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diff --git a/33479.txt b/33479.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c0f1e78 --- /dev/null +++ b/33479.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2663 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Opium Monopoly, by Ellen Newbold La Motte + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Opium Monopoly + + +Author: Ellen Newbold La Motte + + + +Release Date: August 21, 2010 [eBook #33479] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OPIUM MONOPOLY*** + + +E-text prepared by the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading +Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from page images generously made available by +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries +(http://www.archive.org/details/toronto) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 33479-h.htm or 33479-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33479/33479-h/33479-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/33479/33479-h.zip) + + + Images of the original pages are available through + Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries. See + http://www.archive.org/details/opiummonopoly00lamouoft + + + + + +THE OPIUM MONOPOLY + + * * * * * + +THE MACMILLAN COMPANY + +NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO . DALLAS +ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO + +MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED + +LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA +MELBOURNE + +THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. + +TORONTO + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: Wrapper of packet of opium, as sold in licensed opium +shops of Singapore. Each packet contains enough opium for about six +smokes.] + + +THE OPIUM MONOPOLY + +by + +ELLEN N. LA MOTTE + +Author of "Backwash of War," "Peking Dust," +"Civilization," Etc. + + + + + + + +New York +The Macmillan Company +1920 + +All rights reserved + +Copyright, 1920 +By The Macmillan Company + +Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1920. + + + + + "If this was our battle, if these were our ends, + Which were our enemies, which were our friends?" + + _Witter Bynner_, in The Nation. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER PAGE + +INTRODUCTION ix + + I. GREAT BRITAIN'S OPIUM MONOPOLY 1 + + II. THE INDIAN OPIUM MONOPOLY 6 + + III. JAPAN AS AN OPIUM DISTRIBUTOR 11 + + IV. SINGAPORE 18 + + V. THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS OPIUM COMMISSION 23 + + VI. OPIUM IN SIAM 26 + + VII. HONGKONG 30 + +VIII. SARAWAK 35 + + IX. SHANGHAI 37 + + X. INDIA 44 + + XI. TURKEY AND PERSIA 54 + + XII. MAURETIUS 56 + +XIII. BRITISH NORTH BORNEO 58 + + XIV. BRITISH GUIANA 62 + + XV. HISTORY OF THE OPIUM TRADE IN CHINA 65 + + XVI. CONCLUSION 73 + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +We first became interested in the opium traffic during a visit to the +Far East in 1916. Like most Americans, we had vaguely heard of this +trade, and had still vaguer recollections of a war between Great +Britain and China, which took place about seventy-five years ago, known +as the Opium War. From time to time we had heard of the opium trade as +still flourishing in China, and then later came reports and assurances +that it was all over, accompanied by newspaper pictures of bonfires of +opium and opium pipes. Except for these occasional and incidental +memories, we had neither knowledge of, nor interest in the subject. On +our way out to Japan, in the July of 1916, we met a young Hindu on the +boat, who was outspoken and indignant over the British policy of +establishing the opium trade in India, as one of the departments of the +Indian Government. Of all phases of British rule in India, it was this +policy which excited him most, and which caused him most ardently to +wish that India had some form of self-government, some voice in the +control and management of her own affairs, so that the country could +protect itself from this evil. Without this, he declared, his country +was powerless to put a stop to this traffic imposed upon it by a +foreign government, and he greatly deplored the slow, but steady +demoralization of the nation which was in consequence taking place. As +he produced his facts and figures, showing what this meant to his +people--this gradual undermining of their moral fiber and economic +efficiency--we grew more and more interested. That such conditions +existed were to us unheard of, and unbelievable. It seemed incredible +that in this age, with the consensus of public opinion sternly opposed +to the sale and distribution of habit-forming drugs, and with +legislation to curb and restrict such practices incorporated in the +laws of all ethical and civilized governments, that here, on the other +side of the world, we should come upon opium traffic conducted as a +government monopoly. Not only that, but conducted by one of the +greatest and most highly civilized nations of the world, a nation which +we have always looked up to as being in the very forefront of advanced, +progressive and humane ideals. So shocked were we by what this young +Hindu told us, that we flatly refused to believe him. We listened to +what he had to say on the subject, but thinking that however earnest he +might be, however sincere in his sense of outrage at such a policy, +that he must of necessity be mistaken. We decided not to take his word +for it, but to look into the matter for ourselves. + +We did look into the matter. During a stay in the Far East of nearly a +year, in which time we visited Japan, China, Hongkong, French +Indo-China, Siam and Singapore, we looked into the matter in every +country we visited. Wherever possible we obtained government reports, +and searched them carefully for those passages giving statistics +concerning the opium trade--the amount of opium consumed, the number of +shops where it was sold, and the number of divans where it was smoked. +We found these shops established under government auspices, the dealers +obtaining their supplies of opium from the government, and then +obtaining licenses from the government to retail it. In many countries, +we visited these shops and divans in person, and bought opium in them +freely, just as one goes to a shop to buy cigarettes. We found a +thorough and complete establishment of the opium traffic, run by the +government, as a monopoly. Revenue was derived through the sale of +opium, through excise taxes upon opium, and through license fees paid +by the keepers of opium shops and divans. A complete, systematic +arrangement, by which the foreign government profited at the expense of +the subject peoples under its rule. In European countries and in +America, we find the governments making every effort to repress the +sale of habit-forming drugs. Here, in the Far East, a contrary attitude +prevails. The government makes every effort to encourage and extend it. + +Two notable exceptions presented themselves. One was Japan. There are +no opium shops in Japan, and the Japanese Government is as careful to +protect its people from the evils and dangers of opium as any European +country could be. It must be remembered, however, that Japan is a free +and independent country. It has never been conquered by a European +country, and perhaps one explanation as to why the Japanese are a +powerful, virile people, is because Japan is the one Oriental nation +that has never been dominated by a European power, and in consequence, +never drugged. + +The other exception is our own possession of the Philippines, which +although a subject country, has never had the opium traffic established +as part of the machinery of an alien government. + +On our return to America, we were greatly exercised over these facts +which we had unearthed. We continued our researches as to the opium +traffic in the New York Public Library, and in the Library of Congress, +in Washington, in both of which places there is a rich and abundant +literature on the subject. We obtained ready access to official blue +books and government reports, issued by the British Government, and it +is from these sources that the material in this book is largely drawn. +We were somewhat hampered in our investigations by the fact that +because of the war, these blue books have not always been of recent +date, some of them being two or three years old. For this reason, it +has not always been possible to give the most recent figures as to +opium consumption and distribution in the various countries. However, +we feel that we have obtained enough information to uphold our case, +and in any event, there is no doubt that the opium traffic, as fostered +by the British Government, still continues. In looking over the list of +British colonies where it is established, we may find here and there a +diminution in the amount of opium consumed, but this is probably due to +the exigencies of war, to the lack of shipping and transportation, +rather than to any conscientious scruples or moral turnover; because +the revenue derived from the opium trade is precious. In some +instances, as in the case of the Straits Settlements, the local British +Government derives from forty to fifty per cent of its revenue from +this source. Yet, taken in relation to the whole, it is not large. +However valuable it may be, however large the percentage in the case of +any particular colony, it can surely never be large enough to +compensate for the stigma attached. It is a blot upon the honor of a +great nation to think that she deliberately runs her colonies on opium. +No revenue, whether large or small, can be justified when coming from +such a source as this. + +In all these blue books and official reports, the question of the Opium +Monopoly, as it is called, is dealt with freely. There is no attempt to +hide or suppress the facts. The subject is reported frankly and fully. +It is all there, for any one to read who chooses. How then, does it +happen that we in America know nothing about Great Britain's Opium +Monopoly? That the facts are new to us and come to us as a shock? One +is because of our admiration for Great Britain. Those who know--and +there are a few--hesitate to state them. Those who know, feel that it +is a policy unworthy of her. We hesitate to call attention to the +shortcomings of a friend. There are other reasons also for this +conspiracy of silence--fear of international complications, fear of +endangering the good feeling between the two countries, England and +America. Consequently England has been able to rely upon those who know +the facts to keep silent, either through admiration or through fear. +Also the complete ignorance of the rest of us has been an additional +safeguard. Therefore, for nearly a century, she has been running her +Opium Monopoly undisturbed. It began as a private industry, about the +time of the East India Company, but later on passed out of the hands of +private individuals into the department of Opium Administration, one of +the branches of the colonial government. But, loyal as we have been all +these years, we can remain silent no longer. The time is now rapidly +approaching when the two countries, England and America, are to become +closely united. How can we become truly united, however, when on such a +great moral question as this we stand diametrically opposed? + +There is still another reason why we should break silence. The welfare +of our own country is now at stake. The menace of opium is now +threatening America, and our first duty is to ourselves. Little by +little, surreptitiously, this drug has been creeping in over our +borders, and to-day many thousands of our young men and young women are +drug addicts, habituated to the use of one of the opium derivatives, +morphia or heroin. The recent campaign against drug users, conducted by +the New York Department of Health, has uncovered these addicts in great +numbers; has brought them before us, made us see, in spite of +ourselves, that thousands of them exist and that new ones are being +created daily. The question arises, how do they obtain the drug? It was +the fortune of the writer to be present during the first week of the +opening of the Health Department Clinic for Drug Addicts, and her work +consisted in taking the histories of these pitiful, abject wrecks of +men and women who swarmed to the clinic in hundreds, seeking supplies +of the drug which they could not obtain elsewhere. The history of these +patients was almost invariably the same--there was a monotony in their +tragic, pathetic recital as to how they became victims, how they first +became acquainted with the drug. As a rule, they began in extreme +youth, generally between fifteen and twenty years of age, one boy +having begun at the age of thirteen. In nearly every case they had +tried it as a lark, as an experiment. At "parties," they said, when +some one of the company would pass round a box full of heroin, inviting +them to snuff it. To snuff it, these children, very much as a small boy +goes behind the barn to try his first cigarette. In many instances +those who produced the box were peddlers, offering it as a gift at +first, knowing that after a dose or two the fatal habit would be formed +and another customer created. These peddlers doubtless obtained their +supplies from smugglers. But that takes us back to our argument, +namely, the part played by that great nation which grows and +distributes opium to the world. For that nation produces an over-supply +of opium, far more than is needed by the medical profession for the +relief of pain. Opium is not profitable in its legitimate use. It is +only profitable because of the demands of addicts, men and women +deliberately debauched, either through the legalized machinery of +colonial governments, or through the illegal activities of smugglers. A +moral sentiment that will balk at this immense over-production, the +sole object of which is to create drug victims, is the only weapon to +fight it. In giving this book to the public, we are calling upon that +moral sentiment. We feel that we shall number among our staunchest +supporters that great body of men and women in England who have for +years been vainly fighting the opium traffic. No more bitter opponents +of this policy are to be found than amongst the English people +themselves. From time to time, in Parliament, sharp debates have arisen +as to the advisability of continuing it, and some of the greatest men +in England have been steadfastly opposed. The great Gladstone has +described it as "morally indefensible." The time has now come for us, +people of both countries, to unite to stop it. + + + + +THE OPIUM MONOPOLY + + + + +I + +GREAT BRITAIN'S OPIUM MONOPOLY + + +In a book shop in Shanghai, we came upon a small book with an arresting +title, "Drugging a Nation," by Samuel Merwin. It was published in 1908, +eight years before we chanced upon it, shabby and shop worn, its pages +still uncut. The people of Shanghai, the great International Settlement +of this largest city and most important seaport of China, did not have +to read it. They knew, doubtless, all that its pages could disclose. +We, however, found it most enlightening. In it there is this +description of the British Opium Monopoly: + +"In speaking of it as a 'monopoly' I am not employing a cant word for +effect. I am not making a case. That is what it is officially styled in +a certain blue book on my table which bears the title, 'Statement +Exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress of India during the year +1905-'6,' and which was ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, +May 10, 1907.... Now to get down to cases, just what this Government +Opium Monopoly is, and just how does it work? An excerpt from the +rather ponderous blue book will tell us. It may be dry but it is +official and unassailable. It is also short. + +"'The opium revenue'--thus the blue book--'is partly raised by a +monopoly of the production of the drug in Bengal and the United +provinces, and partly by the levy of a duty on all opium imported from +native states.... In these two provinces, the crop is grown under the +control of a government department, which arranges the total area which +is to be placed under the crop, with a view to the amount of opium +required.' + +"So much for the broader outline. Now for a few of the details: 'The +cultivator of opium in these monopoly districts receives a license, and +is granted advances to enable him to prepare the land for the crop, and +he is required to deliver the whole of the product at a fixed price to +opium agents, by whom it is dispatched to the government factories at +Patna and Ghazipur.' + +"The money advanced to the cultivator bears no interest. The British +Indian government lends money without interest in no other cases. +Producers of crops other than opium are obliged to get along without +free money. + +"When it has been manufactured, the opium must be disposed of in one +way and another; accordingly: 'The supply of prepared opium required +for consumption in India is made over to the Excise Department ... the +chests of "provision" opium, for export, are sold at monthly sales, +which take place at Calcutta.' For the meaning of the curious term, +'provision opium' we have only to read on a little further. 'The opium +is received and prepared at the government factories, where the +out-turn of the year included 8,774 chests of opium for the Excise +Department, about three hundred pounds of various opium alkaloids, +thirty maunds of medical opium; and 51,770 chests of provision opium +for the Chinese market.' There are about 140 pounds in a chest.... Last +year the government had under poppy cultivation 654,928 acres. And the +revenue to the treasury, including returns from auction sales, duties +and license fees, and deducting all 'opium expenditures' was nearly +$22,000,000." + +As the blue book states, this opium is auctioned off once a month. At +that point, the British Government, as a government, washes its hands +of the business. Who buys the opium at these government auctions, and +what afterwards becomes of it? "The men who buy in the opium at these +monthly auctions and afterwards dispose of it are a curious crowd of +Parsees, Mohammedans, Hindoos and Asiatic Jews. Few British names +appear in the opium trade to-day. British dignity prefers not to stoop +beneath the taking in of profits; it leaves the details of a dirty +business to dirty hands. This is as it has been from the first. The +directors of the East India Company, years and years before that +splendid corporation relinquished the actual government of India, +forbade the selling of its specially-prepared opium direct to China, +and advised a trading station on the coast whence the drug might find +its way 'without the company being exposed to the disgrace of being +engaged in illicit commerce.'" + +"So clean hands and dirty hands went into partnership. They are in +partnership still, save that the most nearly Christian of governments +has officially succeeded the company as party of the first part." + +You will say, if the British Government chooses to deal in opium, that +is not our concern. It is most emphatically our concern. Once a month, +at these great auction sales, the British Government distributes +thousands of pounds of opium, which are thus turned loose upon the +world, to bring destruction and ruin to the human race. The buyers of +this opium are not agents of the British Government. They are merely +the distributors, through whom this drug is directed into the channels +of trade. The British Government derives a certain portion of its +revenue from the sale of opium, therefore depends upon these dealers to +find a market for it. They are therefore, as distributors, the +unofficial agents of the British Government, through whom it is sold +legitimately, or smuggled around the world. In seeking to eradicate the +drug evil, we must face the facts, and recognize clearly that the +source of supply is the British Government, through whose agents, +official and unofficial, it is distributed. + +America, so they tell us, is now menaced by the drug evil. Now that +prohibition is coming into effect, we are told that we are now +confronted by a vice more terrible, far more deteriorating and +dangerous. If that is true, then we must recognize our danger and guard +against it. Some of the opium and morphia which reaches this country is +smuggled in; the rest is imported by the big wholesale drug houses. +There is an unlimited supply of it. As we have seen, the British +Government encourages poppy production, even to the extent of lending +money _without interest_ to all those who are willing to raise this +most profitable crop. The monopoly opium is sold once a month to the +highest bidders, and some of these highest bidders are unscrupulous men +who must find their markets how and where they can. That fact, of +course, is of no moment to the British Government. It is of deepest +concern to Americans, however. To the north of us we have the Dominion +of Canada. To the south, the No-Man's Land of Mexico. At the present +moment, the whole country is alarmed at the growing menace of the drug +habit, which is assuming threatening proportions. + + + + +II + +THE INDIAN OPIUM MONOPOLY + + +Let us quote from another dry official record, of unimpeachable +veracity--the Statesman's Year-Book, for 1916. On page 140, under the +heading of The British Empire: India and Dependencies, we read: "Opium. +In British territory the cultivation of the poppy for the production of +opium is mainly restricted to the United Provinces, and the manufacture +of the opium from this region is a State monopoly. A limited amount is +also grown in the Punjab for local consumption and to produce poppy +seeds. In the monopoly districts the cultivator receives advances from +Government to enable him to prepare the land for the crop, and he is +bound to sell the whole of the produce at a fixed price to Government +agents, by whom it is despatched to the Government factory at Ghazipur +to be prepared for the market. The chests of manufactured opium are +sold by auction in Calcutta at monthly sales. A reserve is kept in hand +to supply the deficiencies of bad seasons, and a considerable quantity +is distributed by the Indian excise departments. Opium is also grown in +many of the Native States of Rajputana and Central India. These Native +States have agreed to conform to the British system. No opium may pass +from them into British territory for consumption without payment of +duty. + +"The bulk of the exports of opium from India has been to China. By +arrangements with that country, the first one being in 1907, the +exports from India have been limited, and provision made for the +cessation of the export to China when the native Chinese production of +opium shall be suppressed. The trade with China is now practically +suspended." + +The important things to notice in the above statement are these: The +growing of poppies, the manufacture of opium, and the monthly auction +sales continue. Also, the opium trade with China is practically at an +end. The history of the opium traffic in China is a story complete in +itself and will be dealt with in another chapter. At present, we must +notice that the trade with China is practically suspended, but that the +British Government is still auctioning off, once a month at Calcutta, +great quantities of opium. Where does this opium go--who are the +consumers? If not to China, then where? + +The same reliable authority, the Statesman's Year-Book for 1918, has +this to say on the subject. On page 130 we read: "Opium: In British +territory the cultivation of the poppy for the production of opium is +practically confined to the United Provinces, and the manufacture of +opium from this region is a State monopoly. The bulk of the exported +opium is at present either sent to the United Kingdom, or supplied +direct to the Governments of consuming countries in the Far East; a +certain quantity is also sold by auction in Calcutta at monthly sales. +Opium is also grown in many of the Native States of Rajputana and +Central India, which have agreed to conform to the British system." The +following tables, taken from most reliable authority, give some idea of +the exports to the "consuming countries of the Far East." Note that +Japan began buying opium in 1911-12. We shall have something to say +about the Japanese smuggling later. Also note that it was in 1907 that +Great Britain and China entered into agreement, the outcome to be the +suppression of the opium trade in China. But see the increasing imports +into the treaty ports; up till almost the very last moment British +opium being poured into China. In the second table, observe the +increasing importation into England, (United Kingdom), synchronous with +the increased exports to Japan, which will be discussed later. + +STATISTICAL ABSTRACT RELATING TO BRITISH INDIA 1903-4 TO 1912-13 +EXPORTS OF OPIUM + +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1903-4 | 1904-5 | 1905-6 | 1906-7 | 1907-8 + | L | L | L | L | L +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ + | 1908-9 | 1909-10 | 1910-11 | 1911-12 | 1912-13 + | L | L | L | L | L +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +China | 1,610,296 | 1,504,604 | 1,130,372 | 1,031,065 | 1,215,147 +Treaty | | | | | +Ports | 2,703,871 | 1,234,432 | 2,203,670 | 3,614,887 | 3,242,902 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Hongkong | 3,576,431 | 4,036,436 | 3,775,826 | 3,771,409 | 3,145,403 + | | | | | + | 2,230,755 | 3,377,222 | 3,963,264 | 3,019,858 | 2,400,084 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Straits | 1,365,743 | 1,262,834 | 1,163,529 | 1,150,506 | 1,169,018 +Settlements | | | | | + | 1,032,220 | 1,234,763 | 1,692,053 | 1,099,801 | 704,870 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Java | 63,402 | 78,383 | 70,960 | 78,117 | 113,343 + | | | | | + | 88,410 | 138,035 | 386,825 | 362,120 | 383,408 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Siam | 93,323 | 58,000 | 47,062 | 30,150 | 4,383 + | | | | | + | 17,533 | 0 | 10,217 | 190,657 | 263,177 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Macao | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 + | | | | | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 236,420 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Japan | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 + | | | | | + | 0 | 0 | 0 | 76,817 | 129,545 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +French | 212,247 | 76,333 | 50,345 | 52,673 | 84,742 +Indo-China | | | | | + | 118,933 | 207,287 | 207,722 | 325,500 | 99,018 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Other | 58,668 | 65,705 | 76,418 | 82,361 | 49,616 +Countries | | | | | + | 41,107 | 17,366 | 45,565 | 36,420 | 15,659 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Total | 6,980,110 | 7,082,295 | 6,314,512 | 6,205,281 | 5,781,652 + | | | | | + | 6,232,829 | 6,209,105 | 8,509,316 | 8,726,060 | 7,481,088 +------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ +Page 196 Table 170 Congressional Library HA 1713-A3-Ref. + + +FROM STATISTICAL ABSTRACT RELATING TO BRITISH INDIA, 1905-6 TO 1911-15. +PAGE 181. TABLE 164. EXPORTS OF OPIUM TO VARIOUS COUNTRIES. + + + 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 + +French Indo-China L 129,502 291,425 +Java 472,199 282,252 +Siam 164,030 204,328 +China-Hongkong 1,084,093 110,712 +Straits Settlements 226,500 80,572 +United Kingdom 927 2,907 1,180 18,433 58,148 +Treaty Ports, China 27,833 0 +Macao 18,295 0 +Japan 119,913 100,659 +Other countries 19,223 47,543 + ---------- ---------- +Total L2,280,031 1,175,639 + + + + +III + +JAPAN AS AN OPIUM DISTRIBUTOR + + +In an article which appeared in the _New York Times_, under date of +February 14, 1919, we read: "A charge that the Japanese Government +secretly fosters the morphia traffic in China and other countries in +the Far East is made by a correspondent in the _North China Herald_ in +its issue of December 21st last. The correspondent asserts that the +traffic has the financial support of the Bank of Japan, and that the +Japanese postal service in China aids, although 'Japan is a signatory +to the agreement which forbids the import into China of morphia or of +any appliances used in its manufacture or application.' + +"Morphia no longer can be purchased in Europe, the correspondent +writes. The seat of industry has been transferred to Japan, and morphia +is now manufactured by the Japanese themselves. Literally, tens of +millions of yen are transferred annually from China to Japan for the +payment of Japanese morphia.... + +"In South China, morphia is sold by Chinese peddlers, each of whom +carries a passport certifying that he is a native of Formosa, and +therefore entitled to Japanese protection. Japanese drug stores +throughout China carry large stocks of morphia. Japanese medicine +vendors look to morphia for their largest profits. Wherever Japanese +are predominant, there the trade flourishes. Through Dairen, morphia +circulates throughout Manchuria and the province adjoining; through +Tsingtao, morphia is distributed over Shantung province, Anhui, and +Kiangsu, while from Formosa morphia is carried with opium and other +contraband by motor-driven fishing boats to some point on the mainland, +from which it is distributed throughout the province of Fukien and the +north of Kuangtung. Everywhere it is sold by Japanese under +extra-territorial protection." + +The article is rather long, and proves beyond doubt the existence of a +well-organized and tremendous smuggling business, by means of which +China is being deluged with morphia. In the body of the article we find +this paragraph: + +"While the morphia traffic is large, there is every reason to believe +that the opium traffic upon which Japan is embarking with enthusiasm, +is likely to prove even more lucrative. _In the Calcutta opium sales, +Japan has become one of the considerable purchasers of Indian opium.... +Sold by the Government of India, this opium is exported under permits +applied for by the Japanese Government_, is shipped to Kobe, and from +Kobe is transshipped to Tsingtao. Large profits are made in this trade, +in which are interested some of the leading firms of Japan." + +This article appears to be largely anti-Japanese. In fact, more +anti-Japanese than anti-opium. Anti-Japanese sentiment in America is +played upon by showing up the Japanese as smugglers of opium. The part +the British Government plays in this traffic is not emphasized. "In the +Calcutta opium sales, Japan has become one of the considerable +purchasers of Indian opium ... sold by the Government of India." We are +asked to condemn the Japanese, who purchase their stocks of opium as +individuals, and who distribute it in the capacity of smugglers. We are +not asked to censure the British Government which produces, +manufactures and sells this opium as a State monopoly. We are asked to +denounce the Japanese and their nefarious smuggling and shameful +traffic, but the source of supply, which depends upon these smugglers +as customers at the monthly auctions, is above reproach. A delicate +ethical distinction. + +However, there is no doubt that the Japanese are ardent smugglers. In +an article in the March, 1919, number of "Asia" by Putnam Weale, we +find the following bit:[1] "At all ports where Japanese commissioners +of Maritime Customs (in China) hold office, it is undeniable that +centres of contraband trade have been established, opium and its +derivatives being so openly smuggled that the annual net import of +Japanese morphia (although this trade is forbidden by International +Convention) is now said to be something like 20 tons a year--sufficient +to poison a whole nation." + + [1] "A Fair Chance for Asia," by Putnam Weale, page 227. + +Mr. Weale is an Englishman, therefore more anti-Japanese than +anti-opium. We do not recall any of his writings in which he protests +against the opium trade as conducted by his Government, nor the part +his Government plays in fostering and encouraging it. + +However, there are other Englishmen who see the situation in a more +impartial light, and who are equally critical of both Great Britain and +Japan. In his book, "Trade Politics and Christianity in Africa and the +East," by A. J. Macdonald, M.A., formerly of Trinity College, +Cambridge, we find the facts presented with more balance. Thus, on page +229: "... In the north of China another evil is springing up. The +eradication of the opium habit is being followed by the development of +the morphia traffic...." The morphia habit in northern China, especially +Manchuria, is already widespread. The Chinese Government is alert to +the evil, but their efforts to repress it are hampered by the action of +traders, mainly Japanese, who elude the restrictions imposed by the +Chinese and Japanese Governments.... China is being drenched with +morphia. It is incredible that anything approaching the amount could +possibly be devoted to legitimate purposes. It is said that in certain +areas coolies are to be seen 'covered all over with needle punctures.' +An injection of the drug can be obtained for three or four cents. In +Newchang 2,000 victims of the morphia habit died in the winter of +1914-15. Morphia carries off its victims far more rapidly than +opium.... Morphia is not yet manufactured in any appreciable quantities +in the East, and certainly even Japan cannot yet manufacture the +hypodermic injectors by means of which the drug is received. The bulk +of the manufacture takes place in England, Germany and Austria.... In +this traffic, two firms in Edinburgh and one in London are engaged. The +trade is carried on through Japanese agents. The Board of Trade returns +show that the export of morphia from Great Britain to the East has +risen enormously during the last few years-- + + 1911 5-1/2 tons + 1912 7-1/2 " + 1913 11-1/4 " + 1914 14 " + +"... The freedom which allows three British firms to supply China with +morphia for illicit purposes is a condemnation of English +Christianity." + +This book of Mr. Macdonald's was published in 1916. Mr. Weale's article +was published in 1919, in which he speaks of an importation of about +twenty tons of morphia. Apparently the three British firms which +manufacture morphia, two in Edinburgh and one in London are still going +strong. Japan, however, appears to be growing impatient with all this +opprobrium cast upon her as the distributor of drugs, especially since +much of the outcry against this comes from America. Our own country +seems to be assisting in this traffic in a most extensive manner. The +Japan Society Bulletin No. 60 calls attention to this: + + NEW TURN IN MORPHIA TRAFFIC + + The morphia traffic in China has taken a new turn, according to the + _Japan Advertiser_. It quotes Putnam Weale to the effect that + whilst in recent years the main distributors have been Japanese, + the main manufacturers have been British. The morphia has been + exported in large quantities from Edinburgh to Japan, but as the + result of licensing the exports of this drug from Great Britain, + the shipments to Japan dropped from 600,229 ounces in 1917 to + one-fourth that amount in 1918. _The Japan Chronicle_, speaking + from "absolutely authentic information," states that 113,000 ounces + of morphia arrived in Kobe from the United States in the first five + months of 1919. These figures are not given as the total shipments + received in Kobe, but merely as the quantity of which _The + Chronicle_ has actual knowledge. It states further that this + morphia is being transhipped in Kobe harbor to vessels bound for + China. Dr. Paul S. Reinsch, who has resigned his post as Minister + to China, has stated that he will use every resource in his power + to stop the shipment from America of morphia intended for + distribution in China, in defiance of the international convention + which prohibits the sale of the drug in that country. + + * * * * * + +If sufficient publicity is cast upon the distributors, Japanese, +English and American, public sentiment may in time take cognizance +of the source of all this mischief, namely, the producer. + + + + +IV + +SINGAPORE + + +In January, 1917, we found ourselves at Singapore, a British +dependency, situated at the end of the Malay Peninsula, and one of the +greatest seaports of the Orient. We were stopping at the Hotel de +l'Europe, a large and first class hotel. The first morning at +breakfast, the waiter stood beside us, waiting for our order. He was a +handsome young Malay, dressed in white linen clothes, and wearing a +green jade bracelet on one wrist. We gave him our order and he did not +move off. He continued to stand quietly beside our chairs, as in a +trance. We repeated the order--one tea, one coffee, two papayas. He +continued to stand still beside us, stupidly. Finally he went away. We +waited for a long time and nothing happened. At last, after a long +wait, he returned and set before us a teapot filled with hot water. +Nothing else. We repeated again--tea, coffee, papayas. We said it two +or three times. Then he went away and came back with some tea. We +repeated again, coffee and fruit. Eventually he brought us some coffee. +Finally, after many endeavors, we got the fruit. It all took a long +time. We then began to realize that something was the matter with him. +He could understand English well enough to know what orders we were +giving him, but he seemed to forget as soon as he left our sight. We +then realized that he was probably drugged. It was the same thing every +day. In the morning he was stupid and dull, and could not remember what +we told him. By evening his brain was clearer, and at dinner he could +remember well enough. The effects of whatever he had been taking had +apparently worn off during the day. + +We learned that the opium trade was freely indulged in, at Singapore, +fostered by the Government. Singapore is a large city of about 300,000 +inhabitants, a great number of which are Chinese. It has wide, +beautiful streets, fine government buildings, magnificent quays and +docks--a splendid European city at the outposts of the Orient. We +found that a large part of its revenue is derived from the opium +traffic--from the sale of opium, and from license fees derived from +shops where opium may be purchased, or from divans where it may be +smoked. The customers are mainly Chinese. + +I wanted to visit these Government-licensed opium shops and opium dens. +A friend lent me two servants, as guides. We three got into rickshaws +and went down to the Chinese quarter, where there are several hundred +of these places, all doing a flourishing business. It was early in the +afternoon, but even then, trade was brisk. The divans were rooms with +wide wooden benches running round the sides, on which benches, in +pairs, sharing a lamp between them, lay the smokers. They purchased +their opium on entering, and then lay down to smoke it. The packages +are little, triangular packets, each containing enough for about six +smokes. Each packet bears a label, red letters on a white ground, +"Monopoly Opium." + +In one den there was an old man--but you can't tell whether a drug +addict is old or not, he looked as they all do, gray and emaciated--but +as he caught my eye, he laid down the needle on which he was about to +cook his pill, and glanced away. I stood before him, waiting for him to +continue the process, but he did not move. + +"Why doesn't he go on?" I asked my guide. "He is ashamed to have you +see him," came the reply. + +"But why should he be ashamed?" I asked, "The British Government is not +ashamed to sell to him, to encourage him to drug himself, to ruin +himself. Why should he be ashamed?" + +"Nevertheless, he is," replied the guide. "You see what he looks +like--what he has become. He is not quite so far gone as the others--he +is a more recent victim. He still feels that he has become degraded. +Most of them do not feel that way--after a while." + +So we went on and on, down the long street. There was a dreadful +monotony about it all. House after house of feeble, emaciated, ill +wrecks, all smoking Monopoly Opium, all contributing, by their shame +and degradation, to the revenues of the mighty British Empire. + +[Illustration: Packet of opium, actual size, as sold in licensed opium +shop in Singapore. The local government here derives from forty to +fifty per cent of its revenue through the sale of opium.] + +That evening after dinner, I sat on the wide verandah of the hotel, +looking over a copy of the "Straits Times." One paragraph, a dispatch +from London, caught my eye. "Chinese in Liverpool. Reuter's Telegram. +London, January 17, 1917. Thirty-one Chinese were arrested during +police raids last night on opium dens in Liverpool. Much opium was +seized. The police in one place were attacked by a big retriever and by +a number of Chinese, who threw boots and other articles from the +house-top." + +Coming fresh from a tour of the opium-dens of Singapore, I must say +that item caused some mental confusion. It must also be confusing to +the Chinese. It must be very perplexing to a Chinese sailor, who +arrives in Liverpool on a ship from Singapore, to find such a variation +in customs. To come from a part of the British Empire where opium +smoking is freely encouraged, to Great Britain itself where such +practices are not tolerated. He must ask himself, why it is that the +white race is so sedulously protected from such vices, while the +subject races are so eagerly encouraged. It may occur to him that the +white race is valuable and must be preserved, and that subject races +are not worth protecting. This double standard of international justice +he must find disturbing. It would seem, at first glance, as if subject +races were fair game--if there is money in it. Subject races, +dependents, who have no vote, no share in the government and who are +powerless to protect themselves--fair game for exploitation. Is this +double-dealing what we mean when we speak of "our responsibility to +backward nations," or of "the sacred trust of civilization" or still +again when we refer to "the White Man's burden"? + +Pondering over these things as I sat on the hotel verandah, I finally +reached the conclusion that to print such a dispatch as that in the +"Straits Times" was, to say the least, most tactless. + + + + +V + +THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS OPIUM COMMISSION + + +From time to time, certain people in England apparently have qualms as +to Great Britain's opium traffic, and from time to time questions are +raised as to whether or not such traffic is morally defensible. In +February, 1909, apparently in answer to such scruples and questionings +on the part of a few, a very interesting report was published, +"Proceedings of the Commission appointed to Enquire into Matters +Relating to the Use of Opium in the Straits Settlements and the +Federated Malay States. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by +Command of His Majesty." This document may be found in the New York +Public Library and is well worth careful perusal. + +This Commission consisted of about a dozen men, some English, some +natives of the Straits Settlements. They apparently made an intensive +and exhaustive study of the subject, carefully examining it from every +angle. Countless witnesses appeared before them, giving testimony as to +the effects of opium upon the individual. This testimony is interesting, +in that it is of a contradictory nature, some witnesses saying that +moderate opium indulgence is nothing worse than indulgence in alcoholic +beverages, and like alcohol, only pernicious if taken to excess. Other +witnesses seemed to think that it was most harmful. The Commission made +careful reports as to the manner of licensing houses for smoking, the +system of licensing opium farms, etc., and other technical details +connected with this extensive Government traffic. Finally, the question +of revenue was considered, and while the harmfulness of opium smoking +was a matter of divided opinion, when it came to revenue there was no +division of opinion at all. As a means of raising revenue, the traffic +was certainly justifiable. It was proven that about fifty per cent of +the revenues of the Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States +came from the opium trade, and, as was naively pointed out, to hazard +the prosperity of the Colony by lopping off half its revenues, was an +unthinkable proceeding. + +The figures given are as follows. + + 1898 Revenue derived from Opium 45.9 per cent + 1899 44.8 + 1900 43.3 + 1901 53.2 + 1902 48.3 + 1903 47.1 + 1904 59.1 + 1905 46. + 1906 53.3 + +There was one dissenting voice as to the conclusions reached by this +Opium Commission, that of a Bishop who presented a minority report. But +what are moral scruples against cold facts--that there's money in the +opium trade? + +This Commission made its report in 1909. But the opium business is +apparently still flourishing in the Straits Settlements. Thus we read +in the official Blue Book for 1917, "Colony of the Straits Settlements" +that of the total revenue for the year, $19,672,104, that $9,182,000 +came from opium. + +What per cent is that? + + + + +VI + +OPIUM IN SIAM + + +Bangkok, Siam, January, 1917. Siam, an independent kingdom. As a matter +of fact, "protected" very sternly and thoroughly by Great Britain and +France, so that its "independence" would about cover an oyster cracker. +However, it is doubtless protected "benevolently" for what protectorate +is anything but benevolent? The more rigorous the protectorate, the +more benevolent its character. The Peace Conference seems to have given +us a new word in "mandatory." We do not know as yet what adjective will +be found to qualify mandatory, but it will doubtless be fitting and +indicative of idealism--of sorts. Therefore, all will be well. Our +suspicions will be lulled. It is high time that a substitute was found +for "benevolent protectorate." + +The particular form of benevolence noted in Siam was the total +inability of the Siamese to exclude British opium. They are allowed, by +the benevolent powers, to impose an import duty on all commodities +imported--except opium. That is free. The treaty between Siam and Great +Britain in 1856 says so. We rather fancy that Great Britain had more to +say about this in 1856 than Siam, but maybe not. Anyway, poor old Siam, +an independent kingdom, is bound to receive as much opium as may be +imported, and is quite powerless, by the terms of this treaty, to enact +laws to exclude it. In the last year or two, the Government of Siam has +been obliged to put the opium traffic under government control, in +order to minimize the worst evils in connection with it, although to +restrict and regulate an evil is a poor substitute for the ability to +abolish it. + +All this, you will see, is rather tough on the Siamese, but good +business for the British Empire. + +However, opium is not bad for one. There are plenty of people to +testify to that. We Americans have a curious notion to the contrary, +but then, we Americans are so hysterical and gullible. An Englishman +whom we met in Bangkok told me that opium was not only harmless, but +actually beneficial. He said once that he was traveling through the +jungle, into the interior somewhere. He had quite a train of coolies +with him, carrying himself and his baggage through the dense forests. +By nightfall, he found his coolies terribly exhausted with the long +march. But he was in a hurry to press on, so, as he expressed it, he +gave each of them a "shot" of morphia, whereupon all traces of fatigue +vanished. They forgot the pain of their weary arms and legs and were +thus enabled to walk all night. He said that morphia certainly knocked +a lot of work out of men--you might say, doubled their capacity for +endurance. + +The night we left Bangkok, we got aboard the boat at about nine in the +evening. The hatch was open, and we looked into the hold upon a crowd +of coolies who had been loading sacks of rice aboard the ship. There +they lay upon the rice sacks, two or three dozen of them, all smoking +opium. Two coolies to a lamp. I rather wondered that a lamp did not +upset and set the boat on fire, but they are made of heavy glass, with +wide bottoms, so that the chances of overturning them are slight. So we +leaned over the open hatch, looking down at these little fellows, +resting and recuperating themselves after their work, refreshing +themselves for the labor of the morrow. + +Opium is wonderful, come to think of it. But why, since it is so +beneficial and so profitable, confine it to the downtrodden races of +the world? Why limit it to the despised races, who have not sense +enough to govern themselves anyway? + +The following figures are taken from the Statistical Year Books for the +Kingdom of Siam: + +Foreign trade and navigation of the port of Bangkok, imports of opium: + + 1911-12 1,270 chests of opium + 1912-13 1,775 + 1913-14 1,186 + 1914-15 2,000 Imported from India and Singapore. + 1915-16 2,000 + 1916-17 1,100 + 1917-18 1,850 + +Also, from the same source, we find the number of retail opium shops: + + 1912-13 2,985 + 1913-14 3,025 + 1914-15 3,132 + 1915-16 3,104 + 1916-17 3,111 + + + + +VII + +HONGKONG + + +"The Crown Colony of Hongkong was ceded by China to Great Britain in +January, 1841; the cession was confirmed by the treaty of Nanking in +August, 1842; and the charter bears date April 5, 1843. Hongkong is the +great center for British commerce with China and Japan, and a military +and naval station of first-class importance." + +Thus the Statesman's Year Book. This authority, however, omits to +mention just exactly _how_ this important piece of Chinese territory +came to be ceded to Great Britain. It was the reward that Great +Britain took unto herself as an "indemnity" following the successful +prosecution of what is sometimes spoken of as the first opium war--a +war of protest on the part of China against Great Britain's insistence +on her right to deluge China with opium. China's resistance was in +vain--her efforts to stem the tide of opium were fruitless--the might, +majesty, dominion and power of the British Empire triumphed, and China +was beaten. The island on which Hongkong is situated was at that time a +blank piece of land; but strategically well placed--ninety miles south +of the great Chinese city of Canton, the market for British opium. + +The opposite peninsula of Kowloon, on the mainland, was ceded to Great +Britain by treaty in 1861, and now forms part of Hongkong. By a +convention signed at Peking in June, 1898, there was also leased to +Great Britain for 99 years a portion of Chinese territory mainly +agricultural, together with the waters of Mirs Bay and Deep Bay, and +the island of Lan-tao. Its area is 356 square miles, with about 91,000 +inhabitants, exclusively Chinese. Area of Old Kowloon is 3 square +miles. Total area of colony, 391 square miles. + +The population of Hongkong, excluding the Military and Naval +establishments, and that portion of the new territory outside New +Kowloon, was according to the 1911 census, 366,145 inhabitants. Of this +number the Chinese numbered 354,187. + +This colony is, of course, governed by Great Britain, and is not +subject to Chinese control. Here is situated a Government opium +factory, and the imports of Indian opium into Hongkong for the past +several years are as follows: + + 1903-4 3,576,431 pounds sterling + 1904-5 4,036,436 + 1905-6 3,775,826 + 1906-7 3,771,409 + 1907-8 3,145,403 + 1908-9 2,230,755 + 1909-10 3,377,222 + 1910-11 3,963,264 + 1911-12 3,019,858 + 1912-13 2,406,084 + 1913-14 1,084,093 + 1914-15 110,712 + +These figures are taken from "Statistical Abstract Relating to British +India, 1905-6 to 1911-15," and "Statistical Abstract Relating to +British India, 1903-4 to 1912-13." The falling off in imports of opium +noticed in 1914-15 may be due to the war, lack of shipping, etc., or to +the fact that the China market was due to close on April 1, 1917. The +closing of the China market--400,000,000 of people destined no longer +to have opium supplied to them (except illegally, by smuggling, etc.) +is naturally a big blow to the British opium interests. That is where +the menace to the rest of the world comes in. Opium has been proved +such a profitable commodity, that if one market is shut off, others +must be found as substitutes. The idea of closing the trade altogether +naturally does not appeal to those who profit by it. Therefore, what we +should hail at first sight as a welcome indication of a changed moral +sentiment, is in reality but the pause which proceeds the casting about +for new markets, for finding new peoples to drug. + +The Colonial Report No. 972, Hongkong Report for 1917, gives the +imports and exports of opium: Page 7-- + +"The imports and exports of certified opium during the year as follows: + + Imports 7 chests + Export 224 chests + +Of these, however, the imports all come from Shanghai, and of the total +export of 224 chests, 186 went to Shanghai." + +Opium received from other sources than Shanghai makes a better showing. +"Seven hundred and forty chests of Persian opium imported during the +year, and seven hundred and forty-five exported to Formosa. Nine +hundred and ten chests of uncertified Indian opium were imported: Four +hundred and ten chests by the Government Monopoly, and the remaining +five hundred for the Macao opium farmer." + +Macao is a small island off the coast of China, near Canton--a +Portuguese settlement, owned by Portugal for several centuries, where +the opium trade is in full blast. But somehow, one does not expect so +much of Portugal. The most significant feature of the above paragraph, +however, lies in the reference to the importation of Persian opium. +"Seven hundred and forty chests of Persian opium imported." Query, who +owns Persia? + +Nevertheless, in spite of this poor showing, in spite of the decrease +in opium importation as compared with the palmy days, all is not lost. +The Crown Colony of Hongkong still continues to do an active trade. In +the Colonial Office List for 1917, on page 218, we read: + +"Hongkong. Revenue: About one-third of the revenue is derived from the +Opium Monopoly." + + + + +VIII + +SARAWAK + + +Near British North Borneo. Area, 42,000 square miles, many rivers +navigable. The government of part of the present territory was obtained +in 1842 by Sir James Brooke from the Sultan of Brunei. Various +accessions were made between 1861, 1885, and 1890. The Rajah, H.H. Sir +Charles Johnson Brooke, G.C.M.G., nephew to the late Rajah, born June +3, 1829, succeeded in 1868. Population estimated at 500,000, Malays, +Dyaks, Kayans, Kenyahs, and Muruts, with Chinese and other settlers. + +Thus the Statesman's Year Book, to which we would add a paragraph from +an article in the National Geographic Magazine for February, 1919. +Under the title: "Sarawak: The Land of the White Rajahs" we read: "With +the recent death of Sir Charles Brooke, G.C.M.G., the second of the +white rajahs of Sarawak, there came to an end one of the most useful +and unusual careers among the many that have done credit to British +rule in the Far East. For nearly 49 years he governed, as absolute +sovereign, a mixed population of Chinese, Malays, and numerous pagan +tribes scattered through the villages and dense jungles of an extensive +territory on the northwest coast of Borneo. + +"Constant solicitude for the welfare of his people won the sympathy and +devotion which enabled this white man, supported by an insignificant +army and police, to establish the peaceful occupations of civilization +in place of barbarous tyranny and oppression." How thoroughly this +"civilizing" process was accomplished may be judged somewhat by turning +to the Colonial Office List for 1917, where on page 436 we read: +"Sarawak: The principal sources of revenue are the opium, gambling, +pawn shops, and arrack, producing: + + 1908 $483,019 + 1909 460,416 + 1910 385,070 + 1911 420,151 + 1912 426,867 + 1913 492,455" + +In the Statesman's Year Book for 1916 we find the total revenue for +this well-governed little colony as follows, given however in pounds +sterling, instead of dollars, as in the above table. Thus: + + Revenue--1910 221,284 pounds sterling + 1911 159,456 + 1912 175,967 + 1913 210,342 + 1914 208,823 + +It would seem as if forty-nine years of constant solicitude for the +welfare of a people, establishing the peaceful occupations of +civilization, might have resulted in something better than a revenue +derived from opium, gambling, pawn shops and arrack. + + + + +IX + +SHANGHAI + + +In the New York Library there is an interesting little book, about a +quarter of an inch thick, and easy reading. It is entitled: "Municipal +Ethics: Some Facts and Figures from the Municipal Gazette, 1907-1914. +An Examination of the Opium License policy of the Shanghai +Municipality. In an Open Letter to the Chairman of the Council, by +Arnold Foster, Wuchang. For 42 years Missionary to the Chinese." + +Shanghai, being a Treaty Port, is of two parts. The native or Shanghai +city, under the control and administration of the Chinese. And the +foreign concessions, that part of the city under the control and +administration of foreigners. This is generally known as the +International Settlement (also called the model settlement), and the +Shanghai Municipal Council is the administrative body. Over this part +the Chinese have no control. In 1907, when China began her latest fight +against the opium evil, she enacted and enforced drastic laws +prohibiting opium smoking and opium selling on Chinese soil, but was +powerless to enforce these laws on "foreign" soil. In the foreign +concessions, the Chinese were able to buy as much opium as they +pleased, merely by stepping over an imaginary line, into a portion of +the town where the rigid anti-opium laws of China did not apply. + +Says Mr. Arnold, in his Open Letter: "It will be seen that the title of +the pamphlet, Municipal Ethics, describes a situation which is a +complex one. It concerns first the actual attitude of the Shanghai +Municipal Council towards the Chinese national movement for the +suppression of the use of opium. This, we are assured by successive +Chairmen of the Council, has been one of "sincere sympathy," "the +greatest sympathy," and more to the same effect. Certainly no one would +have guessed this from the facts and figures reproduced in this +pamphlet from the columns of the "Municipal Gazette." + +"The second element in the ethical situation is the actual attitude of +the Council not only towards the Chinese national movement, but also +towards its own official assurances, protestations and promises. + +"It is on this second branch of the subject before us that I specially +desire to focus attention, and for the facts here stated that I would +bespeak the most searching examination. The protestations of the +Council as to its own virtuous attitude in regard to opium reform in +China are made the more emphatic, and also the more open to criticism, +by being coupled with some very severe insinuations made at the time, +as to the _insincerity_ and _unreliability_ of the Chinese authorities +in what they were professing, and in what _they_ were planning to do in +the same matter of opium reform. It so happens, as the event proves, +that these sneers and insinuations were not only quite uncalled for, +but were absolutely and utterly unjust. When a comparison is instituted +between (a) 'official pronouncements' made two years ago by the Chinese +authorities as to what they then _intended_ to do for the suppression +of the opium habit, and (b) the 'actual administrative results' that in +the meanwhile have been accomplished, the Chinese have no cause to be +ashamed of the verdict of impartial judges. What they have done may not +always have been wise, it may sometimes have been very stern, but the +outcome has been to awaken the astonishment and admiration of the whole +civilized world! When, on the other hand, a comparison is instituted +between (a) the fine professions and assurances of the Shanghai +Municipal Council made six or seven years ago as to its _own_ attitude +towards the 'eradication of the opium evil' and (b) the 'actual +administrative results' of the Council's own proceedings, the feelings +awakened are of very different order. Here, not to mention any other +consideration, two hard facts stare one in the face: First, in October, +1907, there were _eighty-seven_ licensed opium shops in the +International Settlement. In May, 1914, there were _six hundred and +sixty-three_. In 1907 the _average_ monthly revenue from opium +licenses, dens and shops _combined_, was Taels 5,450. In May, 1914, the +revenue from licenses and _opium shops alone_ was Taels 10,995. The +Council will not dispute these figures." + +At the beginning of the anti-opium campaign in 1907, there were 700 +dens (for smoking) in the Native City, and 1600 in the International +Settlement. The Chinese closed their dens and shops at once. In the +Settlement, the dens were not all closed until two years later, and the +number of shops in the Settlement increased by leaps and bounds. Table +I shows an outline of the Municipal opium-shop profits concurrent with +the closing of the opium houses--and subsequently: + + _Year_ _Month_ _Dens_ _Shops_ _Monthly revenue,_ + _shops only_ + + 1908 Jan. 1436 87 Taels, 338 + Oct. 1005 131 623 + 1909 Jan. 599 166 1,887 + Oct. 297 231 2,276 + 1910 Oct. Closed 306 5,071 + 1911 Oct. 348 5,415 + 1912 Nov. 402 5,881 + 1913 Dec. 560 8,953 + 1914 March 628 10,188 + April 654 10,772 + +Mr. Arnold quotes part of a speech made by the Chairman of the +Municipal Council, in March, 1908. The Chairman says in part: "The +advice which we have received from the British Government is, in brief, +that we should do more than keep pace with the native authorities, we +should be in advance of them, and where possible, encourage them to +follow us." It must have been most disheartening to the native +authorities, suppressing the opium traffic with the utmost rigor, to +see their efforts defied and nullified by the increased opportunities +for obtaining opium in that part of Shanghai over which the Chinese +have no control. A letter from a Chinese to a London paper, gives the +Chinese point of view: "China ... is obliged to submit to the ruthless +and heartless manner in which British merchants, under the protection +of the Shanghai 'Model Settlement' are exploiting her to the fullest +extent of their ability." + +There is lots of money in opium, however. The following tables compiled +by Mr. Arnold show the comparison between the amount derived from opium +licenses as compared with the amount derived from other sorts of +licenses. + + 1913. Wheelbarrows Taels, 38,670 + Carts 22,944 + Motor cars 12,376 + Cargo boats 5,471 + Chinese boats 4,798 + Steam launches 2,221 Total, 86,480 + Opium shops 86,386 Opium, 86,386 + +Another table shows the licensed institutions in Shanghai representing +normal social life (chiefly of the Chinese) as compared with revenue +from opium shops: + + 1913. Tavern Taels, 16,573 + Foreign liquor seller 19,483 + Chinese wine shop 28,583 + " tea shop 9,484 + " theater 8,714 + " club 3,146 + ------ + Total 85,983 + Opium shops 86,386 + +Treaty Ports are those cities in China, in which the foreign powers +have extra-territorial holdings, not subject to Chinese jurisdiction. +Shanghai is one of them, the largest and most important. The +Statistical Abstract Relating to British India for 1903-4 to 1912-13 +shows the exports of British opium into these Treaty Ports. + + 1903-4 1,610,296 pounds sterling + 1904-5 1,504,604 + 1905-6 1,130,372 + 1906-7 1,031,065 + 1907-8 1,215,142 + 1908-9 2,703,871 + 1909-10 1,234,432 + 1910-11 2,203,670 + 1911-12 3,614,887 + 1912-13 3,242,902 + +It was in 1907 that China began her great fight against the opium evil, +and enacted stringent laws for its prohibition on Chinese soil. On page +15 of his little book, Mr. Arnold quotes from Commissioner Carl, of +Canton: "The 1912 figure (for the importation of foreign opium) is the +largest on record since 1895. The great influx of Chinese into the +foreign concessions, where the anti-opium smoking regulations cannot be +enforced by the Chinese authorities, and where smoking can be indulged +in without fear of punishment, no doubt accounts for the unusual +increase under foreign opium." + + + + +X + +INDIA + + +India is the source and fount of the British opium trade, and it is +from Indian opium that the drug is chiefly supplied to the world. As we +have said before, it is a government monopoly. Cultivators, who wish to +plant poppies, may borrow money from the Government free of interest, +the sole condition being that the crop be sold back to the Government +again. It is manufactured into opium at the Government factory at +Ghazipur, and once a month, the Government holds auctions at Calcutta, +by means of which the drug finds its way into the trade channels of the +world--illicit and otherwise.[2] + + [2] This description of the Opium Department is to be found in + Statistics of British India, Financial Statistics, Vol. II, 8th + Issue, page 159: + + OPIUM. The region in which the poppy was cultivated in 1916-17 + for the manufacture of "Bengal opium" comprises 32 districts of + the United Provinces of Agra and Ouhd. The whole Department has, + with effect from the 29th September, 1910, been under the control + of one Opium Agent, with headquarters at Ghazipur. At Ghazipur + there is a Government factory where the crude opium is + manufactured into the form in which it passes into consumption. + The cultivation of the poppy and the manufacture of opium are + regulated by Act XIII of 1857, as amended by Act I of 1911, and + are under the general control of the Lieutenant Governor and the + Board of Revenue of the United Provinces, and the immediate + supervision of the Opium Agent at Ghazipur. The possession, + transport, import and export of opium are regulated by rules + framed under the Indian Opium Act. Cultivation is permitted only + under licenses granted under the authority of the Opium Agent. + The area to be cultivated is fixed by the license, and the + cultivator is bound to sell the whole of his production to the + Opium Department at the rate fixed by Government.... Advances, on + which no interest is charged, are given to licensed cultivators + at the time of executing the agreement and from time to time + (though ordinarily no more than two advances are given) until + final delivery. In March, April and May the opium is made over to + the officers of the Department, and weighed and tested, and as + soon as possible afterwards each cultivator's accounts are + adjusted, and the balance due is paid him. After weighment the + opium is forwarded to the Government factory at Ghazipur, where + it is manufactured in 3 forms--(a) opium intended for export to + foreign countries, departmentally known as "provision opium"--(b) + opium intended for consumption in India and Burma, departmentally + known as "excise opium" and (c) medical opium for export to + London. Provision opium is made up in the form of balls or cakes, + each weighing 3.5 lbs., and is packed in chests, each chest + containing forty cakes, weighing 140 1/7 lbs. It is generally of + 71 deg. efficiency. Excise opium is made up in cubical packets, each + weighing one seer, 60 of which are packed in a case. It is of + higher consistency than the "provision opium." Medical opium is + made up into cakes weighing 2 lbs. Provision opium is sold by + public auction in Calcutta. A notification is published annually, + generally about the month of June, stating the number of chests + which will be put up for sale in each month of the next calendar + year, and the quantities so notified are not altered without + three months notice. Sales are conducted month by month by the + Bengal Government; 7,000 chests were notified for sale in 1917 + for shipment to non-China markets. The number of chests actually + sold was 4,615. In addition to this, 4,500 chests were sold to + the Government of the Straits Settlements, 2,200 to the + Government of Netherland Indies, and 410 to the Government of + Hongkong. The duty levied by Government on each chest may be + taken to be the difference between the average price realized and + the average cost. + +The following facts are taken from "Statistics of British India. +Financial Statistics, Volume II, Eighth Issue," to be found at the New +York Public Library: + + AREA UNDER POPPY CULTIVATION + + Acreage: 1910-11 362,868 + 1911-12 200,672 + 1912-13 178,263 + 1913-14 144,561 + 1914-15 164,911 + 1915-16 167,155 + 1916-17 204,186 + +In the hey-day of the China trade, 613,996 acres were under cultivation +in the years 1905-6, consequently this is a drop in the extent of +acreage. But, as we have said before, the closing of the China market +simply means that other outlets must be found, and apparently they are +being found, since from 1914 onwards, the acreage devoted to poppy +planting is slowly increasing again. + +The opium manufactured in the Government factory is of three +kinds--provision opium for export; excise opium, for consumption in +India, and medical opium, for export to London. It is this latter form +of opium which, according to Mr. MacDonald, in his "Trade Politics and +Christianity in Africa and the East" is being manufactured into morphia +by three British firms, two in Edinburgh and one in London, which +morphia the Japanese are buying and smuggling into North China. + +The "Statistics of British India" shows the countries into which Indian +opium has been exported: we will take the figures for the last five +years, which show the number of chests sent out. + + _1912-13_ _1913-14_ _1914-15_ _1915-16_ _1916-17_ + +China 19,575 4,061 1,000 734 500 + +Straits +Settlements 5,098 1,537 755 605 239 + +United Kingdom 11 115 498 199 0 + +Mauretius 10 19 23 65 120 + +Ceylon 50 105 80 65 80 + +Cochin-China 805 875 2,690 2,035 3,440 + +Java 3,010 3,265 2,650 1,835 1,965 + +Other +countries 2,815 1,929 3,160 3,248 2,366 + +Total 31,374 11,906 10,858 8,786 8,710 + +In some countries we see a falling off, as in China. Cochin-China, the +French colony, shows a considerable increase--the little Annamites, +Tonquinese, Cambodgians and other inhabitants of this colony of the +French Republic being shown what's what. Mauretius, a British Colony +five hundred miles off the coast of Madagascar, in the Indian ocean, +seems to be coming on. The falling off in shipments to the United +Kingdom may possibly have been due to the war and the scarcity of +ships. "Other countries" seem to be holding their own. With the end of +the war, the increase in ships, and general trade revival, we may yet +see compensation for the loss of China. With the increase of drug +addicts in the United States, it may be that in time America will no +longer be classed under "other countries" but will have a column all to +itself. + +In another table we find a comparison as to the number of chests of +provision or export opium and of excise opium, or that intended for +consumption in India. Thus: + + _Provision Opium_ _Excise Opium_ + + 1910-11 15,000 chests 8,611 chests + 1911-12 14,000 9,126 + 1912-13 7,000 9,947 + 1913-14 12,000 8,307 + 1914-15 10,000 8,943 + 1915-16 12,000 8,391 + 1916-17 12,000 8,732 + +Each chest contains roughly about one hundred and forty pounds. + + +REVENUE + +The revenue of India is derived from various sources, and is classified +under eight heads. Thus: for 1916-17. + + I. Land + Forest + Tribute from Native States Total L25,124,489 + II. Opium 3,160,005 + III. Taxation: + 1. Salt + 2. Stamps + 3. Excise + 4. Customs + 5. Provincial rates + 6. Income tax + 7. Registration 32,822,976 + IV. Debt Services 1,136,504 + V. Civil Services 2,364,985 + VI. Military Services 1,575,946 + VII. Commercial: + 1. Post + 2. Telegraph + 3. Railways + 4. Irrigation 51,393,566 + VIII. Miscellaneous Receipts 1,221,497 + Grand total L118,799,968 + +Out of these eight classifications, opium comes fourth on the list. + +But in addition to the direct opium revenue, we must add another item, +Excise, which is found under the third heading, taxation. In the "India +Office List for 1918" we find "Excise" explained as follows: Page 383: +"Excise and Customs: Excise duties in India are levied with the two +fold object of raising revenue and restricting the use of intoxicants +and narcotics." In the same book, on page 385, we also read: "Excise +and Customs Revenues: The total of the excise and customs revenues on +liquors and drugs in 1915-16 was in round figures ten million pounds. +This total gives an average of rather more than ninepence a head on the +whole population of British India as the revenue charge on drink and +drugs during the year." + +These excise duties are collected on spirits, beer, opium and +intoxicating drugs, such as ganja, charas, and bhang, all forms or +preparations of Indian hemp (Cannabis Indica), known in some countries +as hashish. In 1917-18 there were 17,369 drug shops throughout India. +The excise duties collected from these sources was pretty evenly +distributed. Excise revenue for a period of years is as follows: + + _Excise_ _Opium_ _Total Revenue_ + + 1907-8 L6,214,210 L5,244,986 L88,670,329 + 1908-9 6,389,628 5,884,788 86,074,624 + 1909-10 6,537,854 5,534,683 91,130,296 + 1910-11 7,030,314 7,521,962 97,470,114 + 1911-12 7,609,753 5,961,278 100,580,799 + 1912-13 8,277,919 5,124,592 106,254,327 + 1913-14 8,894,300 1,624,878 105,220,777 + 1914-15 8,856,881 1,572,218 101,534,375 + 1915-16 8,632,209 1,913,514 104,704,041 + 1916-17 9,215,899 3,160,005 118,799,968 + +The "Statistics of British India for 1918" has this to say on the +subject of Excise (page 218): "Revenue: During the ten years ending +with 1916-17 the net receipts from Excise duties increased ... at the +rate of 47 per cent. The receipts from opium (consumed in India, not +exported) being at the rate of 44 per cent. The net receipts from +liquors and from drugs other than opium ... the increase at the rate of +48 per cent. This large increase is due not merely to the expansion of +consumption, but also to the imposition of progressively higher rates +of duty and the increasingly extensive control of the excise +administration. The revenue from drugs, (excluding opium) has risen in +ten years ... the increase being at the rate of 67 per cent." + +A national psychology that can review these figures with complacency, +satisfaction and pride is not akin to American psychology. A nation +that can subjugate 300,000,000 helpless people, and then turn them into +drug addicts--for the sake of revenue--is a nation which commits a +cold-blooded atrocity unparalleled by any atrocities committed in the +rage and heat of war. The Blue Book shows no horror at these figures. +Complacent approval greets the increase of 44 per cent of opium +consumption, and the increase of 67 per cent in the use of other +habit-forming drugs. Approval, and a shrewd appreciation of the +possibilities for more revenue from "progressively higher rates of +duty," knowing well that drug addicts will sell soul and body in order +to procure their daily supply. + + + + +XI + +TURKEY AND PERSIA + + +Next to India, the greatest two opium-producing countries in the world +are Turkey and Persia. The Statesman's Year Book for 1918 has this to +say about it. On page 1334: "The principal exports from Turkey into the +United Kingdom ... in two years were: + + _1915_ _1916_ + + Barley L156,766 L49,413 + Raisins 127,014 34,003 + Dried fruit 375,519 540,633 + Wool 36,719 143,216 + Tobacco 149,100 3,711 + Opium 262,293 48,090" + +These are the only articles mentioned in this list of chief exports. +There are others, doubtless, but the Statesman's Year Book is a +condensed and compact little volume, dealing only with the principal +things exported. In 1915 we therefore notice that the opium export was +second on the list, being exceeded by but one other, dried fruit. In +1916, the third year of the war, the opium export is decidedly less, as +are all the other articles exported, except dried fruit and wool--which +were articles probably more vital to the United Kingdom at that time +even than opium. + + +PERSIA + +The same authority, the Statesman's Year Book for 1918, gives a table +on page 1162, showing the value of the chief exports from Persia. The +values are given in thousands of kran, sixty kran equaling one pound +sterling. + + _1914-15_ _1915-16_ + + Opium 41,446 kran 41,732 kran + +Since the war, both Turkey and Persia are more or less under control of +the British Empire, which gives Great Britain virtual control of the +world's output of opium. With this monopoly of the opium-producing +countries, and with a million or so square miles added to her immense +colonial Empire, one wonders what use Great Britain will make of the +mandatory powers she has assumed over the lives and welfare of all +these subject peoples! Will she find these helpless millions ready for +her opium trade? Will she establish opium shops, and opium divans, and +reap half the costs of upkeep of these newly acquired states by means +of this shameful traffic? + + + + +XII + +MAURETIUS + + +Another British colony is Mauretius, acquired by conquest in 1810, and +formally ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Paris in 1814. This +island is in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of Madagascar, with an +area of about 720 square miles. The population is about 377,000, of +which number 258,000 are Indian, and 3,000 Chinese. Opium appears to be +sold in the colony, since the Blue Book mentions that licenses are +required for opium sellers. As far as we can discover, by perusal of +these Government Reports, the sale of opium is not conducted by the +Government itself, as in India, the Straits Settlements, Hongkong, +etc., but is carried on by private dealers who obtain licenses before +they can open opium shops. A part of the revenue, however, is derived +from opium; thus, according to the Blue Book for the Colony of +Mauretius for 1915, page V 73, we read that the imports of opium for +the year amounted to 1,353 kilos, with a duty collected of 54,126 +rupees. The Blue Book for 1916 shows a gratifying increase. Thus, the +import of crude opium from India amounted to 5,690 kilos, with a duty +collected of 227,628 rupees. (See page V 64.) + + _1915_ _1916_ + Imports of opium 1,353 kilos 5,690 kilos + Duty on opium 54,126 rupees 7,628 rupees + + Total duty on all imports 3,765,677 rupees 4,143,085 rupees + +Statistics for British India, Eighth Issue, gives these figures: + + OPIUM EXPORTED TO MAURETIUS + + 1912-13 10 chests + 1913-14 19 " + 1914-15 23 " + 1915-16 65 " + 1916-17 120 " + +This is a poor little colony, but has its possibilities. The +consumption of opium appears to be increasing steadily in a most +satisfactory manner. Congratulations all round. + + + + +XIII + +BRITISH NORTH BORNEO + + +British North Borneo occupies the northern part of the island of +Borneo. Area, about 31,000 square miles, with a coast line of over 900 +miles. Population (1911 census), 208,000, consisting mainly of +Mohammedan settlers on the coast and aboriginal tribes inland. The +Europeans numbered 355; Chinese 26,000; Malays, 1,612; East Indians +about 5,000 and Filipinos 5,700. The number of natives cannot be more +than approximately estimated, but is placed at about 170,000. The +territory is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo +Company, being held under grants from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu +(Royal Charter in 1881). + +Like many other British colonies, opium is depended upon for part of +the revenue. The Statesman's Year Book for 1916 observes on page 107: +"Sources of revenue: Opium, birds' nests, court fees, stamp duty, +licenses, import and export duties, royalties, land sales, etc. No +public debt." + +In this frank manner, our attention is called to opium, which appears +first on the list of sources of revenue. + +Going over the files of the Government reports, we will begin with +the "Supplement to the Official Gazette for British North Borneo. +Administration Report for the Year 1910." Published June 1, 1911. +On page 3 we read: "Customs and Trade: The import and export trade +of the state shows a healthy expansion.... It is interesting to note +that imports show an increase at every station. Out of the 47 headings +of Tariff, there are only 7 which show decreases.... The largest +increases appear under cloth, $147,106; opium, $132,692, and iron +ware, $118,620.... The general all round increases ... are of course +due to the demand for supplies of all kinds in connection with the +opening of rubber estates." + +The Supplement to the Official Gazette, Report for 1912 (published in +December, 1913) is also a report of general prosperity. Page 4: "Trade: +The volume of trade for the year 1912 was $11,139,122, giving an +increase over 1911 of 18 per cent.... Imports: As in 1911, all stations +show an increase of imports. Out of 47 headings, 33 show increases, 12 +show decreases, and 2 remain stationary. Increases: There was an +increase under rice, flour and grain ... the increase under other +headings include sundries, opium, machinery, etc." + +The next Government Report is not so happy. Opium imports show no +"healthy expansion." Thus, the Supplement to the Official Gazette, +Report for 1913 (published 1 February, 1915) says on page 4: "Other +decreases in imports were opium, $109,180. The decrease in opium was +due to the abolition of the Opium Farm, which also held the Labuan +Farm, and opium was therefore no longer imported from Labuan for use in +the West Coast and the Interior." + +Still more bad news as to opium, in the report for 1914, (published 1 +February, 1916). All imports drop. Page 4 records "Decrease in +imports.... Railway and telegraph material, rice, flour, grain and +opium." In this year the opium imports only amount to $58,464. This +general falling off in all imports may have been due to the war. But +the opium situation was apparently growing serious. On page 17 of this +same report we read that "Thirty-two ordinances were passed by the +Council and became laws during the year. Among them the Opium and +Chandu." + +The brevity and meagerness of these official reports often leave one +puzzled as to their meaning. The Supplement to the Official Gazette for +1915 (published October, 1916), shows still more discouraging news as +to opium. Imports that year amounted to only $31,299. But, in spite of +this discouragement, hope still remains. The same report shows optimism +under the head of Excise. "Excise: $627,225, against $467,078, an +increase in the net revenue of $160,147, due to Government taking over +the sole control of the sale of chandu (smoking opium) and the +collection of other Excise duties, formerly farmed." + +This explains the Ordinance passed by the Council the preceding year, +regarding Opium and Chandu. Since the Government has taken over "sole +control of the sale of chandu" and will collect the excise duties +systematically and thoroughly, we may still hope for some future report +which will show once more a "healthy expansion" in the opium revenue. + + + + +XIV + +BRITISH GUIANA + + +Situated in South America. Area, 89,480 square miles. Population at +census of 1911, excluding aborigines in the unfrequented parts of the +colony, 296,000. The Statesman's Year Book, which gives us these brief +facts, has very little to say about this British colony in our Western +Hemisphere, and gives no dates or information as to how and when it was +acquired. The Government reports are also meager and unsatisfactory, +and there is no wealth of detail as to exports and imports. The +country, however, is rich in gold, mining having commenced in 1886. +Diamonds have also been discovered. + +The chief sources of revenue, however, are customs, excise and +licenses. With the word "excise" we have come to have unpleasant +associations. From "The Statistical Abstract for British Self-Governing +Dominions, Colonies, Possessions and Protectorates" we find a table +showing the imports of opium into the various countries under British +rule. The opium imports into British Guiana are as follows: + + 1910 1,251 pounds sterling + 1911 1,270 + 1912 2,474 + 1913 4,452 + 1914 5,455 + 1915 4,481 + +These figures would seem to indicate that even on the Western +Hemisphere the taste for opium may be cultivated. It need not +necessarily be confined to the Oriental peoples. The population of much +of South America is a mixed lot, the result of mixed breeding between +Spanish settlers, Indians, native tribes of all sorts. All this jumble, +including the aborigines referred to, might, with a little teaching +become profitable customers of the Opium Monopoly. Time and a little +effort, given this fertile field, ought to produce a "healthy +expansion" in the opium trade. + +And that this insidious habit is indeed taking hold, in at least one +more country in South America, one may infer from the following +paragraph which appeared in the New York Times, 4 October, 1919: + + DRUG EVIL IN ARGENTINA + + Buenos Aires Opens Fight on Use of Narcotics + + The city government of Buenos Aires, Argentina, has begun a + determined fight to wipe out the drug evil by the enactment of + stringent laws governing the sale of narcotics. This step was taken + after an investigation by the authorities had disclosed that not + only was the narcotic habit strong among the poor, but that it was + spreading throughout virtually every class in the city. + + Until the passage of the laws druggists were permitted to sell + cocaine, morphine and opium to any purchaser. The new laws forbid + the sale of these drugs except in filling prescriptions prepared by + registered physicians. The city also has established dispensaries + for the treatment of drug addicts. + + + + +XV + +HISTORY OF THE OPIUM TRADE IN CHINA + + +In a vague way, we are familiar with the "opium evil" in China, and +some of us have hazy ideas as to how it came about. The China Year Book +for 1916 has this to say on the subject: "The poppy has been known in +China for 12 centuries, and its medicinal use for 9 centuries.... It +was not until the middle of the 17th century that the practice of +mixing opium with tobacco for smoking purposes was introduced into +China. This habit was indulged in by the Dutch in Java, and by them +taken to Formosa, whence it spread to Amoy and the mainland generally. +There is no record to show when opium was first smoked by itself, but +it is thought to have originated about the end of the 18th century. +Foreign opium was first introduced by the Portuguese from Goa at the +beginning of the 18th century. In 1729, when the foreign import was 200 +chests, the Emperor Yung Ching issued the first anti-opium edict, +enacting severe penalties on the sale of opium and the opening of +opium-smoking divans. The importation, however, continued to increase, +and by 1790 it amounted to over 4,000 chests annually. In 1796 opium +smoking was again prohibited, and in 1800 the importation of foreign +opium was again declared illegal. Opium was now contraband, but the +fact had no effect on the quantity introduced into the country, which +rose to 5,000 chests in 1820; 16,000 chests in 1830; 20,000 chests in +1838, and 70,000 chests in 1858." + +The China Year Book makes no mention of the traders who carried these +chests of opium into China. The opium came from India, however, and the +increase in importation corresponds with the British occupation of +India, and the golden days of the East India Company. "Opium was now +contraband, but that fact had no effect on the quantity introduced into +the country,"--smuggled in wholesale by the enterprising British +traders. + +China was powerless to protect herself from this menace, either by +protests or prohibition. And as more and more of the drug was smuggled +in, and more and more of the people became victims of the habit, the +Chinese finally had a tea-party, very much like our Boston Tea Party, +but less successful in outcome. In 1839, in spite of the fact that +opium smoking is an easy habit to acquire and had been extensively +encouraged, the British traders found themselves with 20,000 chests of +unsold opium on their store-ships, just below Canton. The Chinese had +repeatedly appealed to the British Government to stop these imports, +but the British Government had turned a persistently deaf ear. +Therefore the Emperor determined to deal with the matter on his own +account. He sent a powerful official named Lin to attend to it, and Lin +had a sort of Boston Tea Party, as we have said, and destroyed some +twenty thousand chests of opium in a very drastic way. Mr. H. Wells +Williams describes it thus: "The opium was destroyed in the most +thorough manner, by mixing it in parcels of 200 chests, in trenches, +with lime and salt water, and then drawing off the contents into an +adjacent creek at low tide." + +After this atrocity, followed the first Opium War, when British ships +sailed up the river, seized port after port, and bombarded and took +Canton. Her ships sailed up the Yangtsze, and captured the tribute +junks going up the Grand Canal with revenue to Peking, thus stopping a +great part of China's income. Peace was concluded in 1843, and Great +Britain came out well. She recompensed herself by taking the island of +Hongkong; an indemnity of 21 million dollars, and Canton, Amoy, +Foochow, Ningpo and Shanghai were opened up as "treaty ports"--for the +importation of opium and the "open-door" in general. + +Mr. Wells, in his "Middle Kingdom" describes the origin of this first +war with England: "This war was extraordinary in its origin as growing +chiefly out of a commercial misunderstanding; remarkable in its course +as being waged between strength and weakness, conscious superiority and +ignorant pride; melancholy in its end as forcing the weaker to pay for +opium within its borders against all its laws, thus paralyzing the +little moral power its feeble government could exert to protect its +subjects.... It was a turning point in the national life of the Chinese +race, but the compulsory payment of six million dollars for the opium +destroyed has left a stigma upon the English name." + +He also says, "The conflict was now fairly begun; its issue between the +parties so unequally matched--one having almost nothing but the right +on its side, the other assisted by every material and physical +advantage--could easily be foreseen" and again, after speaking of it +as being unjust and immoral, he concludes "Great Britain, the first +Christian power, really waged this war against the pagan monarch who +had only endeavored to put down a vice harmful to his people. The war +was looked upon in this light by the Chinese; it will always be so +looked upon by the candid historian, and known as the Opium War." + +Within fifteen years after this first war, there was another one, and +again Great Britain came off victorious. China had to pay another +indemnity, three million dollars, and five more treaty ports were +opened up. By the terms of the Treaty of Tientsin, the sale of opium in +China was legalized in 1858. + +From a small pamphlet, "Opium: England's Coercive Policy and Its +Disastrous Results in China and India" by the Rev. John Liggins, we +find the following: "As a specimen of how both wars were carried on, we +quote the following from an English writer on the bombardment of +Canton: 'Field pieces loaded with grape were planted at the end of +long, narrow streets crowded with innocent men, women and children, to +mow them down like grass till the gutters flowed with their blood.'" In +one scene of carnage, the _Times_ correspondent recorded that half an +army of 10,000 men were in ten minutes destroyed by the sword, or +forced into the broad river. "The Morning Herald" asserted that "a more +horrible or revolting crime than this bombardment of Canton has never +been committed in the worst ages of barbaric darkness." + +Naturally, therefore, after the termination of these two wars, China +gave up the struggle. She had fought valiantly to protect her people +from opium, but the resources of a Christian nation were too much for +her. Seeing therefore that the opium trade was to be forced upon her, +and that her people were doomed to degradation, she decided to plant +poppies herself. There should be competition at least, and the money +should not all be drained out of the country. Thus it came about that +after 1858 extensive tracts of land were given over to poppy +production. Whole provinces or parts of provinces, ceased to grow grain +and other necessities, and diverted their rich river bottoms to the +raising of opium. Chinese opium, however, never supplanted Indian +opium, being inferior to that raised in the rich valley of the Ganges. +The country merely had double quantities of the drug, used straight or +blended, to suit the purse or taste of the consumer. + +Then, in 1906, the incredible happened. After over a hundred years of +steady demoralization, with half her population opium addicts, or worse +still, making enormous profits out of the trade, China determined to +give up opium. In all history, no nation has ever set itself such a +gigantic task, with such a gigantic handicap. China, a country of +immense distances, with scant means of communication; with no common +language, a land where only the scholars can read and write, suddenly +decided to free herself from this vice. The Emperor issued an edict +saying that in ten years' time all opium traffic must cease, and an +arrangement was made with Great Britain whereby this might be +accomplished. To the honor of America be it said that we assisted China +in this resolution. We agreed to see her through. + +A bargain was then made between China and Great Britain, in 1907, China +agreeing to diminish poppy cultivation year by year for a period of ten +years, and Great Britain agreeing to a proportional decrease in the +imports of Indian opium. A three years' test was first agreed to, a +trial of China's sincerity and ability, for Great Britain feared that +this was but a ruse to cut off Indian opium, while leaving China's +opium alone in the field. At the end of three years, however, China had +proved her ability to cope with the situation. Thus, for a period of +ten years, both countries have lived up to their bargain, the amount of +native and foreign opium declining steadily in a decreasing scale. +April 1, 1917, saw the end of the accomplishment. + +China's part was most difficult. In the remote, interior provinces, +poppies were grown surreptitiously, connived at by corrupt officials +who made money from the crops. However, drastic laws were enacted and +severe penalties imposed upon those who broke them. If poppy +cultivation could not be stopped, England would not hold to her end of +the bargain. Not only was there a nation of addicts to deal with, but +these could obtain copious supplies of opium from the foreign +concessions, over which the Chinese had no control. We shall show, in +another article, to what extent this was carried on. Yet somehow, in +some manner, the impossible happened. Year by year, little by little, +one province after another was freed from poppy cultivation, until in +1917, China was practically free from the native-grown drug, and +foreign importation had practically ended. + +In this manner, first by large smuggling, then by two opium wars, was +China drugged with opium. And in this manner, and to this extent, has +she succeeded in freeing herself from the curse. But in one way, she is +not free. She has no control over the extra-territorial holdings of +European powers, for in each treaty port are the foreign concessions +already mentioned--German, Austrian, British, French, Russian. And in +these concessions, opium may be procured. Simply by crossing an +imaginary line, in such cities as Shanghai and Hongkong, can the +Chinese buy as much opium as they choose. China will never be rid of +this menace till she is rid of these extraterritorial holdings. Opium +shops, licensed by foreign governments, are always ready to supply her +people with the forbidden drug. + +We say that the China market is closed. So it is, in one way. But the +British Opium Monopoly is not ended. The year 1917 saw a tremendous +blow dealt to the British opium dealers, but other markets will be +found. There are other countries than China whose inhabitants can be +taught this vice. The object of this discussion is to consider these +other countries, and to see to what extent the world is menaced by this +possibility. + + + + +XVI + +CONCLUSION + + +There are many people who advocate the use of opium, and who defend the +policy of the Opium Monopoly. They argue that it is not harmful--if +taken in moderation. They even assert that it is no more objectionable +than alcohol or tobacco. Leaving out of account, therefore, the +consensus of opinion of the medical profession as to the evils of +habit-forming drugs, and accepting the theory that opium is harmless, +we should then like to ask why the use of opium is so carefully +restricted to the peoples of subject states, who have no voice in their +own affairs? Why should the benefits of opium be confined to Oriental +races, and why should not the white race be given the same +opportunities for indulgence? Is there any reason for this +discrimination? As a source of revenue, it certainly has advantages. +Yet curiously enough, those European countries which derive much profit +through the sale of opium to their subject races, seem to have an +aversion to introducing it to their people at home. And there is a +further coincidence in the fact that none of the self-governing +colonies of European countries--Australia, New Zealand and +Canada--permit this traffic. It appears to be only the subject peoples, +whose well-being has become the White Man's Burden, who receive the +blessings of this peculiar form of altruism. Is it because the white +race is worth preserving, worth protecting, and because subject nations +are fair game for exploitation of any kind? + +Another argument advanced by advocates of Government opium is that the +Oriental peoples are "different"--that opium does them no harm. Every +writer on the subject of opium in China, produces evidence to show the +shocking results upon that country, during the hey-day of the deluge. +The complete moral degradation, and economic ruin of thousands of +helpless individuals. Nor do we think the medical profession would +agree with this assumption that opium is harmless to Orientals, because +they are "different." Their only real difference lies in their +helplessness to protect themselves from foreign aggression. + +Another argument advanced by the upholders of the Monopoly is that the +Orientals have always been users of opium, that they like it, it suits +them, it would be unfair to deprive them of it. We have seen to what +extent the Chinese liked it, and how it was forced upon them by two +wars. Not until they were completely crushed, and had to accept the +terms of the conquerer, did they submit. It can hardly, therefore, be +called a vice indigenous to the Chinese. Japan is another Oriental +nation that disproves this argument. As we have said before, there are +no opium shops in Japan, and the sale of opium is not conducted by the +Japanese Government. On the contrary, the Japanese have the same fear +of this drug that a European nation has, and exercises the same +precautions to protect its people. But, as we have said before, Japan +is the only Oriental nation that has not been subjugated by a European +nation, and therefore has never had opium thrust upon her. She is the +only country in the Far East that has managed to preserve her +sovereignty, and has never been subject to certain blighting influences +of European culture. + +Another exception to this assumption that the Orientals cannot do +without opium lies in the Philippines. When America acquired those +islands some twenty years ago, our first act was to eliminate the opium +traffic, which had been established there by our predecessors. It had +been in existence for decades, but we immediately set about to abolish +it. Root and branch we did away with it, and shed no crocodile tears as +to the "hardship" this would be to the people who had come under our +protection. We wished no revenue coming from such a source as this. Yet +we might have cut in half the cost of our Philippine budget had we +followed the example set by other nations. We have seen that certain +British colonies, Hongkong and the Straits Settlements, for example, +derive from one-third to one-half of their upkeep expenses from this +traffic. But we refrained from treating our Filipinos in this manner. +We are called sentimentalists out in the East--at such times as we are +not called money-getters. To-day, the Philippines are very nearly ready +for self-government. Would they have been so nearly ready had we +continued to drug them as they had been drugged before we took +possession? Drugged peoples are usually docile and submissive--perhaps +that is the secret of much of the successful colonizing, about which we +hear so much. + +But let us leave aside the question of the Orientals, and whether or no +opium is good for them. We recognize quite clearly that it is not good +for ourselves, for Americans. We recognize that fact quite as clearly +as England realizes that it is not good for the inhabitants of the +British Isles. Quite as clearly as France, while setting up opium shops +in her colony of Indo-China, refuses to establish them in Paris or +Marseilles. America is unique in the fact that although we have +colonial possessions, we do not have a double standard of morality. We +attempt to throw around our colonies the same safeguards that we throw +around ourselves at home. But the question arises, how successful are +we in protecting ourselves at home? Not particularly so, according to +the daily press. + +How great the danger to ourselves was recognized some thirty-seven +years ago by an Episcopal missionary to China, the Rev. John Liggins. +In 1882 he published a small book, already referred to, entitled: +"England's Coercive Opium Policy and Its Disastrous Results in China +and India." The preface to this unheeded warning runs thus. "Our aim in +this sketch is to present, as briefly as possible, the most important +facts and testimonies concerning a traffic which is as disgraceful to +England as it is ruinous to China and hurtful to India.... It is also +of the highest importance that the people throughout our wide domain +should be aroused concerning the new, fascinating and deadly foe which +has entered our country through the Golden Gate, and which already +numbers its victims by the thousands, and will soon do so by the tens +of thousands." + +The Rev. Mr. Liggins saw it coming--that danger which is almost ready +to overwhelm us to-day. He recognized clearly that the Opium Monopoly +of that great nation which rules nearly one-third of the world--the +British Empire--would in time reach further and further afield for new +victims. It is too lucrative a trade to be confined to only a few +countries. Markets must not only be created and legalized in subject +states, but new ones added in outside countries, through smuggling. All +too fatally easy of accomplishment, and so profitable, financially, as +to be worth any risk and effort. The prediction as to our own danger, +made in 1882, seems to be abundantly realized. + +The number of drug addicts in America to-day are fairly startling. The +number is variously estimated in New York City alone as from ten +thousand to one hundred thousand. It is said that there may be a +million in the country. Yet these figures are the merest guesswork, by +no means substantiated. Certain it is that the campaign of the New York +Health Department has uncovered thousands of them, and any other city +that chose to do so, could produce facts equally startling. + +The laws on our statute books concerning the prescription of narcotic +drugs are powerless to deal with the situation. It is shooting into the +air to try to "regulate" this condition. It is as thoroughly well +"regulated" as it can ever be by the Harrison Anti-Narcotic Act, a +Federal Law whose enforcement is in the hands of the Internal Revenue +Department. By the provisions of this Act, every pound of opium or its +derivatives that comes into this country, legitimately, is accounted +for, and its distribution, both wholesale and retail, made a matter of +record. Thus, the Board of Trade returns show the amount imported by +the big wholesale drug houses. These must account for their sales to +the retail drug stores, and the amounts must tally. The drug stores can +only sell narcotic drugs on a physician's prescription, and the +prescriptions are kept on file, and the quantity sold must correspond +to the quantity called for by these prescriptions, as well as to the +amount obtained from the wholesale drug house. In prescribing +narcotics, the physician is obliged to write his prescription in +triplicate--one copy for his own protection, one copy for the local +druggist, and one copy to be filed with the health department. Nor is +he allowed to prescribe narcotics for an addict without decreasing the +dosage. His prescription cannot call for thirty grains of morphia day +after day--it must show, in a chronic case of this kind, a daily +diminution of the amount prescribed, thus indicating a desire to get +the patient off the drug, eventually. All these records are kept on +file, open to inspection whenever an accounting is demanded, +consequently any leak can be instantly accounted for. This Harrison Act +is as comprehensive and as nearly perfect as possible, yet it does not +cover the situation. By this means, violations can be detected, whether +on the part of an unscrupulous physician or druggist, or even the +wholesale house, but these violations are only occasional. The root of +the evil remains untouched. + +At one time, it was believed that carelessness on the part of the +physician was chiefly responsible for creating drug addicts, but the +recent campaign against violators of the Harrison Act seems to have +completely exonerated him of this charge. For one patient who becomes a +drug addict while under a doctor's care, through the accidental misuse +of morphia, there are a hundred who form the habit through other ways. +It is not the occasional, accidental victim, given morphia for the +relief of pain, which is creating our thousands of drug users. It is +not the occasional unscrupulous physician who is responsible. If this +was all, we could easily cope with these unwitting abuses, or even +deliberate instances of misuse. But the question goes deeper than this. + +The Opium Monopoly was not established for any humane or altruistic +purpose. It was not established to provide the medical profession with +a drug for the relief of pain, to ease the agony of the injured and +wounded, or to calm the last days of those dying with an incurable +disease. This, which may be called the legitimate use of opium, is not +the object of the Opium Monopoly. Used only in this manner, there would +be no money in it. It is only when opium is produced in quantities far +in excess of the legitimate needs of the world that it becomes worth +while--to the Opium Monopoly. That Monopoly was established not to +relieve pain and suffering, but with the deliberate intention of +creating pain and suffering, by creating drug victims by the thousand. +It is these hundreds of thousands of customers that are profitable. The +menace to America lies in the large amounts of opium which are smuggled +into the country for this purpose. Boys and girls of sixteen and +seventeen first acquire this habit through curiosity, through +association with what they call "bad company," peddlers who first offer +it free, as a gift, well knowing that after a few doses the fatal habit +will be formed. Where do these vendors obtain their supplies? + +The daily papers often contain suggestive paragraphs. Thus the "New +York Times," under date of February 28, 1919: "Seize Opium in +Schenectady. Opium, valued by Federal officials at $10,000 was seized +in Schenectady, and four Chinamen were arrested in a raid on Chinese +places of business on Centre street to-day. The Federal officials +expressed the belief that opium had been smuggled, and that Schenectady +is the distributing point for this part of the State." + +An item in the "Seattle Union Record," of June 24, 1919, gives us cause +for further consideration. + + BRITISH DRUG SHIP HELD BY UNITED STATES + + FINE OF $49,265 ASSESSED FOR BRINGING "DOPE" TO AMERICA + + LINER ALLOWED TO MOVE UNDER BOND + + NO ARRESTS MADE, THOUGH BOOZE IS FOUND ABOARD + + No arrests were made up to Tuesday noon in connection with the + enormous seizure of opium, cocaine and liquor on the Blue Funnel + liner Cyclops, although the investigation is being continued by + federal officials. The ship has been seized and a fine of $49,265 + has been assessed against her for having drugs not listed in the + ship's manifest. + + United States District Attorney Robert C. Saunders filed a libel + Monday night against the Cyclops, the boat being seized later by + the customs service. Bond was fixed at $100,000, or twice the fine. + The Fidelity Surety Company filed the bond Monday. The ship was + released Tuesday morning. + + A civil libel suit may be filed against Capt. W. Duncan, holding + him responsible for the liquor found on the ship. Captain Duncan, + questioned Monday by customs officials, claimed to know nothing + about the contraband. + + The result of Monday's checking of the opium and cocaine showed + that the seizure amounted to 778 tins of opium, 670 ounces of + cocaine and 16 ounces of morphine. + +A small paragraph in a New York paper, dated June 12, 1919, reads thus: +"Two New Yorkers jailed for smuggling opium. Pleas of guilty to charges +of opium smuggling were entered in the Federal Court to-day by Albertus +Schneitzer and Maxwell Auerbach, of New York. They were fined $500 +each, and sent to Atlanta penitentiary, the former for two years, and +the latter for one year. The men were arrested in connection with the +seizure of opium on the Canadian border." + +We cannot grapple with our problem unless we face the facts; if we +ignore the source of supply and distribution, and the reasons for this +immense over-production of opium on the part of the British Opium +Monopoly. The anti-narcotic laws on our statute books are powerless to +protect us. With Canada, a British province, to the north, and all +Mexico on the south, what chance have we against such exposure? Of what +use to send two smugglers to the penitentiary, when at the Calcutta +opium sales, once a month opium is auctioned off under the auspices of +the British Government, to be disposed of as the buyers may see fit? +Much of it, as we have seen, goes to those helpless states and colonies +which have no control over their own affairs, where the opium traffic +is conducted under the administration of the alien government. Much of +the rest of it goes out for smuggling purposes, to be distributed in +devious, roundabout, underhand channels throughout the world. We are +coming in for our share in this distribution. + +We feel that our country is in grave peril. Our politicians and our +diplomats have been too careful all these years, to speak of this +business, through fear of offending a powerful nation. But we feel that +the time has now come to speak. England has been relying upon our +silence to "get away with it." Upon our ignorance, and upon that +silence which gives consent. But in this new, changed world, reborn out +of the blood and agony of the great war, is it not time to practice +some of the decencies which we have proclaimed so loudly? As we have +said before, no stronger opponents of this policy are to be found than +among a section of the people of England itself. We look to them to +join us, in this great issue, and we feel that we shall not look in +vain. + + +Printed in the United States of America + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE OPIUM MONOPOLY*** + + +******* This file should be named 33479.txt or 33479.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/3/4/7/33479 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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