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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+
+Author: Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+Release Date: August 30, 2010 [EBook #33589]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+BY MRS. ARTHUR BELL
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART," "MASTERPIECES OF
+THE GREAT ARTISTS," "REPRESENTATIVE PAINTERS OF
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
+
+[Illustration: logo]
+
+LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
+
+67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH
+
+NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAP.                                                      PAGE
+
+      INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS--MATERIALS
+          EMPLOYED--DEFINITION OF DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF
+          THE TWO MAIN STYLES, TRABEATED AND ARCUATED         v
+
+   I. EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE      7
+
+  II. GREEK ARCHITECTURE                                     13
+
+ III. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE                                     22
+
+  IV. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE                           31
+
+   V. BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE                   36
+
+  VI. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE                                45
+
+ VII. ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE              52
+
+VIII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE                          60
+
+  IX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN                   72
+
+   X. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE                     83
+
+  XI. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN              88
+
+      INDEX                                                  93
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS--MATERIALS EMPLOYED--DEFINITION OF DISTINCTIVE
+FEATURES OF THE TWO MAIN STYLES, TRABEATED AND ARCUATED
+
+
+It is only when a building entirely fulfils the purpose for which it is
+intended and bears the impress of a genuine style that it takes rank as
+a work of architecture. This definition, exclusive though it at first
+sight appears, brings within the province of the art every structure
+which combines with practical utility beauty of design and execution,
+from the humblest cottage to the most dignified temple or palace.
+Suitability of material and harmony with its surroundings are among the
+minor factors that give to a building vitality of character and
+contribute to its enduring value, a value enhanced by its reflection of
+the needs and aspirations of those by whom and for whom it was erected.
+
+Wood appears to have been the earliest material used for the building of
+a home when out-of-door dwellings took the place of the caves that were
+the first shelters of primitive man. At Joigny in France there still
+exist examples of what are supposed to be the most ancient of all such
+dwellings, namely circular holes, locally known as _buvards_, in which
+the trunk of a tree had been fixed, the branches plastered over with
+clay forming the roof of a simple but rain-proof refuge. Huts of wattle
+and hurdle work dating from prehistoric times have also been preserved,
+some rising from the ground, others from platforms resting on piles sunk
+in the beds of lakes. These were in their time superseded by stronger
+structures, with walls made of squared beams piled up horizontally and
+fastened together at the corners with wooden pegs; the roof being formed
+of roughly sawn planks. Out of such primeval houses as these were
+evolved in the course of centuries the picturesque half-timbered
+cottages of mediæval Europe and the quaint wooden churches of Norway
+such as the characteristic one at Hitterdal.
+
+Limestone, granite, and sandstone were used for building at a very
+remote period in much the same way as wood, large blocks, fresh from the
+quarry, of all manner of different shapes, being piled up horizontally
+or stood on edge, no cement being employed, though in certain cases
+crushed stone was used to fill up the spaces between the blocks. To
+walls or buildings of which courses of undressed stone were the only
+materials, the name of Cyclopean has been given because of the erroneous
+belief that it was originated by the Cyclopes, an imaginary race of
+giants, supposed to have lived in Thrace, a province of ancient Greece.
+
+Bricks, that is to say, dried blocks of clay, were used at a very early
+date as a supplement to or substitute for wood and stone for building
+purposes. The most ancient bricks were not subjected to artificial heat
+but were simply exposed to the sun, and even when kiln-baked bricks were
+introduced they were often employed merely to face the older variety.
+Spacious and lofty buildings consisting entirely of bricks were erected
+at a very early date in Assyria, Persia, and elsewhere, and some of the
+most noteworthy architectural survivals of the Roman Empire are of the
+same material.
+
+The main features of a building are determined by the shape of the walls
+or the mode of arrangement of the pillars that take the place of walls,
+the way in which the roof is constructed, and that in which the openings
+of the doors and windows are spanned. The earliest roofs were flat, and
+the most ancient mode of linking together the supports of doors and
+windows was to place a plank of wood or slab of stone known as a
+_lintel_ across them at the top. To this style of roofing and spanning,
+which reached its most perfect development in the temples of Greece, the
+name of the _trabeated_ was given, derived in the first instance from
+the so-called _trabea_, a toga adorned with horizontal stripes.
+
+It was only by very gradual degrees that the trabeated mode of roofing
+and spanning was succeeded by what is known as the _arcuated_, or that
+in which the arch takes the place of the horizontal beam. In early Roman
+temples and palaces the Greek style was long carefully copied, but in
+utilitarian works such as bridges, viaducts, and drains the arch was
+employed at a very remote period. An arch whether circular or pointed
+consists of two series of stones cut into the form of wedges known as
+_voussoirs_, a central one at the apex or highest point called the
+_keystone_ locking the two series together. This beautiful contrivance,
+the inventor of which is unknown, gradually revolutionised the science
+of architecture. It was used at first, tentatively as it were, in
+combination with the horizontal beam or slab of stone, but in the end
+became in its rounded form the distinctive peculiarity of the Romanesque
+and in its pointed shape of the Gothic style.
+
+
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The most ancient existing examples of Egyptian architecture are the
+royal tombs of the Memphite kingdom known as the Pyramids, of which the
+oldest is that of King Seneferu (about 3000 B.C.) at Medum, and the
+largest, which rises to a height of 481 feet from a base 764 feet
+square, that called the Great Pyramid of King Cheops (3788-3666) at
+Ghizeh, near Cairo, on which 100,000 men are said to have been
+continuously employed for thirty years. The latter is not only a marvel
+of constructive skill, but is by many authorities considered to be a
+most accurately designed astronomical observatory.
+
+[Illustration: Section of King's Chamber, and of Passage in Great
+Pyramid]
+
+The Pyramids consist of masses of admirably squared and polished stones,
+in certain cases supplemented with bricks piled up in the form of a
+rectangle around a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which was most
+carefully concealed. When the body of the monarch had been placed in it
+the tapering mound above it was finished off with huge facing blocks,
+that were skilfully worked into the angle required and finally levelled
+to a smooth surface.
+
+Near the Pyramids of the kings are the tombs, known as Mastabas, of
+their wives and children and of the great officers of state. They are
+constructed of stone, are square or oblong in form, and their walls are
+adorned with paintings of scenes from contemporary life, the whole
+reminiscent of earlier timber structures. Later tombs are those hewn out
+of the living rock at Beni Hassan and elsewhere, dating from about 2500
+B.C., with porticoes upheld by columns resembling those of Greek
+temples and flat or curved roofs, the latter suggestive of the principle
+of the arch having been known to those who excavated them.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Hall at Karnak]
+
+It was between 1600 B.C. and 1110 B.C. that the Egyptians reached their
+highest point of civilisation, and it was during that period that were
+erected the magnificent Theban temples, of which those at Karnak and
+Luxor, which were connected by an avenue of colossal sphinxes, are the
+finest still remaining. The plan of all Egyptian temples of whatever
+size was the same: a horizontal gateway flanked on either side by masses
+of masonry of considerably greater height than it, known as pylons,
+their surfaces enriched with symbolic carvings, giving access to a
+square space open to the sky, and partly surrounded with cloisters,
+leading into a noble hall of huge dimensions, its flat roof upheld by
+columns, some with capitals resembling lotus buds, others representing
+the head of the goddess Isis. Beyond this hall were a number of small
+dark rooms, the use of which has never been ascertained, enclosing
+within them the nucleus of the whole, the low narrow mysterious cell or
+sanctuary in which was enshrined the image of the god to whom the temple
+was dedicated. Outside these noble buildings were ranged obelisks, or
+four-sided tapering-pillars of great height, covered with hieroglyphics
+commemorating the triumphs of the kings, and colossal figures, few of
+which remain _in situ_, which added greatly to the dignity of the
+appearance of the whole.
+
+To the same period as the temples of Thebes belong those of very similar
+general design hewn out of the sides of the mountains of Nubia, of which
+the best example is the larger of the two at Ipsambul, specially
+noteworthy for the huge seated figure of the monarch for whom it was
+built, the great Rameses II, guarding the entrance to it. The tombs of
+the Theban rulers, like the Nubian temples, were hewn out of the living
+rock, and are many of them, notably those known as the Tombs of the
+Kings and the Tombs of the Queens in the plains watered by the Nile, of
+vast extent, labyrinths of passages, alternating with large rooms,
+leading to the actual sepulchral chamber.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb at Beni Hassan]
+
+Of considerably later date than any of the buildings referred to above
+are the temples of Denderah, Edfou, and Philæ, erected after the
+conquest of Egypt by the Greeks, but they all resemble those of the
+Theban dynasty in general style, whilst that at Esneh is a good example
+of the results of Roman influence.
+
+Very great is the contrast to Egyptian architecture presented by the
+Asiatic buildings that have been preserved to the present day. In the
+former stone was the usual material employed, and the mode of
+construction was as a general rule that known as the post and lintel,
+whilst in the latter brick was almost exclusively used, and the arch was
+a distinctive feature. The so-called Babylonian or Chaldean, Assyrian,
+and Persian styles resemble each other so greatly that they may justly
+be said to belong to one type, evolved by the inhabitants of the
+extensive region watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, who like the
+Egyptians attained to a very advanced civilisation at a remote period.
+Of the temples not a single one has been preserved, but the remains have
+recently been excavated, in the mounds on the site of Babylon, of four
+that consisted of numerous chambers enclosing a large court with towered
+gateways, whilst at Assur another has been uncovered of a somewhat
+similar design. To atone for the lack of temples many Asiatic palaces
+have been to some extent reconstructed, the most remarkable being those
+unearthed near the villages of Nimrod, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, all
+supposed to be relics of Nineveh. They originally consisted of lofty
+many-roomed structures raised on high platforms, and entered from arched
+gateways flanked by colossal winged bulls of stone. The brick walls were
+encased in alabaster slabs carved with figure subjects in low relief,
+some of which are in the British Museum, and galleries, rising from
+columns with capitals that foreshadowed Greek forms, admitted air and
+light freely. The Palace of Nebuchadnezzar has also recently been
+identified, and must when uninjured have been an immense castle-like
+pile with a vast number of courts and halls to which a paved way led up.
+
+[Illustration: Terrace Wall at Khorsabad]
+
+Tombs and palaces are the chief relics of Persian architecture. Many of
+the former, notably that near Murghab, supposed to have been the
+sepulchre of Cyrus, resemble Greek temples in general style, whilst
+others are rock-cut and recall the Mastabas of Egypt. Of the palaces
+those at Persepolis were the most remarkable, for in them Persian
+architecture reached its fullest development. Their ruins, that rise
+from a platform some forty feet high hewn out of the surface of the
+living rock, to which long flights of steps led up, consist of vast
+columned halls entered from detached porticoes known as propylæa. When
+intact the largest of these halls, named after Xerxes, must have
+exceeded in size the cathedrals of Canterbury or Winchester.
+
+Other noteworthy relics of early Asiatic architecture are the tombs of
+Lycia, Phrygia, and Lydia. The first named--of which the so-called tomb
+of the Harpies now in the British Museum is a typical example--are all
+either cut in the living rock or carved out of detached masses of stone,
+in either case recalling in their general appearance the log-huts of
+prehistoric times. More ornate than those of Lycia, the Phrygian
+sepulchral monuments, of which the grave of Midas at Doganlu is the
+finest, are also rock hewn, but their shape and decoration are more
+suggestive of the tent than the wooden dwelling, whilst those in Lydia
+are comparatively primitive, being in some cases, notably in the Tumulus
+of Tantalus on the Gulf of Smyrna, mere masses of stone heaped up above
+a huge mound.
+
+[Illustration: Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes]
+
+[Illustration: Capital of Lât]
+
+The most ancient examples of Indian architecture are the Stambhas or
+Lâts, the earliest dating from the time of Asoka (272-236 B.C.), that
+are pillars bearing inscriptions and surmounted by a symbolic animal
+such as an elephant or a lion, of which there is a good specimen at
+Allahabad, and the Stupas or Topes, mounds encased in masonry, crowned
+by a reliquary containing memorials of Buddha or of his chief disciples,
+and enclosed within a stone railing elaborately carved with scenes from
+the life of the founder of Buddhism, with an even more ornate gateway at
+each of the four corners, of which the finest is the larger of two at
+Sanchi in Central India. Even more interesting than the Lâts and Stupas
+are the Viharas or Buddhist monasteries, of which there is a specially
+good example at Nigope near Behar, and the Chaityas or temples, of which
+those at Karli, Ellora, Ajunta, and Elephanta are amongst the finest.
+All alike hewn out of the living rock, the former consist of a square
+central hall with or without columns, surrounded by cells for the
+monks, whilst the latter, of more complicated design, resemble in
+general plan a Roman basilica. A wide nave with rows of massive pillars
+upholding a slightly domed roof is flanked by lateral aisles, and at the
+eastern end rises a semicircular sanctuary containing a seated figure of
+Buddha.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Cave at Karli]
+
+Out of the Buddhist religion grew that known as the Jaina, and many fine
+temples, of which the most remarkable are that at Sadri and the Dilwana
+Temple on Mount Abu, remain that were erected for the use of its
+professors. It was usual to group a number on some hill-top, and the
+plan of each was generally that of a Greek cross, a columned portico
+giving access to a complex collection of shrines, each approached by
+avenues of pillars and roofed in with a separate dome, whilst the
+exterior was adorned with rounded towers finished off with pointed
+finials suggestive of a spire, the whole both inside and out being
+richly decorated with carvings.
+
+[Illustration: View of Temple at Sadri]
+
+Hindu architecture, or that of those who hold the Brahmanic faith,
+differs very greatly from Buddhist, its chief characteristic being a
+lofty pyramidal tower of several stories, as a general rule covered with
+ornament, that reached its fullest development in the so-called pagodas,
+of which there are fine specimens at Jaggernaut, Mahavellipore, and
+Palitana. In different parts of India various modifications of this
+general style occur to which distinctive names have been given, but the
+same spirit may be said to pervade them all, from the great Temples of
+Bhuvaneswar, Tanjore, Bundaban, and elsewhere, to the humbler shrines
+scattered throughout the length and breadth of the vast continent and of
+its island dependencies.
+
+There is nothing very distinctive about the architecture of China or
+Japan. The Buddhist temples in both countries recall those of India, but
+the pagodas, most of which are of wood faced with porcelain tiles,
+differ slightly in having a curved roof to each story. The palaces of
+China are impressive on account of their vast extent and the use of
+copper in their construction, but the domestic buildings of Japan are
+all of comparatively small size.
+
+In America as in Asia are many deeply interesting architectural relics
+of the civilisation of the early inhabitants, of which the most
+remarkable are the ruins of Cyclopean buildings on the shores of Lake
+Tatiaca, the remains of the ancient city of Cuzco, all in Peru, and the
+Teocallis or temples and Palaces of the kings in Mexico, Yucatan, and
+Guatemala, none of which however call for description here as they did
+not influence the architecture of the future in their own or any other
+country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+In their architecture as in their sculpture the Greeks gave eloquent
+expression to the exquisite feeling for symmetry of form which was one
+of their most distinctive characteristics. Architects and masons were in
+close touch with the people for whom they built, no social barriers, so
+far as the arts and crafts were concerned, divided class from class,
+citizens, aliens, and even slaves vying with each other in their zeal to
+produce the best work possible.
+
+The finest buildings of ancient Greece and its dependencies entirely
+fulfilled the conditions of true architecture, for they were beautiful
+alike in design and execution, admirably adapted to the purpose for
+which they were erected, and in complete harmony with their
+surroundings. Moreover they are of exceptional importance in the
+history of the evolution of the art on account of the influence they
+exercised on that of other countries, all their distinctive features
+having been either copied or modified in those of the rest of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Greek Temple]
+
+The Greeks, though they were doubtless acquainted with the arch, the
+dome, and the tower, refrained as a general rule from using them,
+probably because they considered them unsuitable to the topographical
+and climatic conditions that prevailed in their native land. They
+achieved their highest results by means of correctness of proportion and
+dignity of outline, giving far more attention to the exterior than to
+the interior of their buildings, and in this respect differing greatly
+from the Egyptians, who endeavoured to impress the spectator chiefly by
+the vast extent and massiveness of their temples and palaces.
+
+[Illustration: Doric Capital]
+
+Recent discoveries on the site of Knossos in Crete of the remains of a
+many-roomed palace, and elsewhere in the same island of circular stone
+tombs, all of which betray strong Oriental influence, confirm the
+opinion of archæologists that it was in the islands of the Ægina Sea
+that the first works of architecture properly so called were erected in
+Europe. On the mainland of Greece, notably at Mycenæ and Tiryns, exists
+relics of many buildings, including at the former the noble Lion Gate
+that gave access to the Acropolis, and at the latter the residence of a
+chieftain, which maintain the continuity between the earliest and the
+latest phase of Greek architecture, and may justly be said to presage
+the triumphs of the Golden Age.
+
+[Illustration: Column from the Parthenon]
+
+From first to last Hellenic architecture was characterised by unity of
+purpose, its grandest forms being essentially the same in general
+principle as its earliest efforts, the mud walls with timber pillars
+upholding a flat wooden roof, having been gradually transformed into
+stately colonnaded structures in costly materials, that to this day
+remain absolutely unrivalled in their exquisite beauty of proportion and
+the close correlation of every detail with each other and the whole.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of a Doric Entablature]
+
+The grand temples of Greece were built either of stone or of marble. As
+a general rule they are set on a platform to which a long flight of
+steps lead up, and are enclosed within an outer wall or a continuous
+colonnade. Their plan is extremely simple: a parallelogram, formed in
+some cases entirely of columns, in others with walls at the side and
+columns at the ends only, encloses a second and considerably smaller
+pillared space known as the cella or naos, that enshrined the image of
+the god to whom the building was dedicated, and was entered from a
+pronaos or porch, and with a posticum or back space behind it, sometimes
+supplemented by a kind of second cella called the opisthodomus or back
+temple. The front columns at either end are spanned by horizontal beams
+that uphold a sloping gable called a pediment, the flat, three-cornered
+surface of which is generally adorned with sculpture in bas-relief, and
+along the side-columns is placed what is known as the entablature, that
+consists of three parts, the architrave resting on the capitals of the
+columns, the frieze above it and the cornice, the last of which
+sustains the flat roof, usually covered with tiles or marble copies of
+tiles.
+
+[Illustration: The Parthenon]
+
+Greek architecture is generally divided into three groups or orders: the
+Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each of which, though the buildings
+belonging to them resemble each other in general plan, is distinguished
+by certain peculiarities of the columns and entablatures. The Doric was
+the earliest to be employed, but the Ionic, that early succeeded it, was
+long used simultaneously with it, sometimes even in the same building,
+whilst the Corinthian did not come into use until considerably later.
+
+[Illustration: Metope from the Parthenon]
+
+In the Doric order the column has no separate base, but rises direct
+from the top step of the platform on which the building it belongs to
+stands. It is of massive form and has what is known as an entasis or
+slightly convex surface, it is generally fluted, that is to say, cut
+into parallel perpendicular channels, several rings called annulets
+connecting it with the capital, which consists of an echinus or rounded
+moulding and an abacus or unrounded slab resting on the echinus. The
+Doric entablature is equally simple, the architrave being perfectly
+plain, whilst the frieze is adorned with triglyphs or three upright
+projections with grooves between them, set at equal distances from each
+other, the spaces separating them, known as metopes, being as a rule
+enriched with fine sculptures of figure subjects. The frieze is
+connected with the cornice by narrow bands called mutules resting on the
+triglyphs and metopes, and the cornice itself has a plain lower band
+known as the corona, surmounted by more or less decorated courses of
+stone or marble.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Frieze of Parthenon]
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Frieze of Parthenon]
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Capital]
+
+The Ionic and Corinthian orders are alike characterised by lightness and
+grace rather than massiveness and simplicity. In both, the columns,
+instead of rising direct from the platform, have a complex base
+consisting of a number of circular mouldings above another, the fluted
+shafts are comparatively slim and tapering, and the channels in them are
+divided by spaces called fillets. In the Ionic order the flat abacus of
+the Doric capital is replaced by two coiled volutes projecting beyond
+the echinus on either side, and the horizontal portion between the
+volutes is surmounted by finely carved leaf mouldings. The Corinthian
+order is specially distinguished by the ornate decoration of the
+capitals, that represent calices of flowers and leaves, chiefly those of
+the acanthus, arranged so as to point upwards and curve outwards in much
+the same style as they do in nature. The architrave in both the Ionic
+and the Corinthian orders consists of plain slabs, but the frieze--which
+is not divided as in Doric buildings into triglyphs and metopes--is in
+nearly every case enriched with a series of beautiful figure subjects,
+and is therefore known as the Zoophorus or figure-bearer.
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Column]
+
+Among the most ancient remains of sacred Greek architecture are those of
+the Heræon or Sanctuary of the Goddess Hera at Olympia; of the temple
+that preceded the Parthenon at Athens; and of those at Assos in Asia
+Minor, Selinus in Sicily, and Corcyra in Corfu, the last a very typical
+example of archaic Doric, with a pediment in which are primitive
+sculptures of a gorgon flanked by lions. Of somewhat later date are the
+ruined temples at Girgenti, Syracuse, and Segesta, all in Sicily, the
+last the best preserved of all; the group at Pæstum in Southern Italy,
+of which that of Neptune is the finest, the pediments having been
+originally filled in with beautifully executed sculptured figures. The
+Temple of Athene in the island of Ægina marks the transition from the
+extreme severity of early Doric to the more ornate buildings of the
+Golden Age of Greek architecture, its decorative sculptures being of
+exquisite design and execution. The Temple of Jupiter at Athens, begun
+in the Doric style by Pisistratus about 540 B.C. and not completed
+until about 174 B.C., has Corinthian capitals on some of its columns,
+and the Temple of Theseus, of uncertain date, in the same city, that
+consists entirely of white marble, ranks, in spite of its severe
+simplicity, even with that of Neptune at Pæstum on account of its fine
+proportions and the admirable finish of every detail.
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Entablature from the Erectheum]
+
+It was in the Parthenon, or Temple of the Virgin Goddess of Wisdom, at
+Athens, that the Doric style found its highest expression, for in it
+were combined the massive grandeur of the archaic period with the
+refinements of construction, decoration, and lighting of a more
+scientific but not less æsthetic age. It occupies the site of an earlier
+building, the relics of which are referred to above, that was destroyed
+by Xerxes, and it rises from the summit of the lofty rock of the
+Acropolis that dominated the ancient city. It was built, it is supposed,
+by the famous architects Ictinus and Callicrates about 440 B.C., under
+the enlightened ruler Pericles, and its decorative sculptures, some of
+which are now in the British Museum, were the work of Phidias and his
+pupils, and, mutilated though they are, they still rank amongst the
+greatest masterpieces of plastic art.
+
+Before the Parthenon, after being long used as a Christian church, was
+reduced to ruins by the explosion of a shell, when in 1687 it was
+desecrated by being converted into a powder magazine by the Turks during
+their struggle with the Venetians, it must have been one of the very
+noblest buildings in the world, forming with other sanctuaries and
+secular buildings on the world-famous hill a spectacle of surpassing
+grandeur, the pride and glory of the whole Greek world.
+
+[Illustration: Acanthus Ornament]
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Capital]
+
+The Parthenon was 228 feet long by 101 broad, and 64 feet high; the
+porticoes at each end had a double row of eight columns; the sculptures
+in the pediments were in full relief, representing in the eastern the
+Birth of Athene, and in the western the Struggle between that goddess
+and Poseidon, whilst those on the metopes, some of which are supposed to
+be from the hand of Alcamenes, the contemporary and rival of Phidias,
+rendered scenes from battles between the Gods and Giants, the Greeks and
+the Amazons, and the Centaurs and Lapithæ.
+
+Of somewhat later date than the Parthenon and resembling it in general
+style, though it is very considerably smaller, is the Theseum or Temple
+of Theseus on the plain on the north-west of the Acropolis, and at Bassæ
+in Arcadia is a Doric building, dedicated to Apollo Epicurius and
+designed by Ictinus, that has the peculiarity of facing north and south
+instead of, as was usual, east and west.
+
+Scarcely less beautiful than the Parthenon itself is the grand triple
+portico known as the Propylæa that gives access to it on the western
+side. It was designed about 430 by Mnesicles, and in it the Doric and
+Ionic styles are admirably combined, whilst in the Erectheum, sacred to
+the memory of Erechtheus, a hero of Attica, the Ionic order is seen at
+its best, so delicate is the carving of the capitals of its columns. It
+has moreover the rare and distinctive feature of what is known as a
+caryatid porch, that is to say, one in which the entablature is upheld
+by caryatides or statues representing female figures.
+
+Other good examples of the Ionic style are the small Temple of Niké
+Apteros, or the Wingless Victory, situated not far from the Propylæa and
+the Parthenon of Athens, the more important Temple of Apollo at
+Branchidæ near Miletus, originally of most imposing dimensions, and that
+of Artemis at Ephesus, of which however only a few fragments remain _in
+situ_.
+
+Of the sacred buildings of Greece in which the Corinthian order was
+employed there exist, with the exception of the Temple of Jupiter at
+Athens already referred to, but a few scattered remains, such as the
+columns from Epidaurus now in the Athens Museum, that formed part of a
+circlet of Corinthian pillars within a Doric colonnade. In the Temple of
+Athena Alea at Tegea, designed by Scopas in 394, however, the transition
+from the Ionic to the Corinthian style is very clearly illustrated, and
+in the circular Monument of Lysicrates, erected in 334 B.C. to
+commemorate the triumph of that hero's troop in the choric dances in
+honour of Dionysos, and the Tower of the Winds, both at Athens, the
+Corinthian style is seen at its best.
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Column from Monument of Lysicrates]
+
+In addition to the temples described above, some remains of tombs,
+notably that of the huge Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in memory of King
+Mausolus, who died in 353 B.C., and several theatres, including that of
+Dionysos at Athens, with a well-preserved one of larger size at
+Epidaurus, bear witness to the general prevalence of Doric features in
+funereal monuments and secular buildings, but of the palaces and humbler
+dwelling-houses in the three Greek styles, of which there must have been
+many fine examples, no trace remains. There is however no doubt that
+the Corinthian style was very constantly employed after the power of the
+great republics had been broken, and the Oriental taste for lavish
+decoration replaced the love for austere simplicity of the virile people
+of Greece and its dependencies.
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Entablature from Monument of Lysicrates]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+After the Golden Age of Greek architecture properly so called was over,
+a kind of aftermath prevailed for some little time in the peninsula and
+the outlying colonies of Greece, to be succeeded by a transition time to
+which the name of the Hellenistic has been given, during which is
+supposed to have been inaugurated the use of the arch and the vault,
+which were in course of time to revolutionise the art of building.
+
+It has long been customary to give to the Etruscans, an Asiatic people
+who in very early times occupied a considerable portion of Italy, the
+credit of the first introduction of the arch in Western Europe. It is
+however now more generally believed that the Roman style of building was
+an offshoot of the Hellenistic, in which the dome was certainly
+employed, though no existing examples of its use can be quoted. The city
+of Alexandria, founded about 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, is known
+to have had four principal colonnaded streets leading from a four-arched
+central building, and many are of opinion that much of the town was
+built over arched cisterns. The dome may possibly have been in the first
+instance introduced into western Europe as a cover for the hot baths in
+which the wealthy delighted, and its form was probably the same as that
+of the one preserved at Pompeii. The famous arched drain at Rome, known
+as the Cloaca Maxima, so constantly referred to as the greatest
+masterpiece of the Etruscans was not, it has now been proved, built
+until after their subjugation and extinction as a nation. For all that
+they were without doubt most skilful architects and engineers; the walls
+of their cities were of cyclopean masonry and were entered from arched
+gateways, a good example of which is to be seen at Volterra, constructed
+of wedge-shaped stones fixed without cement. Their rock-cut tombs, such
+as those at Corneto, Vulci, and Chiusi, are divided into many chambers,
+the walls adorned with paintings, the roof upheld by columns, and the
+façades resembling those of Egyptian temples, whilst the tumuli in which
+they sometimes buried their dead are surmounted by pyramids of earth
+resting on stone foundations.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Barrel Vault]
+
+From whatever source Roman architects got their inspiration, they very
+soon absorbed all external influences and stamped the buildings they
+erected with a character of their own. From the first sun-dried bricks,
+sometimes combined with stone, were the chief materials used, even the
+grander structures of the best period such as the huge palaces and halls
+were of plastered brickwork, stone having been as a general rule
+reserved for such works as temples, theatres, and triumphal arches.
+Concrete was also largely employed, and timber in many cases was turned
+to account for roofing. The most distinctive peculiarity of the
+architecture of the Romans is the vaulted roof, which they employed in
+an infinite variety of ways, introducing it at every possible
+opportunity. The simplest form, known as the waggon or barrel vault, is
+a semicircular arch spanning two walls, whilst a more elaborate
+contrivance consists of two intersecting vaults of the same height
+crossing each other at right angles, which was used in Rome as early as
+75 B.C. These two forms were sometimes supplemented by what are
+distinguished as conches or half-domes over external semicircular
+recesses, of which the apse is a characteristic example. With the aid of
+these three varieties of vaulting, that were occasionally combined with
+consummate skill, the Romans were able to roof in large or small
+circular spaces, and in some few cases, as in the Baths of Caracalla at
+Rome, they even to a certain extent anticipated the clever contrivance
+known as the pendentive, a triangular piece of vaulting springing from
+the corners of a right-angled enclosure, that was later brought to such
+perfection in Byzantine architecture.
+
+[Illustration: Intersecting Vaulting]
+
+With their wonderful system of vaulting the Romans combined the
+columnation and entablature of the Greeks, introducing innovations
+however that were in many cases anything but improvements. Thus they
+sometimes supplemented the foliage of the Corinthian capital with the
+volutes of the Ionic; whilst what is known as the Tuscan style is really
+merely a modification of the Doric, and is wanting in the simple dignity
+that characterised the latter, the metopes being adorned with sculptures
+very inferior to the beautiful figure subjects of the Parthenon and
+other Greek temples. Roman architects were in fact rather skilful
+engineers and adapters of the æsthetic conceptions of others than
+original designers of new forms of beauty, but they were unrivalled in
+their power of harmoniously co-ordinating in a single building an
+infinite variety of structural features. They were moreover
+exceptionally successful in the laying out of cities, as proved by the
+wonderful groups of buildings in the fora or public squares in which
+courts of justice and markets were held, of the capital and other
+cities, and by the fine continuous vistas of their streets, in which
+irregularities were masked by clever contrivances, adding greatly to the
+symmetry of the general effect. Temples, basilicas, baths, bridges,
+aqueducts, triumphal arches, palaces, and private houses were all set in
+the environment most suitable to them, and even tombs were ranged
+according to a definite plan, not, as in most modern cemeteries, dotted
+here and there in an arbitrary manner.
+
+[Illustration: Pont du Gard, Nîmes]
+
+The earliest Roman works of architecture were of a purely utilitarian
+character, and in addition to the Cloaca Maxima already mentioned the
+most noteworthy still in existence are the bridges over the Tiber, the
+aqueducts of the Campagna outside Rome, and the so-called Pont du Gard
+at Nîmes, France. The most ancient temples greatly resemble those of
+Greece, and amongst them may be named as specially typical those of
+Fortuna Virilis and of Antoninus and Faustina, both now in use as
+churches, and that of Venus and Rome, all in the capital, that of Diana
+at Nîmes known as the Maison Carrée, and that of the Sun at Baalbec. Of
+later date are the beautiful circular temples, of which the grandest
+example is the Pantheon of Rome, built under Hadrian about A.D. 117, in
+which Roman architecture reached its noblest development. The colonnaded
+porch with entablature and pediment, that detracts so much from the
+external effect of this magnificent building, did not originally belong
+to it, but formed the entrance of a temple built by Agrippa more than a
+century before, and was added to the Rotunda after the completion of the
+latter. The internal diameter of the Pantheon is 142 feet 6 inches, and
+its height at the apex of the dome is the same; its walls are 20 feet
+thick, and its concrete dome is adorned with deeply recessed panels or
+coffers and has a single circular opening at the crown through which
+alone light is admitted. The floor is of marble; bronze pilasters flank
+doorways of the same metal, the oldest existing specimens of their kind,
+and it is supposed that when first completed the whole of the outside
+was cased in white and the inside in coloured marbles.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Pantheon]
+
+Other circular temples of Roman origin, but on a much smaller scale than
+the Pantheon, are the Temple of Vesta and that in the Forum Boarium,
+Rome, the latter much injured and spoiled by a modern roof quite out of
+character with it; the one at Tivoli near the capital, known as that of
+the Sybils, still beautiful in spite of the loss of much of its
+entablature and many of its columns; the Temple of Jupiter at Spalato
+with a domed roof upheld by columns; and that at Baalbec, which has the
+distinctive feature of a curved instead of a perfectly flat entablature.
+
+A very special interest attaches to the Roman basilica on account of its
+having so long been supposed to have been the type on which the earliest
+Christian churches were built. Basilicas were used as courts of justice
+and exchanges, more rarely as market-places, and the most ancient are
+said to have been merely square spaces, enclosed within rows of columns
+open to the air, that were however soon succeeded by walled buildings
+roofed with timber or with vaults of concrete supported on massive piers
+of stone. In them a raised semicircular space at the eastern end was
+divided off by columns known as cancelli for the use of the magistrate
+and his lectors, and between it and the main body of the hall, which
+was divided by columns into a nave and aisles, rose the altar on which
+sacrifice was offered up before any business of importance was entered
+upon.
+
+A good example of an early Roman basilica is that called the Ulpian in
+the Forum of Trajan, Rome, dating from A.D. 98, which is said to have
+had a flat roof and double aisles, the latter surmounted by galleries,
+whilst that of Maxentius and Constantine, the ruins of which are known
+as the Temple of Peace, also in the capital, of considerably later date,
+A.D. 312, had a groined central roof and barrel-vaulted side aisles.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Doric Column and Entablature]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Ionic Column and Entablature]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Corinthian Column and Entablature]
+
+It was in their Thermæ or Baths rather than in their Temples and
+Basilicas that the Roman architects achieved their greatest triumphs.
+These were vast complex structures fitted up with every conceivable
+luxury for the use of bathers, with a large hall artificially heated and
+known as the tepidarium, open colonnaded courts, and many subsidiary
+buildings including gymnasia, debating rooms, &c. They combined simple
+grandeur of structure with rich internal decoration. The most ancient
+Thermæ in Rome, of which extensive remains still exist, were those of
+Caracalla, erected in A.D. 217, already referred to in connection with
+the earliest use of the contrivance which foreshadowed the pendentive.
+Rising from a lofty platform, the noble tepidarium was roofed in by
+three fine intersecting vaults, and its walls were cased in marble.
+With their supplementary buildings the baths covered a space some 110
+yards square, and beneath them were many vaulted rooms for the
+attendants on the bathers. Amongst their ruins were found the
+masterpieces of sculpture known as the Farnese Hercules and the Farnese
+Bull, but when they were first placed there, there is no evidence to
+prove.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Vesta, Rome]
+
+Larger and more imposing in appearance even than the Baths of Caracalla
+were those of Diocletian, that were capable of accommodating more than
+3000 bathers and were built about A.D. 303. The grand hall or tepidarium
+and the barrel-vaulted entrance portico were most successfully converted
+in the sixteenth century into the church of S. Maria degli Angeli by
+Michael Angelo, and one of two circular structures that flanked the
+encircling wall was later consecrated under the name of S. Bernardo, and
+is still used as a place of worship.
+
+Next in importance to the Thermæ rank the Amphitheatres of the Roman
+Empire, in which gladiatorial contests and other trials of skill took
+place, and without which no town however small was considered complete.
+Though their detail was almost exclusively borrowed from the
+Greeks--tiers of arches resting on columns and surmounted by an
+entablature rising one above the other--their architects managed to
+impress on them a distinctive character of their own. Finest of all
+still existing examples is the Flavian Amphitheatre, generally known as
+the Coliseum at Rome, which occupies the site of the famous Golden
+House of Nero, and was completed about A.D. 70. It is of elliptical
+plan, measures some 612 by 515 feet, and was from 160 to 180 feet high.
+It was capable of containing some 80,000 spectators, and was for a long
+period the chief meeting-place of the Roman citizens. The exterior is
+four stories high and consists of a series of three rows of arches, the
+lowest with Doric, the second with Ionic, and the third with Corinthian
+capitals, the last surmounted by a row of Corinthian pilasters, forming
+a fourth story, which is supposed to have been originally of wood and to
+have been rebuilt in stone considerably later. The groups of seats,
+which, with the central arena they commanded, were protected from the
+weather by a moveable awning called the velarium, corresponded with the
+exterior stories, and to each tier a staircase led up, wide vaulted
+corridors connecting the various entrances with each other, running
+round the entire building, the whole producing a most harmonious and
+pleasing effect.
+
+At Verona, Capria, Pola, and Pezzuoli in Italy, at Syracuse in Sicily,
+and at Arles and Nîmes in France are remains of important Roman
+amphitheatres, and of the rarer theatres used for dramatic
+entertainments must be named the two well-preserved examples at Pompeii,
+the ruins of the Odeion of Herodes Atticus at Athens, and most ancient
+of all, the remains of the so-called Theatre of Marcellus at Rome now
+incorporated with the Orsinii Palace, all which appear to have resembled
+the Coliseum to a great extent in their general style and decoration.
+
+Of the vast and imposing palaces built or added to by successive Roman
+emperors, that included audience chambers, basilicas, stadia for
+athletic games, galleries, state dining-halls, baths, and many suites of
+apartments for various purposes, there exist unfortunately but a few
+remains. Nero's Golden House, several of the ruins of which were
+excavated in the 16th century, and inspired Raphael with some of the
+decorative details of the loggia of the Vatican, is said to have covered
+more than a mile of ground, and at one time the whole of the Palatine
+Hill was occupied by stately edifices, with the Palace of Augustus in
+the centre and those of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and
+Septimius Severus, who greatly added to and modified the work of his
+predecessors, grouped about them, but all that can now be fully
+identified are some of the ground plans with a few of the minor details
+of structure. To atone for this however, much of the Palace of
+Diocletian at Spalato in Dalmatia, to which that emperor withdrew after
+his abdication in A.D. 305, which originally formed a small town in
+itself, is still to a great extent intact, including a temple now used
+as a cathedral, a gallery 520 feet long by 24 wide, and a few of the
+covered arcades that originally connected its various parts.
+
+What is left of the so-called Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli near Rome proves
+that it too was of vast extent, with a great variety of buildings,
+different suites of rooms having been occupied according to the seasons,
+and at Pompeii and Herculaneum, thanks to the remarkable preservation of
+many of the houses in them, notably that named after Pansa, the domestic
+architecture of the private citizens of the great Roman Empire, of which
+picturesque arcaded courts were a noteworthy feature, can be well
+studied, as well as that of the temples, triumphal arches, public baths,
+&c., all of which greatly resembled those of the Capital.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Titus at Rome]
+
+Whether the Romans were or were not the first people of Western Europe
+to use the arch, they certainly took a very great delight in it, setting
+up ornately decorated examples of it at the entrances to their towns,
+their fora, and their bridges, as well as in commemoration of great
+victories in war and of the completion of civic enterprises. Most
+remarkable of those still standing in Rome are the Arch of Titus of one
+span only, erected in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the
+Emperor after whom it is named; the triple-span arch of Septimius
+Severus, and the smaller one of Constantine. Though they were rather
+triumphs of engineering skill than works of architecture properly so
+called, the fine stone built aqueducts such as those in the Campagna of
+Rome and at Nîmes must be mentioned here on account of the æsthetic
+effect of the long rows of lofty arches, and a few words must also be
+said of the Pillars of Victory, of which that of Trajan at Rome is the
+most notable still extant, adorned as it is with a spiral of finely
+sculptured bas-reliefs.
+
+In the early days of the Roman power it was customary to cremate the
+dead, the ashes being preserved in urns that were ranged in cells known
+as Columbaria, generally hewn in the living rock. As time went on,
+however, the Egyptian mode of sepulchre was adopted. Bodies were
+embalmed and laid in stone or marble coffins which were placed in the
+basements of tombs of two or more stories, surmounted by round towers
+with pointed or circular roofs. Of these complex resting-places of the
+dead the finest now in existence is the Mole or Mausoleum of Hadrian,
+known as the Castle of S. Angelo, at Rome, which is some 300 feet high
+and was originally encased in marble. No burial was allowed within the
+walls of a Roman city, but the approaches were generally lined with
+tombs as at Rome, at Pompeii, and elsewhere, most of them, though on a
+smaller scale, of a similar plan to that of Hadrian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+It was in the low, gloomy, dimly lighted subterranean galleries known as
+catacombs, hewn in the living rock near Rome, that Christian
+architecture may be said to have had its first crude beginnings. The
+passages in the walls of which the graves of the dead were hollowed out,
+widened at intervals into spacious vaulted halls, where the persecuted
+followers of the crucified Redeemer met in secret for worship or to take
+part in the funeral services for those they had lost.
+
+It was long taken for granted that it was not until the first issue in
+A.D. 313 of the Edict of Milan by Constantine, Emperor of the West, and
+Licinius, Emperor of the East, that the professors of the new faith
+ventured to erect above ground buildings for the exercise of the rites
+of their religion, but recent discoveries prove that Christian churches
+were built as early as the 3rd century in many parts of the Roman
+empire. To quote but two cases in point, relics of a circular one with a
+small apse at the eastern end have been found at Antepellius in Asia
+Minor, and of one of the basilican type at Silchester in England.
+Moreover, heathen temples were occasionally converted into churches,
+whilst basilicas were sometimes used for Christian services just as they
+were.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of a Basilica]
+
+Some few early Christian churches were possibly modelled on classic
+tombs such as those referred to in the chapter on Roman architecture,
+but the more usual form was the basilican, the altar having been placed
+on the raised platform within the semicircular apse at the eastern end,
+the bishops and clergy occupying the seats assigned in halls of justice
+to the prætor and his assessors, whilst the congregation met in the nave
+and aisles. Ere long, however, to this general plan was added the
+distinctive feature of transepts or transverse passages running across
+the entrance to the apse, thus giving to the whole building the form of
+a cross. Later structural changes were the erection of an arch above the
+altar, the heightening of the nave, the connecting of the columns
+between the nave and aisles by arches instead of horizontal architraves,
+the introduction of windows, to which the collective name of the
+clerestory or the clear-story was given, in the semicircular heads of
+the arches and more rarely into the upper part of the low external walls
+of the aisles, the apse, which was gradually lengthened eastwards, being
+left comparatively dark, the only light proceeding from the main body of
+the church. Simultaneously with or in some cases earlier than these
+alterations, a portico known as the narthex was added at the western
+end, extending across the whole width of the nave and aisles, for the
+use of those, such as catechumens or penitents, who were not privileged
+to enter the church itself. The narthex in its turn was set within an
+atrium or outer colonnaded court, in the centre of which was a fountain,
+used by worshippers for ablutions before entering the consecrated
+building.
+
+A minor characteristic of early Christian churches was the richness of
+the internal decoration, mosaics that is to say, patterns or pictures
+made of many coloured pieces of glass or stone, combined in certain
+examples with marble carvings and gilding, adorned the vaulting, the
+wall, and even the floor, a kind of mosaic known as the _opus
+alexandrinum_ being generally used for the last, the whole producing a
+very gorgeous but harmonious effect.
+
+One of the most interesting existing early Christian churches, that
+remains very much what it was when first completed, is that of the
+Nativity at Bethlehem, built in A.D. 327 by the Empress Helena when on
+her quest for the True Cross, with the Convent to which it originally
+belonged, that was destroyed by the Turks in 1236 and later restored by
+the Crusaders. The Church of the Nativity rises above a natural cave now
+converted into a crypt or vaulted subterranean chamber. It is of
+cruciform plan, and though its unpretending exterior is of brick, the
+interior has four rows of massive stone pillars dividing the nave from
+the aisles, which as well as the choir at the eastern end have
+semicircular apses.
+
+Contemporary with this humble building, that is closely associated with
+all the most sacred memories of the early Church, were the vast
+basilican places of worship erected at Rome by Constantine and his
+immediate successors, which have unfortunately been either destroyed or
+so much modified as to retain little of their distinctive character. The
+Cathedral of S. Peter occupies the site of one of them, which had five
+aisles, a nave 80 feet wide, a comparatively small apse, and a noble
+atrium; the Church of S. Giovanni in Laterano retains but a few details
+of its predecessor of the same name, but that of S. Paolo fuori le Mura
+or St. Paul without the walls, built by Theodosius in 386, is supposed
+to be a true copy, so far as structure is concerned, of the grand
+basilica destroyed by fire in 1823. It has a nave 280 feet long by 78
+wide, and the whole building is 400 feet in length by 200 wide. A noble
+arch spans the intersection of the transepts, and lofty columns with
+richly carved capitals divide the nave from the aisles and the latter,
+of which there are five, from each other, but the roof is only a flat
+wooden one, the external walls are wanting in dignity and solidity,
+whilst the height, 100 feet only, is quite out of proportion with the
+otherwise noble dimensions.
+
+Another very fine early basilican church in Rome is that of S. Maria
+Maggiore, occupying the site of a 5th century building, some of the
+marble columns of which with Ionic capitals have been incorporated in
+the later structure. The Churches of S. Agnese and S. Lorenzo are also
+of basilican plan, and have both the somewhat rare feature of galleries
+over the aisles. The former is but little altered since its erection,
+whilst the latter has gone through a long series of vicissitudes. It was
+founded in the 4th century and greatly added to in the 5th by Sixtus
+III, who joined a second church on to it, so that it had an apse at each
+end. Both these apses, with the walls between the earlier and the later
+buildings, were pulled down in the 13th century by order of Pope
+Honorius III, who had the earlier church converted into a choir and the
+later into a nave, with very satisfactory results.
+
+Even more interesting than S. Lorenzo is S. Clemente, Rome, that
+consists of two buildings of widely separated dates one above another,
+the lower, which now serves as a crypt, supposed to have been built at
+the beginning of the 6th century, the upper not until 1108. Both are of
+the same general plan as the other basilican churches described, with
+certain differences in minor details, including in the more modern
+portion a low marble screen dividing the choir and altar from the nave.
+
+[Illustration: Church of S. Clemente]
+
+To many of these early churches fine cloisters, that is to say, arcaded
+colonnades encircling the outer walls, were added, those that once
+enclosed the ancient basilica of S. Paola fuori le Mura being among the
+finest still preserved, that may be said to have anticipated the
+beautiful ambulatories of later monastic and collegiate buildings.
+
+In other cities of the Roman empire are many noteworthy early basilican
+churches, including S. Apollinare Nuovo within and S. Apollinare in
+Classe without the walls of Ravenna, the cathedral of Torcello, that is
+connected by a narthex with the later S. Fosca, in which the transition
+from the Roman to the Byzantine style is shadowed forth, and the
+cathedrals of Parenzo and Grado in Istria, the former retaining almost
+intact its beautiful colonnaded atrium, the latter chiefly remarkable
+for its fine mosaic pavement.
+
+In addition to the early churches of basilican plan are a few of
+circular form, such as that at Rome enshrining the tomb of S. Constanza,
+the daughter of Constantine, dating from about A.D. 354, which has a
+domed roof and vaulted aisles, the 5th century church of S. Stefano
+Rotondo in the same town, the latter, though greatly modified in detail,
+still preserving its two concentric ranges of columns, S. Vitale at
+Ravenna, and S. George at Salonika, that has a circular nave but an
+oblong chancel and apse, whilst the 6th century tomb of Theodoric is
+typical of the use of a similar plan in sepulchral monuments.
+
+In the first centuries of the Christian era it was customary for the
+ceremony of baptism to be performed in buildings known as baptisteries,
+apart from, but close to, cathedrals and important parish churches.
+These buildings were as a general rule of circular or octagonal plan
+with a tank in the centre of the interior, of size sufficient for the
+total immersion of candidates. The earliest and also one of the finest
+existing examples is the Baptistery of Constantino that rises close to
+S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, and is two stories high, with a central
+domed roof of timber and flat-ceilinged aisles, the massive porphyry
+columns dividing them from the space set apart for the ceremony of
+baptism, being surmounted by slender pilasters. Another fine early
+Baptistery is that at Nocera, which resembles that of Constantine in
+general plan and style.
+
+The Christians of Egyptian descent, to whom the name of Copts has been
+given, evolved a style of building that combined with oriental
+traditions certain details of western architecture. They were very early
+familiar with the dome, and employed it in churches of a basilican
+ground-plan even before it was adopted in the Roman Empire. Moreover,
+certain of the barrel vaults and arches in Coptic places of worship were
+pointed, so that the most distinctive characteristic of Gothic
+architecture may be said to have been to some extent anticipated. Except
+for the effective feature of the dome the exteriors of these buildings
+were plain and unpretending, but the interiors were in many cases
+lavishly decorated with marble mosaics. Other peculiarities were the
+division of the eastern extremity into three semicircular or square
+recesses, each containing an altar, the use of an elaborately carved
+screen shutting off the choir or chancel from the nave and aisles, and
+the introduction of galleries above the latter for the use of the women
+of the congregation.
+
+Specially noteworthy examples of Coptic architecture are the two
+churches in Upper Egypt known as the White and Red Convents, the former
+supposed by some authorities to be even older than the church of the
+Nativity of Bethlehem, the 6th century church of Dair-as-Sûriâni in the
+Desert, and the 8th century S. Sergius or Abu Sargah at Cairo, whilst in
+the oasis of El Bagawat have recently been excavated a large number of
+sepulchral chapels, dating probably from the 5th century, many of which
+have domed cupolas greatly resembling in structure those of considerably
+later Byzantine buildings.
+
+In Syria, as well as in Egypt, are many very interesting early Christian
+churches, including the vast complex 5th century building at Kalat-Seman
+dedicated to S. Simeon Stylites, which has four basilicas, each with an
+apse, grouped about a central octagon; the 6th century church at
+Sergiopolis; and the smaller contemporaneous ones at Qalb Lorzeh and
+Roueiha; all of which, though they resemble in general plan the
+basilicas of Rome, have certain details that appear to shadow forth the
+characteristics of the Romanesque style, notably in the first the
+cruciform bays dividing the nave from the aisles, in the second, the use
+of the lobed arch, and in it and the Roueiha building the grouping of
+the clerestory windows.
+
+Asia Minor is also rich in examples of early Christian architecture, of
+which one of the most remarkable is the 5th century S. Demetrius at
+Salonika, of basilican plan with transepts at the eastern end, nave
+arcades resembling those of S. Clemente, Rome, and galleries above the
+aisles, such as those of the Coptic places of worship quoted above. With
+it must be named the 6th century church in the same city, now used as a
+mosque, under the name of Eski Djuma, and the considerably later
+churches at Bin Bir Kilissi that have only recently been explored and
+are of basilican plan with barrel-vaulted roofing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The term Byzantine has been given to the style of architecture which was
+the outcome of the fusion of the best building traditions of the East
+and of the West, the former contributing the distinctive structural
+feature of the dome, with the minor details of richness of colouring and
+lavishness of decoration, the latter dignified symmetry of proportion
+and scientific solidity of construction.
+
+It was in Byzantium, when in 330 the first Christian Emperor chose it
+as his headquarters, and its name was changed in his honour to
+Constantinople, that the union which was to be so prolific of results
+took place. Unfortunately however none of the churches erected under the
+auspices of Constantine in the new capital have been preserved, the sole
+relic of his reign, so far as architecture is concerned, being the
+foundations of the apse of a church, now replaced by a considerably
+later building, in which he had the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
+enclosed. The oldest existing church in Constantinople is a basilica of
+the Roman type dating from 463, with nothing distinctive of the new
+style about it, but there is historical evidence that the noble S.
+Sophia, in which that style reached its fullest development, was
+preceded in Constantinople by other grand buildings of a similar type,
+including one dedicated to the Holy Apostles which was cruciform in plan
+and had five domes.
+
+[Illustration: S. Sophia, Constantinople]
+
+The most distinctive peculiarity of Byzantine architecture is the
+roofing over of square spaces with the aid of the pendentive, a clever
+expedient already explained, that was carried to great perfection by the
+builders of Constantinople and those who elsewhere followed their
+example. Previously employed in comparatively small structures, it now
+became the fundamental principle for the roofing over of spaces of a
+great variety of extent, groups of domes and semi-domes, in many cases
+supplemented by tapering towers rising with imposing effect from massive
+outer walls. The long aisles and nave of the Roman and early Christian
+basilicas were replaced by a more or less square plan, lofty piers
+spanned by arches upholding the central cupola, whilst the galleries
+above the aisles rested on slender columns such as were also employed to
+rail off the sanctuary and narthex from the main body of the building.
+The whole of the interior, which was lighted from windows in the dome,
+was most profusely decorated, the walls having dados or slabs of
+different coloured marbles supplemented by mosaics, with which every
+portion of the domes, semi-domes, and pendentives were also covered,
+whilst the columns, in many cases of variegated marble, had beautifully
+carved capitals of an infinite variety of design.
+
+It is customary to divide the history of the development of Byzantine
+architecture into two distinct periods, the first extending from the 4th
+to the close of the 6th century, the second from the 8th to the 13th
+century, there having been a pause between them during which no
+buildings of any importance were erected owing to the wars which
+convulsed alike the East and the West. As already stated, no actual
+buildings belonging to the earlier portion of the first period remain,
+but there exist in S. Vitale at Ravenna and still more in S. Sophia at
+Constantinople unique examples of the golden age of Byzantine
+architecture, the inspiring influence of which was felt throughout the
+whole of Europe and the greater part of Asia. The former church, begun
+about 526, is of octagonal plan, each division, except that containing
+the choir, with an apse of its own, and though the interior has been
+greatly spoiled by restoration, the general effect of the vaulted
+roofing, marble casing of the walls, and mosaics of the eastern end is
+extremely fine. San Vitale is, however, altogether excelled by the
+world-famous S. Sophia, now the chief mosque of Constantinople, which
+occupies the site of a basilica built under Constantine, that was burnt
+down early in the reign of Justinian. The latter emperor at once ordered
+the erection of its successor, appointing as architects Anthemios of
+Thralles and Isodoros of Miletus.
+
+Begun in 532 and completed in 537, S. Sophia is of very simple yet most
+dignified external appearance, so symmetrical is the grouping of its
+many domes and semi-domes, whilst the interior, though it has none of
+the rich colouring usual in oriental buildings, is unsurpassed in the
+harmony of its structural details, all of which lead up, as it were, to
+the huge central dome, the lower portion of which is pierced with a
+series of small windows throwing a flood of light upon the vast circular
+space below. The general plan is square, but a fine narthex consisting
+of two spacious halls one above the other projects slightly beyond the
+actual church at the western end. The nave, which is 106 feet wide by
+225 long, has a semicircular apse with small recesses opening out of it
+at either end, and is separated from the aisles by rows of closely set
+columns with ornate capitals, spanned by arches upholding two-storied
+arcaded galleries, roofed in by semi-domes, except at the northern and
+southern ends, which have walls with numerous small windows. One large
+western window illuminates the nave, and there is also a double circle
+of lights round the apse, the galleries, and the narthex.
+
+Other interesting early Byzantine buildings are the Baptistery at
+Kalat-Seman and the church of S. George at Ezra, both in Syria, each of
+which is of square plan with an octagonal central space, the latter
+having the comparatively unusual feature of a dome upheld by what is
+known as a drum, that is to say a low vertical wall instead of
+pendentives. The church of S. Sergius at Constantinople, contemporaneous
+with S. Sophia, is specially noteworthy on account of the introduction
+in it of a classic entablature, combined with distinctive Byzantine
+features, with which may be named the much-restored S. Lorenzo at Milan
+and the church of the Virgin at Misitra, the ancient Sparta.
+
+To the second period of Byzantine Architecture belong not only several
+fine buildings in Constantinople, but others in Greece, Asia Minor, the
+North of Italy, and elsewhere, all of which, though they have the
+leading structural features of the style, are distinguished by certain
+minor local characteristics. The most noteworthy in the capital are the
+now secularised church of S. Irene, founded by Constantine and rebuilt
+considerably later, and the church of the Chora monastery, specially
+remarkable for its beautiful mosaics, whilst in Greece the Churches of
+S. Nicodemus at Athens and that of Daphni not far from it, with the two
+monastic churches at Stiris and the churches of S. Sophia and S. Elias,
+at Salonika, are all thoroughly Byzantine, bearing a close resemblance
+to each other. They are all, however, excelled by the great Cathedral of
+S. Marco at Venice, which rivals even S. Sophia in the exquisite beauty
+of the interior and excels it in the ornate richness of the exterior.
+
+Founded early in the 9th century, S. Marco was partially destroyed in
+978 and rebuilt soon afterwards in the original style, that of a
+basilica without transepts, but in the second half of the 11th century
+it was completely transformed by additions converting it into a
+cruciform building, roofed over by five domes of the same size, and with
+five arcaded porches at the western end that form one of the grandest
+façades in the world. Numerous columns of many covered marbles uphold
+graceful arches, the spandrels, or triangular spaces between them filled
+in with gleaming mosaics, and above them rise other arches that contrast
+well with tapering towers supported on slender pilasters to which the
+domes beyond form an admirable background. Within the church to which
+this magnificent narthex gives entrance, an infinite variety of
+harmonious details combine to produce an entrancing effect: one charming
+vista succeeding another, the whole flooded with light from a vast
+number of windows, there being no less than eighty in the domes alone.
+Mosaics of different dates and greatly varying æsthetic merit completely
+clothe the surfaces of the vaulting, the capitals of the columns--many
+of which, by the way, are purely decorative, upholding no arches--are
+elaborately carved, and the flooring is of marble, slabs of considerable
+size being set in patterns of tesseræ.
+
+In the various countries which fell under the influence of the followers
+of Mahommed a style of architecture was evolved that had marked
+affinities with the Byzantine, the first mosques having been designed,
+it is supposed, by Christian architects of Oriental origin, who retained
+the square or circular ground-plan of early churches, though they
+modified the interior to suit the requirements of the new religion,
+introducing, for instance, a central tank for ablutions. Mosques
+intended for worship only, generally had flat roofs, the use of the dome
+being at first distinctive of a burial place, but as it very soon became
+usual to inter in mosques, the dome came to be quoted as a distinctive
+feature of them. By degrees simple unadorned mosques were replaced by
+vast buildings with many arcaded courts entered from ornate lateral
+doorways, whilst certain characteristic features were introduced, of
+which the chief were the stalactite vaulting, the name of which explains
+itself, the horse-shoe arch, and the minaret, the last named a turret of
+several stories gradually decreasing in circumference, each with a
+balcony of its own from which the mueddin calls the faithful to prayer.
+Pointed arches were also constantly employed as well as the form known
+as cusped, that is to say one with a triangular projection springing
+from the inner curve. A minor but most significant characteristic of
+Saracenic architecture is the elaborate surface decoration in which
+geometrical designs, letters, &c., are interwoven with consummate skill,
+but in which no figures of animals are ever introduced, the
+representation of life being strictly forbidden by the Koran.
+
+Although Arabia was the birthplace of the founder of Islam, there are
+few Saracenic buildings of importance in it. The so-called great Mosque
+at Mecca, which has been a goal of pilgrimage from all points of the
+Mahommedan world for so many centuries, has been since its foundation
+completely rebuilt, not assuming its present form until the middle of
+the 16th century. It has little that can be called architectural style
+about it, consisting as it does of an arcaded enclosure in the centre of
+which is the Kaaba, a heathen shrine that existed long before the time
+of Mohammed, the whole surrounded by a wall with several gateways and
+minarets.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem]
+
+In Jerusalem various characteristic buildings bear witness to the
+prevalence of the Mahommedan faith in the Holy City of the Christians,
+including the 7th century Mosque el Aksah, originally a Christian church
+transformed into what it now is by Calif Omar, and the 8th century
+shrine erroneously named after him, also known as the Dome of the Rock,
+both of which rise from the site of the Jewish Temple. The latter is of
+octagonal plan, and, though its details are of a somewhat hybrid
+character, many of the columns having been filched from other buildings,
+whilst the decorations of the great dome and of the exterior were added
+in the 16th century, is of very singular charm on account of the
+symmetry of its proportions and the richness of its colouring, the walls
+being cased in Persian tiles and the windows filled with stained glass.
+
+It appears to have been in Egypt that Saracenic architecture, strictly
+so-called, first attained to the structural dignity and appropriateness
+of ornamentation that were to distinguish it in Persia, Spain, and
+India. In the 7th century Mosque of Amru and that of Ibn Touloun, dating
+from the 9th century, both at Cairo, the earlier phases of the style can
+be studied, whilst the later development is illustrated in the same city
+by the 13th century Mosque of Kalaoon, the 14th century Mosque of Sultan
+Hassan, that has the rare feature in a Mahommedan building of a
+cruciform plan, the contemporaneous Mosque of Sultin Barkook, and the
+small 15th century Mosque of Kait-Bey, the last specially noteworthy on
+account of its beautiful internal decoration and its graceful minaret.
+
+In Persia the finest mosques are the 13th century one at Tabrez known as
+the Blue, and that at Ispahan dating from the 16th century, which has a
+grand dome and noble gateways with pointed arches, whilst at Serbistan,
+Firanzabad, Ukheithar, Kasir-i-Shirin, and elsewhere in the same country
+are remains of palaces and other secular buildings, ranging in date from
+the 4th to the 9th century, that give proof of great structural and
+decorative skill on the part of the architects who worked for the
+fire-worshippers, who, though they required no temples in which to
+worship their gods, lavished vast sums on their own homes.
+
+Beautiful as are the relics of Saracenic architecture in Egypt, Syria,
+and Persia, they are excelled by many remarkable buildings in Spain,
+where, after the conquest of the country by the Moors in the 8th
+century, the style reached its fullest development. The most remarkable
+examples of it are the Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by Abd-el-Rahman
+and added to from time to time by his successors, with the result that
+it affords an excellent illustration of the modification of details that
+took place as time went on; the 12th century Giralda or Tower at
+Seville, noteworthy for its fine proportions and effective surface
+decoration, the 13th century Alcazar or castle in the same town, and
+above all the Palace of the Alhambra, that dominates Granada from a
+lofty height above the city, which was begun in 1248 by the Moorish
+King, Ibn-l-Ahmar and added to by his successors. Of the original
+buildings that, when first completed, must have been one of the grandest
+and most finely situated groups in the world, all that now remain are
+the towers of the north wall, in one of which is the vast hall of the
+Ambassadors, and various colonnaded rooms and porticoes ranged round two
+spacious courts, one called that of the Fishpond, the other that of the
+Lions. The delicate grace of the columns and arches, with the richness
+of their decoration and of every inch of surface, has never been
+surpassed either in beauty of design or harmony of colour, whilst the
+effects of perspective from the doorways and other points of view are
+equally unrivalled. No single detail is superfluous or without its
+special meaning in relation to the whole, and even what to the
+uninitiated appear mere geometrical designs on the walls, lintels, &c.,
+are quotations from the Koran and classic Arabic poetry.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Mosque at Cordoba]
+
+When through the breaking up of the power of the Moors in Spain, the
+architecture introduced by them seemed fated to share their decline, a
+kind of revival of it took place in Constantinople through the conquest
+of that city by the Turks in 1453. Unfortunately however the style made
+no real progress there, the mosques and other buildings erected by the
+new owners being rather Byzantine than Saracenic, even that known as the
+Suleimanyeh, built between 1550-1556, and the Ahmediyeh, dating from
+1608-1614, greatly resembling St. Sophia.
+
+In India the mosques and palaces erected by the Mahommedan conquerors
+and their successors are even more beautiful and impressive than the
+Buddhist and Hindu buildings described in the section on Asiatic
+architecture. Their distinctive characteristics, as in Egypt, Persia,
+and Spain, are the skilful combination of the dome, the arch and the
+minaret, and the lavish surface decoration of the interior, with certain
+other peculiarities that were the outcome of local tradition. More
+attention was given, for instance, to external appearance, huge
+recessed gateways and colonnaded cloisters surmounted by rows of purely
+decorative domes on pilasters, being of frequent occurrence. At the same
+time, stalactite vaulting was rarely employed, whilst horizontal courses
+of corbels or arches in which each stone projects slightly beyond that
+on which it rests, were used as supports for the domes instead of
+pendentives.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Taj Mahal, Agra]
+
+Among the most noteworthy still-existing examples of Indo-Saracenic
+architecture are the early 15th century Jumna Musjid or Great Mosque at
+Ahmedabad, that has certain details recalling Hindu post and lintel
+structures; the late 15th century Adinah mosque at Gaur, which has 385
+domes; the 16th century Jumna Musjid at Bijapur, that has the singular
+feature of a central space covered in by a dome upheld by intersecting
+arches, set in a number of squares with flat roofs; the Mosque built by
+Akbar in the second half of the 16th century at Futtehpore Sikhri, the
+gateways of which are specially characteristic; and the remarkable
+buildings at Delhi and Agra, erected in the 17th century under the
+enlightened Shah Jehan, including in the former city the Jumna Musjid
+and the fortified palace, and in the latter the Moti Musjid or Pearl
+Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, both exceptionally beautiful, in which the
+Saracenic style may justly be said to have reached its culmination,
+nothing that can be compared with them having been since produced either
+in India or elsewhere. The Taj Mahal, built by the Emperor as a tomb for
+himself and his favourite wife, is indeed of dream-like and ethereal
+charm, with its well-proportioned domes and minarets, cased, as is the
+rest of the exterior, in white marble, and its interior enriched with
+mosaics of precious stones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The term Romanesque is given to the period between the beginning of the
+9th and the middle of the 12th century, but there was no real break in
+the continuity of the evolution of Christian architecture in Europe from
+the time when that art first freed itself from Pagan influence till it
+reached its noblest development in the Gothic style.
+
+[Illustration: Simple Intersecting Vaulting]
+
+From first to last the keynote of structure was the use of the arch for
+vaulting and for the spanning of piers and columns, and its form is, as
+a general rule, indicative of the phase of development to which it
+belongs. Although, however, it may be said that the semicircular arch is
+characteristic of Romanesque buildings, the lintel is occasionally used
+simultaneously with it in interiors, and the chief entrances are in many
+cases spanned by horizontal beams or courses of stone that are, however,
+as a general rule surmounted by arches. Moreover in late Romanesque work
+the pointed arch is now and then introduced shadowing forth the
+approaching change.
+
+It was not in the invention of new forms of vaulting but in the
+adaptation and improvement of those already in existence that Romanesque
+architects chiefly displayed their skill. The earliest Romanesque vaults
+were simple intersecting arches similar to those which had long been in
+use, but as time went on these were superseded by what is known as
+ribbed vaulting; that is to say by roofs divided into bays by a
+framework of diagonal ribs supporting fillings in of thin stone called
+severes, which in their turn gradually developed into the complex and
+ornate system of Gothic vaulting. To counteract the thrust of arched and
+ribbed vaulting the device of buttresses was hit upon. These buttresses
+consisted at first of a series of supports introduced beneath the roof
+of the aisles and extending from the back of the nave to the aisle wall,
+which were later supplemented by the external buttresses known as
+flying, that were to be so distinctive a feature of Gothic architecture.
+
+[Illustration: Ribbed Vaulting]
+
+[Illustration: Ribbed Vaulting]
+
+Other characteristics of Romanesque architecture are the slenderness of
+the columns as compared with those of earlier buildings, the disuse of
+classic capitals, and the substitution for them of what is known as the
+basket form, that is to say, semicircular mouldings enclosing floral
+designs, later replaced by a great variety of forms, such as flowers,
+leaves, human and animals' heads. The grouping of columns in clusters
+also came into use, the general tendency being towards the production of
+an effect of grace and lightness rather than of strength and solidity.
+Arched cornices were introduced to relieve the monotony of the walls
+above the pillars of the nave, whilst an even more marked change took
+place in the windows, which, though small and few in early Renaissance
+buildings, gradually increased in number, in size, and in the beauty of
+their tracery. At the eastern end of churches several windows were in
+some cases grouped together, divided only by slender pilasters, and
+above the western entrance large circular windows known as the rose or
+wheel--according to certain peculiarities of their tracery--were
+introduced, whilst the walls were pierced by rows of complex windows,
+each with a number of different lights.
+
+In Romanesque churches the beautiful colonnaded narthex of the early
+Christian basilica is replaced in Northern and occasionally in Southern
+Italy by a projecting, and elsewhere by a simple, porch; but to make up
+for the loss of what was a very effective feature, the whole of the
+western façade, including the recessed doorway giving access to the
+nave, is generally most richly decorated with sculpture and carving,
+figures in niches, grotesque animal forms of symbolic meaning, with
+floral and geometrical designs of great variety and beauty adorning
+every portion.
+
+[Illustration: Clustered Column]
+
+[Illustration: Buttress]
+
+[Illustration: Buttress]
+
+On either side of the west front of many Romanesque buildings, more
+rarely also from the point of junction of the transepts and nave, rise
+lofty square or octagonal towers, the earlier with flat, the later with
+more or less steeply pitched roofs, that gradually developed into the
+tapering spires so characteristic of the Gothic style. Occasionally the
+eastern apse is flanked by a turret or small tower, and in some cases,
+chiefly in Italy, a detached and lofty tower known as a Campanile or
+Bell Tower--though it only rarely contains bells, being sometimes merely
+a secular monument--rises close to the church or at a little distance
+from it, but connected with it by a cloister.
+
+[Illustration: Rose Window]
+
+In S. Ambrogio, Milan, begun in the 9th and completed in the 12th
+century, the gradual change from the early Christian to the Romanesque
+style as developed in Italy can be studied. It has a nave of basilican
+type, a narthex surmounted by a gallery, a pediment-like gable at the
+western end, an octagonal cupola roofing over the eastern apse, with a
+circle of windows flooding the choir with light, a triforium or arcaded
+storey above the aisles, and most characteristic of all, an open
+external arcaded gallery, admitting air and light beneath the roof of
+the apse, such as was to become so effective a decorative feature of
+later buildings, and in some cases to be extended along the aisles and
+above the chief entrance.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Arched Cornice]
+
+S. Michele, Pavia, is a typical and very beautiful example of the
+Romanesque style of the twelfth century, specially noteworthy features
+being its cruciform plan, its two-storied aisles, and its external
+gallery with clustered pilasters; and the contemporary S. Zeno, Verona,
+though it has no triforium and is not vaulted, has noble clustered piers
+from which sprang arches--only one of which remains--spanning the nave,
+alternating with single columns.
+
+Other fine Romanesque buildings in Italy are the Cathedral of Verona,
+which has a fine two-storied porch; the Cathedral of Novara, specially
+noteworthy for its beautiful atrium; S. Miniato, Florence, that is of
+basilican plan, and, though it is without transepts, has the distinctive
+Romanesque feature of transverse arches upheld by clustered piers
+spanning the nave and aisles; S. Antonio, Piacenza, with transepts at
+the western instead of the eastern end, fine intersecting vaults roofing
+in the whole building, and a tower rising from the junction of the nave
+and transepts; and the Cathedral of Pisa, the last a complex building
+with vaulted aisles, a dome above the intersection of the transepts and
+nave, a flat roof over the latter, and a lofty triforium gallery running
+round the entire church, the general effect being most pleasing and
+harmonious. Close to the cathedral are the 12th century circular
+Baptistery, that has considerably later additions, and the famous
+Leaning Tower, the three buildings forming one of the finest
+architectural groups in the world.
+
+Certain very marked characteristics distinguish the buildings of Sicily
+from those of contemporary date on the mainland of Italy, the Romanesque
+style, as is very clearly seen in the Cathedral of Monreale, having been
+there considerably modified alike by Saracenic and Norman influences.
+The pointed arch was adopted long before it came into use elsewhere in
+Europe, having been, it is suggested, a modification of the horse-shoe
+form so characteristic of Moorish mosques.
+
+In France, Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture followed, in the main,
+the same lines as in Italy, with, in many cases, one notable addition,
+that of the chevet, a circlet of chapels round the eastern apse, which
+gradually grew out of what was known as an ambulatory, that is to say, a
+space in which perambulation was possible, obtained by the extension of
+the aisles behind the choir. In early examples of the ambulatory the
+circle was continuous, as in the church of S. Saturnin, Auvergne, but as
+time went on, small semicircular chapels were introduced, with windows
+between them, that gradually developed into the chevet, the chapels
+increasing in number and in size, and in some cases extending westwards
+along the aisles.
+
+The churches and cathedrals of Southern France differ in several
+respects from those of the North, the aisleless basilica plan with
+barrel, intersecting, or domed vaulting being of frequent occurrence in
+the former, whilst in the latter the beautiful arcaded aisles and
+steeply pitched roof presage the approach of the Gothic style with its
+pointed arches, groined roofs, flying buttresses, and tapering
+pinnacles.
+
+The five-domed S. Front in Perigueux, though it has rudimentary aisles
+only, is a good example of an early French Romanesque building, in which
+Oriental influence is very perceptible, it being in some of its features
+a copy of S. Marco, Venice, whilst in the later Cathedral of Angoulême
+of cruciform plan with apsidal chapels, that of Le Puy with a triple
+entrance porch, the church of S. Hilaire, Poitiers, with its irregular
+domes, the uncompleted S. Ours, Loche, with its pyramidal octagonal
+spires, S. Saturnin, Toulouse, with its central many-storied tapering
+tower, the 12th century churches of Vezelay and Avallon; the cathedral
+and church of La Trinité at Angers, both combining pointed arches with
+domed vaulting, the gradual development of the southern branch of French
+Romanesque architecture can be very clearly studied.
+
+In many of the noble churches and cathedrals of Northern France and
+elsewhere the Romanesque may justly be said to have melted into the
+Gothic style, some of them combining as they do the most beautiful
+features of both. To the cost of their erection ecclesiastics and laymen
+alike contributed with eager zeal, and amongst the architects and
+craftsmen employed on them, class and professional rivalry were merged
+in one common enthusiasm to promote the glory of God, all desire for
+individual distinction being merged in an unselfish ambition to aid in
+producing a building worthy of His worship.
+
+In Normandy was inaugurated the phase of Romanesque architecture which
+was to develop on such noble lines in England, the chief distinctions of
+which are the massiveness of the walls and pillars, the great length of
+the nave, the richness of the decoration alike of the shafts and
+capitals of the columns and of the round-headed arches they uphold. Very
+notable examples are the Abbaye aux Hommes, the Abbaye aux Dames, and
+the Church of S. Nicholas, all at Caen, the first with circular arched
+vaulting and western towers ending in spires, the second with a Gothic
+roof of intersecting pointed arches, the third with three apses, each
+with a steeply pitched roof, a porch with three arcades at the western
+end, and a low gabled tower rising from the point of intersection of the
+nave and transepts, the three buildings illustrating well the transition
+from the simple basilica to the complex Gothic structure. With them may
+be named the Abbey of Jumièges, of which unfortunately but a few relics
+remain, which had beautiful clustered piers alternating with single
+columns upholding semicircular lateral arches, a flat roofed nave, and
+vaulted aisles.
+
+Other fine Romanesque churches of Northern France, all of which differ
+somewhat in general appearance from those of Normandy, are the
+Cathedrals of Noyon and Soissons, the church of S. Pierre at Lisieux,
+all of which combine pointed with semicircular arches, and above all
+the Cathedral of Le Mans, which has a very characteristic Romanesque
+nave flanked by round-headed arches and roofed over with an equally
+characteristic groined Gothic vault, whilst the choir, added in the
+early 13th century, is encircled by a beautiful chevet, the exterior of
+which with its many buttresses and pinnacles presents a most impressive
+appearance.
+
+One of the finest Romanesque buildings in Europe is the Cathedral of
+Tournai, Belgium, which has a flat-roofed nave of exceptional length,
+picturesque lateral storied galleries, a central tower with a lofty
+spire, and two supplementary towers, also with spires, flanking the
+northern and southern apses. Elsewhere in Belgium are several
+flat-roofed churches of basilican plan, some with ambulatories in the
+French style but no apsidal chapels. In Spain, on the other hand, the
+chevet is rarely absent from ecclesiastical buildings, whilst a
+distinctive local feature is a low central dome or tower known as the
+cimborio, which is in many cases scarcely more than a swelling of the
+roof at the point of intersection of nave and transept.
+
+Germany is especially rich in Romanesque churches, which, like those of
+Belgium, are of basilican plan with flat roofs. In the Cathedral of
+Trier can be studied the gradual growth of the Teutonic form of the
+Romanesque style, for it was originally an early Christian Church of the
+Roman type, which was converted into one of a more distinctive style in
+the 11th century by additions, including a western apse, whilst the
+noble vaulting of the nave dates from the 12th and the choir from the
+13th century. As time went on the multiplication of apses became
+characteristic of German churches, it being usual to add one at the
+western end, and more rarely also on the northern and southern sides,
+the beautiful tapering columns dividing them from the aisles, with the
+small chapels beyond them, producing very fine effects of perspective.
+Other peculiarities of German Romanesque buildings are their great
+height and the noble proportions of the interiors, with the finely
+balanced grouping of the cupolas, towers, and turrets of the exterior;
+to which must be added the absence of the great Western doorway that
+lends such distinction to French, Italian, and Belgian churches.
+
+Very fine examples of the style in Germany are the churches of S. Maria
+in Capitolo Cologne, S. Quirin in Neuss, and the cathedrals of Nuremberg
+and Bamberg, but it was in those of Speier, Mainz, and Worms that it
+achieved its greatest triumphs. The first, it is true, has no western
+apse, but this is atoned for by a fine narthex, and in the other two the
+western extension is as conspicuous as the eastern. Dignified simplicity
+and sense of space are the chief characteristics of all three
+buildings, massive columns upholding the arcading flanking the naves,
+whilst the walls of the aisles are unbroken by triforia, the piers at
+Speier and Worms being carried right up to the clerestory windows,
+whilst at Mainz two arches are placed one above the other, the vaulting
+of the nave springing from the upper tier.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+In Great Britain, even more than on the Continent, the architecture of
+the past reflects national character, its distinctive peculiarities
+having been the outcome of local conditions differing widely from those
+that obtained elsewhere, which largely modified the styles introduced
+from without. On the arrival of the Romans in the first century of the
+Christian era, there were, with the exception of the monoliths on
+Salisbury plain known as Stonehenge and other prehistoric relics, the
+origin of which has never yet been discovered, no buildings of greater
+pretension than mud huts or circular stone or wooden houses with a hole
+in the tapering roof through which air was admitted and smoke dispersed.
+The houses, palaces, and churches erected by the invaders were, as
+proved by the remains at Silchester, Wroxeter, and elsewhere, of the
+type of those of Imperial Rome, and on them many British masons were
+employed, who thus acquired a knowledge of the principles of
+construction that stood their successors in good stead. Those
+successors, however, showed no desire to perpetuate the style introduced
+by the conquerors, and when the latter withdrew in the 5th century the
+buildings they left behind them were allowed to fall into rapid decay.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Saxon Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Example of Saxon Arcading]
+
+Very quickly too did most of the converts to Christianity relapse into
+heathenism, and although the lamp of faith was long kept burning in
+Ireland and in Scotland, no trace exists of the churches in which the
+little remnant of the followers of the Redeemer met for worship. Of
+those built later under the auspices of Saints Augustine, Paulinus, and
+other early bishops, not one escaped destruction, but there is strong
+evidence to prove that they were of the basilican apsidal plan, that
+never took very deep root in England, but was in many cases ousted by
+the sanctuary with a square-shaped eastern extension.
+
+It is usual to give the term Anglo-Saxon to all relics of buildings in
+Great Britain, that can be proved to date from between the early 7th
+century and 1066, but Pre-Conquest would be more strictly accurate,
+Anglo-Saxon architects having contributed but little to the evolution of
+style, for they were wanting in initiative, rarely trying experiments
+with new features as was the constant custom of their Norman successors.
+To this, however, there was one brilliant exception in Bishop Wilfrid of
+York, who greatly improved the primitive church, built by King Edwin in
+the capital of his see, that was later destroyed by fire, and erected
+noble minsters at Hexham and Ripon, of which the fine crypts with
+massive pillars still remain beneath the considerably later buildings.
+In the south of England, too, there was considerable architectural
+activity in the 7th and 8th centuries, whilst in the 9th the return of
+King Egbert from his long exile at the Court of Charlemagne appears to
+have led to the introduction in Wessex of the Oriental branch of the
+Romanesque style to which the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle belongs.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of Sompting Church, Sussex]
+
+The chief characteristics of the so-called Anglo-Saxon style are the
+great height in comparison with the length and breadth of a building, a
+rectangular plan, massive square towers, unadorned angular or
+semicircular arches, stunted clumsy-looking columns with roughly carved
+or plain capitals, long narrow round-headed deeply recessed windows,
+massive walls without internal decoration, with on the exterior a
+somewhat ornate surface ornamentation, combined with a series of
+peculiar clamps known as quoins at the angles of the walls, greatly
+strengthening the structure. There were no aisles or transepts in early
+Anglo-Saxon buildings, but the chancel was divided from the nave by an
+arch sometimes with and sometimes without carving.
+
+It is supposed that most of the early Anglo-Saxon churches were built of
+wood, and at Greenstead in Essex an example remains of the mode in which
+such buildings were constructed, though the probability is that none of
+the original material remains. Of the stone buildings that succeeded
+those in the more perishable material a few only are still in existence,
+including the Abbey Church of Deerhurst near Towkesbury, the oldest
+consecrated building still in use in England, the Tower of Earl's Barton
+Church in Northamptonshire, parts of Barfreston Church, Kent, that has a
+fine Norman doorway: Sompting Church, with the unusual feature of a
+gabled tower with a spire, and that of Worth, both in Sussex, the latter
+with rudimentary transepts and a semicircular apse, with which may be
+mentioned S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts, of somewhat uncertain
+but probably later date than any of these, for it has a square Eastern
+end and decorative arcading on the upper portion of the walls, prophetic
+of coming changes.
+
+Certain portions of St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, notably a doorway
+in the chancel and parts of the foundations, are supposed to have
+belonged to a Saxon church of earlier date than the crypts of Hexham and
+Ripon already referred to, and which was preceded by an even more
+ancient building, one of the very first places of Christian worship
+erected in England.
+
+The so-called Pyx House in Westminster Abbey, a low narrow
+solemn-looking vaulted room with a row of massive pillars in the centre,
+and a single archway in the south transept, are all that are left of the
+noble sanctuary built under the direction of the last of the Saxon
+kings, but these relics, with a few conventual buildings, suffice to
+connect with Anglo-Saxon times a church that is perhaps more intimately
+associated than any other with the history of England from the close of
+the 11th to the middle of the 16th century, it having been added to
+under every successive occupant of the throne.
+
+The Anglo-Norman style, that succeeded the Saxon, prevailed in Great
+Britain from the conquest to the last decade of the 12th century,
+becoming at that time either merged in or superseded by the earliest
+phase of the Gothic.
+
+Always most enthusiastic builders, the Normans found in the land of
+their adoption fuller scope for their energies than in their own, and
+before they became absorbed in the race they had conquered, they left
+their impress throughout the length and breadth of their new domain,
+monasteries, cathedrals, and parish churches, castles, and dwelling
+houses rising up in every direction, all stamped with a most distinctive
+character, the result of the welding into one of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
+traditions, and the modification of a foreign style by local conditions
+of material and environment. In many cases somewhat crude and heavy,
+Norman work has yet always an imposing dignity, and is, as a general
+rule, admirably suited to the site it occupies and the purpose for which
+it is intended.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Norman Church]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital. White Tower, London]
+
+[Illustration: Base and Capital of Norman Pillar]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+The chief characteristics of Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical buildings are a
+cruciform plan; the great length in comparison with the breadth of the
+nave, which joins the choir without the intervention of a screen, such
+screens as are _in situ_ being of much later date than the churches in
+which they are found; columns of greater girth and height than the Saxon
+type, some circular, others six or eight sided, the circular type
+occasionally clustered in groups of six or more, with roughly carved
+capitals of which the so-called cushion form is of most frequent
+occurrence, upholding arches of wide span, massive walls, those of the
+nave with rows of purely ornamental arcading, beautifully proportioned
+triforia and clerestories; long, narrow, round-headed windows, two or
+three being often grouped together; deeply recessed and finely decorated
+doorways; strong external buttresses; twin western towers and a loftier
+central one rising from the intersection of nave and transepts. With
+certain notable exceptions referred to below, Norman churches have flat
+timber roofs, but those of the crypt beneath them are generally of
+groined stone with plain or only slightly ornamented ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway]
+
+Another very distinctive characteristic of the Norman style is the
+richness of the surface decoration of the interiors of cathedrals and
+churches, the bases, shafts, and capitals of the columns, the arches,
+headings of windows, mural arcades, &c. being all enriched with
+mouldings of an infinite variety of form, including the so-called cable
+resembling a rope, the billet not unlike short bits of rounded wood, the
+chevron or zig-zag, the fret or fillet, the lozenge, the trellis, the
+cone, the scollop, and wave with the so-called torus, a convex swelling,
+and the cavetto, a hollow moulding, the last two used almost exclusively
+on the bases of columns.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Buttress]
+
+[Illustration: Cable Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Billet Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Chevron or Zig-zag Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Diamond or Lozenge Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Trellis Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Cone Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Scollop Moulding]
+
+Among noteworthy existing examples of the Anglo-Norman style are the
+nave, transepts and western doorway of Hereford Cathedral; the choir,
+transepts, and nave of Peterborough Cathedral; the naves of Gloucester,
+Exeter, Chichester, and Ely Cathedrals; certain portions of Canterbury
+Cathedral, including the choir chapels, part of the cloisters, the
+baptistery tower, S. Anselm's Tower, and a fine staircase leading up
+from the Close; the Chapter House of Worcester Cathedral; the greater
+part of Norwich Cathedral, which, though it has the French chevet at the
+eastern end, combines with it the distinctive English characteristics of
+a nave of great length and long transepts, the former with fourteen
+noble bays; the naves of S. Alban's Abbey, Southwell Minster, and the
+Priory Church of Christchurch, Hants; portions of the nave and transepts
+and the central tower of Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford; the beautiful
+portal of Tewkesbury Abbey, the finest in England, and the doorway of
+Hales Church, Norfolk, on which may be seen many of the characteristic
+mouldings enumerated above.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Church at Kilpeck]
+
+Somewhat later in date and even more distinctively Anglo-Norman than the
+examples quoted above, is the noble Cathedral of Durham, in which the
+style reached its fullest culmination. It remains, with the exception of
+the so-called Chapel of the Nine Altars that replaces the original apse,
+very much what it was when first completed, and reflects the national
+unity that was becoming ever more and more complete whilst it was being
+erected. A very noteworthy feature of this most effective building, in
+which every detail is subordinated to the general effect, is the vaulted
+roof of the nave, one of the very few dating from Norman times,
+significant of the approaching revolt against the flat roofs that had so
+long been looked upon as essential. In spite of certain crudities of
+structure it harmonises well alike with the vaulting of the aisles and
+transepts of earlier, and of the choir of somewhat later date. The great
+clustered piers alternating with cylindrical columns, the fine arches
+spanning them, the beautiful triforia and clerestories, and above all
+the long vista of nave and choir, combine to place Durham Cathedral in
+the very highest rank amongst contemporary buildings either in England
+or on the Continent, whilst in the Galilee Chapel, to which a porch,
+replacing an earlier entrance, gives access, the details of the
+transitional Norman style can be very clearly studied, the graceful
+intersecting arches, upheld by slender coupled columns, recently
+supplemented by additional supports, enriched with characteristic
+mouldings, shadowing forth the approaching change to the early English
+phase of Gothic.
+
+Winchester Cathedral, originally a very typical Norman building designed
+by William of Wykeham, retains its Norman framework, covered over, as it
+were, with a drapery of detail in the latest development of English
+Gothic, and with it may be named as characteristic Norman buildings with
+Gothic additions, Peterborough Cathedral, all Norman except the west
+front and eastern extremity of the choir; Malmesbury Abbey, with a
+flat-roofed nave and vaulted aisles, the latter with pointed arches; the
+Cathedral of Exeter; the Minster of Sherbourne; and portions of
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Many parish churches, too, including those of Kilpeck in Herefordshire,
+a very typical Norman building; Tickencote in Lincolnshire, with
+intersecting pointed arches; S. Peter's in the East, Oxford, with a
+groined vaulted roof; Barfreston Church, Kent, with a very beautiful
+recessed doorway; Goring and Iffley in Oxfordshire; and above all, S.
+Bartholomew's in London, date from Norman times, and, though they have
+all been more or less modified by restoration, retain the general
+characteristics of the period to which they belong.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Peterborough Cathedral]
+
+Anglo-Norman secular architecture is characterised by much the same
+qualities as ecclesiastical, the castles and residences of the
+sovereigns and the nobles having been of dignified and impressive
+appearance, well proportioned, and thoroughly in harmony with their
+surroundings. During the reigns of the Conqueror and his successors many
+noble strongholds were erected on points of vantage. The most important
+feature, and in every case the first to be built, having been the lofty
+central keep or donjon, the home of its owner in peace, and the last
+refuge of a besieged garrison in time of war. In it was a fine hall, in
+which the host received his guests, with a raised platform known as the
+daïs for the use of those of high rank, and the approach to it was
+protected by a complex series of defences, including deep ditches or
+fosses, walls with towers and turrets at intervals, forming two distinct
+enclosures known as the outer and inner baileys, often covering a vast
+extent of ground, the whole encircled by a deep moat that could be
+filled with water when necessary. The great main entrance was flanked by
+towers, and in connection with the heavy doors of solid oak was a
+portcullis, that is to say, a grating of timber and iron bristling with
+spikes, that could be drawn up from within, cutting off all access to
+the inner precincts.
+
+Some few Norman castles, all considerably modified to suit modern
+requirements, are still in use as residences or public buildings,
+including those of Windsor, Warwick (both specially typical), Norwich,
+Dover, Richmond in Yorkshire, and the Tower of London; the keep of the
+last named (known as the White Tower) and the chapel dedicated to S.
+John being amongst the best examples of the Anglo-Norman style in
+existence; whilst at Rochester, Colchester, Croft, Headingham, and
+Kenilworth are extensive remains of other strongholds, that before they
+fell into decay, must have equalled in grandeur those of Windsor and
+Warwick. A very remarkable example of a private residence dating from
+Norman times is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the seat of the Duke of
+Rutland, which retains the original great hall with a daïs and
+minstrels' gallery, and a number of fine suites of rooms to which
+various wings were added during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries,
+affording an excellent opportunity for the study of the development of
+English domestic architecture.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE
+
+
+The first decades of the 12th century were marked throughout Europe, as
+far as architecture was concerned, by the final breaking loose from the
+Roman traditions that had so long been accepted as binding, and the
+revolt against which had been inaugurated more than a hundred years
+before. The struggle between the old and new methods of building very
+clearly reflected that of the people for greater freedom of thought and
+action in the countries in which it took place. The keynote of both was
+an aspiration after nobler things, and, in architecture, a yearning for
+religious expression, typified by the pointing upwards of the spires and
+pinnacles of churches and cathedrals, coincided with the craving of
+builders for increased lightness and grace of structure. The lofty
+vaults and complicated systems of buttresses of the Gothic style bore
+striking witness to the ambitious daring of their designers, a daring
+more than justified by its results.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Vaulting]
+
+The term Gothic, that now calls up a vision of ethereal beauty, was,
+strange to say, first given to the style that grew out of the Romanesque
+by the artists of the Renaissance as an expression of their contempt for
+what they looked upon as outworn methods of building, similar to those
+of the Gothic barbarians in warfare. It very soon, however, lost all
+association with this most inappropriate comparison, becoming synonymous
+with all that is most beautiful in the architecture of the period to
+which it is applied.
+
+The most important characteristics of Gothic buildings are the
+introduction, wherever possible, of vertical or very sharply pointed
+details, such as highly pitched roofs and gables, spires and pinnacles,
+pointed arches and pointed vaulting, flying buttresses, that grew ever
+slenderer and more decorative, leading downwards from the roof, and
+counteracting the tremendous thrust of the suspended vault of stone, all
+of true structural value. To these must be added the minor peculiarities
+of slenderer columns than those of Romanesque buildings, several being
+often clustered together, mouldings cut into the stone of the capitals
+of the columns, arcading &c., instead of projecting beyond the surface,
+the grouping of several windows under the arch, and the increase in the
+beauty of their tracery. The so-called lancet or long narrow window with
+stilted head, pointed like an arch, is specially distinctive of Early
+Gothic, and was later supplemented by the more elaborate rose window,
+the stained glass in them, and in the more complex groups, adding
+greatly to the æsthetic effect of the whole building, the many coloured
+light from them relieving the monotony of the stone work.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Vaulting]
+
+The general appearance of the interior of a Gothic cathedral, with its
+long perspective of nave, aisles, and choir, its finely proportioned
+triforia and clerestories, and, above all, its graceful arches leading
+up to their points of union in the soaring roof, may justly be called a
+poem in stone, whilst its exterior is equally remarkable for the close
+correlation of all its parts, producing an impression of consistent
+unity of design. An added charm is given alike to the interior and
+exterior by the combined richness and quaintness of the decorative
+sculpture, in which is clearly illustrated the delight in symbolism of
+the mediæval craftsmen, who, working in close accord with architect and
+builder, supplemented effigies of heroes and heroines of the faith,
+royal patrons, &c., with emblematic animals, fruit, flowers, and
+foliage, welding the most incongruous forms into an elaborate and
+beautiful scheme of ornamentation.
+
+[Illustration: Gargoyle]
+
+It was in Northern France that the Gothic style was first developed, and
+there, as elsewhere, it passed through three phases. The first,
+characterised by comparative severity of style and simplicity of
+decoration, prevailing in the 12th and 13th centuries; the second, to
+which the name of Rayonnant is sometimes given, on account of the
+ray-like window tracery, in the 14th; and the third, known as the
+Flamboyant, because of the flame-like tracery and general brightness of
+the ornamentation, in the 15th century.
+
+[Illustration: Flying Buttress]
+
+A hint of the coming change was, as has already been shown, given in
+many a Romanesque building, notably, to quote but two cases in point, in
+the Cathedral of Evreux, and the Church of S. Etienne, Beauvais, but it
+was in the Cathedral of S. Denis, near Paris, founded in 1140, that the
+full significance of that change was revealed. It retains, it is true,
+round-headed arches above some of its windows and a few projecting
+decorative mouldings, but in other respects it is essentially Gothic,
+its double aisles foreshadowing those of the later Notre Dame of Paris,
+which may justly be said to be an epitome of the development of the
+pointed style in France. Specially dear to the French nation on account
+of its intimate association with many thrilling episodes of its history,
+it remains, in spite of all the vicissitudes through which it has
+passed, so far as its general structure is concerned, very much what it
+was when first completed in the late 13th century. The noble western
+façade, with its profuse and ornate ornamentation, and the fine square
+towers flanking it, each pierced with effective openings and adorned
+with grotesque gargoyles, contrast with the slender central
+spire--which, by the way, is modern--tiers of graceful flying
+buttresses, and the numerous groups of pinnacles, whilst the long line
+of the great roof ridge brings into relief the comparative intricacy of
+the design of the rest of the building, especially of the extremities of
+the transepts with their fairy-like arcading, beautiful sculptures, and
+grand rose windows.
+
+The most distinctive details of the interior of Notre Dame are the
+massive piers and symmetrical arches of varying width of the nave, the
+simple but most effective vaulting of it, the double aisles and the
+choir; the shortness of the transepts, atoned for by the unusual length
+of the semicircular apse, with its circlet of chapels; the combination
+in the clerestory of pointed-headed and rose windows, and, above all,
+the exquisitely proportioned and spacious triforium, which surmounts the
+whole of the double aisles and forms a circular gallery with arcaded
+openings, harmonising alike with those of the nave below and the
+clerestory above, and a stone vault of pointed intersecting arches
+springing from slender clustered columns.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Arcade]
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Steeple]
+
+Contemporaneous with Notre Dame is Laon Cathedral, the original and
+characteristic chevet of which was replaced in the early 13th century by
+a square termination, in imitation it is supposed of some English
+church, but which otherwise resembles the Cathedral of Paris, especially
+in its fine western façade and open vaulted triforium. In the Cathedral
+of Chartres, founded in the 12th century, but practically rebuilt in the
+13th after its almost complete destruction by fire, the further progress
+of the style may be studied, its arches being more stilted and its nave
+and choir wider than those of its predecessors, whilst its closed-in
+triforium is significant of the ever increasing height of the roofs,
+necessitating the strengthening of the walls, a change that was,
+however, quickly succeeded and, to a great extent, neutralised by the
+piercing and filling in with glass of the wall behind the arcading.
+Other characteristics of Chartres Cathedral are the noble sculptures of
+the west front, that are not only among the finest but the least injured
+in France, those of the south and north porches that are scarcely
+inferior, the dignified towers surmounted by beautiful and graceful
+spires of different but harmonious designs, and the double tier of
+flying buttresses of the nave. The last named are moreover of unusual
+construction, each consisting of two parts, the upper strengthened by an
+arcade with round-headed arches, springing from massive stunted piers,
+that seem to connect the advanced Gothic of the rest of the building,
+with the late Romanesque style.
+
+The Cathedral of Rheims is another typical Gothic building with a
+western façade, the deeply recessed central portal of which is
+especially fine, resembling those of Notre Dame, Laon, and Chartres; a
+remarkably effective central tower that rises nearly sixty feet above
+the high-pitched roof; a well-developed chevet, a walled-in triforium
+similar to that of Chartres, a noble series of clerestory and several
+grand rose windows filled with very beautiful stained glass.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Clustered Column]
+
+In the Cathedral of Amiens French Gothic architecture touched its
+highest point of excellence, before the over exaggeration of its
+distinctive peculiarities sounded the note of decadence. Begun in 1220,
+when all the structural problems of the pointed style had been finally
+solved, it was completed in 1272, and although it has more than once
+been seriously injured by fire, it has been so successfully restored
+that it still remains one of the noblest churches of Europe, the one
+thing detracting from the solemn beauty of its general external
+appearance being the later Flamboyant spire, that is quite out of
+character with the rest of the building. Its great height and breadth;
+the symmetry of its proportions; the dignified simplicity of its
+vaulting, which in nave, aisles and transepts, chevet chapels and
+ambulatory is of similar design, the centre from which the ribs radiate
+being in every case so situated that these ribs are all of equal length;
+the grand sculptures and fine arcading of the great west front, the
+towers of which, though they differ in detail, harmonise well with each
+other; the exquisite statues and bas-reliefs of the transept portals;
+the combined strength and grace of the many flying buttresses; the
+admirable system of lighting, windows occupying the whole of the space
+between the main arcades of the nave and the roof; the beautiful and
+varied effects of perspective from many different points of view in the
+interior; with the minor detail of the marvellous carvings in the choir,
+justify the claim that Amiens Cathedral is the crowning glory of Gothic
+architecture and an ample vindication of its principles.
+
+In the contemporaneous Beauvais Cathedral, that was intended to rival
+that of Amiens in its height and in the ethereal lightness of its
+stilted arches, a convincing proof was given of the danger of carrying
+those principles too far, for the vaulting of the choir collapsed before
+the completion of the building, which, though it was restored and added
+to later, still remains unfinished. With it may be mentioned the Sainte
+Chapelle of Paris, the window tracery in which is very fine; the
+Cathedral of Coutances, which has a very fine central lantern
+tower--that is to say, one with windows that throw a light upon the
+centre of the interior of a building--and a beautiful tapering spire;
+and the Cathedral of Lisieux, with a very characteristic chevet and
+vaulting resembling that of the Cathedral of Amiens.
+
+The Cathedral of Le Mans, already referred to in connection with its
+noble Romanesque nave, has a most beautiful late 13th century Gothic
+choir, with one of the finest chevets in France. The aisles, that at the
+western end of the building are single, develop at the transepts into a
+double circlet, with chapels radiating from them, whilst the choir has
+exceptionally fine 13th and 14th century stained glass windows. The
+general effect of the interior, in which the solemn dignity of the nave
+contrasts with the almost ethereal beauty of the choir and its
+surroundings, is most impressive, whilst the exterior with its graceful
+flying buttresses and pinnacles is equally fine.
+
+The Cathedral of Bourges is another typical 13th century Gothic building
+which, though it is without the usual transepts, has a beautiful apse,
+the ambulatories of which have unusually wide spaces between the
+columns, double aisles flanking the nave as well as the choir and
+chevet, producing a unique impression of vastness, whilst the exterior
+is equally effective with its five grand western portals, a long main
+roof unbroken by towers or spires, and a series of steeply pitched
+supplementary roofs above the chapels of the eastern end.
+
+Dating from the same period as the cathedrals just noticed is the
+fortified Abbey of Mont St. Michel, that has been again and again
+rebuilt, and in which the gradual evolution of the Gothic style in
+France can be well studied, especially in the lovely chapel justly
+called the Merveille or the Marvel, that, with its cloisters, is still
+much what it was when finished in 1228, whilst the Chatelet or
+Gate-house, with its massive round towers and the various abbatial
+buildings, such as the Salle des Hôtes or Guest-Hall, are equally
+characteristic of French domestic architecture of the same period. On
+the other hand the Abbey Church, that crowns the mount, has been so
+much-restored and modified that little of the original structure
+remains, except the crypt which, with its massive piers and arches and
+many supplementary chapels, is practically the same as that from which
+uprose the famous abbey, the building of which was a labour of love to
+so many successive abbots.
+
+The Church of S. Pierre, Caen, which has a fine tower with a beautiful
+pierced spire, is a good example of the second period of the Gothic
+style in France, and at Rouen the Rayonnant and Flamboyant phases are
+exceptionally well illustrated. The Abbey Church of S. Ouen was built
+entirely in the 14th century, and, with its characteristic high-pitched
+roofs over each bay of the aisles, its lofty towers--those at the west
+end with tapering spires--its delicately sculptured portals, double
+tiers of flying buttresses, triple division of arcades, triforium, and
+clerestory in the nave, the number and beauty of its stained glass
+windows, its graceful clustered piers, that rise without a break from
+the ground to the springing of the vault, and its beautiful chevet, with
+its circlet of eleven chapels, is an epitome of all the most
+characteristic features of Gothic architecture.
+
+The Church of St. Maclou in the same town is a fine gem of Flamboyant
+work, with its stilted arches, tapering spires and pinnacles, and lavish
+internal and external decoration, whilst in the Cathedral of Rouen can
+be recognised details of each of the three stages of French Gothic,
+combined with those of the later Renaissance. The western façade,
+lateral portals, towers, spires, and fine rose windows are typically
+Flamboyant, and the general view of the interior, with its long vista of
+nave and choir, its slightly pointed arcading, two tiers of which divide
+the nave from the aisles, and, above all, its simple but most effective
+vaulting, is essentially that of an early example of the pointed style,
+that of the Lady Chapel being especially effective.
+
+Good secular examples of the Gothic style in France are the Palais de
+Justice and Hôtel de Bourgtheroulde, both at Rouen, the Chateau of Coucy
+near Laon, the Hôtel de Cluny, Paris, the Chateau de Pierrefonds in
+Normandy, and, most characteristic of all, the House of Jacques Coeur
+at Bourges. It was, however, in Belgium that Gothic municipal and
+domestic architecture reached its noblest development, the great halls
+of the towns being remarkable for their dignified and massive
+appearance, and, except in the latest examples built after the decadence
+had set in, for the severe restraint of their ornamentation. Of
+rectangular plan, and several stories in height, with steeply pitched
+roofs, the gable ends adorned with many pinnacles, and the long sloping
+sides broken by dormer windows, contrasting with the rows of
+pointed-headed lights in the walls beneath, and lofty central tower of
+ornate design, these noble buildings, of which those at Ypres, Bruges,
+Brussels, Ghent, and Tournai are the best, are the chief pride of the
+cities to which they belong. They rival in the affections of the people
+even the cathedrals of contemporary date, although those of Antwerp,
+specially noteworthy for its seven aisles, Louvain, the nave and
+transepts of which, as already stated, are Romanesque, whilst the choir
+is a fine specimen of Early Gothic, Brussels, Ghent, Louvain, and Liège
+are all noble structures, resembling those of France in general plan,
+though most of them are shorter and of greater width.
+
+In Spain, as in France, Gothic architecture passed through three phases:
+the first, that prevailed in the second half of the 12th and the first
+of the 13th century, to a great extent the outcome of the Romanesque;
+the second that succeeded it and lasted until the beginning of the 15th
+century, distinguished by great dignity of structure and appropriateness
+of ornamentation; the last, that prevailed until nearly the middle of
+the 16th century, corresponding to a great extent with French
+Flamboyant, though it lasted longer and was considerably modified by
+Moorish influence.
+
+To the first period of Gothic architecture in Spain belong the
+Cathedrals of Santiago de Compostella, of cruciform plan with a vaulted
+roof, semicircular headed arcades and windows, and an ornate western
+façade recalling that of Chartres; Zamora, Taragona, and the older of
+the two at Salamanca, the three last retaining the characteristic
+cimborio, or low dome, already referred to in connection with Romanesque
+work in Spain, rising from the intersection of nave and transepts, but
+of more complex structure than in earlier examples, the ribs of the
+vaulting being upheld by pendentives and the whole surmounted by a
+secondary dome of considerable height pierced with windows, and at
+Salamanca flanked by four circular towers. Unfortunately, in later
+Spanish ecclesiastical architecture this beautiful feature was
+abandoned, and the Cathedrals of Toledo, Leon, and Burgos are of the
+French type, with chevets, double aisles, clustered pillars upholding
+pointed arches, vaulted roofs, ornate decorative arcading, fine open
+triforia, and lofty clerestories. The exterior of that of Burgos is
+especially ornate, with three pinnacled towers, tapering open-traceried
+spires rising from those at the western end. In the 14th century the
+cruciform plan, which had so long prevailed, was replaced in Spain by
+one without either aisles or transepts; the buttresses that had
+previously been introduced outside the building to resist the thrust of
+the vaulting, were brought within the walls so as to make the nave one
+vast vaulted hall, flanked by lateral chapels as in the fine Cathedral
+of Gerona and the Church of S. Maria del Pino at Barcelona. Later,
+however, this comparatively simple mode of structure was superseded by
+vast complicated buildings such as the Cathedral of Salamanca and that
+of Segovia, both dating from the 16th century, the vaulting of which is
+especially complicated, with very ornate ribs, whilst the towers closely
+resemble those of contemporaneous Moorish mosques.
+
+The Gothic style, that was alike alien to the Italian temperament and
+unsuited to the Italian climate, never really took root in Italy, the
+soil of which was thoroughly impregnated with classic traditions. The
+horizontal cornice, so characteristic of Greek and Early Roman
+architecture is of frequent occurrence, the round arch was long retained
+in combination with pointed highly-pitched roofs, and spires are rare,
+whilst the beautiful groined vaulting, the flying buttresses, and the
+exquisite window-tracery, that lend so great a charm to the cathedrals
+and churches of France and England, are very seldom met with. There was
+no gradual evolution in Italy from Early to Late Gothic, and for this
+reason it is usual to treat Italian buildings in the pointed style in
+three geographical instead of chronological groups, namely, the
+northern, central, and southern. To the first belongs the Cathedral of
+Milan, the largest Gothic building in Italy, the exterior of which is
+somewhat spoiled by its over-decorated western façade, though the effect
+of the long rows of lateral pinnacles, the numerous flying buttresses,
+the low conical dome and lofty spire is very fine. The interior, with
+its vast nave, double aisles, and complex apse, its lofty piers, with
+capitals consisting of life-sized figures in niches, and its noble
+clerestory, presents an appearance of grandeur unequalled by any other
+Gothic church in Italy. The Certosa or Carthusian Monastery, the façade
+of which is a century older than the rest of the building; the Churches
+of S. Maria del Carmine and S. Michele, both at Pavia, the latter with a
+very typical campanile; the Cathedral of Genoa; the Churches of S.
+Anastasia and S. Zenone at Verona, are all good examples of
+Italian-Gothic, whilst amongst secular buildings in the same style in
+Northern Italy, the Ducal and other palaces at Venice, such as the
+so-called Ca' d'Ora are remarkable for the beauty of their proportions,
+the effectiveness of their window-grouping, and the general
+appropriateness and grace of their decorative details, especially of
+their balconies.
+
+In Central Italy the Cathedrals of Florence and Siena are specially
+typical, the former, with its dome of considerably later date than the
+rest of the building, contrasting with the Campanile or Bell Tower named
+after Giotto, the latter being noteworthy for the combination of a dome
+with pointed arcading and horizontal cornices, and the association on
+the west front of rounded with stilted arches, the last a peculiarity
+also of the cathedral at Orvieto, the façade of which is one of the most
+beautiful in Italy.
+
+The Gothic work of Southern Italy is far more florid than that of the
+rest of the peninsula, and this is equally true of that of Sicily. In
+the churches of both, as in the earlier Romanesque buildings already
+noticed, Saracenic, Greek, and Roman influences are alike noticeable,
+especially in those of Naples and the Cathedrals of Palermo, Monreale,
+and Messina, the three last named combining the pointed arch distinctive
+of Gothic, with the elaborate surface decoration so characteristic of
+the Norman style.
+
+German architects did not adopt the pointed arch until considerably
+later than those of the south and west of Europe, but to atone for this
+they delighted in highly pitched roofs with stilted gables, and lofty
+towers, with pointed roofs and tapering spires. The exteriors of their
+buildings differ very greatly from the interiors, in which the
+round-headed windows and semicircular arches of the Romanesque style are
+retained, enriched, however, with beautiful and ornate carving. The term
+round-arched Gothic is therefore often applied to the earliest phase of
+the style in Germany, of which good examples are the Churches of the
+Holy Apostles, of S. Martin and S. Maria in Capitolo, all in Cologne,
+the Abbey Churches of Arnstein and Andernach and the Liebfrauenkirche at
+Trèves, the last built on the foundations of a much earlier chapel.
+
+The second phase of Gothic architecture in Germany, in which the pointed
+arch was substituted for the semicircular, did not begin until the
+second half of the 13th century. To it belong the greater part of the
+Cathedral of Strasburg, which combines, with much beautiful Romanesque
+work, a typical Gothic façade with a fine open tracery spire, a
+companion to which was designed but never erected. The Cathedral of
+Freiburg, with a graceful and ornate spire, the Church of S. Stephen at
+Vienna, with aisles almost as lofty as the nave, portions of the Church
+of S. Sebald, Nuremberg, the decorative sculpture of which is remarkably
+fine, and, above all, the Cathedral of Cologne, the noblest example of
+German Gothic, with an exceptionally symmetrical plan, which in spite of
+the fact that the building extended over more than a century, and that
+the west point was only completed in the 19th century, was not departed
+from, so that it remains a unique specimen of mediæval design. It has a
+noble nave, double aisles, one of which is continued round the eastern
+apse and is divided into seven chapels, forming a picturesque chevet.
+Massive towers with a tapering central spire and many pinnacles flank
+the western entrance, elaborately decorated buttresses break the long
+lines of the walls, and from the intersecting nave and transepts rises a
+slender but most effective spire.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Cologne Cathedral]
+
+To the third period of Gothic architecture in Germany belong Ulm
+Cathedral, which has a nave of exceptional height; the unfinished Church
+of S. Barbara at Kullenberg, with a very picturesque chevet, the
+exterior of which is most lavishly decorated, and a steeply pitched roof
+of unusual height, with soaring towers and pinnacles; S. Catherine at
+Oppenheim, the over ornate complex decorative carvings of which are
+specially typical; and the parish Church of Thaun, the western portal of
+which is remarkably fine.
+
+With these ecclesiastical buildings may be named the town halls of
+Lübeck, Brunswick, Münster, and other German towns, which, though they
+are neither so beautiful or so characteristic as those of Belgium, are
+of noble and symmetrical proportions, whilst a word of recognition must
+also be given to the beautiful domestic architecture of Germany,
+especially that of Prague, Nuremberg, and Frankfort all rich in
+survivals of mediæval times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN
+
+
+[Illustration: Early English Lancet Window]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Window]
+
+Gothic architecture in England and Scotland followed to some extent the
+same lines as in France, with, however, certain notable differences that
+were the outcome of the national feeling which had begun to make itself
+felt as early as the close of the 11th century. Until then the Normans
+had remained a distinct and alien element in what appeared to them a
+foreign land, but now they had become fused with the natives of that
+land, sharing their æsthetic as well as their political aspirations. The
+note of change was first sounded in the architecture of the now united
+races in a rebellion against the heavy massiveness of the Norman style,
+and a desire for a greater redundancy of what may be called structural
+decoration in place of extraneous surface ornamentation. The general
+proportions of buildings gradually became slenderer, the walls loftier,
+the windows longer, the piers and columns slighter, and the arches more
+pointed, these peculiarities becoming more and more accentuated as time
+went on, till they culminated in the noble and exquisitely beautiful
+cathedrals and churches that vied even with the best of those of
+Northern France.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+It is usual to divide the development of English Gothic architecture
+into three periods: the Early English, the Decorated, and the
+Perpendicular--the first prevailing from about 1189 to 1307, the second
+from the latter date to 1380, and the third from 1380 to 1485, whilst
+the name of Tudor has been given to the transitional time between the
+last phase of Gothic and the introduction of the Renaissance style,
+lasting from 1485 to about 1546. It must, however, be added that hardly
+any buildings exist belonging entirely to one period, architects having
+in almost every case been compelled to be content with adding to or
+modifying the work of their predecessors.
+
+Amongst the characteristics of Early English architecture are groined
+vaulting with main diagonal ribs only, long narrow lancet-headed
+windows, clustered piers with capitals consisting generally of
+delicately carved foliage, pointed arcading, the archivolt or arched
+portion enriched with mouldings, in which the ornament known as the
+dog-tooth is of frequent occurrence, ornate yet dignified western
+façades with deeply recessed doorways decorated with slender columns and
+beautiful bas-reliefs, high-pitched roofs with stilted gable ends, lofty
+towers and spires, and plain buttresses ranged in pairs at the angles of
+buildings.
+
+The Early English lancet window has a unique significance in the
+development of Gothic architecture this side of the Channel, for it
+inaugurated an important structural change, its constantly increasing
+length aiding greatly in the breaking up of the triple division of
+walls--supposed by some to have been emblematic of the Holy
+Trinity--with arcading, triforium, and clerestory. By slow degrees the
+triforium was first reduced to a mere decorative feature, and then
+eliminated altogether, whilst the clerestory usurped its place in
+addition to its own.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Base of Early English Pillar]
+
+[Illustration: Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar]
+
+In Decorated buildings the windows are larger and divided into a greater
+number of lights than in Early English, the heads being filled with
+tracery of geometrical design; the façades are more complicated and at
+the same time less effective, the towers and spires are loftier and
+supplemented by many pinnacles and finials, flying buttresses are
+multiplied; parapets with pierced openings, canopied niches containing
+figures and other purely decorative features give to the exteriors a
+great richness of general appearance. In the interiors the simple Early
+English vaulting is superseded by roofs divided into a great number of
+different compartments, the points of intersection being marked by stone
+bosses or masses of carving, whilst increased lavishness of decoration
+characterises every portion of the building, mouldings of a great
+variety, amongst which the ballflower is of frequent occurrence, being
+introduced wherever possible.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Ornaments]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Ornaments]
+
+In Perpendicular Gothic, as its name implies, the vertical tendency
+became ever more and more marked; towers, spires, and pinnacles became
+more and more numerous, all decreasing in bulk and increasing in height.
+Turrets with many airy finials, springing from flying buttresses that
+were adorned with figures of lions, dragons, and other symbolic
+creatures, rise above equally ornate parapets, the dignified
+single-centred arch was replaced by a four-centred form, and rectilinear
+lines superseded the beautifully flowing tracery of earlier windows. It
+was, however, the complex and exquisitely delicate groined roofing that
+chiefly characterised the Perpendicular style, lending to the interior
+of the buildings in which it was employed an ethereal charm that has
+never been surpassed. In the so-called fan-tracery roof, that was the
+culmination of this distinctive form of vaulting, the entire surface of
+the roof is covered with radiating ribs resembling the sections of an
+outspread fan, connected by bands of trefoil or quatrefoil ornament
+known as cusping, and, in some cases--notably in that of Henry VII's
+chapel at Westminster--with pendant stalactite ornaments drooping from
+the point of intersection of the groins. In some Perpendicular
+buildings, as in the Churches of S. Stephen and S. Peter's Mancroft at
+Norwich, ornate open timber roofs, enriched with beautiful carving, take
+the place of those of stone, and in the final or Tudor phase of the
+style such roofs, to which the name of hammer beam has been given, and
+of which those of Wolsey's Great Hall at Hampton Court and of
+Westminster Hall are good examples, were almost as elaborate as the
+fan-tracery variety. Characteristic features of secular Tudor buildings
+are the extensive use of panelling, the bow or projecting window rising
+direct from the ground, the oriel window or window supported by a corbel
+of stone often finely carved, battlements with open tracery work and
+richly decorated gables, fine specimens of all of which are to be seen
+at Hampton Court Palace.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Dog-tooth Ornament]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Doorway, Westminster Abbey]
+
+One of the earliest Gothic structures in England is the choir of
+Canterbury Cathedral, designed by the Burgundian Williams of Sens, which
+recalls in general style certain contemporaneous French ecclesiastical
+buildings. Foreign influence is also noticeable in the somewhat later
+Ripon and Chichester Cathedrals, but by the beginning of the 13th
+century English Gothic had freed itself almost entirely from the
+trammels of French traditions, and started forward on the path from
+which it never deviated, combining a consummate mastery of structural
+principles and an unwearying attention to detail with a unity of
+expression that makes an English Gothic church or cathedral an ideal
+reflection of the spirit of the age which witnessed its erection.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Salisbury Cathedral]
+
+The Cathedrals of Wells, Lincoln, and Salisbury, the choir of Ely
+Cathedral, and the choir, transepts, and part of the cloisters and
+other details of Westminster Abbey, are typical examples of the Early
+English phase of Gothic. The first named especially is unrivalled in the
+symmetry of its general proportions and the richness and appropriateness
+of its decorations. Its western façade rivals that of Amiens Cathedral
+in the restrained dignity of its general design, the delicacy of its
+decorative arcading, and the number and variety of its finely sculptured
+figures. The central tower, though its upper portion belongs to the
+Decorated period, harmonises well with the rest of the exterior, whilst
+the interior is truly a poem in stone, with the long perspective of the
+nave flanked by graceful arches, springing from clustered piers with
+capitals of exquisitely carved foliage, noble triforia and clerestories,
+and a simple arched vaulting of intersecting ribs. The transepts, that
+are of earlier date than the nave, serve as a kind of introduction to
+it, and in the choir the transition from Early English to Decorated
+Gothic can be well studied, the western portion dating from the 12th and
+the eastern from the 13th century.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Window]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Pinnacle]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Capital]
+
+Though the exterior of Lincoln Cathedral is of a somewhat hybrid
+character, the towers and doorways of the west front being Norman, the
+arcading and decorative sculpture Early English, and the central tower
+Decorated, the general effect is grand and impressive. The interior,
+though not quite so ornate as that of Wells, is almost as beautiful, the
+great rose windows being specially noteworthy features. The so-called
+Angel Choir, which has a very fine triforium, is a gem of Early English
+work, and the three 15th century chapels adjoining it are equally
+characteristic of Perpendicular Gothic.
+
+The beautiful Early English choir of Ely Cathedral contrasts forcibly
+with the noble Norman nave, and the so-called Galilee Porch is one of
+the finest examples of the first phase of Gothic in the country, but the
+exterior of the building has been almost entirely rebuilt, the great
+central tower, which fell in 1322, having been replaced by the present
+one in the Decorated phase of Gothic. The Early English portions of
+Westminster Abbey closely resemble the other examples of the style just
+quoted, though the bays of the choir are not so well proportioned as
+those of Lincoln. Before the 15th century additions to Salisbury
+Cathedral and the sweeping away of the statues and other sculptures that
+adorned its west front, it must have been almost as typical as that of
+Lincoln or of Wells of the Early English style, and it still remains, in
+its rectangular plan and square eastern termination, a true
+representative of the ideals of native architects.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Ball Flower Ornament]
+
+The transepts of York Minster, in one of which is the famous window with
+lancet-headed lights, known as the Five Sisters, is a good example of
+the transition from Early English to Decorated Gothic, and the same may
+be said of portions of the ruins of Hexham Abbey, the Saxon crypt of
+which has already been referred to, notably of the transepts with
+windows resembling those of York Minster, and of the many relics of the
+noble monastic buildings of Yorkshire, including those at Ripon,
+Jervaulx, Rivaulx, and Whitby. The Cathedral of Glasgow is another
+beautiful building in the first phase of Gothic, the choir, beneath
+which is a noble crypt of earlier date, being especially fine, and with
+it must be named the ruins of the great abbey churches of Kelso,
+Jedburgh, and Dryburgh, that have distinctive Norman as well as Early
+English details.
+
+The first half of the 14th century was the golden age of English
+architecture, during which the Decorated gradually grew out of the Early
+English style, the two being in many cases so completely merged in each
+other that no break is discernible. The foundations of a truly national
+style had been laid in the Cathedrals of Wells and of Lincoln, in which
+originality of design was combined with consummate technical skill of
+execution, and in the buildings that succeeded them, architect and
+craftsmen still worked together in complete harmony. The wealth of
+imagination of the latter found its best expression in emphasising the
+structural lines of the noble conceptions of the former; niches, with
+their figures, cusping, finials and crockets, ball flowers and bosses,
+all becoming essential details of one harmonious whole.
+
+The nave and choir of Exeter Cathedral are especially typical of
+Decorated architecture at its best. They rise from the foundations of an
+earlier church, of which the Norman towers above the transepts are
+relics, and are absolutely unsurpassed in the simple dignity of the
+arcading spanning the clustered piers, the exquisite beauty of the
+groined roofing, the bosses of which are decorated with delicate
+carvings of a great variety of subjects, and the fine tracery of the
+windows. Unfortunately the general effect of the exterior, in spite of
+the fine Norman towers and the beauty of the decorative sculpture of the
+west front, is inferior to that of the interior, a 15th century porch
+harmonising ill with the earlier work, whilst breadth is too great for
+the height of the building.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Steeple]
+
+Other good examples of Decorated Gothic are the Church of St. Mary,
+Oxford, with a very fine spire; the nave and chapter-house of York
+Minster, which has a very beautiful window at the western end, the
+flowing tracing of which is specially distinctive of the style; the
+choir of Lichfield Cathedral, which has, however, certain Early English
+details; the choir of Carlisle Cathedral, with an exceptionally
+beautiful eastern window of nine lights with elaborate tracery; the Lady
+Chapel of Wells Cathedral; the crypt, all that is left of St. Stephen's,
+Westminster, now used as a chapel of the Houses of Parliament, the
+lantern tower of Ely Cathedral; the ruins of Tintern and Battle Abbeys,
+with those of Melrose Abbey, which has also characteristic Perpendicular
+features. To the same period as these ecclesiastical buildings belong
+the Round Tower at Windsor, the Hall of the Bishop's Palace at Wells,
+Conway, Caernarvon, and Chepstow Castles, all recalling Norman domestic
+architecture in the general massiveness of their structure, that is
+relieved by the comparative lightness of such details as the doors and
+windows.
+
+Unfortunately the second half of the 14th century was marked by a
+tendency to destroy or obliterate the characteristic details of Early
+English and Decorated buildings, a notable example of which is
+Gloucester Cathedral, the beautiful eastern apse of which was pulled
+down, whilst the piers and walls of the rest of the building were
+concealed as much as possible, the barbarism being, it must be owned,
+atoned for to some extent by the addition of a noble eastern window in
+the Perpendicular style. The nave of Westminster Abbey, on the other
+hand, begun just after the restoration of Gloucester Cathedral was
+completed, harmonises well with the earlier choir, and may be quoted,
+with the choir of York Minster and the naves of Canterbury and
+Winchester Cathedrals, as examples of the transition from the Decorated
+to the Perpendicular styles. To the final phase of the latter belong
+Beverley Minster, the Cathedral of Chester, and the Abbey Church at
+Bath, the western façades of all of which are very fine, but it was in
+Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, King's College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, with those of Holyrood and Roslyn in
+Scotland, that the style reached its fullest development. That
+development was, alas, however, all too soon followed by a decadence
+that was ushered in by an employment of too lavish and often meaningless
+ornamentation which had nothing to do with structural necessities.
+
+[Illustration: Hammer Beam Roof]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Roofing]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Window]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Niche]
+
+Westminster Chapel, in addition to the characteristic fan-tracery roof
+already referred to, has an exceptionally beautiful chevet with five
+apsidal chapels, a finely vaulted nave, aisles, and cloisters, in which
+Decorated and Perpendicular details are harmoniously combined. King's
+College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. George's, Windsor, are both entirely
+in the Perpendicular style, whilst the Scotch examples quoted above are
+specially noticeable for the contrast their massive pillars and arcades
+present to the airy lightness of their vaulting.
+
+Less important Perpendicular ecclesiastical buildings are the parish
+churches of Blakeney and Cley in Norfolk, the former with a specially
+fine east window, the latter unfortunately almost in ruins, but notable
+on account of the beauty of the decorative carving; the parish church of
+Fairford, Gloucestershire, the stained glass windows of which are
+amongst the finest in England; and Christ Church College, Oxford, in
+which town, by the way, Gothic traditions lingered longer than anywhere
+else in England.
+
+[Illustration: Corbel]
+
+Notable secular buildings in the latest phase of English Gothic are
+Westminster Hall, and the earlier portions of Hampton Court Palace,
+whilst Longleat Palace, Wiltshire, and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, with
+a fine open timber roof, are good examples of the transition from the
+Gothic to the Renaissance styles, the general plans belonging to the
+former and the decorative details being Italian in feeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE
+
+
+The term Renaissance, signifying revival, has been given to the style
+which succeeded the Gothic. It was, to a great extent, a reversion to
+classic ideals modified to suit modern requirements. Its leading
+characteristics are simplicity of plan, symmetry of proportion, and
+massive grandeur of general effect, a minor peculiarity being the lavish
+use of plaster, not only for surface decoration, but also in some cases
+for the actual structure of such details as cornices, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Renaissance Ornament]
+
+The Renaissance style was inaugurated in Italy, where, as already
+stated, the Gothic never took root, and spread thence to the other
+countries of Europe, assuming in each country a certain distinctive
+character of its own in harmony with its environment. In Italian
+Renaissance ecclesiastical architecture the old basilican plan was
+revived, the dome became again, as in ancient Rome, the crowning glory
+of the building, and was combined with horizontal entablatures upheld by
+columns, with capitals of one or another of the Greek orders, and
+porticoes with pediments. In secular Italian Renaissance a very notable
+feature is the central cortile or courtyard surrounded by open arcades,
+above which are the principal apartments, of style corresponding with
+that of the arcades, the round-headed windows being divided from each
+other by slender pilasters, and the spandrels above them filled in with
+sculptured ornamentation. The principal façade of Italian palaces was
+especially ornate, richly decorated courses of stone dividing the
+stories from each other, in which the fenestration or grouping of the
+windows was peculiarly effective.
+
+Whereas in the history of mediæval architecture few names emerge from
+the obscurity in which those who planned and erected the great
+cathedrals, churches, and castles were content to remain, in that of
+Renaissance the individual architect comes to the front, all the
+designing having been done by him and the whole work carried on under
+his personal superintendence. In the new movement Florence took the
+lead, owing the pre-eminence she quickly won to the gifted and versatile
+Filippo Brunelleschi, who, like so many of his famous contemporaries,
+was a skilled goldsmith and sculptor before he became an architect. His
+first work of importance was the dome he added to the unfinished
+cathedral of his native city, which was soon succeeded by the Churches
+of S. Spirito and S. Lorenzo, both of which are typical Renaissance
+buildings, as is also the Puzzi Chapel, on which the architect displayed
+his wonderful sense of symmetry, combining domes, arches, and lintels
+with consummate skill.
+
+Fine examples of Renaissance secular architecture in Florence are the
+Riccardi and Pitti Palaces, both designed by Brunelleschi, but
+considerably modified after his death, the Rucellai Palace by Alberti, a
+worthy successor of Brunelleschi, the Guadagni Palace, designed by
+Bramante, and the Pandolfini, designed by Raphael, the last very
+characteristic of the mature phase of Italian Renaissance.
+
+[Illustration: Façade of a Venetian Palace]
+
+It was in Rome that the style reached its noblest development, and the
+Cathedral of S. Peter's, on which all the greatest architects of the
+16th and 17th centuries were successively employed, affords a unique
+opportunity for its study. Built on the site of the old basilica of S.
+Peter, alluded to in the section on Early Christian architecture, what
+was to become the largest church in the world was begun by Bramante in
+1506. His plan, that of a square with four projecting apses, to be
+covered in with a central and four supplementary domes, was followed
+until his death in 1514, when the work was carried on by Giuliano da San
+Gallo, Fra Giacondo and Raphael, who were in favour of certain
+modifications of the original design, that if carried out would have
+converted the square into a Latin cross. The withdrawal of San Gallo,
+and the deaths of Giacondo and Raphael in 1515, led to Baldasarre
+Peruzzi being appointed architect, and under his auspices the plan was
+changed to that of a Greek cross. Before his death in 1536 the present
+south transept and the vaulting, that was to encircle the central dome
+were finished, and the massive pendentives that were to uphold the
+latter were begun. The next architect to take up the vast scheme was
+Antonio da San Gallo, who, could he have obtained the necessary funds,
+would have added a long pronaos or corridor of approach, to be entered
+from a domed porch at the western end. In his model the interior of the
+central portion of the cathedral, with the notable exception of the
+dome, appears much as it does now, so that with its aid a good idea can
+be obtained of the state of the building when, in 1546, Michael Angelo
+was appointed architect in chief, and set the seal of his genius upon a
+complex creation which was already a reflection of the highest
+constructive and æsthetic achievement of the golden age of Italian
+architecture. Reverencing the noble design of Bramante, Michael Angelo
+left the interior, of which the symmetry of plan and beauty of the many
+pilasters with their Corinthian capitals are notable characteristics,
+much as he found it, but though he introduced on the exterior Corinthian
+pilasters resembling those of the interior, he greatly modified the
+general aspect of the former by the removal of the projecting chapels
+and the aisles round the apses. It was in his design for the dome that
+Michael Angelo achieved his greatest architectural triumph, for without
+tampering at all with what had already been done by Bramante, he set
+upon the cylindrical drum that artist had intended to uphold a dome,
+which was to be a mere reproduction of that of the Pantheon, a
+magnificent structure of original design which dominates the capital,
+producing an absolutely unrivalled impression of combined strength,
+vastness, and symmetry, the eye being irresistibly led up from drum to
+dome and from dome to lantern. From within the cathedral the effect is
+scarcely less grand, a wonderful sense of space being conveyed by the
+soaring vault, that seems to spring heavenwards of its own volition.
+
+Michael Angelo died before his masterpiece was completed, but so far as
+the dome was concerned his design was carried out, with certain slight
+modifications, by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana.
+Unfortunately, however, the rest of the great architect's scheme was
+departed from and its effectiveness destroyed by additions which he
+would most certainly have condemned. At the suggestion of Pope Pius IV
+the façade built under Michael Angelo was pulled down and replaced by
+Maderno with that still _in situ_, whilst the nave was lengthened out of
+all proportion to the rest of the building.
+
+In spite of this lamentable mistake, the general effect of the interior
+is remarkably fine, and is greatly enhanced by the rich colouring of the
+lavish decoration of every portion, the massive piers and vast arches
+spanning them, and the vaulted coffered ceilings, all harmonising with
+and supplementing each other. Moreover, the unhappy result of the
+substitution of Maderno's for Michael Angelo's façade was to some extent
+neutralised in 1666 by the erection under Bernini of the lofty colonnade
+encircling the piazza of S. Peter in the simple and dignified Doric
+style, that forms an appropriate approach to the cathedral.
+
+In the Renaissance palaces of Rome classic details were more closely
+copied than in Florence, pilasters and arcades forming, in almost every
+case, the chief decorations of the exteriors. Notable examples are the
+so-called Venetian Palaces, the Cancellaria designed by Bramante, the
+Sacchetti by Antonio San Gallo, and, above all, the Farnese, the
+grandest in the capital, begun by San Gallo and completed by Michael
+Angelo, with portions of the Vatican, including the Hall of the
+Belvedere, designed by Bramante.
+
+In Venice, where the Renaissance style was necessarily modified by the
+peculiar conditions of the lagoon city, good examples of it are the
+Churches S. Maria dei Miracoli, S. Zaccaria, and S. Maria della Salute,
+with the palaces of Vendramini, Calergo, Trevisano, and Cornaro, all,
+however, excelled by the beautiful Palazzo Grimani designed by San
+Michele and the Library of S. Mark of Sansovino.
+
+At Vicenza the famous architect Palladio erected many noble Renaissance
+churches, including the Redentore, enclosed the ancient Basilica in
+grand classic arcades, and designed a great number of fine palaces. In
+Milan the finest Renaissance structures are the sacristy of S. Maria
+Presso S. Sabino, the apse of S. Maria della Grazie and the arcaded
+court of the great Hospital, all designed by Bramante. Near Pavia is the
+fine Certosa, the façade of which is the work of Ambrogio Borgognoni;
+Genoa is rich in effective groups of Renaissance palaces after the
+designs of Alessio, and owns a late Renaissance church ascribed to
+Puget, and at Verona is the typical Palazzo del Conseglio, built by Fra
+Giocondo.
+
+It was not until the beginning of the 16th century that the Renaissance
+style gained a footing in France, and even for some time after that
+French architects, whilst adopting its main features, clung to certain
+characteristic Gothic details. This is very notably the case in some of
+the royal chateaux on the Loire, justly considered the finest secular
+Renaissance buildings in the country, especially in that of Chambord,
+which, with a typical Renaissance façade, has a highly pitched roof with
+soaring pinnacles and pointed-headed dormer windows.
+
+Other fine Early Renaissance French buildings are the wing added by
+Frances I to the old castle of Blois, famous for its beautiful external
+spiral staircase, the chateaux of Chenonceaux, Chateaudun, and
+Azay-le-Rideau, the Hôtel de Ville at Beaugency, the Church of S.
+Eustache, the Hôtel des Invalides, the western portion of the Louvre,
+and the Luxembourg, all in Paris. To the latest phase of what eventually
+became almost a national style, belong the Pantheon, the Palais Royal,
+the College and Church of the Sorbonne, all in Paris; the relics of the
+noble Chateau built for Richelieu on the site of the great minister's
+native village by Lemercier, the Chateau of Ballery in Normandy, the
+additions to the castle of Blois, the Chateau des Maisons near, and the
+Church of Val de Grace in Paris, all by François Mansard, whose name is
+associated with a picturesque form of roof invented by him.
+
+In the chateau of Versailles, designed by Jules Mansard, a distant
+connection of the greater François, the first note of the decadence of
+the Renaissance style was sounded, for well-built and richly decorated
+though it is, the huge structure is lacking in the dignified grandeur,
+so distinctive of the buildings enumerated above.
+
+Although it was in Italy and France that European Renaissance
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, some few fine examples of
+it remain in other countries, including in Spain the great Monastery and
+Palace of the Escurial near Madrid, the central church of which is
+especially fine, the Cathedrals of Burgos, Malaga, and Granada, the town
+halls of Saragossa and Seville, and portions of the Alcazar of Toledo,
+the convent of Mafra in Portugal, the Town Hall of Antwerp, the Council
+Halls of Leipzig and Rothenburg, the Cloth Hall of Brunswick, the Castle
+of Schallenburg, and the Hall of the Belvedere at Prague.
+
+It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the many buildings in Europe in
+what is known as the Rococo style, of which grotesque and meaningless
+ornamentation is the chief characteristic, but it must be added that in
+the early 19th century something like a new classic revival took place
+on the Continent. The Church of La Madeleine and the Opera House in
+Paris, the Arco della Pace at Milan, the Royal Theatre at Berlin, the
+Glyptothex and Pinacothex of Munich, the Walhalla at Ratisbon, the
+Museum of Dresden, and the Church of S. Isaac at St. Petersburg being
+notable instances of the skilful way in which Greek details of structure
+were combined by the best architects with modern requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN
+
+
+It was only by very slow degrees that the Renaissance style was
+introduced into England, native architects and those for whom they
+worked having clung with almost pathetic devotion to the traditions of
+the past. At the end of the 15th century the Gothic style was still in
+full vigour on this side of the Channel, and although early in the 16th
+century it was to a great extent modified by the influence of the
+foreign artists who were attracted to the court of Henry VIII by the
+lavish patronage of the young monarch, it continued to the end of the
+century to check the development of pure Renaissance, the two styles to
+a great extent neutralising each other.
+
+It is significant of the change of the attitude of rulers and ruled
+towards religion that took place in England during the 16th and 17th
+centuries, that it was no longer in churches and cathedrals that
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, but in palaces,
+manor-houses, colleges, and places of public entertainment. No longer
+was the soaring Gothic style to voice in stone the aspirations of
+worshippers for closer intercourse with the divine; the best energies of
+architects were henceforth to be directed to the promotion of comfort
+and luxury in private life, and for the realisation of this
+comparatively ignoble aim the revived classic style was peculiarly
+adapted. True, the spirit of the Renaissance did not display itself so
+fully in architecture as in other branches of human endeavour, but for
+all that its working was very apparent, assuming a certain character of
+its own in England.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants]
+
+First Italians, amongst whom the most distinguished were Torregiano,
+designer of the tomb of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Giovanni da
+Majano, and Giovanni da Padua, the architect of Longleat in Wiltshire,
+then Flemings and Germans, none of whom, however, except John of Cleves,
+designer of Caius College, Cambridge, rose to any special eminence,
+endeavoured to graft their own upon English methods, succeeding with
+rare exceptions only so far as the minor details of ornamentation were
+concerned.
+
+It is not to these men of alien birth but to the builders and masons of
+rural England that the country owes the many noble residences, dating
+from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, that, Gothic so far as
+their principles of construction are concerned, are enriched or spoiled,
+according to the point of view from which they are considered, by
+Renaissance ornamentation. Amongst these builders Thomas Holt, author of
+the Divinity School of Oxford, and Robert Smithson and John Thorpe,
+joint designers of Wollaton Hall, Northamptonshire, were especially
+distinguished. To the last named many critics also attribute Holland
+House, London, Rushton, Kirkby and Apethorpe Halls in Northamptonshire,
+and Knowle House in Kent, all of which are truly typical examples of
+English 16th or early 17th domestic or academic architecture at its
+best. To about the same period belong Lilford Hall, Northants, Westwood,
+Bolsover, Charlton, and Hatfield Houses, all somewhat wanting in the
+dignified simplicity of plan of the work of the men quoted above, but
+with an undoubted charm of their own.
+
+The master-builders who alike designed and executed the many beautiful
+mansions and colleges of the Elizabethan age--with whom must be
+associated the later John Abel, designer of several fine market-halls,
+including those of Kingston, Hereford, and Leominster--may justly be
+said to have paved the way for Inigo Jones, the first Englishman to
+introduce pure Renaissance architecture into his native land. Already
+before his advent these humble predecessors had partly evolved, out of
+the mediæval castle and the mediæval cottage, what was to become the
+typical English home, bringing about something like a revolution in
+planning by the innovations introduced by them with a view to admitting
+more air and light, and rendering access to the upper floors easier by
+the substitution of an internal staircase, for the external flight of
+steps leading up to each separate room hitherto the fashion.
+
+Gifted with a vivid imagination and a rare faculty of design, Inigo
+Jones succeeded in so adapting Italian ideals, especially those of
+Palladio, to English needs, that he may justly be said to have founded
+something approaching to a national style. Unfortunately few of the many
+schemes evolved by him were carried out in their entirety, but his plans
+and drawings prove him to have been the equal and, in some respects,
+even the superior of his great successor, Sir Christopher Wren. Of his
+grand design for the new Palace of Whitehall after the fire of 1619, the
+Banqueting Hall, considered his masterpiece, alone was completed, but he
+was the real architect of the equally successful Greenwich Hospital, for
+it was his plan that was followed after his death by Wren.
+
+Although it is the custom to dwell much on the unique opportunity
+afforded to Sir Christopher Wren by the great fire of 1666, there is no
+doubt that even without it he would have set his seal on the period
+during which he lived. His additions to Hampton Court Palace are most
+dignified and appropriate, his semi-Gothic Tom Tower at Oxford well
+illustrates his keen sense of environment, and his design for a Royal
+Palace at Winchester, had it been carried out, would have given to that
+city a building worthy to rank with its cathedral. As it is, his fame
+rests chiefly on his work in London, although the masterly scheme he
+drew up for the rebuilding of the whole town had to be considerably
+modified.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Greenwich Hospital]
+
+S. Paul's Cathedral, that dominates the vast agglomeration making up the
+modern capital, reflects, in its solemn and dignified beauty, almost as
+clearly as did a mediæval ecclesiastical Gothic edifice, the spirit of
+its age, during which the Puritan replaced the Roman Catholic ideal, and
+a rigid Protestantism became the religion of the people. Of noble and
+most harmonious proportions, S. Paul's is cruciform in plan, every
+portion of its exterior and interior subordinated to the great central
+dome, that, consisting as it does of an outer and inner vault, is
+equally impressive whether seen from within or from without. From
+whatever point of view, the dome, with its graceful lantern surmounted
+by a cross, remains the central feature of a structure at unity with
+itself, consistent in every detail, the western towers and the great
+central portico with their appropriate classic pilasters and columns all
+being in complete and satisfying accord.
+
+The Churches of S. Stephen, Walbrook, S. Andrew, Holborn, S. James,
+Piccadilly, S. Clements Danes, S. Bride's, Fleet Street, and Bow are
+amongst the finest designed by Wren. The steeples of the last three are
+especially noteworthy as the earliest examples in England of the use of
+that feature in Renaissance buildings.
+
+Sir Christopher did not pass away until the 18th century, which was to
+witness a rapid decline of architecture in England. His influence had
+begun to wane even before his death, and few of his immediate
+successors, with the exceptions of his pupils, Nicholas Hawkesmoor,
+architect of S. George's, Bloomsbury, and other London churches of
+similar design, and Sir John Vanburgh, who designed Castle Howard and
+Blenheim Palace, rose to eminence. James Gibbs, designer of the
+Ratcliffe Library at Oxford, also did some good work; the brothers Adam
+successfully imitated classic forms in certain London and Edinburgh
+buildings, and Sir Robert Taylor won some distinction by the Halls
+erected by him in Herefordshire and Essex.
+
+Towards the close of the century a classic revival inaugurated by Sir
+William Chambers, designer of Somerset House, took place in England, and
+it became the fashion to add a Greek portico to every important public
+or private building. Typical examples of the new departure are S.
+Pancras Church, London, that is a kind of compilation from the
+Parthenon, the Erectheum, and the Temple of the Winds at Athens, and S.
+George's Hall, Liverpool, a skilful adaptation of the design of a hall
+of one of the great Thermæ of Rome.
+
+Early in the 19th century a reaction took place against the classic
+style, which was not really adapted to the English climate, and
+architects began to show a desire to revert to Gothic traditions. In
+this new movement Sir Charles Barry took the lead. The Houses of
+Parliament, in the latest phase of the style, considered his
+masterpiece, is specially successful in its general plan and in the
+picturesqueness of its exterior. With Sir Charles Barry must be
+associated Augustine Pugin, a man of fine genius and originality, with a
+genuine feeling for mediæval Gothic, Norman Shaw, and Bodley, all of
+whom have done much to leaven the utilitarian tendencies of modern
+times.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Alhambra, the, 42
+
+    Amiens Cathedral, 65
+
+    Amphitheatres, Roman, 28
+
+    Anglo-Norman style, 54
+
+    Anglo-Saxon style, 53
+
+    Arch, vi
+
+    Arches, Roman, 30
+
+    Architecture, definition of, v
+
+    Asiatic architecture, 9
+
+    Assyrian architecture, 9
+
+
+    Babylonian architecture, 9
+
+    Baptisteries, 35
+
+    Basilicas, Roman, 26
+
+    Baths, Roman, 27
+
+    Buddhist architecture, 12
+
+    Buvards, v
+
+    Byzantine architecture, 24, 36
+
+
+    Caryatid Porch, 21
+
+    Castles, Norman, 59
+
+    Cathedrals. _See_ Churches
+
+    Chaityas, 11
+
+    Chartres Cathedral, 64
+
+    Chinese architecture, 13
+
+    Christian architecture, Early, 31
+
+    Churches, Anglo-Norman, 54
+      Anglo-Saxon, 53
+      Byzantine, 37
+      Early Christian, 31
+      Gothic, 62, 68, 76
+      Renaissance, 84
+      Romanesque, 47
+
+    Coliseum, 29
+
+    Cologne Cathedral, 70
+
+    Coptic architecture, 35
+
+    Corinthian style, 16, 18, 21
+
+
+    Doric style, 16, 18-21
+
+    Durham Cathedral, 58
+
+    Egyptian architecture, 7
+
+    Etruscan architecture, 22
+
+
+    Flamboyant Gothic style, 62, 65, 67
+
+
+    Gothic style, 50, 60
+      British, 72
+      Decorated, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80
+      Early English, 73, 78, 79
+      French, 62
+      German, 70
+      Italian, 69
+      Perpendicular, 73, 75, 80, 81
+      Spanish, 68
+
+    Greek architecture, 13
+
+
+    Hindu architecture, 12
+
+
+    Indian architecture, 11
+
+    Ionic style, 16, 18, 21
+
+
+    Jones, Inigo, 90
+
+
+    Keystone, vi
+
+
+    Lâts, 11
+
+    Lintel, vi
+
+
+    Mansions, English Renaissance, 90
+
+    Mastabas, 7, 10
+
+    Materials employed, v, 9, 23
+
+    Mosques, 40
+
+
+    Nineveh, 10
+
+    Norman style, 54
+
+    Notre Dame of Paris, 63
+
+
+    Palaces, Greek, 14
+      Persian, 10
+
+    Palaces, Renaissance, 86
+      Roman, 29
+
+    Pantheon, 26
+
+    Parthenon, 19
+
+    Persian architecture, 9, 10
+
+    Peruvian architecture, 13
+
+    Pyramids, 7
+
+
+    Rayonnant Gothic style, 62, 67
+
+    Renaissance style British, 88
+      European, 83
+      French, 87
+      Italian, 83
+
+    Rococo style, 88
+
+    Roman architecture, 22
+
+    Romanesque style, 45
+
+    Roofing, arcuated and trabeated, vi
+
+
+    S. Ambrogio, Milan, 48
+
+    S. Marco, Venice, 39
+
+    S. Paul's Cathedral, 91
+
+    S. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, 84
+
+    S. Sophia, Constantinople, 38
+
+    Saracenic architecture, 40
+
+    Stambhas, 11
+
+    Stupas, 11
+
+
+    Taj Mahal, 44
+
+    Temples, Babylonian, 10
+      Egyptian, 8
+      Greek, 15, 18
+      Indian, 11
+
+    Tombs, Egyptian, 7
+      Greek, 21
+      Persian, 10
+
+    Topes, 11
+
+    Tudor style, 73, 76
+
+    Tuscan style, 24
+
+
+    Vaulting, Gothic, 61
+      Roman, 24
+      Romanesque, 45
+
+    Viharas, 11
+
+    Voussoirs, vi
+
+
+    Westminster Abbey, 76, 78, 81
+
+    Wren, Sir Christopher, 90
+
+
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+      3.   Biology
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+      4.   Zoology: The Study of Animal Life
+              By Prof. E. W. MacBride, M.A., F.R.S.
+      5.   Botany; The Modern Study of Plants
+              By M. C. Stopes, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S.
+      7.   The Structure of the Earth
+              By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.
+      8.   Evolution
+              By E. S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S.
+     10.   Heredity
+              By J. A. S. Watson, B.Sc.
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+     15.   The Science of the Stars
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+     16.   The Science of Light
+              By P. Phillips. D.Sc.
+     17.   Weather Science
+              By R. G. K. Lempfert, M.A.
+     18.   Hypnotism and Self-Education
+              By A. M. Hutchison, M.D.
+     19.   The Baby: A Mother's Book
+              By a University Woman.
+     20.   Youth and Sex—Dangers and Safeguards for Boys and Girls
+              By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., and F. Arthur Sibly, M.A., LL.D.
+     21.   Marriage and Motherhood
+              By H. S. Davidson, M.B., F.R.C.S.E.
+     22.   Lord Kelvin
+              By A. Russell, M.A., D.Sc., M.I.E.E.
+     23.   Huxley
+              By Professor G. Leighton, M.D.
+     24.   Sir William Huggins and Spectroscopic Astronomy
+              By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
+     26.   Henri Bergson
+              By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
+     27.   Psychology
+              By H. J. Watt, M.A., Ph.D., D.Phil.
+     28.   Ethics
+              By Canon Rashdall, D.Litt., F.B.A.
+     29.   Kant's Philosophy
+              By A. D. Lindsay, M.A. of Balliol College, Oxford.
+     32.   Roman Catholicism
+              By H. B. Coxon. Preface, Mgr. R. H. Benson.
+     33.   The Oxford Movement
+              By Wilfrid Ward.
+     34.   The Bible and Criticism
+              By W. H. Bennett, D.D., Litt.D., and W. F. Adeney, D.D.
+     36.   The Growth of Freedom
+              By H. W. Nevinson.
+     37.   Bismarck and the Origin of the German Empire
+              Professor F. M. Powicke.
+     38.   Oliver Cromwell
+              By Hilda Johnstone, M.A.
+     39.   Mary Queen of Scots
+              By E. O'Neill, M.A.
+     40.   Cecil John Rhodes, 1853-1902
+              By Ian D. Colvin.
+     41.   Julius Cæsar
+              By Hilary Hardinge.
+     42.   England in the Making
+              By Prof. F. J. C. Hearnshaw, M.A., LL.D.
+     43.   England in the Middle Ages
+              By E. O'Neill, M.A.
+     44.   The Monarchy and the People
+              By W. T. Waugh, M.A.
+     45.   The Industrial Revolution
+              By Arthur Jones, M.A.
+     46.   Empire and Democracy
+              By G. S. Veitch, M.A., Litt.D.
+     47.   Women's Suffrage
+              By M. G. Fawcett, LL.D.
+     51.   Shakespeare
+              By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt. D.
+     52.   Wordsworth
+              By Rosaline Masson.
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+     54.   Francis Bacon
+              By Prof. A. R. Skemp, M.A.
+     55.   The Brontës
+              By Flora Masson.
+     56.   Carlyle
+              By L. MacLean Watt.
+     57.   Dante
+              By A. G. Ferrers Howell.
+     60.   A Dictionary of Synonyms
+              By Austin K. Gray, B.A.
+     61.   Home Rule
+              By L. G. Redmond Howard. Preface by Robert Harcourt, M.P.
+     62.   Practical Astronomy
+              By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S.
+     63.   Aviation
+              By Sydney F. Walker, R.N.
+     64.   Navigation
+              By William Hall, R.N., B.A.
+     65.   Pond Life
+              By E. C. Ash, M.R.A.C.
+     66.   Dietetics
+              By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H.
+     67.   Aristotle
+              By Prof. A. E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A.
+     68.   Friedrich Nietzsche
+              By M. A. Mügge.
+     69.   Eucken: A Philosophy of Life
+              By A. J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.
+     70.   The Experimental Psychology of Beauty
+              By C. W. Valentine, B.A., D.Phil.
+     71.   The Problem of Truth
+              By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
+     72.   The Church of England
+              By Rev. Canon Masterman.
+     74.   The Free Churches
+              By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A.
+     75.   Judaism
+              By Ephraim Levine, M.A.
+     76.   Theosophy
+              By Annie Besant.
+     78.   Wellington and Waterloo
+              By Major G. W. Redway.
+     79.   Mediaeval Socialism
+              By Bede Jarrett, O.P., M.A.
+     80.   Syndicalism
+              By J. H. Harley, M.A.
+     82.   Co-operation
+              By Joseph Clayton.
+     83.   Insurance as a Means of Investment
+              By W. A. Robertson, F.F.A.
+     85.   A History of English Literature
+              By A. Compton-Rickett, LL.D.
+     87.   Charles Lamb
+              By Flora Masson.
+     88.   Goethe
+              By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D.
+     92.   The Training of the Child
+              By G. Spiller.
+     93.   Tennyson
+              By Aaron Watson.
+     94.   The Nature of Mathematics
+              By P. E. B. Jourdain, M.A.
+     95.   Applications of Electricity
+              By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc.
+     96.   Gardening
+              By A. Cecil Bartlett.
+     98.   Atlas of the World
+              By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S.
+    101.   Luther and the Reformation
+              By Leonard D. Agate, M.A.
+    103.   Turkey and the Eastern Question
+              By John Macdonald, M.A.
+    104.   Architecture
+              By Mrs. Arthur Bell.
+    105.   Trade Unions
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+    106.   Everyday Law
+              By J. J. Adams.
+    108.   Shelley
+              By Sydney Waterlow, M.A.
+    110.   British Birds
+              By F. B. Kirkman, B.A.
+    111.   Spiritualism
+              By J. Arthur Hill.
+    112.   Kindergarten Teaching at Home
+              By Two Members of the National Froebel Union.
+    113.   Schopenhauer
+              By Margrieta Beer, M.A.
+    114.   The Stock Exchange
+              By J. F. Wheeler.
+    115.   Coleridge
+              By S. L. Bensusan.
+    116.   The Crusades
+              By M. M. C. Calthrop.
+    117.   Wild Flowers
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+    118.   Principles of Logic
+              By Stanley Williams, B.A.
+    119.   The Foundations of Religion
+              By Stanley A. Cook, M.A.
+    120.   History of Rome
+              By A. F. Giles. M.A.
+    121.   Land, Industry, and Taxation
+              By Frederick Verinder.
+
+LONDON AND EDINBURGH: T. C. & E. C. JACK
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+  The Project Gutenberg eBook of Architecture, by Mrs. Arthur Bell.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+
+Author: Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+Release Date: August 30, 2010 [EBook #33589]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p><a name="page_i" id="page_i"></a></p>
+
+<h1>ARCHITECTURE</h1>
+
+<p class="author">B<small>Y</small> MRS. ARTHUR BELL</p>
+
+<p class="cb sml">AUTHOR OF "THE ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART," "MASTERPIECES OF<br />
+THE GREAT ARTISTS," "REPRESENTATIVE PAINTERS OF<br />
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/ill_logo.png" width="150" height="150" alt="logo" title="logo" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="cb top15">&nbsp; L&nbsp;O&nbsp;N&nbsp;D&nbsp;O&nbsp;N: &nbsp;T.&nbsp; C.&nbsp; &amp;&nbsp; E. &nbsp;C. &nbsp;J&nbsp;A&nbsp;C&nbsp;K &nbsp;<br />
+67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH<br />
+NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.</p>
+
+<p><a name="page_ii" id="page_ii"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="page_iii" id="page_iii"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="contents">
+<tr class="sml"><td align="right">CHAP.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td>Introduction: What Architecture is&mdash;Materials<br />
+employed&mdash;Definition of distinctive features of<br />
+the two main styles, Trabeated and Arcuated</td><td align="right" valign="bottom">
+<a href="#page_v">v</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I</a>.</td><td>Egyptian, Asiatic, and Early American Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_007">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II</a>.</td><td>Greek Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_013">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III</a>.</td><td> Roman Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_022">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV</a>.</td><td> Early Christian Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_031">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V</a>.</td><td> Byzantine and Saracenic Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_036">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI</a>.</td><td> Romanesque Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_045">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII</a>.</td><td> Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman Architecture</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_052">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII</a>.</td><td> Gothic Architecture in Europe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_060">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX</a>.</td><td> Gothic Architecture in Great Britain</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_072">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X</a>.</td><td> Renaissance Architecture in Europe</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_083">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI</a>.</td><td> Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_088">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">&nbsp;</td><td>Index</td><td align="right" valign="bottom"><a href="#page_093">93</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><a name="page_iv" id="page_iv"></a></p>
+
+<p><a name="page_v" id="page_v"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<h5>WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS&mdash;MATERIALS EMPLOYED&mdash;DEFINITION OF DISTINCTIVE
+FEATURES OF THE TWO MAIN STYLES, TRABEATED AND ARCUATED</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">It is only when a building entirely fulfils the purpose for which it is
+intended and bears the impress of a genuine style that it takes rank as
+a work of architecture. This definition, exclusive though it at first
+sight appears, brings within the province of the art every structure
+which combines with practical utility beauty of design and execution,
+from the humblest cottage to the most dignified temple or palace.
+Suitability of material and harmony with its surroundings are among the
+minor factors that give to a building vitality of character and
+contribute to its enduring value, a value enhanced by its reflection of
+the needs and aspirations of those by whom and for whom it was erected.</p>
+
+<p>Wood appears to have been the earliest material used for the building of
+a home when out-of-door dwellings took the place of the caves that were
+the first shelters of primitive man. At Joigny in France there still
+exist examples of what are supposed to be the most ancient of all such
+dwellings, namely circular holes, locally known as <i>buvards</i>, in which
+the trunk of a tree had been fixed, the branches plastered over with
+clay forming the roof of a simple but rain-proof refuge. Huts of wattle
+and hurdle work dating from prehistoric times have also been preserved,
+some rising from the ground, others from platforms resting on piles sunk
+in the beds of lakes. These were in their time superseded by stronger
+structures, with walls made of squared beams piled up horizontally and
+fastened together at the corners with wooden pegs; the roof being formed
+of roughly sawn planks. Out of such primeval houses as these were
+evolved in the course of centuries the picturesque half-timbered
+cottages of mediæval Europe and the quaint wooden churches of Norway
+such as the characteristic one at Hitterdal.</p>
+
+<p>Limestone, granite, and sandstone were used for building at a very
+remote period in much the same way as wood, large blocks, fresh from the
+quarry, of all manner of different shapes, being piled up horizontally
+or stood on edge, no cement being<a name="page_vi" id="page_vi"></a> employed, though in certain cases
+crushed stone was used to fill up the spaces between the blocks. To
+walls or buildings of which courses of undressed stone were the only
+materials, the name of Cyclopean has been given because of the erroneous
+belief that it was originated by the Cyclopes, an imaginary race of
+giants, supposed to have lived in Thrace, a province of ancient Greece.</p>
+
+<p>Bricks, that is to say, dried blocks of clay, were used at a very early
+date as a supplement to or substitute for wood and stone for building
+purposes. The most ancient bricks were not subjected to artificial heat
+but were simply exposed to the sun, and even when kiln-baked bricks were
+introduced they were often employed merely to face the older variety.
+Spacious and lofty buildings consisting entirely of bricks were erected
+at a very early date in Assyria, Persia, and elsewhere, and some of the
+most noteworthy architectural survivals of the Roman Empire are of the
+same material.</p>
+
+<p>The main features of a building are determined by the shape of the walls
+or the mode of arrangement of the pillars that take the place of walls,
+the way in which the roof is constructed, and that in which the openings
+of the doors and windows are spanned. The earliest roofs were flat, and
+the most ancient mode of linking together the supports of doors and
+windows was to place a plank of wood or slab of stone known as a
+<i>lintel</i> across them at the top. To this style of roofing and spanning,
+which reached its most perfect development in the temples of Greece, the
+name of the <i>trabeated</i> was given, derived in the first instance from
+the so-called <i>trabea</i>, a toga adorned with horizontal stripes.</p>
+
+<p>It was only by very gradual degrees that the trabeated mode of roofing
+and spanning was succeeded by what is known as the <i>arcuated</i>, or that
+in which the arch takes the place of the horizontal beam. In early Roman
+temples and palaces the Greek style was long carefully copied, but in
+utilitarian works such as bridges, viaducts, and drains the arch was
+employed at a very remote period. An arch whether circular or pointed
+consists of two series of stones cut into the form of wedges known as
+<i>voussoirs</i>, a central one at the apex or highest point called the
+<i>keystone</i> locking the two series together. This beautiful contrivance,
+the inventor of which is unknown, gradually revolutionised the science
+of architecture. It was used at first, tentatively as it were, in
+combination with the horizontal beam or slab of stone, but in the end
+became in its rounded form the distinctive peculiarity of the Romanesque
+and in its pointed shape of the Gothic style.<a name="page_007" id="page_007"></a></p>
+
+<h1>ARCHITECTURE</h1>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h5>EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">The most ancient existing examples of Egyptian architecture are the
+royal tombs of the Memphite kingdom known as the Pyramids, of which the
+oldest is that of King Seneferu (about 3000 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>) at Medum, and the
+largest, which rises to a height of 481 feet from a base 764 feet
+square, that called the Great Pyramid of King Cheops (3788-3666) at
+Ghizeh, near Cairo, on which 100,000 men are said to have been
+continuously employed for thirty years. The latter is not only a marvel
+of constructive skill, but is by many authorities considered to be a
+most accurately designed astronomical observatory.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 134px;">
+<a href="images/ill_007.png">
+<img src="images/ill_007_sml.png" width="134" height="168" alt="Section of King&#39;s Chamber, and of Passage in Great Pyramid" title="Section of King&#39;s Chamber, and of Passage in Great Pyramid" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of King&#39;s Chamber, and of Passage in Great Pyramid</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Pyramids consist of masses of admirably squared and polished stones,
+in certain cases supplemented with bricks piled up in the form of a
+rectangle around a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which was most
+carefully concealed. When the body of the monarch had been placed in it
+the tapering mound above it was finished off with huge facing blocks,
+that were skilfully worked into the angle required and finally levelled
+to a smooth surface.</p>
+
+<p>Near the Pyramids of the kings are the tombs, known as Mastabas, of
+their wives and children and of the great officers of state. They are
+constructed of stone, are square or oblong in form, and their walls are
+adorned with paintings of scenes from contemporary life, the whole
+reminiscent of earlier timber structures. Later tombs are those hewn out
+of the living rock at Beni Hassan and elsewhere, dating from about 2500
+<span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, with porticoes upheld by columns resembling those of Greek<a name="page_008" id="page_008"></a>
+temples and flat or curved roofs, the latter suggestive of the principle
+of the arch having been known to those who excavated them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_008.png">
+<img src="images/ill_008_sml.png" width="367" height="328" alt="Section of Hall at Karnak" title="Section of Hall at Karnak" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Hall at Karnak</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was between 1600 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and 1110 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> that the Egyptians reached their
+highest point of civilisation, and it was during that period that were
+erected the magnificent Theban temples, of which those at Karnak and
+Luxor, which were connected by an avenue of colossal sphinxes, are the
+finest still remaining. The plan of all Egyptian temples of whatever
+size was the same: a horizontal gateway flanked on either side by masses
+of masonry of considerably greater height than it, known as pylons,
+their surfaces enriched with symbolic carvings, giving access to a
+square space open to the sky, and partly surrounded with cloisters,
+leading into a noble hall of huge dimensions, its flat roof upheld by
+columns, some with capitals resembling lotus buds, others representing
+the head of the goddess Isis. Beyond this hall were a number of small
+dark rooms, the use of which has never been ascertained, enclosing
+within them the nucleus of the whole, the low narrow mysterious cell or
+sanctuary in which was enshrined the image of the god to whom the temple
+was dedicated. Outside these noble buildings were ranged obelisks, or
+four-sided tapering-pillars of great height, covered with hieroglyphics
+commemorating the<a name="page_009" id="page_009"></a> triumphs of the kings, and colossal figures, few of
+which remain <i>in situ</i>, which added greatly to the dignity of the
+appearance of the whole.</p>
+
+<p>To the same period as the temples of Thebes belong those of very similar
+general design hewn out of the sides of the mountains of Nubia, of which
+the best example is the larger of the two at Ipsambul, specially
+noteworthy for the huge seated figure of the monarch for whom it was
+built, the great Rameses II, guarding the entrance to it. The tombs of
+the Theban rulers, like the Nubian temples, were hewn out of the living
+rock, and are many of them, notably those known as the Tombs of the
+Kings and the Tombs of the Queens in the plains watered by the Nile, of
+vast extent, labyrinths of passages, alternating with large rooms,
+leading to the actual sepulchral chamber.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;">
+<a href="images/ill_009.png">
+<img src="images/ill_009_sml.png" width="252" height="180" alt="Tomb at Beni Hassan" title="Tomb at Beni Hassan" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Tomb at Beni Hassan</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of considerably later date than any of the buildings referred to above
+are the temples of Denderah, Edfou, and Philæ, erected after the
+conquest of Egypt by the Greeks, but they all resemble those of the
+Theban dynasty in general style, whilst that at Esneh is a good example
+of the results of Roman influence.</p>
+
+<p>Very great is the contrast to Egyptian architecture presented by the
+Asiatic buildings that have been preserved to the present day. In the
+former stone was the usual material employed, and the mode of
+construction was as a general rule that known as the post and lintel,
+whilst in the latter brick was almost exclusively used, and the arch was
+a distinctive feature. The so-called Babylonian or Chaldean, Assyrian,
+and Persian styles resemble each other so greatly that they may justly
+be said to belong to one type, evolved by the inhabitants of the
+extensive region watered by the Euphrates<a name="page_010" id="page_010"></a> and Tigris, who like the
+Egyptians attained to a very advanced civilisation at a remote period.
+Of the temples not a single one has been preserved, but the remains have
+recently been excavated, in the mounds on the site of Babylon, of four
+that consisted of numerous chambers enclosing a large court with towered
+gateways, whilst at Assur another has been uncovered of a somewhat
+similar design. To atone for the lack of temples many Asiatic palaces
+have been to some extent reconstructed, the most remarkable being those
+unearthed near the villages of Nimrod, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, all
+supposed to be relics of Nineveh. They originally consisted of lofty
+many-roomed structures raised on high platforms, and entered from arched
+gateways flanked by colossal winged bulls of stone. The brick walls were
+encased in alabaster slabs carved with figure subjects in low relief,
+some of which are in the British Museum, and galleries, rising from
+columns with capitals that foreshadowed Greek forms, admitted air and
+light freely. The Palace of Nebuchadnezzar has also recently been
+identified, and must when uninjured have been an immense castle-like
+pile with a vast number of courts and halls to which a paved way led up.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 231px;">
+<a href="images/ill_010.png">
+<img src="images/ill_010_sml.png" width="231" height="172" alt="Terrace Wall at Khorsabad" title="Terrace Wall at Khorsabad" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Terrace Wall at Khorsabad</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Tombs and palaces are the chief relics of Persian architecture. Many of
+the former, notably that near Murghab, supposed to have been the
+sepulchre of Cyrus, resemble Greek temples in general style, whilst
+others are rock-cut and recall the Mastabas of Egypt. Of the palaces
+those at Persepolis were the most remarkable, for in them Persian
+architecture reached its fullest development. Their ruins, that rise
+from a platform some forty feet high hewn out of the surface of the
+living rock, to which long flights of steps led up, consist of vast
+columned halls entered from detached porticoes known as propylæa. When
+intact the largest of these halls, named after Xerxes, must have
+exceeded in size the cathedrals of Canterbury or Winchester.</p>
+
+<p>Other noteworthy relics of early Asiatic architecture are the<a name="page_011" id="page_011"></a> tombs of
+Lycia, Phrygia, and Lydia. The first named&mdash;of which the so-called tomb
+of the Harpies now in the British Museum is a typical example&mdash;are all
+either cut in the living rock or carved out of detached masses of stone,
+in either case recalling in their general appearance the log-huts of
+prehistoric times. More ornate than those of Lycia, the Phrygian
+sepulchral monuments, of which the grave of Midas at Doganlu is the
+finest, are also rock hewn, but their shape and decoration are more
+suggestive of the tent than the wooden dwelling, whilst those in Lydia
+are comparatively primitive, being in some cases, notably in the Tumulus
+of Tantalus on the Gulf of Smyrna, mere masses of stone heaped up above
+a huge mound.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 328px;">
+<a href="images/ill_011a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_011a_sml.png" width="328" height="145" alt="Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes" title="Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;">
+<a href="images/ill_011b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_011b_sml.png" width="106" height="235" alt="Capital of Lât" title="Capital of Lât" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Capital of Lât</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most ancient examples of Indian architecture are the Stambhas or
+Lâts, the earliest dating from the time of Asoka (272-236 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>), that
+are pillars bearing inscriptions and surmounted by a symbolic animal
+such as an elephant or a lion, of which there is a good specimen at
+Allahabad, and the Stupas or Topes, mounds encased in masonry, crowned
+by a reliquary containing memorials of Buddha or of his chief disciples,
+and enclosed within a stone railing elaborately carved with scenes from
+the life of the founder of Buddhism, with an even more ornate gateway at
+each of the four corners, of which the finest is the larger of two at
+Sanchi in Central India. Even more interesting than the Lâts and Stupas
+are the Viharas or Buddhist monasteries, of which there is a specially
+good example at Nigope near Behar, and the Chaityas or temples, of which
+those at Karli, Ellora, Ajunta, and Elephanta are amongst the finest.
+All alike hewn out of the living rock, the former consist of a square
+central hall with or without columns,<a name="page_012" id="page_012"></a> surrounded by cells for the
+monks, whilst the latter, of more complicated design, resemble in
+general plan a Roman basilica. A wide nave with rows of massive pillars
+upholding a slightly domed roof is flanked by lateral aisles, and at the
+eastern end rises a semicircular sanctuary containing a seated figure of
+Buddha.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<a href="images/ill_012.png">
+<img src="images/ill_012_sml.png" width="401" height="156" alt="Section of Cave at Karli" title="Section of Cave at Karli" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Cave at Karli</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Out of the Buddhist religion grew that known as the Jaina, and many fine
+temples, of which the most remarkable are that at Sadri and the Dilwana
+Temple on Mount Abu, remain that were erected for the use of its
+professors. It was usual to group a number on some hill-top, and the
+plan of each was generally that of a Greek cross, a columned portico
+giving access to a complex collection of shrines, each approached by
+avenues of pillars and roofed in with a separate dome, whilst the
+exterior was adorned with rounded towers finished off with pointed
+finials suggestive of a spire, the whole both inside and out being
+richly decorated with carvings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 526px;">
+<a href="images/ill_012b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_012b_sml.png" width="526" height="193" alt="View of Temple at Sadri" title="View of Temple at Sadri" /></a>
+<span class="caption">View of Temple at Sadri</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Hindu architecture, or that of those who hold the Brahmanic faith,
+differs very greatly from Buddhist, its chief characteristic<a name="page_013" id="page_013"></a> being a
+lofty pyramidal tower of several stories, as a general rule covered with
+ornament, that reached its fullest development in the so-called pagodas,
+of which there are fine specimens at Jaggernaut, Mahavellipore, and
+Palitana. In different parts of India various modifications of this
+general style occur to which distinctive names have been given, but the
+same spirit may be said to pervade them all, from the great Temples of
+Bhuvaneswar, Tanjore, Bundaban, and elsewhere, to the humbler shrines
+scattered throughout the length and breadth of the vast continent and of
+its island dependencies.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing very distinctive about the architecture of China or
+Japan. The Buddhist temples in both countries recall those of India, but
+the pagodas, most of which are of wood faced with porcelain tiles,
+differ slightly in having a curved roof to each story. The palaces of
+China are impressive on account of their vast extent and the use of
+copper in their construction, but the domestic buildings of Japan are
+all of comparatively small size.</p>
+
+<p>In America as in Asia are many deeply interesting architectural relics
+of the civilisation of the early inhabitants, of which the most
+remarkable are the ruins of Cyclopean buildings on the shores of Lake
+Tatiaca, the remains of the ancient city of Cuzco, all in Peru, and the
+Teocallis or temples and Palaces of the kings in Mexico, Yucatan, and
+Guatemala, none of which however call for description here as they did
+not influence the architecture of the future in their own or any other
+country.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h5>GREEK ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">In their architecture as in their sculpture the Greeks gave eloquent
+expression to the exquisite feeling for symmetry of form which was one
+of their most distinctive characteristics. Architects and masons were in
+close touch with the people for whom they built, no social barriers, so
+far as the arts and crafts were concerned, divided class from class,
+citizens, aliens, and even slaves vying with each other in their zeal to
+produce the best work possible.</p>
+
+<p>The finest buildings of ancient Greece and its dependencies entirely
+fulfilled the conditions of true architecture, for they were beautiful
+alike in design and execution, admirably adapted to the purpose for
+which they were erected, and in complete harmony with their
+surroundings. Moreover they are of<a name="page_014" id="page_014"></a> exceptional importance in the
+history of the evolution of the art on account of the influence they
+exercised on that of other countries, all their distinctive features
+having been either copied or modified in those of the rest of Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 107px;">
+<a href="images/ill_014a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_014a_sml.png" width="107" height="226" alt="Plan of Greek Temple" title="Plan of Greek Temple" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plan of Greek Temple</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Greeks, though they were doubtless acquainted with the arch, the
+dome, and the tower, refrained as a general rule from using them,
+probably because they considered them unsuitable to the topographical
+and climatic conditions that prevailed in their native land. They
+achieved their highest results by means of correctness of proportion and
+dignity of outline, giving far more attention to the exterior than to
+the interior of their buildings, and in this respect differing greatly
+from the Egyptians, who endeavoured to impress the spectator chiefly by
+the vast extent and massiveness of their temples and palaces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 458px;">
+<a href="images/ill_014b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_014b_sml.png" width="458" height="288" alt="Doric Capital" title="Doric Capital" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Doric Capital</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Recent discoveries on the site of Knossos in Crete of the remains of a
+many-roomed palace, and elsewhere in the same island of circular stone
+tombs, all of which betray strong Oriental influence, confirm the
+opinion of archæologists that it was in the islands of the Ægina Sea
+that the first works of architecture properly so called were erected in
+Europe. On the mainland of Greece, notably at Mycenæ and Tiryns, exists
+relics of many<a name="page_015" id="page_015"></a> buildings, including at the former the noble Lion Gate
+that gave access to the Acropolis, and at the latter the residence of a
+chieftain, which maintain the continuity between the earliest and the
+latest phase of Greek architecture, and may justly be said to presage
+the triumphs of the Golden Age.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 124px;">
+<a href="images/ill_015a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_015a_sml.png" width="124" height="502" alt="Column from the Parthenon" title="Column from the Parthenon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Column from the Parthenon</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From first to last Hellenic architecture was characterised by unity of
+purpose, its grandest forms being essentially the same in general
+principle as its earliest efforts, the mud walls with timber pillars
+upholding a flat wooden roof, having been gradually transformed into
+stately colonnaded structures in costly materials, that to this day
+remain absolutely unrivalled in their exquisite beauty of proportion and
+the close correlation of every detail with each other and the whole.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 203px;">
+<a href="images/ill_015b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_015b_sml.png" width="203" height="206" alt="Portion of a Doric Entablature" title="Portion of a Doric Entablature" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of a Doric Entablature</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The grand temples of Greece were built either of stone or of marble. As
+a general rule they are set on a platform to which a long flight of
+steps lead up, and are enclosed within an outer wall or a continuous
+colonnade. Their plan is extremely simple: a parallelogram, formed in
+some cases entirely of columns, in others with walls at the side and
+columns at the ends only, encloses a second and considerably smaller
+pillared space known as the cella or naos, that enshrined the image of
+the god to whom the building was dedicated, and was entered from a
+pronaos or porch, and with a posticum or back space behind it, sometimes
+supplemented by a kind of second cella called the opisthodomus or back
+temple. The front columns at either end are spanned by horizontal beams
+that uphold a sloping gable called a pediment, the flat, three-cornered
+surface of which is generally adorned with sculpture in bas-relief, and
+along the side-columns is placed what is known as the entablature, that
+consists of three parts, the architrave resting on the capitals of the
+columns, the frieze above it and the cornice, the<a name="page_016" id="page_016"></a> last of which
+sustains the flat roof, usually covered with tiles or marble copies of
+tiles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 367px;">
+<a href="images/ill_016a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_016a_sml.png" width="367" height="227" alt="The Parthenon" title="The Parthenon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">The Parthenon</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Greek architecture is generally divided into three groups or orders: the
+Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each of which, though the buildings
+belonging to them resemble each other in general plan, is distinguished
+by certain peculiarities of the columns and entablatures. The Doric was
+the earliest to be employed, but the Ionic, that early succeeded it, was
+long used simultaneously with it, sometimes even in the same building,
+whilst the Corinthian did not come into use until considerably later.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<a href="images/ill_016b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_016b_sml.png" width="300" height="247" alt="Metope from the Parthenon" title="Metope from the Parthenon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Metope from the Parthenon</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Doric order the column has no separate base, but rises direct
+from the top step of the platform on which the<a name="page_017" id="page_017"></a> building it belongs to
+stands. It is of massive form and has what is known as an entasis or
+slightly convex surface, it is generally fluted, that is to say, cut
+into parallel perpendicular channels, several rings called annulets
+connecting it with the capital, which consists of an echinus or rounded
+moulding and an abacus or unrounded slab resting on the echinus. The
+Doric entablature is equally simple, the architrave being perfectly
+plain, whilst the frieze is adorned with triglyphs or three upright
+projections with grooves between them, set at equal distances from each
+other, the spaces separating them, known as metopes, being as a rule
+enriched with fine sculptures of figure subjects. The frieze is
+connected with the cornice by narrow bands called mutules resting on the
+triglyphs and metopes, and the cornice itself has a plain lower band
+known as the corona, surmounted by more or less decorated courses of
+stone or marble.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 417px;">
+<a href="images/ill_017a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_017a_sml.png" width="417" height="304" alt="Portion of Frieze of Parthenon" title="Portion of Frieze of Parthenon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of Frieze of Parthenon</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_017b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_017b_sml.png" width="239" height="338" alt="Portion of Frieze of Parthenon" title="Portion of Frieze of Parthenon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of Frieze of Parthenon</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_018" id="page_018"></a></p>
+
+<p>The Ionic and Corinthian orders are alike characterised by lightness and
+grace rather than massiveness and simplicity. In both, the columns,
+instead of rising direct from the platform, have a complex base
+consisting of a number of circular mouldings above another, the fluted
+shafts are comparatively slim and tapering, and the channels in them are
+divided by spaces called fillets. In the Ionic order the flat abacus of
+the Doric capital is replaced by two coiled volutes projecting beyond
+the echinus on either side, and the horizontal portion between the
+volutes is surmounted by finely carved leaf mouldings. The Corinthian
+order is specially distinguished by the ornate decoration of the
+capitals, that represent calices of flowers and leaves, chiefly those of
+the acanthus, arranged so as to point upwards and curve outwards in much
+the same style as they do in nature. The architrave in both the Ionic
+and the Corinthian orders consists of plain slabs, but the frieze&mdash;which
+is not divided as in Doric buildings into triglyphs and metopes&mdash;is in
+nearly every case enriched with a series of beautiful figure subjects,
+and is therefore known as the Zoophorus or figure-bearer.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 220px;">
+<a href="images/ill_018a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_018a_sml.png" width="220" height="123" alt="Ionic Capital" title="Ionic Capital" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ionic Capital</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 81px;">
+<a href="images/ill_018b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_018b_sml.png" width="81" height="398" alt="Ionic Column" title="Ionic Column" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ionic Column</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the most ancient remains of sacred Greek architecture are those of
+the Heræon or Sanctuary of the Goddess Hera at Olympia; of the temple
+that preceded the Parthenon at Athens; and of those at Assos in Asia
+Minor, Selinus in Sicily, and Corcyra in Corfu, the last a very typical
+example of archaic Doric, with a pediment in which are primitive
+sculptures of a gorgon flanked by lions. Of somewhat later date are the
+ruined temples at Girgenti, Syracuse, and Segesta, all in Sicily, the
+last the best preserved of all; the group at Pæstum in Southern Italy,
+of which that of Neptune is the finest, the pediments having been
+originally filled in with beautifully executed sculptured figures. The
+Temple of Athene in the island of Ægina marks the transition from the
+extreme severity of early Doric to the more ornate buildings of the
+Golden Age of Greek architecture, its decorative sculptures being of
+exquisite design and execution. The Temple of Jupiter at Athens, begun
+in the Doric style by<a name="page_019" id="page_019"></a> Pisistratus about 540 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> and not completed
+until about 174 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, has Corinthian capitals on some of its columns,
+and the Temple of Theseus, of uncertain date, in the same city, that
+consists entirely of white marble, ranks, in spite of its severe
+simplicity, even with that of Neptune at Pæstum on account of its fine
+proportions and the admirable finish of every detail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 262px;">
+<a href="images/ill_019.png">
+<img src="images/ill_019_sml.png" width="262" height="410" alt="Ionic Entablature from the Erectheum" title="Ionic Entablature from the Erectheum" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ionic Entablature from the Erectheum</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was in the Parthenon, or Temple of the Virgin Goddess of Wisdom, at
+Athens, that the Doric style found its highest expression, for in it
+were combined the massive grandeur of the archaic period with the
+refinements of construction, decoration, and lighting of a more
+scientific but not less æsthetic age. It occupies the site of an earlier
+building, the relics of which are referred to above, that was destroyed
+by Xerxes, and it rises from the summit of the lofty rock of the
+Acropolis that dominated the ancient city. It was built, it is supposed,
+by the famous architects Ictinus and Callicrates about 440 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, under
+the enlightened ruler Pericles, and its decorative sculptures, some of
+which are now in the British Museum, were the work of Phidias and his
+pupils, and, mutilated though they<a name="page_020" id="page_020"></a> are, they still rank amongst the
+greatest masterpieces of plastic art.</p>
+
+<p>Before the Parthenon, after being long used as a Christian church, was
+reduced to ruins by the explosion of a shell, when in 1687 it was
+desecrated by being converted into a powder magazine by the Turks during
+their struggle with the Venetians, it must have been one of the very
+noblest buildings in the world, forming with other sanctuaries and
+secular buildings on the world-famous hill a spectacle of surpassing
+grandeur, the pride and glory of the whole Greek world.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 176px;">
+<a href="images/ill_020a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_020a_sml.png" width="176" height="198" alt="Acanthus Ornament" title="Acanthus Ornament" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Acanthus Ornament</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 214px;">
+<a href="images/ill_020b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_020b_sml.png" width="214" height="252" alt="Corinthian Capital" title="Corinthian Capital" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Corinthian Capital</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Parthenon was 228 feet long by 101 broad, and 64 feet high; the
+porticoes at each end had a double row of eight columns; the sculptures
+in the pediments were in full relief, representing in the eastern the
+Birth of Athene, and in the western the Struggle between that goddess
+and Poseidon, whilst those on the metopes, some of which are supposed to
+be from the hand of Alcamenes, the contemporary and rival of Phidias,
+rendered scenes from battles between the Gods and Giants, the Greeks and
+the Amazons, and the Centaurs and Lapithæ.</p>
+
+<p>Of somewhat later date than the Parthenon and resembling it in general
+style, though it is very considerably smaller, is the Theseum or Temple
+of Theseus on the plain on the north-west of the Acropolis, and at Bassæ
+in Arcadia is a Doric building, dedicated to Apollo Epicurius and
+designed by Ictinus, that has the peculiarity of facing north and south
+instead of, as was usual, east and west.</p>
+
+<p>Scarcely less beautiful than the Parthenon itself is the grand<a name="page_021" id="page_021"></a> triple
+portico known as the Propylæa that gives access to it on the western
+side. It was designed about 430 by Mnesicles, and in it the Doric and
+Ionic styles are admirably combined, whilst in the Erectheum, sacred to
+the memory of Erechtheus, a hero of Attica, the Ionic order is seen at
+its best, so delicate is the carving of the capitals of its columns. It
+has moreover the rare and distinctive feature of what is known as a
+caryatid porch, that is to say, one in which the entablature is upheld
+by caryatides or statues representing female figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 91px;">
+<a href="images/ill_021.png">
+<img src="images/ill_021_sml.png" width="91" height="445" alt="Corinthian Column from Monument of Lysicrates" title="Corinthian Column from Monument of Lysicrates" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Corinthian Column from Monument of Lysicrates</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other good examples of the Ionic style are the small Temple of Niké
+Apteros, or the Wingless Victory, situated not far from the Propylæa and
+the Parthenon of Athens, the more important Temple of Apollo at
+Branchidæ near Miletus, originally of most imposing dimensions, and that
+of Artemis at Ephesus, of which however only a few fragments remain <i>in
+situ</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Of the sacred buildings of Greece in which the Corinthian order was
+employed there exist, with the exception of the Temple of Jupiter at
+Athens already referred to, but a few scattered remains, such as the
+columns from Epidaurus now in the Athens Museum, that formed part of a
+circlet of Corinthian pillars within a Doric colonnade. In the Temple of
+Athena Alea at Tegea, designed by Scopas in 394, however, the transition
+from the Ionic to the Corinthian style is very clearly illustrated, and
+in the circular Monument of Lysicrates, erected in 334 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> to
+commemorate the triumph of that hero's troop in the choric dances in
+honour of Dionysos, and the Tower of the Winds, both at Athens, the
+Corinthian style is seen at its best.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the temples described above, some remains of tombs,
+notably that of the huge Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in memory of King
+Mausolus, who died in 353 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span>, and several theatres, including that of
+Dionysos at Athens, with a well-preserved one of larger size at
+Epidaurus, bear witness to the general prevalence of Doric features in
+funereal monuments and secular buildings, but of the palaces and humbler
+dwelling-houses in the three Greek styles, of which there must have been
+many fine examples, no trace remains. There is however<a name="page_022" id="page_022"></a> no doubt that
+the Corinthian style was very constantly employed after the power of the
+great republics had been broken, and the Oriental taste for lavish
+decoration replaced the love for austere simplicity of the virile people
+of Greece and its dependencies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<a href="images/ill_022.png">
+<img src="images/ill_022_sml.png" width="333" height="399" alt="Corinthian Entablature from Monument of Lysicrates" title="Corinthian Entablature from Monument of Lysicrates" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Corinthian Entablature from Monument of Lysicrates</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h5>ROMAN ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">After the Golden Age of Greek architecture properly so called was over,
+a kind of aftermath prevailed for some little time in the peninsula and
+the outlying colonies of Greece, to be succeeded by a transition time to
+which the name of the Hellenistic has been given, during which is
+supposed to have been inaugurated the use of the arch and the vault,
+which were in course of time to revolutionise the art of building.</p>
+
+<p>It has long been customary to give to the Etruscans, an Asiatic people
+who in very early times occupied a considerable<a name="page_023" id="page_023"></a> portion of Italy, the
+credit of the first introduction of the arch in Western Europe. It is
+however now more generally believed that the Roman style of building was
+an offshoot of the Hellenistic, in which the dome was certainly
+employed, though no existing examples of its use can be quoted. The city
+of Alexandria, founded about 332 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> by Alexander the Great, is known
+to have had four principal colonnaded streets leading from a four-arched
+central building, and many are of opinion that much of the town was
+built over arched cisterns. The dome may possibly have been in the first
+instance introduced into western Europe as a cover for the hot baths in
+which the wealthy delighted, and its form was probably the same as that
+of the one preserved at Pompeii. The famous arched drain at Rome, known
+as the Cloaca Maxima, so constantly referred to as the greatest
+masterpiece of the Etruscans was not, it has now been proved, built
+until after their subjugation and extinction as a nation. For all that
+they were without doubt most skilful architects and engineers; the walls
+of their cities were of cyclopean masonry and were entered from arched
+gateways, a good example of which is to be seen at Volterra, constructed
+of wedge-shaped stones fixed without cement. Their rock-cut tombs, such
+as those at Corneto, Vulci, and Chiusi, are divided into many chambers,
+the walls adorned with paintings, the roof upheld by columns, and the
+façades resembling those of Egyptian temples, whilst the tumuli in which
+they sometimes buried their dead are surmounted by pyramids of earth
+resting on stone foundations.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 267px;">
+<a href="images/ill_023.png">
+<img src="images/ill_023_sml.png" width="267" height="149" alt="Roman Barrel Vault" title="Roman Barrel Vault" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Roman Barrel Vault</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From whatever source Roman architects got their inspiration, they very
+soon absorbed all external influences and stamped the buildings they
+erected with a character of their own. From the first sun-dried bricks,
+sometimes combined with stone, were the chief materials used, even the
+grander structures of the best period such as the huge palaces and halls
+were of plastered brickwork, stone having been as a<a name="page_024" id="page_024"></a> general rule
+reserved for such works as temples, theatres, and triumphal arches.
+Concrete was also largely employed, and timber in many cases was turned
+to account for roofing. The most distinctive peculiarity of the
+architecture of the Romans is the vaulted roof, which they employed in
+an infinite variety of ways, introducing it at every possible
+opportunity. The simplest form, known as the waggon or barrel vault, is
+a semicircular arch spanning two walls, whilst a more elaborate
+contrivance consists of two intersecting vaults of the same height
+crossing each other at right angles, which was used in Rome as early as
+75 <span class="smcap">B.C.</span> These two forms were sometimes supplemented by what are
+distinguished as conches or half-domes over external semicircular
+recesses, of which the apse is a characteristic example. With the aid of
+these three varieties of vaulting, that were occasionally combined with
+consummate skill, the Romans were able to roof in large or small
+circular spaces, and in some few cases, as in the Baths of Caracalla at
+Rome, they even to a certain extent anticipated the clever contrivance
+known as the pendentive, a triangular piece of vaulting springing from
+the corners of a right-angled enclosure, that was later brought to such
+perfection in Byzantine architecture.</p>
+
+<h3></h3><div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_024.png">
+<img src="images/ill_024_sml.png" width="268" height="158" alt="Intersecting Vaulting" title="Intersecting Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Intersecting Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With their wonderful system of vaulting the Romans combined the
+columnation and entablature of the Greeks, introducing innovations
+however that were in many cases anything but improvements. Thus they
+sometimes supplemented the foliage of the Corinthian capital with the
+volutes of the Ionic; whilst what is known as the Tuscan style is really
+merely a modification of the Doric, and is wanting in the simple dignity
+that characterised the latter, the metopes being adorned with sculptures
+very inferior to the beautiful figure subjects of the Parthenon and
+other Greek temples. Roman architects were in fact rather skilful
+engineers and adapters of the æsthetic<a name="page_025" id="page_025"></a> conceptions of others than
+original designers of new forms of beauty, but they were unrivalled in
+their power of harmoniously co-ordinating in a single building an
+infinite variety of structural features. They were moreover
+exceptionally successful in the laying out of cities, as proved by the
+wonderful groups of buildings in the fora or public squares in which
+courts of justice and markets were held, of the capital and other
+cities, and by the fine continuous vistas of their streets, in which
+irregularities were masked by clever contrivances, adding greatly to the
+symmetry of the general effect. Temples, basilicas, baths, bridges,
+aqueducts, triumphal arches, palaces, and private houses were all set in
+the environment most suitable to them, and even tombs were ranged
+according to a definite plan, not, as in most modern cemeteries, dotted
+here and there in an arbitrary manner.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 533px;">
+<a href="images/ill_025.png">
+<img src="images/ill_025_sml.png" width="533" height="311" alt="Pont du Gard, Nîmes" title="Pont du Gard, Nîmes" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Pont du Gard, Nîmes</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earliest Roman works of architecture were of a purely utilitarian
+character, and in addition to the Cloaca Maxima already mentioned the
+most noteworthy still in existence are the bridges over the Tiber, the
+aqueducts of the Campagna outside Rome, and the so-called Pont du Gard
+at Nîmes, France. The most ancient temples greatly resemble those of
+Greece, and amongst them may be named as specially typical those of
+Fortuna Virilis and of Antoninus and Faustina, both now in use as
+churches, and that of Venus and Rome, all in the capital, that of Diana
+at Nîmes known as the Maison Carrée, and that of the Sun at Baalbec. Of
+later date are the beautiful circular<a name="page_026" id="page_026"></a> temples, of which the grandest
+example is the Pantheon of Rome, built under Hadrian about <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 117, in
+which Roman architecture reached its noblest development. The colonnaded
+porch with entablature and pediment, that detracts so much from the
+external effect of this magnificent building, did not originally belong
+to it, but formed the entrance of a temple built by Agrippa more than a
+century before, and was added to the Rotunda after the completion of the
+latter. The internal diameter of the Pantheon is 142 feet 6 inches, and
+its height at the apex of the dome is the same; its walls are 20 feet
+thick, and its concrete dome is adorned with deeply recessed panels or
+coffers and has a single circular opening at the crown through which
+alone light is admitted. The floor is of marble; bronze pilasters flank
+doorways of the same metal, the oldest existing specimens of their kind,
+and it is supposed that when first completed the whole of the outside
+was cased in white and the inside in coloured marbles.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 148px;">
+<a href="images/ill_026.png">
+<img src="images/ill_026_sml.png" width="148" height="430" alt="Section of Pantheon" title="Section of Pantheon" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Pantheon</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other circular temples of Roman origin, but on a much smaller scale than
+the Pantheon, are the Temple of Vesta and that in the Forum Boarium,
+Rome, the latter much injured and spoiled by a modern roof quite out of
+character with it; the one at Tivoli near the capital, known as that of
+the Sybils, still beautiful in spite of the loss of much of its
+entablature and many of its columns; the Temple of Jupiter at Spalato
+with a domed roof upheld by columns; and that at Baalbec, which has the
+distinctive feature of a curved instead of a perfectly flat entablature.</p>
+
+<p>A very special interest attaches to the Roman basilica on account of its
+having so long been supposed to have been the type on which the earliest
+Christian churches were built. Basilicas were used as courts of justice
+and exchanges, more rarely as market-places, and the most ancient are
+said to have been merely square spaces, enclosed within rows of columns
+open to the air, that were however soon succeeded by walled buildings
+roofed with timber or with vaults of concrete supported on massive piers
+of stone. In them a raised semicircular space at the eastern end was
+divided off by columns known as cancelli for the use of the magistrate
+and his lectors, and between<a name="page_027" id="page_027"></a> it and the main body of the hall, which
+was divided by columns into a nave and aisles, rose the altar on which
+sacrifice was offered up before any business of importance was entered
+upon.</p>
+
+<p>A good example of an early Roman basilica is that called the Ulpian in
+the Forum of Trajan, Rome, dating from <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 98, which is said to have
+had a flat roof and double aisles, the latter surmounted by galleries,
+whilst that of Maxentius and Constantine, the ruins of which are known
+as the Temple of Peace, also in the capital, of considerably later date,
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 312, had a groined central roof and barrel-vaulted side aisles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 95%;">
+<a href="images/ill_027.png">
+<img src="images/ill_027_sml.png" width="477" height="323" alt="Roman Doric Column and Entablature" title="Roman Doric Column and Entablature" /></a>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="roman columns">
+<tr align="center" class="sml"><td>Roman Doric Column and Entablature</td><td>
+Roman Ionic Column and Entablature</td><td>
+Roman Corinthian Column and Entablature</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was in their Thermæ or Baths rather than in their Temples and
+Basilicas that the Roman architects achieved their greatest triumphs.
+These were vast complex structures fitted up with every conceivable
+luxury for the use of bathers, with a large hall artificially heated and
+known as the tepidarium, open colonnaded courts, and many subsidiary
+buildings including gymnasia, debating rooms, &amp;c. They combined simple
+grandeur of structure with rich internal decoration. The most ancient
+Thermæ in Rome, of which extensive remains still exist, were those of
+Caracalla, erected in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 217, already referred to in connection with
+the earliest use of the contrivance which foreshadowed the pendentive.
+Rising from a lofty platform, the noble tepidarium was roofed in by
+three fine intersecting vaults,<a name="page_028" id="page_028"></a> and its walls were cased in marble.
+With their supplementary buildings the baths covered a space some 110
+yards square, and beneath them were many vaulted rooms for the
+attendants on the bathers. Amongst their ruins were found the
+masterpieces of sculpture known as the Farnese Hercules and the Farnese
+Bull, but when they were first placed there, there is no evidence to
+prove.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;">
+<a href="images/ill_028.png">
+<img src="images/ill_028_sml.png" width="393" height="296" alt="Temple of Vesta, Rome" title="Temple of Vesta, Rome" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Temple of Vesta, Rome</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Larger and more imposing in appearance even than the Baths of Caracalla
+were those of Diocletian, that were capable of accommodating more than
+3000 bathers and were built about <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 303. The grand hall or tepidarium
+and the barrel-vaulted entrance portico were most successfully converted
+in the sixteenth century into the church of S. Maria degli Angeli by
+Michael Angelo, and one of two circular structures that flanked the
+encircling wall was later consecrated under the name of S. Bernardo, and
+is still used as a place of worship.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to the Thermæ rank the Amphitheatres of the Roman
+Empire, in which gladiatorial contests and other trials of skill took
+place, and without which no town however small was considered complete.
+Though their detail was almost exclusively borrowed from the
+Greeks&mdash;tiers of arches resting on columns and surmounted by an
+entablature rising one above the other&mdash;their architects managed to
+impress on them a distinctive character of their own. Finest of all
+still existing examples is the Flavian Amphitheatre, generally known as
+the<a name="page_029" id="page_029"></a> Coliseum at Rome, which occupies the site of the famous Golden
+House of Nero, and was completed about <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 70. It is of elliptical
+plan, measures some 612 by 515 feet, and was from 160 to 180 feet high.
+It was capable of containing some 80,000 spectators, and was for a long
+period the chief meeting-place of the Roman citizens. The exterior is
+four stories high and consists of a series of three rows of arches, the
+lowest with Doric, the second with Ionic, and the third with Corinthian
+capitals, the last surmounted by a row of Corinthian pilasters, forming
+a fourth story, which is supposed to have been originally of wood and to
+have been rebuilt in stone considerably later. The groups of seats,
+which, with the central arena they commanded, were protected from the
+weather by a moveable awning called the velarium, corresponded with the
+exterior stories, and to each tier a staircase led up, wide vaulted
+corridors connecting the various entrances with each other, running
+round the entire building, the whole producing a most harmonious and
+pleasing effect.</p>
+
+<p>At Verona, Capria, Pola, and Pezzuoli in Italy, at Syracuse in Sicily,
+and at Arles and Nîmes in France are remains of important Roman
+amphitheatres, and of the rarer theatres used for dramatic
+entertainments must be named the two well-preserved examples at Pompeii,
+the ruins of the Odeion of Herodes Atticus at Athens, and most ancient
+of all, the remains of the so-called Theatre of Marcellus at Rome now
+incorporated with the Orsinii Palace, all which appear to have resembled
+the Coliseum to a great extent in their general style and decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Of the vast and imposing palaces built or added to by successive Roman
+emperors, that included audience chambers, basilicas, stadia for
+athletic games, galleries, state dining-halls, baths, and many suites of
+apartments for various purposes, there exist unfortunately but a few
+remains. Nero's Golden House, several of the ruins of which were
+excavated in the 16th century, and inspired Raphael with some of the
+decorative details of the loggia of the Vatican, is said to have covered
+more than a mile of ground, and at one time the whole of the Palatine
+Hill was occupied by stately edifices, with the Palace of Augustus in
+the centre and those of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and
+Septimius Severus, who greatly added to and modified the work of his
+predecessors, grouped about them, but all that can now be fully
+identified are some of the ground plans with a few of the minor details
+of structure. To atone for this however, much of the Palace of
+Diocletian at Spalato in Dalmatia, to which that emperor withdrew after
+his abdication in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 305, which originally formed a small town in
+itself,<a name="page_030" id="page_030"></a> is still to a great extent intact, including a temple now used
+as a cathedral, a gallery 520 feet long by 24 wide, and a few of the
+covered arcades that originally connected its various parts.</p>
+
+<p>What is left of the so-called Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli near Rome proves
+that it too was of vast extent, with a great variety of buildings,
+different suites of rooms having been occupied according to the seasons,
+and at Pompeii and Herculaneum, thanks to the remarkable preservation of
+many of the houses in them, notably that named after Pansa, the domestic
+architecture of the private citizens of the great Roman Empire, of which
+picturesque arcaded courts were a noteworthy feature, can be well
+studied, as well as that of the temples, triumphal arches, public baths,
+&amp;c., all of which greatly resembled those of the Capital.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 233px;">
+<a href="images/ill_030.png">
+<img src="images/ill_030_sml.png" width="233" height="208" alt="Arch of Titus at Rome" title="Arch of Titus at Rome" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Arch of Titus at Rome</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Whether the Romans were or were not the first people of Western Europe
+to use the arch, they certainly took a very great delight in it, setting
+up ornately decorated examples of it at the entrances to their towns,
+their fora, and their bridges, as well as in commemoration of great
+victories in war and of the completion of civic enterprises. Most
+remarkable of those still standing in Rome are the Arch of Titus of one
+span only, erected in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the
+Emperor after whom it is named; the triple-span arch of Septimius
+Severus, and the smaller one of Constantine. Though they were rather
+triumphs of engineering skill than works of architecture properly so
+called, the fine stone built aqueducts such as those in the Campagna of
+Rome and at Nîmes must be mentioned here on account of the æsthetic
+effect of the long rows of lofty arches, and a few words must also be
+said of the Pillars of Victory, of which that of Trajan at Rome is the<a name="page_031" id="page_031"></a>
+most notable still extant, adorned as it is with a spiral of finely
+sculptured bas-reliefs.</p>
+
+<p>In the early days of the Roman power it was customary to cremate the
+dead, the ashes being preserved in urns that were ranged in cells known
+as Columbaria, generally hewn in the living rock. As time went on,
+however, the Egyptian mode of sepulchre was adopted. Bodies were
+embalmed and laid in stone or marble coffins which were placed in the
+basements of tombs of two or more stories, surmounted by round towers
+with pointed or circular roofs. Of these complex resting-places of the
+dead the finest now in existence is the Mole or Mausoleum of Hadrian,
+known as the Castle of S. Angelo, at Rome, which is some 300 feet high
+and was originally encased in marble. No burial was allowed within the
+walls of a Roman city, but the approaches were generally lined with
+tombs as at Rome, at Pompeii, and elsewhere, most of them, though on a
+smaller scale, of a similar plan to that of Hadrian.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<h5>EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">It was in the low, gloomy, dimly lighted subterranean galleries known as
+catacombs, hewn in the living rock near Rome, that Christian
+architecture may be said to have had its first crude beginnings. The
+passages in the walls of which the graves of the dead were hollowed out,
+widened at intervals into spacious vaulted halls, where the persecuted
+followers of the crucified Redeemer met in secret for worship or to take
+part in the funeral services for those they had lost.</p>
+
+<p>It was long taken for granted that it was not until the first issue in
+<span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 313 of the Edict of Milan by Constantine, Emperor of the West, and
+Licinius, Emperor of the East, that the professors of the new faith
+ventured to erect above ground buildings for the exercise of the rites
+of their religion, but recent discoveries prove that Christian churches
+were built as early as the 3rd century in many parts of the Roman
+empire. To quote but two cases in point, relics of a circular one with a
+small apse at the eastern end have been found at Antepellius in Asia
+Minor, and of one of the basilican type at Silchester in England.
+Moreover, heathen temples were occasionally converted into churches,
+whilst basilicas were sometimes used for Christian services just as they
+were.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 268px;">
+<a href="images/ill_032.png">
+<img src="images/ill_032_sml.png" width="268" height="396" alt="Plan of a Basilica" title="Plan of a Basilica" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plan of a Basilica</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some few early Christian churches were possibly modelled on<a name="page_032" id="page_032"></a> classic
+tombs such as those referred to in the chapter on Roman architecture,
+but the more usual form was the basilican, the altar having been placed
+on the raised platform within the semicircular apse at the eastern end,
+the bishops and clergy occupying the seats assigned in halls of justice
+to the prætor and his assessors, whilst the congregation met in the nave
+and aisles. Ere long, however, to this general plan was added the
+distinctive feature of transepts or transverse passages running across
+the entrance to the apse, thus giving to the whole building the form of
+a cross. Later structural changes were the erection of an arch above the
+altar, the heightening of the nave, the connecting of the columns
+between the nave and aisles by arches instead of horizontal architraves,
+the introduction of windows, to which the collective name of the
+clerestory or the clear-story was given, in the semicircular heads of
+the arches and more rarely into the upper part of the low external walls
+of the aisles, the apse, which was gradually lengthened eastwards, being
+left comparatively dark, the only light proceeding from the main body of
+the church. Simultaneously with or in some cases earlier than these
+alterations,<a name="page_033" id="page_033"></a> a portico known as the narthex was added at the western
+end, extending across the whole width of the nave and aisles, for the
+use of those, such as catechumens or penitents, who were not privileged
+to enter the church itself. The narthex in its turn was set within an
+atrium or outer colonnaded court, in the centre of which was a fountain,
+used by worshippers for ablutions before entering the consecrated
+building.</p>
+
+<p>A minor characteristic of early Christian churches was the richness of
+the internal decoration, mosaics that is to say, patterns or pictures
+made of many coloured pieces of glass or stone, combined in certain
+examples with marble carvings and gilding, adorned the vaulting, the
+wall, and even the floor, a kind of mosaic known as the <i>opus
+alexandrinum</i> being generally used for the last, the whole producing a
+very gorgeous but harmonious effect.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting existing early Christian churches, that
+remains very much what it was when first completed, is that of the
+Nativity at Bethlehem, built in <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 327 by the Empress Helena when on
+her quest for the True Cross, with the Convent to which it originally
+belonged, that was destroyed by the Turks in 1236 and later restored by
+the Crusaders. The Church of the Nativity rises above a natural cave now
+converted into a crypt or vaulted subterranean chamber. It is of
+cruciform plan, and though its unpretending exterior is of brick, the
+interior has four rows of massive stone pillars dividing the nave from
+the aisles, which as well as the choir at the eastern end have
+semicircular apses.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with this humble building, that is closely associated with
+all the most sacred memories of the early Church, were the vast
+basilican places of worship erected at Rome by Constantine and his
+immediate successors, which have unfortunately been either destroyed or
+so much modified as to retain little of their distinctive character. The
+Cathedral of S. Peter occupies the site of one of them, which had five
+aisles, a nave 80 feet wide, a comparatively small apse, and a noble
+atrium; the Church of S. Giovanni in Laterano retains but a few details
+of its predecessor of the same name, but that of S. Paolo fuori le Mura
+or St. Paul without the walls, built by Theodosius in 386, is supposed
+to be a true copy, so far as structure is concerned, of the grand
+basilica destroyed by fire in 1823. It has a nave 280 feet long by 78
+wide, and the whole building is 400 feet in length by 200 wide. A noble
+arch spans the intersection of the transepts, and lofty columns with
+richly carved capitals divide the nave from the aisles and the latter,
+of which there are five, from each other, but the roof is only a flat
+wooden one, the external walls are wanting<a name="page_034" id="page_034"></a> in dignity and solidity,
+whilst the height, 100 feet only, is quite out of proportion with the
+otherwise noble dimensions.</p>
+
+<p>Another very fine early basilican church in Rome is that of S. Maria
+Maggiore, occupying the site of a 5th century building, some of the
+marble columns of which with Ionic capitals have been incorporated in
+the later structure. The Churches of S. Agnese and S. Lorenzo are also
+of basilican plan, and have both the somewhat rare feature of galleries
+over the aisles. The former is but little altered since its erection,
+whilst the latter has gone through a long series of vicissitudes. It was
+founded in the 4th century and greatly added to in the 5th by Sixtus
+III, who joined a second church on to it, so that it had an apse at each
+end. Both these apses, with the walls between the earlier and the later
+buildings, were pulled down in the 13th century by order of Pope
+Honorius III, who had the earlier church converted into a choir and the
+later into a nave, with very satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>Even more interesting than S. Lorenzo is S. Clemente, Rome, that
+consists of two buildings of widely separated dates one above another,
+the lower, which now serves as a crypt, supposed to have been built at
+the beginning of the 6th century, the upper not until 1108. Both are of
+the same general plan as the other basilican churches described, with
+certain differences in minor details, including in the more modern
+portion a low marble screen dividing the choir and altar from the nave.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 133px;">
+<a href="images/ill_034.png">
+<img src="images/ill_034_sml.png" width="133" height="385" alt="Church of S. Clemente" title="Church of S. Clemente" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Church of S. Clemente</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To many of these early churches fine cloisters, that is to say, arcaded
+colonnades encircling the outer walls, were added, those that once
+enclosed the ancient basilica of S. Paola fuori le Mura being among the
+finest still preserved, that may be said to have anticipated the
+beautiful ambulatories of later monastic and collegiate buildings.</p>
+
+<p>In other cities of the Roman empire are many noteworthy early basilican
+churches, including S. Apollinare Nuovo within and S. Apollinare in
+Classe without the walls of Ravenna, the cathedral of Torcello, that is
+connected by a narthex with the later S. Fosca, in which the transition
+from the Roman to the Byzantine style is shadowed forth, and the
+cathedrals of Parenzo and Grado in Istria, the former retaining almost
+intact its<a name="page_035" id="page_035"></a> beautiful colonnaded atrium, the latter chiefly remarkable
+for its fine mosaic pavement.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the early churches of basilican plan are a few of
+circular form, such as that at Rome enshrining the tomb of S. Constanza,
+the daughter of Constantine, dating from about <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 354, which has a
+domed roof and vaulted aisles, the 5th century church of S. Stefano
+Rotondo in the same town, the latter, though greatly modified in detail,
+still preserving its two concentric ranges of columns, S. Vitale at
+Ravenna, and S. George at Salonika, that has a circular nave but an
+oblong chancel and apse, whilst the 6th century tomb of Theodoric is
+typical of the use of a similar plan in sepulchral monuments.</p>
+
+<p>In the first centuries of the Christian era it was customary for the
+ceremony of baptism to be performed in buildings known as baptisteries,
+apart from, but close to, cathedrals and important parish churches.
+These buildings were as a general rule of circular or octagonal plan
+with a tank in the centre of the interior, of size sufficient for the
+total immersion of candidates. The earliest and also one of the finest
+existing examples is the Baptistery of Constantino that rises close to
+S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, and is two stories high, with a central
+domed roof of timber and flat-ceilinged aisles, the massive porphyry
+columns dividing them from the space set apart for the ceremony of
+baptism, being surmounted by slender pilasters. Another fine early
+Baptistery is that at Nocera, which resembles that of Constantine in
+general plan and style.</p>
+
+<p>The Christians of Egyptian descent, to whom the name of Copts has been
+given, evolved a style of building that combined with oriental
+traditions certain details of western architecture. They were very early
+familiar with the dome, and employed it in churches of a basilican
+ground-plan even before it was adopted in the Roman Empire. Moreover,
+certain of the barrel vaults and arches in Coptic places of worship were
+pointed, so that the most distinctive characteristic of Gothic
+architecture may be said to have been to some extent anticipated. Except
+for the effective feature of the dome the exteriors of these buildings
+were plain and unpretending, but the interiors were in many cases
+lavishly decorated with marble mosaics. Other peculiarities were the
+division of the eastern extremity into three semicircular or square
+recesses, each containing an altar, the use of an elaborately carved
+screen shutting off the choir or chancel from the nave and aisles, and
+the introduction of galleries above the latter for the use of the women
+of the congregation.</p>
+
+<p>Specially noteworthy examples of Coptic architecture are the two
+churches in Upper Egypt known as the White and<a name="page_036" id="page_036"></a> Red Convents, the former
+supposed by some authorities to be even older than the church of the
+Nativity of Bethlehem, the 6th century church of Dair-as-Sûriâni in the
+Desert, and the 8th century S. Sergius or Abu Sargah at Cairo, whilst in
+the oasis of El Bagawat have recently been excavated a large number of
+sepulchral chapels, dating probably from the 5th century, many of which
+have domed cupolas greatly resembling in structure those of considerably
+later Byzantine buildings.</p>
+
+<p>In Syria, as well as in Egypt, are many very interesting early Christian
+churches, including the vast complex 5th century building at Kalat-Seman
+dedicated to S. Simeon Stylites, which has four basilicas, each with an
+apse, grouped about a central octagon; the 6th century church at
+Sergiopolis; and the smaller contemporaneous ones at Qalb Lorzeh and
+Roueiha; all of which, though they resemble in general plan the
+basilicas of Rome, have certain details that appear to shadow forth the
+characteristics of the Romanesque style, notably in the first the
+cruciform bays dividing the nave from the aisles, in the second, the use
+of the lobed arch, and in it and the Roueiha building the grouping of
+the clerestory windows.</p>
+
+<p>Asia Minor is also rich in examples of early Christian architecture, of
+which one of the most remarkable is the 5th century S. Demetrius at
+Salonika, of basilican plan with transepts at the eastern end, nave
+arcades resembling those of S. Clemente, Rome, and galleries above the
+aisles, such as those of the Coptic places of worship quoted above. With
+it must be named the 6th century church in the same city, now used as a
+mosque, under the name of Eski Djuma, and the considerably later
+churches at Bin Bir Kilissi that have only recently been explored and
+are of basilican plan with barrel-vaulted roofing.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h3>
+
+<h5>BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">The term Byzantine has been given to the style of architecture which was
+the outcome of the fusion of the best building traditions of the East
+and of the West, the former contributing the distinctive structural
+feature of the dome, with the minor details of richness of colouring and
+lavishness of decoration, the latter dignified symmetry of proportion
+and scientific solidity of construction.</p>
+
+<p>It was in Byzantium, when in 330 the first Christian Emperor<a name="page_037" id="page_037"></a> chose it
+as his headquarters, and its name was changed in his honour to
+Constantinople, that the union which was to be so prolific of results
+took place. Unfortunately however none of the churches erected under the
+auspices of Constantine in the new capital have been preserved, the sole
+relic of his reign, so far as architecture is concerned, being the
+foundations of the apse of a church, now replaced by a considerably
+later building, in which he had the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
+enclosed. The oldest existing church in Constantinople is a basilica of
+the Roman type dating from 463, with nothing distinctive of the new
+style about it, but there is historical evidence that the noble S.
+Sophia, in which that style reached its fullest development, was
+preceded in Constantinople by other grand buildings of a similar type,
+including one dedicated to the Holy Apostles which was cruciform in plan
+and had five domes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 410px;">
+<a href="images/ill_037.png">
+<img src="images/ill_037_sml.png" width="410" height="293" alt="S. Sophia, Constantinople" title="S. Sophia, Constantinople" /></a>
+<span class="caption">S. Sophia, Constantinople</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most distinctive peculiarity of Byzantine architecture is the
+roofing over of square spaces with the aid of the pendentive, a clever
+expedient already explained, that was carried to great perfection by the
+builders of Constantinople and those who elsewhere followed their
+example. Previously employed in comparatively small structures, it now
+became the fundamental principle for the roofing over of spaces of a
+great variety of extent, groups of domes and semi-domes, in many cases
+supplemented by tapering towers rising with imposing effect from massive
+outer walls. The long aisles and nave of the Roman and early Christian
+basilicas were replaced by a more or less square<a name="page_038" id="page_038"></a> plan, lofty piers
+spanned by arches upholding the central cupola, whilst the galleries
+above the aisles rested on slender columns such as were also employed to
+rail off the sanctuary and narthex from the main body of the building.
+The whole of the interior, which was lighted from windows in the dome,
+was most profusely decorated, the walls having dados or slabs of
+different coloured marbles supplemented by mosaics, with which every
+portion of the domes, semi-domes, and pendentives were also covered,
+whilst the columns, in many cases of variegated marble, had beautifully
+carved capitals of an infinite variety of design.</p>
+
+<p>It is customary to divide the history of the development of Byzantine
+architecture into two distinct periods, the first extending from the 4th
+to the close of the 6th century, the second from the 8th to the 13th
+century, there having been a pause between them during which no
+buildings of any importance were erected owing to the wars which
+convulsed alike the East and the West. As already stated, no actual
+buildings belonging to the earlier portion of the first period remain,
+but there exist in S. Vitale at Ravenna and still more in S. Sophia at
+Constantinople unique examples of the golden age of Byzantine
+architecture, the inspiring influence of which was felt throughout the
+whole of Europe and the greater part of Asia. The former church, begun
+about 526, is of octagonal plan, each division, except that containing
+the choir, with an apse of its own, and though the interior has been
+greatly spoiled by restoration, the general effect of the vaulted
+roofing, marble casing of the walls, and mosaics of the eastern end is
+extremely fine. San Vitale is, however, altogether excelled by the
+world-famous S. Sophia, now the chief mosque of Constantinople, which
+occupies the site of a basilica built under Constantine, that was burnt
+down early in the reign of Justinian. The latter emperor at once ordered
+the erection of its successor, appointing as architects Anthemios of
+Thralles and Isodoros of Miletus.</p>
+
+<p>Begun in 532 and completed in 537, S. Sophia is of very simple yet most
+dignified external appearance, so symmetrical is the grouping of its
+many domes and semi-domes, whilst the interior, though it has none of
+the rich colouring usual in oriental buildings, is unsurpassed in the
+harmony of its structural details, all of which lead up, as it were, to
+the huge central dome, the lower portion of which is pierced with a
+series of small windows throwing a flood of light upon the vast circular
+space below. The general plan is square, but a fine narthex consisting
+of two spacious halls one above the other projects slightly beyond the
+actual church at the western end. The<a name="page_039" id="page_039"></a> nave, which is 106 feet wide by
+225 long, has a semicircular apse with small recesses opening out of it
+at either end, and is separated from the aisles by rows of closely set
+columns with ornate capitals, spanned by arches upholding two-storied
+arcaded galleries, roofed in by semi-domes, except at the northern and
+southern ends, which have walls with numerous small windows. One large
+western window illuminates the nave, and there is also a double circle
+of lights round the apse, the galleries, and the narthex.</p>
+
+<p>Other interesting early Byzantine buildings are the Baptistery at
+Kalat-Seman and the church of S. George at Ezra, both in Syria, each of
+which is of square plan with an octagonal central space, the latter
+having the comparatively unusual feature of a dome upheld by what is
+known as a drum, that is to say a low vertical wall instead of
+pendentives. The church of S. Sergius at Constantinople, contemporaneous
+with S. Sophia, is specially noteworthy on account of the introduction
+in it of a classic entablature, combined with distinctive Byzantine
+features, with which may be named the much-restored S. Lorenzo at Milan
+and the church of the Virgin at Misitra, the ancient Sparta.</p>
+
+<p>To the second period of Byzantine Architecture belong not only several
+fine buildings in Constantinople, but others in Greece, Asia Minor, the
+North of Italy, and elsewhere, all of which, though they have the
+leading structural features of the style, are distinguished by certain
+minor local characteristics. The most noteworthy in the capital are the
+now secularised church of S. Irene, founded by Constantine and rebuilt
+considerably later, and the church of the Chora monastery, specially
+remarkable for its beautiful mosaics, whilst in Greece the Churches of
+S. Nicodemus at Athens and that of Daphni not far from it, with the two
+monastic churches at Stiris and the churches of S. Sophia and S. Elias,
+at Salonika, are all thoroughly Byzantine, bearing a close resemblance
+to each other. They are all, however, excelled by the great Cathedral of
+S. Marco at Venice, which rivals even S. Sophia in the exquisite beauty
+of the interior and excels it in the ornate richness of the exterior.</p>
+
+<p>Founded early in the 9th century, S. Marco was partially destroyed in
+978 and rebuilt soon afterwards in the original style, that of a
+basilica without transepts, but in the second half of the 11th century
+it was completely transformed by additions converting it into a
+cruciform building, roofed over by five domes of the same size, and with
+five arcaded porches at the western end that form one of the grandest
+façades in the world. Numerous columns of many covered marbles uphold<a name="page_040" id="page_040"></a>
+graceful arches, the spandrels, or triangular spaces between them filled
+in with gleaming mosaics, and above them rise other arches that contrast
+well with tapering towers supported on slender pilasters to which the
+domes beyond form an admirable background. Within the church to which
+this magnificent narthex gives entrance, an infinite variety of
+harmonious details combine to produce an entrancing effect: one charming
+vista succeeding another, the whole flooded with light from a vast
+number of windows, there being no less than eighty in the domes alone.
+Mosaics of different dates and greatly varying æsthetic merit completely
+clothe the surfaces of the vaulting, the capitals of the columns&mdash;many
+of which, by the way, are purely decorative, upholding no arches&mdash;are
+elaborately carved, and the flooring is of marble, slabs of considerable
+size being set in patterns of tesseræ.</p>
+
+<p>In the various countries which fell under the influence of the followers
+of Mahommed a style of architecture was evolved that had marked
+affinities with the Byzantine, the first mosques having been designed,
+it is supposed, by Christian architects of Oriental origin, who retained
+the square or circular ground-plan of early churches, though they
+modified the interior to suit the requirements of the new religion,
+introducing, for instance, a central tank for ablutions. Mosques
+intended for worship only, generally had flat roofs, the use of the dome
+being at first distinctive of a burial place, but as it very soon became
+usual to inter in mosques, the dome came to be quoted as a distinctive
+feature of them. By degrees simple unadorned mosques were replaced by
+vast buildings with many arcaded courts entered from ornate lateral
+doorways, whilst certain characteristic features were introduced, of
+which the chief were the stalactite vaulting, the name of which explains
+itself, the horse-shoe arch, and the minaret, the last named a turret of
+several stories gradually decreasing in circumference, each with a
+balcony of its own from which the mueddin calls the faithful to prayer.
+Pointed arches were also constantly employed as well as the form known
+as cusped, that is to say one with a triangular projection springing
+from the inner curve. A minor but most significant characteristic of
+Saracenic architecture is the elaborate surface decoration in which
+geometrical designs, letters, &amp;c., are interwoven with consummate skill,
+but in which no figures of animals are ever introduced, the
+representation of life being strictly forbidden by the Koran.</p>
+
+<p>Although Arabia was the birthplace of the founder of Islam, there are
+few Saracenic buildings of importance in it. The so-called great Mosque
+at Mecca, which has been a goal of pilgrimage from all points of the
+Mahommedan world for so<a name="page_041" id="page_041"></a> many centuries, has been since its foundation
+completely rebuilt, not assuming its present form until the middle of
+the 16th century. It has little that can be called architectural style
+about it, consisting as it does of an arcaded enclosure in the centre of
+which is the Kaaba, a heathen shrine that existed long before the time
+of Mohammed, the whole surrounded by a wall with several gateways and
+minarets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 242px;">
+<a href="images/ill_041.png">
+<img src="images/ill_041_sml.png" width="242" height="311" alt="Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem" title="Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Jerusalem various characteristic buildings bear witness to the
+prevalence of the Mahommedan faith in the Holy City of the Christians,
+including the 7th century Mosque el Aksah, originally a Christian church
+transformed into what it now is by Calif Omar, and the 8th century
+shrine erroneously named after him, also known as the Dome of the Rock,
+both of which rise from the site of the Jewish Temple. The latter is of
+octagonal plan, and, though its details are of a somewhat hybrid
+character, many of the columns having been filched from other buildings,
+whilst the decorations of the great dome and of the exterior were added
+in the 16th century, is of very singular charm on account of the
+symmetry of its proportions and the richness of its colouring, the walls
+being cased in Persian tiles and the windows filled with stained glass.</p>
+
+<p>It appears to have been in Egypt that Saracenic architecture, strictly
+so-called, first attained to the structural dignity and appropriateness
+of ornamentation that were to distinguish<a name="page_042" id="page_042"></a> it in Persia, Spain, and
+India. In the 7th century Mosque of Amru and that of Ibn Touloun, dating
+from the 9th century, both at Cairo, the earlier phases of the style can
+be studied, whilst the later development is illustrated in the same city
+by the 13th century Mosque of Kalaoon, the 14th century Mosque of Sultan
+Hassan, that has the rare feature in a Mahommedan building of a
+cruciform plan, the contemporaneous Mosque of Sultin Barkook, and the
+small 15th century Mosque of Kait-Bey, the last specially noteworthy on
+account of its beautiful internal decoration and its graceful minaret.</p>
+
+<p>In Persia the finest mosques are the 13th century one at Tabrez known as
+the Blue, and that at Ispahan dating from the 16th century, which has a
+grand dome and noble gateways with pointed arches, whilst at Serbistan,
+Firanzabad, Ukheithar, Kasir-i-Shirin, and elsewhere in the same country
+are remains of palaces and other secular buildings, ranging in date from
+the 4th to the 9th century, that give proof of great structural and
+decorative skill on the part of the architects who worked for the
+fire-worshippers, who, though they required no temples in which to
+worship their gods, lavished vast sums on their own homes.</p>
+
+<p>Beautiful as are the relics of Saracenic architecture in Egypt, Syria,
+and Persia, they are excelled by many remarkable buildings in Spain,
+where, after the conquest of the country by the Moors in the 8th
+century, the style reached its fullest development. The most remarkable
+examples of it are the Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by Abd-el-Rahman
+and added to from time to time by his successors, with the result that
+it affords an excellent illustration of the modification of details that
+took place as time went on; the 12th century Giralda or Tower at
+Seville, noteworthy for its fine proportions and effective surface
+decoration, the 13th century Alcazar or castle in the same town, and
+above all the Palace of the Alhambra, that dominates Granada from a
+lofty height above the city, which was begun in 1248 by the Moorish
+King, Ibn-l-Ahmar and added to by his successors. Of the original
+buildings that, when first completed, must have been one of the grandest
+and most finely situated groups in the world, all that now remain are
+the towers of the north wall, in one of which is the vast hall of the
+Ambassadors, and various colonnaded rooms and porticoes ranged round two
+spacious courts, one called that of the Fishpond, the other that of the
+Lions. The delicate grace of the columns and arches, with the richness
+of their decoration and of every inch of surface, has never been
+surpassed either in beauty of design or harmony of colour, whilst the<a name="page_043" id="page_043"></a>
+effects of perspective from the doorways and other points of view are
+equally unrivalled. No single detail is superfluous or without its
+special meaning in relation to the whole, and even what to the
+uninitiated appear mere geometrical designs on the walls, lintels, &amp;c.,
+are quotations from the Koran and classic Arabic poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 214px;">
+<a href="images/ill_043.png">
+<img src="images/ill_043_sml.png" width="214" height="321" alt="Section of Mosque at Cordoba" title="Section of Mosque at Cordoba" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Mosque at Cordoba</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When through the breaking up of the power of the Moors in Spain, the
+architecture introduced by them seemed fated to share their decline, a
+kind of revival of it took place in Constantinople through the conquest
+of that city by the Turks in 1453. Unfortunately however the style made
+no real progress there, the mosques and other buildings erected by the
+new owners being rather Byzantine than Saracenic, even that known as the
+Suleimanyeh, built between 1550-1556, and the Ahmediyeh, dating from
+1608-1614, greatly resembling St. Sophia.</p>
+
+<p>In India the mosques and palaces erected by the Mahommedan conquerors
+and their successors are even more beautiful and impressive than the
+Buddhist and Hindu buildings described in the section on Asiatic
+architecture. Their distinctive characteristics, as in Egypt, Persia,
+and Spain, are the skilful combination of the dome, the arch and the
+minaret, and the lavish surface decoration of the interior, with certain
+other peculiarities that were the outcome of local tradition. More
+attention was given, for instance, to external appearance, huge
+recessed<a name="page_044" id="page_044"></a> gateways and colonnaded cloisters surmounted by rows of purely
+decorative domes on pilasters, being of frequent occurrence. At the same
+time, stalactite vaulting was rarely employed, whilst horizontal courses
+of corbels or arches in which each stone projects slightly beyond that
+on which it rests, were used as supports for the domes instead of
+pendentives.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 401px;">
+<a href="images/ill_044.png">
+<img src="images/ill_044_sml.png" width="401" height="285" alt="Section of Taj Mahal, Agra" title="Section of Taj Mahal, Agra" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Section of Taj Mahal, Agra</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the most noteworthy still-existing examples of Indo-Saracenic
+architecture are the early 15th century Jumna Musjid or Great Mosque at
+Ahmedabad, that has certain details recalling Hindu post and lintel
+structures; the late 15th century Adinah mosque at Gaur, which has 385
+domes; the 16th century Jumna Musjid at Bijapur, that has the singular
+feature of a central space covered in by a dome upheld by intersecting
+arches, set in a number of squares with flat roofs; the Mosque built by
+Akbar in the second half of the 16th century at Futtehpore Sikhri, the
+gateways of which are specially characteristic; and the remarkable
+buildings at Delhi and Agra, erected in the 17th century under the
+enlightened Shah Jehan, including in the former city the Jumna Musjid
+and the fortified palace, and in the latter the Moti Musjid or Pearl
+Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, both exceptionally beautiful, in which the
+Saracenic style may justly be said to have reached its culmination,
+nothing that can be compared with them having been since produced either
+in India or elsewhere. The Taj Mahal, built by the Emperor as a tomb for
+himself and his favourite wife, is indeed of dream-like and ethereal
+charm, with its well-proportioned domes and<a name="page_045" id="page_045"></a> minarets, cased, as is the
+rest of the exterior, in white marble, and its interior enriched with
+mosaics of precious stones.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h3>
+
+<h5>ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">The term Romanesque is given to the period between the beginning of the
+9th and the middle of the 12th century, but there was no real break in
+the continuity of the evolution of Christian architecture in Europe from
+the time when that art first freed itself from Pagan influence till it
+reached its noblest development in the Gothic style.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 218px;">
+<a href="images/ill_045.png">
+<img src="images/ill_045_sml.png" width="218" height="289" alt="Simple Intersecting Vaulting" title="Simple Intersecting Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Simple Intersecting Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>From first to last the keynote of structure was the use of the arch for
+vaulting and for the spanning of piers and columns, and its form is, as
+a general rule, indicative of the phase of development to which it
+belongs. Although, however, it may be said that the semicircular arch is
+characteristic of Romanesque buildings, the lintel is occasionally used
+simultaneously with it in interiors, and the chief entrances are in many
+cases spanned by horizontal beams or courses of stone that are, however,
+as a general rule surmounted by arches. Moreover in late Romanesque work
+the pointed arch is now and then introduced shadowing forth the
+approaching change.<a name="page_046" id="page_046"></a></p>
+
+<p>It was not in the invention of new forms of vaulting but in the
+adaptation and improvement of those already in existence that Romanesque
+architects chiefly displayed their skill. The earliest Romanesque vaults
+were simple intersecting arches similar to those which had long been in
+use, but as time went on these were superseded by what is known as
+ribbed vaulting; that is to say by roofs divided into bays by a
+framework of diagonal ribs supporting fillings in of thin stone called
+severes, which in their turn gradually developed into the complex and
+ornate system of Gothic vaulting. To counteract the thrust of arched and
+ribbed vaulting the device of buttresses was hit upon. These buttresses
+consisted at first of a series of supports introduced beneath the roof
+of the aisles and extending from the back of the nave to the aisle wall,
+which were later supplemented by the external buttresses known as
+flying, that were to be so distinctive a feature of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 163px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_046a_sml.png" width="163" height="146" alt="Ribbed Vaulting" title="Ribbed Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ribbed Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 195px;">
+<a href="images/ill_046b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_046b_sml.png" width="195" height="180" alt="Ribbed Vaulting" title="Ribbed Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Ribbed Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other characteristics of Romanesque architecture are the slenderness of
+the columns as compared with those of earlier buildings, the disuse of
+classic capitals, and the substitution for them of what is known as the
+basket form, that is to say, semicircular mouldings enclosing floral
+designs, later replaced by a great variety of forms, such as flowers,
+leaves, human and animals' heads. The grouping of columns in clusters
+also came into use, the general tendency being towards the production of
+an effect of grace and lightness rather than of strength and solidity.
+Arched cornices were introduced to relieve the monotony of the walls
+above the pillars of the nave, whilst an even more marked change took
+place in the windows, which, though small and few in early Renaissance
+buildings, gradually increased in number, in size, and in the beauty of
+their tracery. At the eastern end of churches several windows were in
+some cases grouped together, divided only by slender pilasters, and<a name="page_047" id="page_047"></a>
+above the western entrance large circular windows known as the rose or
+wheel&mdash;according to certain peculiarities of their tracery&mdash;were
+introduced, whilst the walls were pierced by rows of complex windows,
+each with a number of different lights.</p>
+
+<p>In Romanesque churches the beautiful colonnaded narthex of the early
+Christian basilica is replaced in Northern and occasionally in Southern
+Italy by a projecting, and elsewhere by a simple, porch; but to make up
+for the loss of what was a very effective feature, the whole of the
+western façade, including the recessed doorway giving access to the
+nave, is generally most richly decorated with sculpture and carving,
+figures in niches, grotesque animal forms of symbolic meaning, with
+floral and geometrical designs of great variety and beauty adorning
+every portion.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 472px;">
+<a href="images/ill_047.png">
+<img src="images/ill_047_sml.png" width="472" height="370" alt="Clustered Column" title="Clustered Column" /></a>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="15" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr class="sml"><td align="left"><span style="margin-right: 5em;">Clustered Column</span></td>
+<td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Buttress</span></td>
+<td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 7em;">Buttress</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+</div>
+<p>On either side of the west front of many Romanesque buildings, more
+rarely also from the point of junction of the transepts and nave, rise
+lofty square or octagonal towers, the earlier with flat, the later with
+more or less steeply pitched roofs, that gradually developed into the
+tapering spires so characteristic of the Gothic style. Occasionally the
+eastern apse is flanked by a turret or small tower, and in some cases,
+chiefly in Italy, a detached and lofty tower known as a Campanile<a name="page_048" id="page_048"></a> or
+Bell Tower&mdash;though it only rarely contains bells, being sometimes merely
+a secular monument&mdash;rises close to the church or at a little distance
+from it, but connected with it by a cloister.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 153px;">
+<a href="images/ill_048a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_048a_sml.png" width="153" height="155" alt="Rose Window" title="Rose Window" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Rose Window</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In S. Ambrogio, Milan, begun in the 9th and completed in the 12th
+century, the gradual change from the early Christian to the Romanesque
+style as developed in Italy can be studied. It has a nave of basilican
+type, a narthex surmounted by a gallery, a pediment-like gable at the
+western end, an octagonal cupola roofing over the eastern apse, with a
+circle of windows flooding the choir with light, a triforium or arcaded
+storey above the aisles, and most characteristic of all, an open
+external arcaded gallery, admitting air and light beneath the roof of
+the apse, such as was to become so effective a decorative feature of
+later buildings, and in some cases to be extended along the aisles and
+above the chief entrance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/ill_048b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_048b_sml.png" width="263" height="242" alt="Example of Arched Cornice" title="Example of Arched Cornice" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Example of Arched Cornice</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>S. Michele, Pavia, is a typical and very beautiful example of the
+Romanesque style of the twelfth century, specially noteworthy features
+being its cruciform plan, its two-storied aisles, and its external
+gallery with clustered pilasters; and the contemporary S. Zeno, Verona,
+though it has no triforium and is not vaulted, has noble clustered piers
+from which sprang arches&mdash;only one of which remains&mdash;spanning the nave,
+alternating with single columns.<a name="page_049" id="page_049"></a></p>
+
+<p>Other fine Romanesque buildings in Italy are the Cathedral of Verona,
+which has a fine two-storied porch; the Cathedral of Novara, specially
+noteworthy for its beautiful atrium; S. Miniato, Florence, that is of
+basilican plan, and, though it is without transepts, has the distinctive
+Romanesque feature of transverse arches upheld by clustered piers
+spanning the nave and aisles; S. Antonio, Piacenza, with transepts at
+the western instead of the eastern end, fine intersecting vaults roofing
+in the whole building, and a tower rising from the junction of the nave
+and transepts; and the Cathedral of Pisa, the last a complex building
+with vaulted aisles, a dome above the intersection of the transepts and
+nave, a flat roof over the latter, and a lofty triforium gallery running
+round the entire church, the general effect being most pleasing and
+harmonious. Close to the cathedral are the 12th century circular
+Baptistery, that has considerably later additions, and the famous
+Leaning Tower, the three buildings forming one of the finest
+architectural groups in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Certain very marked characteristics distinguish the buildings of Sicily
+from those of contemporary date on the mainland of Italy, the Romanesque
+style, as is very clearly seen in the Cathedral of Monreale, having been
+there considerably modified alike by Saracenic and Norman influences.
+The pointed arch was adopted long before it came into use elsewhere in
+Europe, having been, it is suggested, a modification of the horse-shoe
+form so characteristic of Moorish mosques.</p>
+
+<p>In France, Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture followed, in the main,
+the same lines as in Italy, with, in many cases, one notable addition,
+that of the chevet, a circlet of chapels round the eastern apse, which
+gradually grew out of what was known as an ambulatory, that is to say, a
+space in which perambulation was possible, obtained by the extension of
+the aisles behind the choir. In early examples of the ambulatory the
+circle was continuous, as in the church of S. Saturnin, Auvergne, but as
+time went on, small semicircular chapels were introduced, with windows
+between them, that gradually developed into the chevet, the chapels
+increasing in number and in size, and in some cases extending westwards
+along the aisles.</p>
+
+<p>The churches and cathedrals of Southern France differ in several
+respects from those of the North, the aisleless basilica plan with
+barrel, intersecting, or domed vaulting being of frequent occurrence in
+the former, whilst in the latter the beautiful arcaded aisles and
+steeply pitched roof presage the approach of the Gothic style with its
+pointed arches, groined roofs, flying buttresses, and tapering
+pinnacles.</p>
+
+<p>The five-domed S. Front in Perigueux, though it has rudimentary<a name="page_050" id="page_050"></a> aisles
+only, is a good example of an early French Romanesque building, in which
+Oriental influence is very perceptible, it being in some of its features
+a copy of S. Marco, Venice, whilst in the later Cathedral of Angoulême
+of cruciform plan with apsidal chapels, that of Le Puy with a triple
+entrance porch, the church of S. Hilaire, Poitiers, with its irregular
+domes, the uncompleted S. Ours, Loche, with its pyramidal octagonal
+spires, S. Saturnin, Toulouse, with its central many-storied tapering
+tower, the 12th century churches of Vezelay and Avallon; the cathedral
+and church of La Trinité at Angers, both combining pointed arches with
+domed vaulting, the gradual development of the southern branch of French
+Romanesque architecture can be very clearly studied.</p>
+
+<p>In many of the noble churches and cathedrals of Northern France and
+elsewhere the Romanesque may justly be said to have melted into the
+Gothic style, some of them combining as they do the most beautiful
+features of both. To the cost of their erection ecclesiastics and laymen
+alike contributed with eager zeal, and amongst the architects and
+craftsmen employed on them, class and professional rivalry were merged
+in one common enthusiasm to promote the glory of God, all desire for
+individual distinction being merged in an unselfish ambition to aid in
+producing a building worthy of His worship.</p>
+
+<p>In Normandy was inaugurated the phase of Romanesque architecture which
+was to develop on such noble lines in England, the chief distinctions of
+which are the massiveness of the walls and pillars, the great length of
+the nave, the richness of the decoration alike of the shafts and
+capitals of the columns and of the round-headed arches they uphold. Very
+notable examples are the Abbaye aux Hommes, the Abbaye aux Dames, and
+the Church of S. Nicholas, all at Caen, the first with circular arched
+vaulting and western towers ending in spires, the second with a Gothic
+roof of intersecting pointed arches, the third with three apses, each
+with a steeply pitched roof, a porch with three arcades at the western
+end, and a low gabled tower rising from the point of intersection of the
+nave and transepts, the three buildings illustrating well the transition
+from the simple basilica to the complex Gothic structure. With them may
+be named the Abbey of Jumièges, of which unfortunately but a few relics
+remain, which had beautiful clustered piers alternating with single
+columns upholding semicircular lateral arches, a flat roofed nave, and
+vaulted aisles.</p>
+
+<p>Other fine Romanesque churches of Northern France, all of which differ
+somewhat in general appearance from those of Normandy, are the
+Cathedrals of Noyon and Soissons, the church of S. Pierre at Lisieux,
+all of which combine pointed with<a name="page_051" id="page_051"></a> semicircular arches, and above all
+the Cathedral of Le Mans, which has a very characteristic Romanesque
+nave flanked by round-headed arches and roofed over with an equally
+characteristic groined Gothic vault, whilst the choir, added in the
+early 13th century, is encircled by a beautiful chevet, the exterior of
+which with its many buttresses and pinnacles presents a most impressive
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p>One of the finest Romanesque buildings in Europe is the Cathedral of
+Tournai, Belgium, which has a flat-roofed nave of exceptional length,
+picturesque lateral storied galleries, a central tower with a lofty
+spire, and two supplementary towers, also with spires, flanking the
+northern and southern apses. Elsewhere in Belgium are several
+flat-roofed churches of basilican plan, some with ambulatories in the
+French style but no apsidal chapels. In Spain, on the other hand, the
+chevet is rarely absent from ecclesiastical buildings, whilst a
+distinctive local feature is a low central dome or tower known as the
+cimborio, which is in many cases scarcely more than a swelling of the
+roof at the point of intersection of nave and transept.</p>
+
+<p>Germany is especially rich in Romanesque churches, which, like those of
+Belgium, are of basilican plan with flat roofs. In the Cathedral of
+Trier can be studied the gradual growth of the Teutonic form of the
+Romanesque style, for it was originally an early Christian Church of the
+Roman type, which was converted into one of a more distinctive style in
+the 11th century by additions, including a western apse, whilst the
+noble vaulting of the nave dates from the 12th and the choir from the
+13th century. As time went on the multiplication of apses became
+characteristic of German churches, it being usual to add one at the
+western end, and more rarely also on the northern and southern sides,
+the beautiful tapering columns dividing them from the aisles, with the
+small chapels beyond them, producing very fine effects of perspective.
+Other peculiarities of German Romanesque buildings are their great
+height and the noble proportions of the interiors, with the finely
+balanced grouping of the cupolas, towers, and turrets of the exterior;
+to which must be added the absence of the great Western doorway that
+lends such distinction to French, Italian, and Belgian churches.</p>
+
+<p>Very fine examples of the style in Germany are the churches of S. Maria
+in Capitolo Cologne, S. Quirin in Neuss, and the cathedrals of Nuremberg
+and Bamberg, but it was in those of Speier, Mainz, and Worms that it
+achieved its greatest triumphs. The first, it is true, has no western
+apse, but this is atoned for by a fine narthex, and in the other two the
+western extension is as conspicuous as the eastern. Dignified simplicity
+and<a name="page_052" id="page_052"></a> sense of space are the chief characteristics of all three
+buildings, massive columns upholding the arcading flanking the naves,
+whilst the walls of the aisles are unbroken by triforia, the piers at
+Speier and Worms being carried right up to the clerestory windows,
+whilst at Mainz two arches are placed one above the other, the vaulting
+of the nave springing from the upper tier.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h3>
+
+<h5>ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">In Great Britain, even more than on the Continent, the architecture of
+the past reflects national character, its distinctive peculiarities
+having been the outcome of local conditions differing widely from those
+that obtained elsewhere, which largely modified the styles introduced
+from without. On the arrival of the Romans in the first century of the
+Christian era, there were, with the exception of the monoliths on
+Salisbury plain known as Stonehenge and other prehistoric relics, the
+origin of which has never yet been discovered, no buildings of greater
+pretension than mud huts or circular stone or wooden houses with a hole
+in the tapering roof through which air was admitted and smoke dispersed.
+The houses, palaces, and churches erected by the invaders were, as
+proved by the remains at Silchester, Wroxeter, and elsewhere, of the
+type of those of Imperial Rome, and on them many British masons were
+employed, who thus acquired a knowledge of the principles of
+construction that stood their successors in good stead. Those
+successors, however, showed no desire to perpetuate the style introduced
+by the conquerors, and when the latter withdrew in the 5th century the
+buildings they left behind them were allowed to fall into rapid decay.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 116px;">
+<a href="images/ill_052a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_052a_sml.png" width="116" height="103" alt="Example of Saxon Arcading" title="Example of Saxon Arcading" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Example of Saxon Arcading</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 117px;">
+<a href="images/ill_052b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_052b_sml.png" width="117" height="88" alt="Example of Saxon Arcading" title="Example of Saxon Arcading" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Example of Saxon Arcading</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Very quickly too did most of the converts to Christianity relapse into
+heathenism, and although the lamp of faith was long kept burning in
+Ireland and in Scotland, no trace exists of the churches in which the
+little remnant of the followers of the Redeemer met for worship. Of
+those built later under the auspices of Saints Augustine, Paulinus, and
+other early bishops,<a name="page_053" id="page_053"></a> not one escaped destruction, but there is strong
+evidence to prove that they were of the basilican apsidal plan, that
+never took very deep root in England, but was in many cases ousted by
+the sanctuary with a square-shaped eastern extension.</p>
+
+<p>It is usual to give the term Anglo-Saxon to all relics of buildings in
+Great Britain, that can be proved to date from between the early 7th
+century and 1066, but Pre-Conquest would be more strictly accurate,
+Anglo-Saxon architects having contributed but little to the evolution of
+style, for they were wanting in initiative, rarely trying experiments
+with new features as was the constant custom of their Norman successors.
+To this, however, there was one brilliant exception in Bishop Wilfrid of
+York, who greatly improved the primitive church, built by King Edwin in
+the capital of his see, that was later destroyed by fire, and erected
+noble minsters at Hexham and Ripon, of which the fine crypts with
+massive pillars still remain beneath the considerably later buildings.
+In the south of England, too, there was considerable architectural
+activity in the 7th and 8th centuries, whilst in the 9th the return of
+King Egbert from his long exile at the Court of Charlemagne appears to
+have led to the introduction in Wessex of the Oriental branch of the
+Romanesque style to which the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle belongs.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;">
+<a href="images/ill_053.png">
+<img src="images/ill_053_sml.png" width="120" height="181" alt="Tower of Sompting Church, Sussex" title="Tower of Sompting Church, Sussex" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Tower of Sompting Church, Sussex</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of the so-called Anglo-Saxon style are the
+great height in comparison with the length and breadth of a building, a
+rectangular plan, massive square towers, unadorned angular or
+semicircular arches, stunted clumsy-looking columns with roughly carved
+or plain capitals, long narrow round-headed deeply recessed windows,
+massive walls without internal decoration, with on the exterior a
+somewhat ornate surface ornamentation, combined with a series of
+peculiar clamps known as quoins at the angles of the walls, greatly
+strengthening the structure. There were no aisles or transepts in early
+Anglo-Saxon buildings, but the chancel was divided from the nave by an
+arch sometimes with and sometimes without carving.</p>
+
+<p>It is supposed that most of the early Anglo-Saxon churches were built of
+wood, and at Greenstead in Essex an example remains of the mode in which
+such buildings were constructed, though the probability is that none of
+the original material remains. Of the stone buildings that succeeded
+those in the more perishable material a few only are still in existence,
+including<a name="page_054" id="page_054"></a> the Abbey Church of Deerhurst near Towkesbury, the oldest
+consecrated building still in use in England, the Tower of Earl's Barton
+Church in Northamptonshire, parts of Barfreston Church, Kent, that has a
+fine Norman doorway: Sompting Church, with the unusual feature of a
+gabled tower with a spire, and that of Worth, both in Sussex, the latter
+with rudimentary transepts and a semicircular apse, with which may be
+mentioned S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts, of somewhat uncertain
+but probably later date than any of these, for it has a square Eastern
+end and decorative arcading on the upper portion of the walls, prophetic
+of coming changes.</p>
+
+<p>Certain portions of St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, notably a doorway
+in the chancel and parts of the foundations, are supposed to have
+belonged to a Saxon church of earlier date than the crypts of Hexham and
+Ripon already referred to, and which was preceded by an even more
+ancient building, one of the very first places of Christian worship
+erected in England.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called Pyx House in Westminster Abbey, a low narrow
+solemn-looking vaulted room with a row of massive pillars in the centre,
+and a single archway in the south transept, are all that are left of the
+noble sanctuary built under the direction of the last of the Saxon
+kings, but these relics, with a few conventual buildings, suffice to
+connect with Anglo-Saxon times a church that is perhaps more intimately
+associated than any other with the history of England from the close of
+the 11th to the middle of the 16th century, it having been added to
+under every successive occupant of the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Norman style, that succeeded the Saxon, prevailed in Great
+Britain from the conquest to the last decade of the 12th century,
+becoming at that time either merged in or superseded by the earliest
+phase of the Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>Always most enthusiastic builders, the Normans found in the land of
+their adoption fuller scope for their energies than in their own, and
+before they became absorbed in the race they had conquered, they left
+their impress throughout the length and breadth of their new domain,
+monasteries, cathedrals, and parish churches, castles, and dwelling
+houses rising up in every direction, all stamped with a most distinctive
+character, the result of the welding into one of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
+traditions, and the modification of a foreign style by local conditions
+of material and environment. In many cases somewhat crude and heavy,
+Norman work has yet always an imposing dignity, and is, as a general
+rule, admirably suited to the site it occupies and the purpose for which
+it is intended.<a name="page_055" id="page_055"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 509px;">
+<a href="images/ill_055a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_055a_sml.png" width="509" height="307" alt="Plan of Norman Church,
+Norman Capital. White Tower, London,
+Base and Capital of Norman Pillar,
+Norman Capital" title="Plan of Norman Church,
+Norman Capital. White Tower, London,
+Base and Capital of Norman Pillar,
+Norman Capital" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 489px;">
+<a href="images/ill_055b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_055b_sml.png" width="489" height="345" alt="Norman Arcading,
+Norman Window,
+Norman Arcading,
+Norman Window,
+Norman Window" title="Norman Arcading,
+Norman Window,
+Norman Arcading,
+Norman Window,
+Norman Window" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics of Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical buildings are a
+cruciform plan; the great length in comparison with the breadth of the
+nave, which joins the choir without the intervention of a screen, such
+screens as are <i>in situ</i> being of much later date than the churches in
+which they are found; columns of greater girth and height than the Saxon
+type, some circular, others six or eight sided, the circular type
+occasionally clustered in groups of six or more, with roughly carved
+capitals<a name="page_056" id="page_056"></a> of which the so-called cushion form is of most frequent
+occurrence, upholding arches of wide span, massive walls, those of the
+nave with rows of purely ornamental arcading, beautifully proportioned
+triforia and clerestories; long, narrow, round-headed windows, two or
+three being often grouped together; deeply recessed and finely decorated
+doorways; strong external buttresses; twin western towers and a loftier
+central one rising from the intersection of nave and transepts. With
+certain notable exceptions referred to below, Norman churches have flat
+timber roofs, but those of the crypt beneath them are generally of
+groined stone with plain or only slightly ornamented ribs.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 140px;">
+<a href="images/ill_056a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_056a_sml.png" width="140" height="229" alt="Norman Window" title="Norman Window" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Window</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 235px;">
+<a href="images/ill_056b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_056b_sml.png" width="235" height="234" alt="Norman Doorway" title="Norman Doorway" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Doorway</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another very distinctive characteristic of the Norman style is the
+richness of the surface decoration of the interiors of cathedrals and
+churches, the bases, shafts, and capitals of the columns, the arches,
+headings of windows, mural arcades, &amp;c. being all enriched with
+mouldings of an infinite variety of form, including the so-called cable
+resembling a rope, the billet not unlike short bits of rounded wood, the
+chevron or zig-zag, the fret or fillet, the lozenge, the trellis, the
+cone, the scollop, and wave with the so-called torus, a convex swelling,
+and the cavetto, a hollow moulding, the last two used almost exclusively
+on the bases of columns.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 95px;">
+<a href="images/ill_056c.png">
+<img src="images/ill_056c_sml.png" width="95" height="143" alt="Norman Buttress" title="Norman Buttress" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Buttress</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_057" id="page_057"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 487px;">
+<a href="images/ill_057a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_057a_sml.png" width="487" height="108" alt="Cable Moulding &amp; Billet Moulding" title="Cable Moulding &amp; Billet Moulding" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 494px;">
+<a href="images/ill_057b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_057b_sml.png" width="494" height="137" alt="Chevron or Zig-zag Moulding &amp; Diamond or Lozenge Moulding" title="Chevron or Zig-zag Moulding &amp; Diamond or Lozenge Moulding" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 225px;">
+<a href="images/ill_057c.png">
+<img src="images/ill_057c_sml.png" width="225" height="146" alt="Trellis Moulding" title="Trellis Moulding" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Trellis Moulding</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 488px;">
+<a href="images/ill_057d.png">
+<img src="images/ill_057d_sml.png" width="488" height="112" alt="Cone Moulding &amp; Scollop Moulding" title="Cone Moulding &amp; Scollop Moulding" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Cone Moulding<span style="margin-left: 10em;"> Scollop Moulding</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among noteworthy existing examples of the Anglo-Norman style are the
+nave, transepts and western doorway of Hereford Cathedral; the choir,
+transepts, and nave of Peterborough Cathedral; the naves of Gloucester,
+Exeter, Chichester, and Ely Cathedrals; certain portions of Canterbury
+Cathedral, including the choir chapels, part of the cloisters, the
+baptistery tower, S. Anselm's Tower, and a fine staircase leading up
+from the Close; the Chapter House of Worcester Cathedral; the greater
+part of Norwich Cathedral, which, though it has the French chevet at the
+eastern end, combines with it the distinctive English characteristics of
+a nave of great length and<a name="page_058" id="page_058"></a> long transepts, the former with fourteen
+noble bays; the naves of S. Alban's Abbey, Southwell Minster, and the
+Priory Church of Christchurch, Hants; portions of the nave and transepts
+and the central tower of Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford; the beautiful
+portal of Tewkesbury Abbey, the finest in England, and the doorway of
+Hales Church, Norfolk, on which may be seen many of the characteristic
+mouldings enumerated above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 430px;">
+<a href="images/ill_058.png">
+<img src="images/ill_058_sml.png" width="430" height="205" alt="Norman Church at Kilpeck" title="Norman Church at Kilpeck" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Norman Church at Kilpeck</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Somewhat later in date and even more distinctively Anglo-Norman than the
+examples quoted above, is the noble Cathedral of Durham, in which the
+style reached its fullest culmination. It remains, with the exception of
+the so-called Chapel of the Nine Altars that replaces the original apse,
+very much what it was when first completed, and reflects the national
+unity that was becoming ever more and more complete whilst it was being
+erected. A very noteworthy feature of this most effective building, in
+which every detail is subordinated to the general effect, is the vaulted
+roof of the nave, one of the very few dating from Norman times,
+significant of the approaching revolt against the flat roofs that had so
+long been looked upon as essential. In spite of certain crudities of
+structure it harmonises well alike with the vaulting of the aisles and
+transepts of earlier, and of the choir of somewhat later date. The great
+clustered piers alternating with cylindrical columns, the fine arches
+spanning them, the beautiful triforia and clerestories, and above all
+the long vista of nave and choir, combine to place Durham Cathedral in
+the very highest rank amongst contemporary buildings either in England
+or on the Continent, whilst in the Galilee Chapel, to which a porch,
+replacing an earlier entrance, gives access, the details of the
+transitional Norman style can be very clearly studied, the graceful
+intersecting arches, upheld by slender coupled columns, recently<a name="page_059" id="page_059"></a>
+supplemented by additional supports, enriched with characteristic
+mouldings, shadowing forth the approaching change to the early English
+phase of Gothic.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 242px;">
+<a href="images/ill_059.png">
+<img src="images/ill_059_sml.png" width="242" height="551"
+alt="Plan of Peterborough Cathedral" title="Plan of Peterborough Cathedral" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plan of Peterborough Cathedral</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Winchester Cathedral, originally a very typical Norman building designed
+by William of Wykeham, retains its Norman framework, covered over, as it
+were, with a drapery of detail in the latest development of English
+Gothic, and with it may be named as characteristic Norman buildings with
+Gothic additions, Peterborough Cathedral, all Norman except the west
+front and eastern extremity of the choir; Malmesbury Abbey, with a
+flat-roofed nave and vaulted aisles, the latter with pointed arches; the
+Cathedral of Exeter; the Minster of Sherbourne; and portions of
+Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Many parish churches, too, including those of Kilpeck in Herefordshire,
+a very typical Norman building; Tickencote in Lincolnshire, with
+intersecting pointed arches; S. Peter's in the East, Oxford, with a
+groined vaulted roof; Barfreston Church, Kent, with a very beautiful
+recessed doorway; Goring and Iffley in Oxfordshire; and above all, S.
+Bartholomew's in London, date from Norman times, and, though they have
+all been more or less modified by restoration, retain the general
+characteristics of the period to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>Anglo-Norman secular architecture is characterised by much the same
+qualities as ecclesiastical, the castles and residences of the
+sovereigns and the nobles having been of dignified and impressive
+appearance, well proportioned, and thoroughly in harmony with their
+surroundings. During the reigns of the Conqueror and his successors many
+noble strongholds were erected on points of vantage. The most important
+feature,<a name="page_060" id="page_060"></a> and in every case the first to be built, having been the lofty
+central keep or donjon, the home of its owner in peace, and the last
+refuge of a besieged garrison in time of war. In it was a fine hall, in
+which the host received his guests, with a raised platform known as the
+daïs for the use of those of high rank, and the approach to it was
+protected by a complex series of defences, including deep ditches or
+fosses, walls with towers and turrets at intervals, forming two distinct
+enclosures known as the outer and inner baileys, often covering a vast
+extent of ground, the whole encircled by a deep moat that could be
+filled with water when necessary. The great main entrance was flanked by
+towers, and in connection with the heavy doors of solid oak was a
+portcullis, that is to say, a grating of timber and iron bristling with
+spikes, that could be drawn up from within, cutting off all access to
+the inner precincts.</p>
+
+<p>Some few Norman castles, all considerably modified to suit modern
+requirements, are still in use as residences or public buildings,
+including those of Windsor, Warwick (both specially typical), Norwich,
+Dover, Richmond in Yorkshire, and the Tower of London; the keep of the
+last named (known as the White Tower) and the chapel dedicated to S.
+John being amongst the best examples of the Anglo-Norman style in
+existence; whilst at Rochester, Colchester, Croft, Headingham, and
+Kenilworth are extensive remains of other strongholds, that before they
+fell into decay, must have equalled in grandeur those of Windsor and
+Warwick. A very remarkable example of a private residence dating from
+Norman times is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the seat of the Duke of
+Rutland, which retains the original great hall with a daïs and
+minstrels' gallery, and a number of fine suites of rooms to which
+various wings were added during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries,
+affording an excellent opportunity for the study of the development of
+English domestic architecture.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h3>
+
+<h5>GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">The first decades of the 12th century were marked throughout Europe, as
+far as architecture was concerned, by the final breaking loose from the
+Roman traditions that had so long been accepted as binding, and the
+revolt against which had been inaugurated more than a hundred years
+before. The struggle between the old and new methods of building very<a name="page_061" id="page_061"></a>
+clearly reflected that of the people for greater freedom of thought and
+action in the countries in which it took place. The keynote of both was
+an aspiration after nobler things, and, in architecture, a yearning for
+religious expression, typified by the pointing upwards of the spires and
+pinnacles of churches and cathedrals, coincided with the craving of
+builders for increased lightness and grace of structure. The lofty
+vaults and complicated systems of buttresses of the Gothic style bore
+striking witness to the ambitious daring of their designers, a daring
+more than justified by its results.</p>
+
+<p>The term Gothic, that now calls up a vision of ethereal beauty, was,
+strange to say, first given to the style that grew out of the Romanesque
+by the artists of the Renaissance as an expression of their contempt for
+what they looked upon as outworn methods of building, similar to those
+of the Gothic barbarians in warfare. It very soon, however, lost all
+association with this most inappropriate comparison, becoming synonymous
+with all that is most beautiful in the architecture of the period to
+which it is applied.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 239px;">
+<a href="images/ill_061.png">
+<img src="images/ill_061_sml.png" width="239" height="258"
+alt="Gothic Vaulting" title="Gothic Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gothic Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most important characteristics of Gothic buildings are the
+introduction, wherever possible, of vertical or very sharply pointed
+details, such as highly pitched roofs and gables, spires and pinnacles,
+pointed arches and pointed vaulting, flying buttresses, that grew ever
+slenderer and more decorative, leading downwards from the roof, and
+counteracting the tremendous thrust of the suspended vault of stone, all
+of true structural value. To these must be added the minor peculiarities
+of slenderer columns than those of Romanesque buildings, several being
+often clustered together, mouldings cut into the stone of<a name="page_062" id="page_062"></a> the capitals
+of the columns, arcading &amp;c., instead of projecting beyond the surface,
+the grouping of several windows under the arch, and the increase in the
+beauty of their tracery. The so-called lancet or long narrow window with
+stilted head, pointed like an arch, is specially distinctive of Early
+Gothic, and was later supplemented by the more elaborate rose window,
+the stained glass in them, and in the more complex groups, adding
+greatly to the æsthetic effect of the whole building, the many coloured
+light from them relieving the monotony of the stone work.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 184px;">
+<a href="images/ill_062a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_062a_sml.png" width="184" height="184" alt="Gothic Vaulting" title="Gothic Vaulting" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gothic Vaulting</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;">
+<a href="images/ill_062b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_062b_sml.png" width="85" height="65"
+alt="Gargoyle" title="Gargoyle" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gargoyle</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The general appearance of the interior of a Gothic cathedral, with its
+long perspective of nave, aisles, and choir, its finely proportioned
+triforia and clerestories, and, above all, its graceful arches leading
+up to their points of union in the soaring roof, may justly be called a
+poem in stone, whilst its exterior is equally remarkable for the close
+correlation of all its parts, producing an impression of consistent
+unity of design. An added charm is given alike to the interior and
+exterior by the combined richness and quaintness of the decorative
+sculpture, in which is clearly illustrated the delight in symbolism of
+the mediæval craftsmen, who, working in close accord with architect and
+builder, supplemented effigies of heroes and heroines of the faith,
+royal patrons, &amp;c., with emblematic animals, fruit, flowers, and
+foliage, welding the most incongruous forms into an elaborate and
+beautiful scheme of ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>It was in Northern France that the Gothic style was first developed, and
+there, as elsewhere, it passed through three phases. The first,
+characterised by comparative severity of style and simplicity of
+decoration, prevailing in the 12th and 13th centuries; the second, to
+which the name of Rayonnant is sometimes given, on account of the
+ray-like window tracery, in the 14th; and the third, known as the
+Flamboyant, because of the flame-like tracery and general brightness of
+the ornamentation, in the 15th century.</p>
+
+<p>A hint of the coming change was, as has already been shown, given in
+many a Romanesque building, notably, to quote but two cases in point, in
+the Cathedral of Evreux, and the Church of S. Etienne, Beauvais, but it
+was in the Cathedral of S. Denis, near Paris, founded in 1140, that the
+full significance<a name="page_063" id="page_063"></a> of that change was revealed. It retains, it is true,
+round-headed arches above some of its windows and a few projecting
+decorative mouldings, but in other respects it is essentially Gothic,
+its double aisles foreshadowing those of the later Notre Dame of Paris,
+which may justly be said to be an epitome of the development of the
+pointed style in France. Specially dear to the French nation on account
+of its intimate association with many thrilling episodes of its history,
+it remains, in spite of all the vicissitudes through which it has
+passed, so far as its general structure is concerned, very much what it
+was when first completed in the late 13th century. The noble western
+façade, with its profuse and ornate ornamentation, and the fine square
+towers flanking it, each pierced with effective openings and adorned
+with grotesque gargoyles, contrast with the slender central
+spire&mdash;which, by the way, is modern&mdash;tiers of graceful flying
+buttresses, and the numerous groups of pinnacles, whilst the long line
+of the great roof ridge brings into relief the comparative intricacy of
+the design of the rest of the building, especially of the extremities of
+the transepts with their fairy-like arcading, beautiful sculptures, and
+grand rose windows.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 307px;">
+<a href="images/ill_063.png">
+<img src="images/ill_063_sml.png" width="307" height="380" alt="Flying Buttress" title="Flying Buttress" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Flying Buttress</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The most distinctive details of the interior of Notre Dame are the
+massive piers and symmetrical arches of varying width<a name="page_064" id="page_064"></a> of the nave, the
+simple but most effective vaulting of it, the double aisles and the
+choir; the shortness of the transepts, atoned for by the unusual length
+of the semicircular apse, with its circlet of chapels; the combination
+in the clerestory of pointed-headed and rose windows, and, above all,
+the exquisitely proportioned and spacious triforium, which surmounts the
+whole of the double aisles and forms a circular gallery with arcaded
+openings, harmonising alike with those of the nave below and the
+clerestory above, and a stone vault of pointed intersecting arches
+springing from slender clustered columns.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 146px;">
+<a href="images/ill_064a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_064a_sml.png" width="146" height="217" alt="Gothic Arcade" title="Gothic Arcade" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gothic Arcade</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;">
+<a href="images/ill_064b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_064b_sml.png" width="141" height="490" alt="Gothic Steeple" title="Gothic Steeple" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gothic Steeple</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Contemporaneous with Notre Dame is Laon Cathedral, the original and
+characteristic chevet of which was replaced in the early 13th century by
+a square termination, in imitation it is supposed of some English
+church, but which otherwise resembles the Cathedral of Paris, especially
+in its fine western façade and open vaulted triforium. In the Cathedral
+of Chartres, founded in the 12th century, but practically rebuilt in the
+13th after its almost complete destruction by fire, the further progress
+of the style may be studied, its arches being more stilted and its nave
+and choir wider than those of its predecessors, whilst its closed-in
+triforium is significant of the ever increasing height of the roofs,
+necessitating the strengthening of the walls, a change that was,
+however, quickly succeeded and, to a great extent, neutralised by the
+piercing and filling in with glass of the wall behind the arcading.
+Other characteristics of Chartres Cathedral are the noble sculptures of
+the west front, that are not only among the finest but the least injured
+in France, those of the south and north porches that are scarcely
+inferior, the dignified towers surmounted by beautiful and graceful
+spires of different but harmonious designs, and the double tier of
+flying buttresses of the nave. The<a name="page_065" id="page_065"></a> last named are moreover of unusual
+construction, each consisting of two parts, the upper strengthened by an
+arcade with round-headed arches, springing from massive stunted piers,
+that seem to connect the advanced Gothic of the rest of the building,
+with the late Romanesque style.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Rheims is another typical Gothic building with a
+western façade, the deeply recessed central portal of which is
+especially fine, resembling those of Notre Dame, Laon, and Chartres; a
+remarkably effective central tower that rises nearly sixty feet above
+the high-pitched roof; a well-developed chevet, a walled-in triforium
+similar to that of Chartres, a noble series of clerestory and several
+grand rose windows filled with very beautiful stained glass.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 146px;">
+<a href="images/ill_065.png">
+<img src="images/ill_065_sml.png" width="146" height="254" alt="Gothic Clustered Column" title="Gothic Clustered Column" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Gothic Clustered Column</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the Cathedral of Amiens French Gothic architecture touched its
+highest point of excellence, before the over exaggeration of its
+distinctive peculiarities sounded the note of decadence. Begun in 1220,
+when all the structural problems of the pointed style had been finally
+solved, it was completed in 1272, and although it has more than once
+been seriously injured by fire, it has been so successfully restored
+that it still remains one of the noblest churches of Europe, the one
+thing detracting from the solemn beauty of its general external
+appearance being the later Flamboyant spire, that is quite out of
+character with the rest of the building. Its great height and breadth;
+the symmetry of its proportions; the dignified simplicity of its
+vaulting, which in nave, aisles and transepts, chevet chapels and
+ambulatory is of similar design, the centre from which the ribs radiate
+being in every case so situated that these ribs are all of equal length;
+the grand sculptures and fine arcading of the great west front, the
+towers of which, though they differ in detail, harmonise well with each
+other; the exquisite statues and bas-reliefs of the transept portals;
+the combined strength and grace of the many flying buttresses; the
+admirable system of lighting, windows occupying the whole of the space
+between the main arcades of the nave and the roof; the beautiful and
+varied effects of perspective from many different points of view in the
+interior; with the minor detail of the marvellous carvings in the choir,
+justify the claim that Amiens Cathedral is the crowning glory of Gothic
+architecture and an ample vindication of its principles.<a name="page_066" id="page_066"></a></p>
+
+<p>In the contemporaneous Beauvais Cathedral, that was intended to rival
+that of Amiens in its height and in the ethereal lightness of its
+stilted arches, a convincing proof was given of the danger of carrying
+those principles too far, for the vaulting of the choir collapsed before
+the completion of the building, which, though it was restored and added
+to later, still remains unfinished. With it may be mentioned the Sainte
+Chapelle of Paris, the window tracery in which is very fine; the
+Cathedral of Coutances, which has a very fine central lantern
+tower&mdash;that is to say, one with windows that throw a light upon the
+centre of the interior of a building&mdash;and a beautiful tapering spire;
+and the Cathedral of Lisieux, with a very characteristic chevet and
+vaulting resembling that of the Cathedral of Amiens.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Le Mans, already referred to in connection with its
+noble Romanesque nave, has a most beautiful late 13th century Gothic
+choir, with one of the finest chevets in France. The aisles, that at the
+western end of the building are single, develop at the transepts into a
+double circlet, with chapels radiating from them, whilst the choir has
+exceptionally fine 13th and 14th century stained glass windows. The
+general effect of the interior, in which the solemn dignity of the nave
+contrasts with the almost ethereal beauty of the choir and its
+surroundings, is most impressive, whilst the exterior with its graceful
+flying buttresses and pinnacles is equally fine.</p>
+
+<p>The Cathedral of Bourges is another typical 13th century Gothic building
+which, though it is without the usual transepts, has a beautiful apse,
+the ambulatories of which have unusually wide spaces between the
+columns, double aisles flanking the nave as well as the choir and
+chevet, producing a unique impression of vastness, whilst the exterior
+is equally effective with its five grand western portals, a long main
+roof unbroken by towers or spires, and a series of steeply pitched
+supplementary roofs above the chapels of the eastern end.</p>
+
+<p>Dating from the same period as the cathedrals just noticed is the
+fortified Abbey of Mont St. Michel, that has been again and again
+rebuilt, and in which the gradual evolution of the Gothic style in
+France can be well studied, especially in the lovely chapel justly
+called the Merveille or the Marvel, that, with its cloisters, is still
+much what it was when finished in 1228, whilst the Chatelet or
+Gate-house, with its massive round towers and the various abbatial
+buildings, such as the Salle des Hôtes or Guest-Hall, are equally
+characteristic of French domestic architecture of the same period. On
+the other hand the Abbey Church, that crowns the mount, has been so
+much-restored and modified that little of the original structure<a name="page_067" id="page_067"></a>
+remains, except the crypt which, with its massive piers and arches and
+many supplementary chapels, is practically the same as that from which
+uprose the famous abbey, the building of which was a labour of love to
+so many successive abbots.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of S. Pierre, Caen, which has a fine tower with a beautiful
+pierced spire, is a good example of the second period of the Gothic
+style in France, and at Rouen the Rayonnant and Flamboyant phases are
+exceptionally well illustrated. The Abbey Church of S. Ouen was built
+entirely in the 14th century, and, with its characteristic high-pitched
+roofs over each bay of the aisles, its lofty towers&mdash;those at the west
+end with tapering spires&mdash;its delicately sculptured portals, double
+tiers of flying buttresses, triple division of arcades, triforium, and
+clerestory in the nave, the number and beauty of its stained glass
+windows, its graceful clustered piers, that rise without a break from
+the ground to the springing of the vault, and its beautiful chevet, with
+its circlet of eleven chapels, is an epitome of all the most
+characteristic features of Gothic architecture.</p>
+
+<p>The Church of St. Maclou in the same town is a fine gem of Flamboyant
+work, with its stilted arches, tapering spires and pinnacles, and lavish
+internal and external decoration, whilst in the Cathedral of Rouen can
+be recognised details of each of the three stages of French Gothic,
+combined with those of the later Renaissance. The western façade,
+lateral portals, towers, spires, and fine rose windows are typically
+Flamboyant, and the general view of the interior, with its long vista of
+nave and choir, its slightly pointed arcading, two tiers of which divide
+the nave from the aisles, and, above all, its simple but most effective
+vaulting, is essentially that of an early example of the pointed style,
+that of the Lady Chapel being especially effective.</p>
+
+<p>Good secular examples of the Gothic style in France are the Palais de
+Justice and Hôtel de Bourgtheroulde, both at Rouen, the Chateau of Coucy
+near Laon, the Hôtel de Cluny, Paris, the Chateau de Pierrefonds in
+Normandy, and, most characteristic of all, the House of Jacques C&oelig;ur
+at Bourges. It was, however, in Belgium that Gothic municipal and
+domestic architecture reached its noblest development, the great halls
+of the towns being remarkable for their dignified and massive
+appearance, and, except in the latest examples built after the decadence
+had set in, for the severe restraint of their ornamentation. Of
+rectangular plan, and several stories in height, with steeply pitched
+roofs, the gable ends adorned with many pinnacles, and the long sloping
+sides broken by dormer windows, contrasting with the rows of
+pointed-headed lights in the walls beneath, and lofty central tower of
+ornate design, these<a name="page_068" id="page_068"></a> noble buildings, of which those at Ypres, Bruges,
+Brussels, Ghent, and Tournai are the best, are the chief pride of the
+cities to which they belong. They rival in the affections of the people
+even the cathedrals of contemporary date, although those of Antwerp,
+specially noteworthy for its seven aisles, Louvain, the nave and
+transepts of which, as already stated, are Romanesque, whilst the choir
+is a fine specimen of Early Gothic, Brussels, Ghent, Louvain, and Liège
+are all noble structures, resembling those of France in general plan,
+though most of them are shorter and of greater width.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain, as in France, Gothic architecture passed through three phases:
+the first, that prevailed in the second half of the 12th and the first
+of the 13th century, to a great extent the outcome of the Romanesque;
+the second that succeeded it and lasted until the beginning of the 15th
+century, distinguished by great dignity of structure and appropriateness
+of ornamentation; the last, that prevailed until nearly the middle of
+the 16th century, corresponding to a great extent with French
+Flamboyant, though it lasted longer and was considerably modified by
+Moorish influence.</p>
+
+<p>To the first period of Gothic architecture in Spain belong the
+Cathedrals of Santiago de Compostella, of cruciform plan with a vaulted
+roof, semicircular headed arcades and windows, and an ornate western
+façade recalling that of Chartres; Zamora, Taragona, and the older of
+the two at Salamanca, the three last retaining the characteristic
+cimborio, or low dome, already referred to in connection with Romanesque
+work in Spain, rising from the intersection of nave and transepts, but
+of more complex structure than in earlier examples, the ribs of the
+vaulting being upheld by pendentives and the whole surmounted by a
+secondary dome of considerable height pierced with windows, and at
+Salamanca flanked by four circular towers. Unfortunately, in later
+Spanish ecclesiastical architecture this beautiful feature was
+abandoned, and the Cathedrals of Toledo, Leon, and Burgos are of the
+French type, with chevets, double aisles, clustered pillars upholding
+pointed arches, vaulted roofs, ornate decorative arcading, fine open
+triforia, and lofty clerestories. The exterior of that of Burgos is
+especially ornate, with three pinnacled towers, tapering open-traceried
+spires rising from those at the western end. In the 14th century the
+cruciform plan, which had so long prevailed, was replaced in Spain by
+one without either aisles or transepts; the buttresses that had
+previously been introduced outside the building to resist the thrust of
+the vaulting, were brought within the walls so as to make the nave one
+vast vaulted hall, flanked by lateral chapels as in the fine Cathedral
+of Gerona<a name="page_069" id="page_069"></a> and the Church of S. Maria del Pino at Barcelona. Later,
+however, this comparatively simple mode of structure was superseded by
+vast complicated buildings such as the Cathedral of Salamanca and that
+of Segovia, both dating from the 16th century, the vaulting of which is
+especially complicated, with very ornate ribs, whilst the towers closely
+resemble those of contemporaneous Moorish mosques.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic style, that was alike alien to the Italian temperament and
+unsuited to the Italian climate, never really took root in Italy, the
+soil of which was thoroughly impregnated with classic traditions. The
+horizontal cornice, so characteristic of Greek and Early Roman
+architecture is of frequent occurrence, the round arch was long retained
+in combination with pointed highly-pitched roofs, and spires are rare,
+whilst the beautiful groined vaulting, the flying buttresses, and the
+exquisite window-tracery, that lend so great a charm to the cathedrals
+and churches of France and England, are very seldom met with. There was
+no gradual evolution in Italy from Early to Late Gothic, and for this
+reason it is usual to treat Italian buildings in the pointed style in
+three geographical instead of chronological groups, namely, the
+northern, central, and southern. To the first belongs the Cathedral of
+Milan, the largest Gothic building in Italy, the exterior of which is
+somewhat spoiled by its over-decorated western façade, though the effect
+of the long rows of lateral pinnacles, the numerous flying buttresses,
+the low conical dome and lofty spire is very fine. The interior, with
+its vast nave, double aisles, and complex apse, its lofty piers, with
+capitals consisting of life-sized figures in niches, and its noble
+clerestory, presents an appearance of grandeur unequalled by any other
+Gothic church in Italy. The Certosa or Carthusian Monastery, the façade
+of which is a century older than the rest of the building; the Churches
+of S. Maria del Carmine and S. Michele, both at Pavia, the latter with a
+very typical campanile; the Cathedral of Genoa; the Churches of S.
+Anastasia and S. Zenone at Verona, are all good examples of
+Italian-Gothic, whilst amongst secular buildings in the same style in
+Northern Italy, the Ducal and other palaces at Venice, such as the
+so-called Ca' d'Ora are remarkable for the beauty of their proportions,
+the effectiveness of their window-grouping, and the general
+appropriateness and grace of their decorative details, especially of
+their balconies.</p>
+
+<p>In Central Italy the Cathedrals of Florence and Siena are specially
+typical, the former, with its dome of considerably later date than the
+rest of the building, contrasting with the Campanile or Bell Tower named
+after Giotto, the latter being noteworthy for the combination of a dome
+with pointed<a name="page_070" id="page_070"></a> arcading and horizontal cornices, and the association on
+the west front of rounded with stilted arches, the last a peculiarity
+also of the cathedral at Orvieto, the façade of which is one of the most
+beautiful in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Gothic work of Southern Italy is far more florid than that of the
+rest of the peninsula, and this is equally true of that of Sicily. In
+the churches of both, as in the earlier Romanesque buildings already
+noticed, Saracenic, Greek, and Roman influences are alike noticeable,
+especially in those of Naples and the Cathedrals of Palermo, Monreale,
+and Messina, the three last named combining the pointed arch distinctive
+of Gothic, with the elaborate surface decoration so characteristic of
+the Norman style.</p>
+
+<p>German architects did not adopt the pointed arch until considerably
+later than those of the south and west of Europe, but to atone for this
+they delighted in highly pitched roofs with stilted gables, and lofty
+towers, with pointed roofs and tapering spires. The exteriors of their
+buildings differ very greatly from the interiors, in which the
+round-headed windows and semicircular arches of the Romanesque style are
+retained, enriched, however, with beautiful and ornate carving. The term
+round-arched Gothic is therefore often applied to the earliest phase of
+the style in Germany, of which good examples are the Churches of the
+Holy Apostles, of S. Martin and S. Maria in Capitolo, all in Cologne,
+the Abbey Churches of Arnstein and Andernach and the Liebfrauenkirche at
+Trèves, the last built on the foundations of a much earlier chapel.</p>
+
+<p>The second phase of Gothic architecture in Germany, in which the pointed
+arch was substituted for the semicircular, did not begin until the
+second half of the 13th century. To it belong the greater part of the
+Cathedral of Strasburg, which combines, with much beautiful Romanesque
+work, a typical Gothic façade with a fine open tracery spire, a
+companion to which was designed but never erected. The Cathedral of
+Freiburg, with a graceful and ornate spire, the Church of S. Stephen at
+Vienna, with aisles almost as lofty as the nave, portions of the Church
+of S. Sebald, Nuremberg, the decorative sculpture of which is remarkably
+fine, and, above all, the Cathedral of Cologne, the noblest example of
+German Gothic, with an exceptionally symmetrical plan, which in spite of
+the fact that the building extended over more than a century, and that
+the west point was only completed in the 19th century, was not departed
+from, so that it remains a unique specimen of mediæval design. It has a
+noble nave, double aisles, one of which is continued round the eastern
+apse and is divided into seven chapels, forming a picturesque chevet.
+Massive<a name="page_071" id="page_071"></a> towers with a tapering central spire and many pinnacles flank
+the western entrance, elaborately decorated buttresses break the long
+lines of the walls, and from the intersecting nave and transepts rises a
+slender but most effective spire.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 331px;">
+<a href="images/ill_071.png">
+<img src="images/ill_071_sml.png" width="331" height="523" alt="Plan of Cologne Cathedral" title="Plan of Cologne Cathedral" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plan of Cologne Cathedral</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>To the third period of Gothic architecture in Germany belong Ulm
+Cathedral, which has a nave of exceptional height; the unfinished Church
+of S. Barbara at Kullenberg, with a very picturesque chevet, the
+exterior of which is most lavishly decorated, and a steeply pitched roof
+of unusual height, with soaring towers and pinnacles; S. Catherine at
+Oppenheim, the over ornate complex decorative carvings of which are
+specially typical; and the parish Church of Thaun, the western portal of
+which is remarkably fine.<a name="page_072" id="page_072"></a></p>
+
+<p>With these ecclesiastical buildings may be named the town halls of
+Lübeck, Brunswick, Münster, and other German towns, which, though they
+are neither so beautiful or so characteristic as those of Belgium, are
+of noble and symmetrical proportions, whilst a word of recognition must
+also be given to the beautiful domestic architecture of Germany,
+especially that of Prague, Nuremberg, and Frankfort all rich in
+survivals of mediæval times.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h3>
+
+<h5>GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">Gothic architecture in England and Scotland followed to some extent the
+same lines as in France, with, however, certain notable differences that
+were the outcome of the national feeling which had begun to make itself
+felt as early as the close of the 11th century. Until then the Normans
+had remained a distinct and alien element in what appeared to them a
+foreign land, but now they had become fused with the natives of that
+land, sharing their æsthetic as well as their political aspirations. The
+note of change was first sounded in the architecture of the now united
+races in a rebellion against the heavy massiveness of the Norman style,
+and a desire for a greater redundancy of what may be called structural
+decoration in place of extraneous surface ornamentation. The general
+proportions of buildings gradually became slenderer, the walls<a name="page_073" id="page_073"></a> loftier,
+the windows longer, the piers and columns slighter, and the arches more
+pointed, these peculiarities becoming more and more accentuated as time
+went on, till they culminated in the noble and exquisitely beautiful
+cathedrals and churches that vied even with the best of those of
+Northern France.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 182px;">
+<a href="images/ill_072a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_072a_sml.png" width="182" height="272"
+alt="Early English Lancet Window" title="Early English Lancet Window" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Lancet Window</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 160px;">
+<a href="images/ill_072b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_072b_sml.png" width="160" height="238"
+alt="Early English Window" title="Early English Window" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Window</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is usual to divide the development of English Gothic architecture
+into three periods: the Early English, the Decorated, and the
+Perpendicular&mdash;the first prevailing from about 1189 to 1307, the second
+from the latter date to 1380, and the third from 1380 to 1485, whilst
+the name of Tudor has been given to the transitional time between the
+last phase of Gothic and the introduction of the Renaissance style,
+lasting from 1485 to about 1546. It must, however, be added that hardly
+any buildings exist belonging entirely to one period, architects having
+in almost every case been compelled to be content with adding to or
+modifying the work of their predecessors.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 276px;">
+<a href="images/ill_073.png">
+<img src="images/ill_073_sml.png" width="276" height="246"
+alt="Early English Capital" title="Early English Capital" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Capital</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Amongst the characteristics of Early English architecture are groined
+vaulting with main diagonal ribs only, long narrow lancet-headed
+windows, clustered piers with capitals consisting generally of
+delicately carved foliage, pointed arcading, the archivolt or arched
+portion enriched with mouldings, in which the ornament known as the
+dog-tooth is of frequent occurrence, ornate yet dignified western
+façades with deeply recessed doorways decorated with slender columns and
+beautiful bas-reliefs, high-pitched roofs with stilted gable ends, lofty
+towers and spires, and plain buttresses ranged in pairs at the angles of
+buildings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;">
+<a href="images/ill_074a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_074a_sml.png" width="473" height="191" alt="Early English Capital,
+Early English Capital,
+Base of Early English Pillar" title="Early English Capital,
+Early English Capital,
+Base of Early English Pillar" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Early English lancet window has a unique significance<a name="page_074" id="page_074"></a> in the
+development of Gothic architecture this side of the Channel, for it
+inaugurated an important structural change, its constantly increasing
+length aiding greatly in the breaking up of the triple division of
+walls&mdash;supposed by some to have been emblematic of the Holy
+Trinity&mdash;with arcading, triforium, and clerestory. By slow degrees the
+triforium was first reduced to a mere decorative feature, and then
+eliminated altogether, whilst the clerestory usurped its place in
+addition to its own.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 281px;">
+<a href="images/ill_074b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_074b_sml.png" width="281" height="165" alt="Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar" title="Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Decorated buildings the windows are larger and divided into a greater
+number of lights than in Early English, the heads being filled with
+tracery of geometrical design; the façades are more complicated and at
+the same time less effective, the towers and spires are loftier and
+supplemented by many pinnacles and finials, flying buttresses are
+multiplied; parapets with pierced openings, canopied niches containing
+figures and other purely decorative features give to the exteriors a
+great richness of general appearance. In the interiors the simple Early
+English vaulting is superseded by roofs divided into a great number of
+different compartments, the points of intersection being marked by stone
+bosses or masses of carving, whilst increased lavishness of decoration
+characterises every portion of the building,<a name="page_075" id="page_075"></a> mouldings of a great
+variety, amongst which the ballflower is of frequent occurrence, being
+introduced wherever possible.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 246px;">
+<a href="images/ill_075a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_075a_sml.png" width="246" height="187" alt="Early English Ornaments" title="Early English Ornaments" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Ornaments</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 476px;">
+<a href="images/ill_075b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_075b_sml.png" width="476" height="139" alt="Early English Ornaments" title="Early English Ornaments" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Ornaments</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Perpendicular Gothic, as its name implies, the vertical tendency
+became ever more and more marked; towers, spires, and pinnacles became
+more and more numerous, all decreasing in bulk and increasing in height.
+Turrets with many airy finials, springing from flying buttresses that
+were adorned with figures of lions, dragons, and other symbolic
+creatures, rise above equally ornate parapets, the dignified
+single-centred arch was replaced by a four-centred form, and rectilinear
+lines superseded the beautifully flowing tracery of earlier windows. It
+was, however, the complex and exquisitely delicate groined roofing that
+chiefly characterised the Perpendicular style, lending to the interior
+of the buildings in which it was employed an ethereal charm that has
+never been surpassed. In the so-called fan-tracery roof, that was the
+culmination of this distinctive form of vaulting, the entire surface of
+the roof is covered with radiating ribs resembling the sections of an
+outspread fan, connected by bands of trefoil or quatrefoil ornament
+known as cusping, and, in some cases&mdash;notably in that of Henry VII's
+chapel at Westminster&mdash;with pendant stalactite ornaments drooping from<a name="page_076" id="page_076"></a>
+the point of intersection of the groins. In some Perpendicular
+buildings, as in the Churches of S. Stephen and S. Peter's Mancroft at
+Norwich, ornate open timber roofs, enriched with beautiful carving, take
+the place of those of stone, and in the final or Tudor phase of the
+style such roofs, to which the name of hammer beam has been given, and
+of which those of Wolsey's Great Hall at Hampton Court and of
+Westminster Hall are good examples, were almost as elaborate as the
+fan-tracery variety. Characteristic features of secular Tudor buildings
+are the extensive use of panelling, the bow or projecting window rising
+direct from the ground, the oriel window or window supported by a corbel
+of stone often finely carved, battlements with open tracery work and
+richly decorated gables, fine specimens of all of which are to be seen
+at Hampton Court Palace.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 216px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_076a_sml.png" width="216" height="100" alt="Early English Dog-tooth Ornament" title="Early English Dog-tooth Ornament" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Dog-tooth Ornament</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 169px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_076b_sml.png" width="169" height="245" alt="Early English Arcading" title="Early English Arcading" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Arcading</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 209px;">
+<a href="images/ill_076c.png">
+<img src="images/ill_076c_sml.png" width="209" height="218" alt="Early English Doorway, Westminster Abbey" title="Early English Doorway, Westminster Abbey" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Early English Doorway,<br />Westminster Abbey</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>One of the earliest Gothic structures in England is the choir of
+Canterbury Cathedral, designed by the Burgundian Williams of Sens, which
+recalls in general style certain contemporaneous<a name="page_077" id="page_077"></a> French ecclesiastical
+buildings. Foreign influence is also noticeable in the somewhat later
+Ripon and Chichester Cathedrals, but by the beginning of the 13th
+century English Gothic had freed itself almost entirely from the
+trammels of French traditions, and started forward on the path from
+which it never deviated, combining a consummate mastery of structural
+principles and an unwearying attention to detail with a unity of
+expression that makes an English Gothic church or cathedral an ideal
+reflection of the spirit of the age which witnessed its erection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 263px;">
+<a href="images/ill_077.png">
+<img src="images/ill_077_sml.png" width="263" height="538" alt="Plan of Salisbury Cathedral" title="Plan of Salisbury Cathedral" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Plan of Salisbury Cathedral</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Cathedrals of Wells, Lincoln, and Salisbury, the choir of Ely
+Cathedral, and the choir, transepts, and part of the<a name="page_078" id="page_078"></a> cloisters and
+other details of Westminster Abbey, are typical examples of the Early
+English phase of Gothic. The first named especially is unrivalled in the
+symmetry of its general proportions and the richness and appropriateness
+of its decorations. Its western façade rivals that of Amiens Cathedral
+in the restrained dignity of its general design, the delicacy of its
+decorative arcading, and the number and variety of its finely sculptured
+figures. The central tower, though its upper portion belongs to the
+Decorated period, harmonises well with the rest of the exterior, whilst
+the interior is truly a poem in stone, with the long perspective of the
+nave flanked by graceful arches, springing from clustered piers with
+capitals of exquisitely carved foliage, noble triforia and clerestories,
+and a simple arched vaulting of intersecting ribs. The transepts, that
+are of earlier date than the nave, serve as a kind of introduction to
+it, and in the choir the transition from Early English to Decorated
+Gothic can be well studied, the western portion dating from the 12th and
+the eastern from the 13th century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 473px;">
+<a href="images/ill_078.png">
+<img src="images/ill_078_sml.png" width="473" height="195" alt="Decorated Window
+Decorated Pinnacle,
+Decorated Capital" title="Decorated Window
+Decorated Pinnacle,
+Decorated Capital" /></a>
+</div>
+
+<p>Though the exterior of Lincoln Cathedral is of a somewhat hybrid
+character, the towers and doorways of the west front being Norman, the
+arcading and decorative sculpture Early English, and the central tower
+Decorated, the general effect is grand and impressive. The interior,
+though not quite so ornate as that of Wells, is almost as beautiful, the
+great rose windows being specially noteworthy features. The so-called
+Angel Choir, which has a very fine triforium, is a gem of Early English
+work, and the three 15th century chapels adjoining it are equally
+characteristic of Perpendicular Gothic.</p>
+
+<p>The beautiful Early English choir of Ely Cathedral contrasts forcibly
+with the noble Norman nave, and the so-called Galilee Porch is one of
+the finest examples of the first phase of Gothic in the country, but the
+exterior of the building has been<a name="page_079" id="page_079"></a> almost entirely rebuilt, the great
+central tower, which fell in 1322, having been replaced by the present
+one in the Decorated phase of Gothic. The Early English portions of
+Westminster Abbey closely resemble the other examples of the style just
+quoted, though the bays of the choir are not so well proportioned as
+those of Lincoln. Before the 15th century additions to Salisbury
+Cathedral and the sweeping away of the statues and other sculptures that
+adorned its west front, it must have been almost as typical as that of
+Lincoln or of Wells of the Early English style, and it still remains, in
+its rectangular plan and square eastern termination, a true
+representative of the ideals of native architects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 315px;">
+<a href="images/ill_079.png">
+<img src="images/ill_079_sml.png" width="315" height="117" alt="Decorated Ball Flower Ornament" title="Decorated Ball Flower Ornament" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Decorated Ball Flower Ornament</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The transepts of York Minster, in one of which is the famous window with
+lancet-headed lights, known as the Five Sisters, is a good example of
+the transition from Early English to Decorated Gothic, and the same may
+be said of portions of the ruins of Hexham Abbey, the Saxon crypt of
+which has already been referred to, notably of the transepts with
+windows resembling those of York Minster, and of the many relics of the
+noble monastic buildings of Yorkshire, including those at Ripon,
+Jervaulx, Rivaulx, and Whitby. The Cathedral of Glasgow is another
+beautiful building in the first phase of Gothic, the choir, beneath
+which is a noble crypt of earlier date, being especially fine, and with
+it must be named the ruins of the great abbey churches of Kelso,
+Jedburgh, and Dryburgh, that have distinctive Norman as well as Early
+English details.</p>
+
+<p>The first half of the 14th century was the golden age of English
+architecture, during which the Decorated gradually grew out of the Early
+English style, the two being in many cases so completely merged in each
+other that no break is discernible. The foundations of a truly national
+style had been laid in the Cathedrals of Wells and of Lincoln, in which
+originality of design was combined with consummate technical skill of
+execution, and in the buildings that succeeded them, architect and
+craftsmen still worked together in complete<a name="page_080" id="page_080"></a> harmony. The wealth of
+imagination of the latter found its best expression in emphasising the
+structural lines of the noble conceptions of the former; niches, with
+their figures, cusping, finials and crockets, ball flowers and bosses,
+all becoming essential details of one harmonious whole.</p>
+
+<p>The nave and choir of Exeter Cathedral are especially typical of
+Decorated architecture at its best. They rise from the foundations of an
+earlier church, of which the Norman towers above the transepts are
+relics, and are absolutely unsurpassed in the simple dignity of the
+arcading spanning the clustered piers, the exquisite beauty of the
+groined roofing, the bosses of which are decorated with delicate
+carvings of a great variety of subjects, and the fine tracery of the
+windows. Unfortunately the general effect of the exterior, in spite of
+the fine Norman towers and the beauty of the decorative sculpture of the
+west front, is inferior to that of the interior, a 15th century porch
+harmonising ill with the earlier work, whilst breadth is too great for
+the height of the building.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 118px;">
+<a href="images/ill_080.png">
+<img src="images/ill_080_sml.png" width="118" height="301" alt="Decorated Steeple" title="Decorated Steeple" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Decorated Steeple</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Other good examples of Decorated Gothic are the Church of St. Mary,
+Oxford, with a very fine spire; the nave and chapter-house of York
+Minster, which has a very beautiful window at the western end, the
+flowing tracing of which is specially distinctive of the style; the
+choir of Lichfield Cathedral, which has, however, certain Early English
+details; the choir of Carlisle Cathedral, with an exceptionally
+beautiful eastern window of nine lights with elaborate tracery; the Lady
+Chapel of Wells Cathedral; the crypt, all that is left of St. Stephen's,
+Westminster, now used as a chapel of the Houses of Parliament, the
+lantern tower of Ely Cathedral; the ruins of Tintern and Battle Abbeys,
+with those of Melrose Abbey, which has also characteristic Perpendicular
+features. To the same period as these ecclesiastical buildings belong
+the Round Tower at Windsor, the Hall of the Bishop's Palace at Wells,
+Conway, Caernarvon, and Chepstow Castles, all recalling Norman domestic
+architecture in the general massiveness of their structure, that is
+relieved by the comparative lightness of such details as the doors and
+windows.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the second half of the 14th century was marked by a
+tendency to destroy or obliterate the characteristic details of Early
+English and Decorated buildings, a<a name="page_081" id="page_081"></a> notable example of which is
+Gloucester Cathedral, the beautiful eastern apse of which was pulled
+down, whilst the piers and walls of the rest of the building were
+concealed as much as possible, the barbarism being, it must be owned,
+atoned for to some extent by the addition of a noble eastern window in
+the Perpendicular style. The nave of Westminster Abbey, on the other
+hand, begun just after the restoration of Gloucester Cathedral was
+completed, harmonises well with the earlier choir, and may be quoted,
+with the choir of York Minster and the naves of Canterbury and
+Winchester Cathedrals, as examples of the transition from the Decorated
+to the Perpendicular styles. To the final phase of the latter belong
+Beverley Minster, the Cathedral of Chester, and the Abbey Church at
+Bath, the western façades of all of which are very fine, but it was in
+Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, King's College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, with those of Holyrood and Roslyn in
+Scotland, that the style reached its fullest development. That
+development was, alas, however, all too soon followed by a decadence
+that was ushered in by an employment of too lavish and often meaningless
+ornamentation which had nothing to do with structural necessities.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 227px;">
+<a href="images/ill_081a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_081a_sml.png" width="227" height="251" alt="Hammer Beam Roof" title="Hammer Beam Roof" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Hammer Beam Roof</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 119px;">
+<a href="images/ill_081b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_081b_sml.png" width="119" height="129" alt="Perpendicular Roofing" title="Perpendicular Roofing" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Perpendicular Roofing</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="page_082" id="page_082"></a></p>
+
+<p>Westminster Chapel, in addition to the characteristic fan-tracery roof
+already referred to, has an exceptionally beautiful chevet with five
+apsidal chapels, a finely vaulted nave, aisles, and cloisters, in which
+Decorated and Perpendicular details are harmoniously combined. King's
+College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. George's, Windsor, are both entirely
+in the Perpendicular style, whilst the Scotch examples quoted above are
+specially noticeable for the contrast their massive pillars and arcades
+present to the airy lightness of their vaulting.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 180px;">
+<a href="images/ill_082a.png">
+<img src="images/ill_082a_sml.png" width="180" height="265" alt="Perpendicular Window" title="Perpendicular Window" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Perpendicular Window</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 63px;">
+<a href="images/ill_082b.png">
+<img src="images/ill_082b_sml.png" width="63" height="242" alt="Perpendicular Niche" title="Perpendicular Niche" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Perpendicular Niche</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Less important Perpendicular ecclesiastical buildings are the parish
+churches of Blakeney and Cley in Norfolk, the former with a specially
+fine east window, the latter unfortunately almost in ruins, but notable
+on account of the beauty of the decorative carving; the parish church of
+Fairford, Gloucestershire, the stained glass windows of which are
+amongst the finest in England; and Christ Church College, Oxford, in
+which town, by the way, Gothic traditions lingered longer than anywhere
+else in England.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 81px;">
+<a href="images/ill_082c.png">
+<img src="images/ill_082c_sml.png" width="81" height="127" alt="Corbel" title="Corbel" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Corbel</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Notable secular buildings in the latest phase of English Gothic are
+Westminster Hall, and the earlier portions of Hampton Court Palace,
+whilst Longleat Palace, Wiltshire, and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, with
+a fine open timber roof, are good examples of the transition from the
+Gothic to the Renaissance styles, the general plans belonging to the
+former and the decorative details being Italian in feeling.<a name="page_083" id="page_083"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h3>
+
+<h5>RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">The term Renaissance, signifying revival, has been given to the style
+which succeeded the Gothic. It was, to a great extent, a reversion to
+classic ideals modified to suit modern requirements. Its leading
+characteristics are simplicity of plan, symmetry of proportion, and
+massive grandeur of general effect, a minor peculiarity being the lavish
+use of plaster, not only for surface decoration, but also in some cases
+for the actual structure of such details as cornices, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<a href="images/ill_083.png">
+<img src="images/ill_083_sml.png" width="350" height="201" alt="Example of Renaissance Ornament" title="Example of Renaissance Ornament" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Example of Renaissance Ornament</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Renaissance style was inaugurated in Italy, where, as already
+stated, the Gothic never took root, and spread thence to the other
+countries of Europe, assuming in each country a certain distinctive
+character of its own in harmony with its environment. In Italian
+Renaissance ecclesiastical architecture the old basilican plan was
+revived, the dome became again, as in ancient Rome, the crowning glory
+of the building, and was combined with horizontal entablatures upheld by
+columns, with capitals of one or another of the Greek orders, and
+porticoes with pediments. In secular Italian Renaissance a very notable
+feature is the central cortile or courtyard surrounded by open arcades,
+above which are the principal apartments, of style corresponding with
+that of the arcades, the round-headed windows being divided from each
+other by slender pilasters, and the spandrels above them filled in with
+sculptured ornamentation. The principal façade of Italian palaces was
+especially ornate, richly decorated courses<a name="page_084" id="page_084"></a> of stone dividing the
+stories from each other, in which the fenestration or grouping of the
+windows was peculiarly effective.</p>
+
+<p>Whereas in the history of mediæval architecture few names emerge from
+the obscurity in which those who planned and erected the great
+cathedrals, churches, and castles were content to remain, in that of
+Renaissance the individual architect comes to the front, all the
+designing having been done by him and the whole work carried on under
+his personal superintendence. In the new movement Florence took the
+lead, owing the pre-eminence she quickly won to the gifted and versatile
+Filippo Brunelleschi, who, like so many of his famous contemporaries,
+was a skilled goldsmith and sculptor before he became an architect. His
+first work of importance was the dome he added to the unfinished
+cathedral of his native city, which was soon succeeded by the Churches
+of S. Spirito and S. Lorenzo, both of which are typical Renaissance
+buildings, as is also the Puzzi Chapel, on which the architect displayed
+his wonderful sense of symmetry, combining domes, arches, and lintels
+with consummate skill.</p>
+
+<p>Fine examples of Renaissance secular architecture in Florence are the
+Riccardi and Pitti Palaces, both designed by Brunelleschi, but
+considerably modified after his death, the Rucellai Palace by Alberti, a
+worthy successor of Brunelleschi, the Guadagni Palace, designed by
+Bramante, and the Pandolfini, designed by Raphael, the last very
+characteristic of the mature phase of Italian Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 309px;">
+<a href="images/ill_085.png">
+<img src="images/ill_085_sml.png" width="309" height="399" alt="Façade of a Venetian Palace" title="Façade of a Venetian Palace" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Façade of a Venetian Palace</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It was in Rome that the style reached its noblest development, and the
+Cathedral of S. Peter's, on which all the greatest architects of the
+16th and 17th centuries were successively employed, affords a unique
+opportunity for its study. Built on the site of the old basilica of S.
+Peter, alluded to in the section on Early Christian architecture, what
+was to become the largest church in the world was begun by Bramante in
+1506. His plan, that of a square with four projecting apses, to be
+covered in with a central and four supplementary domes, was followed
+until his death in 1514, when the work was carried on by Giuliano da San
+Gallo, Fra Giacondo and Raphael, who were in favour of certain
+modifications of the original design, that if carried out would have
+converted the square into a Latin cross. The withdrawal of San Gallo,
+and the deaths of Giacondo and Raphael in 1515, led to Baldasarre
+Peruzzi being appointed architect, and under his auspices the plan was
+changed to that of a Greek cross. Before his death in 1536 the present
+south transept and the vaulting, that was to encircle the central dome
+were finished, and the massive pendentives<a name="page_085" id="page_085"></a> that were to uphold the
+latter were begun. The next architect to take up the vast scheme was
+Antonio da San Gallo, who, could he have obtained the necessary funds,
+would have added a long pronaos or corridor of approach, to be entered
+from a domed porch at the western end. In his model the interior of the
+central portion of the cathedral, with the notable exception of the
+dome, appears much as it does now, so that with its aid a good idea can
+be obtained of the state of the building when, in 1546, Michael Angelo
+was appointed architect in chief, and set the seal of his genius upon a
+complex creation which was already a reflection of the highest
+constructive and æsthetic achievement of the golden age of Italian
+architecture. Reverencing the noble design of Bramante, Michael Angelo
+left the interior, of which the symmetry of plan and beauty of the many
+pilasters with their Corinthian capitals are notable characteristics,
+much as he found it, but though he introduced on the exterior Corinthian
+pilasters resembling those of the interior, he greatly modified the
+general aspect of the former by the removal of the projecting chapels
+and the aisles round<a name="page_086" id="page_086"></a> the apses. It was in his design for the dome that
+Michael Angelo achieved his greatest architectural triumph, for without
+tampering at all with what had already been done by Bramante, he set
+upon the cylindrical drum that artist had intended to uphold a dome,
+which was to be a mere reproduction of that of the Pantheon, a
+magnificent structure of original design which dominates the capital,
+producing an absolutely unrivalled impression of combined strength,
+vastness, and symmetry, the eye being irresistibly led up from drum to
+dome and from dome to lantern. From within the cathedral the effect is
+scarcely less grand, a wonderful sense of space being conveyed by the
+soaring vault, that seems to spring heavenwards of its own volition.</p>
+
+<p>Michael Angelo died before his masterpiece was completed, but so far as
+the dome was concerned his design was carried out, with certain slight
+modifications, by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana.
+Unfortunately, however, the rest of the great architect's scheme was
+departed from and its effectiveness destroyed by additions which he
+would most certainly have condemned. At the suggestion of Pope Pius IV
+the façade built under Michael Angelo was pulled down and replaced by
+Maderno with that still <i>in situ</i>, whilst the nave was lengthened out of
+all proportion to the rest of the building.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this lamentable mistake, the general effect of the interior
+is remarkably fine, and is greatly enhanced by the rich colouring of the
+lavish decoration of every portion, the massive piers and vast arches
+spanning them, and the vaulted coffered ceilings, all harmonising with
+and supplementing each other. Moreover, the unhappy result of the
+substitution of Maderno's for Michael Angelo's façade was to some extent
+neutralised in 1666 by the erection under Bernini of the lofty colonnade
+encircling the piazza of S. Peter in the simple and dignified Doric
+style, that forms an appropriate approach to the cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>In the Renaissance palaces of Rome classic details were more closely
+copied than in Florence, pilasters and arcades forming, in almost every
+case, the chief decorations of the exteriors. Notable examples are the
+so-called Venetian Palaces, the Cancellaria designed by Bramante, the
+Sacchetti by Antonio San Gallo, and, above all, the Farnese, the
+grandest in the capital, begun by San Gallo and completed by Michael
+Angelo, with portions of the Vatican, including the Hall of the
+Belvedere, designed by Bramante.</p>
+
+<p>In Venice, where the Renaissance style was necessarily modified by the
+peculiar conditions of the lagoon city, good examples of it are the
+Churches S. Maria dei Miracoli, S. Zaccaria,<a name="page_087" id="page_087"></a> and S. Maria della Salute,
+with the palaces of Vendramini, Calergo, Trevisano, and Cornaro, all,
+however, excelled by the beautiful Palazzo Grimani designed by San
+Michele and the Library of S. Mark of Sansovino.</p>
+
+<p>At Vicenza the famous architect Palladio erected many noble Renaissance
+churches, including the Redentore, enclosed the ancient Basilica in
+grand classic arcades, and designed a great number of fine palaces. In
+Milan the finest Renaissance structures are the sacristy of S. Maria
+Presso S. Sabino, the apse of S. Maria della Grazie and the arcaded
+court of the great Hospital, all designed by Bramante. Near Pavia is the
+fine Certosa, the façade of which is the work of Ambrogio Borgognoni;
+Genoa is rich in effective groups of Renaissance palaces after the
+designs of Alessio, and owns a late Renaissance church ascribed to
+Puget, and at Verona is the typical Palazzo del Conseglio, built by Fra
+Giocondo.</p>
+
+<p>It was not until the beginning of the 16th century that the Renaissance
+style gained a footing in France, and even for some time after that
+French architects, whilst adopting its main features, clung to certain
+characteristic Gothic details. This is very notably the case in some of
+the royal chateaux on the Loire, justly considered the finest secular
+Renaissance buildings in the country, especially in that of Chambord,
+which, with a typical Renaissance façade, has a highly pitched roof with
+soaring pinnacles and pointed-headed dormer windows.</p>
+
+<p>Other fine Early Renaissance French buildings are the wing added by
+Frances I to the old castle of Blois, famous for its beautiful external
+spiral staircase, the chateaux of Chenonceaux, Chateaudun, and
+Azay-le-Rideau, the Hôtel de Ville at Beaugency, the Church of S.
+Eustache, the Hôtel des Invalides, the western portion of the Louvre,
+and the Luxembourg, all in Paris. To the latest phase of what eventually
+became almost a national style, belong the Pantheon, the Palais Royal,
+the College and Church of the Sorbonne, all in Paris; the relics of the
+noble Chateau built for Richelieu on the site of the great minister's
+native village by Lemercier, the Chateau of Ballery in Normandy, the
+additions to the castle of Blois, the Chateau des Maisons near, and the
+Church of Val de Grace in Paris, all by François Mansard, whose name is
+associated with a picturesque form of roof invented by him.</p>
+
+<p>In the chateau of Versailles, designed by Jules Mansard, a distant
+connection of the greater François, the first note of the decadence of
+the Renaissance style was sounded, for well-built and richly decorated
+though it is, the huge structure is lacking in the dignified grandeur,
+so distinctive of the buildings enumerated above.<a name="page_088" id="page_088"></a></p>
+
+<p>Although it was in Italy and France that European Renaissance
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, some few fine examples of
+it remain in other countries, including in Spain the great Monastery and
+Palace of the Escurial near Madrid, the central church of which is
+especially fine, the Cathedrals of Burgos, Malaga, and Granada, the town
+halls of Saragossa and Seville, and portions of the Alcazar of Toledo,
+the convent of Mafra in Portugal, the Town Hall of Antwerp, the Council
+Halls of Leipzig and Rothenburg, the Cloth Hall of Brunswick, the Castle
+of Schallenburg, and the Hall of the Belvedere at Prague.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the many buildings in Europe in
+what is known as the Rococo style, of which grotesque and meaningless
+ornamentation is the chief characteristic, but it must be added that in
+the early 19th century something like a new classic revival took place
+on the Continent. The Church of La Madeleine and the Opera House in
+Paris, the Arco della Pace at Milan, the Royal Theatre at Berlin, the
+Glyptothex and Pinacothex of Munich, the Walhalla at Ratisbon, the
+Museum of Dresden, and the Church of S. Isaac at St. Petersburg being
+notable instances of the skilful way in which Greek details of structure
+were combined by the best architects with modern requirements.</p>
+
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h3>
+
+<h5>RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN</h5>
+
+<p class="nind">It was only by very slow degrees that the Renaissance style was
+introduced into England, native architects and those for whom they
+worked having clung with almost pathetic devotion to the traditions of
+the past. At the end of the 15th century the Gothic style was still in
+full vigour on this side of the Channel, and although early in the 16th
+century it was to a great extent modified by the influence of the
+foreign artists who were attracted to the court of Henry VIII by the
+lavish patronage of the young monarch, it continued to the end of the
+century to check the development of pure Renaissance, the two styles to
+a great extent neutralising each other.</p>
+
+<p>It is significant of the change of the attitude of rulers and ruled
+towards religion that took place in England during the 16th and 17th
+centuries, that it was no longer in churches and cathedrals that
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, but in palaces,
+manor-houses, colleges, and places of public<a name="page_089" id="page_089"></a> entertainment. No longer
+was the soaring Gothic style to voice in stone the aspirations of
+worshippers for closer intercourse with the divine; the best energies of
+architects were henceforth to be directed to the promotion of comfort
+and luxury in private life, and for the realisation of this
+comparatively ignoble aim the revived classic style was peculiarly
+adapted. True, the spirit of the Renaissance did not display itself so
+fully in architecture as in other branches of human endeavour, but for
+all that its working was very apparent, assuming a certain character of
+its own in England.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 271px;">
+<a href="images/ill_089.png">
+<img src="images/ill_089_sml.png" width="271" height="415" alt="Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants" title="Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>First Italians, amongst whom the most distinguished were Torregiano,
+designer of the tomb of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Giovanni da
+Majano, and Giovanni da Padua, the architect of Longleat in Wiltshire,
+then Flemings and Germans, none of whom, however, except John of Cleves,
+designer of Caius College, Cambridge, rose to any special eminence,
+endeavoured to graft their own upon English methods, succeeding with
+rare exceptions only so far as the minor details of ornamentation were
+concerned.<a name="page_090" id="page_090"></a></p>
+
+<p>It is not to these men of alien birth but to the builders and masons of
+rural England that the country owes the many noble residences, dating
+from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, that, Gothic so far as
+their principles of construction are concerned, are enriched or spoiled,
+according to the point of view from which they are considered, by
+Renaissance ornamentation. Amongst these builders Thomas Holt, author of
+the Divinity School of Oxford, and Robert Smithson and John Thorpe,
+joint designers of Wollaton Hall, Northamptonshire, were especially
+distinguished. To the last named many critics also attribute Holland
+House, London, Rushton, Kirkby and Apethorpe Halls in Northamptonshire,
+and Knowle House in Kent, all of which are truly typical examples of
+English 16th or early 17th domestic or academic architecture at its
+best. To about the same period belong Lilford Hall, Northants, Westwood,
+Bolsover, Charlton, and Hatfield Houses, all somewhat wanting in the
+dignified simplicity of plan of the work of the men quoted above, but
+with an undoubted charm of their own.</p>
+
+<p>The master-builders who alike designed and executed the many beautiful
+mansions and colleges of the Elizabethan age&mdash;with whom must be
+associated the later John Abel, designer of several fine market-halls,
+including those of Kingston, Hereford, and Leominster&mdash;may justly be
+said to have paved the way for Inigo Jones, the first Englishman to
+introduce pure Renaissance architecture into his native land. Already
+before his advent these humble predecessors had partly evolved, out of
+the mediæval castle and the mediæval cottage, what was to become the
+typical English home, bringing about something like a revolution in
+planning by the innovations introduced by them with a view to admitting
+more air and light, and rendering access to the upper floors easier by
+the substitution of an internal staircase, for the external flight of
+steps leading up to each separate room hitherto the fashion.</p>
+
+<p>Gifted with a vivid imagination and a rare faculty of design, Inigo
+Jones succeeded in so adapting Italian ideals, especially those of
+Palladio, to English needs, that he may justly be said to have founded
+something approaching to a national style. Unfortunately few of the many
+schemes evolved by him were carried out in their entirety, but his plans
+and drawings prove him to have been the equal and, in some respects,
+even the superior of his great successor, Sir Christopher Wren. Of his
+grand design for the new Palace of Whitehall after the fire of 1619, the
+Banqueting Hall, considered his masterpiece, alone was completed, but he
+was the real architect of the equally successful Greenwich Hospital, for
+it was his plan that was followed after his death by Wren.<a name="page_091" id="page_091"></a></p>
+
+<p>Although it is the custom to dwell much on the unique opportunity
+afforded to Sir Christopher Wren by the great fire of 1666, there is no
+doubt that even without it he would have set his seal on the period
+during which he lived. His additions to Hampton Court Palace are most
+dignified and appropriate, his semi-Gothic Tom Tower at Oxford well
+illustrates his keen sense of environment, and his design for a Royal
+Palace at Winchester, had it been carried out, would have given to that
+city a building worthy to rank with its cathedral. As it is, his fame
+rests chiefly on his work in London, although the masterly scheme he
+drew up for the rebuilding of the whole town had to be considerably
+modified.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 245px;">
+<a href="images/ill_091.png">
+<img src="images/ill_091_sml.png" width="245" height="308" alt="Portion of Greenwich Hospital" title="Portion of Greenwich Hospital" /></a>
+<span class="caption">Portion of Greenwich Hospital</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>S. Paul's Cathedral, that dominates the vast agglomeration making up the
+modern capital, reflects, in its solemn and dignified beauty, almost as
+clearly as did a mediæval ecclesiastical Gothic edifice, the spirit of
+its age, during which the Puritan replaced the Roman Catholic ideal, and
+a rigid Protestantism became the religion of the people. Of noble and
+most harmonious proportions, S. Paul's is cruciform in plan, every
+portion of its exterior and interior subordinated to the great central
+dome, that, consisting as it does of an outer and inner vault, is
+equally impressive whether seen from within or from without. From
+whatever point of view, the dome, with its graceful lantern surmounted
+by a cross, remains the central feature of a structure at unity with
+itself, consistent in every<a name="page_092" id="page_092"></a> detail, the western towers and the great
+central portico with their appropriate classic pilasters and columns all
+being in complete and satisfying accord.</p>
+
+<p>The Churches of S. Stephen, Walbrook, S. Andrew, Holborn, S. James,
+Piccadilly, S. Clements Danes, S. Bride's, Fleet Street, and Bow are
+amongst the finest designed by Wren. The steeples of the last three are
+especially noteworthy as the earliest examples in England of the use of
+that feature in Renaissance buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Christopher did not pass away until the 18th century, which was to
+witness a rapid decline of architecture in England. His influence had
+begun to wane even before his death, and few of his immediate
+successors, with the exceptions of his pupils, Nicholas Hawkesmoor,
+architect of S. George's, Bloomsbury, and other London churches of
+similar design, and Sir John Vanburgh, who designed Castle Howard and
+Blenheim Palace, rose to eminence. James Gibbs, designer of the
+Ratcliffe Library at Oxford, also did some good work; the brothers Adam
+successfully imitated classic forms in certain London and Edinburgh
+buildings, and Sir Robert Taylor won some distinction by the Halls
+erected by him in Herefordshire and Essex.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the century a classic revival inaugurated by Sir
+William Chambers, designer of Somerset House, took place in England, and
+it became the fashion to add a Greek portico to every important public
+or private building. Typical examples of the new departure are S.
+Pancras Church, London, that is a kind of compilation from the
+Parthenon, the Erectheum, and the Temple of the Winds at Athens, and S.
+George's Hall, Liverpool, a skilful adaptation of the design of a hall
+of one of the great Thermæ of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 19th century a reaction took place against the classic
+style, which was not really adapted to the English climate, and
+architects began to show a desire to revert to Gothic traditions. In
+this new movement Sir Charles Barry took the lead. The Houses of
+Parliament, in the latest phase of the style, considered his
+masterpiece, is specially successful in its general plan and in the
+picturesqueness of its exterior. With Sir Charles Barry must be
+associated Augustine Pugin, a man of fine genius and originality, with a
+genuine feeling for mediæval Gothic, Norman Shaw, and Bodley, all of
+whom have done much to leaven the utilitarian tendencies of modern
+times.<a name="page_093" id="page_093"></a></p>
+
+<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li class="alpha">Alhambra, the, <a href="#page_042">42</a></li>
+
+<li>Amiens Cathedral, <a href="#page_065">65</a></li>
+
+<li>Amphitheatres, Roman, <a href="#page_028">28</a></li>
+
+<li>Anglo-Norman style, <a href="#page_054">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Anglo-Saxon style, <a href="#page_053">53</a></li>
+
+<li>Arch, <a href="#page_vi">vi</a></li>
+
+<li>Arches, Roman, <a href="#page_030">30</a></li>
+
+<li>Architecture, definition of, <a href="#page_v">v</a></li>
+
+<li>Asiatic architecture, <a href="#page_009">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Assyrian architecture, <a href="#page_009">9</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Babylonian architecture, <a href="#page_009">9</a></li>
+
+<li>Baptisteries, <a href="#page_035">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Basilicas, Roman, <a href="#page_026">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Baths, Roman, <a href="#page_027">27</a></li>
+
+<li>Buddhist architecture, <a href="#page_012">12</a></li>
+
+<li>Buvards, <a href="#page_v">v</a></li>
+
+<li>Byzantine architecture, <a href="#page_024">24</a>, <a href="#page_036">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Caryatid Porch, <a href="#page_021">21</a></li>
+
+<li>Castles, Norman, <a href="#page_059">59</a></li>
+
+<li>Cathedrals. <i>See</i> Churches</li>
+
+<li>Chaityas, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Chartres Cathedral, <a href="#page_064">64</a></li>
+
+<li>Chinese architecture, <a href="#page_013">13</a></li>
+
+<li>Christian architecture, Early, <a href="#page_031">31</a></li>
+
+<li>Churches, Anglo-Norman, <a href="#page_054">54</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#page_053">53</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Byzantine, <a href="#page_037">37</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early Christian, <a href="#page_031">31</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gothic, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_068">68</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Renaissance, <a href="#page_084">84</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_047">47</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Coliseum, <a href="#page_029">29</a></li>
+
+<li>Cologne Cathedral, <a href="#page_070">70</a></li>
+
+<li>Coptic architecture, <a href="#page_035">35</a></li>
+
+<li>Corinthian style, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Doric style, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18-21</a></li>
+
+<li>Durham Cathedral, <a href="#page_058">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Egyptian architecture, <a href="#page_007">7</a></li>
+
+<li>Etruscan architecture, <a href="#page_022">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Flamboyant Gothic style, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_065">65</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Gothic style, <a href="#page_050">50</a>, <a href="#page_060">60</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">British, <a href="#page_072">72</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Decorated, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_074">74</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Early English, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_079">79</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_062">62</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">German, <a href="#page_070">70</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian, <a href="#page_069">69</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Perpendicular, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_075">75</a>, <a href="#page_080">80</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spanish, <a href="#page_068">68</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Greek architecture, <a href="#page_013">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Hindu architecture, <a href="#page_012">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Indian architecture, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Ionic style, <a href="#page_016">16</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a>, <a href="#page_021">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Jones, Inigo, <a href="#page_090">90</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Keystone, <a href="#page_vi">vi</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Lâts, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Lintel, <a href="#page_vi">vi</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Mansions, English Renaissance, <a href="#page_090">90</a></li>
+
+<li>Mastabas, <a href="#page_007">7</a>, <a href="#page_010">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Materials employed, v, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_023">23</a></li>
+
+<li>Mosques, <a href="#page_040">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Nineveh, <a href="#page_010">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Norman style, <a href="#page_054">54</a></li>
+
+<li>Notre Dame of Paris, <a href="#page_063">63</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Palaces, Greek, <a href="#page_014">14</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian,</span> <a href="#page_010">10</a><a name="page_094" id="page_094"></a></li>
+
+<li>Palaces, Renaissance, <a href="#page_086">86</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_029">29</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Pantheon, <a href="#page_026">26</a></li>
+
+<li>Parthenon, <a href="#page_019">19</a></li>
+
+<li>Persian architecture, <a href="#page_009">9</a>, <a href="#page_010">10</a></li>
+
+<li>Peruvian architecture, <a href="#page_013">13</a></li>
+
+<li>Pyramids, <a href="#page_007">7</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Rayonnant Gothic style, <a href="#page_062">62</a>, <a href="#page_067">67</a></li>
+
+<li>Renaissance style British, <a href="#page_088">88</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">European, <a href="#page_083">83</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">French, <a href="#page_087">87</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Italian, <a href="#page_083">83</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Rococo style, <a href="#page_088">88</a></li>
+
+<li>Roman architecture, <a href="#page_022">22</a></li>
+
+<li>Romanesque style, <a href="#page_045">45</a></li>
+
+<li>Roofing, arcuated and trabeated, <a href="#page_vi">vi</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">S. Ambrogio, Milan, <a href="#page_048">48</a></li>
+
+<li>S. Marco, Venice, <a href="#page_039">39</a></li>
+
+<li>S. Paul's Cathedral, <a href="#page_091">91</a></li>
+
+<li>S. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, <a href="#page_084">84</a></li>
+
+<li>S. Sophia, Constantinople, <a href="#page_038">38</a></li>
+
+<li>Saracenic architecture, <a href="#page_040">40</a></li>
+
+<li>Stambhas, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Stupas, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Taj Mahal, <a href="#page_044">44</a></li>
+
+<li>Temples, Babylonian, <a href="#page_010">10</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Egyptian, <a href="#page_008">8</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_015">15</a>, <a href="#page_018">18</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indian, <a href="#page_011">11</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Tombs, Egyptian, <a href="#page_007">7</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Greek, <a href="#page_021">21</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Persian, <a href="#page_010">10</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Topes, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Tudor style, <a href="#page_073">73</a>, <a href="#page_076">76</a></li>
+
+<li>Tuscan style, <a href="#page_024">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Vaulting, Gothic, <a href="#page_061">61</a></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Roman, <a href="#page_024">24</a></span></li>
+<li><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Romanesque, <a href="#page_045">45</a></span></li>
+
+<li>Viharas, <a href="#page_011">11</a></li>
+
+<li>Voussoirs, <a href="#page_vi">vi</a></li>
+
+<li class="alpha">Westminster Abbey, <a href="#page_076">76</a>, <a href="#page_078">78</a>, <a href="#page_081">81</a></li>
+
+<li>Wren, Sir Christopher, <a href="#page_090">90</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<h3>THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS</h3>
+
+<p class="cb">General Editor&mdash;H. C. O'NEILL</p>
+
+<p>"With the 'People's Books' in hand there should be nobody of
+average intelligence unable to secure self-education."&mdash;<i>Sunday
+Times.</i></p>
+
+<p class="cb">NOW READY (February 1914)</p>
+
+<p class="cb">THE FIRST NINETY-SIX VOLUMES</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="books">
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">1.</td><td> The Foundations of Science</td><td>By W. C. D. Whetham, M.A., F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">2.</td><td> Embryology&mdash;The Beginnings of Life</td><td>By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">3.</td><td> Biology</td><td>By Prof. W. D. Henderson, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">4.</td><td> Zoology: The Study of Animal Life</td><td>By Prof. E. W. MacBride, M.A., F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">5.</td><td> Botany; The Modern Study of Plants</td><td>By M. C. Stopes, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">7.</td><td> The Structure of the Earth</td><td>By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">8.</td><td> Evolution</td><td>By E. S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">10.</td><td> Heredity</td><td>By J. A. S. Watson, B.Sc.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">11.</td><td> Inorganic Chemistry</td><td>By Prof. E. C. C. Baly, F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">12.</td><td> Organic Chemistry</td><td>By Prof. J. B. Cohen, B.Sc., F.R.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">13.</td><td> The Principles of Electricity</td><td>By Norman R. Campbell, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">14.</td><td> Radiation</td><td>By P. Phillips, D.Sc.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">15.</td><td> The Science of the Stars</td><td>By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">16.</td><td> The Science of Light</td><td>By P. Phillips. D.Sc.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">17.</td><td> Weather Science</td><td>By R. G. K. Lempfert, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">18.</td><td> Hypnotism and Self-Education</td><td>By A. M. Hutchison, M.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">19.</td><td> The Baby: A Mother's Book</td><td>By a University Woman.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">20.</td><td> Youth and Sex&mdash;Dangers and Safeguards for Boys and Girls</td><td>By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., and F. Arthur Sibly, M.A., LL.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">21.</td><td> Marriage and Motherhood</td><td>By H. S. Davidson, M.B., F.R.C.S.E.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">22.</td><td> Lord Kelvin</td><td>By A. Russell, M.A., D.Sc., M.I.E.E.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">23.</td><td> Huxley</td><td>By Professor G. Leighton, M.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">24.</td><td> Sir William Huggins and Spectroscopic Astronomy</td><td>By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">26.</td><td> Henri Bergson</td><td>By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">27.</td><td> Psychology</td><td>By H. J. Watt, M.A., Ph.D., D.Phil.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">28.</td><td> Ethics</td><td>By Canon Rashdall, D.Litt., F.B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">29.</td><td> Kant's Philosophy</td><td>By A. D. Lindsay, M.A. of Balliol College, Oxford.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">32.</td><td> Roman Catholicism</td><td>By H. B. Coxon. Preface, Mgr. R. H. Benson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">33.</td><td> The Oxford Movement</td><td>By Wilfrid Ward.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">34.</td><td> The Bible and Criticism</td><td>By W. H. Bennett, D.D., Litt.D., and W. F. Adeney, D.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">36.</td><td> The Growth of Freedom</td><td>By H. W. Nevinson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">37.</td><td> Bismarck and the Origin of the German Empire</td><td>Professor F. M. Powicke.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">38.</td><td> Oliver Cromwell</td><td>By Hilda Johnstone, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">39.</td><td> Mary Queen of Scots</td><td>By E. O'Neill, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">40.</td><td> Cecil John Rhodes, 1853-1902</td><td>By Ian D. Colvin.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">41.</td><td> Julius Cæsar</td><td>By Hilary Hardinge.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">42.</td><td> England in the Making</td><td>By Prof. F. J. C. Hearnshaw, M.A., LL.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">43.</td><td> England in the Middle Ages</td><td>By E. O'Neill, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">44.</td><td> The Monarchy and the People</td><td>By W. T. Waugh, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">45.</td><td> The Industrial Revolution</td><td>By Arthur Jones, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">46.</td><td> Empire and Democracy</td><td>By G. S. Veitch, M.A., Litt.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">47.</td><td> Women's Suffrage</td><td>By M. G. Fawcett, LL.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">51.</td><td> Shakespeare</td><td>By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt. D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">52.</td><td> Wordsworth</td><td>By Rosaline Masson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">53.</td><td> Pure Gold&mdash;A Choice of Lyrics and Sonnets</td><td>By H. C. O'Neill.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">54.</td><td> Francis Bacon</td><td>By Prof. A. R. Skemp, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">55.</td><td> The Brontës</td><td>By Flora Masson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">56.</td><td> Carlyle</td><td>By L. MacLean Watt.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">57.</td><td> Dante</td><td>By A. G. Ferrers Howell.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">60.</td><td> A Dictionary of Synonyms</td><td>By Austin K. Gray, B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">61.</td><td> Home Rule</td><td>By L. G. Redmond Howard. Preface by Robert Harcourt, M.P.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">62.</td><td> Practical Astronomy</td><td>By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">63.</td><td> Aviation</td><td>By Sydney F. Walker, R.N.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">64.</td><td> Navigation</td><td>By William Hall, R.N., B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">65.</td><td> Pond Life</td><td>By E. C. Ash, M.R.A.C.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">66.</td><td> Dietetics</td><td>By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">67.</td><td> Aristotle</td><td>By Prof. A. E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">68.</td><td> Friedrich Nietzsche</td><td>By M. A. Mügge.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">69.</td><td> Eucken: A Philosophy of Life</td><td>By A. J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">70.</td><td> The Experimental Psychology of Beauty</td><td>By C. W. Valentine, B.A., D.Phil.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">71.</td><td> The Problem of Truth</td><td>By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">72.</td><td> The Church of England</td><td>By Rev. Canon Masterman.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">74.</td><td> The Free Churches</td><td>By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">75.</td><td> Judaism</td><td>By Ephraim Levine, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">76.</td><td> Theosophy</td><td>By Annie Besant.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">78.</td><td> Wellington and Waterloo</td><td>By Major G. W. Redway.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">79.</td><td> Mediaeval Socialism</td><td>By Bede Jarrett, O.P., M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">80.</td><td> Syndicalism</td><td>By J. H. Harley, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">82.</td><td> Co-operation</td><td>By Joseph Clayton.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">83.</td><td> Insurance as a Means of Investment</td><td>By W. A. Robertson, F.F.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">85.</td><td> A History of English Literature</td><td>By A. Compton-Rickett, LL.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">87.</td><td> Charles Lamb</td><td>By Flora Masson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">88.</td><td> Goethe</td><td>By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">92.</td><td> The Training of the Child</td><td>By G. Spiller.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">93.</td><td> Tennyson</td><td>By Aaron Watson.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">94.</td><td> The Nature of Mathematics</td><td>By P. E. B. Jourdain, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">95.</td><td> Applications of Electricity</td><td>By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">96.</td><td> Gardening</td><td>By A. Cecil Bartlett.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">98.</td><td> Atlas of the World</td><td>By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">101.</td><td> Luther and the Reformation</td><td>By Leonard D. Agate, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">103.</td><td> Turkey and the Eastern Question</td><td>By John Macdonald, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">104.</td><td> Architecture</td><td>By Mrs. Arthur Bell.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">105.</td><td> Trade Unions</td><td>By Joseph Clayton.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">106.</td><td> Everyday Law</td><td>By J. J. Adams.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">108.</td><td> Shelley</td><td>By Sydney Waterlow, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">110.</td><td> British Birds</td><td>By F. B. Kirkman, B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">111.</td><td> Spiritualism</td><td>By J. Arthur Hill.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">112.</td><td> Kindergarten Teaching at Home</td><td>By Two Members of the National Froebel Union.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">113.</td><td> Schopenhauer</td><td>By Margrieta Beer, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">114.</td><td> The Stock Exchange</td><td>By J. F. Wheeler.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">115.</td><td> Coleridge</td><td>By S. L. Bensusan.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">116.</td><td> The Crusades</td><td>By M. M. C. Calthrop.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">117.</td><td> Wild Flowers</td><td>By Macgregor Skene, B.Sc.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">118.</td><td> Principles of Logic</td><td>By Stanley Williams, B.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">119.</td><td> The Foundations of Religion</td><td>By Stanley A. Cook, M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">120.</td><td> History of Rome</td><td>By A. F. Giles. M.A.</td></tr>
+<tr valign="top"><td align="right">121.</td><td> Land, Industry, and Taxation</td><td>By Frederick Verinder.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="c">LONDON AND EDINBURGH: T. C. &amp; E. C. JACK<br />
+NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Nancy R E Meugens Bell
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@@ -0,0 +1,3847 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Architecture, by Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Architecture
+
+Author: Nancy R E Meugens Bell
+
+Release Date: August 30, 2010 [EBook #33589]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ARCHITECTURE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images available at The Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+BY MRS. ARTHUR BELL
+
+AUTHOR OF "THE ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ART," "MASTERPIECES OF
+THE GREAT ARTISTS," "REPRESENTATIVE PAINTERS OF
+THE NINETEENTH CENTURY," ETC.
+
+[Illustration: logo]
+
+LONDON: T. C. & E. C. JACK
+
+67 LONG ACRE, W.C., AND EDINBURGH
+
+NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAP.                                                      PAGE
+
+      INTRODUCTION: WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS--MATERIALS
+          EMPLOYED--DEFINITION OF DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF
+          THE TWO MAIN STYLES, TRABEATED AND ARCUATED         v
+
+   I. EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE      7
+
+  II. GREEK ARCHITECTURE                                     13
+
+ III. ROMAN ARCHITECTURE                                     22
+
+  IV. EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE                           31
+
+   V. BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE                   36
+
+  VI. ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE                                45
+
+ VII. ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE              52
+
+VIII. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE                          60
+
+  IX. GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN                   72
+
+   X. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE                     83
+
+  XI. RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN              88
+
+      INDEX                                                  93
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+WHAT ARCHITECTURE IS--MATERIALS EMPLOYED--DEFINITION OF DISTINCTIVE
+FEATURES OF THE TWO MAIN STYLES, TRABEATED AND ARCUATED
+
+
+It is only when a building entirely fulfils the purpose for which it is
+intended and bears the impress of a genuine style that it takes rank as
+a work of architecture. This definition, exclusive though it at first
+sight appears, brings within the province of the art every structure
+which combines with practical utility beauty of design and execution,
+from the humblest cottage to the most dignified temple or palace.
+Suitability of material and harmony with its surroundings are among the
+minor factors that give to a building vitality of character and
+contribute to its enduring value, a value enhanced by its reflection of
+the needs and aspirations of those by whom and for whom it was erected.
+
+Wood appears to have been the earliest material used for the building of
+a home when out-of-door dwellings took the place of the caves that were
+the first shelters of primitive man. At Joigny in France there still
+exist examples of what are supposed to be the most ancient of all such
+dwellings, namely circular holes, locally known as _buvards_, in which
+the trunk of a tree had been fixed, the branches plastered over with
+clay forming the roof of a simple but rain-proof refuge. Huts of wattle
+and hurdle work dating from prehistoric times have also been preserved,
+some rising from the ground, others from platforms resting on piles sunk
+in the beds of lakes. These were in their time superseded by stronger
+structures, with walls made of squared beams piled up horizontally and
+fastened together at the corners with wooden pegs; the roof being formed
+of roughly sawn planks. Out of such primeval houses as these were
+evolved in the course of centuries the picturesque half-timbered
+cottages of mediaeval Europe and the quaint wooden churches of Norway
+such as the characteristic one at Hitterdal.
+
+Limestone, granite, and sandstone were used for building at a very
+remote period in much the same way as wood, large blocks, fresh from the
+quarry, of all manner of different shapes, being piled up horizontally
+or stood on edge, no cement being employed, though in certain cases
+crushed stone was used to fill up the spaces between the blocks. To
+walls or buildings of which courses of undressed stone were the only
+materials, the name of Cyclopean has been given because of the erroneous
+belief that it was originated by the Cyclopes, an imaginary race of
+giants, supposed to have lived in Thrace, a province of ancient Greece.
+
+Bricks, that is to say, dried blocks of clay, were used at a very early
+date as a supplement to or substitute for wood and stone for building
+purposes. The most ancient bricks were not subjected to artificial heat
+but were simply exposed to the sun, and even when kiln-baked bricks were
+introduced they were often employed merely to face the older variety.
+Spacious and lofty buildings consisting entirely of bricks were erected
+at a very early date in Assyria, Persia, and elsewhere, and some of the
+most noteworthy architectural survivals of the Roman Empire are of the
+same material.
+
+The main features of a building are determined by the shape of the walls
+or the mode of arrangement of the pillars that take the place of walls,
+the way in which the roof is constructed, and that in which the openings
+of the doors and windows are spanned. The earliest roofs were flat, and
+the most ancient mode of linking together the supports of doors and
+windows was to place a plank of wood or slab of stone known as a
+_lintel_ across them at the top. To this style of roofing and spanning,
+which reached its most perfect development in the temples of Greece, the
+name of the _trabeated_ was given, derived in the first instance from
+the so-called _trabea_, a toga adorned with horizontal stripes.
+
+It was only by very gradual degrees that the trabeated mode of roofing
+and spanning was succeeded by what is known as the _arcuated_, or that
+in which the arch takes the place of the horizontal beam. In early Roman
+temples and palaces the Greek style was long carefully copied, but in
+utilitarian works such as bridges, viaducts, and drains the arch was
+employed at a very remote period. An arch whether circular or pointed
+consists of two series of stones cut into the form of wedges known as
+_voussoirs_, a central one at the apex or highest point called the
+_keystone_ locking the two series together. This beautiful contrivance,
+the inventor of which is unknown, gradually revolutionised the science
+of architecture. It was used at first, tentatively as it were, in
+combination with the horizontal beam or slab of stone, but in the end
+became in its rounded form the distinctive peculiarity of the Romanesque
+and in its pointed shape of the Gothic style.
+
+
+
+
+ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EGYPTIAN, ASIATIC, AND EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The most ancient existing examples of Egyptian architecture are the
+royal tombs of the Memphite kingdom known as the Pyramids, of which the
+oldest is that of King Seneferu (about 3000 B.C.) at Medum, and the
+largest, which rises to a height of 481 feet from a base 764 feet
+square, that called the Great Pyramid of King Cheops (3788-3666) at
+Ghizeh, near Cairo, on which 100,000 men are said to have been
+continuously employed for thirty years. The latter is not only a marvel
+of constructive skill, but is by many authorities considered to be a
+most accurately designed astronomical observatory.
+
+[Illustration: Section of King's Chamber, and of Passage in Great
+Pyramid]
+
+The Pyramids consist of masses of admirably squared and polished stones,
+in certain cases supplemented with bricks piled up in the form of a
+rectangle around a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which was most
+carefully concealed. When the body of the monarch had been placed in it
+the tapering mound above it was finished off with huge facing blocks,
+that were skilfully worked into the angle required and finally levelled
+to a smooth surface.
+
+Near the Pyramids of the kings are the tombs, known as Mastabas, of
+their wives and children and of the great officers of state. They are
+constructed of stone, are square or oblong in form, and their walls are
+adorned with paintings of scenes from contemporary life, the whole
+reminiscent of earlier timber structures. Later tombs are those hewn out
+of the living rock at Beni Hassan and elsewhere, dating from about 2500
+B.C., with porticoes upheld by columns resembling those of Greek
+temples and flat or curved roofs, the latter suggestive of the principle
+of the arch having been known to those who excavated them.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Hall at Karnak]
+
+It was between 1600 B.C. and 1110 B.C. that the Egyptians reached their
+highest point of civilisation, and it was during that period that were
+erected the magnificent Theban temples, of which those at Karnak and
+Luxor, which were connected by an avenue of colossal sphinxes, are the
+finest still remaining. The plan of all Egyptian temples of whatever
+size was the same: a horizontal gateway flanked on either side by masses
+of masonry of considerably greater height than it, known as pylons,
+their surfaces enriched with symbolic carvings, giving access to a
+square space open to the sky, and partly surrounded with cloisters,
+leading into a noble hall of huge dimensions, its flat roof upheld by
+columns, some with capitals resembling lotus buds, others representing
+the head of the goddess Isis. Beyond this hall were a number of small
+dark rooms, the use of which has never been ascertained, enclosing
+within them the nucleus of the whole, the low narrow mysterious cell or
+sanctuary in which was enshrined the image of the god to whom the temple
+was dedicated. Outside these noble buildings were ranged obelisks, or
+four-sided tapering-pillars of great height, covered with hieroglyphics
+commemorating the triumphs of the kings, and colossal figures, few of
+which remain _in situ_, which added greatly to the dignity of the
+appearance of the whole.
+
+To the same period as the temples of Thebes belong those of very similar
+general design hewn out of the sides of the mountains of Nubia, of which
+the best example is the larger of the two at Ipsambul, specially
+noteworthy for the huge seated figure of the monarch for whom it was
+built, the great Rameses II, guarding the entrance to it. The tombs of
+the Theban rulers, like the Nubian temples, were hewn out of the living
+rock, and are many of them, notably those known as the Tombs of the
+Kings and the Tombs of the Queens in the plains watered by the Nile, of
+vast extent, labyrinths of passages, alternating with large rooms,
+leading to the actual sepulchral chamber.
+
+[Illustration: Tomb at Beni Hassan]
+
+Of considerably later date than any of the buildings referred to above
+are the temples of Denderah, Edfou, and Philae, erected after the
+conquest of Egypt by the Greeks, but they all resemble those of the
+Theban dynasty in general style, whilst that at Esneh is a good example
+of the results of Roman influence.
+
+Very great is the contrast to Egyptian architecture presented by the
+Asiatic buildings that have been preserved to the present day. In the
+former stone was the usual material employed, and the mode of
+construction was as a general rule that known as the post and lintel,
+whilst in the latter brick was almost exclusively used, and the arch was
+a distinctive feature. The so-called Babylonian or Chaldean, Assyrian,
+and Persian styles resemble each other so greatly that they may justly
+be said to belong to one type, evolved by the inhabitants of the
+extensive region watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, who like the
+Egyptians attained to a very advanced civilisation at a remote period.
+Of the temples not a single one has been preserved, but the remains have
+recently been excavated, in the mounds on the site of Babylon, of four
+that consisted of numerous chambers enclosing a large court with towered
+gateways, whilst at Assur another has been uncovered of a somewhat
+similar design. To atone for the lack of temples many Asiatic palaces
+have been to some extent reconstructed, the most remarkable being those
+unearthed near the villages of Nimrod, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, all
+supposed to be relics of Nineveh. They originally consisted of lofty
+many-roomed structures raised on high platforms, and entered from arched
+gateways flanked by colossal winged bulls of stone. The brick walls were
+encased in alabaster slabs carved with figure subjects in low relief,
+some of which are in the British Museum, and galleries, rising from
+columns with capitals that foreshadowed Greek forms, admitted air and
+light freely. The Palace of Nebuchadnezzar has also recently been
+identified, and must when uninjured have been an immense castle-like
+pile with a vast number of courts and halls to which a paved way led up.
+
+[Illustration: Terrace Wall at Khorsabad]
+
+Tombs and palaces are the chief relics of Persian architecture. Many of
+the former, notably that near Murghab, supposed to have been the
+sepulchre of Cyrus, resemble Greek temples in general style, whilst
+others are rock-cut and recall the Mastabas of Egypt. Of the palaces
+those at Persepolis were the most remarkable, for in them Persian
+architecture reached its fullest development. Their ruins, that rise
+from a platform some forty feet high hewn out of the surface of the
+living rock, to which long flights of steps led up, consist of vast
+columned halls entered from detached porticoes known as propylaea. When
+intact the largest of these halls, named after Xerxes, must have
+exceeded in size the cathedrals of Canterbury or Winchester.
+
+Other noteworthy relics of early Asiatic architecture are the tombs of
+Lycia, Phrygia, and Lydia. The first named--of which the so-called tomb
+of the Harpies now in the British Museum is a typical example--are all
+either cut in the living rock or carved out of detached masses of stone,
+in either case recalling in their general appearance the log-huts of
+prehistoric times. More ornate than those of Lycia, the Phrygian
+sepulchral monuments, of which the grave of Midas at Doganlu is the
+finest, are also rock hewn, but their shape and decoration are more
+suggestive of the tent than the wooden dwelling, whilst those in Lydia
+are comparatively primitive, being in some cases, notably in the Tumulus
+of Tantalus on the Gulf of Smyrna, mere masses of stone heaped up above
+a huge mound.
+
+[Illustration: Restored Section of Hall of Xerxes]
+
+[Illustration: Capital of Lat]
+
+The most ancient examples of Indian architecture are the Stambhas or
+Lats, the earliest dating from the time of Asoka (272-236 B.C.), that
+are pillars bearing inscriptions and surmounted by a symbolic animal
+such as an elephant or a lion, of which there is a good specimen at
+Allahabad, and the Stupas or Topes, mounds encased in masonry, crowned
+by a reliquary containing memorials of Buddha or of his chief disciples,
+and enclosed within a stone railing elaborately carved with scenes from
+the life of the founder of Buddhism, with an even more ornate gateway at
+each of the four corners, of which the finest is the larger of two at
+Sanchi in Central India. Even more interesting than the Lats and Stupas
+are the Viharas or Buddhist monasteries, of which there is a specially
+good example at Nigope near Behar, and the Chaityas or temples, of which
+those at Karli, Ellora, Ajunta, and Elephanta are amongst the finest.
+All alike hewn out of the living rock, the former consist of a square
+central hall with or without columns, surrounded by cells for the
+monks, whilst the latter, of more complicated design, resemble in
+general plan a Roman basilica. A wide nave with rows of massive pillars
+upholding a slightly domed roof is flanked by lateral aisles, and at the
+eastern end rises a semicircular sanctuary containing a seated figure of
+Buddha.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Cave at Karli]
+
+Out of the Buddhist religion grew that known as the Jaina, and many fine
+temples, of which the most remarkable are that at Sadri and the Dilwana
+Temple on Mount Abu, remain that were erected for the use of its
+professors. It was usual to group a number on some hill-top, and the
+plan of each was generally that of a Greek cross, a columned portico
+giving access to a complex collection of shrines, each approached by
+avenues of pillars and roofed in with a separate dome, whilst the
+exterior was adorned with rounded towers finished off with pointed
+finials suggestive of a spire, the whole both inside and out being
+richly decorated with carvings.
+
+[Illustration: View of Temple at Sadri]
+
+Hindu architecture, or that of those who hold the Brahmanic faith,
+differs very greatly from Buddhist, its chief characteristic being a
+lofty pyramidal tower of several stories, as a general rule covered with
+ornament, that reached its fullest development in the so-called pagodas,
+of which there are fine specimens at Jaggernaut, Mahavellipore, and
+Palitana. In different parts of India various modifications of this
+general style occur to which distinctive names have been given, but the
+same spirit may be said to pervade them all, from the great Temples of
+Bhuvaneswar, Tanjore, Bundaban, and elsewhere, to the humbler shrines
+scattered throughout the length and breadth of the vast continent and of
+its island dependencies.
+
+There is nothing very distinctive about the architecture of China or
+Japan. The Buddhist temples in both countries recall those of India, but
+the pagodas, most of which are of wood faced with porcelain tiles,
+differ slightly in having a curved roof to each story. The palaces of
+China are impressive on account of their vast extent and the use of
+copper in their construction, but the domestic buildings of Japan are
+all of comparatively small size.
+
+In America as in Asia are many deeply interesting architectural relics
+of the civilisation of the early inhabitants, of which the most
+remarkable are the ruins of Cyclopean buildings on the shores of Lake
+Tatiaca, the remains of the ancient city of Cuzco, all in Peru, and the
+Teocallis or temples and Palaces of the kings in Mexico, Yucatan, and
+Guatemala, none of which however call for description here as they did
+not influence the architecture of the future in their own or any other
+country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+GREEK ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+In their architecture as in their sculpture the Greeks gave eloquent
+expression to the exquisite feeling for symmetry of form which was one
+of their most distinctive characteristics. Architects and masons were in
+close touch with the people for whom they built, no social barriers, so
+far as the arts and crafts were concerned, divided class from class,
+citizens, aliens, and even slaves vying with each other in their zeal to
+produce the best work possible.
+
+The finest buildings of ancient Greece and its dependencies entirely
+fulfilled the conditions of true architecture, for they were beautiful
+alike in design and execution, admirably adapted to the purpose for
+which they were erected, and in complete harmony with their
+surroundings. Moreover they are of exceptional importance in the
+history of the evolution of the art on account of the influence they
+exercised on that of other countries, all their distinctive features
+having been either copied or modified in those of the rest of Europe.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Greek Temple]
+
+The Greeks, though they were doubtless acquainted with the arch, the
+dome, and the tower, refrained as a general rule from using them,
+probably because they considered them unsuitable to the topographical
+and climatic conditions that prevailed in their native land. They
+achieved their highest results by means of correctness of proportion and
+dignity of outline, giving far more attention to the exterior than to
+the interior of their buildings, and in this respect differing greatly
+from the Egyptians, who endeavoured to impress the spectator chiefly by
+the vast extent and massiveness of their temples and palaces.
+
+[Illustration: Doric Capital]
+
+Recent discoveries on the site of Knossos in Crete of the remains of a
+many-roomed palace, and elsewhere in the same island of circular stone
+tombs, all of which betray strong Oriental influence, confirm the
+opinion of archaeologists that it was in the islands of the AEgina Sea
+that the first works of architecture properly so called were erected in
+Europe. On the mainland of Greece, notably at Mycenae and Tiryns, exists
+relics of many buildings, including at the former the noble Lion Gate
+that gave access to the Acropolis, and at the latter the residence of a
+chieftain, which maintain the continuity between the earliest and the
+latest phase of Greek architecture, and may justly be said to presage
+the triumphs of the Golden Age.
+
+[Illustration: Column from the Parthenon]
+
+From first to last Hellenic architecture was characterised by unity of
+purpose, its grandest forms being essentially the same in general
+principle as its earliest efforts, the mud walls with timber pillars
+upholding a flat wooden roof, having been gradually transformed into
+stately colonnaded structures in costly materials, that to this day
+remain absolutely unrivalled in their exquisite beauty of proportion and
+the close correlation of every detail with each other and the whole.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of a Doric Entablature]
+
+The grand temples of Greece were built either of stone or of marble. As
+a general rule they are set on a platform to which a long flight of
+steps lead up, and are enclosed within an outer wall or a continuous
+colonnade. Their plan is extremely simple: a parallelogram, formed in
+some cases entirely of columns, in others with walls at the side and
+columns at the ends only, encloses a second and considerably smaller
+pillared space known as the cella or naos, that enshrined the image of
+the god to whom the building was dedicated, and was entered from a
+pronaos or porch, and with a posticum or back space behind it, sometimes
+supplemented by a kind of second cella called the opisthodomus or back
+temple. The front columns at either end are spanned by horizontal beams
+that uphold a sloping gable called a pediment, the flat, three-cornered
+surface of which is generally adorned with sculpture in bas-relief, and
+along the side-columns is placed what is known as the entablature, that
+consists of three parts, the architrave resting on the capitals of the
+columns, the frieze above it and the cornice, the last of which
+sustains the flat roof, usually covered with tiles or marble copies of
+tiles.
+
+[Illustration: The Parthenon]
+
+Greek architecture is generally divided into three groups or orders: the
+Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, each of which, though the buildings
+belonging to them resemble each other in general plan, is distinguished
+by certain peculiarities of the columns and entablatures. The Doric was
+the earliest to be employed, but the Ionic, that early succeeded it, was
+long used simultaneously with it, sometimes even in the same building,
+whilst the Corinthian did not come into use until considerably later.
+
+[Illustration: Metope from the Parthenon]
+
+In the Doric order the column has no separate base, but rises direct
+from the top step of the platform on which the building it belongs to
+stands. It is of massive form and has what is known as an entasis or
+slightly convex surface, it is generally fluted, that is to say, cut
+into parallel perpendicular channels, several rings called annulets
+connecting it with the capital, which consists of an echinus or rounded
+moulding and an abacus or unrounded slab resting on the echinus. The
+Doric entablature is equally simple, the architrave being perfectly
+plain, whilst the frieze is adorned with triglyphs or three upright
+projections with grooves between them, set at equal distances from each
+other, the spaces separating them, known as metopes, being as a rule
+enriched with fine sculptures of figure subjects. The frieze is
+connected with the cornice by narrow bands called mutules resting on the
+triglyphs and metopes, and the cornice itself has a plain lower band
+known as the corona, surmounted by more or less decorated courses of
+stone or marble.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Frieze of Parthenon]
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Frieze of Parthenon]
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Capital]
+
+The Ionic and Corinthian orders are alike characterised by lightness and
+grace rather than massiveness and simplicity. In both, the columns,
+instead of rising direct from the platform, have a complex base
+consisting of a number of circular mouldings above another, the fluted
+shafts are comparatively slim and tapering, and the channels in them are
+divided by spaces called fillets. In the Ionic order the flat abacus of
+the Doric capital is replaced by two coiled volutes projecting beyond
+the echinus on either side, and the horizontal portion between the
+volutes is surmounted by finely carved leaf mouldings. The Corinthian
+order is specially distinguished by the ornate decoration of the
+capitals, that represent calices of flowers and leaves, chiefly those of
+the acanthus, arranged so as to point upwards and curve outwards in much
+the same style as they do in nature. The architrave in both the Ionic
+and the Corinthian orders consists of plain slabs, but the frieze--which
+is not divided as in Doric buildings into triglyphs and metopes--is in
+nearly every case enriched with a series of beautiful figure subjects,
+and is therefore known as the Zoophorus or figure-bearer.
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Column]
+
+Among the most ancient remains of sacred Greek architecture are those of
+the Heraeon or Sanctuary of the Goddess Hera at Olympia; of the temple
+that preceded the Parthenon at Athens; and of those at Assos in Asia
+Minor, Selinus in Sicily, and Corcyra in Corfu, the last a very typical
+example of archaic Doric, with a pediment in which are primitive
+sculptures of a gorgon flanked by lions. Of somewhat later date are the
+ruined temples at Girgenti, Syracuse, and Segesta, all in Sicily, the
+last the best preserved of all; the group at Paestum in Southern Italy,
+of which that of Neptune is the finest, the pediments having been
+originally filled in with beautifully executed sculptured figures. The
+Temple of Athene in the island of AEgina marks the transition from the
+extreme severity of early Doric to the more ornate buildings of the
+Golden Age of Greek architecture, its decorative sculptures being of
+exquisite design and execution. The Temple of Jupiter at Athens, begun
+in the Doric style by Pisistratus about 540 B.C. and not completed
+until about 174 B.C., has Corinthian capitals on some of its columns,
+and the Temple of Theseus, of uncertain date, in the same city, that
+consists entirely of white marble, ranks, in spite of its severe
+simplicity, even with that of Neptune at Paestum on account of its fine
+proportions and the admirable finish of every detail.
+
+[Illustration: Ionic Entablature from the Erectheum]
+
+It was in the Parthenon, or Temple of the Virgin Goddess of Wisdom, at
+Athens, that the Doric style found its highest expression, for in it
+were combined the massive grandeur of the archaic period with the
+refinements of construction, decoration, and lighting of a more
+scientific but not less aesthetic age. It occupies the site of an earlier
+building, the relics of which are referred to above, that was destroyed
+by Xerxes, and it rises from the summit of the lofty rock of the
+Acropolis that dominated the ancient city. It was built, it is supposed,
+by the famous architects Ictinus and Callicrates about 440 B.C., under
+the enlightened ruler Pericles, and its decorative sculptures, some of
+which are now in the British Museum, were the work of Phidias and his
+pupils, and, mutilated though they are, they still rank amongst the
+greatest masterpieces of plastic art.
+
+Before the Parthenon, after being long used as a Christian church, was
+reduced to ruins by the explosion of a shell, when in 1687 it was
+desecrated by being converted into a powder magazine by the Turks during
+their struggle with the Venetians, it must have been one of the very
+noblest buildings in the world, forming with other sanctuaries and
+secular buildings on the world-famous hill a spectacle of surpassing
+grandeur, the pride and glory of the whole Greek world.
+
+[Illustration: Acanthus Ornament]
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Capital]
+
+The Parthenon was 228 feet long by 101 broad, and 64 feet high; the
+porticoes at each end had a double row of eight columns; the sculptures
+in the pediments were in full relief, representing in the eastern the
+Birth of Athene, and in the western the Struggle between that goddess
+and Poseidon, whilst those on the metopes, some of which are supposed to
+be from the hand of Alcamenes, the contemporary and rival of Phidias,
+rendered scenes from battles between the Gods and Giants, the Greeks and
+the Amazons, and the Centaurs and Lapithae.
+
+Of somewhat later date than the Parthenon and resembling it in general
+style, though it is very considerably smaller, is the Theseum or Temple
+of Theseus on the plain on the north-west of the Acropolis, and at Bassae
+in Arcadia is a Doric building, dedicated to Apollo Epicurius and
+designed by Ictinus, that has the peculiarity of facing north and south
+instead of, as was usual, east and west.
+
+Scarcely less beautiful than the Parthenon itself is the grand triple
+portico known as the Propylaea that gives access to it on the western
+side. It was designed about 430 by Mnesicles, and in it the Doric and
+Ionic styles are admirably combined, whilst in the Erectheum, sacred to
+the memory of Erechtheus, a hero of Attica, the Ionic order is seen at
+its best, so delicate is the carving of the capitals of its columns. It
+has moreover the rare and distinctive feature of what is known as a
+caryatid porch, that is to say, one in which the entablature is upheld
+by caryatides or statues representing female figures.
+
+Other good examples of the Ionic style are the small Temple of Nike
+Apteros, or the Wingless Victory, situated not far from the Propylaea and
+the Parthenon of Athens, the more important Temple of Apollo at
+Branchidae near Miletus, originally of most imposing dimensions, and that
+of Artemis at Ephesus, of which however only a few fragments remain _in
+situ_.
+
+Of the sacred buildings of Greece in which the Corinthian order was
+employed there exist, with the exception of the Temple of Jupiter at
+Athens already referred to, but a few scattered remains, such as the
+columns from Epidaurus now in the Athens Museum, that formed part of a
+circlet of Corinthian pillars within a Doric colonnade. In the Temple of
+Athena Alea at Tegea, designed by Scopas in 394, however, the transition
+from the Ionic to the Corinthian style is very clearly illustrated, and
+in the circular Monument of Lysicrates, erected in 334 B.C. to
+commemorate the triumph of that hero's troop in the choric dances in
+honour of Dionysos, and the Tower of the Winds, both at Athens, the
+Corinthian style is seen at its best.
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Column from Monument of Lysicrates]
+
+In addition to the temples described above, some remains of tombs,
+notably that of the huge Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in memory of King
+Mausolus, who died in 353 B.C., and several theatres, including that of
+Dionysos at Athens, with a well-preserved one of larger size at
+Epidaurus, bear witness to the general prevalence of Doric features in
+funereal monuments and secular buildings, but of the palaces and humbler
+dwelling-houses in the three Greek styles, of which there must have been
+many fine examples, no trace remains. There is however no doubt that
+the Corinthian style was very constantly employed after the power of the
+great republics had been broken, and the Oriental taste for lavish
+decoration replaced the love for austere simplicity of the virile people
+of Greece and its dependencies.
+
+[Illustration: Corinthian Entablature from Monument of Lysicrates]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+After the Golden Age of Greek architecture properly so called was over,
+a kind of aftermath prevailed for some little time in the peninsula and
+the outlying colonies of Greece, to be succeeded by a transition time to
+which the name of the Hellenistic has been given, during which is
+supposed to have been inaugurated the use of the arch and the vault,
+which were in course of time to revolutionise the art of building.
+
+It has long been customary to give to the Etruscans, an Asiatic people
+who in very early times occupied a considerable portion of Italy, the
+credit of the first introduction of the arch in Western Europe. It is
+however now more generally believed that the Roman style of building was
+an offshoot of the Hellenistic, in which the dome was certainly
+employed, though no existing examples of its use can be quoted. The city
+of Alexandria, founded about 332 B.C. by Alexander the Great, is known
+to have had four principal colonnaded streets leading from a four-arched
+central building, and many are of opinion that much of the town was
+built over arched cisterns. The dome may possibly have been in the first
+instance introduced into western Europe as a cover for the hot baths in
+which the wealthy delighted, and its form was probably the same as that
+of the one preserved at Pompeii. The famous arched drain at Rome, known
+as the Cloaca Maxima, so constantly referred to as the greatest
+masterpiece of the Etruscans was not, it has now been proved, built
+until after their subjugation and extinction as a nation. For all that
+they were without doubt most skilful architects and engineers; the walls
+of their cities were of cyclopean masonry and were entered from arched
+gateways, a good example of which is to be seen at Volterra, constructed
+of wedge-shaped stones fixed without cement. Their rock-cut tombs, such
+as those at Corneto, Vulci, and Chiusi, are divided into many chambers,
+the walls adorned with paintings, the roof upheld by columns, and the
+facades resembling those of Egyptian temples, whilst the tumuli in which
+they sometimes buried their dead are surmounted by pyramids of earth
+resting on stone foundations.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Barrel Vault]
+
+From whatever source Roman architects got their inspiration, they very
+soon absorbed all external influences and stamped the buildings they
+erected with a character of their own. From the first sun-dried bricks,
+sometimes combined with stone, were the chief materials used, even the
+grander structures of the best period such as the huge palaces and halls
+were of plastered brickwork, stone having been as a general rule
+reserved for such works as temples, theatres, and triumphal arches.
+Concrete was also largely employed, and timber in many cases was turned
+to account for roofing. The most distinctive peculiarity of the
+architecture of the Romans is the vaulted roof, which they employed in
+an infinite variety of ways, introducing it at every possible
+opportunity. The simplest form, known as the waggon or barrel vault, is
+a semicircular arch spanning two walls, whilst a more elaborate
+contrivance consists of two intersecting vaults of the same height
+crossing each other at right angles, which was used in Rome as early as
+75 B.C. These two forms were sometimes supplemented by what are
+distinguished as conches or half-domes over external semicircular
+recesses, of which the apse is a characteristic example. With the aid of
+these three varieties of vaulting, that were occasionally combined with
+consummate skill, the Romans were able to roof in large or small
+circular spaces, and in some few cases, as in the Baths of Caracalla at
+Rome, they even to a certain extent anticipated the clever contrivance
+known as the pendentive, a triangular piece of vaulting springing from
+the corners of a right-angled enclosure, that was later brought to such
+perfection in Byzantine architecture.
+
+[Illustration: Intersecting Vaulting]
+
+With their wonderful system of vaulting the Romans combined the
+columnation and entablature of the Greeks, introducing innovations
+however that were in many cases anything but improvements. Thus they
+sometimes supplemented the foliage of the Corinthian capital with the
+volutes of the Ionic; whilst what is known as the Tuscan style is really
+merely a modification of the Doric, and is wanting in the simple dignity
+that characterised the latter, the metopes being adorned with sculptures
+very inferior to the beautiful figure subjects of the Parthenon and
+other Greek temples. Roman architects were in fact rather skilful
+engineers and adapters of the aesthetic conceptions of others than
+original designers of new forms of beauty, but they were unrivalled in
+their power of harmoniously co-ordinating in a single building an
+infinite variety of structural features. They were moreover
+exceptionally successful in the laying out of cities, as proved by the
+wonderful groups of buildings in the fora or public squares in which
+courts of justice and markets were held, of the capital and other
+cities, and by the fine continuous vistas of their streets, in which
+irregularities were masked by clever contrivances, adding greatly to the
+symmetry of the general effect. Temples, basilicas, baths, bridges,
+aqueducts, triumphal arches, palaces, and private houses were all set in
+the environment most suitable to them, and even tombs were ranged
+according to a definite plan, not, as in most modern cemeteries, dotted
+here and there in an arbitrary manner.
+
+[Illustration: Pont du Gard, Nimes]
+
+The earliest Roman works of architecture were of a purely utilitarian
+character, and in addition to the Cloaca Maxima already mentioned the
+most noteworthy still in existence are the bridges over the Tiber, the
+aqueducts of the Campagna outside Rome, and the so-called Pont du Gard
+at Nimes, France. The most ancient temples greatly resemble those of
+Greece, and amongst them may be named as specially typical those of
+Fortuna Virilis and of Antoninus and Faustina, both now in use as
+churches, and that of Venus and Rome, all in the capital, that of Diana
+at Nimes known as the Maison Carree, and that of the Sun at Baalbec. Of
+later date are the beautiful circular temples, of which the grandest
+example is the Pantheon of Rome, built under Hadrian about A.D. 117, in
+which Roman architecture reached its noblest development. The colonnaded
+porch with entablature and pediment, that detracts so much from the
+external effect of this magnificent building, did not originally belong
+to it, but formed the entrance of a temple built by Agrippa more than a
+century before, and was added to the Rotunda after the completion of the
+latter. The internal diameter of the Pantheon is 142 feet 6 inches, and
+its height at the apex of the dome is the same; its walls are 20 feet
+thick, and its concrete dome is adorned with deeply recessed panels or
+coffers and has a single circular opening at the crown through which
+alone light is admitted. The floor is of marble; bronze pilasters flank
+doorways of the same metal, the oldest existing specimens of their kind,
+and it is supposed that when first completed the whole of the outside
+was cased in white and the inside in coloured marbles.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Pantheon]
+
+Other circular temples of Roman origin, but on a much smaller scale than
+the Pantheon, are the Temple of Vesta and that in the Forum Boarium,
+Rome, the latter much injured and spoiled by a modern roof quite out of
+character with it; the one at Tivoli near the capital, known as that of
+the Sybils, still beautiful in spite of the loss of much of its
+entablature and many of its columns; the Temple of Jupiter at Spalato
+with a domed roof upheld by columns; and that at Baalbec, which has the
+distinctive feature of a curved instead of a perfectly flat entablature.
+
+A very special interest attaches to the Roman basilica on account of its
+having so long been supposed to have been the type on which the earliest
+Christian churches were built. Basilicas were used as courts of justice
+and exchanges, more rarely as market-places, and the most ancient are
+said to have been merely square spaces, enclosed within rows of columns
+open to the air, that were however soon succeeded by walled buildings
+roofed with timber or with vaults of concrete supported on massive piers
+of stone. In them a raised semicircular space at the eastern end was
+divided off by columns known as cancelli for the use of the magistrate
+and his lectors, and between it and the main body of the hall, which
+was divided by columns into a nave and aisles, rose the altar on which
+sacrifice was offered up before any business of importance was entered
+upon.
+
+A good example of an early Roman basilica is that called the Ulpian in
+the Forum of Trajan, Rome, dating from A.D. 98, which is said to have
+had a flat roof and double aisles, the latter surmounted by galleries,
+whilst that of Maxentius and Constantine, the ruins of which are known
+as the Temple of Peace, also in the capital, of considerably later date,
+A.D. 312, had a groined central roof and barrel-vaulted side aisles.
+
+[Illustration: Roman Doric Column and Entablature]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Ionic Column and Entablature]
+
+[Illustration: Roman Corinthian Column and Entablature]
+
+It was in their Thermae or Baths rather than in their Temples and
+Basilicas that the Roman architects achieved their greatest triumphs.
+These were vast complex structures fitted up with every conceivable
+luxury for the use of bathers, with a large hall artificially heated and
+known as the tepidarium, open colonnaded courts, and many subsidiary
+buildings including gymnasia, debating rooms, &c. They combined simple
+grandeur of structure with rich internal decoration. The most ancient
+Thermae in Rome, of which extensive remains still exist, were those of
+Caracalla, erected in A.D. 217, already referred to in connection with
+the earliest use of the contrivance which foreshadowed the pendentive.
+Rising from a lofty platform, the noble tepidarium was roofed in by
+three fine intersecting vaults, and its walls were cased in marble.
+With their supplementary buildings the baths covered a space some 110
+yards square, and beneath them were many vaulted rooms for the
+attendants on the bathers. Amongst their ruins were found the
+masterpieces of sculpture known as the Farnese Hercules and the Farnese
+Bull, but when they were first placed there, there is no evidence to
+prove.
+
+[Illustration: Temple of Vesta, Rome]
+
+Larger and more imposing in appearance even than the Baths of Caracalla
+were those of Diocletian, that were capable of accommodating more than
+3000 bathers and were built about A.D. 303. The grand hall or tepidarium
+and the barrel-vaulted entrance portico were most successfully converted
+in the sixteenth century into the church of S. Maria degli Angeli by
+Michael Angelo, and one of two circular structures that flanked the
+encircling wall was later consecrated under the name of S. Bernardo, and
+is still used as a place of worship.
+
+Next in importance to the Thermae rank the Amphitheatres of the Roman
+Empire, in which gladiatorial contests and other trials of skill took
+place, and without which no town however small was considered complete.
+Though their detail was almost exclusively borrowed from the
+Greeks--tiers of arches resting on columns and surmounted by an
+entablature rising one above the other--their architects managed to
+impress on them a distinctive character of their own. Finest of all
+still existing examples is the Flavian Amphitheatre, generally known as
+the Coliseum at Rome, which occupies the site of the famous Golden
+House of Nero, and was completed about A.D. 70. It is of elliptical
+plan, measures some 612 by 515 feet, and was from 160 to 180 feet high.
+It was capable of containing some 80,000 spectators, and was for a long
+period the chief meeting-place of the Roman citizens. The exterior is
+four stories high and consists of a series of three rows of arches, the
+lowest with Doric, the second with Ionic, and the third with Corinthian
+capitals, the last surmounted by a row of Corinthian pilasters, forming
+a fourth story, which is supposed to have been originally of wood and to
+have been rebuilt in stone considerably later. The groups of seats,
+which, with the central arena they commanded, were protected from the
+weather by a moveable awning called the velarium, corresponded with the
+exterior stories, and to each tier a staircase led up, wide vaulted
+corridors connecting the various entrances with each other, running
+round the entire building, the whole producing a most harmonious and
+pleasing effect.
+
+At Verona, Capria, Pola, and Pezzuoli in Italy, at Syracuse in Sicily,
+and at Arles and Nimes in France are remains of important Roman
+amphitheatres, and of the rarer theatres used for dramatic
+entertainments must be named the two well-preserved examples at Pompeii,
+the ruins of the Odeion of Herodes Atticus at Athens, and most ancient
+of all, the remains of the so-called Theatre of Marcellus at Rome now
+incorporated with the Orsinii Palace, all which appear to have resembled
+the Coliseum to a great extent in their general style and decoration.
+
+Of the vast and imposing palaces built or added to by successive Roman
+emperors, that included audience chambers, basilicas, stadia for
+athletic games, galleries, state dining-halls, baths, and many suites of
+apartments for various purposes, there exist unfortunately but a few
+remains. Nero's Golden House, several of the ruins of which were
+excavated in the 16th century, and inspired Raphael with some of the
+decorative details of the loggia of the Vatican, is said to have covered
+more than a mile of ground, and at one time the whole of the Palatine
+Hill was occupied by stately edifices, with the Palace of Augustus in
+the centre and those of Tiberius, Caligula, Nero, Domitian, and
+Septimius Severus, who greatly added to and modified the work of his
+predecessors, grouped about them, but all that can now be fully
+identified are some of the ground plans with a few of the minor details
+of structure. To atone for this however, much of the Palace of
+Diocletian at Spalato in Dalmatia, to which that emperor withdrew after
+his abdication in A.D. 305, which originally formed a small town in
+itself, is still to a great extent intact, including a temple now used
+as a cathedral, a gallery 520 feet long by 24 wide, and a few of the
+covered arcades that originally connected its various parts.
+
+What is left of the so-called Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli near Rome proves
+that it too was of vast extent, with a great variety of buildings,
+different suites of rooms having been occupied according to the seasons,
+and at Pompeii and Herculaneum, thanks to the remarkable preservation of
+many of the houses in them, notably that named after Pansa, the domestic
+architecture of the private citizens of the great Roman Empire, of which
+picturesque arcaded courts were a noteworthy feature, can be well
+studied, as well as that of the temples, triumphal arches, public baths,
+&c., all of which greatly resembled those of the Capital.
+
+[Illustration: Arch of Titus at Rome]
+
+Whether the Romans were or were not the first people of Western Europe
+to use the arch, they certainly took a very great delight in it, setting
+up ornately decorated examples of it at the entrances to their towns,
+their fora, and their bridges, as well as in commemoration of great
+victories in war and of the completion of civic enterprises. Most
+remarkable of those still standing in Rome are the Arch of Titus of one
+span only, erected in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem by the
+Emperor after whom it is named; the triple-span arch of Septimius
+Severus, and the smaller one of Constantine. Though they were rather
+triumphs of engineering skill than works of architecture properly so
+called, the fine stone built aqueducts such as those in the Campagna of
+Rome and at Nimes must be mentioned here on account of the aesthetic
+effect of the long rows of lofty arches, and a few words must also be
+said of the Pillars of Victory, of which that of Trajan at Rome is the
+most notable still extant, adorned as it is with a spiral of finely
+sculptured bas-reliefs.
+
+In the early days of the Roman power it was customary to cremate the
+dead, the ashes being preserved in urns that were ranged in cells known
+as Columbaria, generally hewn in the living rock. As time went on,
+however, the Egyptian mode of sepulchre was adopted. Bodies were
+embalmed and laid in stone or marble coffins which were placed in the
+basements of tombs of two or more stories, surmounted by round towers
+with pointed or circular roofs. Of these complex resting-places of the
+dead the finest now in existence is the Mole or Mausoleum of Hadrian,
+known as the Castle of S. Angelo, at Rome, which is some 300 feet high
+and was originally encased in marble. No burial was allowed within the
+walls of a Roman city, but the approaches were generally lined with
+tombs as at Rome, at Pompeii, and elsewhere, most of them, though on a
+smaller scale, of a similar plan to that of Hadrian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+It was in the low, gloomy, dimly lighted subterranean galleries known as
+catacombs, hewn in the living rock near Rome, that Christian
+architecture may be said to have had its first crude beginnings. The
+passages in the walls of which the graves of the dead were hollowed out,
+widened at intervals into spacious vaulted halls, where the persecuted
+followers of the crucified Redeemer met in secret for worship or to take
+part in the funeral services for those they had lost.
+
+It was long taken for granted that it was not until the first issue in
+A.D. 313 of the Edict of Milan by Constantine, Emperor of the West, and
+Licinius, Emperor of the East, that the professors of the new faith
+ventured to erect above ground buildings for the exercise of the rites
+of their religion, but recent discoveries prove that Christian churches
+were built as early as the 3rd century in many parts of the Roman
+empire. To quote but two cases in point, relics of a circular one with a
+small apse at the eastern end have been found at Antepellius in Asia
+Minor, and of one of the basilican type at Silchester in England.
+Moreover, heathen temples were occasionally converted into churches,
+whilst basilicas were sometimes used for Christian services just as they
+were.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of a Basilica]
+
+Some few early Christian churches were possibly modelled on classic
+tombs such as those referred to in the chapter on Roman architecture,
+but the more usual form was the basilican, the altar having been placed
+on the raised platform within the semicircular apse at the eastern end,
+the bishops and clergy occupying the seats assigned in halls of justice
+to the praetor and his assessors, whilst the congregation met in the nave
+and aisles. Ere long, however, to this general plan was added the
+distinctive feature of transepts or transverse passages running across
+the entrance to the apse, thus giving to the whole building the form of
+a cross. Later structural changes were the erection of an arch above the
+altar, the heightening of the nave, the connecting of the columns
+between the nave and aisles by arches instead of horizontal architraves,
+the introduction of windows, to which the collective name of the
+clerestory or the clear-story was given, in the semicircular heads of
+the arches and more rarely into the upper part of the low external walls
+of the aisles, the apse, which was gradually lengthened eastwards, being
+left comparatively dark, the only light proceeding from the main body of
+the church. Simultaneously with or in some cases earlier than these
+alterations, a portico known as the narthex was added at the western
+end, extending across the whole width of the nave and aisles, for the
+use of those, such as catechumens or penitents, who were not privileged
+to enter the church itself. The narthex in its turn was set within an
+atrium or outer colonnaded court, in the centre of which was a fountain,
+used by worshippers for ablutions before entering the consecrated
+building.
+
+A minor characteristic of early Christian churches was the richness of
+the internal decoration, mosaics that is to say, patterns or pictures
+made of many coloured pieces of glass or stone, combined in certain
+examples with marble carvings and gilding, adorned the vaulting, the
+wall, and even the floor, a kind of mosaic known as the _opus
+alexandrinum_ being generally used for the last, the whole producing a
+very gorgeous but harmonious effect.
+
+One of the most interesting existing early Christian churches, that
+remains very much what it was when first completed, is that of the
+Nativity at Bethlehem, built in A.D. 327 by the Empress Helena when on
+her quest for the True Cross, with the Convent to which it originally
+belonged, that was destroyed by the Turks in 1236 and later restored by
+the Crusaders. The Church of the Nativity rises above a natural cave now
+converted into a crypt or vaulted subterranean chamber. It is of
+cruciform plan, and though its unpretending exterior is of brick, the
+interior has four rows of massive stone pillars dividing the nave from
+the aisles, which as well as the choir at the eastern end have
+semicircular apses.
+
+Contemporary with this humble building, that is closely associated with
+all the most sacred memories of the early Church, were the vast
+basilican places of worship erected at Rome by Constantine and his
+immediate successors, which have unfortunately been either destroyed or
+so much modified as to retain little of their distinctive character. The
+Cathedral of S. Peter occupies the site of one of them, which had five
+aisles, a nave 80 feet wide, a comparatively small apse, and a noble
+atrium; the Church of S. Giovanni in Laterano retains but a few details
+of its predecessor of the same name, but that of S. Paolo fuori le Mura
+or St. Paul without the walls, built by Theodosius in 386, is supposed
+to be a true copy, so far as structure is concerned, of the grand
+basilica destroyed by fire in 1823. It has a nave 280 feet long by 78
+wide, and the whole building is 400 feet in length by 200 wide. A noble
+arch spans the intersection of the transepts, and lofty columns with
+richly carved capitals divide the nave from the aisles and the latter,
+of which there are five, from each other, but the roof is only a flat
+wooden one, the external walls are wanting in dignity and solidity,
+whilst the height, 100 feet only, is quite out of proportion with the
+otherwise noble dimensions.
+
+Another very fine early basilican church in Rome is that of S. Maria
+Maggiore, occupying the site of a 5th century building, some of the
+marble columns of which with Ionic capitals have been incorporated in
+the later structure. The Churches of S. Agnese and S. Lorenzo are also
+of basilican plan, and have both the somewhat rare feature of galleries
+over the aisles. The former is but little altered since its erection,
+whilst the latter has gone through a long series of vicissitudes. It was
+founded in the 4th century and greatly added to in the 5th by Sixtus
+III, who joined a second church on to it, so that it had an apse at each
+end. Both these apses, with the walls between the earlier and the later
+buildings, were pulled down in the 13th century by order of Pope
+Honorius III, who had the earlier church converted into a choir and the
+later into a nave, with very satisfactory results.
+
+Even more interesting than S. Lorenzo is S. Clemente, Rome, that
+consists of two buildings of widely separated dates one above another,
+the lower, which now serves as a crypt, supposed to have been built at
+the beginning of the 6th century, the upper not until 1108. Both are of
+the same general plan as the other basilican churches described, with
+certain differences in minor details, including in the more modern
+portion a low marble screen dividing the choir and altar from the nave.
+
+[Illustration: Church of S. Clemente]
+
+To many of these early churches fine cloisters, that is to say, arcaded
+colonnades encircling the outer walls, were added, those that once
+enclosed the ancient basilica of S. Paola fuori le Mura being among the
+finest still preserved, that may be said to have anticipated the
+beautiful ambulatories of later monastic and collegiate buildings.
+
+In other cities of the Roman empire are many noteworthy early basilican
+churches, including S. Apollinare Nuovo within and S. Apollinare in
+Classe without the walls of Ravenna, the cathedral of Torcello, that is
+connected by a narthex with the later S. Fosca, in which the transition
+from the Roman to the Byzantine style is shadowed forth, and the
+cathedrals of Parenzo and Grado in Istria, the former retaining almost
+intact its beautiful colonnaded atrium, the latter chiefly remarkable
+for its fine mosaic pavement.
+
+In addition to the early churches of basilican plan are a few of
+circular form, such as that at Rome enshrining the tomb of S. Constanza,
+the daughter of Constantine, dating from about A.D. 354, which has a
+domed roof and vaulted aisles, the 5th century church of S. Stefano
+Rotondo in the same town, the latter, though greatly modified in detail,
+still preserving its two concentric ranges of columns, S. Vitale at
+Ravenna, and S. George at Salonika, that has a circular nave but an
+oblong chancel and apse, whilst the 6th century tomb of Theodoric is
+typical of the use of a similar plan in sepulchral monuments.
+
+In the first centuries of the Christian era it was customary for the
+ceremony of baptism to be performed in buildings known as baptisteries,
+apart from, but close to, cathedrals and important parish churches.
+These buildings were as a general rule of circular or octagonal plan
+with a tank in the centre of the interior, of size sufficient for the
+total immersion of candidates. The earliest and also one of the finest
+existing examples is the Baptistery of Constantino that rises close to
+S. Giovanni in Laterano, Rome, and is two stories high, with a central
+domed roof of timber and flat-ceilinged aisles, the massive porphyry
+columns dividing them from the space set apart for the ceremony of
+baptism, being surmounted by slender pilasters. Another fine early
+Baptistery is that at Nocera, which resembles that of Constantine in
+general plan and style.
+
+The Christians of Egyptian descent, to whom the name of Copts has been
+given, evolved a style of building that combined with oriental
+traditions certain details of western architecture. They were very early
+familiar with the dome, and employed it in churches of a basilican
+ground-plan even before it was adopted in the Roman Empire. Moreover,
+certain of the barrel vaults and arches in Coptic places of worship were
+pointed, so that the most distinctive characteristic of Gothic
+architecture may be said to have been to some extent anticipated. Except
+for the effective feature of the dome the exteriors of these buildings
+were plain and unpretending, but the interiors were in many cases
+lavishly decorated with marble mosaics. Other peculiarities were the
+division of the eastern extremity into three semicircular or square
+recesses, each containing an altar, the use of an elaborately carved
+screen shutting off the choir or chancel from the nave and aisles, and
+the introduction of galleries above the latter for the use of the women
+of the congregation.
+
+Specially noteworthy examples of Coptic architecture are the two
+churches in Upper Egypt known as the White and Red Convents, the former
+supposed by some authorities to be even older than the church of the
+Nativity of Bethlehem, the 6th century church of Dair-as-Suriani in the
+Desert, and the 8th century S. Sergius or Abu Sargah at Cairo, whilst in
+the oasis of El Bagawat have recently been excavated a large number of
+sepulchral chapels, dating probably from the 5th century, many of which
+have domed cupolas greatly resembling in structure those of considerably
+later Byzantine buildings.
+
+In Syria, as well as in Egypt, are many very interesting early Christian
+churches, including the vast complex 5th century building at Kalat-Seman
+dedicated to S. Simeon Stylites, which has four basilicas, each with an
+apse, grouped about a central octagon; the 6th century church at
+Sergiopolis; and the smaller contemporaneous ones at Qalb Lorzeh and
+Roueiha; all of which, though they resemble in general plan the
+basilicas of Rome, have certain details that appear to shadow forth the
+characteristics of the Romanesque style, notably in the first the
+cruciform bays dividing the nave from the aisles, in the second, the use
+of the lobed arch, and in it and the Roueiha building the grouping of
+the clerestory windows.
+
+Asia Minor is also rich in examples of early Christian architecture, of
+which one of the most remarkable is the 5th century S. Demetrius at
+Salonika, of basilican plan with transepts at the eastern end, nave
+arcades resembling those of S. Clemente, Rome, and galleries above the
+aisles, such as those of the Coptic places of worship quoted above. With
+it must be named the 6th century church in the same city, now used as a
+mosque, under the name of Eski Djuma, and the considerably later
+churches at Bin Bir Kilissi that have only recently been explored and
+are of basilican plan with barrel-vaulted roofing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+BYZANTINE AND SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The term Byzantine has been given to the style of architecture which was
+the outcome of the fusion of the best building traditions of the East
+and of the West, the former contributing the distinctive structural
+feature of the dome, with the minor details of richness of colouring and
+lavishness of decoration, the latter dignified symmetry of proportion
+and scientific solidity of construction.
+
+It was in Byzantium, when in 330 the first Christian Emperor chose it
+as his headquarters, and its name was changed in his honour to
+Constantinople, that the union which was to be so prolific of results
+took place. Unfortunately however none of the churches erected under the
+auspices of Constantine in the new capital have been preserved, the sole
+relic of his reign, so far as architecture is concerned, being the
+foundations of the apse of a church, now replaced by a considerably
+later building, in which he had the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
+enclosed. The oldest existing church in Constantinople is a basilica of
+the Roman type dating from 463, with nothing distinctive of the new
+style about it, but there is historical evidence that the noble S.
+Sophia, in which that style reached its fullest development, was
+preceded in Constantinople by other grand buildings of a similar type,
+including one dedicated to the Holy Apostles which was cruciform in plan
+and had five domes.
+
+[Illustration: S. Sophia, Constantinople]
+
+The most distinctive peculiarity of Byzantine architecture is the
+roofing over of square spaces with the aid of the pendentive, a clever
+expedient already explained, that was carried to great perfection by the
+builders of Constantinople and those who elsewhere followed their
+example. Previously employed in comparatively small structures, it now
+became the fundamental principle for the roofing over of spaces of a
+great variety of extent, groups of domes and semi-domes, in many cases
+supplemented by tapering towers rising with imposing effect from massive
+outer walls. The long aisles and nave of the Roman and early Christian
+basilicas were replaced by a more or less square plan, lofty piers
+spanned by arches upholding the central cupola, whilst the galleries
+above the aisles rested on slender columns such as were also employed to
+rail off the sanctuary and narthex from the main body of the building.
+The whole of the interior, which was lighted from windows in the dome,
+was most profusely decorated, the walls having dados or slabs of
+different coloured marbles supplemented by mosaics, with which every
+portion of the domes, semi-domes, and pendentives were also covered,
+whilst the columns, in many cases of variegated marble, had beautifully
+carved capitals of an infinite variety of design.
+
+It is customary to divide the history of the development of Byzantine
+architecture into two distinct periods, the first extending from the 4th
+to the close of the 6th century, the second from the 8th to the 13th
+century, there having been a pause between them during which no
+buildings of any importance were erected owing to the wars which
+convulsed alike the East and the West. As already stated, no actual
+buildings belonging to the earlier portion of the first period remain,
+but there exist in S. Vitale at Ravenna and still more in S. Sophia at
+Constantinople unique examples of the golden age of Byzantine
+architecture, the inspiring influence of which was felt throughout the
+whole of Europe and the greater part of Asia. The former church, begun
+about 526, is of octagonal plan, each division, except that containing
+the choir, with an apse of its own, and though the interior has been
+greatly spoiled by restoration, the general effect of the vaulted
+roofing, marble casing of the walls, and mosaics of the eastern end is
+extremely fine. San Vitale is, however, altogether excelled by the
+world-famous S. Sophia, now the chief mosque of Constantinople, which
+occupies the site of a basilica built under Constantine, that was burnt
+down early in the reign of Justinian. The latter emperor at once ordered
+the erection of its successor, appointing as architects Anthemios of
+Thralles and Isodoros of Miletus.
+
+Begun in 532 and completed in 537, S. Sophia is of very simple yet most
+dignified external appearance, so symmetrical is the grouping of its
+many domes and semi-domes, whilst the interior, though it has none of
+the rich colouring usual in oriental buildings, is unsurpassed in the
+harmony of its structural details, all of which lead up, as it were, to
+the huge central dome, the lower portion of which is pierced with a
+series of small windows throwing a flood of light upon the vast circular
+space below. The general plan is square, but a fine narthex consisting
+of two spacious halls one above the other projects slightly beyond the
+actual church at the western end. The nave, which is 106 feet wide by
+225 long, has a semicircular apse with small recesses opening out of it
+at either end, and is separated from the aisles by rows of closely set
+columns with ornate capitals, spanned by arches upholding two-storied
+arcaded galleries, roofed in by semi-domes, except at the northern and
+southern ends, which have walls with numerous small windows. One large
+western window illuminates the nave, and there is also a double circle
+of lights round the apse, the galleries, and the narthex.
+
+Other interesting early Byzantine buildings are the Baptistery at
+Kalat-Seman and the church of S. George at Ezra, both in Syria, each of
+which is of square plan with an octagonal central space, the latter
+having the comparatively unusual feature of a dome upheld by what is
+known as a drum, that is to say a low vertical wall instead of
+pendentives. The church of S. Sergius at Constantinople, contemporaneous
+with S. Sophia, is specially noteworthy on account of the introduction
+in it of a classic entablature, combined with distinctive Byzantine
+features, with which may be named the much-restored S. Lorenzo at Milan
+and the church of the Virgin at Misitra, the ancient Sparta.
+
+To the second period of Byzantine Architecture belong not only several
+fine buildings in Constantinople, but others in Greece, Asia Minor, the
+North of Italy, and elsewhere, all of which, though they have the
+leading structural features of the style, are distinguished by certain
+minor local characteristics. The most noteworthy in the capital are the
+now secularised church of S. Irene, founded by Constantine and rebuilt
+considerably later, and the church of the Chora monastery, specially
+remarkable for its beautiful mosaics, whilst in Greece the Churches of
+S. Nicodemus at Athens and that of Daphni not far from it, with the two
+monastic churches at Stiris and the churches of S. Sophia and S. Elias,
+at Salonika, are all thoroughly Byzantine, bearing a close resemblance
+to each other. They are all, however, excelled by the great Cathedral of
+S. Marco at Venice, which rivals even S. Sophia in the exquisite beauty
+of the interior and excels it in the ornate richness of the exterior.
+
+Founded early in the 9th century, S. Marco was partially destroyed in
+978 and rebuilt soon afterwards in the original style, that of a
+basilica without transepts, but in the second half of the 11th century
+it was completely transformed by additions converting it into a
+cruciform building, roofed over by five domes of the same size, and with
+five arcaded porches at the western end that form one of the grandest
+facades in the world. Numerous columns of many covered marbles uphold
+graceful arches, the spandrels, or triangular spaces between them filled
+in with gleaming mosaics, and above them rise other arches that contrast
+well with tapering towers supported on slender pilasters to which the
+domes beyond form an admirable background. Within the church to which
+this magnificent narthex gives entrance, an infinite variety of
+harmonious details combine to produce an entrancing effect: one charming
+vista succeeding another, the whole flooded with light from a vast
+number of windows, there being no less than eighty in the domes alone.
+Mosaics of different dates and greatly varying aesthetic merit completely
+clothe the surfaces of the vaulting, the capitals of the columns--many
+of which, by the way, are purely decorative, upholding no arches--are
+elaborately carved, and the flooring is of marble, slabs of considerable
+size being set in patterns of tesserae.
+
+In the various countries which fell under the influence of the followers
+of Mahommed a style of architecture was evolved that had marked
+affinities with the Byzantine, the first mosques having been designed,
+it is supposed, by Christian architects of Oriental origin, who retained
+the square or circular ground-plan of early churches, though they
+modified the interior to suit the requirements of the new religion,
+introducing, for instance, a central tank for ablutions. Mosques
+intended for worship only, generally had flat roofs, the use of the dome
+being at first distinctive of a burial place, but as it very soon became
+usual to inter in mosques, the dome came to be quoted as a distinctive
+feature of them. By degrees simple unadorned mosques were replaced by
+vast buildings with many arcaded courts entered from ornate lateral
+doorways, whilst certain characteristic features were introduced, of
+which the chief were the stalactite vaulting, the name of which explains
+itself, the horse-shoe arch, and the minaret, the last named a turret of
+several stories gradually decreasing in circumference, each with a
+balcony of its own from which the mueddin calls the faithful to prayer.
+Pointed arches were also constantly employed as well as the form known
+as cusped, that is to say one with a triangular projection springing
+from the inner curve. A minor but most significant characteristic of
+Saracenic architecture is the elaborate surface decoration in which
+geometrical designs, letters, &c., are interwoven with consummate skill,
+but in which no figures of animals are ever introduced, the
+representation of life being strictly forbidden by the Koran.
+
+Although Arabia was the birthplace of the founder of Islam, there are
+few Saracenic buildings of importance in it. The so-called great Mosque
+at Mecca, which has been a goal of pilgrimage from all points of the
+Mahommedan world for so many centuries, has been since its foundation
+completely rebuilt, not assuming its present form until the middle of
+the 16th century. It has little that can be called architectural style
+about it, consisting as it does of an arcaded enclosure in the centre of
+which is the Kaaba, a heathen shrine that existed long before the time
+of Mohammed, the whole surrounded by a wall with several gateways and
+minarets.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Mosque el Aksah at Jerusalem]
+
+In Jerusalem various characteristic buildings bear witness to the
+prevalence of the Mahommedan faith in the Holy City of the Christians,
+including the 7th century Mosque el Aksah, originally a Christian church
+transformed into what it now is by Calif Omar, and the 8th century
+shrine erroneously named after him, also known as the Dome of the Rock,
+both of which rise from the site of the Jewish Temple. The latter is of
+octagonal plan, and, though its details are of a somewhat hybrid
+character, many of the columns having been filched from other buildings,
+whilst the decorations of the great dome and of the exterior were added
+in the 16th century, is of very singular charm on account of the
+symmetry of its proportions and the richness of its colouring, the walls
+being cased in Persian tiles and the windows filled with stained glass.
+
+It appears to have been in Egypt that Saracenic architecture, strictly
+so-called, first attained to the structural dignity and appropriateness
+of ornamentation that were to distinguish it in Persia, Spain, and
+India. In the 7th century Mosque of Amru and that of Ibn Touloun, dating
+from the 9th century, both at Cairo, the earlier phases of the style can
+be studied, whilst the later development is illustrated in the same city
+by the 13th century Mosque of Kalaoon, the 14th century Mosque of Sultan
+Hassan, that has the rare feature in a Mahommedan building of a
+cruciform plan, the contemporaneous Mosque of Sultin Barkook, and the
+small 15th century Mosque of Kait-Bey, the last specially noteworthy on
+account of its beautiful internal decoration and its graceful minaret.
+
+In Persia the finest mosques are the 13th century one at Tabrez known as
+the Blue, and that at Ispahan dating from the 16th century, which has a
+grand dome and noble gateways with pointed arches, whilst at Serbistan,
+Firanzabad, Ukheithar, Kasir-i-Shirin, and elsewhere in the same country
+are remains of palaces and other secular buildings, ranging in date from
+the 4th to the 9th century, that give proof of great structural and
+decorative skill on the part of the architects who worked for the
+fire-worshippers, who, though they required no temples in which to
+worship their gods, lavished vast sums on their own homes.
+
+Beautiful as are the relics of Saracenic architecture in Egypt, Syria,
+and Persia, they are excelled by many remarkable buildings in Spain,
+where, after the conquest of the country by the Moors in the 8th
+century, the style reached its fullest development. The most remarkable
+examples of it are the Mosque at Cordova, begun in 786 by Abd-el-Rahman
+and added to from time to time by his successors, with the result that
+it affords an excellent illustration of the modification of details that
+took place as time went on; the 12th century Giralda or Tower at
+Seville, noteworthy for its fine proportions and effective surface
+decoration, the 13th century Alcazar or castle in the same town, and
+above all the Palace of the Alhambra, that dominates Granada from a
+lofty height above the city, which was begun in 1248 by the Moorish
+King, Ibn-l-Ahmar and added to by his successors. Of the original
+buildings that, when first completed, must have been one of the grandest
+and most finely situated groups in the world, all that now remain are
+the towers of the north wall, in one of which is the vast hall of the
+Ambassadors, and various colonnaded rooms and porticoes ranged round two
+spacious courts, one called that of the Fishpond, the other that of the
+Lions. The delicate grace of the columns and arches, with the richness
+of their decoration and of every inch of surface, has never been
+surpassed either in beauty of design or harmony of colour, whilst the
+effects of perspective from the doorways and other points of view are
+equally unrivalled. No single detail is superfluous or without its
+special meaning in relation to the whole, and even what to the
+uninitiated appear mere geometrical designs on the walls, lintels, &c.,
+are quotations from the Koran and classic Arabic poetry.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Mosque at Cordoba]
+
+When through the breaking up of the power of the Moors in Spain, the
+architecture introduced by them seemed fated to share their decline, a
+kind of revival of it took place in Constantinople through the conquest
+of that city by the Turks in 1453. Unfortunately however the style made
+no real progress there, the mosques and other buildings erected by the
+new owners being rather Byzantine than Saracenic, even that known as the
+Suleimanyeh, built between 1550-1556, and the Ahmediyeh, dating from
+1608-1614, greatly resembling St. Sophia.
+
+In India the mosques and palaces erected by the Mahommedan conquerors
+and their successors are even more beautiful and impressive than the
+Buddhist and Hindu buildings described in the section on Asiatic
+architecture. Their distinctive characteristics, as in Egypt, Persia,
+and Spain, are the skilful combination of the dome, the arch and the
+minaret, and the lavish surface decoration of the interior, with certain
+other peculiarities that were the outcome of local tradition. More
+attention was given, for instance, to external appearance, huge
+recessed gateways and colonnaded cloisters surmounted by rows of purely
+decorative domes on pilasters, being of frequent occurrence. At the same
+time, stalactite vaulting was rarely employed, whilst horizontal courses
+of corbels or arches in which each stone projects slightly beyond that
+on which it rests, were used as supports for the domes instead of
+pendentives.
+
+[Illustration: Section of Taj Mahal, Agra]
+
+Among the most noteworthy still-existing examples of Indo-Saracenic
+architecture are the early 15th century Jumna Musjid or Great Mosque at
+Ahmedabad, that has certain details recalling Hindu post and lintel
+structures; the late 15th century Adinah mosque at Gaur, which has 385
+domes; the 16th century Jumna Musjid at Bijapur, that has the singular
+feature of a central space covered in by a dome upheld by intersecting
+arches, set in a number of squares with flat roofs; the Mosque built by
+Akbar in the second half of the 16th century at Futtehpore Sikhri, the
+gateways of which are specially characteristic; and the remarkable
+buildings at Delhi and Agra, erected in the 17th century under the
+enlightened Shah Jehan, including in the former city the Jumna Musjid
+and the fortified palace, and in the latter the Moti Musjid or Pearl
+Mosque, and the Taj Mahal, both exceptionally beautiful, in which the
+Saracenic style may justly be said to have reached its culmination,
+nothing that can be compared with them having been since produced either
+in India or elsewhere. The Taj Mahal, built by the Emperor as a tomb for
+himself and his favourite wife, is indeed of dream-like and ethereal
+charm, with its well-proportioned domes and minarets, cased, as is the
+rest of the exterior, in white marble, and its interior enriched with
+mosaics of precious stones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+The term Romanesque is given to the period between the beginning of the
+9th and the middle of the 12th century, but there was no real break in
+the continuity of the evolution of Christian architecture in Europe from
+the time when that art first freed itself from Pagan influence till it
+reached its noblest development in the Gothic style.
+
+[Illustration: Simple Intersecting Vaulting]
+
+From first to last the keynote of structure was the use of the arch for
+vaulting and for the spanning of piers and columns, and its form is, as
+a general rule, indicative of the phase of development to which it
+belongs. Although, however, it may be said that the semicircular arch is
+characteristic of Romanesque buildings, the lintel is occasionally used
+simultaneously with it in interiors, and the chief entrances are in many
+cases spanned by horizontal beams or courses of stone that are, however,
+as a general rule surmounted by arches. Moreover in late Romanesque work
+the pointed arch is now and then introduced shadowing forth the
+approaching change.
+
+It was not in the invention of new forms of vaulting but in the
+adaptation and improvement of those already in existence that Romanesque
+architects chiefly displayed their skill. The earliest Romanesque vaults
+were simple intersecting arches similar to those which had long been in
+use, but as time went on these were superseded by what is known as
+ribbed vaulting; that is to say by roofs divided into bays by a
+framework of diagonal ribs supporting fillings in of thin stone called
+severes, which in their turn gradually developed into the complex and
+ornate system of Gothic vaulting. To counteract the thrust of arched and
+ribbed vaulting the device of buttresses was hit upon. These buttresses
+consisted at first of a series of supports introduced beneath the roof
+of the aisles and extending from the back of the nave to the aisle wall,
+which were later supplemented by the external buttresses known as
+flying, that were to be so distinctive a feature of Gothic architecture.
+
+[Illustration: Ribbed Vaulting]
+
+[Illustration: Ribbed Vaulting]
+
+Other characteristics of Romanesque architecture are the slenderness of
+the columns as compared with those of earlier buildings, the disuse of
+classic capitals, and the substitution for them of what is known as the
+basket form, that is to say, semicircular mouldings enclosing floral
+designs, later replaced by a great variety of forms, such as flowers,
+leaves, human and animals' heads. The grouping of columns in clusters
+also came into use, the general tendency being towards the production of
+an effect of grace and lightness rather than of strength and solidity.
+Arched cornices were introduced to relieve the monotony of the walls
+above the pillars of the nave, whilst an even more marked change took
+place in the windows, which, though small and few in early Renaissance
+buildings, gradually increased in number, in size, and in the beauty of
+their tracery. At the eastern end of churches several windows were in
+some cases grouped together, divided only by slender pilasters, and
+above the western entrance large circular windows known as the rose or
+wheel--according to certain peculiarities of their tracery--were
+introduced, whilst the walls were pierced by rows of complex windows,
+each with a number of different lights.
+
+In Romanesque churches the beautiful colonnaded narthex of the early
+Christian basilica is replaced in Northern and occasionally in Southern
+Italy by a projecting, and elsewhere by a simple, porch; but to make up
+for the loss of what was a very effective feature, the whole of the
+western facade, including the recessed doorway giving access to the
+nave, is generally most richly decorated with sculpture and carving,
+figures in niches, grotesque animal forms of symbolic meaning, with
+floral and geometrical designs of great variety and beauty adorning
+every portion.
+
+[Illustration: Clustered Column]
+
+[Illustration: Buttress]
+
+[Illustration: Buttress]
+
+On either side of the west front of many Romanesque buildings, more
+rarely also from the point of junction of the transepts and nave, rise
+lofty square or octagonal towers, the earlier with flat, the later with
+more or less steeply pitched roofs, that gradually developed into the
+tapering spires so characteristic of the Gothic style. Occasionally the
+eastern apse is flanked by a turret or small tower, and in some cases,
+chiefly in Italy, a detached and lofty tower known as a Campanile or
+Bell Tower--though it only rarely contains bells, being sometimes merely
+a secular monument--rises close to the church or at a little distance
+from it, but connected with it by a cloister.
+
+[Illustration: Rose Window]
+
+In S. Ambrogio, Milan, begun in the 9th and completed in the 12th
+century, the gradual change from the early Christian to the Romanesque
+style as developed in Italy can be studied. It has a nave of basilican
+type, a narthex surmounted by a gallery, a pediment-like gable at the
+western end, an octagonal cupola roofing over the eastern apse, with a
+circle of windows flooding the choir with light, a triforium or arcaded
+storey above the aisles, and most characteristic of all, an open
+external arcaded gallery, admitting air and light beneath the roof of
+the apse, such as was to become so effective a decorative feature of
+later buildings, and in some cases to be extended along the aisles and
+above the chief entrance.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Arched Cornice]
+
+S. Michele, Pavia, is a typical and very beautiful example of the
+Romanesque style of the twelfth century, specially noteworthy features
+being its cruciform plan, its two-storied aisles, and its external
+gallery with clustered pilasters; and the contemporary S. Zeno, Verona,
+though it has no triforium and is not vaulted, has noble clustered piers
+from which sprang arches--only one of which remains--spanning the nave,
+alternating with single columns.
+
+Other fine Romanesque buildings in Italy are the Cathedral of Verona,
+which has a fine two-storied porch; the Cathedral of Novara, specially
+noteworthy for its beautiful atrium; S. Miniato, Florence, that is of
+basilican plan, and, though it is without transepts, has the distinctive
+Romanesque feature of transverse arches upheld by clustered piers
+spanning the nave and aisles; S. Antonio, Piacenza, with transepts at
+the western instead of the eastern end, fine intersecting vaults roofing
+in the whole building, and a tower rising from the junction of the nave
+and transepts; and the Cathedral of Pisa, the last a complex building
+with vaulted aisles, a dome above the intersection of the transepts and
+nave, a flat roof over the latter, and a lofty triforium gallery running
+round the entire church, the general effect being most pleasing and
+harmonious. Close to the cathedral are the 12th century circular
+Baptistery, that has considerably later additions, and the famous
+Leaning Tower, the three buildings forming one of the finest
+architectural groups in the world.
+
+Certain very marked characteristics distinguish the buildings of Sicily
+from those of contemporary date on the mainland of Italy, the Romanesque
+style, as is very clearly seen in the Cathedral of Monreale, having been
+there considerably modified alike by Saracenic and Norman influences.
+The pointed arch was adopted long before it came into use elsewhere in
+Europe, having been, it is suggested, a modification of the horse-shoe
+form so characteristic of Moorish mosques.
+
+In France, Romanesque ecclesiastical architecture followed, in the main,
+the same lines as in Italy, with, in many cases, one notable addition,
+that of the chevet, a circlet of chapels round the eastern apse, which
+gradually grew out of what was known as an ambulatory, that is to say, a
+space in which perambulation was possible, obtained by the extension of
+the aisles behind the choir. In early examples of the ambulatory the
+circle was continuous, as in the church of S. Saturnin, Auvergne, but as
+time went on, small semicircular chapels were introduced, with windows
+between them, that gradually developed into the chevet, the chapels
+increasing in number and in size, and in some cases extending westwards
+along the aisles.
+
+The churches and cathedrals of Southern France differ in several
+respects from those of the North, the aisleless basilica plan with
+barrel, intersecting, or domed vaulting being of frequent occurrence in
+the former, whilst in the latter the beautiful arcaded aisles and
+steeply pitched roof presage the approach of the Gothic style with its
+pointed arches, groined roofs, flying buttresses, and tapering
+pinnacles.
+
+The five-domed S. Front in Perigueux, though it has rudimentary aisles
+only, is a good example of an early French Romanesque building, in which
+Oriental influence is very perceptible, it being in some of its features
+a copy of S. Marco, Venice, whilst in the later Cathedral of Angouleme
+of cruciform plan with apsidal chapels, that of Le Puy with a triple
+entrance porch, the church of S. Hilaire, Poitiers, with its irregular
+domes, the uncompleted S. Ours, Loche, with its pyramidal octagonal
+spires, S. Saturnin, Toulouse, with its central many-storied tapering
+tower, the 12th century churches of Vezelay and Avallon; the cathedral
+and church of La Trinite at Angers, both combining pointed arches with
+domed vaulting, the gradual development of the southern branch of French
+Romanesque architecture can be very clearly studied.
+
+In many of the noble churches and cathedrals of Northern France and
+elsewhere the Romanesque may justly be said to have melted into the
+Gothic style, some of them combining as they do the most beautiful
+features of both. To the cost of their erection ecclesiastics and laymen
+alike contributed with eager zeal, and amongst the architects and
+craftsmen employed on them, class and professional rivalry were merged
+in one common enthusiasm to promote the glory of God, all desire for
+individual distinction being merged in an unselfish ambition to aid in
+producing a building worthy of His worship.
+
+In Normandy was inaugurated the phase of Romanesque architecture which
+was to develop on such noble lines in England, the chief distinctions of
+which are the massiveness of the walls and pillars, the great length of
+the nave, the richness of the decoration alike of the shafts and
+capitals of the columns and of the round-headed arches they uphold. Very
+notable examples are the Abbaye aux Hommes, the Abbaye aux Dames, and
+the Church of S. Nicholas, all at Caen, the first with circular arched
+vaulting and western towers ending in spires, the second with a Gothic
+roof of intersecting pointed arches, the third with three apses, each
+with a steeply pitched roof, a porch with three arcades at the western
+end, and a low gabled tower rising from the point of intersection of the
+nave and transepts, the three buildings illustrating well the transition
+from the simple basilica to the complex Gothic structure. With them may
+be named the Abbey of Jumieges, of which unfortunately but a few relics
+remain, which had beautiful clustered piers alternating with single
+columns upholding semicircular lateral arches, a flat roofed nave, and
+vaulted aisles.
+
+Other fine Romanesque churches of Northern France, all of which differ
+somewhat in general appearance from those of Normandy, are the
+Cathedrals of Noyon and Soissons, the church of S. Pierre at Lisieux,
+all of which combine pointed with semicircular arches, and above all
+the Cathedral of Le Mans, which has a very characteristic Romanesque
+nave flanked by round-headed arches and roofed over with an equally
+characteristic groined Gothic vault, whilst the choir, added in the
+early 13th century, is encircled by a beautiful chevet, the exterior of
+which with its many buttresses and pinnacles presents a most impressive
+appearance.
+
+One of the finest Romanesque buildings in Europe is the Cathedral of
+Tournai, Belgium, which has a flat-roofed nave of exceptional length,
+picturesque lateral storied galleries, a central tower with a lofty
+spire, and two supplementary towers, also with spires, flanking the
+northern and southern apses. Elsewhere in Belgium are several
+flat-roofed churches of basilican plan, some with ambulatories in the
+French style but no apsidal chapels. In Spain, on the other hand, the
+chevet is rarely absent from ecclesiastical buildings, whilst a
+distinctive local feature is a low central dome or tower known as the
+cimborio, which is in many cases scarcely more than a swelling of the
+roof at the point of intersection of nave and transept.
+
+Germany is especially rich in Romanesque churches, which, like those of
+Belgium, are of basilican plan with flat roofs. In the Cathedral of
+Trier can be studied the gradual growth of the Teutonic form of the
+Romanesque style, for it was originally an early Christian Church of the
+Roman type, which was converted into one of a more distinctive style in
+the 11th century by additions, including a western apse, whilst the
+noble vaulting of the nave dates from the 12th and the choir from the
+13th century. As time went on the multiplication of apses became
+characteristic of German churches, it being usual to add one at the
+western end, and more rarely also on the northern and southern sides,
+the beautiful tapering columns dividing them from the aisles, with the
+small chapels beyond them, producing very fine effects of perspective.
+Other peculiarities of German Romanesque buildings are their great
+height and the noble proportions of the interiors, with the finely
+balanced grouping of the cupolas, towers, and turrets of the exterior;
+to which must be added the absence of the great Western doorway that
+lends such distinction to French, Italian, and Belgian churches.
+
+Very fine examples of the style in Germany are the churches of S. Maria
+in Capitolo Cologne, S. Quirin in Neuss, and the cathedrals of Nuremberg
+and Bamberg, but it was in those of Speier, Mainz, and Worms that it
+achieved its greatest triumphs. The first, it is true, has no western
+apse, but this is atoned for by a fine narthex, and in the other two the
+western extension is as conspicuous as the eastern. Dignified simplicity
+and sense of space are the chief characteristics of all three
+buildings, massive columns upholding the arcading flanking the naves,
+whilst the walls of the aisles are unbroken by triforia, the piers at
+Speier and Worms being carried right up to the clerestory windows,
+whilst at Mainz two arches are placed one above the other, the vaulting
+of the nave springing from the upper tier.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+ANGLO-SAXON AND ANGLO-NORMAN ARCHITECTURE
+
+
+In Great Britain, even more than on the Continent, the architecture of
+the past reflects national character, its distinctive peculiarities
+having been the outcome of local conditions differing widely from those
+that obtained elsewhere, which largely modified the styles introduced
+from without. On the arrival of the Romans in the first century of the
+Christian era, there were, with the exception of the monoliths on
+Salisbury plain known as Stonehenge and other prehistoric relics, the
+origin of which has never yet been discovered, no buildings of greater
+pretension than mud huts or circular stone or wooden houses with a hole
+in the tapering roof through which air was admitted and smoke dispersed.
+The houses, palaces, and churches erected by the invaders were, as
+proved by the remains at Silchester, Wroxeter, and elsewhere, of the
+type of those of Imperial Rome, and on them many British masons were
+employed, who thus acquired a knowledge of the principles of
+construction that stood their successors in good stead. Those
+successors, however, showed no desire to perpetuate the style introduced
+by the conquerors, and when the latter withdrew in the 5th century the
+buildings they left behind them were allowed to fall into rapid decay.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Saxon Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Example of Saxon Arcading]
+
+Very quickly too did most of the converts to Christianity relapse into
+heathenism, and although the lamp of faith was long kept burning in
+Ireland and in Scotland, no trace exists of the churches in which the
+little remnant of the followers of the Redeemer met for worship. Of
+those built later under the auspices of Saints Augustine, Paulinus, and
+other early bishops, not one escaped destruction, but there is strong
+evidence to prove that they were of the basilican apsidal plan, that
+never took very deep root in England, but was in many cases ousted by
+the sanctuary with a square-shaped eastern extension.
+
+It is usual to give the term Anglo-Saxon to all relics of buildings in
+Great Britain, that can be proved to date from between the early 7th
+century and 1066, but Pre-Conquest would be more strictly accurate,
+Anglo-Saxon architects having contributed but little to the evolution of
+style, for they were wanting in initiative, rarely trying experiments
+with new features as was the constant custom of their Norman successors.
+To this, however, there was one brilliant exception in Bishop Wilfrid of
+York, who greatly improved the primitive church, built by King Edwin in
+the capital of his see, that was later destroyed by fire, and erected
+noble minsters at Hexham and Ripon, of which the fine crypts with
+massive pillars still remain beneath the considerably later buildings.
+In the south of England, too, there was considerable architectural
+activity in the 7th and 8th centuries, whilst in the 9th the return of
+King Egbert from his long exile at the Court of Charlemagne appears to
+have led to the introduction in Wessex of the Oriental branch of the
+Romanesque style to which the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle belongs.
+
+[Illustration: Tower of Sompting Church, Sussex]
+
+The chief characteristics of the so-called Anglo-Saxon style are the
+great height in comparison with the length and breadth of a building, a
+rectangular plan, massive square towers, unadorned angular or
+semicircular arches, stunted clumsy-looking columns with roughly carved
+or plain capitals, long narrow round-headed deeply recessed windows,
+massive walls without internal decoration, with on the exterior a
+somewhat ornate surface ornamentation, combined with a series of
+peculiar clamps known as quoins at the angles of the walls, greatly
+strengthening the structure. There were no aisles or transepts in early
+Anglo-Saxon buildings, but the chancel was divided from the nave by an
+arch sometimes with and sometimes without carving.
+
+It is supposed that most of the early Anglo-Saxon churches were built of
+wood, and at Greenstead in Essex an example remains of the mode in which
+such buildings were constructed, though the probability is that none of
+the original material remains. Of the stone buildings that succeeded
+those in the more perishable material a few only are still in existence,
+including the Abbey Church of Deerhurst near Towkesbury, the oldest
+consecrated building still in use in England, the Tower of Earl's Barton
+Church in Northamptonshire, parts of Barfreston Church, Kent, that has a
+fine Norman doorway: Sompting Church, with the unusual feature of a
+gabled tower with a spire, and that of Worth, both in Sussex, the latter
+with rudimentary transepts and a semicircular apse, with which may be
+mentioned S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts, of somewhat uncertain
+but probably later date than any of these, for it has a square Eastern
+end and decorative arcading on the upper portion of the walls, prophetic
+of coming changes.
+
+Certain portions of St. Martin's Church, Canterbury, notably a doorway
+in the chancel and parts of the foundations, are supposed to have
+belonged to a Saxon church of earlier date than the crypts of Hexham and
+Ripon already referred to, and which was preceded by an even more
+ancient building, one of the very first places of Christian worship
+erected in England.
+
+The so-called Pyx House in Westminster Abbey, a low narrow
+solemn-looking vaulted room with a row of massive pillars in the centre,
+and a single archway in the south transept, are all that are left of the
+noble sanctuary built under the direction of the last of the Saxon
+kings, but these relics, with a few conventual buildings, suffice to
+connect with Anglo-Saxon times a church that is perhaps more intimately
+associated than any other with the history of England from the close of
+the 11th to the middle of the 16th century, it having been added to
+under every successive occupant of the throne.
+
+The Anglo-Norman style, that succeeded the Saxon, prevailed in Great
+Britain from the conquest to the last decade of the 12th century,
+becoming at that time either merged in or superseded by the earliest
+phase of the Gothic.
+
+Always most enthusiastic builders, the Normans found in the land of
+their adoption fuller scope for their energies than in their own, and
+before they became absorbed in the race they had conquered, they left
+their impress throughout the length and breadth of their new domain,
+monasteries, cathedrals, and parish churches, castles, and dwelling
+houses rising up in every direction, all stamped with a most distinctive
+character, the result of the welding into one of Anglo-Saxon and Norman
+traditions, and the modification of a foreign style by local conditions
+of material and environment. In many cases somewhat crude and heavy,
+Norman work has yet always an imposing dignity, and is, as a general
+rule, admirably suited to the site it occupies and the purpose for which
+it is intended.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Norman Church]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital. White Tower, London]
+
+[Illustration: Base and Capital of Norman Pillar]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+The chief characteristics of Anglo-Norman ecclesiastical buildings are a
+cruciform plan; the great length in comparison with the breadth of the
+nave, which joins the choir without the intervention of a screen, such
+screens as are _in situ_ being of much later date than the churches in
+which they are found; columns of greater girth and height than the Saxon
+type, some circular, others six or eight sided, the circular type
+occasionally clustered in groups of six or more, with roughly carved
+capitals of which the so-called cushion form is of most frequent
+occurrence, upholding arches of wide span, massive walls, those of the
+nave with rows of purely ornamental arcading, beautifully proportioned
+triforia and clerestories; long, narrow, round-headed windows, two or
+three being often grouped together; deeply recessed and finely decorated
+doorways; strong external buttresses; twin western towers and a loftier
+central one rising from the intersection of nave and transepts. With
+certain notable exceptions referred to below, Norman churches have flat
+timber roofs, but those of the crypt beneath them are generally of
+groined stone with plain or only slightly ornamented ribs.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Window]
+
+[Illustration: Norman Doorway]
+
+Another very distinctive characteristic of the Norman style is the
+richness of the surface decoration of the interiors of cathedrals and
+churches, the bases, shafts, and capitals of the columns, the arches,
+headings of windows, mural arcades, &c. being all enriched with
+mouldings of an infinite variety of form, including the so-called cable
+resembling a rope, the billet not unlike short bits of rounded wood, the
+chevron or zig-zag, the fret or fillet, the lozenge, the trellis, the
+cone, the scollop, and wave with the so-called torus, a convex swelling,
+and the cavetto, a hollow moulding, the last two used almost exclusively
+on the bases of columns.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Buttress]
+
+[Illustration: Cable Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Billet Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Chevron or Zig-zag Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Diamond or Lozenge Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Trellis Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Cone Moulding]
+
+[Illustration: Scollop Moulding]
+
+Among noteworthy existing examples of the Anglo-Norman style are the
+nave, transepts and western doorway of Hereford Cathedral; the choir,
+transepts, and nave of Peterborough Cathedral; the naves of Gloucester,
+Exeter, Chichester, and Ely Cathedrals; certain portions of Canterbury
+Cathedral, including the choir chapels, part of the cloisters, the
+baptistery tower, S. Anselm's Tower, and a fine staircase leading up
+from the Close; the Chapter House of Worcester Cathedral; the greater
+part of Norwich Cathedral, which, though it has the French chevet at the
+eastern end, combines with it the distinctive English characteristics of
+a nave of great length and long transepts, the former with fourteen
+noble bays; the naves of S. Alban's Abbey, Southwell Minster, and the
+Priory Church of Christchurch, Hants; portions of the nave and transepts
+and the central tower of Christchurch Cathedral, Oxford; the beautiful
+portal of Tewkesbury Abbey, the finest in England, and the doorway of
+Hales Church, Norfolk, on which may be seen many of the characteristic
+mouldings enumerated above.
+
+[Illustration: Norman Church at Kilpeck]
+
+Somewhat later in date and even more distinctively Anglo-Norman than the
+examples quoted above, is the noble Cathedral of Durham, in which the
+style reached its fullest culmination. It remains, with the exception of
+the so-called Chapel of the Nine Altars that replaces the original apse,
+very much what it was when first completed, and reflects the national
+unity that was becoming ever more and more complete whilst it was being
+erected. A very noteworthy feature of this most effective building, in
+which every detail is subordinated to the general effect, is the vaulted
+roof of the nave, one of the very few dating from Norman times,
+significant of the approaching revolt against the flat roofs that had so
+long been looked upon as essential. In spite of certain crudities of
+structure it harmonises well alike with the vaulting of the aisles and
+transepts of earlier, and of the choir of somewhat later date. The great
+clustered piers alternating with cylindrical columns, the fine arches
+spanning them, the beautiful triforia and clerestories, and above all
+the long vista of nave and choir, combine to place Durham Cathedral in
+the very highest rank amongst contemporary buildings either in England
+or on the Continent, whilst in the Galilee Chapel, to which a porch,
+replacing an earlier entrance, gives access, the details of the
+transitional Norman style can be very clearly studied, the graceful
+intersecting arches, upheld by slender coupled columns, recently
+supplemented by additional supports, enriched with characteristic
+mouldings, shadowing forth the approaching change to the early English
+phase of Gothic.
+
+Winchester Cathedral, originally a very typical Norman building designed
+by William of Wykeham, retains its Norman framework, covered over, as it
+were, with a drapery of detail in the latest development of English
+Gothic, and with it may be named as characteristic Norman buildings with
+Gothic additions, Peterborough Cathedral, all Norman except the west
+front and eastern extremity of the choir; Malmesbury Abbey, with a
+flat-roofed nave and vaulted aisles, the latter with pointed arches; the
+Cathedral of Exeter; the Minster of Sherbourne; and portions of
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+Many parish churches, too, including those of Kilpeck in Herefordshire,
+a very typical Norman building; Tickencote in Lincolnshire, with
+intersecting pointed arches; S. Peter's in the East, Oxford, with a
+groined vaulted roof; Barfreston Church, Kent, with a very beautiful
+recessed doorway; Goring and Iffley in Oxfordshire; and above all, S.
+Bartholomew's in London, date from Norman times, and, though they have
+all been more or less modified by restoration, retain the general
+characteristics of the period to which they belong.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Peterborough Cathedral]
+
+Anglo-Norman secular architecture is characterised by much the same
+qualities as ecclesiastical, the castles and residences of the
+sovereigns and the nobles having been of dignified and impressive
+appearance, well proportioned, and thoroughly in harmony with their
+surroundings. During the reigns of the Conqueror and his successors many
+noble strongholds were erected on points of vantage. The most important
+feature, and in every case the first to be built, having been the lofty
+central keep or donjon, the home of its owner in peace, and the last
+refuge of a besieged garrison in time of war. In it was a fine hall, in
+which the host received his guests, with a raised platform known as the
+dais for the use of those of high rank, and the approach to it was
+protected by a complex series of defences, including deep ditches or
+fosses, walls with towers and turrets at intervals, forming two distinct
+enclosures known as the outer and inner baileys, often covering a vast
+extent of ground, the whole encircled by a deep moat that could be
+filled with water when necessary. The great main entrance was flanked by
+towers, and in connection with the heavy doors of solid oak was a
+portcullis, that is to say, a grating of timber and iron bristling with
+spikes, that could be drawn up from within, cutting off all access to
+the inner precincts.
+
+Some few Norman castles, all considerably modified to suit modern
+requirements, are still in use as residences or public buildings,
+including those of Windsor, Warwick (both specially typical), Norwich,
+Dover, Richmond in Yorkshire, and the Tower of London; the keep of the
+last named (known as the White Tower) and the chapel dedicated to S.
+John being amongst the best examples of the Anglo-Norman style in
+existence; whilst at Rochester, Colchester, Croft, Headingham, and
+Kenilworth are extensive remains of other strongholds, that before they
+fell into decay, must have equalled in grandeur those of Windsor and
+Warwick. A very remarkable example of a private residence dating from
+Norman times is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the seat of the Duke of
+Rutland, which retains the original great hall with a dais and
+minstrels' gallery, and a number of fine suites of rooms to which
+various wings were added during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries,
+affording an excellent opportunity for the study of the development of
+English domestic architecture.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE
+
+
+The first decades of the 12th century were marked throughout Europe, as
+far as architecture was concerned, by the final breaking loose from the
+Roman traditions that had so long been accepted as binding, and the
+revolt against which had been inaugurated more than a hundred years
+before. The struggle between the old and new methods of building very
+clearly reflected that of the people for greater freedom of thought and
+action in the countries in which it took place. The keynote of both was
+an aspiration after nobler things, and, in architecture, a yearning for
+religious expression, typified by the pointing upwards of the spires and
+pinnacles of churches and cathedrals, coincided with the craving of
+builders for increased lightness and grace of structure. The lofty
+vaults and complicated systems of buttresses of the Gothic style bore
+striking witness to the ambitious daring of their designers, a daring
+more than justified by its results.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Vaulting]
+
+The term Gothic, that now calls up a vision of ethereal beauty, was,
+strange to say, first given to the style that grew out of the Romanesque
+by the artists of the Renaissance as an expression of their contempt for
+what they looked upon as outworn methods of building, similar to those
+of the Gothic barbarians in warfare. It very soon, however, lost all
+association with this most inappropriate comparison, becoming synonymous
+with all that is most beautiful in the architecture of the period to
+which it is applied.
+
+The most important characteristics of Gothic buildings are the
+introduction, wherever possible, of vertical or very sharply pointed
+details, such as highly pitched roofs and gables, spires and pinnacles,
+pointed arches and pointed vaulting, flying buttresses, that grew ever
+slenderer and more decorative, leading downwards from the roof, and
+counteracting the tremendous thrust of the suspended vault of stone, all
+of true structural value. To these must be added the minor peculiarities
+of slenderer columns than those of Romanesque buildings, several being
+often clustered together, mouldings cut into the stone of the capitals
+of the columns, arcading &c., instead of projecting beyond the surface,
+the grouping of several windows under the arch, and the increase in the
+beauty of their tracery. The so-called lancet or long narrow window with
+stilted head, pointed like an arch, is specially distinctive of Early
+Gothic, and was later supplemented by the more elaborate rose window,
+the stained glass in them, and in the more complex groups, adding
+greatly to the aesthetic effect of the whole building, the many coloured
+light from them relieving the monotony of the stone work.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Vaulting]
+
+The general appearance of the interior of a Gothic cathedral, with its
+long perspective of nave, aisles, and choir, its finely proportioned
+triforia and clerestories, and, above all, its graceful arches leading
+up to their points of union in the soaring roof, may justly be called a
+poem in stone, whilst its exterior is equally remarkable for the close
+correlation of all its parts, producing an impression of consistent
+unity of design. An added charm is given alike to the interior and
+exterior by the combined richness and quaintness of the decorative
+sculpture, in which is clearly illustrated the delight in symbolism of
+the mediaeval craftsmen, who, working in close accord with architect and
+builder, supplemented effigies of heroes and heroines of the faith,
+royal patrons, &c., with emblematic animals, fruit, flowers, and
+foliage, welding the most incongruous forms into an elaborate and
+beautiful scheme of ornamentation.
+
+[Illustration: Gargoyle]
+
+It was in Northern France that the Gothic style was first developed, and
+there, as elsewhere, it passed through three phases. The first,
+characterised by comparative severity of style and simplicity of
+decoration, prevailing in the 12th and 13th centuries; the second, to
+which the name of Rayonnant is sometimes given, on account of the
+ray-like window tracery, in the 14th; and the third, known as the
+Flamboyant, because of the flame-like tracery and general brightness of
+the ornamentation, in the 15th century.
+
+[Illustration: Flying Buttress]
+
+A hint of the coming change was, as has already been shown, given in
+many a Romanesque building, notably, to quote but two cases in point, in
+the Cathedral of Evreux, and the Church of S. Etienne, Beauvais, but it
+was in the Cathedral of S. Denis, near Paris, founded in 1140, that the
+full significance of that change was revealed. It retains, it is true,
+round-headed arches above some of its windows and a few projecting
+decorative mouldings, but in other respects it is essentially Gothic,
+its double aisles foreshadowing those of the later Notre Dame of Paris,
+which may justly be said to be an epitome of the development of the
+pointed style in France. Specially dear to the French nation on account
+of its intimate association with many thrilling episodes of its history,
+it remains, in spite of all the vicissitudes through which it has
+passed, so far as its general structure is concerned, very much what it
+was when first completed in the late 13th century. The noble western
+facade, with its profuse and ornate ornamentation, and the fine square
+towers flanking it, each pierced with effective openings and adorned
+with grotesque gargoyles, contrast with the slender central
+spire--which, by the way, is modern--tiers of graceful flying
+buttresses, and the numerous groups of pinnacles, whilst the long line
+of the great roof ridge brings into relief the comparative intricacy of
+the design of the rest of the building, especially of the extremities of
+the transepts with their fairy-like arcading, beautiful sculptures, and
+grand rose windows.
+
+The most distinctive details of the interior of Notre Dame are the
+massive piers and symmetrical arches of varying width of the nave, the
+simple but most effective vaulting of it, the double aisles and the
+choir; the shortness of the transepts, atoned for by the unusual length
+of the semicircular apse, with its circlet of chapels; the combination
+in the clerestory of pointed-headed and rose windows, and, above all,
+the exquisitely proportioned and spacious triforium, which surmounts the
+whole of the double aisles and forms a circular gallery with arcaded
+openings, harmonising alike with those of the nave below and the
+clerestory above, and a stone vault of pointed intersecting arches
+springing from slender clustered columns.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Arcade]
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Steeple]
+
+Contemporaneous with Notre Dame is Laon Cathedral, the original and
+characteristic chevet of which was replaced in the early 13th century by
+a square termination, in imitation it is supposed of some English
+church, but which otherwise resembles the Cathedral of Paris, especially
+in its fine western facade and open vaulted triforium. In the Cathedral
+of Chartres, founded in the 12th century, but practically rebuilt in the
+13th after its almost complete destruction by fire, the further progress
+of the style may be studied, its arches being more stilted and its nave
+and choir wider than those of its predecessors, whilst its closed-in
+triforium is significant of the ever increasing height of the roofs,
+necessitating the strengthening of the walls, a change that was,
+however, quickly succeeded and, to a great extent, neutralised by the
+piercing and filling in with glass of the wall behind the arcading.
+Other characteristics of Chartres Cathedral are the noble sculptures of
+the west front, that are not only among the finest but the least injured
+in France, those of the south and north porches that are scarcely
+inferior, the dignified towers surmounted by beautiful and graceful
+spires of different but harmonious designs, and the double tier of
+flying buttresses of the nave. The last named are moreover of unusual
+construction, each consisting of two parts, the upper strengthened by an
+arcade with round-headed arches, springing from massive stunted piers,
+that seem to connect the advanced Gothic of the rest of the building,
+with the late Romanesque style.
+
+The Cathedral of Rheims is another typical Gothic building with a
+western facade, the deeply recessed central portal of which is
+especially fine, resembling those of Notre Dame, Laon, and Chartres; a
+remarkably effective central tower that rises nearly sixty feet above
+the high-pitched roof; a well-developed chevet, a walled-in triforium
+similar to that of Chartres, a noble series of clerestory and several
+grand rose windows filled with very beautiful stained glass.
+
+[Illustration: Gothic Clustered Column]
+
+In the Cathedral of Amiens French Gothic architecture touched its
+highest point of excellence, before the over exaggeration of its
+distinctive peculiarities sounded the note of decadence. Begun in 1220,
+when all the structural problems of the pointed style had been finally
+solved, it was completed in 1272, and although it has more than once
+been seriously injured by fire, it has been so successfully restored
+that it still remains one of the noblest churches of Europe, the one
+thing detracting from the solemn beauty of its general external
+appearance being the later Flamboyant spire, that is quite out of
+character with the rest of the building. Its great height and breadth;
+the symmetry of its proportions; the dignified simplicity of its
+vaulting, which in nave, aisles and transepts, chevet chapels and
+ambulatory is of similar design, the centre from which the ribs radiate
+being in every case so situated that these ribs are all of equal length;
+the grand sculptures and fine arcading of the great west front, the
+towers of which, though they differ in detail, harmonise well with each
+other; the exquisite statues and bas-reliefs of the transept portals;
+the combined strength and grace of the many flying buttresses; the
+admirable system of lighting, windows occupying the whole of the space
+between the main arcades of the nave and the roof; the beautiful and
+varied effects of perspective from many different points of view in the
+interior; with the minor detail of the marvellous carvings in the choir,
+justify the claim that Amiens Cathedral is the crowning glory of Gothic
+architecture and an ample vindication of its principles.
+
+In the contemporaneous Beauvais Cathedral, that was intended to rival
+that of Amiens in its height and in the ethereal lightness of its
+stilted arches, a convincing proof was given of the danger of carrying
+those principles too far, for the vaulting of the choir collapsed before
+the completion of the building, which, though it was restored and added
+to later, still remains unfinished. With it may be mentioned the Sainte
+Chapelle of Paris, the window tracery in which is very fine; the
+Cathedral of Coutances, which has a very fine central lantern
+tower--that is to say, one with windows that throw a light upon the
+centre of the interior of a building--and a beautiful tapering spire;
+and the Cathedral of Lisieux, with a very characteristic chevet and
+vaulting resembling that of the Cathedral of Amiens.
+
+The Cathedral of Le Mans, already referred to in connection with its
+noble Romanesque nave, has a most beautiful late 13th century Gothic
+choir, with one of the finest chevets in France. The aisles, that at the
+western end of the building are single, develop at the transepts into a
+double circlet, with chapels radiating from them, whilst the choir has
+exceptionally fine 13th and 14th century stained glass windows. The
+general effect of the interior, in which the solemn dignity of the nave
+contrasts with the almost ethereal beauty of the choir and its
+surroundings, is most impressive, whilst the exterior with its graceful
+flying buttresses and pinnacles is equally fine.
+
+The Cathedral of Bourges is another typical 13th century Gothic building
+which, though it is without the usual transepts, has a beautiful apse,
+the ambulatories of which have unusually wide spaces between the
+columns, double aisles flanking the nave as well as the choir and
+chevet, producing a unique impression of vastness, whilst the exterior
+is equally effective with its five grand western portals, a long main
+roof unbroken by towers or spires, and a series of steeply pitched
+supplementary roofs above the chapels of the eastern end.
+
+Dating from the same period as the cathedrals just noticed is the
+fortified Abbey of Mont St. Michel, that has been again and again
+rebuilt, and in which the gradual evolution of the Gothic style in
+France can be well studied, especially in the lovely chapel justly
+called the Merveille or the Marvel, that, with its cloisters, is still
+much what it was when finished in 1228, whilst the Chatelet or
+Gate-house, with its massive round towers and the various abbatial
+buildings, such as the Salle des Hotes or Guest-Hall, are equally
+characteristic of French domestic architecture of the same period. On
+the other hand the Abbey Church, that crowns the mount, has been so
+much-restored and modified that little of the original structure
+remains, except the crypt which, with its massive piers and arches and
+many supplementary chapels, is practically the same as that from which
+uprose the famous abbey, the building of which was a labour of love to
+so many successive abbots.
+
+The Church of S. Pierre, Caen, which has a fine tower with a beautiful
+pierced spire, is a good example of the second period of the Gothic
+style in France, and at Rouen the Rayonnant and Flamboyant phases are
+exceptionally well illustrated. The Abbey Church of S. Ouen was built
+entirely in the 14th century, and, with its characteristic high-pitched
+roofs over each bay of the aisles, its lofty towers--those at the west
+end with tapering spires--its delicately sculptured portals, double
+tiers of flying buttresses, triple division of arcades, triforium, and
+clerestory in the nave, the number and beauty of its stained glass
+windows, its graceful clustered piers, that rise without a break from
+the ground to the springing of the vault, and its beautiful chevet, with
+its circlet of eleven chapels, is an epitome of all the most
+characteristic features of Gothic architecture.
+
+The Church of St. Maclou in the same town is a fine gem of Flamboyant
+work, with its stilted arches, tapering spires and pinnacles, and lavish
+internal and external decoration, whilst in the Cathedral of Rouen can
+be recognised details of each of the three stages of French Gothic,
+combined with those of the later Renaissance. The western facade,
+lateral portals, towers, spires, and fine rose windows are typically
+Flamboyant, and the general view of the interior, with its long vista of
+nave and choir, its slightly pointed arcading, two tiers of which divide
+the nave from the aisles, and, above all, its simple but most effective
+vaulting, is essentially that of an early example of the pointed style,
+that of the Lady Chapel being especially effective.
+
+Good secular examples of the Gothic style in France are the Palais de
+Justice and Hotel de Bourgtheroulde, both at Rouen, the Chateau of Coucy
+near Laon, the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, the Chateau de Pierrefonds in
+Normandy, and, most characteristic of all, the House of Jacques Coeur
+at Bourges. It was, however, in Belgium that Gothic municipal and
+domestic architecture reached its noblest development, the great halls
+of the towns being remarkable for their dignified and massive
+appearance, and, except in the latest examples built after the decadence
+had set in, for the severe restraint of their ornamentation. Of
+rectangular plan, and several stories in height, with steeply pitched
+roofs, the gable ends adorned with many pinnacles, and the long sloping
+sides broken by dormer windows, contrasting with the rows of
+pointed-headed lights in the walls beneath, and lofty central tower of
+ornate design, these noble buildings, of which those at Ypres, Bruges,
+Brussels, Ghent, and Tournai are the best, are the chief pride of the
+cities to which they belong. They rival in the affections of the people
+even the cathedrals of contemporary date, although those of Antwerp,
+specially noteworthy for its seven aisles, Louvain, the nave and
+transepts of which, as already stated, are Romanesque, whilst the choir
+is a fine specimen of Early Gothic, Brussels, Ghent, Louvain, and Liege
+are all noble structures, resembling those of France in general plan,
+though most of them are shorter and of greater width.
+
+In Spain, as in France, Gothic architecture passed through three phases:
+the first, that prevailed in the second half of the 12th and the first
+of the 13th century, to a great extent the outcome of the Romanesque;
+the second that succeeded it and lasted until the beginning of the 15th
+century, distinguished by great dignity of structure and appropriateness
+of ornamentation; the last, that prevailed until nearly the middle of
+the 16th century, corresponding to a great extent with French
+Flamboyant, though it lasted longer and was considerably modified by
+Moorish influence.
+
+To the first period of Gothic architecture in Spain belong the
+Cathedrals of Santiago de Compostella, of cruciform plan with a vaulted
+roof, semicircular headed arcades and windows, and an ornate western
+facade recalling that of Chartres; Zamora, Taragona, and the older of
+the two at Salamanca, the three last retaining the characteristic
+cimborio, or low dome, already referred to in connection with Romanesque
+work in Spain, rising from the intersection of nave and transepts, but
+of more complex structure than in earlier examples, the ribs of the
+vaulting being upheld by pendentives and the whole surmounted by a
+secondary dome of considerable height pierced with windows, and at
+Salamanca flanked by four circular towers. Unfortunately, in later
+Spanish ecclesiastical architecture this beautiful feature was
+abandoned, and the Cathedrals of Toledo, Leon, and Burgos are of the
+French type, with chevets, double aisles, clustered pillars upholding
+pointed arches, vaulted roofs, ornate decorative arcading, fine open
+triforia, and lofty clerestories. The exterior of that of Burgos is
+especially ornate, with three pinnacled towers, tapering open-traceried
+spires rising from those at the western end. In the 14th century the
+cruciform plan, which had so long prevailed, was replaced in Spain by
+one without either aisles or transepts; the buttresses that had
+previously been introduced outside the building to resist the thrust of
+the vaulting, were brought within the walls so as to make the nave one
+vast vaulted hall, flanked by lateral chapels as in the fine Cathedral
+of Gerona and the Church of S. Maria del Pino at Barcelona. Later,
+however, this comparatively simple mode of structure was superseded by
+vast complicated buildings such as the Cathedral of Salamanca and that
+of Segovia, both dating from the 16th century, the vaulting of which is
+especially complicated, with very ornate ribs, whilst the towers closely
+resemble those of contemporaneous Moorish mosques.
+
+The Gothic style, that was alike alien to the Italian temperament and
+unsuited to the Italian climate, never really took root in Italy, the
+soil of which was thoroughly impregnated with classic traditions. The
+horizontal cornice, so characteristic of Greek and Early Roman
+architecture is of frequent occurrence, the round arch was long retained
+in combination with pointed highly-pitched roofs, and spires are rare,
+whilst the beautiful groined vaulting, the flying buttresses, and the
+exquisite window-tracery, that lend so great a charm to the cathedrals
+and churches of France and England, are very seldom met with. There was
+no gradual evolution in Italy from Early to Late Gothic, and for this
+reason it is usual to treat Italian buildings in the pointed style in
+three geographical instead of chronological groups, namely, the
+northern, central, and southern. To the first belongs the Cathedral of
+Milan, the largest Gothic building in Italy, the exterior of which is
+somewhat spoiled by its over-decorated western facade, though the effect
+of the long rows of lateral pinnacles, the numerous flying buttresses,
+the low conical dome and lofty spire is very fine. The interior, with
+its vast nave, double aisles, and complex apse, its lofty piers, with
+capitals consisting of life-sized figures in niches, and its noble
+clerestory, presents an appearance of grandeur unequalled by any other
+Gothic church in Italy. The Certosa or Carthusian Monastery, the facade
+of which is a century older than the rest of the building; the Churches
+of S. Maria del Carmine and S. Michele, both at Pavia, the latter with a
+very typical campanile; the Cathedral of Genoa; the Churches of S.
+Anastasia and S. Zenone at Verona, are all good examples of
+Italian-Gothic, whilst amongst secular buildings in the same style in
+Northern Italy, the Ducal and other palaces at Venice, such as the
+so-called Ca' d'Ora are remarkable for the beauty of their proportions,
+the effectiveness of their window-grouping, and the general
+appropriateness and grace of their decorative details, especially of
+their balconies.
+
+In Central Italy the Cathedrals of Florence and Siena are specially
+typical, the former, with its dome of considerably later date than the
+rest of the building, contrasting with the Campanile or Bell Tower named
+after Giotto, the latter being noteworthy for the combination of a dome
+with pointed arcading and horizontal cornices, and the association on
+the west front of rounded with stilted arches, the last a peculiarity
+also of the cathedral at Orvieto, the facade of which is one of the most
+beautiful in Italy.
+
+The Gothic work of Southern Italy is far more florid than that of the
+rest of the peninsula, and this is equally true of that of Sicily. In
+the churches of both, as in the earlier Romanesque buildings already
+noticed, Saracenic, Greek, and Roman influences are alike noticeable,
+especially in those of Naples and the Cathedrals of Palermo, Monreale,
+and Messina, the three last named combining the pointed arch distinctive
+of Gothic, with the elaborate surface decoration so characteristic of
+the Norman style.
+
+German architects did not adopt the pointed arch until considerably
+later than those of the south and west of Europe, but to atone for this
+they delighted in highly pitched roofs with stilted gables, and lofty
+towers, with pointed roofs and tapering spires. The exteriors of their
+buildings differ very greatly from the interiors, in which the
+round-headed windows and semicircular arches of the Romanesque style are
+retained, enriched, however, with beautiful and ornate carving. The term
+round-arched Gothic is therefore often applied to the earliest phase of
+the style in Germany, of which good examples are the Churches of the
+Holy Apostles, of S. Martin and S. Maria in Capitolo, all in Cologne,
+the Abbey Churches of Arnstein and Andernach and the Liebfrauenkirche at
+Treves, the last built on the foundations of a much earlier chapel.
+
+The second phase of Gothic architecture in Germany, in which the pointed
+arch was substituted for the semicircular, did not begin until the
+second half of the 13th century. To it belong the greater part of the
+Cathedral of Strasburg, which combines, with much beautiful Romanesque
+work, a typical Gothic facade with a fine open tracery spire, a
+companion to which was designed but never erected. The Cathedral of
+Freiburg, with a graceful and ornate spire, the Church of S. Stephen at
+Vienna, with aisles almost as lofty as the nave, portions of the Church
+of S. Sebald, Nuremberg, the decorative sculpture of which is remarkably
+fine, and, above all, the Cathedral of Cologne, the noblest example of
+German Gothic, with an exceptionally symmetrical plan, which in spite of
+the fact that the building extended over more than a century, and that
+the west point was only completed in the 19th century, was not departed
+from, so that it remains a unique specimen of mediaeval design. It has a
+noble nave, double aisles, one of which is continued round the eastern
+apse and is divided into seven chapels, forming a picturesque chevet.
+Massive towers with a tapering central spire and many pinnacles flank
+the western entrance, elaborately decorated buttresses break the long
+lines of the walls, and from the intersecting nave and transepts rises a
+slender but most effective spire.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Cologne Cathedral]
+
+To the third period of Gothic architecture in Germany belong Ulm
+Cathedral, which has a nave of exceptional height; the unfinished Church
+of S. Barbara at Kullenberg, with a very picturesque chevet, the
+exterior of which is most lavishly decorated, and a steeply pitched roof
+of unusual height, with soaring towers and pinnacles; S. Catherine at
+Oppenheim, the over ornate complex decorative carvings of which are
+specially typical; and the parish Church of Thaun, the western portal of
+which is remarkably fine.
+
+With these ecclesiastical buildings may be named the town halls of
+Lubeck, Brunswick, Munster, and other German towns, which, though they
+are neither so beautiful or so characteristic as those of Belgium, are
+of noble and symmetrical proportions, whilst a word of recognition must
+also be given to the beautiful domestic architecture of Germany,
+especially that of Prague, Nuremberg, and Frankfort all rich in
+survivals of mediaeval times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN
+
+
+[Illustration: Early English Lancet Window]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Window]
+
+Gothic architecture in England and Scotland followed to some extent the
+same lines as in France, with, however, certain notable differences that
+were the outcome of the national feeling which had begun to make itself
+felt as early as the close of the 11th century. Until then the Normans
+had remained a distinct and alien element in what appeared to them a
+foreign land, but now they had become fused with the natives of that
+land, sharing their aesthetic as well as their political aspirations. The
+note of change was first sounded in the architecture of the now united
+races in a rebellion against the heavy massiveness of the Norman style,
+and a desire for a greater redundancy of what may be called structural
+decoration in place of extraneous surface ornamentation. The general
+proportions of buildings gradually became slenderer, the walls loftier,
+the windows longer, the piers and columns slighter, and the arches more
+pointed, these peculiarities becoming more and more accentuated as time
+went on, till they culminated in the noble and exquisitely beautiful
+cathedrals and churches that vied even with the best of those of
+Northern France.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+It is usual to divide the development of English Gothic architecture
+into three periods: the Early English, the Decorated, and the
+Perpendicular--the first prevailing from about 1189 to 1307, the second
+from the latter date to 1380, and the third from 1380 to 1485, whilst
+the name of Tudor has been given to the transitional time between the
+last phase of Gothic and the introduction of the Renaissance style,
+lasting from 1485 to about 1546. It must, however, be added that hardly
+any buildings exist belonging entirely to one period, architects having
+in almost every case been compelled to be content with adding to or
+modifying the work of their predecessors.
+
+Amongst the characteristics of Early English architecture are groined
+vaulting with main diagonal ribs only, long narrow lancet-headed
+windows, clustered piers with capitals consisting generally of
+delicately carved foliage, pointed arcading, the archivolt or arched
+portion enriched with mouldings, in which the ornament known as the
+dog-tooth is of frequent occurrence, ornate yet dignified western
+facades with deeply recessed doorways decorated with slender columns and
+beautiful bas-reliefs, high-pitched roofs with stilted gable ends, lofty
+towers and spires, and plain buttresses ranged in pairs at the angles of
+buildings.
+
+The Early English lancet window has a unique significance in the
+development of Gothic architecture this side of the Channel, for it
+inaugurated an important structural change, its constantly increasing
+length aiding greatly in the breaking up of the triple division of
+walls--supposed by some to have been emblematic of the Holy
+Trinity--with arcading, triforium, and clerestory. By slow degrees the
+triforium was first reduced to a mere decorative feature, and then
+eliminated altogether, whilst the clerestory usurped its place in
+addition to its own.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Capital]
+
+[Illustration: Base of Early English Pillar]
+
+[Illustration: Capitals of Early English Clustered Pillar]
+
+In Decorated buildings the windows are larger and divided into a greater
+number of lights than in Early English, the heads being filled with
+tracery of geometrical design; the facades are more complicated and at
+the same time less effective, the towers and spires are loftier and
+supplemented by many pinnacles and finials, flying buttresses are
+multiplied; parapets with pierced openings, canopied niches containing
+figures and other purely decorative features give to the exteriors a
+great richness of general appearance. In the interiors the simple Early
+English vaulting is superseded by roofs divided into a great number of
+different compartments, the points of intersection being marked by stone
+bosses or masses of carving, whilst increased lavishness of decoration
+characterises every portion of the building, mouldings of a great
+variety, amongst which the ballflower is of frequent occurrence, being
+introduced wherever possible.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Ornaments]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Ornaments]
+
+In Perpendicular Gothic, as its name implies, the vertical tendency
+became ever more and more marked; towers, spires, and pinnacles became
+more and more numerous, all decreasing in bulk and increasing in height.
+Turrets with many airy finials, springing from flying buttresses that
+were adorned with figures of lions, dragons, and other symbolic
+creatures, rise above equally ornate parapets, the dignified
+single-centred arch was replaced by a four-centred form, and rectilinear
+lines superseded the beautifully flowing tracery of earlier windows. It
+was, however, the complex and exquisitely delicate groined roofing that
+chiefly characterised the Perpendicular style, lending to the interior
+of the buildings in which it was employed an ethereal charm that has
+never been surpassed. In the so-called fan-tracery roof, that was the
+culmination of this distinctive form of vaulting, the entire surface of
+the roof is covered with radiating ribs resembling the sections of an
+outspread fan, connected by bands of trefoil or quatrefoil ornament
+known as cusping, and, in some cases--notably in that of Henry VII's
+chapel at Westminster--with pendant stalactite ornaments drooping from
+the point of intersection of the groins. In some Perpendicular
+buildings, as in the Churches of S. Stephen and S. Peter's Mancroft at
+Norwich, ornate open timber roofs, enriched with beautiful carving, take
+the place of those of stone, and in the final or Tudor phase of the
+style such roofs, to which the name of hammer beam has been given, and
+of which those of Wolsey's Great Hall at Hampton Court and of
+Westminster Hall are good examples, were almost as elaborate as the
+fan-tracery variety. Characteristic features of secular Tudor buildings
+are the extensive use of panelling, the bow or projecting window rising
+direct from the ground, the oriel window or window supported by a corbel
+of stone often finely carved, battlements with open tracery work and
+richly decorated gables, fine specimens of all of which are to be seen
+at Hampton Court Palace.
+
+[Illustration: Early English Dog-tooth Ornament]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Arcading]
+
+[Illustration: Early English Doorway, Westminster Abbey]
+
+One of the earliest Gothic structures in England is the choir of
+Canterbury Cathedral, designed by the Burgundian Williams of Sens, which
+recalls in general style certain contemporaneous French ecclesiastical
+buildings. Foreign influence is also noticeable in the somewhat later
+Ripon and Chichester Cathedrals, but by the beginning of the 13th
+century English Gothic had freed itself almost entirely from the
+trammels of French traditions, and started forward on the path from
+which it never deviated, combining a consummate mastery of structural
+principles and an unwearying attention to detail with a unity of
+expression that makes an English Gothic church or cathedral an ideal
+reflection of the spirit of the age which witnessed its erection.
+
+[Illustration: Plan of Salisbury Cathedral]
+
+The Cathedrals of Wells, Lincoln, and Salisbury, the choir of Ely
+Cathedral, and the choir, transepts, and part of the cloisters and
+other details of Westminster Abbey, are typical examples of the Early
+English phase of Gothic. The first named especially is unrivalled in the
+symmetry of its general proportions and the richness and appropriateness
+of its decorations. Its western facade rivals that of Amiens Cathedral
+in the restrained dignity of its general design, the delicacy of its
+decorative arcading, and the number and variety of its finely sculptured
+figures. The central tower, though its upper portion belongs to the
+Decorated period, harmonises well with the rest of the exterior, whilst
+the interior is truly a poem in stone, with the long perspective of the
+nave flanked by graceful arches, springing from clustered piers with
+capitals of exquisitely carved foliage, noble triforia and clerestories,
+and a simple arched vaulting of intersecting ribs. The transepts, that
+are of earlier date than the nave, serve as a kind of introduction to
+it, and in the choir the transition from Early English to Decorated
+Gothic can be well studied, the western portion dating from the 12th and
+the eastern from the 13th century.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Window]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Pinnacle]
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Capital]
+
+Though the exterior of Lincoln Cathedral is of a somewhat hybrid
+character, the towers and doorways of the west front being Norman, the
+arcading and decorative sculpture Early English, and the central tower
+Decorated, the general effect is grand and impressive. The interior,
+though not quite so ornate as that of Wells, is almost as beautiful, the
+great rose windows being specially noteworthy features. The so-called
+Angel Choir, which has a very fine triforium, is a gem of Early English
+work, and the three 15th century chapels adjoining it are equally
+characteristic of Perpendicular Gothic.
+
+The beautiful Early English choir of Ely Cathedral contrasts forcibly
+with the noble Norman nave, and the so-called Galilee Porch is one of
+the finest examples of the first phase of Gothic in the country, but the
+exterior of the building has been almost entirely rebuilt, the great
+central tower, which fell in 1322, having been replaced by the present
+one in the Decorated phase of Gothic. The Early English portions of
+Westminster Abbey closely resemble the other examples of the style just
+quoted, though the bays of the choir are not so well proportioned as
+those of Lincoln. Before the 15th century additions to Salisbury
+Cathedral and the sweeping away of the statues and other sculptures that
+adorned its west front, it must have been almost as typical as that of
+Lincoln or of Wells of the Early English style, and it still remains, in
+its rectangular plan and square eastern termination, a true
+representative of the ideals of native architects.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Ball Flower Ornament]
+
+The transepts of York Minster, in one of which is the famous window with
+lancet-headed lights, known as the Five Sisters, is a good example of
+the transition from Early English to Decorated Gothic, and the same may
+be said of portions of the ruins of Hexham Abbey, the Saxon crypt of
+which has already been referred to, notably of the transepts with
+windows resembling those of York Minster, and of the many relics of the
+noble monastic buildings of Yorkshire, including those at Ripon,
+Jervaulx, Rivaulx, and Whitby. The Cathedral of Glasgow is another
+beautiful building in the first phase of Gothic, the choir, beneath
+which is a noble crypt of earlier date, being especially fine, and with
+it must be named the ruins of the great abbey churches of Kelso,
+Jedburgh, and Dryburgh, that have distinctive Norman as well as Early
+English details.
+
+The first half of the 14th century was the golden age of English
+architecture, during which the Decorated gradually grew out of the Early
+English style, the two being in many cases so completely merged in each
+other that no break is discernible. The foundations of a truly national
+style had been laid in the Cathedrals of Wells and of Lincoln, in which
+originality of design was combined with consummate technical skill of
+execution, and in the buildings that succeeded them, architect and
+craftsmen still worked together in complete harmony. The wealth of
+imagination of the latter found its best expression in emphasising the
+structural lines of the noble conceptions of the former; niches, with
+their figures, cusping, finials and crockets, ball flowers and bosses,
+all becoming essential details of one harmonious whole.
+
+The nave and choir of Exeter Cathedral are especially typical of
+Decorated architecture at its best. They rise from the foundations of an
+earlier church, of which the Norman towers above the transepts are
+relics, and are absolutely unsurpassed in the simple dignity of the
+arcading spanning the clustered piers, the exquisite beauty of the
+groined roofing, the bosses of which are decorated with delicate
+carvings of a great variety of subjects, and the fine tracery of the
+windows. Unfortunately the general effect of the exterior, in spite of
+the fine Norman towers and the beauty of the decorative sculpture of the
+west front, is inferior to that of the interior, a 15th century porch
+harmonising ill with the earlier work, whilst breadth is too great for
+the height of the building.
+
+[Illustration: Decorated Steeple]
+
+Other good examples of Decorated Gothic are the Church of St. Mary,
+Oxford, with a very fine spire; the nave and chapter-house of York
+Minster, which has a very beautiful window at the western end, the
+flowing tracing of which is specially distinctive of the style; the
+choir of Lichfield Cathedral, which has, however, certain Early English
+details; the choir of Carlisle Cathedral, with an exceptionally
+beautiful eastern window of nine lights with elaborate tracery; the Lady
+Chapel of Wells Cathedral; the crypt, all that is left of St. Stephen's,
+Westminster, now used as a chapel of the Houses of Parliament, the
+lantern tower of Ely Cathedral; the ruins of Tintern and Battle Abbeys,
+with those of Melrose Abbey, which has also characteristic Perpendicular
+features. To the same period as these ecclesiastical buildings belong
+the Round Tower at Windsor, the Hall of the Bishop's Palace at Wells,
+Conway, Caernarvon, and Chepstow Castles, all recalling Norman domestic
+architecture in the general massiveness of their structure, that is
+relieved by the comparative lightness of such details as the doors and
+windows.
+
+Unfortunately the second half of the 14th century was marked by a
+tendency to destroy or obliterate the characteristic details of Early
+English and Decorated buildings, a notable example of which is
+Gloucester Cathedral, the beautiful eastern apse of which was pulled
+down, whilst the piers and walls of the rest of the building were
+concealed as much as possible, the barbarism being, it must be owned,
+atoned for to some extent by the addition of a noble eastern window in
+the Perpendicular style. The nave of Westminster Abbey, on the other
+hand, begun just after the restoration of Gloucester Cathedral was
+completed, harmonises well with the earlier choir, and may be quoted,
+with the choir of York Minster and the naves of Canterbury and
+Winchester Cathedrals, as examples of the transition from the Decorated
+to the Perpendicular styles. To the final phase of the latter belong
+Beverley Minster, the Cathedral of Chester, and the Abbey Church at
+Bath, the western facades of all of which are very fine, but it was in
+Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, King's College Chapel, Cambridge,
+and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, with those of Holyrood and Roslyn in
+Scotland, that the style reached its fullest development. That
+development was, alas, however, all too soon followed by a decadence
+that was ushered in by an employment of too lavish and often meaningless
+ornamentation which had nothing to do with structural necessities.
+
+[Illustration: Hammer Beam Roof]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Roofing]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Window]
+
+[Illustration: Perpendicular Niche]
+
+Westminster Chapel, in addition to the characteristic fan-tracery roof
+already referred to, has an exceptionally beautiful chevet with five
+apsidal chapels, a finely vaulted nave, aisles, and cloisters, in which
+Decorated and Perpendicular details are harmoniously combined. King's
+College Chapel, Cambridge, and St. George's, Windsor, are both entirely
+in the Perpendicular style, whilst the Scotch examples quoted above are
+specially noticeable for the contrast their massive pillars and arcades
+present to the airy lightness of their vaulting.
+
+Less important Perpendicular ecclesiastical buildings are the parish
+churches of Blakeney and Cley in Norfolk, the former with a specially
+fine east window, the latter unfortunately almost in ruins, but notable
+on account of the beauty of the decorative carving; the parish church of
+Fairford, Gloucestershire, the stained glass windows of which are
+amongst the finest in England; and Christ Church College, Oxford, in
+which town, by the way, Gothic traditions lingered longer than anywhere
+else in England.
+
+[Illustration: Corbel]
+
+Notable secular buildings in the latest phase of English Gothic are
+Westminster Hall, and the earlier portions of Hampton Court Palace,
+whilst Longleat Palace, Wiltshire, and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, with
+a fine open timber roof, are good examples of the transition from the
+Gothic to the Renaissance styles, the general plans belonging to the
+former and the decorative details being Italian in feeling.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE
+
+
+The term Renaissance, signifying revival, has been given to the style
+which succeeded the Gothic. It was, to a great extent, a reversion to
+classic ideals modified to suit modern requirements. Its leading
+characteristics are simplicity of plan, symmetry of proportion, and
+massive grandeur of general effect, a minor peculiarity being the lavish
+use of plaster, not only for surface decoration, but also in some cases
+for the actual structure of such details as cornices, &c.
+
+[Illustration: Example of Renaissance Ornament]
+
+The Renaissance style was inaugurated in Italy, where, as already
+stated, the Gothic never took root, and spread thence to the other
+countries of Europe, assuming in each country a certain distinctive
+character of its own in harmony with its environment. In Italian
+Renaissance ecclesiastical architecture the old basilican plan was
+revived, the dome became again, as in ancient Rome, the crowning glory
+of the building, and was combined with horizontal entablatures upheld by
+columns, with capitals of one or another of the Greek orders, and
+porticoes with pediments. In secular Italian Renaissance a very notable
+feature is the central cortile or courtyard surrounded by open arcades,
+above which are the principal apartments, of style corresponding with
+that of the arcades, the round-headed windows being divided from each
+other by slender pilasters, and the spandrels above them filled in with
+sculptured ornamentation. The principal facade of Italian palaces was
+especially ornate, richly decorated courses of stone dividing the
+stories from each other, in which the fenestration or grouping of the
+windows was peculiarly effective.
+
+Whereas in the history of mediaeval architecture few names emerge from
+the obscurity in which those who planned and erected the great
+cathedrals, churches, and castles were content to remain, in that of
+Renaissance the individual architect comes to the front, all the
+designing having been done by him and the whole work carried on under
+his personal superintendence. In the new movement Florence took the
+lead, owing the pre-eminence she quickly won to the gifted and versatile
+Filippo Brunelleschi, who, like so many of his famous contemporaries,
+was a skilled goldsmith and sculptor before he became an architect. His
+first work of importance was the dome he added to the unfinished
+cathedral of his native city, which was soon succeeded by the Churches
+of S. Spirito and S. Lorenzo, both of which are typical Renaissance
+buildings, as is also the Puzzi Chapel, on which the architect displayed
+his wonderful sense of symmetry, combining domes, arches, and lintels
+with consummate skill.
+
+Fine examples of Renaissance secular architecture in Florence are the
+Riccardi and Pitti Palaces, both designed by Brunelleschi, but
+considerably modified after his death, the Rucellai Palace by Alberti, a
+worthy successor of Brunelleschi, the Guadagni Palace, designed by
+Bramante, and the Pandolfini, designed by Raphael, the last very
+characteristic of the mature phase of Italian Renaissance.
+
+[Illustration: Facade of a Venetian Palace]
+
+It was in Rome that the style reached its noblest development, and the
+Cathedral of S. Peter's, on which all the greatest architects of the
+16th and 17th centuries were successively employed, affords a unique
+opportunity for its study. Built on the site of the old basilica of S.
+Peter, alluded to in the section on Early Christian architecture, what
+was to become the largest church in the world was begun by Bramante in
+1506. His plan, that of a square with four projecting apses, to be
+covered in with a central and four supplementary domes, was followed
+until his death in 1514, when the work was carried on by Giuliano da San
+Gallo, Fra Giacondo and Raphael, who were in favour of certain
+modifications of the original design, that if carried out would have
+converted the square into a Latin cross. The withdrawal of San Gallo,
+and the deaths of Giacondo and Raphael in 1515, led to Baldasarre
+Peruzzi being appointed architect, and under his auspices the plan was
+changed to that of a Greek cross. Before his death in 1536 the present
+south transept and the vaulting, that was to encircle the central dome
+were finished, and the massive pendentives that were to uphold the
+latter were begun. The next architect to take up the vast scheme was
+Antonio da San Gallo, who, could he have obtained the necessary funds,
+would have added a long pronaos or corridor of approach, to be entered
+from a domed porch at the western end. In his model the interior of the
+central portion of the cathedral, with the notable exception of the
+dome, appears much as it does now, so that with its aid a good idea can
+be obtained of the state of the building when, in 1546, Michael Angelo
+was appointed architect in chief, and set the seal of his genius upon a
+complex creation which was already a reflection of the highest
+constructive and aesthetic achievement of the golden age of Italian
+architecture. Reverencing the noble design of Bramante, Michael Angelo
+left the interior, of which the symmetry of plan and beauty of the many
+pilasters with their Corinthian capitals are notable characteristics,
+much as he found it, but though he introduced on the exterior Corinthian
+pilasters resembling those of the interior, he greatly modified the
+general aspect of the former by the removal of the projecting chapels
+and the aisles round the apses. It was in his design for the dome that
+Michael Angelo achieved his greatest architectural triumph, for without
+tampering at all with what had already been done by Bramante, he set
+upon the cylindrical drum that artist had intended to uphold a dome,
+which was to be a mere reproduction of that of the Pantheon, a
+magnificent structure of original design which dominates the capital,
+producing an absolutely unrivalled impression of combined strength,
+vastness, and symmetry, the eye being irresistibly led up from drum to
+dome and from dome to lantern. From within the cathedral the effect is
+scarcely less grand, a wonderful sense of space being conveyed by the
+soaring vault, that seems to spring heavenwards of its own volition.
+
+Michael Angelo died before his masterpiece was completed, but so far as
+the dome was concerned his design was carried out, with certain slight
+modifications, by Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana.
+Unfortunately, however, the rest of the great architect's scheme was
+departed from and its effectiveness destroyed by additions which he
+would most certainly have condemned. At the suggestion of Pope Pius IV
+the facade built under Michael Angelo was pulled down and replaced by
+Maderno with that still _in situ_, whilst the nave was lengthened out of
+all proportion to the rest of the building.
+
+In spite of this lamentable mistake, the general effect of the interior
+is remarkably fine, and is greatly enhanced by the rich colouring of the
+lavish decoration of every portion, the massive piers and vast arches
+spanning them, and the vaulted coffered ceilings, all harmonising with
+and supplementing each other. Moreover, the unhappy result of the
+substitution of Maderno's for Michael Angelo's facade was to some extent
+neutralised in 1666 by the erection under Bernini of the lofty colonnade
+encircling the piazza of S. Peter in the simple and dignified Doric
+style, that forms an appropriate approach to the cathedral.
+
+In the Renaissance palaces of Rome classic details were more closely
+copied than in Florence, pilasters and arcades forming, in almost every
+case, the chief decorations of the exteriors. Notable examples are the
+so-called Venetian Palaces, the Cancellaria designed by Bramante, the
+Sacchetti by Antonio San Gallo, and, above all, the Farnese, the
+grandest in the capital, begun by San Gallo and completed by Michael
+Angelo, with portions of the Vatican, including the Hall of the
+Belvedere, designed by Bramante.
+
+In Venice, where the Renaissance style was necessarily modified by the
+peculiar conditions of the lagoon city, good examples of it are the
+Churches S. Maria dei Miracoli, S. Zaccaria, and S. Maria della Salute,
+with the palaces of Vendramini, Calergo, Trevisano, and Cornaro, all,
+however, excelled by the beautiful Palazzo Grimani designed by San
+Michele and the Library of S. Mark of Sansovino.
+
+At Vicenza the famous architect Palladio erected many noble Renaissance
+churches, including the Redentore, enclosed the ancient Basilica in
+grand classic arcades, and designed a great number of fine palaces. In
+Milan the finest Renaissance structures are the sacristy of S. Maria
+Presso S. Sabino, the apse of S. Maria della Grazie and the arcaded
+court of the great Hospital, all designed by Bramante. Near Pavia is the
+fine Certosa, the facade of which is the work of Ambrogio Borgognoni;
+Genoa is rich in effective groups of Renaissance palaces after the
+designs of Alessio, and owns a late Renaissance church ascribed to
+Puget, and at Verona is the typical Palazzo del Conseglio, built by Fra
+Giocondo.
+
+It was not until the beginning of the 16th century that the Renaissance
+style gained a footing in France, and even for some time after that
+French architects, whilst adopting its main features, clung to certain
+characteristic Gothic details. This is very notably the case in some of
+the royal chateaux on the Loire, justly considered the finest secular
+Renaissance buildings in the country, especially in that of Chambord,
+which, with a typical Renaissance facade, has a highly pitched roof with
+soaring pinnacles and pointed-headed dormer windows.
+
+Other fine Early Renaissance French buildings are the wing added by
+Frances I to the old castle of Blois, famous for its beautiful external
+spiral staircase, the chateaux of Chenonceaux, Chateaudun, and
+Azay-le-Rideau, the Hotel de Ville at Beaugency, the Church of S.
+Eustache, the Hotel des Invalides, the western portion of the Louvre,
+and the Luxembourg, all in Paris. To the latest phase of what eventually
+became almost a national style, belong the Pantheon, the Palais Royal,
+the College and Church of the Sorbonne, all in Paris; the relics of the
+noble Chateau built for Richelieu on the site of the great minister's
+native village by Lemercier, the Chateau of Ballery in Normandy, the
+additions to the castle of Blois, the Chateau des Maisons near, and the
+Church of Val de Grace in Paris, all by Francois Mansard, whose name is
+associated with a picturesque form of roof invented by him.
+
+In the chateau of Versailles, designed by Jules Mansard, a distant
+connection of the greater Francois, the first note of the decadence of
+the Renaissance style was sounded, for well-built and richly decorated
+though it is, the huge structure is lacking in the dignified grandeur,
+so distinctive of the buildings enumerated above.
+
+Although it was in Italy and France that European Renaissance
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, some few fine examples of
+it remain in other countries, including in Spain the great Monastery and
+Palace of the Escurial near Madrid, the central church of which is
+especially fine, the Cathedrals of Burgos, Malaga, and Granada, the town
+halls of Saragossa and Seville, and portions of the Alcazar of Toledo,
+the convent of Mafra in Portugal, the Town Hall of Antwerp, the Council
+Halls of Leipzig and Rothenburg, the Cloth Hall of Brunswick, the Castle
+of Schallenburg, and the Hall of the Belvedere at Prague.
+
+It is unnecessary to refer in detail to the many buildings in Europe in
+what is known as the Rococo style, of which grotesque and meaningless
+ornamentation is the chief characteristic, but it must be added that in
+the early 19th century something like a new classic revival took place
+on the Continent. The Church of La Madeleine and the Opera House in
+Paris, the Arco della Pace at Milan, the Royal Theatre at Berlin, the
+Glyptothex and Pinacothex of Munich, the Walhalla at Ratisbon, the
+Museum of Dresden, and the Church of S. Isaac at St. Petersburg being
+notable instances of the skilful way in which Greek details of structure
+were combined by the best architects with modern requirements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN
+
+
+It was only by very slow degrees that the Renaissance style was
+introduced into England, native architects and those for whom they
+worked having clung with almost pathetic devotion to the traditions of
+the past. At the end of the 15th century the Gothic style was still in
+full vigour on this side of the Channel, and although early in the 16th
+century it was to a great extent modified by the influence of the
+foreign artists who were attracted to the court of Henry VIII by the
+lavish patronage of the young monarch, it continued to the end of the
+century to check the development of pure Renaissance, the two styles to
+a great extent neutralising each other.
+
+It is significant of the change of the attitude of rulers and ruled
+towards religion that took place in England during the 16th and 17th
+centuries, that it was no longer in churches and cathedrals that
+architecture achieved its greatest triumphs, but in palaces,
+manor-houses, colleges, and places of public entertainment. No longer
+was the soaring Gothic style to voice in stone the aspirations of
+worshippers for closer intercourse with the divine; the best energies of
+architects were henceforth to be directed to the promotion of comfort
+and luxury in private life, and for the realisation of this
+comparatively ignoble aim the revived classic style was peculiarly
+adapted. True, the spirit of the Renaissance did not display itself so
+fully in architecture as in other branches of human endeavour, but for
+all that its working was very apparent, assuming a certain character of
+its own in England.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Lilford Hall, Northants]
+
+First Italians, amongst whom the most distinguished were Torregiano,
+designer of the tomb of Henry VII in Westminster Abbey, Giovanni da
+Majano, and Giovanni da Padua, the architect of Longleat in Wiltshire,
+then Flemings and Germans, none of whom, however, except John of Cleves,
+designer of Caius College, Cambridge, rose to any special eminence,
+endeavoured to graft their own upon English methods, succeeding with
+rare exceptions only so far as the minor details of ornamentation were
+concerned.
+
+It is not to these men of alien birth but to the builders and masons of
+rural England that the country owes the many noble residences, dating
+from the late 16th and early 17th centuries, that, Gothic so far as
+their principles of construction are concerned, are enriched or spoiled,
+according to the point of view from which they are considered, by
+Renaissance ornamentation. Amongst these builders Thomas Holt, author of
+the Divinity School of Oxford, and Robert Smithson and John Thorpe,
+joint designers of Wollaton Hall, Northamptonshire, were especially
+distinguished. To the last named many critics also attribute Holland
+House, London, Rushton, Kirkby and Apethorpe Halls in Northamptonshire,
+and Knowle House in Kent, all of which are truly typical examples of
+English 16th or early 17th domestic or academic architecture at its
+best. To about the same period belong Lilford Hall, Northants, Westwood,
+Bolsover, Charlton, and Hatfield Houses, all somewhat wanting in the
+dignified simplicity of plan of the work of the men quoted above, but
+with an undoubted charm of their own.
+
+The master-builders who alike designed and executed the many beautiful
+mansions and colleges of the Elizabethan age--with whom must be
+associated the later John Abel, designer of several fine market-halls,
+including those of Kingston, Hereford, and Leominster--may justly be
+said to have paved the way for Inigo Jones, the first Englishman to
+introduce pure Renaissance architecture into his native land. Already
+before his advent these humble predecessors had partly evolved, out of
+the mediaeval castle and the mediaeval cottage, what was to become the
+typical English home, bringing about something like a revolution in
+planning by the innovations introduced by them with a view to admitting
+more air and light, and rendering access to the upper floors easier by
+the substitution of an internal staircase, for the external flight of
+steps leading up to each separate room hitherto the fashion.
+
+Gifted with a vivid imagination and a rare faculty of design, Inigo
+Jones succeeded in so adapting Italian ideals, especially those of
+Palladio, to English needs, that he may justly be said to have founded
+something approaching to a national style. Unfortunately few of the many
+schemes evolved by him were carried out in their entirety, but his plans
+and drawings prove him to have been the equal and, in some respects,
+even the superior of his great successor, Sir Christopher Wren. Of his
+grand design for the new Palace of Whitehall after the fire of 1619, the
+Banqueting Hall, considered his masterpiece, alone was completed, but he
+was the real architect of the equally successful Greenwich Hospital, for
+it was his plan that was followed after his death by Wren.
+
+Although it is the custom to dwell much on the unique opportunity
+afforded to Sir Christopher Wren by the great fire of 1666, there is no
+doubt that even without it he would have set his seal on the period
+during which he lived. His additions to Hampton Court Palace are most
+dignified and appropriate, his semi-Gothic Tom Tower at Oxford well
+illustrates his keen sense of environment, and his design for a Royal
+Palace at Winchester, had it been carried out, would have given to that
+city a building worthy to rank with its cathedral. As it is, his fame
+rests chiefly on his work in London, although the masterly scheme he
+drew up for the rebuilding of the whole town had to be considerably
+modified.
+
+[Illustration: Portion of Greenwich Hospital]
+
+S. Paul's Cathedral, that dominates the vast agglomeration making up the
+modern capital, reflects, in its solemn and dignified beauty, almost as
+clearly as did a mediaeval ecclesiastical Gothic edifice, the spirit of
+its age, during which the Puritan replaced the Roman Catholic ideal, and
+a rigid Protestantism became the religion of the people. Of noble and
+most harmonious proportions, S. Paul's is cruciform in plan, every
+portion of its exterior and interior subordinated to the great central
+dome, that, consisting as it does of an outer and inner vault, is
+equally impressive whether seen from within or from without. From
+whatever point of view, the dome, with its graceful lantern surmounted
+by a cross, remains the central feature of a structure at unity with
+itself, consistent in every detail, the western towers and the great
+central portico with their appropriate classic pilasters and columns all
+being in complete and satisfying accord.
+
+The Churches of S. Stephen, Walbrook, S. Andrew, Holborn, S. James,
+Piccadilly, S. Clements Danes, S. Bride's, Fleet Street, and Bow are
+amongst the finest designed by Wren. The steeples of the last three are
+especially noteworthy as the earliest examples in England of the use of
+that feature in Renaissance buildings.
+
+Sir Christopher did not pass away until the 18th century, which was to
+witness a rapid decline of architecture in England. His influence had
+begun to wane even before his death, and few of his immediate
+successors, with the exceptions of his pupils, Nicholas Hawkesmoor,
+architect of S. George's, Bloomsbury, and other London churches of
+similar design, and Sir John Vanburgh, who designed Castle Howard and
+Blenheim Palace, rose to eminence. James Gibbs, designer of the
+Ratcliffe Library at Oxford, also did some good work; the brothers Adam
+successfully imitated classic forms in certain London and Edinburgh
+buildings, and Sir Robert Taylor won some distinction by the Halls
+erected by him in Herefordshire and Essex.
+
+Towards the close of the century a classic revival inaugurated by Sir
+William Chambers, designer of Somerset House, took place in England, and
+it became the fashion to add a Greek portico to every important public
+or private building. Typical examples of the new departure are S.
+Pancras Church, London, that is a kind of compilation from the
+Parthenon, the Erectheum, and the Temple of the Winds at Athens, and S.
+George's Hall, Liverpool, a skilful adaptation of the design of a hall
+of one of the great Thermae of Rome.
+
+Early in the 19th century a reaction took place against the classic
+style, which was not really adapted to the English climate, and
+architects began to show a desire to revert to Gothic traditions. In
+this new movement Sir Charles Barry took the lead. The Houses of
+Parliament, in the latest phase of the style, considered his
+masterpiece, is specially successful in its general plan and in the
+picturesqueness of its exterior. With Sir Charles Barry must be
+associated Augustine Pugin, a man of fine genius and originality, with a
+genuine feeling for mediaeval Gothic, Norman Shaw, and Bodley, all of
+whom have done much to leaven the utilitarian tendencies of modern
+times.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+    Alhambra, the, 42
+
+    Amiens Cathedral, 65
+
+    Amphitheatres, Roman, 28
+
+    Anglo-Norman style, 54
+
+    Anglo-Saxon style, 53
+
+    Arch, vi
+
+    Arches, Roman, 30
+
+    Architecture, definition of, v
+
+    Asiatic architecture, 9
+
+    Assyrian architecture, 9
+
+
+    Babylonian architecture, 9
+
+    Baptisteries, 35
+
+    Basilicas, Roman, 26
+
+    Baths, Roman, 27
+
+    Buddhist architecture, 12
+
+    Buvards, v
+
+    Byzantine architecture, 24, 36
+
+
+    Caryatid Porch, 21
+
+    Castles, Norman, 59
+
+    Cathedrals. _See_ Churches
+
+    Chaityas, 11
+
+    Chartres Cathedral, 64
+
+    Chinese architecture, 13
+
+    Christian architecture, Early, 31
+
+    Churches, Anglo-Norman, 54
+      Anglo-Saxon, 53
+      Byzantine, 37
+      Early Christian, 31
+      Gothic, 62, 68, 76
+      Renaissance, 84
+      Romanesque, 47
+
+    Coliseum, 29
+
+    Cologne Cathedral, 70
+
+    Coptic architecture, 35
+
+    Corinthian style, 16, 18, 21
+
+
+    Doric style, 16, 18-21
+
+    Durham Cathedral, 58
+
+    Egyptian architecture, 7
+
+    Etruscan architecture, 22
+
+
+    Flamboyant Gothic style, 62, 65, 67
+
+
+    Gothic style, 50, 60
+      British, 72
+      Decorated, 73, 74, 78, 79, 80
+      Early English, 73, 78, 79
+      French, 62
+      German, 70
+      Italian, 69
+      Perpendicular, 73, 75, 80, 81
+      Spanish, 68
+
+    Greek architecture, 13
+
+
+    Hindu architecture, 12
+
+
+    Indian architecture, 11
+
+    Ionic style, 16, 18, 21
+
+
+    Jones, Inigo, 90
+
+
+    Keystone, vi
+
+
+    Lats, 11
+
+    Lintel, vi
+
+
+    Mansions, English Renaissance, 90
+
+    Mastabas, 7, 10
+
+    Materials employed, v, 9, 23
+
+    Mosques, 40
+
+
+    Nineveh, 10
+
+    Norman style, 54
+
+    Notre Dame of Paris, 63
+
+
+    Palaces, Greek, 14
+      Persian, 10
+
+    Palaces, Renaissance, 86
+      Roman, 29
+
+    Pantheon, 26
+
+    Parthenon, 19
+
+    Persian architecture, 9, 10
+
+    Peruvian architecture, 13
+
+    Pyramids, 7
+
+
+    Rayonnant Gothic style, 62, 67
+
+    Renaissance style British, 88
+      European, 83
+      French, 87
+      Italian, 83
+
+    Rococo style, 88
+
+    Roman architecture, 22
+
+    Romanesque style, 45
+
+    Roofing, arcuated and trabeated, vi
+
+
+    S. Ambrogio, Milan, 48
+
+    S. Marco, Venice, 39
+
+    S. Paul's Cathedral, 91
+
+    S. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, 84
+
+    S. Sophia, Constantinople, 38
+
+    Saracenic architecture, 40
+
+    Stambhas, 11
+
+    Stupas, 11
+
+
+    Taj Mahal, 44
+
+    Temples, Babylonian, 10
+      Egyptian, 8
+      Greek, 15, 18
+      Indian, 11
+
+    Tombs, Egyptian, 7
+      Greek, 21
+      Persian, 10
+
+    Topes, 11
+
+    Tudor style, 73, 76
+
+    Tuscan style, 24
+
+
+    Vaulting, Gothic, 61
+      Roman, 24
+      Romanesque, 45
+
+    Viharas, 11
+
+    Voussoirs, vi
+
+
+    Westminster Abbey, 76, 78, 81
+
+    Wren, Sir Christopher, 90
+
+
+THE PEOPLE'S BOOKS
+
+General Editor--H. C. O'NEILL
+
+"With the 'People's Books' in hand there should be nobody of
+average intelligence unable to secure self-education."--_Sunday
+Times._
+
+NOW READY (February 1914)
+
+THE FIRST NINETY-SIX VOLUMES
+
+      1.   The Foundations of Science
+              By W. C. D. Whetham, M.A., F.R.S.
+      2.   Embryology&mdash;The Beginnings of Life
+              By Prof. Gerald Leighton, M.D.
+      3.   Biology
+              By Prof. W. D. Henderson, M.A.
+      4.   Zoology: The Study of Animal Life
+              By Prof. E. W. MacBride, M.A., F.R.S.
+      5.   Botany; The Modern Study of Plants
+              By M. C. Stopes, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.L.S.
+      7.   The Structure of the Earth
+              By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.
+      8.   Evolution
+              By E. S. Goodrich, M.A., F.R.S.
+     10.   Heredity
+              By J. A. S. Watson, B.Sc.
+     11.   Inorganic Chemistry
+              By Prof. E. C. C. Baly, F.R.S.
+     12.   Organic Chemistry
+              By Prof. J. B. Cohen, B.Sc., F.R.S.
+     13.   The Principles of Electricity
+              By Norman R. Campbell, M.A.
+     14.   Radiation
+              By P. Phillips, D.Sc.
+     15.   The Science of the Stars
+              By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S.
+     16.   The Science of Light
+              By P. Phillips. D.Sc.
+     17.   Weather Science
+              By R. G. K. Lempfert, M.A.
+     18.   Hypnotism and Self-Education
+              By A. M. Hutchison, M.D.
+     19.   The Baby: A Mother's Book
+              By a University Woman.
+     20.   Youth and Sex&mdash;Dangers and Safeguards for Boys and Girls
+              By Mary Scharlieb, M.D., M.S., and F. Arthur Sibly, M.A., LL.D.
+     21.   Marriage and Motherhood
+              By H. S. Davidson, M.B., F.R.C.S.E.
+     22.   Lord Kelvin
+              By A. Russell, M.A., D.Sc., M.I.E.E.
+     23.   Huxley
+              By Professor G. Leighton, M.D.
+     24.   Sir William Huggins and Spectroscopic Astronomy
+              By E. W. Maunder, F.R.A.S., of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.
+     26.   Henri Bergson
+              By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
+     27.   Psychology
+              By H. J. Watt, M.A., Ph.D., D.Phil.
+     28.   Ethics
+              By Canon Rashdall, D.Litt., F.B.A.
+     29.   Kant's Philosophy
+              By A. D. Lindsay, M.A. of Balliol College, Oxford.
+     32.   Roman Catholicism
+              By H. B. Coxon. Preface, Mgr. R. H. Benson.
+     33.   The Oxford Movement
+              By Wilfrid Ward.
+     34.   The Bible and Criticism
+              By W. H. Bennett, D.D., Litt.D., and W. F. Adeney, D.D.
+     36.   The Growth of Freedom
+              By H. W. Nevinson.
+     37.   Bismarck and the Origin of the German Empire
+              Professor F. M. Powicke.
+     38.   Oliver Cromwell
+              By Hilda Johnstone, M.A.
+     39.   Mary Queen of Scots
+              By E. O'Neill, M.A.
+     40.   Cecil John Rhodes, 1853-1902
+              By Ian D. Colvin.
+     41.   Julius Caesar
+              By Hilary Hardinge.
+     42.   England in the Making
+              By Prof. F. J. C. Hearnshaw, M.A., LL.D.
+     43.   England in the Middle Ages
+              By E. O'Neill, M.A.
+     44.   The Monarchy and the People
+              By W. T. Waugh, M.A.
+     45.   The Industrial Revolution
+              By Arthur Jones, M.A.
+     46.   Empire and Democracy
+              By G. S. Veitch, M.A., Litt.D.
+     47.   Women's Suffrage
+              By M. G. Fawcett, LL.D.
+     51.   Shakespeare
+              By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt. D.
+     52.   Wordsworth
+              By Rosaline Masson.
+     53.   Pure Gold&mdash;A Choice of Lyrics and Sonnets
+              By H. C. O'Neill.
+     54.   Francis Bacon
+              By Prof. A. R. Skemp, M.A.
+     55.   The Brontes
+              By Flora Masson.
+     56.   Carlyle
+              By L. MacLean Watt.
+     57.   Dante
+              By A. G. Ferrers Howell.
+     60.   A Dictionary of Synonyms
+              By Austin K. Gray, B.A.
+     61.   Home Rule
+              By L. G. Redmond Howard. Preface by Robert Harcourt, M.P.
+     62.   Practical Astronomy
+              By H. Macpherson, Jr., F.R.A.S.
+     63.   Aviation
+              By Sydney F. Walker, R.N.
+     64.   Navigation
+              By William Hall, R.N., B.A.
+     65.   Pond Life
+              By E. C. Ash, M.R.A.C.
+     66.   Dietetics
+              By Alex. Bryce, M.D., D.P.H.
+     67.   Aristotle
+              By Prof. A. E. Taylor, M.A., F.B.A.
+     68.   Friedrich Nietzsche
+              By M. A. Mugge.
+     69.   Eucken: A Philosophy of Life
+              By A. J. Jones, M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.
+     70.   The Experimental Psychology of Beauty
+              By C. W. Valentine, B.A., D.Phil.
+     71.   The Problem of Truth
+              By H. Wildon Carr, Litt.D.
+     72.   The Church of England
+              By Rev. Canon Masterman.
+     74.   The Free Churches
+              By Rev. Edward Shillito, M.A.
+     75.   Judaism
+              By Ephraim Levine, M.A.
+     76.   Theosophy
+              By Annie Besant.
+     78.   Wellington and Waterloo
+              By Major G. W. Redway.
+     79.   Mediaeval Socialism
+              By Bede Jarrett, O.P., M.A.
+     80.   Syndicalism
+              By J. H. Harley, M.A.
+     82.   Co-operation
+              By Joseph Clayton.
+     83.   Insurance as a Means of Investment
+              By W. A. Robertson, F.F.A.
+     85.   A History of English Literature
+              By A. Compton-Rickett, LL.D.
+     87.   Charles Lamb
+              By Flora Masson.
+     88.   Goethe
+              By Prof. C. H. Herford, Litt.D.
+     92.   The Training of the Child
+              By G. Spiller.
+     93.   Tennyson
+              By Aaron Watson.
+     94.   The Nature of Mathematics
+              By P. E. B. Jourdain, M.A.
+     95.   Applications of Electricity
+              By Alex. Ogilvie, B.Sc.
+     96.   Gardening
+              By A. Cecil Bartlett.
+     98.   Atlas of the World
+              By J. Bartholomew, F.R.G.S.
+    101.   Luther and the Reformation
+              By Leonard D. Agate, M.A.
+    103.   Turkey and the Eastern Question
+              By John Macdonald, M.A.
+    104.   Architecture
+              By Mrs. Arthur Bell.
+    105.   Trade Unions
+              By Joseph Clayton.
+    106.   Everyday Law
+              By J. J. Adams.
+    108.   Shelley
+              By Sydney Waterlow, M.A.
+    110.   British Birds
+              By F. B. Kirkman, B.A.
+    111.   Spiritualism
+              By J. Arthur Hill.
+    112.   Kindergarten Teaching at Home
+              By Two Members of the National Froebel Union.
+    113.   Schopenhauer
+              By Margrieta Beer, M.A.
+    114.   The Stock Exchange
+              By J. F. Wheeler.
+    115.   Coleridge
+              By S. L. Bensusan.
+    116.   The Crusades
+              By M. M. C. Calthrop.
+    117.   Wild Flowers
+              By Macgregor Skene, B.Sc.
+    118.   Principles of Logic
+              By Stanley Williams, B.A.
+    119.   The Foundations of Religion
+              By Stanley A. Cook, M.A.
+    120.   History of Rome
+              By A. F. Giles. M.A.
+    121.   Land, Industry, and Taxation
+              By Frederick Verinder.
+
+LONDON AND EDINBURGH: T. C. & E. C. JACK
+
+NEW YORK: DODGE PUBLISHING CO.
+
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