1849,
+however, when many clubs had come into existence in the west and south
+of Scotland (the Willowbank, dating from 1816, is the oldest club in
+Glasgow), meetings were held in Glasgow for the purpose of promoting a
+national association. This was regarded, by many, as impracticable, but
+a decision of final importance was reached when a consultative committee
+was appointed to draft a uniform code of laws to govern the game. This
+body delegated its functions to its secretary, W.W. Mitchell
+(1803-1884), who prepared a code that was immediately adopted in
+Scotland as the standard laws. It was in this sense that Scottish
+bowlers saved the game. They were, besides, pioneers in laying down
+level greens of superlative excellence. Not satisfied with seed-sown
+grass or meadow turf, they experimented with seaside turf and found it
+answer admirably. The 13th earl of Eglinton also set an example of
+active interest which many magnates emulated. Himself a keen bowler, he
+offered for competition, in 1854, a silver bowl and, in 1857, a gold
+bowl and the Eglinton Cup, all to be played for annually. These trophies
+excited healthy rivalry in Ayrshire and Lanarkshire, and the enthusiasm
+as well as the skill with which the game was conducted in Scotland at
+length proved contagious. Clubs in England began to consider the
+question of legislation, and to improve their greens. Moreover, Scottish
+emigrants introduced the game wherever they went, and colonists in
+Australia and New Zealand established many clubs which, in the main,
+adopted Mitchell's laws; while clubs were also started in Canada and in
+the United States, in South Africa, India (Calcutta, Karachi), Japan
+(Kobe, Yokohama, Kumamoto) and Hong-Kong. In Ireland the game took root
+very gradually, but in Ulster, owing doubtless to constant intercourse
+with Scotland, such clubs as have been founded are strong in numbers and
+play.
+
+On the European continent the game can scarcely be said to be played on
+scientific principles. It has existed in France since the 17th century.
+When John Evelyn was in Paris in 1644 he saw it played in the gardens of
+the Luxembourg Palace. In the south of France it is rather popular with
+artisans, who, however, are content to pursue it on any flat surface and
+use round instead of biased bowls, the bowler, moreover, indulging in a
+preliminary run before delivering the bowl, after the fashion of a
+bowler in cricket. A rude variety of the game occurs in Italy, and, as
+we have seen, John Calvin played it in Geneva, where John Evelyn also
+noticed it in 1646. There is evidence of its vogue in Holland in the
+17th century, for the painting by David Teniers (1610-1690), in the
+Scottish National Gallery at Edinburgh, is wrongly described as
+"Peasants playing at Skittles." In this picture three men are
+represented as having played a bowl, while the fourth is in the act of
+delivering his bowl. The game is obviously bowls, the sole difference
+being that an upright peg, about 4 in. high, is employed instead of a
+jack,--recalling, in this respect, the old English form of the game
+already mentioned.
+
+Serious efforts to organize the game were made in the last quarter of
+the 19th century, but this time the lead came from Australia. The
+Bowling Associations of Victoria and New South Wales were established in
+1880, and it was not until 1892 that the Scottish Bowling Association
+was founded. Then in rapid succession came several independent
+bodies--the Midland Counties (1895), the London and Southern Counties
+(1896), the Imperial (1899), the English (1903) and the Irish and Welsh
+(1904). These institutions were concerned with the task of regularizing
+the game within the territories indicated by their titles, but it soon
+appeared that the multiplicity of associations was likely to prove a
+hindrance rather than a help, and with a view, therefore, to reducing
+the number of clashing jurisdictions and bringing about the
+establishment of a single legislative authority, the Imperial
+amalgamated with the English B.A. in 1905. The visits to the United
+Kingdom of properly organized teams of bowlers from Australia and New
+Zealand in 1901 and from Canada in 1904 demonstrated that the game had
+gained enormously in popularity. The former visit was commemorated by
+the institution of the Australia Cup, presented to the Imperial Bowling
+Association (and now the property of the English B.A.) by Mr Charles
+Wood, president of the Victorian Bowling Association. An accredited team
+of bowlers from the mother country visited Canada in 1906, and was
+accorded a royal welcome. Perhaps the most interesting proof that bowls
+is a true _Volksspiel_ is to be found in the fact that it has become
+municipalized. In Edinburgh, Glasgow, and elsewhere in Scotland, and in
+London (through the county council), Newcastle and other English towns,
+the corporations have laid down greens in public parks and open spaces.
+In Scotland the public greens are self-supporting, from a charge, which
+includes the use of bowls, of one penny an hour for each player; in
+London the upkeep of the greens falls on the rates, but players must
+provide their own bowls.
+
+
+  The game.
+
+There are two kinds of bowling green, the level and the crown. The crown
+has a fall which may amount to as much as 18 in. all round from the
+centre to the sides. This type of green is confined almost wholly to
+certain of the northern and midland counties of England, where it is
+popular for single-handed, gate-money contests. But although the
+crown-green game is of a sporting character, it necessitates the use of
+bowls of narrow bias and affords but limited scope for the display of
+skill and science. It is the game on the perfectly level green that
+constitutes the historical game of bowls. Subject to the rule as to the
+shortest distance to which the jack must be thrown (25 yds.), there is
+no prescribed size for the lawn; but 42 yds. square forms an ideal
+green. The Queen's Park and Titwood clubs in Glasgow have each three
+greens, and as they can quite comfortably play six rinks on each, it is
+not uncommon to see 144 players making their game simultaneously. An
+undersized lawn is really a poor pitch, because it involves playing from
+corner to corner instead of up and down--the orthodox direction. For
+the scientific construction of a green, the whole ground must be
+excavated to a depth of 18 in. or so, and thoroughly drained, and layers
+of different materials (gravel, cinders, moulds, silver-sand) laid down
+before the final covering of turf, 2-1/2 or 3 in. thick. Seaside turf is
+the best. It wears longest and keeps its "spring" to the last.
+Surrounding the green is a space called a ditch, which is nearly but not
+quite on a level with the green and slopes gently away from it, the side
+next the turf being lined with boarding, the ditch itself bottomed with
+wooden spars resting on the foundation. Beyond the ditch are banks
+generally laid with turf. A green is divided into spaces usually from 18
+to 21 ft. in width, commonly styled "rinks"--a word which also
+designates each set of players--and these are numbered in sequence on a
+plate fixed in the bank at each end opposite the centre of the space.
+The end ditch within the limits of the space is, according to Scottish
+laws, regarded as part of the green, a regulation which prejudices the
+general acceptance of those laws. In match play each space is further
+marked off from its neighbour by thin string securely fastened flush
+with the turf.
+
+Every player uses four _lignum vitae_ bowls in single-handed games and
+(as a rule) in friendly games, but only two in matches. Every bowl must
+have a certain amount of bias, which was formerly obtained by loading
+one side with lead, but is now imparted by the turner making one side
+more convex than the other, the bulge showing the side of the bias. No
+bowl must have less than No. 3 bias--that is, it should draw about 6 ft.
+to a 30 yd. jack on a first-rate green: it follows that on an inferior
+green the bowler, though using the same bowl, would have to allow for a
+narrower draw. It is also a rule that the diameter of the bowl shall not
+be less than 4-1/2 in. nor more than 5-1/4 in., and that its weight must
+not exceed 3-1/2 lb. The jack or kitty, as the white earthenware ball to
+which the bowler bowls is called, is round and 2-1/2 to 2-3/4 in. in
+diameter. On crown-greens it is customary to use a small biased wooden
+jack to give the bowler some clue to the run of the green. The bowler
+delivers his bowl with one foot on a mat or footer, made of india-rubber
+or cocoa-nut fibre, the size of which is also prescribed by rule as 24
+by 16 in., though, with a view to protecting the green, Australasian
+clubs employ a much larger size, and require the bowler to keep both
+feet on the mat in the act of delivery.
+
+In theory the game of bowls is very simple, the aim of the player being
+to roll his bowl so as to cause it to rest nearer to the jack than his
+opponent's, or to protect a well-placed bowl, or to dislodge a better
+bowl than his own. But in practice there is every opportunity for skill.
+On all good greens the game is played in rinks of four a side, there
+being, however, on the part of many English clubs still an adherence to
+the old-fashioned method of two and three a side rinks. Ordinarily a
+match team consists of four rinks of four players each, or sixteen men
+in all. The four players in a rink are known as the leader, second
+player, third player and skip (or driver, captain or director), and
+their positions, at least in matches, are unchangeable. Great
+responsibility is thus thrown on the skip in the choice of his players,
+who are selected for well-defined reasons. The leader has to place the
+mat, to throw the jack, to count the game, and to call the result of
+each end or head to the skip who is at the other end of the green. He is
+picked for his skill in playing to the jack. It is, therefore, his
+business to "be up." There is no excuse for short play on his part, and
+his bowls would be better off the green than obstructing the path of
+subsequent bowls. So he will endeavour to be "on the jack," the ideal
+position being a bowl at rest immediately in front of or behind it. The
+skip plays last, and directs his men from the end that is being played
+to. The weakest player in the four is invariably played in the second
+place (the "soft second"). Most frequently he will be required either to
+protect a good bowl or to rectify a possible error of the leader. His
+official duty is to mark the game on the scoring card when the leader
+announces the result. He keeps a record of the play of both sides. The
+third player, who does any measuring that may be necessary to determine
+which bowl or bowls may be nearest the jack, holds almost as responsible
+a position as the captain, whose place, in fact, he takes whenever the
+skip is temporarily absent. The duties of the skip will already be
+understood by inference. Before he leaves the jack to play, he must
+observe the situation of the bowls of both sides. It may be that he has
+to draw a shot with the utmost nicety to save the end, or even the
+match, or to lay a cunningly contrived block, or to "fire"--that is, to
+deliver his bowl almost dead straight at the object, with enough force
+to kill the bias for the moment. The score having been counted, the
+leader then places the mat, usually within a yard of the spot where the
+jack lay at the conclusion of the head, and throws the jack in the
+opposite direction for a fresh end. On small greens play, for obvious
+reasons, generally takes place from each ditch. The players play in
+couples--the first on both sides, then the second and so on. The leader
+having played his first bowl, the opposing leader will play his first
+and so on. As a rule, a match consists of 21 points, or 21 ends (or a
+few more, by agreement).
+
+[Illustration:
+
+FIG. 1.--Drawing.
+
+FIG. 2.--Guarding.
+
+FIG. 3.--Trailing
+
+FIG. 4.--Driving.
+
+(In every case F is the Footer, B the Bowl, J the Jack.)]
+
+  Certain points in the play call for notice. In throwing the jack, the
+  leader is bound to throw (i.e. roll) a legal jack. A legal jack must
+  travel at least 25 yds. from the footer and not come to rest within 2
+  yds. of either side boundary; but it may be thrown as far beyond this
+  as the leader chooses, provided that it does not run within 2 yds. of
+  the end ditch or either side boundary. In English practice the leader
+  is entitled to a second throw if he fail to roll a legal jack at his
+  first attempt; should he fail again, the right to throw passes to his
+  opponent, but not the right of playing first. On Scottish greens the
+  leader has only a single throw. A legal jack should not be interfered
+  with except by the course of play. Should the jack be driven towards
+  the side boundary, it is legitimate for a player to cause his bowl to
+  draw outside of the dividing string, provided that when it has ceased
+  running it shall have come to rest entirely within his own space. If
+  it stop on the string, or outside of it, the bowl is "dead" and must
+  be removed to the bank. A "toucher" bowl is a characteristic of the
+  Scottish game to which great exception is taken by many English clubs.
+  Should a bowl running jackwards touch the jack, however slightly, it
+  is called a toucher and must be marked by the skip with a chalk cross
+  as soon as it is at rest. Such a bowl is alive until the end is
+  finished wherever it may lie, within the limits of the space. Even if
+  it run into the ditch or be driven in by another bowl, it will yet
+  count as alive. A bowl, however, that is forced on to the jack by
+  another is not a toucher. The feat of hitting the jack is so common
+  that it really calls for no special reward. Difference of opinion
+  prevails as to the condition of the jack after it has been driven into
+  the ditch. According to Scottish rules, unless it has been forced
+  clean out of bounds, such a jack is still alive. On most English
+  greens it is a "dead" jack and the end void. Every bowler should learn
+  both forehand and backhand play. In forehand play the bowl as it
+  courses to the jack describes its segment of a circle on the right, in
+  backhand play on the left. In both styles the biased side must always
+  be the inner.
+
+  In the United Kingdom the regular bowling season extends from May day
+  till the end of September or the middle of October. At its close the
+  green must be carefully examined, weeds uprooted, worn patches
+  re-turfed, and the whole laid under a winter blanket of silver-sand.
+
+  On Scottish greens the game of points is frequently played, but it is
+  rarely seen on English greens. Its main object is to perfect the
+  proficiency of players in certain departments of bowls proper. There
+  are four sections in the game, namely, drawing, guarding, trailing and
+  driving. In _drawing_ (fig. 1), the object is to draw as near as
+  possible to the jack, the player's bowl passing outside of two other
+  bowls placed 5 ft. apart in a horizontal line 15 ft. from the jack,
+  without touching either of them. Three points are scored if the bowl
+  come to rest within 1 ft. of the jack, two points if within 2 ft., and
+  one point if within 3 ft. Circles of these radii are usually marked
+  around the jack for convenience sake. In _guarding_ (fig. 2), two
+  jacks are laid at the far end of the green 12 ft. apart in a vertical
+  line. A thread is then pinned down between them, and on each side of
+  this thread three others are pinned down parallel with it and 6 in.
+  apart from each other. A bowl that comes to rest on the central line,
+  or within 6 in. of it, counts three points, a bowl 12 in. away two
+  points, and a bowl 18 in. off one point. In _trailing_ (fig. 3), two
+  bowls are laid on the turf 3 ft. apart, and straight lines are chalked
+  from bowl to bowl across their back and front faces, and a jack is
+  then deposited equidistant from each bowl and immediately before the
+  front line. A semicircle is then drawn behind the bowls with a radius
+  of 9 ft. from the jack. Three points are given to the bowl that trails
+  the jack over both lines into the semicircle and goes over them
+  itself. If a bowl trail the jack over both lines, but only itself
+  cross the first; or if it pass both lines, but the jack cross only the
+  first, two points are awarded. A bowl passing between the jack and
+  either of the stationary bowls, and passing over the back line; or
+  touching the jack, yet not trailing it past the first line, but itself
+  crossing the back line; or trailing the jack over the front line
+  without crossing it itself, receives one point. In no case must the
+  stationary bowls be touched, or the semicircle crossed by the trailed
+  jack or played bowls. In _driving_ (fig. 4), two bowls are laid down 2
+  ft. apart, and then a jack is placed in front of them, 15 in. apart
+  from each, and occupying the position of the apex of an inverted
+  pyramid. The player who drives the jack into the ditch between the two
+  bowls scores three. If he moves the jack, but does not carry it
+  through to the ditch, he scores two. If he pass between the jack and
+  either bowl he scores one, although it is not easy to see what driving
+  he has done. The played bowl must itself run into the ditch without
+  touching either of the stationary bowls. It is obvious that the points
+  game demands an ideally perfect green.
+
+  See W.W. Mitchell, _Manual of Bowl-playing_ (Glasgow, 1880); _Laws of
+  the Game issued by the Scottish B.A._ (1893, et sqq.); H.J. Dingley,
+  _Touchers and Rubs_ (Glasgow, 1893); Sam Aylwin, _The Gentle Art of
+  Bowling_, with 26 diagrams (London, 1904); James A. Manson, _The
+  Bowler's Handbook_ (London, 1906).     (J. A. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BOWNESS-ON-WINDERMERE, an urban district in the Appleby parliamentary
+division of Westmorland, England, on the east shore of Windermere, 1-1/4
+m. S.W. of Windermere station on the London & North-Western railway.
+Together with the town of Windermere it forms an urban district (pop.
+5061 in 1901), but the two towns were separate until 1905. Its situation
+is fine, the lake-shore here rising sharply, while at this point the
+lake narrows and is studded with islands. The low surrounding hills are
+richly wooded, and a number of country seats stand upon them. Bowness
+lies at the head of a small bay, is served by the lake-steamers of the
+Furness Railway Company, and is a favourite yachting, boating, fishing
+and tourist centre. The church of St Martin is ancient, and contains
+stained glass from Cartmel priory in Furness. (See WINDERMERE.)
+
+
+
+
+BOWRING, SIR JOHN (1792-1872), English linguist, political economist and
+miscellaneous writer, was born at Exeter, on the 17th of October 1792,
+of an old Puritan family. In early life he came under the influence of
+Jeremy Bentham. He did not, however, share his master's contempt for
+_belles-lettres_, but was a diligent student of literature and foreign
+languages, especially those of eastern Europe. As a linguist he ranked
+with Mezzofanti and von Gabelentz among the greatest of the world. The
+first-fruits of his study of foreign literature appeared in _Specimens
+of the Russian Poets_ (1821-1823). These were speedily followed by
+_Batavian Anthology_ (1824), _Ancient Poetry and Romances of Spain_
+(1824), _Specimens of the Polish Poets_, and _Servian Popular Poetry_,
+both in 1827. During this period he began to contribute to the newly
+founded _Westminster Review_, of which he was appointed editor in 1825.
+By his contributions to the _Review_ he obtained considerable reputation
+as political economist and parliamentary reformer. He advocated in its
+pages the cause of free trade long before it was popularized by Richard
+Cobden and John Bright. He pleaded earnestly in behalf of parliamentary
+reform, Catholic emancipation and popular education. In 1828 he visited
+Holland, where the university of Groningen conferred on him the degree
+of doctor of laws. In the following year he was in Denmark, preparing
+for the publication of a collection of Scandinavian poetry. Bowring, who
+had been the trusted friend of Bentham during his life, was appointed
+his literary executor, and was charged with the task of preparing a
+collected edition of his works. This appeared in eleven volumes in 1843.
+Meanwhile Bowring had entered parliament in 1835 as member for
+Kilmarnock; and in the following year he was appointed head of a
+government commission to be sent to France to inquire into the actual
+state of commerce between the two countries. He was engaged in similar
+investigations in Switzerland, Italy, Syria and some of the German
+states. The results of these missions appeared in a series of reports
+laid before the House of Commons. After a retirement of four years he
+sat in parliament from 1841 till 1849 as member for Bolton. During this
+busy period he found leisure for literature, and published in 1843 a
+translation of the _Manuscript of the Queen's Court_, a collection of
+old Bohemian lyrics, &c. In 1849 he was appointed British consul at
+Canton, and superintendent of trade in China, a post which he held for
+four years. After his return he distinguished himself as an advocate of
+the decimal system, and published a work entitled _The Decimal System in
+Numbers, Coins and Accounts_ (1854). The introduction of the florin as a
+preparatory step was chiefly due to his efforts. Knighted in 1854, he
+was again sent the same year to Hong-Kong as governor, invested with the
+supreme military and naval power. It was during his governorship that a
+dispute broke out with the Chinese; and the irritation caused by his
+"spirited" or high-handed policy led to the second war with China. In
+1855 he visited Siam, and negotiated with the king a treaty of commerce.
+After the usual five years of service he retired and received a pension.
+His last employment by the English government was as a commissioner to
+Italy in 1861, to report on British commercial relations with the new
+kingdom. Sir John Bowring subsequently accepted the appointment of
+minister plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary from the Hawaiian
+government to the courts of Europe, and in this capacity negotiated
+treaties with Belgium, Holland, Italy, Spain and Switzerland. In
+addition to the works already named he published--_Poetry of the
+Magyars_ (1830); _Cheskian Anthology_ (1832); _The Kingdom and People of
+Siam_ (1857); a translation of _Peter Schlemihl_ (1824); translations
+from the Hungarian poet, Alexander Petofi (1866); and various pamphlets.
+He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., and received the decorations of
+several foreign orders of knighthood. He died at Claremont, near Exeter,
+on the 23rd of November 1872. His valuable collection of coleoptera was
+presented to the British Museum by his second son, Lewin Bowring, a
+well-known Anglo-Indian administrator; and his third son, E.A. Bowring,
+member of parliament for Exeter from 1868 to 1874, became known in the
+literary world as an able translator.
+
+  Sir John Bowring's _Recollections_ were edited by Lewin Bowring (d.
+  1910) in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+BOWTELL, a medieval term in architecture for a round or corniced
+moulding; the word is a variant of "boltel," which is probably the
+diminutive of "bolt," the shaft of an arrow or javelin. A "roving"
+bowtell is one which passes up the side of a bench end and round a
+finial, the term "roving" being applied to that which follows the line
+of a curve.
+
+
+
+
+BOWYER, WILLIAM (1663-1737), English printer, was born in 1663,
+apprenticed to a printer in 1679, made a liveryman of the Stationers'
+Company in 1700, and nominated as one of the twenty printers allowed by
+the Star Chamber. He was burned out in the great fire of 1712, but his
+loss was partly made good by the subscription of friends and fellow
+craftsmen, as recorded on a tablet in Stationers' Hall, and in 1713 he
+returned to his Whitefriars shop and became the leading printer of his
+day. He died on the 27th of December 1737.
+
+His son, WILLIAM BOWYER (1699-1777), was born in London on the 19th of
+December 1699. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge, and in
+1722 became a partner in his father's business. In 1729 he was appointed
+printer of the votes of the House of Commons, and in 1736 printer to the
+Society of Antiquaries, of which he was elected a fellow in 1737. In
+1737 he took as apprentice John Nichols, who was to be his successor and
+biographer. In 1761 Bowyer became printer to the Royal Society, and in
+1767 printer of the rolls of the House of Lords and the journals of the
+House of Commons. He died on the 13th of November 1777, leaving
+unfinished a number of large works and among them the reprint of
+Domesday Book. He wrote a great many tracts and pamphlets, edited,
+arranged and published a host of books, but perhaps his principal work
+was an edition of the New Testament in Greek, with notes. His generous
+bequests in favour of his own profession are administered by the
+Stationers' Company, of which he became a liveryman in 1738, and in
+whose hall is his portrait bust and a painting of his father. He was
+known as "the learned printer."
+
+
+
+
+BOX (Gr. [Greek: puxos], Lat. _buxus_, box-wood; cf. [Greek: puxis], a
+pyx), the most varied of all receptacles. A box may be square, oblong,
+round or oval, or of an even less normal shape; it usually opens by
+raising, sliding or removing the lid, which may be fastened by a catch,
+hasp or lock. Whatever its shape or purpose or the material of which it
+is fashioned, it is the direct descendant of the chest, one of the most
+ancient articles of domestic furniture. Its uses are infinite, and the
+name, preceded by a qualifying adjective, has been given to many objects
+of artistic or antiquarian interest.
+
+Of the boxes which possess some attraction beyond their immediate
+purpose the feminine work-box is the commonest. It is usually fitted
+with a tray divided into many small compartments, for needles, reels of
+silk and cotton and other necessaries of stitchery. The date of its
+introduction is in considerable doubt, but 17th-century examples have
+come down to us, with covers of silk, stitched with beads and adorned
+with embroidery. In the 18th century no lady was without her work-box,
+and, especially in the second half of that period, much taste and
+elaborate pains were expended upon the case, which was often exceedingly
+dainty and elegant. These boxes are ordinarily portable, but sometimes
+form the top of a table.
+
+But it is as a receptacle for snuff that the box has taken its most
+distinguished and artistic form. The snuff-box, which is now little more
+than a charming relic of a disagreeable practice, was throughout the
+larger part of the 18th century the indispensable companion of every man
+of birth and breeding. It long survived his sword, and was in frequent
+use until nearly the middle of the 19th century. The jeweller, the
+enameller and the artist bestowed infinite pains upon what was quite as
+often a delicate bijou as a piece of utility; fops and great personages
+possessed numbers of snuff-boxes, rich and more ordinary, their
+selection being regulated by their dress and by the relative splendour
+of the occasion. From the cheapest wood that was suitable--at one time
+potato-pulp was extensively used--to a frame of gold encased with
+diamonds, a great variety of materials was employed. Tortoise-shell was
+a favourite, and owing to its limpid lustre it was exceedingly
+effective. Mother-of-pearl was also used, together with silver, in its
+natural state or gilded. Costly gold boxes were often enriched with
+enamels or set with diamonds or other precious stones, and sometimes the
+lid was adorned with a portrait, a classical vignette, or a tiny
+miniature, often some choice work by an old master. After snuff-taking
+had ceased to be general it lingered for some time among diplomatists,
+either because--as Talleyrand explained--they found a ceremonious pinch
+to be a useful aid to reflection in a business interview, or because
+monarchs retained the habit of bestowing snuff-boxes upon ambassadors
+and other intermediaries, who could not well be honoured in any other
+way. It is, indeed, to the cessation of the habit of snuff-taking that
+we may trace much of modern lavishness in the distribution of
+decorations. To be invited to take a pinch from a monarch's snuff-box
+was a distinction almost equivalent to having one's ear pulled by
+Napoleon. At the coronation of George IV. of England, Messrs Rundell &
+Bridge, the court jewellers, were paid L8205 for snuff-boxes for foreign
+ministers. Now that the snuff-box is no longer used it is collected by
+wealthy amateurs or deposited in museums, and especially artistic
+examples command large sums. George, duke of Cambridge (1819-1904),
+possessed an important collection; a Louis XV. gold box was sold by
+auction after his death for L2000.
+
+A jewel-box is a receptacle for trinkets. It may take a very modest
+form, covered in leather and lined with satin, or it may reach the
+monumental proportions of the jewel cabinets which were made for Marie
+Antoinette, one of which is at Windsor, and another at Versailles, the
+work of Schwerdfeger as cabinet-maker, Degault as miniature-painter, and
+Thomire as chaser.
+
+A strong-box is a receptacle for money, deeds and securities. Its place
+has been taken in modern life by the safe. Some of those which have
+survived, such as that of Sir Thomas Bodley in the Bodleian library,
+possess locks with an extremely elaborate mechanism contrived in the
+under-side of the lid.
+
+The knife-box is one of the most charming of the minor pieces of
+furniture which we owe to the artistic taste and mechanical ingenuity of
+the English cabinet-makers of the last quarter of the 18th century. Some
+of the most elegant were the work of Adam, Hepplewhite and Sheraton.
+Occasionally flat-topped boxes, they were most frequently either
+vase-shaped, or tall and narrow with a sloping lid necessitated by a
+series of raised stages for exhibiting the handles of knives and the
+bowls of spoons. Mahogany and satinwood were the woods most frequently
+employed, and they were occasionally inlaid with marqueterie or edged
+with boxwood. These graceful receptacles still exist in large numbers;
+they are often converted into stationery cabinets.
+
+The Bible-box, usually of the 17th century, but now and again more
+ancient, probably obtained its name from the fact that it was of a size
+to hold a large Bible. It often has a carved or incised lid.
+
+The powder-box and the patch-box were respectively receptacles for the
+powder and the patches of the 18th century; the former was the direct
+ancestor of the puff-box of the modern dressing-table.
+
+The _etui_ is a cylindrical box or case of very various materials, often
+of pleasing shape or adornment, for holding sewing materials or small
+articles of feminine use. It was worn on the chatelaine.
+
+
+
+
+BOXING (M.E. _box_, a blow, probably from Dan. _bask_, a buffet), the
+art of attack and defence with the fists protected by padded gloves, as
+distinguished from pugilism, in which the bare fists, or some kind of
+light gloves affording little moderation of the blow, are employed. The
+ancient Greeks used a sort of glove in practice, but, although far less
+formidable than the terrible caestus worn in serious encounters, it was
+by no means so mild an implement as the modern boxing-glove, the
+invention of which is traditionally ascribed to Jack Broughton
+(1705-1789), "the father of British pugilism." In any case gloves were
+first used in his time, though only in practice, all prize-fights being
+decided with bare fists. Broughton, who was for years champion of
+England, also drew up the rules by which prize-fights were for many
+years regulated, and no doubt, with the help of the newly invented
+gloves, imparted instruction in boxing to the young aristocrats of his
+day. The most popular teacher of the art was, however, John Jackson
+(1769-1845), called "Gentleman Jackson," who was champion from 1795 to
+1800, and who is credited with imparting to boxing its scientific
+principles, such as countering, accurate judging of distance in hitting,
+and agility on the feet. Tom Moore, the poet, in his _Memoirs_, asserted
+that Jackson "made more than a thousand a year by teaching sparring."
+Among his pupils was Lord Byron, who, when chided for keeping company
+with a pugilist, insisted that Jackson's manners were "infinitely
+superior to those of the fellows of the college whom I meet at the high
+table," and referred to him in the following lines in _Hints from
+Horace_:--
+
+  "And men unpractised in exchanging knocks
+   Must go to Jackson ere they dare to box."
+
+His rooms in Bond Street were crowded with men of birth and distinction,
+and when the allied monarchs visited London he was entrusted with the
+management of a boxing carnival with which they were vastly pleased. In
+1814 the Pugilistic Club, the meeting-place of the aristocratic sporting
+element, was formed, but the high-water mark of the popularity of boxing
+had been reached, and it declined rapidly, although throughout the
+country considerable interest continued to be manifested in
+prize-fighting.
+
+The sport of modern boxing, as distinguished from pugilism, may be said
+to date from the year 1866, when the public had become disgusted with
+the brutality and unfair practices of the professional "bruisers," and
+the laws against prize-fighting began to be more rigidly enforced. In
+that year the "Amateur Athletic Club" was founded, principally through
+the efforts of John G. Chambers (1843-1883), who, in conjunction with
+the 8th marquess of Queensberry, drew up a code of laws (known as the
+Queensberry Rules) which govern all glove contests in Great Britain, and
+were also authoritative in America until the adoption of the boxing
+rules of the Amateur Athletic Union of America. In 1867 Lord Queensberry
+presented cups for the British amateur championships at the recognized
+weights.
+
+For the history of pugilism in classic antiquity and an account of
+modern prize-fighting see PUGILISM. At present two kinds of boxing
+contests are in vogue, that for a limited number of rounds (as in the
+amateur championships) and that for endurance, in which the one who
+cannot continue the fight loses. Endurance contests, which contain the
+essential element of the old prize-fights, are now indulged in only by
+professionals. Among amateurs boxing is far less popular than it once
+was, owing to the importance placed upon brute strength, and the
+prevailing ambition of the modern boxer to "knock out" his opponent,
+i.e. reduce him to a state of insensibility. Even in 3-round matches
+between gentlemen, in which points win, and there is therefore no need
+to knock an opponent senseless, it is nevertheless a common practice to
+strike a dazed and reeling adversary a heavy blow with a view to ending
+the battle at once. During the annual boxing competitions between Oxford
+and Cambridge more than half the bouts have been known to end in this
+manner. Undoubtedly the prettiest boxing is seen when two men proficient
+in the art indulge in a practice bout--or "sparring."
+
+Boxing is the art of hitting without getting hit. The boxers face each
+other just out of reach and balanced equally on both feet, the left from
+10 to 20 in. in advance of the right. The left foot is planted flat on
+the floor, while the right heel is raised slightly from it. The left
+side of the body is turned a little towards the opponent and the right
+shoulder slightly depressed. When the hands are clenched inside the
+gloves the thumb is doubled over the second and third fingers to avoid a
+sprain when hitting. The general position of the guard is a matter of
+individual taste. In the "crouch," affected by many American
+professionals, the right hip is thrust forward and the body bent over
+towards the right, while the left arm is kept well stretched out to
+keep the opponent at a distance. No good master, however, teaches a
+beginner any other than the upright position. Some boxers stand with the
+right foot forward, a practice common in the 18th century, which gives
+freer play with the right hand but is rather unstable. A boxer should
+stand lightly on his feet, ready to advance or retreat on the instant,
+using short steps, advancing with the left foot first and retreating
+with the right. Attacks are either simple or secondary. Simple attacks
+consist in straight leads, i.e. blows aimed with or without preliminary
+feints, at some part of the opponent's body or head. All other attacks
+are either "counters" or returns after a guard or "block." A counter is
+a lead carried out just as one is attacked, the object being to block
+(parry) the blow and land on the opponent at the same time. Counters are
+often carried out in connexion with a side-step, a slip or a crouch. In
+hitting, a boxer seeks to exert the greatest force at the instant of
+impact. Blows may be either straight, with or without the weight of the
+body behind them ("straight from the shouder" hits); jabs, short blows
+(usually with the left hand when at close quarters); hooks, or
+side-blows with bent arm; upper cuts (short swinging blows from beneath
+to the adversary's chin); chops (short blows from above); punches
+(usually at close quarters, with the right hand); or swings (round-arm
+blows, usually delivered with a partial twist of the body to augment the
+force of the blow). Of the dangerous blows, which often result in a
+knockout, or in seriously weakening an adversary, the following may be
+mentioned:--on the pit of the stomach, called the solar plexus, from the
+sensitive network of nerves situated there; a blow on the point of the
+chin, having a tendency slightly to paralyse the brain; a blow under the
+ear, painful and often resulting in partial helplessness; and one
+directly over the heart, kidney or liver. As a boxer is allowed ten
+seconds after being knocked down in which to rise, an experienced
+ring-fighter will drop on one knee when partially stunned, remaining in
+that position in order to recover until the referee has counted nine.
+
+Guarding is done with the arm or hand, either open or shut. If a blow is
+caught or stopped short it is called _blocking_, but a blow may also be
+shoved aside, or avoided altogether by _slipping, i.e._ moving the head
+quickly to one side, or by ducking and allowing the adversary's swing to
+pass harmlessly over the head. Still another method of avoiding a blow
+without guarding is to bend back the head or body so as narrowly to
+escape the opponent's glove.
+
+The rules of the Amateur Boxing Association (founded 1884) contain the
+following provisions. "An amateur is one who has never competed for a
+money prize or staked bet with or against a professional for any prize,
+except with the express sanction of the A.B.A., and who has never
+taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of athletic exercises as a
+means of obtaining a livelihood." The ring shall be roped and between 12
+and 24 ft. square. No spikes shall be worn on shoes. Boxers are divided
+into the following classes by weight:--Bantam, not exceeding 8 st. 4 lb
+(116 lb); Feather, not exceeding 9 st. (126 lb); Light, not exceeding 10
+st. (140 lb); Middle, not exceeding 11 st. 4 lb. (158 lb); and Heavy,
+any weight above. There shall be two judges, a referee and a timekeeper.
+The votes of the judges decide the winner of a bout, unless they
+disagree, in which case the referee has the deciding vote. In case of
+doubt he may order an extra round of two minutes' duration. Each match
+is for three rounds, the first two lasting three minutes and the third
+four, with one minute rest between the rounds. A competitor failing to
+come up at the call of time loses the match. When a competitor draws a
+bye he must box for a specified time with an opponent chosen by the
+judges. A competitor is allowed one assistant (second) only, and no
+advice or coaching during the progress of a round is permitted. Unless
+one competitor is unable to respond to the call of time, or is obliged
+to stop before the match is over, the judges decide the winner by
+_points_, which are for attack, comprising successful hits cleanly
+delivered, and defence, comprising guarding, slipping, ducking,
+counter-hitting and getting away in time to avoid a return. When the
+points are equal the decision is given in favour of the boxer who has
+done the most leading, i.e. has been the more aggressive. Fouls are
+hitting below the belt, kicking, hitting with the open hand, the side of
+the hand, the wrist, elbow or shoulder, wrestling or "roughing" on the
+ropes, i.e. unnecessary shouldering and jostling.
+
+The boxing rules of the American Amateur Athletic Association differ
+slightly from the British. The ring is roped but must be from 16 to 24
+ft. square. Gloves must not be worn more than 8 oz. in weight. The
+recognized classes by weight are: Bantam, 105 lb. and under; Feather,
+115 lb. and under; Light, 135 lb. and under; Welter, 145 lb. and under;
+Middle, 158 lb. and under; and Heavy, over 158 lb. The rules for
+officials and rounds are identical with the British, except that only in
+final bouts does the last round last four minutes. Two "seconds" are
+allowed. The rules for points and fouls coincide with the British. The
+amateur rules are very strict, and any one who competes in a boxing
+contest of more than four rounds is suspended from membership in the
+Athletic Association.
+
+  _Glossary_ of terms not mentioned above:--_Break away_, to get away
+  from the adversary, usually a command from the referee when the men
+  clinch. _Break ground_, retire diagonally to right or left.
+  _Catch-weight_, any weight. _Corners_, the opposite angles of the
+  square "ring," in which the boxers rest between the rounds.
+  _Cross-counter_, a blow in which the right or left arm crosses that of
+  the adversary as he leads off; the arm is slightly curved to get round
+  that of the opponent but is straightened at the moment of impact.
+  _Clinching_, grappling after an exchange of blows; when breaking from
+  a clinch one tries to pin the adversary's hands in order to prevent
+  his hitting at close quarters. _Drawing_ an opponent, enticing him by
+  leaving an apparent opening into making an attack for which a counter
+  is prepared. _Fiddling_, forward and back movements of the arms at the
+  beginning of a round, a part of sparring for an opening. _Footwork_,
+  the manner in which a boxer uses his feet. _In-fighting_, boxing at
+  very close quarters. _Mark_, the pit of the stomach. _Side-step_,
+  springing quickly to one side to avoid a blow, the movement being
+  usually followed up by a counter attack. _Timing_, a blow delivered on
+  the enemy's preparation of an attack of his own, but more quickly.
+
+  See _Boxing_, by R. Allanson Winn (Isthmian Library, London, 1897);
+  _Boxing_, by Wm. Elder (Spalding's Athletic Library, New York, 1902)
+  (these two books are excellent for the technicalities of boxing). The
+  article "Boxing," by B. Jno. Angle and G.W. Barroll, in the
+  _Encyclopaedia of Sport_; _Boxing_, by J.C. Trotter (Oval Series,
+  London, 1896); _Fencing, Boxing and Wrestling_, in the Badminton
+  Library (London, 1892).
+
+FRENCH BOXING (_la boxe francaise_) dates from about 1830. It is more
+like the ancient Greek _pankration_ (see PUGILISM) than is British
+boxing, as not only striking with the fists, but also kicking with the
+feet, butting with the head and wrestling are allowed. It is a
+development of the old sport of _savate_, in which the feet, and not the
+hands, were used in attack. Lessons in savate, which was practised
+especially by roughs, were usually given in some low resort, and there
+were no respectable teachers. While Paris was restricted to savate,
+another sport, called _chausson_ or _jeu marseillais_, was practised in
+the south of France, especially among the soldiers, in which blows of
+the fist as well as kicks were exchanged, and the kicks were given
+higher than in savate, in the stomach or even the face. It was an
+excellent exercise, but could hardly be reckoned a serious means of
+defence, for the high kicks usually fell short, and the upward blows of
+the fist could not be compared with the terrible sledge-hammer blows of
+the English boxers. Alexandre Dumas _pere_ says that Charles Lecour
+first conceived the idea of combining English boxing with savate. For
+this purpose he went to England, and took lessons of Adams and Smith,
+the London boxers. He then returned to Paris, about 1852, and opened a
+school to teach the sport since called _la boxe francaise_. Around him,
+and two provincial instructors who came to Paris about this time with
+similar ideas, there grew up a large number of sportsmen, who between
+1845 and 1855 brought French boxing to its highest development. Among
+others who gave public exhibitions was Lecour's brother Hubert, who
+although rather undersized, was quick as lightning, and had an English
+blow and a French kick that were truly terrible. Charles Ducros was
+another whose style of boxing, more in the English fashion, but with low
+kicks about his opponent's shins, made a name for himself. Later came
+Vigneron, a "strong man," whose style, though slow, was severe in its
+punishment. About 1856 the police interfered in these fights, and Lecour
+and Vigneron had to cease giving public exhibitions and devote
+themselves to teaching. Towards 1862 a new boxer, J. Charlemont, was not
+only very clever with his fists and feet, but an excellent teacher, and
+the author of a treatise on the art. Lecour, Vigneron and Charlemont may
+be said to have created _la boxe francaise_, which, for defence _at
+equal weights_, the French claim to be better than the English.
+
+  See _L'Art de la boxe francaise et de la canne_, by J. Charlemont
+  (Paris, 1899); _The French Method of the Noble Art of Self Defence_,
+  by Georges d'Amoric (London, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+BOXWOOD, the wood obtained from the genus _Buxus_, the principal species
+being the well-known tree or shrub, _B. sempervirens_, the common box,
+in general use for borders of garden walks, ornamental parterres, &c.
+The other source of the ordinary boxwood of commerce is _B. balearica_,
+which yields the variety known as Turkey boxwood. The common box is
+grown throughout Great Britain (perhaps native in the chalk-hills of the
+south of England), in the southern part of the European continent
+generally, and extends through Persia into India, where it is found
+growing on the slopes of the western Himalayas. There has been much
+discussion as to whether it is a true native of Britain. Writing more
+than 200 years ago, John Ray, the author of the important _Historia
+Plantarum_, says, "The Box grows wild on Boxhill, hence the name; also
+at Boxwell, on the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and at Boxley in
+Kent.... It grows plentifully on the chalk hills near Dunstable." On the
+other hand the box is not wild in the Channel Islands, and in the north
+of France, Holland and Belgium is found mainly in hedgerows and near
+cultivation, and it may have been one of the many introductions owed to
+the Romans. Only a very small proportion of the wood suitable for
+industrial uses is now obtained in Great Britain. The box is a very
+slow-growing plant, adding not more than 1-1/2 or 2 in. to its diameter
+in twenty years, and on an average attaining only a height of 16 ft.,
+with a mean diameter of 10-1/2 in. The leaves of this species are small,
+oval, leathery in texture and of a deep glossy green colour. _B.
+balearica_ is a tree of considerable size, attaining to a height of 80
+ft., with leaves three times larger than those of the common box. It is
+a native of the islands of the Mediterranean, and grows in Turkey, Asia
+Minor, and around the shores of the Black Sea, and is supposed to be the
+chief source of the boxwood which comes into European commerce by way of
+Constantinople. The wood of both species possesses a delicate yellow
+colour; it is very dense in structure and has a fine uniform grain,
+which has given it unique value for the purposes of the wood-engraver. A
+large amount is used in the manufacture of measuring rules, various
+mathematical instruments, flutes and other musical instruments, as well
+as for turning into many minor articles, and for inlaying, and it is a
+favourite wood for small carvings. The use of boxwood for turnery and
+musical instruments is mentioned by Pliny, Virgil and Ovid.
+
+
+
+
+BOYACA, or Bojaca, an inland department of Colombia, bounded by the
+departments of Santander and Cundinamarca on the N., W. and S., and the
+republic of Venezuela on the E., and having an area of 33,321 sq. m.,
+including the Casanare territory. Pop. (1899, estimate) 508,940. The
+department is very mountainous, heavily forested and rich in minerals.
+The famous Muso emerald mines are located in the western part of Boyaca.
+The capital, Tunja (pop. 1902, 10,000), is situated in the Eastern
+Cordilleras, 9054 ft. above sea-level, and has a cool, temperate
+climate, though only 5-1/2 deg. N. of the equator. It was an important
+place in colonial times, and occupies the site of one of the Indian
+towns of this region (Hunsa), which had acquired a considerable degree
+of civilization before the discovery of America. Other towns of note in
+the department are Chiquinquira (20,000), Moniquira (18,000), Sogamoso
+(10,787), and Boyaca (7000), where on the 7th of August 1819 Bolivar
+defeated the Spanish army and secured the independence of New Granada.
+
+
+
+
+BOYAR (Russ. _boyarin_, plur. _boyare_), a dignity of Old Russia
+conterminous with the history of the country. Originally the boyars were
+the intimate friends and confidential advisers of the Russian prince,
+the superior members of his _druzhina_ or bodyguard, his comrades and
+champions. They were divided into classes according to rank, most
+generally determined by personal merit and service. Thus we hear of the
+"oldest," "elder" and the "younger" boyars. At first the dignity seems
+to have been occasionally, but by no means invariably, hereditary. At a
+later day the boyars were the chief members of the prince's _duma_, or
+council, like the _senatores_ of Poland and Lithuania. Their further
+designation of _luchshie lyudi_ or "the best people" proves that they
+were generally richer than their fellow subjects. So long as the
+princes, in their interminable struggles with the barbarians of the
+Steppe, needed the assistance of the towns, "the best people" of the
+cities and of the _druzhina_ proper mingled freely together both in war
+and commerce; but after Yaroslav's crushing victory over the Petchenegs
+in 1036 beneath the walls of Kiev, the two classes began to draw apart,
+and a political and economical difference between the members of the
+princely _druzhina_ and the aristocracy of the towns becomes
+discernible. The townsmen devote themselves henceforth more exclusively
+to commerce, while the _druzhina_ asserts the privileges of an
+exclusively military caste with a primary claim upon the land. Still
+later, when the courts of the northern grand dukes were established, the
+boyars appear as the first grade of a fullblown court aristocracy with
+the exclusive privilege of possessing land and serfs. Hence their title
+of _dvoryane_ (courtiers), first used in the 12th century. On the other
+hand there was no distinction, as in Germany, between the _Dienst Adel_
+(nobility of service) and the simple _Adel_. The Russian boyardom had no
+corporate or class privileges, (1) because their importance was purely
+local (the dignity of the principality determining the degree of dignity
+of the boyars), (2) because of their inalienable right of transmigration
+from one prince to another at will, which prevented the formation of a
+settled aristocracy, and (3) because birth did not determine but only
+facilitated the attainment of high rank, e.g. the son of a boyar was not
+a boyar born, but could more easily attain to boyardom, if of superior
+personal merit. It was reserved for Peter the Great to transform the
+_boyarstvo_ or boyardom into something more nearly resembling the
+aristocracy of the West.
+
+  See Alexander Markevich, _The History of Rank-priority in the Realm of
+  Muscovy in the 15th-18th Centuries_ (Russ.) (Odessa, 1888); V.
+  Klyuchevsky, _The Boyar Duma of Ancient Russia_ (Russ.) (Moscow,
+  1888).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+BOY-BISHOP, the name given to the "bishop of the boys" (_episcopus
+puerorum_ or _innocentium_, sometimes _episcopus scholariorum_ or
+_chorestarum_), who, according to a custom very wide-spread in the
+middle ages, was chosen in connexion with the festival of Holy
+Innocents. For the origin of the curious authority of the boy-bishop and
+of the rites over which he presided, see FOOLS, FEAST OF. In England the
+boy-bishop was elected on December 6, the feast of St Nicholas, the
+patron of children, and his authority lasted till Holy Innocents' day
+(December 28). The election made, the lad was dressed in full bishop's
+robes with mitre and crozier and, attended by comrades dressed as
+priests, made a circuit of the town blessing the people. At Salisbury
+the boy-bishop seems to have actually had ecclesiastical patronage
+during his episcopate, and could make valid appointments. The boy and
+his colleagues took possession of the cathedral and performed all the
+ceremonies and offices except mass. Originally, it seems, confined to
+the cathedrals, the custom spread to nearly all the parishes. Several
+ecclesiastical councils had attempted to abolish or to restrain the
+abuses of the custom, before it was prohibited by the council of Basel
+in 1431. It was, however, too popular to be easily suppressed. In
+England it was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1542, revived by Mary in 1552
+and finally abolished by Elizabeth. On the continent it survived longest
+in Germany, in the so-called _Gregoriusfest_, said to have been founded
+by Gregory IV. in 828 in honour of St Gregory, the patron of schools. A
+school-boy was elected bishop, duly vested, and, attended by two
+boy-deacons and the town clergy, proceeded to the parish church, where,
+after a hymn in honour of St Gregory had been sung, he preached. At
+Meiningen this custom survived till 1799.
+
+  See Brand, _Pop. Antiquities of Great Britain_ (1905); Gasquet,
+  _Parish Life in Medieval England_ (1906); Du Cange, _Glossarium_
+  (London, 1884), s.v. "Episcopus puerorum."
+
+
+
+
+BOYCE, WILLIAM (1710-1779), English musical composer, the son of a
+cabinet-maker, was born in London on the 7th of February 1710. As a
+chorister in St Paul's he received his early musical education from
+Charles King and Dr Maurice Greene, and he afterwards studied the theory
+of music under Dr Pepusch. In 1734, having become organist of Oxford
+chapel, Vere Street, Cavendish Square, he set Lord Lansdowne's masque of
+_Peleus and Thetis_ to music. In 1736 he left Oxford chapel and was
+appointed organist of St Michael's church, Cornhill, and in the same
+year he became composer to the chapel royal, and wrote the music for
+John Lockman's oratorio _David's Lamentation over Saul and Jonathan_. In
+1737 he was appointed to conduct the meetings of the three choirs of
+Gloucester, Worcester and Hereford. In 1743 was written the serenata
+_Solomon_, in which occurs the favourite song "Softly rise, O southern
+breeze." In 1749 he received the degree of doctor of music from the
+university of Cambridge, as an acknowledgment of the merit of his
+setting of the ode performed at the installation of Henry Pelham, duke
+of Newcastle, as chancellor; and in this year he became organist of
+All-hallows the Great and Less, Thames Street. A musical setting to _The
+Chaplet_, an entertainment by Moses Mendez, was Boyce's most successful
+achievement in this year. In 1750 he wrote songs for Dryden's _Secular
+Masque_ and in 1751 set another piece (_The Shepherd's Lottery_) by
+Mendez. He became master of the king's band in succession to Greene in
+1757, and in 1758 he was appointed principal organist to the chapel
+royal. As an ecclesiastical composer Boyce ranks among the best
+representatives of the English school. His two church services and his
+anthems, of which the best specimens are _By the Waters of Babylon_ and
+_O, Where shall Wisdom be found_, are frequently performed. It should
+also be remembered that he wrote additional accompaniments and choruses
+for Purcell's _Te Deum_ and _Jubilate_, which the earlier musician had
+composed for the St Cecilia's day of 1694. Boyce did this in his
+capacity of conductor at the annual festivals of the Sons of the Clergy
+at St Paul's cathedral, an office which he had taken in succession to
+Greene. His twelve trios for two violins and a bass were long popular.
+One of his most valuable services to musical art was his publication in
+three volumes quarto of a work on _Cathedral Music_. The collection had
+been begun by Greene, but it was mainly the work of Boyce. The first
+volume appeared in 1760 and the last in 1778. On the 7th of February
+1779 Boyce died from an attack of gout. He was buried under the dome of
+St Paul's cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+BOYCOTT, the refusal and incitement to refusal to have commercial or
+social dealings with any one on whom it is wished to bring pressure. As
+merely a form of "sending to Coventry" or (in W.E. Gladstone's phrase)
+"exclusive dealing," boycotting may be, from a legal point of view,
+unassailable, and as such has frequently been justified by its original
+political inventors. But in practice it has usually taken the form of
+what is undoubtedly an illegal conspiracy to injure the person, property
+or business of another by unwarrantably putting pressure on all and
+sundry to withdraw from him their social or business intercourse. The
+word was first used in Ireland, and was derived from the name of Captain
+Charles Cunningham Boycott (1832-1897), agent for the estates of the
+earl of Erne in Co. Mayo. For refusing in 1880 to receive rents at
+figures fixed by the tenants, Captain Boycott had his life threatened,
+his servants compelled to leave him, his fences torn down, his letters
+intercepted and his food supplies interfered with. It took a force of
+900 soldiers to protect the Ulster Orangemen ("Emergency Men") who
+succeeded finally in getting in his crops. He was hooted and mobbed in
+the streets, and hanged and burnt in effigy. The system of boycotting
+was an essential part of the Irish Nationalist "Plan of Campaign," and
+was dealt with under the Crimes Act of 1887. The term soon came into
+common English use, and was speedily adopted by the French, Germans,
+Dutch and Russians. In the United States this method of "persuasion" was
+taken up by the trade unions about 1886, an employer who refused their
+demands being brought to terms by a combination to refuse to buy his
+product or do his work, or to deal with any who did. Various cases have
+occurred in America in which labour organizations have pronounced such a
+boycott against a firm; and its illegal nature has been established in
+the law-courts, notably in the case of the Bucks Stove Company v. The
+American Federation of Labor (1907) in the Supreme Court of the district
+of Columbia, and in a suit against the Hatters' Union (February 1908) in
+the U.S. Supreme Court. A boycott has also been held by the U.S. Supreme
+Court to be a violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust law.
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825-1899), Scottish author and divine,
+was born at Auchinleck manse in Ayrshire on the 3rd of November 1825. He
+studied at King's College, London, and at the Middle Temple, with the
+idea of practising at the English bar. Returning to Scotland, however,
+he entered Glasgow University and there qualified for the Scottish
+ministry, being licensed as a preacher by the presbytery of Ayr. He
+served in succession the parishes of Newton-on-Ayr, Kirkpatrick-Irongray
+near Dumfries, St Bernard's, Edinburgh, and finally, in 1865, became
+minister of the first charge at St Andrews. Here he advocated an
+improved ritual in the Scottish church, his action resulting in the
+appointment by the general assembly of a committee, with Boyd as
+convener, to prepare a new hymnal. In 1890 he was appointed moderator of
+the general assembly, and fulfilled the duties of the position with
+admirable dignity and tact. He died at Bournemouth on the 1st of March
+1899. Dr Boyd was a very famous preacher and talker, and his desultory
+essays have very much of the charm of his conversation. Among his
+numerous publications may be specially mentioned the two works (each in
+three series), _Recreations of a Country Parson_ (1859, 1861 and 1878),
+and _Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson_ (1862-1865 and 1875); he also
+wrote _Twenty-five Years at St Andrews_ (1892), and _St Andrews and
+Elsewhere_ (1894). He was familiarly known to the public as a writer by
+his initials "A.K.H.B."
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d.c. 1470), Scottish statesman, was a son of
+Sir Thomas Boyd (d. 1439), and belonged to an old and distinguished
+family, one member of which, Sir Robert Boyd, had fought with Wallace
+and Robert Bruce. Boyd, who was created a peer about 1454, was one of
+the regents of Scotland during the minority of James III., but, in 1466,
+with some associates he secured the person of the young king and was
+appointed his sole governor. As ruler of Scotland he was instrumental in
+reforming some religious foundations; he arranged the marriage between
+James III. and Margaret, daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and
+Norway, and secured the cession of the Orkney Islands by Norway.
+However, when in 1467 he obtained the offices of chamberlain and
+justiciary for himself, and the hand of the king's sister Mary, with the
+title of earl of Arran for his eldest son Thomas, his enemies became too
+strong for him, and he was found guilty of treason and sentenced to
+death. He escaped to England, and the date of his death is unknown. His
+brother and assistant, Sir Alexander Boyd, was beheaded on the 22nd of
+November 1469.
+
+Boyd's son Thomas, earl of Arran, was in Denmark when his father was
+overthrown. However, he fulfilled his mission, that of bringing the
+king's bride, Margaret, to Scotland, and then, warned by his wife,
+escaped to the continent of Europe. He is mentioned very eulogistically
+in one of the Paston Letters, but practically nothing is known of his
+subsequent history.
+
+Lord Boyd's grandson Robert (d. c. 1550), a son of Alexander Boyd, was
+confirmed in the possession of the estates and honours of his
+grandfather in 1549, and is generally regarded as the 3rd Lord Boyd. His
+son Robert, 4th Lord Boyd (d. 1590), took a prominent part in Scottish
+politics during the troubled time which followed the death of James V.
+in 1542. At first he favoured the reformed religion, but afterwards his
+views changed and he became one of the most trusted advisers of Mary,
+queen of Scots, whom he accompanied to the battle of Langside in 1568.
+During the queen's captivity he was often employed on diplomatic
+errands; he tried to stir up insurrections in her favour, and he was
+suspected of participation in the murder of the regent Murray. He
+enjoyed a high and influential position under the regent James Douglas,
+earl of Morton, but was banished in 1583 for his share in the seizure of
+King James VI., a plot known as the Raid of Ruthven. He retired to
+France, but was soon allowed to return to Scotland. He died on the 3rd
+of January 1590.
+
+William, 8th or 9th Lord Boyd (d. 1692), was created earl of Kilmarnock
+in 1661, and this nobleman's grandson William, the 3rd earl (d. 1717),
+was a partisan of the Hanoverian kings and fought for George I. during
+the rising of 1715. His son William, the 4th earl (1704-1746), was
+educated in the same principles, but in 1745, owing either to a personal
+affront or to the influence of his wife or to his straitened
+circumstances he deserted George II. and joined Charles Edward, the
+Young Pretender. The 4th earl fought at Falkirk and Culloden, where he
+was made prisoner, and was beheaded on the 18th of August 1746. The
+title of earl of Kilmarnock is now merged in that of earl of Erroll.
+
+
+
+
+BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653), Scottish divine, was educated at the
+universities of Glasgow and St Andrews. He was for many years a teacher
+in the Protestant college of Saumur in France, but returned to Scotland
+in 1621, to escape the Huguenot persecution. In 1623 he was appointed
+minister of the Barony church in Glasgow, and he was rector of the
+university in 1634, 1635 and 1645. He bequeathed to the university the
+half of his fortune, a sum amounting to L20,000 Scots, besides his
+library and twelve volumes of MSS. His poetical compositions, though
+often eccentric, have some merit. The common statement that he made the
+printing of his metrical version of the Gospels and other Biblical
+narratives a condition of the reception of his grant to the university
+is a mistake. In later years he was a staunch Covenanter, and though for
+a time opposed to Oliver Cromwell, afterwards became friendly with him.
+His best-known works are _The Battel of the Soul in Death_ (1629), of
+which a new edition, with a biography by G. Neil, was published in
+Glasgow in 1831; _Zion's Flowers_--often called "Boyd's Bible" (1644);
+_Four Letters of Comfort_ (1640, reprinted, Edinburgh, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+BOYDELL, JOHN (1719-1804), English alderman and publisher, was born at
+Dorrington, and at the age of twenty-one came to London and was
+apprenticed for seven years to an engraver. In 1746 he published a
+volume of views in England and Wales, and started in business as a
+print-seller. By his good taste and liberality he managed to secure the
+services of the best artists, and his engravings were executed with such
+skill that his business became extensive and lucrative. He succeeded in
+his plan of a Shakespeare gallery, and obtained the assistance of the
+most eminent painters of the day, whose contributions were exhibited
+publicly for many years. The engravings from these paintings form a
+splendid companion volume to his large illustrated edition of
+Shakespeare's works. Towards the close of his life Boydell sustained
+severe losses through the French Revolution, and was compelled to
+dispose of his Shakespeare gallery by lottery. Boydell had previously
+become an alderman, and rose to be lord mayor of London.
+
+
+
+
+BOYER, ALEXIS (1757-1833), French surgeon, was born on the 1st of March
+1757 at Uzerches (Correze). The son of a tailor, he obtained his first
+medical knowledge in the shop of a barber-surgeon. Removing to Paris he
+had the good fortune to attract the notice of Antoine Louis (1723-1792)
+and P.J. Desault (1744-1795); and his perseverance, anatomical skill
+and dexterity as an operator, became so conspicuous, that at the age of
+thirty-seven he obtained the appointment of second surgeon to the Hotel
+Dieu of Paris. On the establishment of the Ecole de Sante he gained the
+chair of operative surgery, but soon exchanged it for the chair of
+clinical surgery. In 1805 Napoleon nominated him imperial family
+surgeon, and, after the brilliant campaigns of 1806-7, conferred on him
+the legion of honour, with the title of baron of the empire and a salary
+of 25,000 francs. On the fall of Napoleon the merits of Boyer secured
+him the favour of the succeeding sovereigns of France, and he was
+consulting surgeon to Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In
+1825 he succeeded J.F.L. Deschamps (1740-1824) as surgeon-in-chief to
+the Hopital de la Charite, and was chosen a member of the Institute. He
+died in Paris on the 23rd of November 1833. Perhaps no French surgeon of
+his time thought or wrote with greater clearness and good sense than
+Boyer; and while his natural modesty made him distrustful of innovation,
+and somewhat tenacious of established modes of treatment, he was as
+judicious in his diagnosis and as cool and skilful in manipulating, as
+he was cautious in forming his judgment on individual cases. His two
+great works are:--_Traite complet de l'anatomie_ (in 4 vols.,
+1797-1799), of which a fourth edition appeared in 1815, and _Traite des
+maladies chirurgicales et des operations qui leur conviennent_ (in 11
+vols., 1814-1826), of which a new edition in 7 vols. was published in
+1844-1853, with additions by his son, Philippe Boyer (1801-1858).
+
+
+
+
+BOYER, JEAN PIERRE (1776-1850), president of the republic of Haiti, a
+mulatto, was born at Port-au-Prince on the 28th of February 1776. He
+received a good education in France, and, returning to St Domingo,
+joined the army in 1792. In 1794 he was already in command of a
+battalion, and fought with distinction under General Rigaud against the
+English. The negro insurrection under Toussaint l'Ouverture, which was
+directed against the mulattoes as well as the whites, ultimately forced
+him to take refuge in France. He was well received by Napoleon, and in
+1802 obtained a commission in Leclerc's expedition. Being opposed to the
+reinstitution of slavery, he turned against the French and succeeded in
+producing an alliance between the negroes and mulattoes by which they
+were driven from the island. Dessalines, a negro, was proclaimed king,
+but his cruelty and despotism were such that Boyer combined with A.A.S.
+Petion and General Christophe to overthrow him (1806). Christophe now
+seized the supreme power, but Petion set up an independent republic in
+the southern part of the island, with Boyer as commander-in-chief.
+Christophe's efforts to crush this state were defeated by Boyer's
+gallant defence of Port-au-Prince, and a series of brilliant victories,
+which, on Petion's death in 1818, led to Boyer's election as president.
+Two years later the death of Christophe removed his only rival, and he
+gained almost undisputed possession of the whole island. During his
+presidency Boyer did much to set the finances and the administration in
+order, and to encourage the arts and sciences, and in 1825 obtained
+French recognition of the independence of Haiti, in return for a payment
+of 150,000 francs. The weight of this debt excited the greatest
+discontent in Haiti. Boyer was able to carry on his government for some
+years longer, but in March 1843 a violent insurrection overthrew his
+power and compelled him to take refuge in Jamaica. He resided there till
+1848, when he removed to Paris, where he died in 1850.
+
+  See Wallez, _Precis historique des negociations entre la France et
+  Saint-Domingue, avec une notice biographique sur le general Boyer_
+  (Paris, 1826).
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, JOHN J. (1851- ), American sculptor, was born in New York City.
+He studied in the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and
+in the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris. He is particularly successful in the
+portrayal of Indians. Among his principal works are: "Stone Age,"
+Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; "The Alarm," Lincoln Park, Chicago; and, a
+third study in primitive culture, the two groups, "The Savage Age" at
+the Pan-American Exposition of 1901. His work also includes the seated
+"Franklin," in Philadelphia; and "Bacon" and "Plato" in the
+Congressional library, Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691), English natural philosopher, seventh son and
+fourteenth child of Richard Boyle, the great earl of Cork, was born at
+Lismore Castle, in the province of Munster, Ireland, on the 25th of
+January 1627. While still a child he learned to speak Latin and French,
+and he was only eight years old when he was sent to Eton, of which his
+father's friend, Sir Henry Wotton, was then provost. After spending over
+three years at the college, he went to travel abroad with a French
+tutor. Nearly two years were passed in Geneva; visiting Italy in 1641,
+he remained during the winter of that year in Florence, studying the
+"paradoxes of the great star-gazer" Galileo, who died within a league of
+the city early in 1642. Returning to England in 1644 he found that his
+father was dead and had left him the manor of Stalbridge in Dorsetshire,
+together with estates in Ireland. From that time he gave up his life to
+study and scientific research, and soon took a prominent place in the
+band of inquirers, known as the "Invisible College," who devoted
+themselves to the cultivation of the "new philosophy." They met
+frequently in London, often at Gresham College; some of the members also
+had meetings at Oxford, and in that city Boyle went to reside in 1654.
+Reading in 1657 of Otto von Guericke's air-pump, he set himself with the
+assistance of Robert Hooke to devise improvements in its construction,
+and with the result, the "machina Boyleana" or "Pneumatical Engine,"
+finished in 1659, he began a series of experiments on the properties of
+air. An account of the work he did with this instrument was published in
+1660 under the title _New Experiments Physico-Mechanical touching the
+spring of air and its effects_. Among the critics of the views put
+forward in this book was a Jesuit, Franciscus Linus (1595-1675), and it
+was while answering his objections that Boyle enunciated the law that
+the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure, which among
+English-speaking peoples is usually called after his name, though on the
+continent of Europe it is attributed to E. Mariotte, who did not publish
+it till 1676. In 1663 the "Invisible College" became the "Royal Society
+of London for improving natural knowledge," and the charter of
+incorporation granted by Charles II. named Boyle a member of the
+council. In 1680 he was elected president of the society, but declined
+the honour from a scruple about oaths. In 1668 he left Oxford for London
+where he resided at the house of his sister, Lady Ranelagh, in Pall
+Mall. About 1689 his health, never very strong, began to fail seriously
+and he gradually withdrew from his public engagements, ceasing his
+communications to the Royal Society, and advertising his desire to be
+excused from receiving guests, "unless upon occasions very
+extraordinary," on Tuesday and Friday forenoon, and Wednesday and
+Saturday afternoon. In the leisure thus gained he wished to "recruit his
+spirits, range his papers," and prepare some important chemical
+investigations which he proposed to leave "as a kind of Hermetic legacy
+to the studious disciples of that art," but of which he did not make
+known the nature. His health became still worse in 1691, and his death
+occurred on the 30th of December of that year, just a week after that of
+the sister with whom he had lived for more than twenty years. He was
+buried in the churchyard of St Martin's in the Fields, his funeral
+sermon being preached by his friend Bishop Burnet.
+
+Boyle's great merit as a scientific investigator is that he carried out
+the principles which Bacon preached in the _Novum Organum_. Yet he would
+not avow himself a follower of Bacon or indeed of any other teacher: on
+several occasions he mentions that in order to keep his judgment as
+unprepossessed as might be with any of the modern theories of
+philosophy, till he was "provided of experiments" to help him judge of
+them, he refrained from any study of the Atomical and the Cartesian
+systems, and even of the _Novum Organum_ itself, though he admits to
+"transiently consulting" them about a few particulars. Nothing was more
+alien to his mental temperament than the spinning of hypotheses. He
+regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an end in itself, and in
+consequence he gained a wider outlook on the aims of scientific inquiry
+than had been enjoyed by his predecessors for many centuries. This,
+however, did not mean that he paid no attention to the practical
+application of science nor that he despised knowledge which tended to
+use. He himself was an alchemist; and believing the transmutation of
+metals to be a possibility, he carried out experiments in the hope of
+effecting it; and he was instrumental in obtaining the repeal, in 1689,
+of the statute of Henry IV. against multiplying gold and silver. With
+all the important work he accomplished in physics--the enunciation of
+Boyle's law, the discovery of the part taken by air in the propagation
+of sound, and investigations on the expansive force of freezing water,
+on specific gravities and refractive powers, on crystals, on
+electricity, on colour, on hydrostatics, &c.--chemistry was his peculiar
+and favourite study. His first book on the subject was _The Sceptical
+Chemist_, published in 1661, in which he criticized the "experiments
+whereby vulgar Spagyrists are wont to endeavour to evince their Salt,
+Sulphur and Mercury to be the true Principles of Things." For him
+chemistry was the science of the composition of substances, not merely
+an adjunct to the arts of the alchemist or the physician. He advanced
+towards the modern view of elements as the undecomposable constituents
+of material bodies; and understanding the distinction between mixtures
+and compounds, he made considerable progress in the technique of
+detecting their ingredients, a process which he designated by the term
+"analysis." He further supposed that the elements were ultimately
+composed of particles of various sorts and sizes, into which, however,
+they were not to be resolved in any known way. Applied chemistry had to
+thank him for improved methods and for an extended knowledge of
+individual substances. He also studied the chemistry of combustion and
+of respiration, and made experiments in physiology, where, however, he
+was hampered by the "tenderness of his nature" which kept him from
+anatomical dissections, especially of living animals, though he knew
+them to be "most instructing."
+
+Besides being a busy natural philosopher, Boyle devoted much time to
+theology, showing a very decided leaning to the practical side and an
+indifference to controversial polemics. At the Restoration he was
+favourably received at court, and in 1665 would have received the
+provostship of Eton, if he would have taken orders; but this he refused
+to do, on the ground that his writings on religious subjects would have
+greater weight coming from a layman than a paid minister of the Church.
+He spent large sums in promoting the spread of Christianity,
+contributing liberally to missionary societies, and to the expenses of
+translating the Bible or portions of it into various languages. By his
+will he founded the Boyle lectures, for proving the Christian religion
+against "notorious infidels, viz. atheists, theists, pagans, Jews and
+Mahommedans," with the proviso that controversies between Christians
+were not to be mentioned.
+
+In person Boyle was tall, slender and of a pale countenance. His
+constitution was far from robust, and throughout his life he suffered
+from feeble health and low spirits. While his scientific work procured
+him an extraordinary reputation among his contemporaries, his private
+character and virtues, the charm of his social manners, his wit and
+powers of conversation, endeared him to a large circle of personal
+friends. He was never married. His writings are exceedingly voluminous,
+and his style is clear and straightforward, though undeniably prolix.
+
+  The following are the more important of his works in addition to the
+  two already mentioned:--_Considerations touching the Usefulness of
+  Experimental Natural Philosophy_ (1663), followed by a second part in
+  1671; _Experiments and Considerations upon Colours, with Observations
+  on a Diamond that Shines in the Dark_ (1663); _New Experiments and
+  Observations upon Cold_ (1665); _Hydrostatical Paradoxes_ (1666);
+  _Origin of Forms and Qualities according to the Corpuscular
+  Philosophy_ (1666); a continuation of his work on the spring of air
+  (1669); tracts about the _Cosmical Qualities of Things_, the
+  _Temperature of the Subterraneal and Submarine Regions_, the _Bottom
+  of the Sea_, &c. with an _Introduction to the History of Particular
+  Qualities_ (1670); _Origin and Virtues of Gems_ (1672); _Essays of the
+  strange Subtilty, great Efficacy, determinate Nature of Effluviums_
+  (1673); two volumes of tracts on the _Saltness of the Sea_, the
+  _Hidden Qualities of the Air, Cold, Celestial Magnets, Animadversions
+  on Hobbes's_ Problemata de Vacuo (1674); _Experiments and Notes about
+  the Mechanical Origin or Production of Particular Qualities_,
+  including some notes on electricity and magnetism (1676);
+  _Observations upon an artificial Substance that Shines without any
+  Preceding Illustration_ (1678); the _Aerial Noctiluca_ (1680); _New
+  Experiments and Observations upon the Icy Noctiluca_ (1682); a further
+  continuation of his work on the air; _Memoirs for the Natural History
+  of the Human Blood_ (1684); _Short Memoirs for the Natural
+  Experimental History of Mineral Waters_ (1685); _Medicina
+  Hydrostatica_ (1690); and _Experimenta et Observiationes Physicae_
+  (1691). Among his religious and philosophical writings
+  were:--_Seraphic Love_, written in 1648, but not published till 1660;
+  an _Essay upon the Style of the Holy Scriptures_ (1663); _Occasional
+  Reflections upon Several Subjects_ (1665), which was ridiculed by
+  Swift in _A Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick_, and by Butler in _An
+  Occasional Reflection on Dr Charlton's Feeling a Dog's Pulse at
+  Cresham College_; _Excellence of Theology compared with Natural
+  Philosophy_ (1664); _Some Considerations about the Reconcileableness
+  of Reason and Religion_, with a _Discourse about the Possibility of
+  the Resurrection_ (1675); _Discourse of Things above Reason_ (1681);
+  _High Veneration Man owes to God_ (1685); _A Free Inquiry into the
+  vulgarly received Notion of Nature_ (1686); and the _Christian
+  Virtuoso_ (1690). Several other works appeared after his death, among
+  them _The General History of the Air designed and begun_ (1692); a
+  "collection of choice remedies," _Medicinal Experiments_ (1692-1698);
+  and _A Free Discourse against Customary Swearing_ (1695). An
+  incomplete and unauthorized edition of Boyle's works was published at
+  Geneva in 1677, but the first complete edition was that of Thomas
+  Birch, with a life, published in 1744, in five folio volumes, a second
+  edition appearing in 1772 in six volumes, 4to. Boyle bequeathed his
+  natural history collections to the Royal Society, which also possesses
+  a portrait of him by the German painter, Friedrich Kerseboom
+  (1632-1690).
+
+
+
+
+BOYLE, a market town of Co. Roscommon, Ireland, in the north
+parliamentary division, on the Sligo line of the Midland Great Western
+railway, 106-1/4 m. N.W. by W. from Dublin and 28 m. S. by E. from Sligo.
+Pop. (1901) 2477. It is beautifully situated on both banks of the river
+Boyle, an affluent of the Shannon, between Loughs Gara and Key. Three
+bridges connect the two parts of the town. There is considerable trade
+in agricultural produce. To the north of the town stand the extensive
+ruins of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1161, including remains of a
+cruciform church, with a fine west front, and Norman and Transitional
+arcades with carving of very beautiful detail. The offices of the
+monastery are well preserved, and an interesting feature is seen in the
+names carved on the door of the lodge, attributed in Cromwell's soldier,
+who occupied the buildings. Neighbouring antiquities are Asselyn church
+near Lough Key, and a large cromlech by the road towards Lough Gara.
+Boyle was incorporated by James I., and returned two members to the
+Irish parliament.
+
+
+
+
+BOYNE, a river of Ireland, which, rising in the Bog of Allen, near
+Carbery in Co. Kildare, and flowing in a north-easterly direction,
+passes Trim, Navan and Drogheda, and enters the Irish Sea, 4 m. below
+the town last named. It is navigable for barges to Navan, 19 m. from its
+mouth. Much of the scenery on its banks is beautiful, though never
+grand. About 2 m. west of Drogheda, an obelisk, 150 ft. in height, marks
+the spot where the forces of William III. gained a celebrated victory
+over those of James II., on the 1st of July[1] 1690, known as the battle
+of the Boyne.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This was the "old style" date, which in the new style (see
+    CALENDAR) would be July 11th (not 12th, as Lecky says, _Hist, of
+    Ireland_, iii. p. 427). The 12th of July is annually celebrated by
+    the Orangemen in the north of Ireland as the anniversary, but this is
+    a confusion between the supposed new style for July 1st and the old
+    style date of the battle of Aughrim, July 12th; the intention being
+    to commemorate both.
+
+
+
+
+BOYS' BRIGADE, an organization founded in Glasgow by Mr (afterwards Sir)
+W.A. Smith in 1883 to develop Christian manliness by the use of a
+semi-military discipline and order, gymnastics, summer camps and
+religious services and classes. There are about 2200 companies connected
+with different churches throughout the United Kingdom, the British
+empire and the United States, with 10,000 officers and 100,000 boys. A
+similar organization, confined to the Anglican communion, is the Church
+Lads' Brigade. Boys' and girls' life brigades are a more recent
+movement; they teach young people how to save life from fire and from
+water, and hold classes in hygiene, ambulance and elementary nursing.
+
+
+
+
+BOZDAR, a Baluch tribe of Rind (Arab) extraction, usually associated
+with the mountain districts of the frontier near Dera Ghazi Khan. They
+are also to be found in Zhob, Thal-Chotiali and Las Bela, whilst the
+majority of the population are said to live in the Punjab. They are
+usually graziers, and the name Bozdar is probably derived from Buz, the
+Persian name for goat. Within the limits of their mountain home on the
+outer spurs of the Suliman hills they have always been a turbulent race,
+mustering about 2700 fighting men, and they were formerly constantly at
+feud with the neighbouring Ustarana and Sherani tribes. In 1857 their
+raids into the Punjab drew upon them an expedition under
+Brigadier-General Sir N.B. Chamberlain. The Sangarh pass was captured
+and the Bozdars submitted. Since Baluchistan has been taken over they
+have given but little trouble.
+
+
+
+
+BOZRAH. (1) A capital of Edom (Gen. xxxvi. 33; Amos i. 12; Is. xxxiv. 6,
+lxiii. 1), doubtfully identified with _el-Buseireh_, S.E. of the Dead
+Sea, in the broken country N. of Petra; the ruins here are comparatively
+unimportant. It is the centre of a pastoral district, and its
+inhabitants, who number between 100 and 200, are all shepherds. (2) A
+city in the _Mishor_ or plain country of Moab, denounced by Jeremiah
+(xlviii. 24). It has been identified (also questionably) with a very
+extensive collection of ruins of various ages, now called Bosra (the
+Roman _Bostra_), situated in the Hauran, about 80 m. south of Damascus.
+The area within the walls is about 1-1/4 m. in length, and nearly 1 m.
+in breadth, while extensive suburbs lie to the east, north and west. The
+principal buildings which can still be distinguished are a temple, an
+aqueduct, a large theatre (enclosed by a castle of much more recent
+workmanship), several baths, a triumphal and other arches, three
+mosques, and what are known as the church and convent of the monk
+Boheira. In A.D. 106 the city was beautified and perhaps restored from
+ruin by Trajan, who made it the capital of the new province of Arabia.
+In the reign of Alexander Severus it was made a colony, and in 244, a
+native of the place, Philippus, ascended the imperial throne. By the
+time of Constantine the Great it seems to have been Christianized, and
+not long after it was the seat of an extensive bishopric. It was one of
+the first cities of Syria to be subjected to the Mahommedans, and it
+successfully resisted all the attempts of the Crusaders to wrest it from
+their hands. As late as the 14th century it was a populous city, after
+which it gradually fell into decay. It is now inhabited by thirty or
+forty families only. Another suggested identification is with Kusur
+el-Besheir, equidistant (2 m.) from Dibon and Aroer. This is perhaps the
+same as the Bezer mentioned in Deuteronomy and Joshua as a levitical
+city and a city of refuge.
+
+In 1 Macc. v. 26 there is mention of Bosor and of Bosora. The latter is
+probably to be identified with Bosra, the former perhaps with the
+present Busr el-Hariri in the south-east corner of the Leja.
+     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, a duchy which existed from 1190 to 1430, when it was united
+with the duchy of Burgundy, the name being derived from Brabo, a
+semi-mythical Frankish chief.
+
+The history of Brabant is connected with that of the duchy of Lower
+Lorraine (q.v.), which became in the course of the 11th century split up
+into a number of small feudal states. The counts of Hainaut, Namur,
+Luxemburg and Limburg asserted their independence, and the territory of
+Liege passed to the bishops of that city. The remnant of the duchy,
+united since 1100 with the margraviate of Antwerp, was conferred in 1106
+by the emperor Henry V., with the title of duke of Lower Lorraine, upon
+Godfrey (Godefroid) I., "the Bearded," count of Louvain and Brussels.
+His title was disputed by Count Henry of Limburg, and for three
+generations the representatives of the rival houses contested the
+possession of the ducal dignity in Lower Lorraine. The issue was decided
+in favour of the house of Louvain by Duke Godfrey III. in 1159. His son,
+Henry I., "the Warrior" (1183-1235), abandoned the title of duke of
+Lower Lorraine and assumed in 1190 that of duke of Brabant. His
+successors were Henry II., "the Magnanimous" (1235-1248), Henry III.,
+"le Debonnair" (1248-1261), and John I., "the Victorious" (1261-1294).
+These were all able rulers. Their usual place of residence was Louvain.
+John I., in 1283 bought the duchy of Limburg from Adolf of Berg, and
+secured his acquisition by defeating and slaying his competitor, Henry
+of Luxemburg, at the battle of Woeringen (June 5, 1288). His own son,
+John II., "the Pacific" (1294-1312), bestowed liberties upon his
+subjects by the charter of Cortenberg. This charter laid the foundation
+of Brabantine freedom. By it the imposition of grants (_beden_) and
+taxes was strictly limited and regulated, and its execution was
+entrusted to a council appointed by the duke for life (four nobles, ten
+burghers) whose duty it was to consider all complaints and to see that
+the conditions laid down by the charter concerning the administration of
+justice and finance were not infringed. He was succeeded by his son,
+John III., "the Triumphant" (1312-1355), who succeeded in maintaining
+his position in spite of formidable risings in Louvain and Brussels,
+and a league formed against him by his princely neighbours, but he had
+a hard struggle to face, and many ups and downs of fortune. He it was to
+whom Brabant owed the great charter of its liberties, called _La joyeuse
+entree_, because it was granted on the occasion of the marriage of his
+daughter Johanna (Jeanne) with Wenzel (Wenceslaus) of Luxemburg, and was
+proclaimed on their state entry into Brussels (1356).
+
+Henry, the only legitimate son of John III., having died in 1349, the
+ducal dignity passed to his daughter and heiress, the above-named
+Johanna (d. 1406). She had married in first wedlock William IV., count
+of Holland (d. 1345). Wenzel of Luxemburg, her second husband, assumed
+in right of his wife, and by the sanction of the charter _La joyeuse
+entree_, the style of duke of Brabant. Johanna's title was, however,
+disputed by Louis II., count of Flanders (d. 1384), who had married her
+sister Margaret. The question had been compromised by the cession to
+Margaret in 1347 of the margraviate of Antwerp by John III., but a war
+broke out in 1356 between Wenzel supported by the gilds, and Louis, who
+upheld the burgher-patrician party in the Brabant cities. The democratic
+leaders were Everhard Tserclaes at Brussels and Peter Coutercel at
+Louvain. In the course of a stormy reign Wenzel was taken prisoner in
+1371 by the duke of Gelderland, and had to be ransomed by his subjects.
+After his death (1383) his widow continued to rule over the two duchies
+for eighteen years, but was obliged to rely on the support of the house
+of Burgundy in her contests with the turbulent city gilds and with her
+neighbours, the dukes of Julich and Gelderland. In 1390 she revoked the
+deed which secured the succession to Brabant to the house of Luxemburg,
+and appointed her niece, Margaret of Flanders (d. 1405), daughter of
+Louis II. and Margaret of Brabant (see FLANDERS), and her husband,
+Philip the Bold of Burgundy, her heirs. Margaret of Flanders had married
+(1) Philip I. de Rouvre of Burgundy (d. 1361) and (2) Philip II., the
+Bold, (d. 1404), son of John II., king of France (see BURGUNDY). Of her
+three sons by her second marriage John succeeded to Burgundy, and
+Anthony to Brabant on the death of Johanna in 1406. Anthony was killed
+at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and was succeeded by his eldest son
+by Jeanne of Luxemburg St Pol, John IV. (d. 1427). He is chiefly
+memorable for the excitement caused by his divorce from his wife Jacoba
+(q.v.), countess of Holland. John IV. left no issue, and the succession
+passed to his brother Philip I., who also died without issue in 1430.
+
+On the extinction of the line of Anthony the duchy of Brabant became the
+inheritance of the elder branch of the house of Burgundy, in the person
+of Philip III., "the Good," of Burgundy, II. of Brabant, son of John.
+His grand-daughter Mary (d. 1482), daughter and heiress of Charles I.,
+"the Bold," (d. 1477) married the archduke Maximilian of Austria
+(afterwards emperor) and so brought Brabant with the other Burgundian
+possessions to the house of Habsburg. The chief city of Brabant,
+Brussels, became under the Habsburg regime the residence of the court
+and the capital of the Netherlands. In the person of the emperor Charles
+V. the destinies of Brabant and the other Netherland states were linked
+with those of the Spanish monarchy. The attempt of Philip II. of Spain
+to impose despotic rule upon the Netherlands led to the outbreak of the
+Netherland revolt, 1568 (see NETHERLANDS).
+
+In the course of the eighty years' war of independence the province of
+Brabant became separated into two portions. In the southern and larger
+part Spanish rule was maintained, and Brussels continued to be the seat
+of government. The northern (smaller) part was conquered by the Dutch
+under Maurice and Frederick Henry of Orange. The latter captured 's
+Hertogenbosch (1629), Maastricht (1632) and Breda (1637). At the peace
+of Munster this portion, which now forms the Dutch province of North
+Brabant, was ceded by Philip IV. to the United Provinces and was known
+as Generality Land, and placed under the direct government of the
+states-general. The southern portion, now divided into the provinces of
+Antwerp and South Brabant, remained under the rule of the Spanish
+Habsburgs until the death of Charles II., the last of his race in 1700.
+After the War of the Spanish Succession the southern Netherlands passed
+by the treaty of Utrecht (1713) to the Austrian branch of the Habsburgs.
+During the whole period of Austrian rule the province of Brabant
+succeeded in maintaining, to a very large extent unimpaired, the
+immunities and privileges to which it was entitled under the provisions
+of its ancient charter of liberty, the Joyous Entry. An ill-judged
+attempt by the emperor Joseph II., in his zeal for reform, to infringe
+these inherited rights stirred up the people under the leadership of
+Henry van der Noot to armed resistance in the Brabancon revolt of
+1789-1790.
+
+Since the French conquest of 1794 the history of Brabant is merged in
+that of Belgium (q.v.). The revolt against Dutch rule in 1830 broke out
+at Brussels and was in its initial stages largely a Brabancon movement.
+The important part played by Brabant at this crisis of the history of
+the southern Netherlands was marked in 1831 by the adoption of the
+ancient Brabancon colours to form the national flag, and of the lion of
+Brabant as the armorial bearings of Belgium. The title of duke of
+Brabant has been revived as the style of the eldest son of the king of
+the Belgians.     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, the central and metropolitan province of Belgium, is formed out
+of part of the ancient duchy. From 1815 to 1830, that is to say, during
+the existence of the kingdom of the Netherlands, Belgian Brabant was
+distinguished from Dutch by the employment of the geographical terms
+South and North. The surface of Brabant is undulating, and the highest
+points, some 400 ft. in altitude, are to be found at and near Mont St
+Jean. The province is well cultivated, and the people are well known for
+their industry. There are valuable stone quarries, and many manufactures
+flourish in the smaller towns, such as Ottignies, as well as in the
+larger cities of Brussels and Louvain. Brabant contains 820,740 acres or
+1268 sq. m. Its principal towns are Brussels, Louvain, Nivelles, Hal,
+Ottignies, and its three administrative divisions are named after the
+first three of those towns. They are subdivided into 50 cantons and 344
+communes. In 1904 the population of the province was 1,366,389 or a
+proportion of 1077 per sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+BRABANT, NORTH, the largest province in Holland, bounded S. by Belgium,
+W. and N.W. by the Scheldt, the Eendracht, the Volkerak and the
+Hollandsch Diep, which separate it from Zealand and South Holland, N.
+and N. E. by the Merwede and Maas, which separate it from South Holland
+and Gelderland, and E. by the province of Limburg. It has an area of 231
+sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 553,842. The surface of the province is a
+gentle slope from the south-east (where it ranges between 80 and 160 ft.
+in height) towards the north and north-west, and the soil is composed of
+diluvial sand, here and there mixed with gravel, but giving place to
+sea-clay along the western boundary and river-clay along the banks of
+the Maas and smaller rivers. The watershed is formed by the
+north-eastern edge of the Belgian plateau of Campine, and follows a
+curved line drawn through Bergen-op-Zoom, Turnhout and Maastricht. The
+landscape consists for the most part of waste stretches of heath,
+occasionally slightly overlaid with high fen. Between the valleys of the
+Aa and the Maas lies the long stretch of heavy high-fen called the Peel
+("marshy land"). Deurne, a few miles east of Helmond, the site of a
+prehistoric burial-ground, was an early fen colony. The work of
+reclamation was removed farther eastwards to Helenaveen in the second
+half of the 19th century. Agriculture (potatoes, buckwheat, rye) is the
+main industry, generally combined with cattle-raising. On the clay lands
+wheat and barley are the principal products, and in the western corner
+of the province beetroot is largely cultivated for the beet sugar
+industry, factories being found at Bergen-op-Zoom, Steenbergen and
+Oudenbosch. There is a special cultivation of hops in the district
+north-west of 's Hertogenbosch. The large majority of the population is
+Roman Catholic. The earliest development of towns and villages took
+place along the river Maas and its tributaries, and the fortified Roman
+camps which were the origin of many such afterwards developed in the
+hands of feudal lords. The chief town of the province, 's Hertogenbosch,
+may be cited as an interesting historical example. Geertruidenberg,
+Heusden, Ravestein and Grave are all similarly situated. Breda is the
+next town in importance to the capital. Bergen-op-Zoom had originally a
+more maritime importance. Rozendaal, Eindhoven and Bokstel (or Boxtel)
+are important railway junctions. Bokstel was formerly the seat of an
+independent barony which came into the possession of Philip the Good in
+1439. The castle was restored in modern times. The precarious position
+of the province on the borders of the country doubtless militated
+against an earlier industrial development, but since the separation from
+Belgium and the construction of roads, railways and canals there has
+been a general improvement, Tilburg, Eindhoven and Helmond all having
+risen into prominence in modern times as industrial centres.
+Leather-tanning and shoe-making are especially associated with the
+district called Langstraat, which is situated between Geertruidenberg
+and 's Hertogenbosch, and consists of a series of industrial villages
+along the course of the Old Maas.
+
+
+
+
+BRACCIANO, a town in the province of Rome, Italy, 25 m. N.W. of Rome by
+rail, situated on the S.W. shore of the Lake of Bracciano, 915 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3987. It is chiefly remarkable for its fine
+castle (built by the Orsini in 1460, and since 1696 the property of the
+Odescalchi) which has preserved its medieval character. The beautiful
+lake is the ancient _Lacus Sabatinus_, supposed to derive its name from
+an Etruscan city of the name of Sabate, which is wrongly thought to be
+mentioned in the Itineraries; the reference is really to the lake
+itself, which bore this name and gave it to one of the Roman tribes, the
+_tribus Sabatina_, founded in 387 B.C. (O. Cuntz in _Jahreshefte des
+Osterr. Arch. Instituts_, ii., 1899, 85). It is 22 sq. m. in area, 538
+ft. above sea-level, and 530 ft. deep; it is almost circular, but is
+held to be, not an extinct crater, but the result of a volcanic
+subsidence. The tufa deposits which radiate from it extend as far as
+Rome; various small craters surround it, while the existence of warm
+springs in the district (especially those of Vicarello, probably the
+ancient _Aquae Apollinares_) may also be noted. Many remains of ancient
+villas may be seen round the lake: above its west bank is the station of
+Forum Clodii, and on its north shore the village of Trevignano, which
+retains traces of the fortifications of an ancient town of unknown name.
+About half-a-mile east of it was a post station called Ad Novas. The
+site of Anguillara, on the south shore, was occupied by a Roman villa.
+The water of the lake partly supplies the Acqua Paola, a restoration by
+Paul V. of the Aqua Traiana.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+BRACCIOLINI, FRANCESCO (1566-1645), Italian poet, was born at Pistoia,
+of a noble family, in 1566. On his removing to Florence he was admitted
+into the academy there, and devoted himself to literature. At Rome he
+entered the service of Cardinal Maffeo Barberini, with whom he
+afterwards went to France. After the death of Clement VIII. he returned
+to his own country; and when his patron Barberini was elected pope,
+under the name of Urban VIII., Bracciolini repaired to Rome, and was
+made secretary to the pope's brother, Cardinal Antonio. He had also the
+honour conferred on him of taking a surname from the arms of the
+Barberini family, which were bees; whence he was afterwards known by the
+name of _Bracciolini dell' Api_. During Urban's pontificate the poet
+lived at Rome in considerable reputation, though at the same time he was
+censured for his sordid avarice. On the death of the pontiff he returned
+to Pistoia, where he died in 1645. There is scarcely any species of
+poetry, epic, dramatic, pastoral, lyric or burlesque, which Bracciolini
+did not attempt; but he is principally noted for his mock-heroic poem
+_Lo Scherno degli Dei_, published in 1618, similar but confessedly
+inferior to the contemporary work of Tassoni, _Secchia Rapita_. Of his
+serious heroic poems the most celebrated is _La Croce Racquistata_.
+
+  For the Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini see POGGIO.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE, CHARLES LORING (1826-1890), American philanthropist, was born on
+the 19th of June 1826 in Litchfield, Connecticut. He graduated at Yale
+in 1846, studied theology there in 1847-1848, and graduated from Union
+Theological Seminary in 1849. From this time he practically devoted his
+life to social work among the poor of New York, and to Christian
+propaganda among the criminal classes; and he became well known as a
+social reformer, at home and abroad. He started in 1852 to hold "boys'
+meetings," and in 1853 helped to found the Children's Aid Society,
+establishing workshops, industrial schools and lodging-houses for
+newsboys. In 1872 he was a delegate to the international prison congress
+which met in London. He died at Campfer, in Tirol, on the 11th of August
+1890. He published from time to time several volumes embodying his views
+on practical Christianity and its application to the improvement of
+social conditions.
+
+  See _The Life and Letters of Charles Loring Brace_ (New York, 1894),
+  edited by his daughter, Emma Brace.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE, JULIA (1806-1884), American blind deaf-mute, was born at
+Newington, Connecticut, on the 13th of June 1806. In her fifth year she
+became blind and deaf, and lost the power of speech. At the age of
+eighteen she entered the asylum for the deaf and dumb at Hartford. The
+study of blind deaf-mutes and their scientific training was then in its
+infancy; but she learnt to sew well, was neat in her dress, and had a
+good memory. Dr S.G. Howe's experiments with her were interesting as
+leading to his success with Laura Bridgman. She died at Bloomington,
+Conn., on the 12th of August 1884.
+
+
+
+
+BRACE (through the Fr. from the plural of the Lat. _bracchium_, the
+arm), a measure of length, being the distance between the extended arms.
+From the original meaning of "the two arms" comes that of something
+which secures, connects, tightens or strengthens, found in numerous uses
+of the word, as a carpenter's tool with a crank handle and socket to
+hold a bit for boring; a beam of wood or metal used to strengthen any
+building or machine; the straps passing over the shoulders to support
+the trousers; the leathern thong which slides up and down the cord of a
+drum, and regulates the tension and the tone; a writing and printing
+sign ({) for uniting two or more lines of letterpress or music; a
+nautical term for a rope fastened to the yard for trimming the sails
+(cf. the corresponding French term _bras de vergue_). As meaning "a
+couple" or "pair" the term was first applied to dogs, probably from the
+leash by which they were coupled in coursing. In architecture "brace
+mould" is the term for two ressaunts or ogees united together like a
+brace in printing, sometimes with a small bead between them.
+
+
+
+
+BRACEGIRDLE, ANNE (c. 1674-1748), English actress, is said to have been
+placed under the care of Thomas Betterton and his wife, and to have
+first appeared on the stage as the page in _The Orphan_ at its first
+performance at Dorset Garden in 1680. She was Lucia in Shadwell's
+_Squire of Alsatia_ at the Theatre Royal in 1688, and played similar
+parts until, in 1693, as Araminta in _The Old Bachelor_, she made her
+first appearance in a comedy by Congreve, with whose works and life her
+name is most closely connected. In 1695 she went with Betterton and the
+other seceders to Lincoln's Inn Fields, where, on its opening with
+Congreve's _Love for Love_, she played Angelica. This part, and those of
+Belinda in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_, and Almira in Congreve's
+_Mourning Bride_, were among her best impersonations, but she also
+played the heroines of some of Nicholas Rowe's tragedies, and acted in
+the contemporary versions of Shakespeare's plays. In 1705 she followed
+Betterton to the Haymarket, where she found a serious competitor in Mrs
+Oldfield, then first coming into public favour. The story runs that it
+was left for the audience to determine which was the better comedy
+actress, the test being the part of Mrs Brittle in Betterton's _Amorous
+Widow_, which was played alternately by the two rivals on successive
+nights. When the popular vote was given in favour of Mrs Oldfield, Mrs
+Bracegirdle quitted the stage, making only one reappearance at
+Betterton's benefit in 1709. Her private life was the subject of much
+discussion. Colley Cibber remarks that she had the merit of "not being
+unguarded in her private character," while Macaulay does not hesitate to
+call her "a cold, vain and interested coquette, who perfectly understood
+how much the influence of her charms was increased by the fame of a
+severity which cost her nothing." She was certainly the object of the
+adoration of many men, and she was the innocent cause of the killing of
+the actor William Mountfort (q.v.), whom Captain Hill and Lord Mohun
+regarded as a rival for her affections. During her lifetime she was
+suspected of being secretly married to Congreve, whose mistress she is
+also said to have been. He was at least always her intimate friend, and
+left her a legacy. Rightly or wrongly, her reputation for virtue was
+remarkably high, and Lord Halifax headed a subscription list of 800
+guineas, presented to her as a tribute to her virtue. Her charity to the
+poor in Clare Market and around Drury Lane was conspicuous, "insomuch
+that she would not pass that neighbourhood without the thankful
+acclamations of people of all degrees." She died in 1748, and was buried
+in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
+
+  See Genest, _History of the Stage_; Colley Gibber, _Apology_ (edited
+  by Bellchambers); Egerton, _Life of Anne Oldfield_; Downes, _Roscius
+  Anglicanus._
+
+
+
+
+BRACELET, or ARMLET, a personal ornament for the arm or wrist, made of
+different materials, according to the fashion of the age and the rank of
+the wearer. The word is the French _bracelet_, a diminutive of _bracel_,
+from _brac(c)hiale_, formed from the Latin _bracchium_, the arm, on
+which it was usually worn. By the Romans it was called _armilla,
+brachiale, occabus_; and in the middle ages _bauga, armispatha_.
+
+[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopedie._
+
+FIG. 1.--Egyptian Bracelet, Louvre.]
+
+In the Bible there are three different words which the authorized
+version renders by "bracelet." These are--(1) [Hebrew: 'es'adah]
+_'es'adah_, which occurs in Num. xxxi. 50, 2 Sam. i. 10, and which being
+used with reference to men only, may be taken to be the _armlet_; (2)
+[Hebrew: samid] _samid_, which is found in Gen. xxiv. 22, Num. xxxi. 50,
+Ezek. xvi. 11;--where these two words occur together (as in Num. xxxi.
+50) the first is rendered by "chain," and the second by "bracelet"; (3)
+[Hebrew: sheroth] _sheroth_, which occurs only in Isa. iii. 19. The
+first probably meant armlets worn by men; the second, bracelets worn by
+women and sometimes by men; and the third a peculiar bracelet of
+chain-work worn only by women. In 2 Sam. i. 10 the first word denotes
+the royal ornament which the Amalekite took from the arm of the dead
+Saul, and brought with the other regalia to David. There is little
+question that this was such a distinguishing band of jewelled metal as
+we still find worn as a mark of royalty from the Tigris to the Ganges.
+The Egyptian kings are represented with armlets, which were also worn by
+the Egyptian women. These, however, are not jewelled, but of plain or
+enamelled metal, as was in all likelihood the case among the Hebrews.
+
+In modern times the most celebrated armlets are those which form part of
+the regalia of the Persian kings and formerly belonged to the Mogul
+emperors of India, being part of the spoil carried to Persia from Delhi
+by Nadir Shah in 1739. These ornaments are of dazzling splendour, and
+the jewels in them are of such large size and immense value that the
+pair have been reckoned to be worth a million sterling. The principal
+stone of the right armlet is famous in the East under the name of the
+_Darya-i-nur_, "sea (or river) of light." It weighs 186 carats, and is
+considered the diamond of finest lustre in the world. The principal
+jewel of the left armlet, although of somewhat inferior size (146
+carats) and value, is renowned as the _Taj-e-mah_, "crown of the moon."
+The imperial armlets, generally set with jewels, may also be observed in
+most of the portraits of the Indian emperors.
+
+Bracelets have at all times been much in use among barbaric nations, and
+the women frequently wear several on the same arm. The finer kinds are
+of mother-of-pearl, fine gold or silver; others of less value are made
+of plated steel, horn, brass, copper, beads, &c. Chinese bracelets are
+sometimes cut out of single pieces of jade.
+
+This species of personal ornament has been exceedingly common in Europe
+from prehistoric times onward. The bracelets of the Bronze Age were of
+either gold or bronze, silver being then unknown. In shape they were
+oval and penannular with expanding or trumpet-shaped ends, having an
+opening between them of about half an inch to enable them to be easily
+slipped over the wrist. Those of gold were generally plain, hammered
+rods, bent to the requisite shape, but those of bronze were often chased
+with decorative designs. Some forms of spiral armlets of bronze,
+peculiar to Germany and Scandinavia, covered the whole fore-arm, and
+were doubtless intended as much for defence against a sword-stroke as
+for ornament. Among the nations of classical antiquity, bracelets were
+worn by both sexes of the Etruscans; by women only among the Greeks,
+except in orientalized communities. Among the Romans they were worn by
+women only as a rule, but they are also recorded to have been used
+during the empire by _nouveaux riches_, and by some of the emperors. It
+should also be mentioned that bracelets were conferred as a military
+decoration in the field.
+
+[Illustration: From _La Grande Encyclopedie_.
+
+FIG. 2.--Greek Bracelet, Hermitage.]
+
+The bracelets of the Greeks are of two leading types, both of which were
+also familiar to the Assyrians. The one class were in the form of coiled
+spirals, usually in the form of snakes, a term which Pollux gives as a
+synonym for bracelet. The other class were stiff penannular hoops,
+capable of being slightly opened. In such examples the terminals are
+finely finished as rams' heads, lions' heads, or (as in the accompanying
+figure from a bracelet found at Kuloba) as enamelled sphinxes. In late
+Etruscan art the bracelet may be formed of consecutive panels, as often
+in modern jewelry.
+
+[Illustration: From La Grande Encydopedie.
+
+FIG. 3.--Etruscan Bracelet, Louvre.]
+
+The spiral forms were common in the Iron Age of northern Europe, while
+silver bracelets of great elegance, formed of plaited and intertwisted
+strands of silver wire, and plain penannular hoops, round or
+lozenge-shaped in section and tapering to the extremities, became common
+towards the close of the pagan period. The late Celtic period in Britain
+was characterized by serpent-shaped bracelets and massive armlets, with
+projecting ornaments of solid bronze and perforations filled with
+enamel. In the middle ages bracelets were much less commonly used in
+Europe, but the custom has continued, to prevail among Eastern nations
+to the present time, and many of the types that were common in Europe in
+prehistoric times are still worn in central Asia.
+
+  A treatise, _De Armillis Veterum_, by Thomas Bartholinus, was
+  published at Amsterdam in 1676.
+
+
+
+
+BRACHIOPODA, an important and well-defined but extremely isolated class
+of invertebrates. The group may be defined as follows: Sessile solitary
+_Coelomata_ with bivalved shells usually of unequal size and arranged
+dorso-ventrally. The head is produced into ciliated arms bearing
+tentacles. They reproduce sexually, and with doubtful exceptions are of
+separate sexes.
+
+The name Brachiopod ([Greek: brachion], an arm, and [Greek: pous,
+podos], a foot) was proposed for the class by F. Cuvier in 1805, and by
+A.M.C. Dumeril in 1809, and has since been very extensively adopted. The
+division of the group into _Ecardines_ (_Inarticulata_), with no hinge
+to the shell and with an alimentary canal open at both ends, and
+_Testicardines_ (_Articulata_), with a hinge between the dorsal and
+ventral valves and with no anus, was proposed by Owen and has been
+adopted by nearly all authors. In a later scheme based on our increased
+knowledge of fossil forms, the Brachiopoda are divided into four primary
+groups (orders). This is given at the end of the article, but it must
+not be forgotten that the existing forms with an anus (Ecardines) differ
+markedly from the aproctous members of the group (Testicardines).
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1-11.--Various forms of Brachiopoda.
+
+  1. _Magellania [Waldheimia] cranium_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve.
+
+  2. _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_.
+
+  3. and 4. _Thecidea_.
+
+  5. _Spirifer_. Dorsal valve, showing calcareous spiral coils.
+
+  6. _Orthis calligramma_.
+
+  7. _Leptaena transversalis_. A, ventral, B, dorsal valve.
+
+  8. _Productus horridus_.
+
+  9. _Lingula pyramidata_ (after Morse).
+
+  10. _Discinisca lamellosa_.
+
+  11. _Crania anomala_ Interior of dorsal valve, showing muscular
+  impressions and labial appendages.]
+
+The soft body of the Brachiopod is in all cases protected by a shell
+composed of two distinct valves; these valves are always, except in
+cases of malformation, equal-sided, but not equivalved. The valves are,
+consequently, essentially symmetrical, which is not the case with the
+Lamellibranchiata,--so much so, that certain Brachiopod shells were
+named _Lampades_, or lamp shells, by some early naturalists; but while
+such may bear a kind of resemblance to an antique Etruscan lamp, by far
+the larger number in no way resemble one. The shell is likewise most
+beautiful in its endless shapes and variations. In some species it is
+thin, semi-transparent and glassy, in others massive. Generally the
+shell is from a quarter of an inch to about 4 in. in size, but in
+certain species it attains nearly a foot in breadth by something less in
+length, as is the case with _Productus giganteus_. The valves are also
+in some species very unequal in their respective thickness, as may be
+seen in _Productus_ (_Daviesiella_)[1] _llangollensis_, _Davidsonia
+verneuilii_, &c., and while the space allotted to the animal is very
+great in many species, as in _Terebratula sphaeroidalis_, it is very
+small in others belonging to _Strophomena_, _Leptaena_, _Chonetes_, &c.
+The ventral valve is usually the thickest, and in some forms is six or
+seven times as great as the opposite one. The outer surface of many of
+the species presents likewise the most exquisite sculpture, heightened
+by brilliant shades, or spots of green, red, yellow and bluish black.
+Traces of the original colour have also been preserved in some of the
+fossil forms; radiating bands of a reddish tint have been often seen in
+well-preserved examples of _Terebratula_ (_Dielasma_) _hastata_, _T_.
+(_Dielasma_) _sacculus_, _T. communis_, _T. biplicata_, and of several
+others. Some specimens of _T. carnea_ are of a beautiful pale pink
+colour when first removed from their matrix, and E. Deslongchamps has
+described the tint of several Jurassic species.
+
+The valves are distinguished as _dorsal_ and _ventral_. The ventral
+valve is usually the larger, and in many genera, such as _Terebratula_
+and _Rhynchonella_, has a prominent beak or umbo, with a circular or
+otherwise shaped foramen at or near its extremity, partly bounded by one
+or two plates, termed a deltidium. Through the foramen passes a
+peduncle, by which the animal is in many species attached to submarine
+objects during at least a portion of its existence. Other forms show no
+indication of ever having been attached, while some that had been moored
+by means of a peduncle during the early portion of their existence have
+become detached at a more advanced stage of life, the opening becoming
+gradually cicatrized, as is so often seen in _Leptaena rhomboidalis_,
+_Orthisina anomala_, &c. Lastly, some species adhere to submarine
+objects by a larger or smaller portion of their ventral valve, as is the
+case with many forms of _Crania_, _Thecidium_, _Davidsonia_, &c. Some
+_Cranias_ are always attached by the whole surface of their lower or
+ventral valve, which models itself and fills up all the projections or
+depressions existing on either the rock, shell or coral to which it
+adhered. These irregularities are likewise, at times, reproduced on the
+upper or dorsal valve. Some species of _Strophalosia_ and _Productus_
+seem also to have been moored during life to the sandy or muddy bottoms
+on which they lived, by the means of tubular spines often of
+considerable length. The interior of the shell varies very much
+according to families and genera. On the inner surface of both valves
+several well-defined muscular, vascular and ovarian impressions are
+observable; they form either indentations of greater or less size and
+depth, or occur as variously shaped projections. In the _Trimerellidae_,
+for example, some of the muscles are attached to a massive or vaulted
+platform situated in the medio-longitudinal region of the posterior half
+or umbonal portion of both valves. In addition to these, there exists in
+the interior of the _dorsal_ valve of some genera a variously modified,
+thin, calcified, ribbon-shaped skeleton for the support of the ciliated
+arms, and the form of this ribbon serves as one of the chief generic
+characters of both recent and extinct forms. This brachial skeleton is
+more developed in some genera than in others. In certain forms, as in
+_Terebratula_ and _Terebratulina_, it is short and simple, and attached
+to a small divided hinge-plate, the two riband-shaped lamina being bent
+upwards in the middle (fig. 15). The cardinal process is prominent, and
+on each side of the hinge-plate are situated the dental sockets; the
+loop in _Terebratulina_ becomes annular in the adult by the union of its
+crural processes (fig. 16). In _Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_] it is
+elongated and reflected; the hinge-plate large, with four depressions,
+under which originates a median septum, which extends more or less into
+the interior of the shell (figs. 13 and 14). In _Terebratella_ the loop
+is attached to the hinge-plate and to the septum (fig. 17). In
+_Megerlia_ it is three times attached, first to the hinge-plate, and
+then to the septum by processes from the diverging and reflected
+positions of the loop. In _Magas_ the brachial skeleton is composed of
+an elevated longitudinal septum reaching from one valve to the other, to
+which are affixed two pairs of calcareous lamellae, the lower ones
+riband-shaped; attached first to the hinge-plate, they afterwards
+proceed by a gentle curve near to the anterior portion of the septum, to
+the sides of which they are affixed; the second pair originate on both
+sides of the upper edge of the septum, extending in the form of two
+triangular anchor-shaped lamellae (fig. 18). In _Bouchardia_ the septum
+only is furnished with two short anchor-shaped lamellae. Many more
+modifications are observable in different groups of which the great
+family _Terebratulidae_ is composed. In _Thecidium_ (figs. 3,4) the
+interior of the dorsal valve is variously furrowed to receive the
+lophophore folded in two or more lobes. In the family _Spiriferidae_
+there are two conical spires directed outwards, and nearly filling the
+cavity of the shell (fig. 5); while in _Atrypa_ the broad spirally
+coiled lamellae are vertical, and directed toward the centre of the
+dorsal valve. In the _Rhynchonellidae_ there are two short slender
+curved laminae, while in many genera and even families, such as the
+_Productidae, Strophomenidae, Lingulidae, Discinidae_, &c., there exists
+no calcified support for the labial appendages. The ventral valve in
+many of the genera is provided with two curved hinge-teeth, which fit
+into corresponding sockets in the opposite valve, so that the valves
+cannot be separated without breaking one of the teeth.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 12-18.
+
+  12. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of ventral valve.
+  f, foramen; d, deltidium; t, teeth; a, adductor impressions (=
+  occlusors, _Hancock_); c, divaricator (= cardinal muscles, _King_, =
+  muscles diducteurs principaux, _Gratiolet_); c', accessory
+  divaricators (muscles diducteurs accessoires, _Gratiolet_); b, ventral
+  adjuster (= ventral peduncular muscles, or muscles du pedoncule paire
+  superieure, _Gratiolet_); b', peduncular muscle.
+
+  13. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior of dorsal valve. c,
+  c', cardinal process; b', b', hinge-plate; s, dental sockets; l, loop;
+  q, crura; a, a', adductor impressions; c, accessory divaricator; b,
+  peduncle muscles; ss, septum.
+
+  14. _Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Longitudinal section of
+  valves. A, ventral, B, dorsal valves; l, loop; q, crura; ss, septum;
+  c, cardinal process.
+
+  15. _Terebratula (Liothyris) vitrea_. Interior of dorsal valve. l,
+  loop; b, hinge-plate; c, cardinal process.
+
+  16. Loop of _Terebratulina caput serpentis_.
+
+  17. Longitudinal section of _Terebratella dorsata_. (References as in
+  fig. 14.)
+
+  18. Longitudinal section of _Magas pumilus_.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Interior
+of dorsal valve, to show the position of the labial appendages. v,
+Mouth. (A portion of the fringe of cirri is removed to show the brachial
+membrane and a portion of the spiral extremities of the arms.)]
+
+Each valve of the shell is lined by a mantle which contains
+prolongations of the body cavity. The outer surfaces of the mantle
+secrete the shell, which is of the nature of a cuticle impregnated by
+calcareous salts. These often have the form of prisms of calcite
+surrounded by a cuticular mesh work; the whole is nourished and kept
+alive by processes, which in _Crania_ are branched; these perforate the
+shell and permit the access of the coelomic fluid throughout its
+substance. These canals are closed externally and are absent in
+_Rhynchonella_, where the amount of calcareous deposit is small. In
+_Lingula_ the shell is composed of alternate layers of chitin and of
+phosphate of lime. The free edges of the mantle often bear chitinous
+bristles or setae which project beyond the shell. As in the case of the
+Lamellibranchiata, the shell of the adult is not a direct derivative of
+the youngest shell of the larva. The young Brachiopod in all its species
+is protected by an embryonic shell called the "protegulum," which
+sometimes persists in the umbones of the adult shells but is more
+usually worn off. In all species it has the same shape, a shape which
+has been retained in the adult by the Lower Cambrian genus _Iphidea_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_.
+Logitudinal section with a portion of the animal.
+
+  d, h, Brachial appendages.
+  a, Adductor
+  c, c', Divaricator muscles.
+  s, Septum.
+  v, Mouth.
+  z, Exremity of alimentary tube. The penduncular muscules have been
+      purposely omitted.]
+
+The body of the Brachiopod usually occupies about the posterior half of
+the space within the shell. The anterior half of this space is lined by
+the inner wall of the mantle and is called the mantle cavity. This
+cavity lodges the arms, which are curved and coiled in different ways in
+different genera. The water which bears the oxygen for respiration and
+the minute organisms upon which the Brachiopod feeds is swept into the
+mantle cavity by the action of the cilia which cover the arms, and the
+eggs and excreta pass out into the same cavity. The mouth lies in the
+centre of the anterior wall of the body. Its two lips fusing together at
+the corners of the mouth are prolonged into the so-called arms. These
+arms, which together form the lophophore, may be, as in _Cistella_,
+applied flat to the inner surface of the dorsal mantle fold, but more
+usually they are raised free from the body like a pair of moustaches,
+and as they are usually far too long to lie straight in the mantle
+cavity, they are folded or coiled up. The brachial skeleton which in
+many cases supports the arms has been mentioned above.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--A diagram of the left half of an _Argiope_
+(_Megathyris_), which has been bisected in the median plane.
+
+   1. The ventral valve.
+   2. The dorsal valve.
+   3. The pedicle.
+   4. The mouth.
+   5. Lip which overhangs the mouth and runs all round the lophophore.
+   6. Tentacles.
+   7. Ovary in dorsal valve.
+   8. Liver diverticula.
+   9. Occlusor muscle--its double origin is shown.
+  10. Internal opening of left nephridium.
+  11. External opening of the same.
+  12. Ventral adjustor.
+  13. Divaricator muscle.
+  14. Sub-oesophageal nerve ganglion.
+  15. The heart.
+  16. Dorsal adjustor muscle.]
+
+A transverse section through the arm (fig. 22) shows that it consists of
+a stout base, composed of a very hyaline connective tissue not uncommon
+in the tissues of the Brachiopoda, which is traversed by certain canals
+whose nature is considered below under the section (_The Body Cavity_)
+devoted to the coelom. Anteriorly this base supports a gurrie or gutter,
+the pre-oral rim of which is formed by a simple lip, but the post-oral
+rim is composed of a closely set row of tentacles. These may number some
+thousands, and they are usually bent over and tend to form a closed
+cylinder of the gutter. Each of these tentacles (fig. 22) is hollow, and
+it contains a diverticulum from the coelom, a branch of the vascular
+system, a nerve and some muscle-fibres. Externally on two sides and on
+the inner surface the tentacles are ciliated, and the cilia are
+continued across the gutter to the lip and even on the outer surface of
+the latter. These cilia pass on any diatoms and other minute organism
+which come within their range of action to the capacious oval mouth,
+which appears as a mere deepening of the gutter in the middle line. In
+_Terebratulina, Rhynchonella, Lingula_, and possibly other genera, the
+arms can be unrolled and protruded from the opened shell; in this case
+the tentacles also straighten themselves and wave about in the water.
+
+  _The Body Cavity._--The various internal organs of the brachiopod
+  body, the alimentary canal and liver, the excretory organs, the heart,
+  numerous muscles and the reproductive organs, are enclosed in a cavity
+  called the body cavity, and since this cavity (i.) is derived from the
+  archicoel and is from the first surrounded by meroblast, (ii.)
+  communicates with the exterior through the nephridia or excretory
+  organs, and (iii.) gives rise by the proliferation of the cells which
+  line it to the ova and spermatoza, it is of the nature of a true
+  coelom. The coelom then is a spacious chamber surrounding the
+  alimentary canal, and is continued dorsally and ventrally into the
+  sinuses of the mantle (fig. 21). Some of the endothelial cells lining
+  the coelom are ciliated, the cilia keeping the corpusculated fluid
+  contents in movement. Others of the endothelial cells show a great
+  tendency to form muscle fibres. Besides this main coelomic cavity
+  there are certain other spaces which F. Blochmann regards as coelomic,
+  but it must be remembered that his interpretation rests largely on
+  histological grounds, and at present embryological confirmation is
+  wanting. These spaces are as follows:--(i.) the great arm-sinus; (ii.)
+  the small arm-sinus together with the central sinus and the
+  peri-oesophageal sinus, and in _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, and, to a
+  less extent, in _Crania_, the lip-sinus; (iii.) certain portions of
+  the general body cavity which in _Crania_ are separated off and
+  contain muscles, &c.; (iv.) the cavity of the stalk when such exists.
+  The great arm-sinus of each side of the lophophore lies beneath the
+  fold or lip which together with the tentacles forms the ciliated
+  groove in which the mouth opens. These sinuses are completely shut off
+  from all other cavities, they do not open into the main coelomic space
+  nor into the small arm-sinus, nor does the right sinus communicate
+  with the left. The small arm-sinus runs along the arms of the
+  lophophore at the base of the tentacles, and gives off a blind
+  diverticulum into each of these. This diverticulum contains the
+  blood-vessel and muscle-fibres (fig. 22). In the region of the mouth
+  where the two halves of the small arm-sinus approach one another they
+  open into a central sinus lying beneath the oesophagus and partly
+  walled in by the two halves of the ventral mesentery. This sinus is
+  continued round the oesophagus as the peri-oesophageal sinus, and thus
+  the whole complex of the small arm-sinus has the relations of the
+  so-called vascular system of a Sipunculid. In _Crania_ it is
+  completely shut off from the main coelom, but in _Lingula_ it
+  communicates freely with this cavity. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_
+  there is further a lip-sinus or hollow system of channels which
+  traverses the supporting tissue of the edge of the mantle and contains
+  muscle-fibres. It opens into the peri-oesophageal sinus. It is better
+  developed and more spacious in _Lingula_ than in _Discinisca._ In
+  _Crania_, where only indications of the lip-sinus occur, there are two
+  other closed spaces. The posterior occlusor muscles lie in a special
+  closed space which Blochmann also regards as coelomic. The posterior
+  end of the intestine is similarly surrounded by a closed coelomic
+  space known as the peri-anal sinus in which the rectum lies freely,
+  unsupported by mesenteries. All these spaces contain a similar
+  coagulable fluid with sparse corpuscles, and all are lined by ciliated
+  cells. There is further a great tendency for the endothelial cells to
+  form muscles, and this is especially pronounced in the small
+  arm-sinus, where a conspicuous muscle is built up. The mantle-sinuses
+  which form the chief spaces in the mantle are diverticula of the main
+  coelomic cavity. In _Discinisca_ they are provided with a muscular
+  valve placed at their point of origin. They contain the same fluid as
+  the general coelom. The stalk is an extension of the ventral
+  body-wall, and contains a portion of the coelom which, in _Discinisca_
+  and _Lingula_, remains in communication with the general body cavity.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--Diagrammatic section through an arm of the
+  lophophore of _Crania_. Magnified; after Blochmann.
+
+     1. The lip.
+     2. The base of a tentacle bisected in the middle line.
+     3. Great arm-sinus.
+     4. Small arm-sinus, containing muscle-fibres.
+     5. Tentacular canal.
+     6. External tentacular muscle.
+     7. Tentacular blood-vessel arising from the cut arm-vessel in the
+         small arm-sinus.
+     8. Chief arm-nerve.
+     9. Secondary arm-nerve.
+    10. Under arm-nerve.]
+
+  _The Alimentary Canal_.--The mouth, which is quite devoid of armature,
+  leads imperceptibly into a short and dorsally directed oesophagus. The
+  latter enlarges into a spherical stomach into which open the broad
+  ducts of the so-called liver. The stomach then passes into an
+  intestine, which in the Testicardines (Articulata) is short,
+  finger-shaped and closed, and in the Ecardines (Inarticulata) is
+  longer, turned back upon its first course, and ends in an anus. In
+  _Lingula_ and _Discina_ the anus lies to the right in the
+  mantle-cavity, but in _Crania_ it opens medianly into a posterior
+  extension of the same. Apart from the asymmetry of the intestine
+  caused by the lateral position of the anus in the two genera just
+  named, Brachiopods are bilaterally symmetrical animals.
+
+  The liver consists of a right and left half, each opening by a broad
+  duct into the stomach. Each half consists of many lobes which may
+  branch, and the whole takes up a considerable proportion of the space
+  in the body cavity. The food passes into these lobes, which may be
+  found crowded with diatoms, and without doubt a large part of the
+  digestion is carried on inside the liver. The stomach, oesophagus and
+  intestine are ciliated on their inner surface. The intestine is slung
+  by a median dorsal and ventral mesentery which divides the body cavity
+  into two symmetrically shaped halves; it is "stayed" by two transverse
+  septa, the anterior or gastroparietal band running from the stomach to
+  the body wall and the posterior or ileoparietal band running from the
+  intestine to the body wall. None of these septa is complete, and the
+  various parts of the central body cavity freely communicate with one
+  another. In _Rhynchonella_, where there are two pairs of kidneys, the
+  internal opening of the anterior pair is supported by the
+  gastroparietal band and that of the posterior pair by the ileoparietal
+  band. The latter pair alone persists in all other genera.
+
+  The kidneys or nephridia open internally by wide funnel-shaped
+  nephridiostomes and externally by small pores on each side of the
+  mouth near the base of the arms. Each is short, gently curved and
+  devoid of convolutions. They are lined by cells charged with a yellow
+  or brown pigment, and besides their excretory functions they act as
+  ducts through which the reproductive cells leave the body.
+
+  _Circulatory System._--The structures formerly regarded as
+  pseudohearts have been shown by Huxley to be nephridia; the true heart
+  was described and figured by A. Hancock, but has in many cases escaped
+  the observation of later zoologists. F. Blochmann in 1884, however,
+  observed this organ in the living animal in species of the following
+  genera:--_Terebratulina, Magellania_ [_Waldheimia_]_, Rhynchonella,
+  Megathyris_ (_Argiope_), _Lingula_, and _Crania_ (fig. 21). It
+  consists of a definite contractile sac or sacs lying on the dorsal
+  side of the alimentary canal near the oesophagus, and in preparations
+  of _Terebratulina_ made by quickly removing the viscera and examining
+  them in sea-water under a microscope, he was able to count the
+  pulsations, which followed one another at intervals of 30-40 seconds.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Rhynchonella_ (_Hemithyris_) _psittacea._
+  Interior of dorsal valve, s, Sockets; b, dental plates; V, mouth;
+  de, labial appendage in its natural position; d, appendage extended
+  or unrolled.]
+
+  A vessel--the dorsal vessel--runs forward from the heart along the
+  dorsal surface of the oesophagus. This vessel is nothing but a split
+  between the right and left folds of the mesentery, and its cavity is
+  thus a remnant of the blastocoel. A similar primitive arrangement is
+  thought by F. Blochmann to obtain in the genital arteries. Anteriorly
+  the dorsal vessel splits into a right and a left half, which enter the
+  small arm-sinus and, running along it, give off a blind branch to each
+  tentacle (fig. 21). The right and left halves are connected ventrally
+  to the oesophagus by a short vessel which supplies these tentacles in
+  the immediate neighbourhood of the mouth. There is thus a vascular
+  ring around the oesophagus. The heart gives off posteriorly a second
+  median vessel which divides almost at once into a right and a left
+  half, each of which again divides into two vessels which run to the
+  dorsal and ventral mantles respectively. The dorsal branch sends a
+  blind twig into each of the diverticula of the dorsal mantle-sinus,
+  the ventral branch supplies the nephridia and neighbouring parts
+  before reaching the ventral lobe of the mantle. Both dorsal and
+  ventral branches supply the generative organs.
+
+  The blood is a coagulable fluid. Whether it contains corpuscles is not
+  yet determined, but if so they must be few in number. It is a
+  remarkable fact that in _Discinisca_, although the vessels to the
+  lophophore are arranged as in other Brachiopods, no trace of a heart
+  or of the posterior vessels has as yet been discovered.
+
+  _Muscles._--The number and position of the muscles differ materially
+  in the two great divisions into which the Brachiopoda have been
+  grouped, and to some extent also in the different genera of which each
+  division is composed. Unfortunately almost every anatomist who has
+  written on the muscles of the Brachiopoda has proposed different names
+  for each muscle, and the confusion thence arising is much to be
+  regretted. In the Testicardines, of which the genus _Terebratula_ may
+  be taken as an example, five or six pairs of muscles are stated by A.
+  Hancock, Gratiolet and others to be connected with the opening and
+  closing of the valves, or with their attachment to or movements upon
+  the peduncle. First of all, the adductors or occlusors consist of two
+  muscles, which, bifurcating near the centre of the shell cavity,
+  produce a large quadruple impression on the internal surface of the
+  small valve (fig. 13, a, a'), and a single divided one towards the
+  centre of the large or ventral valve (fig. 12, a). The function of
+  this pair of muscles is the closing of the valves. Two other pairs
+  have been termed _divaricators_ by Hancock, or _cardinal muscles_
+  ("muscles diducteurs" of Gratiolet), and have for function the opening
+  of the valves. The divaricators proper are stated by Hancock to arise
+  from the ventral valve, one on each side, a little in advance of and
+  close to the adductors, and after rapidly diminishing in size become
+  attached to the cardinal process, a space or prominence between the
+  sockets in the dorsal valve. The _accessory divaricators_ are,
+  according to the same authority, a pair of small muscles which have
+  their ends attached to the ventral valve, one on each side of the
+  median line, a little behind the united basis of the adductors, and
+  again to the extreme point of the cardinal process. Two pairs of
+  muscles, apparently connected with the peduncle and its limited
+  movements, have been minutely described by Hancock as having one of
+  their extremities attached to this organ. The _dorsal adjusters_ are
+  fixed to the ventral surface of the peduncle, and are again inserted
+  into the hinge-plate in the smaller valve. The _ventral adjusters_ are
+  considered to pass from the inner extremity of the peduncle, and to
+  become attached by one pair of their extremities to the ventral valve,
+  one on each side and a little behind the expanded base of the
+  divaricators. The function of these muscles, according to the same
+  authority, is not only that of erecting the shell; they serve also to
+  attach the peduncle to the shell, and thus effect the steadying of it
+  upon the peduncle. By alternate contracting they can cause a slight
+  rotation of the animal in its stalk.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Magellania [Waldheimia] flavescens_. Diagram
+  showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.)
+
+    M, Ventral,
+    N, Dorsal valve,
+    l, Loop.
+    V, Mouth.
+    Z, Extremity of intestine,
+    c, Divaricators.
+    c', Accessory divaricators.
+    a, Adductor.
+    b, Ventral adjusters.
+    b', Peduncular muscles.
+    b'', Dorsal adjusters.
+    P, Peduncle.]
+
+  Such is the general arrangement of the shell muscles in the division
+  composing the articulated Brachiopoda, making allowance for certain
+  unimportant modifications observable in the animals composing the
+  different families and genera thereof. Owing to the strong and tight
+  interlocking of the valves by the means of curved teeth and sockets,
+  many species of Brachiopoda could open their valves but slightly. In
+  some species, such as _Thecidea_, the animal could raise its dorsal
+  valve at right angles to the plane of the ventral one (fig. 4).
+
+  [Illustration: FIGS. 25, 26. _Lingula anatina._
+
+    25, Interior of ventral valve.
+    26, Interior of dorsal valve.
+    g, Umbonal muscular impressions (open valves).
+    h, Central muscles (close valves).
+    i, Transmedial or sliding muscles.
+    b, Parietal band.
+    j, k, l, Lateral muscles (j, anteriors; k, middles; l, outsiders),
+      enabling the valves to move forward and backward on each other.
+
+    (After King.)]
+
+  In the Ecardines, of which _Lingula_ and _Discina_ may be quoted as
+  examples, the myology is much more complicated. Of the shell or
+  valvular muscles W. King makes out five pairs and an odd one, and
+  individualizes their respective functions as follows:--Three pairs are
+  _lateral_, having their members limited to the sides of the shell; one
+  pair are _transmedians_, each member passing across the middle of the
+  reverse side of the shell, while the odd muscle occupies the umbonal
+  cavity. The _central_ and _umbonal_ muscles effect the direct opening
+  and closing of the shell, the _laterals_ enable the valves to move
+  forward and backward on each other, and the _transmedians_ allow the
+  similar extremities (the rostral) of the valves to turn from each
+  other to the right or the left on an axis subcentrically situated,
+  that is, the medio-transverse region of the dorsal valve. It was long
+  a matter in discussion whether the animal could displace its valves
+  sideways when about to open its shell, but this has been actually
+  observed by Professors K. Semper and E.S. Morse, who saw the animal
+  perform the operation. They mention that it is never done suddenly or
+  by jerks, as the valves are at first always pushed to one side several
+  times and back again on each other, at the same time opening gradually
+  in the transverse direction till they rest opposite to one another and
+  widely apart. Those who have not seen the animal in life, or who did
+  not believe in the possibility of the valves crossing each other with
+  a slight obliquity, would not consent to appropriating any of its
+  muscles to that purpose, and consequently attributed to all the
+  lateral muscles the simple function of keeping the valves in an
+  opposite position, or holding them adjusted. We have not only the
+  observations of Semper and Morse, but the anatomical investigations of
+  King, to confirm the sliding action or lateral divarication of the
+  valves of _Lingula_.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Lingula anatina_.
+
+    Diagram showing the muscular system. (After Hancock.) The letters
+    indicate the muscles as in figs. 25 and 26.
+
+    A, Dorsal,
+    B, Ventral valve.
+    p, Peduncle.
+    e, Heart.
+    a, Alimentary tube.
+    z, Anal aperture.]
+
+  In the Testicardines, where no such sliding action of the valves was
+  necessary or possible, no muscles for such an object were required,
+  consequently none took rise from the lateral portions of the valves as
+  in _Lingula_; but in an extinct group, the _Trimerellidae_, which
+  seems to be somewhat intermediate in character between the Ecardines
+  and Testicardines, have been found certain scars, which appear to have
+  been produced by rudimentary lateral muscles, but it is doubtful
+  (considering the shells are furnished with teeth, though but rudely
+  developed) whether such muscles enabled the valves, as in _Lingula_,
+  to move forward and backward upon each other. _Crania_ in life opens
+  its valves by moving upon the straight hinge, without sliding the
+  valve.
+
+  The _nervous system_ of Brachiopods has, as a rule, maintained its
+  primitive connexion with the external epithelium. In a few places it
+  has sunk into the connective-tissue supporting layer beneath the
+  ectoderm, but the chief centres still remain in the ectoderm, and the
+  fibrils forming the nerves are for the most part at the base of the
+  ectodermal cells. Above the oesophagus is a thin commissure which
+  passes laterally into the chief arm-nerve. This latter includes in its
+  course numerous ganglion cells, and forms, according to F. Blochmann,
+  the immensely long drawn out supra-oesophageal ganglion. The chief
+  arm-nerve traverses the lophophore, being situated between the great
+  arm-sinus and the base of the lip (figs. 22 and 28); it gives off a
+  branch to each tentacle, and these all anastomose at the base of the
+  tentacles with the second nerve of the arm, the so-called secondary
+  arm-nerve. Like the chief arm-nerve, this strand runs through the
+  lophophore, parallel indeed with the former except near the middle
+  line, where it passes ventrally to the oesophagus. The lophophore is
+  supplied by yet a third nerve, the under arm-nerve, which is less
+  clearly defined than the others, and resembles a moderate aggregation
+  of the nerve fibrils, which seem everywhere to underlie the ectoderm,
+  and which in a few cases are gathered up into nerves. The under
+  arm-nerve, which lies between the small arm-sinus and the surface,
+  supplies nerves to the muscles of both arm-sinuses (figs. 22 and 28).
+  Medianly, it has its origin in the sub-oesophageal ganglion, which,
+  like the supra-oesophageal, is drawn out laterally, though not to the
+  same extent. In the middle line the sub-oespphageal nerve mass is
+  small; the ganglion is in fact drawn out into two halves placed on
+  either side of the body. From each of these sub-oesophageal ganglia
+  numerous nerves arise. Passing from the middle line outwards they
+  are--(i.) the median pallial nerve to the middle of the dorsal mantle;
+  (ii.) numerous small nerves--the circum-oesophageal commissures--which
+  pass round the oesophagus to the chief arm-nerve or supra-oesophageal
+  ganglion; (iii.) the under arm-nerve to the lophophore and its
+  muscles; (iv.) the lateral pallial nerve to the sides of the dorsal
+  mantle. Laterally, the sub-oesophageal ganglia give off (v.) nerves to
+  the ventral mantle, and finally they supply (vi.) branches to the
+  various muscles. There is a special marginal nerve running round the
+  edge of the mantle, but the connexion of this with the rest of the
+  nervous system is not clear; probably it is merely another
+  concentration of the diffused sub-ectodermal nervous fibrils.
+
+  The above account applies more particularly to _Crania_, but in the
+  main it is applicable to the other Inarticulata which have been
+  investigated. In _Discinisca_ and _Lingula_, however, the
+  sub-oesophageal ganglion is not drawn out, but lies medianly; it gives
+  off two posteriorly directed nerves to the stalk, which in _Lingula_
+  unite and form a substantial nerve. Sense organs are unknown in the
+  adult. The larval forms are provided with eye-spots, but no very
+  specialized sense organs are found in the adult.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--Diagram of nervous system of _Crania_; from
+  the dorsal side. The nerves running to the dorsal parts are white,
+  with black edges; those running to the ventral parts are solid black.
+  Magnified. (After Blochmann.)
+
+     1. Oesophagus.
+     2. Supra-oesophageal commisure.
+     3. Circum-oesophageal commisure.
+     4. Under arm-nerve.
+     5. Great arm-sinus.
+     6. Small arm-sinus.
+     7. Tentacle.
+     8. Lip of lophophore.
+     9. Infra-oesophageal commisure.
+    10. Chief arm-nerve.
+    11. Secondary arm-nerve.
+    12. Nerves to tentacles.
+    13. Sub-oesophageal ganglion.
+    14. Dorsal lateral nerve.
+    15. Sub-oesophageal portion of the secondary arm-nerve.
+    16. Median pallial nerve of dorsal lobe of mantle.
+    17. Anterior occlusor muscle.
+    18. Posterior occlusor muscle.
+    19. Obliquus superior muscle.
+    20. Levator brachii muscle.]
+
+  The _histology_ of Brachiopods presents some peculiar and many
+  primitive features. As a rule the cells are minute, and this has
+  especially stood in the way of embryological research. The plexus of
+  nerve-fibrils which underlie the ectoderm and are in places gathered
+  up into nerves, and the great development of connective tissue, are
+  worthy of notice. Much of the latter takes the form of hyaline
+  supporting tissue, embedded in which are scattered cells and fibres.
+  The lophophore and stalk are largely composed of this tissue. The
+  ectodermal cells are large, ciliated, and amongst the ciliated cells
+  glandular cells are scattered. The chitinous chaetae have their origin
+  in special ectodermal pits, at the base of which is one large cell
+  which is thought to secrete the chaeta, as in Chaetopods. These pits
+  are not isolated, but are connected by an ectodermal ridge, which
+  grows in at the margin of the mantle and forms a continuous band
+  somewhat resembling the ectodermal primordium of vertebrate teeth.
+
+  The ovary and testes are heaped-up masses of red or yellow cells due
+  to a proliferation of the cells lining the coelom. There are four of
+  such masses, two dorsal and two ventral, and as a rule they extend
+  between the outer and inner layer of the mantle lining the shells. The
+  ova and the spermatozoa dehisce into the body cavity and pass to the
+  exterior through the nephridia. Fertilization takes place outside the
+  body, and in some species the early stages of development take place
+  in a brood-pouch which is essentially a more or less deep depression
+  of the body-wall median in _Thecidea_, while in _Cistella_ (_?
+  Argiope_) there is one such pouch on each side, just below the base of
+  the arms, and into these the nephridia open. The developing ova are
+  attached by little stalks to the walls of these pouches. In spite of
+  some assertions to the contrary, all the Brachiopods which have been
+  carefully investigated have been found to be male or female.
+  Hermaphrodite forms are unknown.
+
+  [FIG. 29.--Three larvae stages of _Megathyris_ (_Argiope_). A, Larva
+  which has just left brood-pouch; B, longitudinal section through a
+  somewhat later stage; C, the fully formed embryo just before
+  fixing--the neo-embryo of Beecher. Highly magnified.
+
+    1. Anterior segment.
+    2. Second or mantle-forming segment.
+    3. Third or stalk-forming segment.
+    4. Eye-spots.
+    5. Setae.
+    6. Nerve mass (?).
+    7. Alimentary canal.
+    8. Muscles.]
+
+  _Embryology._--With the exception of Yatsu's article on the
+  development of _Lingula_ (_J. Coll. Sci., Japan_, xvii., 1901-1903)
+  and E.G. Conklin's on "Terebratulina septentrionalis" (_P. Amer. Phil.
+  Soc._ xli., 1902), little real advance has been made in our knowledge
+  of the embryology of the Brachiopoda within recent years. Kovalevsky's
+  researches (Izv. Obshch. Moskov, xiv., 1874) on _Megathyris_
+  (_Argiope_) and Yatsu's just mentioned are the most complete as
+  regards the earlier stages. Segmentation is complete, a gastrula is
+  formed, the blastopore closes, the archenteron gives off two coelomic
+  sacs which, as far as is known, are unaffected by the superficial
+  segmentation of the body that divides the larva into three segments.
+  The walls of these sacs give rise at an early stage to muscles which
+  enable the parts of the larva to move actively on one another (fig.
+  29, B). About this stage the larvae leave the brood-pouch, which is a
+  lateral or median cavity in the body of the female, and lead a free
+  swimming life in the ocean. The anterior segment broadens and becomes
+  umbrella-shaped; it has a powerful row of cilia round the rim and
+  smaller cilia on the general surface. By the aid of these cilia the
+  larva swims actively, but owing to its minute size it covers very
+  little distance, and this probably accounts for the fact that where
+  brachiopods occur there are, as a rule, a good many in one spot. The
+  head bears four eye-spots, and it is continually testing the ground
+  (fig. 29, A, C). The second segment grows downwards like a skirt
+  surrounding the third segment, which is destined to form the stalk. It
+  bears at its rim four bundles of very pronounced chaetae. After a
+  certain time the larva fixes itself by its stalk to some stone or
+  rock, and the skirt-like second segment turns forward over the head
+  and forms the mantle. What goes on within the mantle is unknown, but
+  presumably the head is absorbed. The chaetae drop off, and the
+  lophophore is believed to arise from thickenings which appear in the
+  dorsal mantle lobe. The Plankton Expedition brought back, and H.
+  Simroth (_Ergeb. Plankton Expedition_, ii., 1897) has described, a few
+  larval brachiopods of undetermined genera, two of which at least were
+  pelagic, or at any rate taken far from the coast. These larvae, which
+  resemble those described by Fritz Muller (_Arch. Naturg._, 1861-1862),
+  have their mantle turned over their head and the larval shell well
+  developed. No stalk has been seen by Simroth or Fritz Muller, but in
+  other respects the larva resembles the stages in the development of
+  _Megathyris_ and _Terebratulina_ which immediately precede fixation.
+  The cirri or tentacles, of which three or four pairs are present, are
+  capable of being protruded, and the minute larva swims by means of the
+  ciliary action they produce. It can retract the tentacles, shut its
+  shell, and sink to the bottom.
+
+  [FIG. 30.--Stages in the fixing and metamorphosis of _Terebratulina_.
+  Highly magnified. (From Morse.)
+
+    A, Larva (neo-embryo) just come to rest.
+    B, C, D, Stages showing the turning forward of the second or mantle
+      segment.
+    E, Completion of this.
+    F, Young Brachiopod.
+    1, 2, 3, The first, second and third segments.]
+
+  C.E.E. Beecher (_Amer. Jour. Sci._ ser. 3, xli. and xliv.) has
+  classified with appropriate names the various stages through which
+  Brachiopod larvae pass. The last stage, that in which the folds of the
+  second segment are already reflected over the first, he calls the
+  Typembryo. Either before or just after turning, the mantle develops a
+  larval shell termed the protegulum, and when this is completed the
+  larva is termed the Phylembryo. By this time the eyes have
+  disappeared, the four bundles of chaetae have dropped off, and the
+  lophophore has begun to appear as an outgrowth of the dorsal mantle
+  lobe. The protegulum has been found in members of almost all the
+  families of Brachiopod, and it is thought to occur throughout the
+  group. It resembles the shell of the Cambrian genus _Iphidea
+  [Paterina]_, and the Phylembryo is frequently referred to as the
+  _Paterina_ stage. In some orders the Phylembryo is succeeded by an
+  _Obolella_ stage with a nearly circular outline, but this is not
+  universal. The larva now assumes specific characters and is
+  practically adult.
+
+  [FIG. 31.--Shell of larval Brachiopod. Phylembryo stage. (From
+  Simroth.) 1, Protegulum; 2, permanent shell.]
+
+  _Classification_.--Beecher's division of the Brachiopoda into four
+  orders is based largely on the character of the aperture through which
+  the stalk or pedicle leaves the shell. To appreciate his diagnoses it
+  is necessary to understand certain terms, which unfortunately are not
+  used in the same sense by all authors. The triangular pedicle-opening
+  seen in _Orthis_, &c., has been named by James Hall and J.M. Clarke
+  the delthyrium. In some less primitive genera, e.g. _Terebratula_,
+  that type of opening is found in the young stages only; later it
+  becomes partly closed by two plates which grow out from the sides of
+  the delthyrium. These plates are secreted by the ventral lobe of the
+  mantle, and were named by von Buch in 1834 the "deltidium." The form
+  of the deltidium varies in different genera. The two plates may meet
+  in the middle line, and leave only a small oval opening near the
+  centre for the pedicle, as in _Rhynchonella_; or they may meet only
+  near the base of the delthyrium forming the lower boundary of the
+  circular pedicle-opening, as in _Terebratula_; or the right plate may
+  remain quite distinct from the left plate, as in _Terebratella_. The
+  pro-deltidium, a term introduced by Hall and Clarke, signifies a small
+  embryonic plate originating on the dorsal side of the body. It
+  subsequently becomes attached to the ventral valve, and develops into
+  the pseudo-deltidium, in the Neotremata and the Protremata. The
+  pseudo-deltidium (so named by Bronn in 1862) is a single plate which
+  grows from the apex of the delthyrium downwards, and may completely
+  close the aperture. The pseudo-deltidium is sometimes reabsorbed in
+  the adult. In the Telotremata neither pro-deltidium nor
+  pseudo-deltidium is known. In the Atremata the pro-deltidium does not
+  become fixed to the ventral valve, and does not develop into a
+  pseudo-deltidium. The American use of the term deltidium for the
+  structure which Europeans call the pseudo-deltidium makes for
+  confusion. The development of the brachial supports has been studied
+  by Friele, Fischer and Oehlert. A summary of the results is given by
+  Beecher (_Trans. Connect. Acad._ ix., 1893; reprinted in _Studies in
+  Evolution_, 1901).
+
+  The orders Atremata and Neotremata are frequently grouped together, as
+  the sub-class Inarticulata or Ecardines--the Tretenterata of
+  Davidson--and the orders Protremata and Telotremata, as the Articulata
+  or Testicardines--the Clistenterata of Davidson. The following scheme
+  of classification is based on Beecher's and Schubert's. Recent
+  families are printed in italic type.
+
+  [FIG. 32.--Diagram of the pedicle-opening of _Rhynchonella_. Magnified.
+
+    1. Umbo of ventral valve.
+    2. Deltidium.
+    3. Margin of delthyrium.
+    4. Pedicle-opening.
+    5. Dorsal valve.]
+
+
+  Class I. ECARDINES (INARTICULATA)
+
+  ORDER I. Atremata (Beecher).--Inarticulate Brachiopoda, with the
+  pedicle passing out between the umbones, the opening being shared by
+  both valves. Pro-deltidium attached to dorsal valves.
+  FAMILIES.--PATERINIDAE, OBOLIDAE, TRIMERELLIDAE, LINGULELLIDAE,
+  _LINGULIDAE_, LIGULASMATIDAE.
+
+  ORDER II. Neotremata (Beecher).--More or less circular, cone-shaped,
+  inarticulate Brachiopoda. The pedicle passes out at right angles to
+  the plane of junction of the valves of the shell; the opening is
+  confined to the ventral valve, and may take the form of a slit, or may
+  be closed by the development of a special plate called the listrium,
+  or by a pseudo-deltidium. Pro-deltidium attached to ventral valve.
+  FAMILIES.--ACROTRETIDAE, SIPHONOTRETIDAE, TREMATIDAE, _DISCINIDAE_,
+  _CRANIIDAE_.
+
+
+  Class II. TESTICARDINES (ARTICULATA)
+
+  ORDER III. Protremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with
+  pedicle-opening restricted to ventral valve, and either open at the
+  hinge line or more or less completely closed by a pseudo-deltidium,
+  which may disappear in adult. The pro-deltidium originating on the
+  dorsal surface later becomes anchylosed with the ventral valve.
+  FAMILIES.--KUTORGINIDAE, EICHWALDIIDAE, BILLINGSELLIDAE,
+  STROPHOMENIDAE, _THECIDIIDAE_, PRODUCTIDAE, RICHTHOFENIDAE, ORTHIDAE,
+  CLITAMBONITIDAE, SYNTROPHIIDAE, PORAMBONITIDAE, PENTAMERIDAE.
+
+  ORDER IV. Telotremata (Beecher).--Articulate Brachiopoda, with the
+  pedicle-opening, confined in later life to the ventral valve, and
+  placed at the umbo or beneath it. Deltidium present, but no
+  pro-deltidium. Lophophore supported by calcareous loops, &c.
+  FAMILIES.--PROTORHYNCHIDAE, _RHYNCHONELLIDAE_, CENTRONELLIDAE,
+  _TEREBRATULIDAE_, STRINGOCEPHALIDAE, MEGALANTERIDAE,
+  _TEREBRATELLIDAE_, ATRYPIDAE, SPIRIFERIDAE, ATHYRIDAE.
+
+  _Affinities_.--Little light has been thrown on the affinities of the
+  Brachiopoda by recent research, though speculation has not been
+  wanting. Brachiopods have been at various times placed with the
+  Mollusca, the Chaetopoda, the Chaetognatha, the Phoronidea, the
+  Polyzoa, the Hemichordata, and the Urochordata. None of these
+  alliances has borne close scrutiny. The suggestion to place
+  Brachiopods with the Polyzoa, _Phoronis, Rhabdopleura_ and
+  _Cephalodiscus_, in the Phylum Podaxonia made in _Ency. Brit._ (vol.
+  xix, ninth edition, pp. 440-441) has not met with acceptance, and
+  until we have a fuller account of the embryology of some one form,
+  preferably an Inarticulate, it is wiser to regard the group as a very
+  isolated one. It may, however, be pointed out that Brachiopods seem to
+  belong to that class of animal which commences life as a larva with
+  three segments, and that tri-segmented larvae have been found now in
+  several of the larger groups.
+
+  _Distribution._--Brachiopods first appear in the Lower Cambrian, and
+  reached their highest development in the Silurian, from which upwards
+  of 2000 species are known, and were nearly as numerous in the Devonian
+  period; at present they are represented by some 140 recent species.
+  The following have been found in the British area, as defined by A.M.
+  Norman, _Terebratulina caput-serpentis_ L., _Terebratula (Gwynia)
+  capsula_ Jeff., _Magellania (Macandrevia) cranium_ Mull., _M.
+  septigera_ Loven, _Terebratella spitzbergenensis_ Dav., _Megathyris
+  decollata_ Chemn., _Cistella cistellula_ S. Wood, _Cryptopora gnomon_
+  Jeff., _Rhynchonella (Hemithyris) psittacea_ Gmel., _Crania anomala_
+  Mull., and _Discinisca atlantica_ King. About one-half the 120
+  existing species are found above the 100-fathoms line. Below 150
+  fathoms they are rare, but a few such as _Terebratulina wyvillei_ are
+  found down to 2000 fathoms. _Lingula_ is essentially a very shallow
+  water form. As a rule the genera of the northern hemisphere differ
+  from those of the southern. A large number of specimens of a species
+  are usually found together, since their only mode of spreading is
+  during the ciliated larval stage, which although it swims vigorously
+  can only cover a few millimetres an hour; still it may be carried some
+  little distance by currents.
+
+  Undue stress is often laid on the fact that _Lingula_ has come down to
+  us apparently unchanged since Cambrian times, whilst _Crania_, and
+  forms very closely resembling _Discina_ and _Rhynchonella_, are found
+  from the Ordovician strata onwards. The former statement is, however,
+  true of animals from other classes at least as highly organized as
+  Brachiopods, e.g. the Gasteropod _Capulus_, whilst most of the
+  invertebrate classes were represented in the Ordovician by forms which
+  do not differ from their existing representatives in any important
+  respect.
+
+  A full bibliography of Brachiopoda (recent and fossil) is to be found
+  in Davidson's Monograph of British Fossil Brachiopods, _Pal. Soc.
+  Mon._ vi., 1886. The Monograph on Recent Brachiopoda, by the same
+  author, _Tr. Linn. Soc. London_, Zool. ser. ii. vol. iv., 1886-1888,
+  must on no account be omitted.     (A. E. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Subgenera are indicated by round, synonyms by square brackets.
+
+
+
+
+BRACHISTOCHRONE (from the Gr. [Greek: brachistos], shortest, and
+[Greek: chronos], time), a term invented by John Bernoulli in 1694 to
+denote the curve along which a body passes from one fixed point to
+another in the shortest time. When the directive force is constant, the
+curve is a cycloid (q.v.); under other conditions, spirals and other
+curves are described (see MECHANICS).
+
+
+
+
+BRACHYCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed), a term invented by Andreas
+Retzius to denote those skulls of which the width from side to side was
+little less than the length from front to back, their ratio being as 80
+to 100, as in those of the Mongolian type. Thus taking the length as
+100, if the width exceeds 80, the skull is to be classed as
+brachycephalic. The prevailing form of the head of civilized races is
+brachycephalic. It is supposed that a brachycephalic race inhabited
+Europe before the Celts. Among those peoples whose heads show marked
+brachycephaly are the Indo-Chinese, the Savoyards, Croatians,
+Bavarians, Lapps, Burmese, Armenians and Peruvians. (See CRANIOMETRY.)
+
+
+
+
+BRACKYLOGUS (from Gr. [Greek: brachys], short, and [Greek: logos],
+word), title applied in the middle of the 16th century to a work
+containing a systematic exposition of the Roman law, which some writers
+have assigned to the reign of the emperor Justinian, and others have
+treated as an apocryphal work of the 16th century. The earliest extant
+edition of this work was published at Lyons in 1549, under the title of
+_Corpus Legum per modum Institutionum_; and the title _Brachylogus
+totius Juris Civilis_ appears for the first time in an edition published
+at Lyons in 1553. The origin of the work may be referred with great
+probability to the 12th century. There is internal evidence that it was
+composed subsequently to the reign of Louis le Debonnaire (778-840), as
+it contains a Lombard law of that king's, which forbids the testimony of
+a clerk to be received against a layman. On the other hand its style and
+reasoning is far superior to that of the law writers of the 10th and
+11th centuries; while the circumstance that the method of its author has
+not been in the slightest degree influenced by the school of the
+Gloss-writers (Glossatores) leads fairly to the conclusion that he wrote
+before that school became dominant at Bologna. Savigny, who traced the
+history of the _Brachylogus_ with great care, is disposed to think that
+it is the work of Irnerius himself (_Geschichte des rom. Rechts im
+Mittelalter_). Its value is chiefly historical, as it furnishes evidence
+that a knowledge of Justinian's legislation was always maintained in
+northern Italy. The author of the work has adopted the _Institutes_ of
+Justinian as the basis of it, and draws largely on the _Digest_, the
+_Code_ and the _Novels_; while certain passages, evidently taken from
+the _Sententiae Receptae_ of Julius Paulus, imply that the author was
+also acquainted with the Visigothic code of Roman law compiled by order
+of Alaric II.
+
+  An edition by E. Bocking was published at Berlin in 1829, under the
+  title of _Corpus Legum sive Brachylogus Juris Civilis_. See also H.
+  Fitting, _Uber die Heimath und das Alter des sogenannten Brachylogus_
+  (Berlin, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+BRACKET, in architecture and carpentering, a projecting feature either
+in wood or metal for holding things together or supporting a shelf. The
+same feature in stone is called a "console" (q.v.). In furniture it is a
+small ornamental shelf for a wall or a corner, to bear knick-knacks,
+china or other bric-a-brac. The word has been referred to "brace,"
+clamp, Lat. _bracchium_, arm, but the earliest form "bragget" (1580)
+points to the true derivation from the Fr. _braguette_, or Span.
+_bragueta_ (Lat. _bracae_, breeches), used both of the front part of a
+pair of breeches and of the architectural feature. The sense development
+is not clear, but it has no doubt been influenced by the supposed
+connexion with "brace."
+
+
+
+
+BRACKET-FUNGI. The term "bracket" has been given to those hard, woody
+fungi that grow on trees or timber in the form of semicircular brackets.
+They belong to the order _Polyporeae_, distinguished by the layer of
+tubes or pores on the under surface within which the spores are borne.
+The mycelium, or vegetable part of the fungus, burrows in the tissues of
+the tree, and often destroys it; the "bracket" represents the fruiting
+stage, and produces innumerable spores which gain entrance to other
+trees by some wound or cut surface; hence the need of careful forestry.
+Many of these woody fungi persist for several years, and a new layer of
+pores is superposed on the previous season's growth.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLESHAM BEDS, in geology, a series of clays and marls, with sandy
+and lignitic beds, in the Middle Eocene of the Hampshire Basin, England.
+They are well developed in the Isle of Wight and on the mainland
+opposite; and receive their name from their occurrence at Bracklesham in
+Sussex. The thickness of the deposit is from 100 to 400 ft. Fossil
+mollusca are abundant, and fossil fish are to be found, as well as the
+_Palaeophis_, a sea-snake. Nummulites and other foraminifera also occur.
+The Bracklesham Beds lie between the Barton Clay above and the
+Bournemouth Beds, Lower Bagshot, below. In the London Basin these beds
+are represented only by thin sandy clays In the Middle Bagshot group.
+In the Paris Basin the "Calcaire grossier" lies upon the same geological
+horizon.
+
+  See F. Dixon, _Geology of Sussex_ (new ed., 1878); F.E. Edwards and
+  S.V. Wood, "Monograph of Eocene Mollusca," _Palaeontographical Soc._
+  vol. i. (1847-1877); "Geology of the Isle of Wight," _Mem. Geol.
+  Survey_ (2nd ed., 1889); C. Reid, "The Geology of the Country around
+  Southampton," _Mem. Geol. Survey_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLEY, THOMAS EGERTON, VISCOUNT (c. 1540-1617), English lord
+chancellor, was a natural son of Sir Richard Egerton of Ridley,
+Cheshire. The exact date of his birth is unrecorded, but, according to
+Wood,[1] when he became a commoner at Brasenose College, Oxford, in
+1556, he was about seventeen. He entered Lincoln's Inn in 1559, and was
+called to the bar in 1572, being chosen a governor of the society in
+1580, Lent reader in 1582, and treasurer in 1588. He early obtained
+legal renown and a large practice, and tradition relates that his
+skilful conduct of a case against the crown gained the notice of
+Elizabeth, who is reported to have declared: "In my troth he shall never
+plead against me again." Accordingly, on the 26th of June 1581, he was
+made solicitor-general. He represented Cheshire in the parliaments of
+1585 and 1586, but in his official capacity he often attended in the
+House of Lords. On the 3rd of March 1589 the Commons desired that he
+should return to their house, the Lords refusing on the ground that he
+was called by the queen's writ to attend in the Lords before his
+election by the House of Commons.[2] He took part in the trial of Mary,
+queen of Scots, in 1586, and advised that in her indictment she should
+only be styled "commonly called queen of Scots," to avoid scruples about
+judging a sovereign. He conducted several other state prosecutions. On
+the 2nd of June 1592 he was appointed attorney-general, and was knighted
+and made chamberlain of Chester in 1593. On the 10th of April 1594 he
+became master of the rolls, and on the 6th of May 1596 lord keeper of
+the great seal and a privy councillor, remaining, however, a commoner as
+Sir Thomas Egerton, and presiding in the Lords as such during the whole
+reign of Elizabeth. He kept in addition the mastership of the rolls, the
+whole work of the chancery during this period falling on his shoulders
+and sometimes causing inconvenience to suitors[3]. His promotion was
+welcomed from all quarters. "I think no man," wrote a contemporary to
+Essex, "ever came to this dignity with more applause than this worthy
+gentleman."[4]
+
+Egerton became one of the queen's most trusted advisers and one of the
+greatest and most striking figures at her court. He was a leading member
+of the numerous special commissions, including the ecclesiastical
+commission, and was the queen's interpreter in her communications to
+parliament. In 1598 he was employed as a commissioner for negotiating
+with the Dutch, obtaining great credit by the treaty then effected, and
+in 1600 in the same capacity with Denmark. In 1597, in consequence of
+his unlawful marriage with his second wife, in a private house without
+banns, the lord keeper incurred a sentence of excommunication, and was
+obliged to obtain absolution from the bishop of London.[5] He was a firm
+friend of the noble but erratic and unfortunate Essex. He sought to
+moderate his violence and rashness, and after the scene in the council
+in July 1598, when the queen struck Essex and bade him go and be hanged,
+he endeavoured to reconcile him to the queen in an admirable letter
+which has often been printed.[6] On the arrival of Essex in London
+without leave from Ireland, and his consequent disgrace, he supported
+the queen's just authority, avoiding at the same time any undue severity
+to the offender. Essex was committed to his custody in York House from
+the 1st of October 1599 till the 5th of July 1600, when the lord keeper
+used his influence to recover for him the queen's favour and gave him
+kindly warnings concerning the necessity for caution in his conduct. On
+the 5th of June 1600 he presided over the court held at his house, which
+deprived Essex of his offices except that of master of the horse,
+treating him with leniency, not pressing the charge of treason but only
+that of disobedience, and interrupting him with kind intentions when he
+attempted to justify himself. After the trial he tried in vain to bring
+Essex to a sense of duty. On the 8th of February 1601, the day fixed for
+the rebellion, the lord keeper with other officers of state visited
+Essex at Essex House to demand the reason of the tumultuous assemblage.
+His efforts to persuade Essex to speak with him privately and explain
+his "griefs," and to refrain from violence, and his appeal to the
+company to depart peacefully on their allegiance, were ineffectual, and
+he was imprisoned by Essex for six hours, the mob calling out to kill
+him and to throw the great seal out of the window. Subsequently he
+abandoned all hope of saving Essex, and took an active part in his
+trial. On the 13th of February he made a speech in the Star Chamber,
+exposing the wickedness of the rebellion, and of the plot of Thomas Lea
+to surprise Elizabeth at her chamber door.[7] In July 1602, a few months
+before her death, Elizabeth visited the lord keeper at his house at
+Harefield in Middlesex, and he was one of those present during her last
+hours who received her faltering intimation as to her successor.
+
+On the accession of James I., Sir Thomas Egerton was reappointed lord
+keeper, resigning the mastership of the rolls in May 1603, and the
+chamberlainship of Chester in August. On the 21st of July he was created
+Baron Ellesmere, and on the 24th lord chancellor. His support of the
+king's prerogative was too faithful and undiscriminating. He approved of
+the harsh penalty inflicted upon Oliver St John in 1615 for denying the
+legality of benevolences, and desired that his sentencing of the
+prisoner "might be his last work to conclude his services."[8] In May
+1613 he caused the committal of Whitelocke to the Fleet for questioning
+the authority of the earl marshal's court. In 1604 he came into
+collision with the House of Commons. Sir Francis Goodwin, an outlaw,
+having been elected for Buckinghamshire contrary to the king's
+proclamation, the chancellor cancelled the return when made according to
+custom into chancery, and issued writs for a new election. The Commons,
+however, considering their privileges violated, restored Goodwin to his
+seat, and though the matter was in the present instance compromised by
+the choice of a third party, they secured for the future the right of
+judging in their own elections. He was at one with James in desiring to
+effect the union between England and Scotland, and served on the
+commission in 1604; and the English merchants who opposed the union and
+community of trade with the Scots were "roundly shaken by him." In 1608,
+in the great case of the Post Nati, he decided, with the assistance of
+the fourteen judges, that those born after the accession of James I. to
+the throne of England were English subjects and capable of holding lands
+in England; and he compared the two dissentient judges to the apostle
+Thomas, whose doubts only confirmed the faith of the rest. He did not,
+however, always show obedience to the king's wishes. He opposed the
+latter's Spanish policy, and in July 1615, in spite of James's most
+peremptory commands and threats, refused to put the great seal to the
+pardon of Somerset. In May 1616 he officiated as high steward in the
+trial of the latter and his countess for the murder of Overbury. He was
+a rigid churchman, hostile to both the Puritans and the Roman Catholics.
+He fully approved of the king's unfriendly attitude towards the former,
+adopted at the Hampton Court conference in 1604, and declared, in
+admiration of James's theological reasoning on this occasion, that he
+had never understood before the meaning of the legal maxim, _Rex est
+mixta persona cum sacerdote_. In 1605 he opposed the petition for the
+restitution of deprived Puritan ministers, and obtained an opinion from
+the judges that the petition was illegal. He supported the party of
+Abbot against Laud at Oxford, and represented to the king the unfitness
+of the latter to be president of St John's College. In 1605 he directed
+the judges to enforce the penal laws against the Roman Catholics.
+
+His vigorous and active public career closed with a great victory gained
+over the common law and his formidable antagonist, Sir Edward Coke. The
+chancellor's court of equity had originated in the necessity for a
+tribunal to decide cases not served by the common law, and to relax and
+correct the rigidity and insufficiency of the latter's procedure. The
+two jurisdictions had remained bitter rivals, the common-law bar
+complaining of the arbitrary and unrestricted powers of the chancellor,
+and the equity lawyers censuring and ridiculing the failures of justice
+in the courts of common law. The disputes between the courts, concerning
+which the king had already in 1615 remonstrated with the chancellor and
+Sir Edward Coke,[9] the lord chief justice, came to a crisis in 1616,
+when the court of chancery granted relief against judgments at common
+law in the cases of _Heath v. Rydley_ and _Courtney v. Granvil_. This
+relief was declared by Coke and other judges sitting with him to be
+illegal, and a counter-attack was made by a praemunire, brought against
+the parties concerned in the suit in chancery. The grand jury, however,
+refused to bring in a true bill against them, in spite of Coke's threats
+and assurances that the chancellor was dead, and the dispute was
+referred to the king himself, who after consulting his counsel and on
+Bacon's advice decided in favour of equity. The chancellor's triumph was
+a great one, and from this time the equitable jurisdiction of the court
+of chancery was unquestioned. In June 1616 he supported the king in his
+dispute with and dismissal of Coke in the case of the _commendams_,
+agreeing with Bacon that it was the judge's duty to communicate with the
+king, before giving judgments in which his interests were concerned, and
+in November warned the new lord chief justice against imitating the
+errors of his predecessor and especially his love of "popularity."[10]
+Writing in 1609 to Salisbury, the chancellor had described Coke (who had
+long been a thorn in his flesh) as a "frantic, turbulent and idle broken
+brayned fellow," apologizing for so often troubling Salisbury on this
+subject, "no fit exercise for a chancellor and a treasurer."[11] He now
+summoned Coke before him and communicated to him the king's
+dissatisfaction with his _Reports_, desiring, however, to be spared
+further service in his disgracing. After several petitions for leave to
+retire through failing health, he at last, on the 3rd of March 1617,
+delivered up to James the great seal, which he had held continuously for
+the unprecedented term of nearly twenty-one years. On the 7th of
+November 1616 he had been created Viscount Brackley, and his death took
+place on the 15th of March 1617. Half an hour before his decease James
+sent Bacon, then his successor as lord keeper, with the gift of an
+earldom, and the presidentship of the council with a pension of L3000 a
+year, which the dying man declined as earthly vanities with which he had
+no more concern. He was buried at Dodleston in Cheshire.
+
+As Lord Chancellor Ellesmere he is a striking figure in the long line of
+illustrious English judges. No instance of excessive or improper use of
+his jurisdiction is recorded, and the famous case which precipitated the
+contest between the courts was a clear travesty of justice, undoubtedly
+fit for the chancellor's intervention. He refused to answer any
+communications from suitors in his court,[12] and it was doubtless to
+Ellesmere (as weeding out the "enormous sin" of judicial corruption)[13]
+that John Donne, who was his secretary, addressed his fifth satire. He
+gained Camden's admiration, who records an anagram on his name, "Gestat
+Honorem." Bacon, whose merit he had early recognized, and whose claims
+to the office of solicitor-general he had unavailingly supported both in
+1594 and 1606, calls him "a true sage, a salvia in the garden of the
+state," and speaks with gratitude of his "fatherly kindness." Ben
+Jonson, among the poets, extolled in an epigram his "wing'd judgements,"
+"purest hands," and constancy. Though endowed with considerable
+oratorical gifts he followed the true judicial tradition and affected to
+despise eloquence as "not decorum for judges, that ought to respect the
+Matter and not the Humours of the Hearers."[14] Like others of his day
+he hoped to see a codification of the laws,[15] and appears to have had
+greater faith in judge-made law than in statutes of the realm, advising
+the parliament (October 27, 1601) "that laws in force might be revised
+and explained and no new laws made," and describing the Statute of Wills
+passed in Henry VIII.'s reign as the "ruin of ancient families" and "the
+nurse of forgeries." In the thirty-eighth year of Elizabeth he drew up
+rules for procedure in the Star Chamber,[16] restricting the fees, and
+in the eighth of James I. ordinances for remedying abuses in the court
+of chancery. In 1609 he published his judgment in the case of the Post
+Nati, which appears to be the only certain work of his authorship. The
+following have been ascribed to him:--_The Privileges and Prerogatives
+of the High Court of Chancery_ (1641); _Certain Observations concerning
+the Office of the Lord Chancellor_ (1651)--denied by Lord Chancellor
+Hardwicke in _A Discourse of the Judicial Authority of the Master of the
+Rolls_ (1728) to be Lord Ellesmere's work; _Observations on Lord Coke's
+Reports_, ed. by G. Paul (about 1710), the only evidence of his
+authorship being apparently that the MS. was in his handwriting; four
+MSS., bequeathed to his chaplain, Bishop Williams, viz. _The Prerogative
+Royal, Privileges of Parliament, Proceedings in Chancery_ and _The Power
+of the Star Chamber; Notes and Observations on Magna Charta, &c._, Sept.
+1615 (Harl. 4265, f. 35), and _An Abridgment of Lord Coke's Reports_
+(see MS. note by F. Hargrave in his copy of _Certain Observations
+concerning the Office of Lord Chancellor_, Brit. Mus. 510 a 5, also
+_Life of Egerton_, p. 80, note T, catalogue of Harleian collection, and
+Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_, 1806, ii. 170).
+
+He was thrice married. By his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
+Ravenscroft of Bretton, Flintshire, he had two sons and a daughter. The
+elder son, Thomas, predeceased him, leaving three daughters. The
+younger, John, succeeded his father as 2nd Viscount Brackley, was
+created earl of Bridgewater, and, marrying Lady Frances Stanley
+(daughter of his father's third wife, widow of the 5th earl of Derby),
+was the ancestor of the earls and dukes of Bridgewater (q.v.), whose
+male line became extinct in 1829. In 1846 the titles of Ellesmere and
+Brackley were revived in the person of the 1st earl of Ellesmere (q.v.),
+descended from Lady Louisa Egerton, daughter and co-heir of the 1st duke
+of Bridgewater.
+
+  No adequate life of Lord Chancellor Ellesmere has been written, for
+  which, however, materials exist in the Bridgewater MSS., very scantily
+  calendared in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24, and app. pt. vii. p.
+  126. A small selection, with the omission, however, of personal and
+  family matters intended for a separate projected _Life_ which was
+  never published, was edited by J.P. Collier for the Camden Society in
+  1840.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Athenae Oxon._ (Bliss), ii. 197.
+
+  [2] D'Ewes's _Parliaments of Elizabeth_, 441, 442.
+
+  [3] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1601-1603, p. 191.
+
+  [4] Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, i. 479.
+
+  [5] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. p. 24.
+
+  [6] T. Birch's _Mem. of Queen Elizabeth_, ii. 384.
+
+  [7] _Cal. of St. Pap., Dom._, 1598-1601, pp. 554, 583.
+
+  [8] _State Trials_, ii. 909.
+
+  [9] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 381.
+
+  [10] _Cal. St. Pap., Dom._, 1611-1618, p. 407.
+
+  [11] _Lansdowne MS._ 91, f. 41.
+
+  [12] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ app. pt. vii. p. 156.
+
+  [13] _Life of Donne_, by E. Gosse, i. 43.
+
+  [14] Judgment on the Post Nati.
+
+  [15] Speech to the parliament, 24th of October 1597.
+
+  [16] _Harleian MS._ 2310, f. i.; Gardiner's _Hist. of England_, ix. 56.
+
+
+
+
+BRACKLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the southern
+parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 59 m. N.W. by W.
+from London by the Great Central railway; served also by a branch of the
+London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 2467. The church of St
+Peter, the body of which is Decorated and Perpendicular, has a beautiful
+Early English tower. Magdalen College school was founded in 1447 by
+William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, bearing the name of his
+great college at Oxford. Of a previous foundation of the 12th century,
+called the Hospital of St John, the transitional Norman and Early
+English chapel remains. Brewing is carried on. The borough is under a
+mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3489 acres.
+
+Brackley (Brachelai, Brackele) was held in 1086 by Earl Alberie, from
+whom it passed to the earl of Leicester and thence to the families of De
+Quinci and Holand. Brilliant tournaments were held in 1249 and 1267, and
+others were prohibited in 1222 and 1244. The market, formerly held on
+Sunday, was changed in 1218 to Wednesday, and in answer to a writ of
+_Quo Warranto_ Maud de Holand claimed in 1330 that her family had held a
+fair on St Andrew's day from time immemorial. In 1553 Mary granted two
+fairs to the earl of Derby. By charter of 1686 James II. incorporated
+the town under a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 26 burgesses, granted three new
+fairs and confirmed the old fair and market. In 1708 Anne granted four
+fairs to the earl of Bridgewater, and in 1886 the borough had a new
+charter of incorporation under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors
+under the Municipal Corporations Act of 1882. Camden (_Brit._ p. 430)
+says that Brackley was formerly a famous staple for wool. It first sent
+members to parliament in 1547, and continued to send two representatives
+till disfranchised by the Reform Act of 1832. The town formerly had a
+considerable woollen and lace-making trade.
+
+
+
+
+BRACQUEMOND, FELIX (1833-   ), French painter and etcher, was born in
+Paris. He was trained in early youth as a trade lithographer, until
+Guichard, a pupil of Ingres, took him to his studio. His portrait of his
+grandmother, painted by him at the age of nineteen, attracted Theophile
+Gautier's attention at the Salon. He applied himself to engraving and
+etching about 1853, and played a leading and brilliant part in the
+revival of the etcher's art in France. Altogether he has produced over
+eight hundred plates, comprising portraits, landscapes, scenes of
+contemporary life, and bird-studies, besides numerous interpretations of
+other artists' paintings, especially those of Meissonier, Gustave Moreau
+and Corot. After having been attached to the Sevres porcelain factory in
+1870, he accepted a post as art manager of the Paris _atelier_ of the
+firm of Haviland of Limoges. He was connected by a link of firm
+friendship with Manet, Whistler, and all the other fighters in the
+impressionist cause, and received all the honours that await the
+successful artist in France, including the grade of officer of the
+Legion of Honour in 1889.
+
+
+
+
+BRACTON, HENRY DE (d. 1268), English judge and writer on English law.
+His real name was Bratton, and in all probability he derived it either
+from Bratton Fleming or from Bratton Clovelly, both of them villages in
+Devonshire. It is only after his death that his name appears as
+"Bracton." He seems to have entered the king's service as a clerk under
+the patronage of William Raleigh, who after long service as a royal
+justice died bishop of Winchester in 1250. Bracton begins to appear as a
+justice in 1245, and from 1248 until his death in 1268 he was steadily
+employed as a justice of assize in the south-western counties,
+especially Somerset, Devon and Cornwall. During the earlier part of this
+period he was also sitting as a judge in the king's central court, and
+was there hearing those pleas which "followed the king"; in other words,
+he was a member of that section of the central tribunal which was soon
+to be distinguished as the king's bench. From this position he retired
+or was dismissed in or about the year 1257, shortly before the meeting
+of the Mad Parliament at Oxford in 1258. Whether his disappearance is to
+be connected with the political events of this turbulent time is
+uncertain. He continued to take the assizes in the south-west, and in
+1267 he was a member of a commission of prelates, barons and judges
+appointed to hear the complaints of the disinherited partisans of Simon
+de Montfort. In 1259 he became rector of Combe-in-Teignhead, in 1261
+rector of Barnstaple, in 1264 archdeacon of Barnstaple, and, having
+resigned the archdeaconry, chancellor of Exeter cathedral; he also held
+a prebend in the collegiate church at Bosham. Already in 1245 he enjoyed
+a dispensation enabling him to hold three ecclesiastical benefices. He
+died in 1268 and was buried in the nave of Exeter cathedral, and a
+chantry for his soul was endowed out of the revenues of the manor of
+Thorverton.
+
+His fame is due to a treatise on the laws and customs of England which
+is sufficiently described elsewhere (see ENGLISH LAW). The main part of
+it seems to have been compiled between 1250 and 1256; but apparently it
+is an unfinished work. This may be due to the fact that when he ceased
+to be a member of the king's central court Bracton was ordered to
+surrender certain judicial records which he had been using as raw
+material. Even though it be unfinished his book is incomparably the best
+work produced by any English lawyer in the middle ages.
+
+  The treatise was published in 1569 by Richard Tottel. This text was
+  reprinted in 1640. An edition (1878-1883) with English translation
+  was included in the Rolls Series. Manuscript copies are numerous, and
+  a critical edition is a desideratum. See Bracton's _Note-Book_ (ed.
+  Maitland, 1887); _Bracton and Azo_ (Selden Society, 1895).
+       (F. W. M.)
+
+
+
+
+BRADAWL (from "brad," a flat nail, and "awl," a piercing tool), a small
+tool used for boring holes (see TOOL).
+
+
+
+
+BRADDOCK, EDWARD (1695?-1755), British general, was born in Perthshire,
+Scotland, about 1695. He was the son of Major-General Edward Braddock
+(d. 1725), and joined the Coldstream Guards in 1710. In 1747 as a
+lieutenant-colonel he served under the prince of Orange in Holland
+during the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom. In 1753 he was given the colonelcy
+of the 14th foot, and in 1754 he became a major-general. Being appointed
+shortly afterwards to command against the French in America, he landed
+in Virginia in February 1755. After some months of preparation, in which
+he was hampered by administrative confusion and want of resources, he
+took the field with a picked column, in which George Washington served
+as a volunteer officer, intended to attack Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg,
+Pa.). The column crossed the Monongahela river on the 9th of July and
+almost immediately afterwards fell into an ambuscade of French and
+Indians. The troops were completely surprised and routed, and Braddock,
+rallying his men time after time, fell at last mortally wounded. He was
+carried off the field with difficulty, and died on the 13th. He was
+buried at Great Meadows, where the remnant of the column halted on its
+retreat to reorganize. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)
+
+
+
+
+BRADDOCK, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, 10 m. S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 8561; (1900)
+15,654, of whom 5111 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 19,357. Braddock
+is served by the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Pittsburg &
+Lake Erie railways. Its chief industry is the manufacture of
+steel--especially steel rails; among its other manufactures are
+pig-iron, wire rods, wire nails, wire bale ties, lead pipe, brass and
+electric signs, cement and plaster. In 1905 the value of the borough's
+factory products was $4,199,079. Braddock has a Carnegie library.
+Kennywood Park, near by, is a popular resort. The municipality owns and
+operates the water-works. Braddock was named in honour of the English
+general Edward Braddock, who in 1755 met defeat and death near the site
+of the present borough at the hands of a force of French and Indians.
+The borough was first settled at the close of the 18th century, and was
+incorporated in 1867.
+
+
+
+
+BRADDON, MARY ELIZABETH (1837-   ), English novelist, daughter of Henry
+Braddon, solicitor, of Skirdon Lodge, Cornwall, and sister of Sir Edward
+Braddon, prime minister of Tasmania, was born in London in 1837. She
+began at an early age to contribute to periodicals, and in 1861 produced
+her first novel, _The Trail of the Serpent_. In the same year appeared
+_Garibaldi_, accompanied by _Olivia_, and other poems, chiefly
+narrative, a volume of extremely spirited verse, deserving more notice
+than it has received. In 1862 her reputation as a novelist was made by a
+favourable review in _The Times of Lady Audley's Secret_. _Aurora
+Floyd_, a novel with a strong affinity to _Madame Bovary_, followed, and
+achieved equal success. Its immediate successors, _Eleanor's Victory,
+John Marchmont's Legacy, Henry Dunbar_, remain with her former works the
+best-known of her novels, but all her numerous books have found a large
+and appreciative public. They give, indeed, the great body of readers of
+fiction exactly what they require; melodramatic in plot and character,
+conventional in their views of life, they are yet distinguished by
+constructive skill and opulence of invention. For a considerable time
+Miss Braddon conducted _Belgravia_, in which several of her novels
+appeared. In 1874 she married Mr John Maxwell, publisher, her son, W.B.
+Maxwell, afterwards becoming known as a clever novelist and newspaper
+correspondent.
+
+
+
+
+BRADFORD, JOHN (1510?-1555), English Protestant martyr, was born at
+Manchester in the early part of the reign of Henry VIII., and educated
+at the local grammar school. Being a good penman and accountant, he
+became secretary to Sir John Harrington, paymaster of the English
+forces in France. Bradford at this time was gay and thoughtless, and to
+support his extravagance he seems to have appropriated some of the money
+entrusted to him; but he afterwards made full restitution. In April 1547
+he took chambers in the Inner Temple, and began to study law; but
+finding divinity more congenial, he removed, in the following year, to
+St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, where he studied with such assiduity
+that in little more than a year he was admitted by special grace to the
+degree of master of arts, and was soon after made fellow of Pembroke
+Hall, the fellowship being "worth seven pound a year." One of his pupils
+was John Whitgift. Bishop Ridley, who in 1550 was translated to the see
+of London, sent for him and appointed him his chaplain. In 1553 he was
+also made chaplain to Edward VI., and became one of the most popular
+preachers in the kingdom, earning high praise from John Knox. Soon after
+the accession of Mary he was arrested on a charge of sedition, and
+confined in the Tower and the king's bench prison for a year and a half.
+During this time he wrote several epistles which were dispersed in
+various parts of the kingdom. He was at last brought to trial (January
+1554/5) before the court in which Bishop Gardiner sat as chief, and,
+refusing to retract his principles, was condemned as a heretic and
+burnt, with John Leaf, in Smithfield on the 1st of July 1555.
+
+  His writings, which consist chiefly of sermons, meditations, tracts,
+  letters and prayers, were edited by A. Townsend for the Parker Society
+  (2 vols. 8vo, Cambridge, 1848-1853).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 4, Slice 3, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+***** This file should be named 33698.txt or 33698.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/9/33698/
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/33698.zip b/33698.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2dc0796
--- /dev/null
+++ b/33698.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a9d793
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #33698 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33698)