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diff --git a/33514-h/33514-h.htm b/33514-h/33514-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4df3d07 --- /dev/null +++ b/33514-h/33514-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2781 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + p.author {text-align: right; margin-right: 2em;} + .alignleft {float: left; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em;} + .alignright {float: right; font-weight: bold; font-size: 1.1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic +Evolution, by Carl Von Nägeli + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution + +Author: Carl Von Nägeli + +Release Date: August 23, 2010 [EBook #33514] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + +<h4>A</h4> +<h2>MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL</h2> +<h5>THEORY OF</h5> +<h1>ORGANIC EVOLUTION<br /><br /></h1> + +<h4><small>BY</small><br /> +<big>CARL VON NÄGELI</big><br /><br /></h4> + +<h4>SECOND EDITION<br /><br /></h4> + +<h4>CHICAGO<br /> +THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +1914</h4> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1898</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">By</span> THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +CHICAGO</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>PREFATORY NOTE.</h2> + + +<p>Mr. V. A. Clark, as a student in horticulture in +the University of Vermont, first undertook a critical +examination of Nägeli's <i>Mechanico-Physiological +Theory of Evolution</i> as a part of his regular junior +work. After a half year's study and the preparation +of a short thesis, Mr. Clark had become so far +intimate with Nägeli's work as to make it seem +best for him to continue the study through his +senior year. This study involved extended translations +from the text, including Nägeli's <i>Summary</i>, +which, considering its difficult accessibility to American +students, has been chosen for publication. The +work has been done chiefly by Mr. Clark, but has +all been under my immediate supervision, and I +have given the whole matter a final restudy and +revision. Those who have had any experience with +similar work will know how impossible it is that all +mistakes should have been avoided, and it would be +a kindness to the translators if readers would point +out any defects, in order that they may be corrected.</p> + +<p class="author">F. A. WAUGH.</p> + +<p>University of Vermont,<br /> + July 1, 1898.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 1 ]</span></p> +<h2>A MECHANICO-PHYSIOLOGICAL<br /> +THEORY OF ORGANIC<br /> +EVOLUTION.</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h3>SUMMARY.</h3> + + +<p>In this summary I shall in general pursue a +course the reverse of that which my main work +follows.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> +I shall proceed from the primitive, unorganized +condition of matter and endeavor to show +how organized micellar substance has arisen in it, +and how, from this micellar substance, organisms +with their manifold properties have arisen. Since +such a synthesis of organisms out of known forms +of matter and force is still far removed from a +conclusion strictly in accord with physical law, the +process becomes comprehensible and obvious only +by exact knowledge of the discussion that has +preceded. Although the synthetic method reveals +more clearly the weaknesses of the theory than do +analytic investigations, yet I considered it helpful +<span class='pagenum'>[ 2 ]</span> +to make this presentation in order to give a clearer +idea of the mechanico-physiological theory, and at +the same time to test its worth.</p> + + +<h4>1. FORMATION OF UNORGANIZED BODIES (CRYSTALS).</h4> + +<p>When separated and promiscuously moving molecules +of any substance in solution or in a melted +condition pass into the solid form by reason of +removal of the causes of separation and motion +(warmth or solvent), they arrange themselves into +solid masses impermeable to liquids. These minute +bodies grow by accretion, and when molecular +forces are permitted to act undisturbed, assume the +regular outer form and inner structure of crystals. +The number of crystals, their size, changes of form +and growth, all depend on external conditions.</p> + + +<h4>2. FORMATION OF LIVING ORGANIZED (MICELLAR) BODIES.</h4> + +<p>Certain organic compounds, among them albumen, +are neither soluble, despite their great affinity +for water, nor are they fusible, and hence are produced +in the micellar form. These compounds are +formed in water, where the molecules that arise +immediately adjoining each other arrange themselves +into incipient crystals, or micellæ. Only such +of the molecules as are formed subsequently and +come in contact with a micella contribute to its +increase in size, while the others, on account of +their insolubility, produce new micellæ. For this +<span class='pagenum'>[ 3 ]</span> +reason the micellæ remain so small that they are +invisible, even with the microscope.</p> + +<p>On account of their great affinity for water the +micellæ surround themselves with a thick film +of it. The attraction of these micellæ for matter of +their own kind is felt outside this film. Hence the +micellæ with their films unite themselves into solid +masses permeated with water, unless other forces +overcome attraction and re-establish a micellar +solution (as in albumen, glue, gum), where the +slightly moving micellæ show a tendency to cling +together in chain-like and other aggregations. Very +often there are found, especially in albumen, half +liquid modifications intermediate in fluidity between +the solid masses and the micellar solution.</p> + +<p>The internal and external constitution of micellar +bodies depends essentially on the size, form and +dynamic nature of their micellæ, since these efficients +condition the original arrangement of the +micellæ and the insertion in proper order of those +formed later. External conditions have slight influence +on structure, and affect outer form chiefly in +so far as they can mechanically hinder free development.</p> + +<p>The micellæ of albumen or plasma are susceptible +of the greatest diversity of form, size and chemical +composition, since they originate from unlike mixtures +of various albumen compounds, and besides +are mixed with various organic and inorganic +<span class='pagenum'>[ 4 ]</span> +substances. For this reason the plasma behaves, both +chemically and physically, in many unlike ways, +and in consequence of the variable relation of the +micellæ to water, the plasma shows all degrees of +micellar solution up to quite solid masses.</p> + + +<h4>3. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. LIFE. GROWTH.</h4> + +<p>If molecular forces are so combined in an inorganic +substratum that spontaneous formation of +albumen takes place, then by the combination of +the micellæ the primordial plasma masses of spontaneous +generation are given. Within these plasma +masses the production of albumen goes on more +easily under the influence of their molecular forces +than in the liquid without. Hence the compounds +present in the organic substratum and capable of +forming albumen enter preferably into the masses +of plasma, and by intussusception of micellæ of +albumen, cause growth. Here life exists in its +simplest form. (See page 47.)</p> + +<p>Spontaneous generation presupposes the origin +of plasma-micellæ from molecules, and hence cannot +be brought about by solutions of albumens or peptones, +since these are micellar solutions. Life presupposes +the intussusception of plasma-micellæ; +hence it ceases as soon as the arrangement of micellæ +is so far disordered by injurious influences that +that process of growth becomes impossible.</p> + +<p>The resulting organism must be perfectly simple, +<span class='pagenum'>[ 5 ]</span> +a mass of plasma with micellæ as yet unarranged, +because any organization without a preceding organizing +activity is inconceivable. For this reason +known organisms cannot have orginated spontaneously; +a kingdom of simpler beings must have +preceded them (<i>Probien</i>—the sub-organic kingdom).</p> + +<p>The growth of the masses of plasma continues as +long as the conditions of nutrition are favorable. +If these become unfavorable, a resting period (latent +life) or partial or total death occurs, according to +circumstances (as lack of nutritive material, lowering +of temperature, comparative exsiccation). The +growth of plants and animals is nothing else than +the continuation of the growth begun in the primordial +plasma. This growth still continues wherever +the primordial plasma exists.</p> + + +<h4>4. PARTIAL DEATH OF THE INDIVIDUAL: REPRODUCTION.</h4> + +<p>Since the primordial masses of plasma continue +to attract nutritive materials indefinitely and apply +them to growth, the nutritive materials are used up +in one place and another and the substance which is +no longer nourished is in great measure disintegrated. +A general condition of equilibrium now +sets in, in which the viable plasma masses continue +to gain just as much in growth as there is dead +plasma broken down and changed back into the +original nutritive materials.<span class='pagenum'>[ 6 ]</span></p> + +<p>In the primordial condition this balancing process +is irregular and accidental and remains so even later +in many of the lowest organisms. Little by little +it becomes phylogenetically more regular by individuals +attaining to a more definite size and term of +life, while only the germs detached from them +remain viable. This phenomenon known as reproduction +has a double origin.</p> + +<p><i>A.</i> The portions of primordial plasma that grow +to a more considerable size as soft, half-liquid +masses break up by the mechanical action of external +circumstances into smaller portions of indefinite +number and size. This typifies irregular and accidental +reproduction of the lowest order.</p> + +<p>In the offspring of the primordial plasma division +becomes gradually more and more regular as a +result of the increasing organization of the substance, +and especially as a result of the formation of +an envelope about it, till finally in the microscopically +small masses, which are now called cells, +division into two parts always appears, after these +masses have grown to perhaps double their original +size. After division the two halves separate from +each other and represent independent individuals.</p> + +<p>In the further course of phylogeny the division +of the cells into two parts takes place regularly. +But the cells remain united to each other and form +multicellular individuals, which increase by cell +division and which at times in the lowest stages are +<span class='pagenum'>[ 7 ]</span> +divided at regular intervals into smaller individuals, +perhaps even at last into single cells, but from which +there are periodically given off cells that develop as +germ cells into new multicellular individuals.</p> + +<p><i>B.</i> Another phenomenon which appears in the +primordial plasma or its immediate offspring is the +death of the greater part of the plasma under certain +unfavorable conditions of nutrition, while the +smaller part continues to be nourished at its expense +and in that case remains viable during the dormant +period.</p> + +<p>In the offspring this phenomenon gradually +becomes free cell formation, which takes place +before the resting stage or before the death of +many unicellular and multicellular organisms, and +which forms germ cells from a part of the contents +of the parent cells.</p> + +<p>The formation of germ cells by cell division (<i>A</i>), +or by free cell formation (<i>B</i>) is reproduction of the +organism. The germ cells are the elements in which +the life and growth of the parental individual are +continued.</p> + + +<h4>5. MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.</h4> + +<p>The larger part of the unarranged, soft and homogenous +primordial plasma, which grows by intussusception, +becomes watery soma-plasm, with +unarranged and easily movable micellæ. The +smaller part is converted in the course of phylogeny +<span class='pagenum'>[ 8 ]</span> +into idioplasm, in which at certain favorable points +the micellæ that are being stored up under the influence +of molecular forces arrange themselves into +groups by similar orientations, and hence form +bodies of less water content and greater solidity. +Each body of idioplasm consists originally of only +one group of micellæ, which, however, necessarily +breaks up with increasing additions into several +groups. On account of the dynamic influence of the +groups of micellæ upon their own growth, they +become in part more distinct and more definitely +separated, in part again differentiated by new +irregular intussusception. This phylogenetic process +is continued indefinitely, by which the combination +of forces produces a new configuration, and +conversely, by which a new configuration produces +a new combination of forces, so that the body of +idioplasm merely takes on a continually increasing +complexity of configuration by the action of the +internal forces—that is, by the molecular forces of +the micellæ of the albumen under the influence of +which growth proceeds. This constitutes the <i>automatic +perfecting process</i> or progression of the idioplasm, +and entropy of organic matter. (See p. 47.)</p> + +<p>The above described phylogenetic perfecting +process of the idoplasm, which operates through +internal causes, is scarcely affected by differences of +nutrition and by climatic conditions influencing +nutrition. On the other hand all those external +<span class='pagenum'>[ 9 ]</span> +forces which act as stimuli during a long period of +time in an unvarying manner have a very noticeable +influence on the intussusception of micellæ in the +idioplasm and on the molecular processes going on +among the micellæ. The action of stimuli determines +the particular structure of the groups of +micellæ added under the direction of the perfecting +process. Thus the configuration of the idioplasm +becomes continually more and more complex and +at the same time assumes a local adaptation corresponding +to external conditions. This constitutes +adaptation of the idioplasm.</p> + + +<h4>6. FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM IN GENERAL.</h4> + +<p>The unarranged micellæ of the albumen of the +spontaneously generated plasma are as yet in no +way superior to the unorganized condition from +which they have arisen, except in this that under +the influence of their molecular forces the formation +of similar new albumen micellæ follows more +easily. But as by the further action of molecular +forces idioplasmic bodies are formed with groups of +smilarly oriented micellæ, the molecular forces of +these micellæ amount by summation to molar forces +and thereby new chemical processes are introduced; +plastic products are formed from plasmic and non-plasmic +materials, and molar movements are introduced. +And since idioplasmic bodies are formed +under the influence of external stimuli, their plastic +<span class='pagenum'>[ 10 ]</span> +products always appear with a definite character of +adaptation to environment.</p> + +<p>Then, as the idioplasmic body becomes continually +more complex in the further course of phylogeny, +and consists of a greater number of groups of +micellæ differing from each other, the organisms +become more complex and differentiate into a greater +number of parts, because each group of micellæ of +the idioplasm produces its specific effect with regard +to inner structure, outer form, and function.</p> + + +<h4>7. DETERMINANTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND DISAPPEARANCE.</h4> + +<p>Since a particular cluster or group of micellæ of +the idioplasm produces a particular phenomenon in +the organism, the former is designated as the determinant +(<i>Anlage</i>, see p. 49) of the latter. Thus the +organism must contain at least as many determinants +in its idioplasm as there are different phenomena +in its inheritable ontogeny; and if new phenomena +appear in it, new clusters of micellæ must previously +have been introduced into the idioplasm, or +the orientation and arrangement of clusters already +present must have been changed. The formation +of such a determinant, whether it concerns the perfecting +of the organism or its adaptation to environment, +always proceeds very slowly, and as a rule +has no effect before its completion. Hence along +with perfected determinants the idioplasm always +contains growing and incomplete determinants.<span class='pagenum'>[ 11 ]</span></p> + +<p>If a phylogenetic line comes under the influence +of other external conditions and other external +stimuli than those which have hitherto acted upon +it, a new and corresponding arrangement of the +micellæ appears phylogenetically in the idioplasm. +At the same time the other adaptation determinants +remain either undisturbed, or the new determinant +is formed at the expense of related determinants +which are already present and which may +at last entirely vanish. Hence along with growing +and complete determinants the idioplasm always +contains likewise weakened and vanishing determinants. +From the fact that a phylogenetic race is +thrown repeatedly among different external conditions, +it may at last unite in its idioplasm a large +number of developing, mature, and vanishing +adaptation determinants. This number is noticeably +increased if in consequence of interbreeding a +fusion of related idioplasms take place.</p> + + +<h4>8. DEFINITE NOTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE IDIOPLASM.</h4> + +<p>Since in the phylogenetic development of the +plasma the thicker idioplasm is differentiated from +the more fluid soma-plasm (§ 5), the former has +the tendency by nature to assume a reticular arrangement. +The strands of this network consist, in conformity +with their origin, of parallel rows of micellæ +extending lengthwise. These rows of micellæ are +<span class='pagenum'>[ 12 ]</span> +combined into more or less complex arrangements, +so that the cross section of the strand represents +the configuration of the idioplasm.<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></p> + +<p>Each ontogeny (individual) begins in a minute +germ cell, in which a small quantity of idioplasm is +contained. In the cell divisions, by which the +organism grows, the idioplasm divides into as many +parts as there are single cells, while it continually +increases in quantity in a corresponding degree. +The ontogenetic increase of the idioplasm takes +place by length growth of the strands—that is, by +intercalation of micellæ in each row of cells of the +strands, which thereby grow in length without +changing the configuration of the cross section.<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> +<span class='pagenum'>[ 13 ]</span> +Accordingly, each strand of idioplasm contains all +the determinants that the particular individual has +inherited in the germ cell, and each cell of the +organism is idioplasmatically qualified to become +the germ cell of a new individual. Whether this +qualification may be realized depends upon the +nature of the soma-plasm. In the lower plants this +power belongs to each individual cell; in the higher +plants many cells have lost it; in the animal kingdom +it is possessed in general only by cells normally +set apart as asexual or sexual reproductive +cells.</p> + +<p>The continued phylogenetic formation of the +threads of idioplasm takes place by growth in the +cross section, which contains the sum of all the +determinants and changes in general only when new +rows of micellæ are intercalated. But the rows of +micellæ of the idioplasm join closely to each other, +according to their thickness, so that only rarely new +rows can enter, and then only at those definite +places where the cohesion is less strong and hence +is overcome. The cohesion varies irregularly because +the configuration of the cross section, conformably +to its origin, is never regular; the disruptive tensions +are brought about by the unequal growth in +<span class='pagenum'>[ 14 ]</span> +length of the individual rows of micellæ. Dynamic +influences have a decisive effect upon cohesion and +disruptive tensions. The groups of micellæ of the +configuration already obtained exercise these dynamic +influences upon each other; and these dynamic +influences can be modified by stimuli from without.</p> + +<p>The idioplasm continually alters its configuration +with its growth in successive ontogenies, but comparatively +very slowly, so that it makes a minute +advance from the germ of one generation to the +germ of the next. The summation of these increments +of advance through a whole line of evolution +represents the race history of an organism, since the +latter is connected only by its idioplasm in unbroken +continuity with the micellar beginning of its race.</p> + + +<h4>9. DEFINITE NOTIONS REGARDING THE FUNCTION OF THE IDIOPLASM.</h4> + +<p>A plasmic substance causes definite chemical and +physical changes only when it is present in a certain +condition of motion. The peculiar agency which +the idioplasm has in each ontogenetic stage of +development and in each part of the organism +depends on the activity of a definite group of micellæ +in the cross section of the strand or of a complex +of such groups, while this local stimulus controls the +chemical and physical processes by dynamic influence +and by transmission of a specific mode of +motion, even to a microscopically small distance.<span class='pagenum'>[ 15 ]</span></p> + +<p>The effective stimulus in a plasmic substance is +dependent on its own nature and the influence which +it receives from without. Which group of micellæ +in the idioplasm receives the stimulus depends on +the configuration, on the preceding stimuli and on +the position in the individual organism in which the +idioplasm is found. The determinants have arisen +one after another during the whole period of evolution +from the primordial cell. The configuration +of the idioplasm is a character of phylogeny and the +determinants in it have by nature the tendency to +develop in the order in which they were formed. +Further, since the ontogeny begins as a unicellular +organism with the formation of a germ cell, that +determinant of the idioplasm comes first to development, +which has developed in the unicellular ancestor. +Just so the succeeding stages of ontogeny +depend for the time being on the development of the +determinants having their origin in the corresponding +stage of phylogeny. Both causes acting together—the +phylogenetic configuration of the idioplasm +and the successive morphological stages of +development of the individual conditioned on it—necessarily +result in the ontogeny being the repetition +of the phylogeny.</p> + +<p>If the whole remaining line of idioplasmic +determinants in an ontogeny has reached development, +the development of the germ-forming determinants +finally follows as well from the configuration +<span class='pagenum'>[ 16 ]</span> +of the idioplasm as from the nature of the organism. +The individual is capable of reproduction and +the new ontogenies begin in the reproductive cells.</p> + + +<h4>10. TRANSMISSION OF IDIOPLASMIC DETERMINANTS IN LOCAL VARIATION AND IN FECUNDATION.</h4> + +<p>The automatic progressive or perfecting transformation +of the idioplasm is probably active in all +stages of development, and proceeds regularly in +all parts of the organism, because the idioplasm +preserves its configuration at all times and places +during the ontogeny. External stimuli impign +upon the organism usually at a definite point, but +they not only effect a local transformation of the +idioplasm but also reproduce themselves in a dynamic +manner in the entire idioplasm, which is in +unbroken connection throughout the whole individual. +The idioplasm is thus changed everywhere in +the same manner, so that the germ cells that are +given off at any point feel and inherit the effects of +those local stimuli.</p> + +<p>In the formation of the germ cells in sexual +reproduction, the idioplasms of both parents must +come into contact with each other, whereupon there +results either a material union and formation of a +mixed idioplasm or perhaps rather a dynamic action; +and through these agencies there is produced a +remodeled form which is, however, exactly equivalent +to the combined idioplasms entering into it. +<span class='pagenum'>[ 17 ]</span> +Fertilization by diosmose of the spermatic substance +is impossible.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p> + +<p>In the idioplasm of a germ cell arising from the +crossing of unlike individuals the micellar rows of +the individual determinants have sometimes an +intermediate constitution and produce characteristics +in the organism which are intermediate +between the characteristics of the parents. Sometimes +the micellar rows derived from the father and +mother respectively lie side by side unchanged in +the idioplasm of the offspring in distinct groupings +and may reproduce in the organism their respective +characteristics side by side, or only one of them +may develop, while the other remains latent.</p> + +<p>On account of the union of both idioplasms as the +result of fecundation, two sexually mature organisms +are the more able to form with each other a +viable germ cell, the nearer they are genetically +related—that is, the more nearly the male and +female idioplasms correspond in their configuration +and chemical nature, because in this case the micellar +arrangements are best suited to each other, +and the idioplasm of the new fertile germ cell receives +its most suitable nourishment from the +mother. If, however, self-fecundation or the +closest in-and-in breeding often yields products of +<span class='pagenum'>[ 18 ]</span> +less virility and is avoided by nature, this is the +result of injurious influences which make themselves +felt later on. This is because incompatibilities may +be present in too closely related idioplasms and +these are sources of weakness in unrestricted development. +The more complicated is the idioplasm, the +oftener this occurs, whereas absolute lack of crossing +is not detrimental to the simplest (asexual) +organisms.</p> + + +<h4>11. ACTION OF EXTERNAL INFLUENCES.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></h4> + +<p>The environment provides the organism above +all with force and matter for its life processes. It +causes no permanent variation and has only an +ontogenetic significance, if the limits of the idioplasmic +elasticity are not exceeded; it maintains the +growth and metabolic assimilation of the individual, +and conditions individual (not hereditary) differences, +which constitute "nutrition varieties." (See +<span class='pagenum'>[ 19 ]</span> +page 30.) These appear as the direct results of +operating causes.</p> + +<p>When the stress of environment exceeds the +limits of idioplasmic elasticity, its influence brings +about permanent variations, which are imperceptibly +small, it is true, in the single individual, but +which, when the stimulus is active for a long period +of time in the same manner, increase to perceptible +magnitude. These variations are inheritable in +the phylogenetic sense and contribute to the formation +of varieties and species; they always appear +as the results of more or less secondary reactions +which make their appearance with stimuli exerted +by external causes.</p> + +<p>External stimuli exerted on the organism are +reproduced in the idioplasm. Since the stimulus +is discontinued with each change of the ontogeny +and only the idioplasm persists, permanent variations +are produced only in the idioplasm by those +conditions that produce visible transformations in +the mature organism.</p> + +<p>The phylogenetic action of external stimuli gives +the definite character of adaptation to the idioplasm +as it becomes more complex from inner causes and +probably these external stimuli have the power to +alter this impress only as new idioplasm is automatically +formed.</p> + +<p>If an external cause acts continuously upon a +phylogenetic line, the corresponding variation of the +<span class='pagenum'>[ 20 ]</span> +idioplasm reaches, after a time, a maximum, and thus +comes to an end, either because the nature of the +substance permits no new rearrangement or because +the stimulus is no longer active. The cessation of +the stimulus results from a micellar rearrangement +which indicates the character of the adaptation. If +the action of the stimulus lasts for only a short time, +the incipient rearrangement of the idioplasm stops, +or proceeds independently on account of the impulse +received, and the determinant becomes capable of +development, even after the impulse has long ceased +to act.</p> + +<p>Since various intervening transpositions follow +upon a stimulus in the organism, the final result +which appears as a reaction may turn out variously. +The same external causes may, according to the +nature of the organism and other circumstances, +have very unlike variations as a result. But the +internal rearrangement produces in a definite case +very definite variations.</p> + +<p>On account of the various intermediate steps it +is often difficult to discover the external cause of a +given adaptive variation. In many cases we recognize +it without difficulty in a definite mechanical +process or in warmth, light or evaporation. For +the most part the stimulus awakens in the organism +merely a want, which the reaction of the organism +endeavors to supply. Hence it appears that want +or lack alone is able to bring about such reactions. +<span class='pagenum'>[ 21 ]</span> +Moreover, in the sphere of sex, electric(?) attractions +and repulsions co-operate between the idioplasmic +determinants to produce phylogenetic variations.</p> + +<p>The adaptations of the fully developed organism, +which are the results of external influences, consist +either only of a specific molecular character +(irritability), by virtue of which the individual is +capable of responding to those influences with temporary +or permanent phenomena, or they consist of +finished arrangements. The latter have, in general, +a double function: either they protect the organism +from external influences whose results they are, or +they place it in a condition to apply such environmental +influences to their advantage. The preponderance +of the one or the other led to the development +of the plant or the animal kingdom. In the +one case the primordial plasma formed in the cellulose +cell wall a stimulus-proof covering. On account +of this cell membrane being insensible to stimuli, +adaptations in the plant kingdom were restricted +essentially to the spheres of nutrition and reproduction. +In the other case the irritability and mobility +of the primordial plasma increased so that it was +placed in a condition to avoid the irritant or make it +serviceable by accommodating itself to it. The +cells sensible to irritants led in the animal kingdom +to the formation of organs of sense and the nervous +system.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 22 ]</span></p> + +<h4>12. CONDITIONS OF PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS. ATAVISM.</h4> + +<p>In the primordial condition, formation and development +of the determinants coincide, since the +plasma constituting the organism possesses the capability +of growing by intussusception of new micellæ +and of changing this growth through the action of +inner and outer causes. But as the primordial +plasma differentiates into idioplasm and soma-plasm, +the formation of determinants consists in the transformation +of the idioplasm, while the development of +determinants consists in the production of soma-plasm +and of non-plasmic substances under the influence +of the idioplasm.</p> + +<p>Only the mature determinant is able to develop, +especially if, at the same time, a related and heretofore +active determinant must be forced back into +the latent condition. But the determinant of an +absolutely new form of adaptation, which does not +take the place of a preceding one, must develop +enough before it can become outwardly manifest, +for it to be possessed of a sufficient amount of molecular +energy to render its activity possible. For +this reason the characteristics of the developed organism +change abruptly, notwithstanding the fact that +the transformation of the idioplasm has proceeded +very gradually.</p> + +<p>The configuration of the idioplasm becomes continually +<span class='pagenum'>[ 23 ]</span> +more complex through the automatic action +of the perfecting process, and by this means the +organism ascends to higher stages of organization. +Hence the viable determinants of organization or +perfection are always overtaken after a certain time +by that movement and forced into the latent condition. +They then become continually weaker, and +are at last completely destroyed. Only in the first +period after their becoming latent can such determinants +pass again into a developmental condition +and thus allow the organism to revert to the next +preceding stage of organization.</p> + +<p>Since the configuration of the idioplasm, which +becomes more complex from internal causes, always +assumes a definite character of adaptation in consequence +of the action of external causes, the adaptation +determinants capable of development may become +more and more weakened and at last latent +when other external causes produce other adaptation +determinants. But these determinants may be +revived by the renewed activity of the former causes, +and thus rendered capable of development. Hence +the organism may show the most various reversions +with respect to its adaptations. But in such reversions +the earlier forms never quite return, because +in the meanwhile the idioplasm has changed somewhat +in consequence of its automatic progress, and +therefore lends to the adaptations which assume the +earlier character a somewhat different expression.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 24 ]</span></p> + +<h4>13. ONTOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE DETERMINANTS.</h4> + +<p>Since the capability of the primordial plasma to +grow is the original and only vital quality (<i>Anlage</i>), +the whole ontogeny in this first stage consists in the +growth of the detached parts to the adult size. In +the same way the development of the determinants +in all the following stages is nothing more than the +growth of the substance detached as a germ cell +after the manner of the changes in the character of +the idioplasm in the course of phylogeny. In this +manner all determinants may in the lower stages of +organization reach development, but in the higher +stages an increasing number of them must remain +latent.</p> + +<p>Among the viable determinants there are some +that develop unconditionally during each ontogenetic +period; there are also alternative determinants of +which one or the other unconditionally develops; +lastly, there are some that develop only under favorable +circumstances. Which of two alternative +determinants shall develop depends sometimes on +internal, sometimes on external causes, according +as the specific determinant has arisen phylogenetically +through the action of internal or external causes. +Climatic and nutritive influences especially affect +the appearance of indefinitely developing determinants. +Just so, when a determinant may develop +<span class='pagenum'>[ 25 ]</span> +repeatedly (as is so common in the plant kingdom) it +depends especially on nutrition whether the corresponding +phenomenon is repeated at intervals of +greater or less length. A weakened determinant is +sometimes temporarily developed by the operation +of a definite stimulus.</p> + +<p>If the integrity of the organism sustains an injury +in consequence of abnormal interferences, determinants +develop exceptionally at unusual points. The +process is induced by accumulation of nutritive +matter and by external stimuli under the force of +necessity, to which the injured organism is sensible.</p> + + +<h4>14. ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE ORGANISM.</h4> + +<p>The essential nature of a thing is the sum total +of its causes and effects. Organisms arise from a +germ cell which consists of idioplasm and in turn +they produce like germ cells. Their nature depends +also on their idioplasm, <i>i.e.</i>, on the sum total of their +idioplasmic determinants. Observation of organisms, +even in their fullest life history, gives us an +imperfect and even false conception of their true +nature. This is because observation reveals only +the outer gross characters, and even these in a +modification dependent upon accidental effects of +nutrition, and does not reveal the finer characters +founded in molecular physiology and morphology, +and especially the characters latent in the idioplasm.</p> + +<p>For the examination of idioplasmic differences +<span class='pagenum'>[ 26 ]</span> +we are restricted to visible characters. Hence a +knowledge of the nature of an organism presupposes +a complete investigation of its characters in +their succession during the whole ontogeny. The +results must, however, be tested and completed by +comparison with other organisms and by the most +comprehensive experimental procedure, possible, (as +by culture under various conditions, and crossing +with nearer and more remote relatives). The characteristics +of nutrition varieties and accidental +crosses must be separated from specific characteristics +by experimental procedure, and latent determinants +must be brought out by the same means.</p> + + +<h4>15. REPRODUCTION, AND RELATION BETWEEN PARENTS AND OFFSPRING.</h4> + +<p>Reproduction is nothing more than a transition +from one generation to the next following, mediated +by the idioplasm of the germ cell. In asexual +(monogenic) reproduction there is continuity of the +same idioplasm. Therefore the parent continues in +the offspring its specific life, as the stem continues +its specific life in the branch. All the peculiarities +conditioned by the idioplasm remain unchanged in +the offspring. The latter, as the immediate continuation +of the preceding ontogeny, starts from the +point at which the germ cell left it, so that immediately +after the germ cell is separated at the close of +the ontogeny or before, the offspring passes at one +<span class='pagenum'>[ 27 ]</span> +time rapidly through the whole ontogeny, at another +only the remainder or a part of it (the latter in alternation +of generations and in asexual propagation of +phanerogams).</p> + +<p>In sexual (digenic) reproduction the formation +of the germ cell is brought about by the union +in equal parts of both parental idioplasms. +The offspring is the organism resulting from the +union of the force and matter of the parents, and +represents in its nature the united continuation of +their ontogenies. The characteristics of development +of the child depend however on the viability +of the determinants of the mingled idioplasms in +which a new equilibrium has been formed. Hence +if the child bears more resemblance to the father or +to the mother, it follows that some of the inherited +determinants develop while the others remain latent. +If the child has certain visible characteristics more +marked than either parent, it becomes possible only +by the development of determinants which had previously +been latent. The fact that the mother furnishes +the germ cell with nutritive plasm and that +she nourishes it for a considerable time does not +increase the number of maternal determinants nor +their capability of development.</p> + +<p>If two corresponding characters, one derived from +the father, the other from the mother, come into +conflict in sexual reproduction, the one or the other, +or even a third alternative characteristic, which heretofore +<span class='pagenum'>[ 28 ]</span> +was present as a latent determinant, may +develop in the child. But also both parental characters +may appear at once and in various combinations. +Whether the development follows in the +one way or the other depends on the strength of +the individual determinants, on the kind of their +idioplasmic arrangement, and on their agreement +with the nature of the newly formed idioplasm.</p> + + +<h4>16. HEREDITY AND VARIATION.</h4> + +<p>If heredity and variation are defined according +to the true nature of organisms, they are only apparent +opposites. Since idioplasm alone is transmitted +from one ontogeny to the next following, the +phylogenetic development consists solely in the continual +progress of the idioplasm and the whole genealogical +tree from the primordial drop of plasma +up to the organism of the present day (plant or +animal) is, strictly speaking, nothing else than an +individual consisting of idioplasm, which at each +ontogeny forms a new individual body, corresponding +to its advance.</p> + +<p>In this idioplasmic individual the <i>automatic</i> or +<i>perfecting variation</i> is always active, so that the +idioplasm of a phylogenetic line always grows by +propagation of the determinants contained within +it, as a tree grows larger through its whole duration +of life by branching. On the other hand the <i>adaptation +variation</i> caused by external stimuli is present +<span class='pagenum'>[ 29 ]</span> +only in those periods of the phylogenetic line +in which the idioplasm, and together with this the +individual, do not possess the obtainable maximum +of adaptation to their environment for the time +being. Both of these variations of the idioplasm +take place so slowly that only after a long series of +generations do the new determinants become capable +of developing and revealing themselves in the +transmutation of visible characters.</p> + +<p>Aside from the phylogenetic variations already +named, which take place according to the measure +of ontogenetic growth, the idioplasm undergoes, as +a result of crossing, as well as in changes of the +ontogeny, <i>gamogenic variations</i> which may be +designated as stationary, since in the mingling of +sexually different idioplasms there arise only new +arrangements of determinants already present, but +no new formation of determinants takes place. +Hence in this way arise also new combinations of +developmental characteristics.</p> + +<p>As a result of external injurious influences, +abnormal variations, or <i>pathological variations</i>, +appear in the idioplasm. These consist of disturbances +of equilibrium, which take place also without +new formation of determinants. Thereby the +determinants already present are caused to develop +in abnormal relations, and mostly in reversions.</p> + +<p>Apart from the inheritable variations of the idioplasm +just enumerated, and the transformations of +<span class='pagenum'>[ 30 ]</span> +visible characters involved in it, the soma-plasm and +the non-plasmic substances experience, by the influence +of nutrition and climate, greater or less variations, +which constitute <i>nutrition varieties</i>, and since +the idioplasm remains unaffected in general, last +only so long as the causes which called them forth.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p> + +<p>If we have in mind the inner nature of the organism, +there is, properly speaking, no such specific +phenomenon as heredity, since the phylogenetic line +is a continuous idioplasmic individual. In this sense +heredity is nothing more than the persistence of +organized substance in a movement in which variations +are automatically induced, or the necessary +transition of one idioplasmic configuration into the +next following. It is present, not only among plant +and animal individuals which are ontogenetically +separated, but also everywhere within these individuals, +where individual parts (cells, organs) follow +each other in time. Hereditary phenomena are +those that necessarily pass over to following generations, +and in general those that are located in the +idioplasm, since non-idioplasmic substance can be +hereditary only through a limited number of cell +generations.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 31 ]</span></p> +<p>Variations and heredity are generally estimated, +not according to the inner nature of the mature +individuals, but according to their relation in successive +generations, since heredity is assumed when +the ontogenetic characters remain the same, and +variation when previously latent characters become +visible. But these phenomena belong to another +department of science; they concern the possibility +and reality of development of the idioplasmic determinants.</p> + + +<h4>17. VARIETY, RACE, MODIFICATION.</h4> + +<p>From the multifarious variations of organisms +proceed various categories of kinship. <i>Varieties</i> +arise by extremely slow changes in the idioplasm +due to the perfecting process and adaptation. Since +these are conditioned by the same causes, they follow +in all individuals of the same variety in uniform +manner. Varieties are uniform, entirely constant +under the most various external conditions, in general +cross only with difficulty with related varieties, +are not varied by accidental crosses, and persist +through geological periods. Varieties belong to +feral nature rather than to culture; they can assume +all possible modifications without injury to their +specific characteristics, but can show no distinctions +of races, for all beginnings of race formation are +destroyed by free intercrossing. They differ from +species only in that they are to be designated as +more closely related species, or species as more +<span class='pagenum'>[ 32 ]</span> +remotely related varieties. Every other distinguishing +characteristic is wanting.</p> + +<p><i>Races</i> arise from gamogenic or pathological +variations of the idioplasm. In the former case they +presuppose crossing between related varieties or +species, in the latter case an increased sensibility +and weakening of the idioplasm. Very often both +causes co-operate, since crossing follows more easily +when the idioplasm is weakened by hurtful influences +and since the irritability and weakening of +the idioplasm increases if crossing has preceded. +Race formation begins in single individuals. Among +several individuals it begins in various directions +because the causes are different and hence may display +a great multiformity. Races are distinguished +by more or less abnormal characteristics; they arise +quickly—often in a single generation—and present +various degrees of stability. This stability is insured +to some extent only by the strictest in-and-in breeding. +All races disappear through crossing, likewise +many races that have arisen from pathological +variations disappear even in sexual reproduction +(in self-fecundation). Races belong exclusively to +cultivation, where they can develop and exist protected +from free intercrossing.</p> + +<p>While varieties and races arise by progressional +or stationary variation of the idioplasm, <i>modifications</i> +are produced by such influences of nutrition +and climate as act only on the soma-plasm and the +<span class='pagenum'>[ 33 ]</span> +non-plasmic substances, and hence do not give rise +to inheritable characters in the organism. Modifications +persist only so long as their causes, and +under other environments immediately pass over +into the modifications corresponding to them. The +transition is completed in the lowest plants during +a limited number of cell generations; in an individual +of the higher plants on the same stem during the +growth of a single year. Each variety and each +race appears clothed in a definite modification, and +can change it within a range peculiar to itself.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></p> + + +<h4>18. SOCIAL AND INDIVIDUAL ORIGIN OF SPECIES.</h4> + +<p>The species arises neither from the <i>nutrition +variety</i> nor from the <i>race</i>; it is always a more +advanced variety, and hence species formation is +identical with variety formation. Cause for variation +and consequently for variety formation is always +shown, either when, environment remaining the +same, the automatic variation of the idioplasm has +advanced so far that the ontogeny is raised to a +higher grade of organization and division of labor, +or when external stimuli act for a sufficiently long +time in a manner not in harmony with the previous +adaptation. Hence various varieties arise easily +from a uniform kinship, when these are thrown +among unlike external influences by local separation, +because in the separated places on the one +<span class='pagenum'>[ 34 ]</span> +hand the automatic evolution proceeds with unequal +rapidity, and on the other hand adaptation takes +place unequally.</p> + +<p>But in general different varieties arise socially +from a uniform kinship. This is because the related +individuals living together are unequally stimulated +on account of the great inequality of external influences +which may exist at the smallest distances; and +also because with slight individual differences unlike +reactions often follow upon the same external influences. +If identically similar individuals are equally +inclined to very different reactions toward the same +stimulus, sometimes the direction of the first variation +decides the character of the adaptation and +therefore the nature of the variety, because the +variation, when once begun, progresses unswervingly +even under somewhat different circumstances.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> +Hence divergent variations are found growing +together in all places, which variations have begun +at different though neighboring points by transformation +of the idioplasm and are soon intermingled +on account of the easy dissemination of seed.</p> + +<p>The social formation of varieties is not in general +interrupted by crossing, a process which governs +only the formation of races. It is confirmed according +to experience by the universally recurring fact +that several beginnings of the most closely related +<span class='pagenum'>[ 35 ]</span> +varieties appear together not only in the same +region, but even at the same points, while the geographical +distribution of the more marked varieties +and of related species offers no conclusion as to their +origin, but only as to the last great migration of the +plant world, because they arose before this period, +as indeed appears from their distribution.</p> + +<p>Just as different varieties arise simultaneously +from one kinship at the same place, the same variety +may arise in places far separated, when the analogous +external exciting causes occasion an identical transformation +in the idioplasm. The experimental proof +lies in the fact that like beginnings of varieties often +appear at great distances from each other.</p> + +<p>An apparent social origin of varieties is indicated, +when, after having come together in migration, +they first develop the unlike determinants which +they have gained in various locations. An apparently +individual origin of the same or different +varieties is indicated, when the formation of the +determinants take place at one and the same place, +but their development follows only after the kindred +has been scattered by migration.</p> + + +<h4>19. GENERAL RELATION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC LINES IN THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS.</h4> + +<p>Since the nature of an organism is contained in +the sum of its idioplasmic determinants alone, the +evolution of a phylogeny consists in the evolution of +<span class='pagenum'>[ 36 ]</span> +the idioplasm. This is perceived from the succession +of the visible ontogenetic characteristics which +in general run parallel with it. The idioplasm +varies in two ways: (1) by an <i>automatic perfecting +process</i>; (2) by <i>adaptation to environment</i>.</p> + +<p>By virtue of the <i>automatic variation</i> of the idioplasm +the ontogenies of a phylogenetic line attain +to a continually more complex organization and +greater differentiation of function. In this differentiation, +however, only the qualitative differences +are of importance; quantitative and numerical +gradations may be disregarded. The more complex +admits of more combinations than the simpler; +hence if a phylogeny reaches a higher stage by +automatic evolution it may branch into several lines, +of which each appears as the continuation of the +parent stock.</p> + +<p>Since <i>adaptive variations</i> depend only on the +transmutations of environment, an organism may +rise to a higher organization and division of labor +by continually adapting itself to the changed environment. +But the organism may also change its +adaptation while it remains at the same stage of +organization. And since the adaptive variation is +quickly perfected as compared with automatic evolution, +although extremely slowly as compared with +the duration of the ontogeny, an organization may +change its adaptation several times while it remains +at the same grade of organization and division of +<span class='pagenum'>[ 37 ]</span> +labor. Since there are also numerous different +kinds of adaptation, a phyletic line may divide at +each point into several adaptive forms, which appear +in the taxonomic system as species, genera, often +even as whole families, while in other cases various +degrees of organization have appeared in one family.</p> + + +<h4>20. LAWS OF EVOLUTION OF THE PLANT KINGDOM.</h4> + +<p>In the sub-organic kingdom, which precedes the +plant and animal kingdoms, (see page 5), there are +gradually formed from the spontaneously generated +plasma independent cells with their characteristic +properties, <i>i.e.</i>, growth by intussusception of micellæ, +formation of a plasmic cuticle, and a non-plasmic +membrane about the same, division of the cells, +separation of the cells thus formed, and free cell +formation within the cell contents. These properties +are inherited from the sub-organic kingdom by +the plants and animals which follow in the next +stage of phylogeny. The evolution of the plant +kingdom proceeds through the following regular +processes, which continue to operate through the +entire phylogenetic series.</p> + +<p><i>Law of Phylogenetic Combination.</i>—The simplest +of all plants are cells of round form, which grow +and reproduce themselves by division, budding or +free cell formation. From the fact that the younger +generation of cells, instead of separating from each +other and growing to independent plant individuals, +<span class='pagenum'>[ 38 ]</span> +remain united with each other, multicellular plants +arise from unicellular. The same transformation +of the reproductive cells into non-separable tissue +cells is repeated several times in multicellular plants +and serves to enlarge the individual. There is +manifested in this phylogenetic process the tendency +of the plant to combine in the higher stages +into one complex whole those parts which in the +lower stages tend to be independent. A similar +unifying tendency is revealed also in those plant +members which have arisen by differentiation and +represent a system only by their being connected at +certain points. These combine in the higher stages +and form ultimately continuous tissues.</p> + +<p><i>Law of Phylogenetic Complication or Ampliation, +Differentiation and Reduction.</i>—The cells, and, in +general, the parts of plants which lie near each other +in space or follow upon each other in time, are +always alike in the lower stages. By differentiation +they become unlike, so that the sum of +the functions which at first fall to the lot of +all parts without distinction now is shared among +the individual parts. By this means each part can +perform its own special function so much the better. +Differentiation is repeated in the course of the phylogeny, +since at first all parts of an ontogeny diverge +into two or more parts, then the parts of these parts +divide again, etc. Along with this process of division +another process is always active, which, as it +<span class='pagenum'>[ 39 ]</span> +were, prepares the way for the former, namely, +ampliation, by virtue of which the growth of the +whole ontogeny or of single stages of it undergoes a +quantitative increase, so that an organ acquires a +greater number of cells, and an individual a greater +number of organs. After this increase in number of +parts in a stage of ontogeny, differentiation follows +as far as the nature of the functions permits, by the +parts most separated passing into each other by +intermediate gradations. By the further phylogenetic +process of reduction the intermediate forms are +suppressed. At last only the extreme products of +differentiation lie near each other in space or follow +upon each other in time; and these products are as +limited in quantity and number as possible.</p> + +<p>Along with the above named phylogenetic processes, +which take place by the automatic increase +of the idioplasm, external influences are always +active. These lend to the organism at times a local +stamp corresponding to its environment, and follow +the law of adaptation.</p> + + +<h4>21. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN RELATION TO PHYLOGENY.</h4> + +<p>Since the simplest plants are cells and the more +complex ones are formed from cells, a whole phylogenetic +line may be regarded as a series of cell +generations following one after another. In the +lowest forms all cell generations are like each other; +<span class='pagenum'>[ 40 ]</span> +in all others they show differences which become +continually greater and more numerous. Thus +alternation of generations in cells exists, because +the successive generations become more and +more complicated at each succeeding period. +Among these periods the ontogenetic period or +ontogeny embraces all generations from one cell to +the return of the exactly similar kind of cell. In +the lowest forms of cell differentiation the cells of +successive generations are all independent; the +ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of generations +of unicellular plants. Later the cell generations of +an ontogeny are united by parts into plant individuals; +the ontogenetic period consists of a cycle of +multicellular and unicellular, or only of multicellular +plant generations. If all the cell generations of an +ontogenetic period have been united into a single +individual, the successive plant generations are alike +and alternation of generations has ceased.</p> + +<p>The unlikeness of the generations arises either +from inner causes of temporary differentiation +alone, or by temporary differentiation which receives +a definite imprint by the change of seasons. But in +the latter case the characteristic of adaptation is +again lost in the course of the phylogeny and alternation +of generations follows then without regard +to the season. If the given adaptation is united in +the lower plants with alternation of generations +during the ontogenetic periods, one of the unlike +<span class='pagenum'>[ 41 ]</span> +plant generations is repeated an indefinite number +of times (repetitional generation), while the other +unlike plant generation appears only once and then +at the beginning of the resting stage and remains +latent in the form of a resting spore till the beginning +of the next period of generation. With this +peculiar transition generation, which has arisen in +the lower stages asexually, and in the following +higher stages by the union of a male and a female +cell, and which hence is hermaphrodite, there are +generally associated later two other single generations—<i>viz.</i>, +a generation preceding and one following +the hermaphrodite, the former as a sex-producing +generation, the other as a sex-produced generation.</p> + +<p>The phylogenetic significance of the alternation +of generations consists in its representing a transition +stage from the unicellular to the simpler multicellular +and from the latter to the more complex +multicellular plants. The plant generations of any +phylogenetic stage increase by ampliation, become +unlike by differentiation in time (alternation of +generations), and unite in a plant individual, whose +unlike ontogenetic stages correspond to the unlike +plant generations of the earlier ancestral series.</p> + + +<h4>22. MORPHOLOGY AS THE SCIENCE OF PHYLOGENY.</h4> + +<p>All organic phenomena belong, according to +their causes, to two different classes: (1) Those +belonging to one group are the results of external +<span class='pagenum'>[ 42 ]</span> +influences in each ontogeny and are not inherited; +they represent nutrition varieties, are experimentally +demonstrable, and constitute the subject matter of +experimental physiology. (2) The others are +inherited and again transmitted; they belong to the +physiology of the idioplasm. This subject is mainly +occupied with the origin of the determinants, hence +with the formation of varieties and species. It is +not the subject of experiment, and constitutes the +phylogeny or the physiology of the formation of +determinants. A sub-division of this subject is +occupied with the development of the determinants +already present, hence with the formation of races. +It is elucidated especially by experiments in crossing +and may be designated as the physiology of the +development of the determinants.</p> + +<p>The morphological phenomena which find their +application in taxonomy, belong exclusively to +phylogeny. Their ontogenetic history does not +explain their true significance; this can be known +only in a phylogenetic way by comparison of one +phenomenon with those phenomena from which it +has arisen in the course of evolution.</p> + + +<h4>23. PLANT CLASSIFICATION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF PHYLOGENY.</h4> + +<p>Spontaneous generation has taken place at all +times and in all places, in as far as the necessary +conditions were concurrently present. (See page 47). +<span class='pagenum'>[ 43 ]</span> +After spontaneous generation the automatic phylogenetic +evolution begins and advances constantly. +Consequently the phylogenetic line rises from time to +time to higher stages of organization and division of +labor, but dies of old age if the automatic perfecting +process ceases. The phylogenetic lines of organisms +now living have therefore an unequal age; +those of the most highly developed plants and animals +had their origin in the earliest periods of organic +life, those of the lowest organisms in the most recent +periods. Hence no general genetic relation exists +among lines now living; only those that are nearly +related and have reached approximately equal stages +of organization may be regarded as branches of the +same phylogenetic stock. A phylogenetic plant system +does not exist in fact, but only in figure.</p> + +<p>If genetic relation between two races is assumed, +either as a reality or as a symbol, the degree of +relationship is determined in a theoretically exact +manner by the number and length of the phylogenetic +steps which are found either between them +both or between them and the common starting +point, according as races belong to the same or +collateral lines. The fact that two organisms belong +to the same line of descent is recognized from the +ontogeny of the higher including the ontogeny of +the lower.</p> + +<p>Since only a proportionately small number of +known forms can appear as types of the supposed +<span class='pagenum'>[ 44 ]</span> +stages of evolution, only a few phylogenetic lines, +and these only in a general way, may be established, +on account of the great incompleteness of the present +plant world. Such a line proceeds from the +green filamentous algæ through the liverworts to the +vascular plants. Among the phanerogams, apparently +so numerously represented, only phylogenetic +series of individual organs can be ascertained, but +no phylogenetic series of families. A phylogenetic +system of phanerogams is not to be hazarded in the +roughest outline. Even the relative rank of the +two chief divisions of the angiosperms, the monocotyledons +and dicotyledons, is a matter of question, +as also which family in each of these divisions is to +be considered the most perfect.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 45 ]</span></p> +<h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h3>TRANSLATORS' NOTES.</h3> + + +<p><i>The Mechanico-physiological Theory of Evolution</i>, +(<i>Mechanisch-Physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre</i>), +by Carl von Nägeli, was published in +Munich and Leipsic in 1884 in a large octavo volume +of 822 pages, including two large appendices. +The <i>Abstammungslehre</i> proper, including the summary, +occupies 552 pages, and constitutes, in its way, +one of the most important contributions to theoretical +biology. It is difficult to understand how a work +of so much consequence should have received such +comparatively small notice in this country, especially +as Nägeli's theories seemed calculated by nature to +appeal much more strongly to American students +than do, for instance, those of Weismann, who has +been studied ten times as much as Nägeli. This is +doubtless due, in part, to the fact that we have had +no English translation of Nägeli's work, a circumstance +much to be regretted.</p> + +<p>The foregoing translation of the summary from +<i>Abstammungslehre</i> goes but a small way toward +making Nägeli's theories accessible to English-reading +students, but it will, at least, be better than +nothing. The work covers a great range of subjects, +all, however, having a certain relationship to +each other. In the main part of the book the discussion +is presented in the following order: +<span class='pagenum'>[ 46 ]</span> +(1) Idioplasm as bearer of the inheritable determinants; +(2) Spontaneous generation; (3) Causes of variation; +(4) Determinants and visible characters, in +which the origin and function of the determinants +is presented; (5) Variety, race, "nutrition variety," +heredity and variation; (6) Criticism of the Darwinian +theory of natural selection, in which the +author urges seven objections to that theory; (7) +Laws of evolution of the plant kingdom; (8) Alternation +of generations from the standpoint of phylogeny; +(9) Morphology and classification as phylogenetic +sciences; (10) A comprehensive summary of +the whole work, a translation of which is given in +the foregoing pages.</p> + +<p>In the first part of the work Nägeli sets forth his +micellar theory of the structure of organized bodies. +This is one of his most important contributions to +science. Until recent years it has been the only +theory given in botanical text-books. At the present +time its only competitor is Strasburger's lamellar +theory, and even this has not superseded Nägeli's +work to any great degree.</p> + +<p>The reader who may not be familiar with the +micellar theory will find the general idea from the +following brief sketch adapted from Vines's <i>Plant +Physiology</i>:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Nägeli's micellar theory was developed from his study of +organized bodies, especially of cell walls and starch grains. +From the behavior of organized substance toward water +absorbed by it, he concluded that water does not penetrate +into the micellæ, but only among them, thus merely separating +them more from each other. He reasoned that if water +should penetrate into the micella, its structure would be +disintegrated. Hence he argued that organized bodies consist +of solid micellæ, which, with their respective films of +<span class='pagenum'>[ 47 ]</span> +water, are held together by: (1) The attraction of the +micellæ for each other, which varies inversely as the square +of the distance. (2) The attraction of the micellæ for water, +which varies inversely as some higher power of the distance. +(3) The force which holds together the ultimate chemical +molecules of which each micella consists.</p> + +<p>"Since the swelling up of organized bodies does not take +place equally in all three dimensions of space, and on account +of their double refraction, Nägeli inferred that in form the +micellæ are crystals, probably parallelopipedal, with rectangular +or rhomboidal bases."</p></div> + +<p>The law that "bodies attract each other with a +force which varies inversely as the square of the +distance," has been proven only in its application +to the heavenly bodies. Nägeli has applied this law +to molecules, unsupported, however, by any evidence +other than that of analogy. On the other +hand, there is evidence that molecules do not invariably +act according to this law.</p> + +<p>Spontaneous generation (p. 4) was an important +item in Nägeli's doctrine, and might almost be said +to be fundamental to it, although it is not really +necessary to the internal perfecting principle, which +may be regarded as the chief feature of the Mechanico-Physiological +Theory. Up to 1865 Nägeli believed +in the spontaneous origin of many fungi, and thought +that it could be demonstrated. He was obliged to +abandon the experimental evidence, but to the close +of his life held the views of abiogenesis presented +in the accompanying translation.</p> + +<p>The characteristic and most interesting feature +of the Mechanico-Physiological Theory is certainly +Nägeli's conception of an automatic perfecting principle +(<i>Autonome Vervollkommnung</i>). This conception +may be briefly outlined as follows:<span class='pagenum'>[ 48 ]</span></p> + +<p>1. The essential part of the reproductive plasm, +termed idioplasm, since it divides and passes over +from generation to generation, in higher as well as +in lower organisms, has a continuous or "immortal" +existence.<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a></p> + +<p>2. During this continuous life the idioplasm +goes through a development of its own, just as an +individual organism goes through a certain cycle of +development during its individual life. This development +consists in a constantly increasing complexity +of structure and differentiation of function.</p> + +<p>3. This development is automatic, resulting from +internal forces or movements, (<i>Vervollkommnungs-bewegungen</i>).</p> + +<p>4. As a result of the increasing complexity of +structure in the idioplasm the entire organism, which +in each generation rearises therefrom, becomes, +from generation to generation, more and more complex +with greater and greater differentiation of +function. Thus the progression of the idioplasm +controls the phylogeny of the race. It marks out +the course of evolution.</p> + +<p>5. Since, according to Nägeli, new life with new +idioplasms, may arise wherever and whenever the +necessary conditions combine, the present organic +world is not made up from branchings of a single +original idioplasm, but each race or group may +have its own specific idioplasm; and, since this has +its own characteristic structure and its own specific +internal perfecting forces, it passes through its own +<span class='pagenum'>[ 49 ]</span> +peculiar evolution, carrying with it its own depending +race of organisms.</p> + +<p>The fact that animals and plants at the present +time show such various degrees of organization is +also accounted for on the last supposition, for those +of lowlier organization are merely of more recent +origin and have not progressed so far in idioplasmic +development.</p> + +<p>This automatic perfecting principle has been the +mark of much criticism. Some have confounded it +with the mystical <i>nisus formativus</i>, or formative +principle of preceding theorists. But, as Weismann +remarks, Nägeli's phyletic force is conceived as a +thoroughly scientific mechanical principle. Nägeli +has simply made application in the organic world +of the principle of entropy, as stated in the mechanical +theory of heat. Nägeli himself also compares +his internal perfecting principle to mechanical +inertia. He says, "the force of evolution once +started in a given direction, tends to continue in the +same direction. This constitutes the law of inertia +in the organic world."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Two other matters remain to be noticed. The +first of these is Nägeli's use of the German word +<i>Anlage</i>. We have been unable to give a perfectly +satisfactory translation of this word in its technical +meaning. We have received some comfort, +though but little help, from the experience of the +translators of similar works. Selmar Schoenland, +in translating from Weismann, renders it variously +as "germ," "germ of structure," "germ (of Nägeli)," +"germ of Nägeli," "Nägeli's preformed germ +of structure," "preformed germs," "tendency." +<span class='pagenum'>[ 50 ]</span> +Another translator renders the word as "constitutional +element." The translation, "determinant," +which we have selected is an appropriation of an +analogous but not absolutely identical technical term +from Weismann's <i>Germinal Selection</i>. The use of +the word in this connection is open to the objection +that it has previously been used technically for a +somewhat different idea by another author. M. +C. Potter, in his translation of Warming's <i>Systematic +Botany</i>, following Dr. E. L. Mark, renders +the word <i>Anlage</i> as "fundament." Dr. H. C. +Porter, in his translation of the <i>Bonn Text-Book of +Botany</i>, renders the same word as "rudiment."</p> + +<p>In general the word Anlage means beginning, +plan, disposition to anything, and hence involves +the ideas of origin, organization and tendency. +Sanders defines the word in one of its meanings as: +"The act of planning or beginning anything; the +act of laying the foundation of any work intended +to be carried on toward completion, in order that +from the beginning made, a definite thing may be +developed or may develop itself"; (<i>i.e.</i>, to determine, +in the sense of limiting to a particular purpose +or direction, hence determinant). "Also, the +thing begun or planned, considered as the basis +and germ of the further development of that which +has already originated."</p> + +<p>In its restricted use as applied to organisms it +would mean "germ," in the sense of embryonic +starting point. More specifically, it is a portion of +plastic, organized substance, functioning as an +individual and containing potentially an elemental +organ plus a formative power. In Nägeli's own +words, "There exists an essential difference between +<span class='pagenum'>[ 51 ]</span> +the substance of a mature organism which does not +possess the capability of further development, and +the substance of an egg, which does possess this +capability. By virtue of this difference the egg-substance +is characterized as the <i>Anlage</i>, or germ +of the mature organism. All characteristics of the +adult condition are potentially contained in the +ovum."</p> + +<p>Nägeli was not the first to assume the existence +of a unit of organization intermediate between the +molecule and the cell. E. B. Wilson, in his <i>The +Cell in Inheritance and Development</i>, states the case +as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>"That the cell consists of more elementary units of organization, +is indicated by <i>a priori</i> evidence so cogent as to have +driven many of the foremost leaders of biological thought into +the belief that such units must exist, whether or not the +microscope reveals them to view. The modern conception of +ultra-cellular units, ranking between the molecule and the +cell, was first definitely suggested by Brücke in 1861.</p> + +<p>"This idea of ultra-cellular units is common to most morphologists +and physiologists. We are compelled by the most +stringent evidence to admit that the ultimate basis of living +matter is not a single chemical substance, but a mixture of +many substances that are self-perpetuating without their loss +of specific character."<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a></p> +</div> + +<p>Nägeli's <i>Laws of Evolution</i> are also worth special +notice. As stated in the body of <i>Abstammungslehre</i> +they are as follows:</p> + +<p>1. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by +division, remain united and become tissue cells.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 52 ]</span></p> +<p>2. Asexual reproductive cells which arise by +budding, instead of separating, become cell branches +or branched cell threads.</p> + +<p>3. Reproductive cells which arise by free cell +formation become bodies which form a part of the +cell contents.</p> + +<p>4. Parts of a plant which arise by differentiation +lie side by side and form a body of web-like or +tissue-like structure.</p> + +<p>5. A definite and previously limited growth continues, +or a definite formation of parts of an ontogeny +which has previously been present but once, +is repeated. (Ampliation.)</p> + +<p>6. The parts of an ontogeny become dissimilar, +since the functions which were previously united +become differentiated and since new dissimilar +functions are produced in the various parts. This +differentiation is either one of space between the +parts of the ontogeny that appear near each other, or +one of time between those that are derived from +each other.</p> + +<p>7. Parts which have become dissimilar by differentiation +undergo a reduction, in which the intermediate +forms are suppressed and at last only the +qualitatively dissimilar forms with qualitatively +dissimilar functions remain.</p> + +<p>8. The environment in which plants live operates +in different ways, directly as a stimulus or indirectly +as a felt necessity and by this means lends to their +forms and activities a definite expression of time +and place, and thus brings about different adaptations. +These become permanent through heredity, +but are again gradually lost if other adaptations +supersede them.<span class='pagenum'>[ 53 ]</span></p> + +<p>Laws 1 to 4 may be expressed as one—the law of +combination: Similar parts that are wholly or partly +separated have the tendency to unite more and more +completely and intimately into one continuous tissue.</p> + +<p>The laws of ampliation (5), differentiation (6), +and reduction (7), may be summarized in one as +follows: While increasing in size the similar parts +of an ontogeny become internally dissimilar and the +dissimilarity increases as the transition forms of the +dissimilar parts vanish. Hence only the extreme +forms remain.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>It may also interest the reader to know that +Nägeli was the first to propose the general theory +of cell formation as accepted at the present day.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 54 ]</span></p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<h4>FOOTNOTES</h4> +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> See Appendix, Translators' Notes.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> Nägeli makes his idioplasm ramify throughout the organism in unbroken +continuity, much like a system of nerves in the higher animals. +This idea with Nägeli was purely speculative. It was known that the protoplasm +is in connection throughout the organism, but it has been proved +more recently that only the somatic protoplasm is thus connected. The +part in which the essential nature of the organism is contained is localized +in the nucleus and hence might properly be designated as nucleoplasm, as +Weismann suggests. If the idioplasm is localized in the nucleus, it cannot +be continuous throughout the system, as Nägeli assumes. But this objection +applies only to a detail of the theory and does not affect the fundamental +conception,—that of a portion of the protoplasm which is differentiated +from the rest and represents a definite molecular structure which determines +the specific nature of the organism.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> Hence, according to Nägeli, every cell of the organism has idioplasm +of identical structure. This at once suggests the objection, how can the +idioplasm, for instance, of a pollen grain be the same as that of a leaf? +Identical idioplasms should always produce identical structures. Nägeli +attempts to explain this difficulty by attributing the different results to different +"conditions of tension and movement," i.e., a dynamical difference +between the idioplasms of the different parts of the organism. (<i>Abstammungslehre</i>, +p. 53.) +</p><p> +This idea of differences of structure being due to dynamic rather than +to material causes plays a considerable part in Nägeli's theory, but is the +point on which he speaks with least certainty—in fact with a noticeable +hesitation. He does not clearly explain the phrase "conditions of tension +and movement," nor does he give a convincing explanation of the known +phenomena as results of the action of dynamic influence. +</p><p> +Nägeli is not the only one who posits dynamic rather than material +differences as to the basis of diversities of structure. More recently, Cope +has built up a system of evolution founded largely on this idea.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> This assertion is a direct corollary from the structure of the determinants +and the idioplasm. If the idioplasm of the fertilizing cell were to +pass through the membrane about the ovum by osmosis, its organized +structure would be lost.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> In order to explain adaptations Nägeli assumes that external influences, +if acting at the same point in a given manner for a long time, may +induce slight adaptive variations which are perpetuated and increased. +On the important subject of adaptation in general Nägeli is almost diametrically +opposed to Darwin and Weismann. Nägeli assigns to the principle of +utility a very limited sphere; Weismann regards adaptation as all-powerful. +According to Nägeli, the organic world would have become much what it is, +if natural selection and adaptation had performed no part in the operations +of nature. He aptly says, that natural selection prunes the phylogenetic +tree, but does not cause new branches to grow. He allows that the principle +of selection is well suited to explain the adaptation of organisms to +their environment and the suitableness and physiological peculiarities of +their structure, but he asserts that in the definiteness of variation of plants +and in their progressive differentiation there is evidence of a higher and +controlling perfecting principle.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> Nägeli, like Weismann, arrives at the conclusion that acquired +characters are not inherited. He was not content, however, to rest the +generalization upon purely speculative grounds, but undertook the experimental +demonstration. After seventeen years of work by himself and son, +especially upon several species of Hieracium, he satisfied himself that his +theory was true to the facts. We all know now how far he fell short of settling +the question.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The distinctions which Nägeli here erects are, of course, purely arbitrary, +and his definitions are suitable for use only in his own thesis.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> It is interesting to compare this statement with Weismann's recent +theory of Germinal Selection.—<i>Trans.</i></p></div> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> Nägeli's idioplasm corresponds in many respects, though by no +means in all, to Weismann's germ-plasm. Weismann's idea of continuity +or "immortality," which has been so widely noticed, is set forth with equal +clearness, though with less emphasis, by Nägeli.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> For a fuller discussion of the notion of these hypothetical units of +organic existence, see Weismann's Germinal Selection, (Open Court Publishing +Co., Chicago, 1896), especially the foot note, page 230.</p></div> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'>[ 55 ]</span></p> +<h2>BRIEF STATEMENT OF THE WORK OF THE +OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY</h2> + + +<p>If one asked for a brief description of the work +of the Open Court Company, one would probably +get the answer that the Company publishes books +and articles on Science, Religion, and Philosophy. +That is not quite exact; for that describes the ideal +to which the Open Court Company is continually striving +rather than the actual work it is doing. The ideal +is Religion on a firm basis of Science, a Science of +Philosophy, and a Philosophy of Science: the only +path which can lead to this great ideal synthesis is the +detailed and careful study of sciences, religions, and +philosophies.</p> + +<p>It was this ideal that prompted the late Mr. Edward +Carl Hegeler of La Salle, Illinois, in the United States +of America, to found a Company to publish books with +the object of establishing ethics and religion upon a +scientific basis. Such ideals are as old as philosophy +itself. Among modern philosophies, that founded by +Comte tried, probably in the most explicit fashion of +all, to found a religion on the basis of positive science; +and at one time it appeared likely to have a lasting +success. But it is now quite plain that no philosophy +which hopes to be permanent can neglect history or +put itself into uncritical opposition to the systems that +have for centuries expressed some of the dearest and +highest aspirations of mankind. It is unprejudiced +and fearless historical and critical investigation—non-sectarian +in the widest sense—in both religion, science, +and philosophy, that must go before any satisfactory +synthesis. This is a great part of the work of the +Open Court Company.</p> + +<p>Let us consider what non-sectarianism means. We +cannot, for example, isolate a single domain of science +in a particular country and at a particular time—say, +<span class='pagenum'>[ 56 ]</span> +mechanics in England in the eighteenth century—and +hope to make of it a thoroughly complete object of +study. In natural science, for example, we make conventional +divisions simply with the object of saving +labor when dealing with the huge mass of material +that experience offers. But the narrowest specialist +knows that all workers in science, religion, and +philosophy seek the Truth; and that the Truth is +bounded neither by space nor by time nor by man-made +divisions. A man may rightly conclude that +he stands little chance of finding out very much of +the Truth, and so he may voluntarily limit his view +to a certain roughly defined domain of facts and +thoughts, and become, for example, what is called a +"biologist," a "physicist," a "higher critic," or, if he +thinks that he may discover rather more of the Truth, +a "philosopher."</p> + +<p>And let us carry a clear understanding of a lofty +aim into religion as well. It is our duty, as rational +beings, to be non-sectarian. It is not a merit to allow +ignorance to blind us to the glimpses of Truth that we +sometimes get from prophets, poets, and priests of +other religions and other philosophies than our own. +If we think that there is more truth or sacredness in +our own, let us use every means to make this sacredness +or this truth appear evident to others. But, in +justice, let us also fearlessly discuss other religions and +philosophies, and discover their greater merits, if any, +as compared with our own. If, after careful investigation, +we arrive at the belief in the truth or falsehood +of anything in these religions or philosophies, let us +state our grounds for believing so in the fullest possible +way. Only by so doing can we fulfil the duties +of being true to ourselves and helpful to others.</p> + +<p>Sometimes the work of a critic is said to be +"merely destructive." This idea rests on a most harmful +misunderstanding. Criticism consists not only in +the pointing out of error, but in the pointing out of +truth as well. Error is simply a psychological condition +<span class='pagenum'>[ 57 ]</span> +of blindness to the truth; and the discovery of +errors committed by other people or ourselves is not—as +many superficial people like to say—the pulling +down of a structure already raised, unless an error +can be called a structure which is built out of the +fictions of our imagination which have no objective existence. +Criticism often enables us to discover more +of the Truth, and nobody can do more than <i>discover</i> +Truth: nobody <i>creates</i> Truth, any more than Columbus +created America.</p> + +<p>Nowadays all intelligent men and women agree that +all knowledge must be subjected to criticism, and the +best men and women act on these beliefs. The books +and magazines published by the Open Court Company +are intended to help these men and women.</p> + +<p>We will dwell a little longer on the subject of religion, +because it is in religion that the majority of us +have the one region of ideals above our bodily needs. +It is rare, though of course not unknown, that Science +or Philosophy satisfies the spiritual needs—the purest +of human cravings. Nowadays, most of us realize +that an anti-scientific attitude of religion is impossible. +If there were an opposition between "science" +and "religion," there would be no question as to which +side would be victorious. More particularly during +the last seventy years, "religion," conscious of the +opposition which a rather crude doctrine which was +called "science" had towards it, has been gradually, +and often somewhat ludicrously, trying to bring itself +more into conformity with that "science." The result +is painful to the student of human nature; though it +has its amusing sides, just as had the militant denial, +on the part of those who were "on the side of the +angels" about fifty years ago, of certain deductions +from facts. What is called a "conflict between religion +and science" always has ended in a victory for +"science" and an agnosticism which ousted religion. +And thus many see that it is desirable that the matured +results of science should enter into the fabric of our +<span class='pagenum'>[ 58 ]</span> +religious convictions. For the realization of this purpose, +the Open Court Company publishes two +periodicals, <i>The Monist</i>, a quarterly magazine devoted +to the philosophy of science, and <i>The Open Court</i>, an +illustrated monthly devoted to the science of religion +and the religion of science. In addition, the Open +Court Company publishes books that directly or indirectly +advance its aim—books on Philosophy, which, +in contrast with the old metaphysicism, lay the +foundations of a philosophy of science; books on the +history of philosophies; books on mathematics and +other lines of thought which are indispensable for a +rational and scientific conception of the world; books +that have a bearing on the doctrine of Evolution; books +on the history of Religions, especially on the development +of Christianity and on Higher Criticism; and +books on Comparative Religion, on Psychology, on +Education, and on Ethics. Above all, in all the works +careful, sympathetic, and scholarly criticism is aimed +at. Criticism is the joint result of love of Truth and +independence of thought; rightly understood, it is not +only a preliminary to a work of synthesis, but it is part +of synthesis itself. No synthesis, in fact, is more than +a discovery of Truth: from past history we know that +syntheses have often blinded men to the Truth, though +that was naturally not their intention.</p> + +<p>On the subject of independence of thought it may +be proper shortly to refer to the work of Dr. Paul +Carus, who has been, since the end of 1887, closely +associated with the Open Court Company and its publications. +Only two things need be said here. In the +first place, it was owing to the need he felt for keeping +his independence of thought that he resigned a +post in Germany and came, first to England and then +to America. In the second place, his views, which +are also, broadly speaking, the views for which the +Open Court Company works, may be characterized +both as monism and positivism, though his philosophy +differs considerably from Hæckel's monism, which is +<span class='pagenum'>[ 59 ]</span> +practically materialism, and even more so from the +French positivism of Comte and from agnosticism, its +English equivalent. In his philosophy, <i>form</i> plays the +most important part. Form is the significant feature +of both objective existence and subjective thought. +Matter and energy only denote reality, but form +characterizes quality. Science traces form, and the +nature of all things, the human character included, is +constituted by form. In the formal sciences again, +that which is the core of their usefulness as general +propositions is the character of <i>anyness</i>, the use of +which justifies the method of generalization. Here +lies the root of the kinship of Dr. Carus's philosophy +with modern logic, and allows him to reconstruct the +old artistic and religious ideas upon a new and modern +ground. In this sense, he himself has characterized +his philosophy as a <i>philosophy of form</i>.</p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>A Partial List of Books in the<br /> +OPEN COURT SCIENCE SERIES</h2> + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h3>PROBLEMS OF SCIENCE<br /> +BY FEDERIGO ENRIQUES</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Authorized translation by Katherine Royce, with an +introduction by Josiah Royce. <b>Pp. 375. Price, $2.50.</b></p> +</div> + +<p>"The end for which we ought to strive today is a scientific +education, which shall enable the workers in any field +whatsoever to understand better how the object of their +own research is subordinated to more general problems."</p> + +<p>The author is professor of projective geometry and geometric +drawing in the University of Bologna, and is one of +the most conspicuous of contemporary Italian scientists.</p> + + +<div id="textbox"> + <p class="alignleft">The Primary Factors of Organic Evolution</p> + <p class="alignright">By E. D. Cope</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox1"> + <p class="alignleft">The Soul of Man</p> + <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>An investigation of the facts of physiological +and experimental psychology. <b>Illustrated. Cloth, +$1.50 net; paper, 85c.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox2"> + <p class="alignleft">Plant Breeding</p> + <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Comments on the experiments of Nilsson and +Burbank. <b>Illustrated. Cloth, gilt, $1.50 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox3"> + <p class="alignleft">The Rise of Man</p> + <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A sketch of the human race. <b>Illustrated. +Boards, cloth back, 75c net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox4"> + <p class="alignleft">Species and Varieties, Their Origin and Mutation</p> + <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Edited by D. T. MacDougal. <b>Price, $5.00 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox5"> + <p class="alignleft">The Mutation Theory</p> + <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Experiments and observations on the origin of +species in the vegetable kingdom. (2 vols.) Translated +by Prof. A. B. Farmer and A. D. Darbishire. +<b>Numerous illustrations, colored plates. Cloth, per +volume $4.00 net.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox6"> + <p class="alignleft">Intracellular Pangenesis</p> + <p class="alignright">By Hugo De Vries</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Including a paper on fertilization and hybridization. +Translated from the German by C. Stuart +Gager. <b>Cloth, $3.00 net.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox7"> + <p class="alignleft">On Memory and the Specific Energies of the Nervous System</p> + <p class="alignright">By Ewald Hering</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>New edition, including "The Theory of Nerve +Activity." <b>Price, $1.00; paper, 30c.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox8"> + <p class="alignleft">Psychology of the Nervous System</p> + <p class="alignright">By Paul Carus</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>An extract from the author's larger work, "The +Soul of Man." <b>Price, 30c.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox9"> + <p class="alignleft">The Psychology of Reasoning</p> + <p class="alignright">By Alfred Binet</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Adam Gowan Whyte. <b>Cloth, 75c +net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox10"> + <p class="alignleft">Has the Psychological Laboratory Proved Helpful?</p> + <p class="alignright">By L. M. Billia</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated from the French by Lydia G. Robinson. +<b>Pp. 16. Paper, 15c net.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox11"> + <p class="alignleft">A Mechanico-Physiological Theory of Organic Evolution</p> + <p class="alignright">By Carl von Nageli</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Summary. <b>30c.</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox12"> + <p class="alignleft">Experiments on the Generation of Insects</p> + <p class="alignright">By Francesco Redi</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated from the Italian edition of 1688 by +Mab Bigelow. <b>Illustrated. Cloth, $2.00 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox13"> + <p class="alignleft">Science and Faith, or Man as an Animal, and Man +as a Member of Society, with a Discussion on Animal Societies</p> + <p class="alignright">By Paul Topinard</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Price, $1.50 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox14"> + <p class="alignleft">A First Book in Organic Evolution</p> + <p class="alignright">By D. Kerfoot Shute</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Written especially for the use of students. <b>Illustrated, +seven colored plates, 2d ed. Cloth, $1.25; +paper, 60c net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox15"> + <p class="alignleft">On Germinal Selection as a Source of Definite Variation</p> + <p class="alignright">By August Weismann</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Paper, 30c</b></p></div> + + + +<div id="textbox16"> + <p class="alignleft">Popular Scientific Lectures</p> + <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Illustrated. +$1.50 net; paper, 60c net</b></p></div> + + + +<div id="textbox17"> + <p class="alignleft">Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations</p> + <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by C. M. Williams. <b>Price, $1.25 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox18"> + <p class="alignleft">Space and Geometry in the Light of Physiological, Psychological and Physical Inquiry</p> + <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by T. J. McCormack. <b>Cloth, gilt +top, $1.00 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox19"> + <p class="alignleft">The History and the Root of the Principle of the Conservation of Energy</p> + <p class="alignright">By Ernst Mach</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Philip E. B. Jourdain. <b>Cloth, $1.25 +net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox20"> + <p class="alignleft">On the Inheritance of Acquired Characters</p> + <p class="alignright">By Eugenio Rignano</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Translated by Basil C. H. Harvey. With an appendix +"On the Mnemonic Origin and Nature of +Affective Tendencies." <b>Cloth, $3.00 net</b></p></div> + + +<div id="textbox21"> + <p class="alignleft">Darwin and After Darwin</p> + <p class="alignright">By George J. Romanes</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>An exposition of the Darwinian theory and a discussion +of post-Darwinian Questions. <b>Three volumes, $4.00 net.</b></p> + +<p>Part I. The Darwinian Theory. <b>Cloth, $2.00.</b></p> + +<p>Part II. Post-Darwinian Questions: Heredity +and Utility. <b>Cloth, $1.50.</b></p> + +<p>Part III. Post-Darwinian Questions: Isolation +and Physiological Selection. <b>Cloth, $1.00.</b></p> +</div> + + +<div id="textbox22"> + <p class="alignleft">An Examination of Weismannism</p> + <p class="alignright">By George J. Romanes</p> +</div> +<div style="clear: both;"></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Cloth, $1.00 net; paper, 40c net.</b></p></div> + +<hr style="width: 15%;" /> +<h3>Send for complete list.<br /> +OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.<br /> +<small>(Scientific and Educational Books)</small><br /> +122 S. 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