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text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8 + "Chariot" to "Chatelaine" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August 14, 2010 [EBook #33427] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 8 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VIII<br /><br /> +Chariot to Chatelaine</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CHARIOT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHARLES MARTEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHARLESTON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CHARITON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHARLESTON</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CHARITY AND CHARITIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHARLESTON</a> (West Virginia, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CHARIVARI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHARLESTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CHARKHARI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CHARLATAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHARLEVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CHARLEMAGNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHARLEVOIX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHARLOTTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CHARLEROI</a> (town in Belgium)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHARLOTTENBURG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CHARLEROI</a> (borough of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHARLOTTESVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHARLOTTETOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CHARLES II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHARM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CHARLES III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DÉSIRÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CHARLES IV.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHARNEL HOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CHARLES V.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHARNOCK, JOB</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CHARLES VI.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHARNOCK, ROBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CHARLES VII.</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHARNOCKITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Great Britain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHARNWOOD FOREST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Great Britain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHAROLLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CHARLES I. and II.</a> (kings of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHARON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CHARLES III.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHARONDAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CHARLES IV.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CHARLES V.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CHARLES VI.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHARRON, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CHARLES VII.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHARRUA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CHARLES VIII.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHART</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CHARLES IX.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHARTER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CHARLES X.</a> (king of France)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHARTERED COMPANIES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Hungary)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHARTERHOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHARTER-PARTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Naples)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHARTERS TOWERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHARTIER, ALAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CHARLES III.</a> (king of Navarre)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHARTISM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CHARLES</a> (king of Rumania)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHARTRES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHARTREUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CHARLES III.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CHARLES IV.</a> (king of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHARWOMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CHARLES IX.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CHARLES X.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CHASE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHARLES XI.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHARLES XII.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CHASE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHARLES XIII.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CHASING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHARLES XIV.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHARLES XV.</a> (king of Sweden)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CHASSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHARLES</a> (duke of Brittany)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CHASSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHARLES</a> (duke of Burgundy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHARLES</a> (count of Flanders)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CHASSEPOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHARLES I.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHARLES II.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CHASSIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHARLES III. or II.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHARLES IV. or III.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHARLES V. or IV.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CHASUBLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHARLES II.</a> (duke of Parma)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CHÂTEAU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHARLES</a> (archduke of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHARLES</a> (cardinal of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CHÂTEAUBRIANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHARLES</a> (prince of Lorraine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CHÂTEAUDUN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHARLES</a> (count of Valois)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CHÂTEAU-GONTIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHARLES</a> (prince of Viana)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHARLES, ELIZABETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, FRANÇOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHARLES, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CHÂTEAUROUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHARLES ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CHÂTEAU-THIERRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHARLES AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CHÂTELAIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHARLES EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CHATELAINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHARLES EMMANUEL I.</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">CHARIOT<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from <i>char</i>, a car), +in antiquity, a conveyance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="arma">ἅρμα</span>, Lat. <i>currus</i>) +used in battle, for the chase, in public processions and in games. The +Greek chariot had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two +horses; if a third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were +added, they were attached on each side of the main pair by a +single trace fastened to the front of the chariot, as may be seen +on two prize vases in the British Museum from the Panathenaic +games at Athens. On the monuments there is no other sign of +traces, from the want of which wheeling round must have been difficult. +Immediately on the axle (<span class="grk" title="axôn">ἄξων</span>, <i>axis</i>), without springs +of any kind, rested the basket or body (<span class="grk" title="diphros">δίφρος</span>) of the chariot, +which consisted of a floor to stand on, and a semicircular guard +round the front about half the height of the driver. It was +entirely open at the back, so that the combatant might readily +leap to the ground and up again as was necessary. There was no +seat, and generally only room for the combatant and his charioteer +to stand in. The pole (<span class="grk" title="rumos">ῥυμός</span>, <i>temo</i>) was probably attached to +the middle of the axle, though it appears to spring from the front of the +basket; at the end of the pole was the yoke (<span class="grk" title="zygon">ζυγὸν</span>, <i>jugum</i>), +which consisted of two small saddles fitting the necks of the horses, +and fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides this the +harness of each horse consisted of a bridle and a pair of reins, +mostly the same as in use now, made of leather and ornamented +with studs of ivory or metal. The reins were passed through +rings attached to the collar bands or yoke, and were long enough +to be tied round the waist of the charioteer in case of his having +to defend himself. The wheels and body of the chariot were +usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or iron; the +wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or iron. +This description applies generally to the chariots of all the nations +of antiquity; the differences consisted chiefly in the mountings. +The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the +bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with +quivers full of arrows, while those of the Greeks, whose characteristic +weapon was the spear, were plain except as regards mere +decoration. Among the Persians, again, and more remarkably +among the ancient Britons, there was a class of chariot having +the wheels mounted with sharp, sickle-shaped blades, which cut +to pieces whatever came in their way. This was probably an +invention of the Persians; Cyrus the younger employed these +chariots in large numbers. Among the Greeks and Romans, on +the other hand, the chariot had passed out of use in war before +historical times, and was retained only for races in the public +games, or for processions, without undergoing any alteration +apparently, its form continuing to correspond with the description +of Homer, though it was lighter in build, having to carry +only the charioteer. On two Panathenaic prize vases in the +British Museum are figures of racing <i>bigae</i>, in which, contrary +to the description given above, the driver is seated with his feet +resting on a board hanging down in front close to the legs of his +horses. The <i>biga</i> itself consists of a seat resting on the axle, with +a rail at each side to protect the driver from the wheels. The +chariot was unsuited to the uneven soil of Greece and Italy, and +it is not improbable that these nations had brought it with them +as part of their original habits from their former seats in the +East. In the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art there are +numerous representations of chariots, from which it may be +seen with what richness they were sometimes ornamented. The +“iron” chariots in use among the Jews appear to have been +chariots strengthened or plated with metal, and no doubt were +of the form above described, which prevailed generally among +the other ancient nations. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carriage</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities are J.C. Ginzrot, <i>Die Wagen and Fahrwerke +der Griechen und Römer</i> (1817); C.F. Grashof, <i>Über das Fuhrwerk +bei Homer und Hesiod</i> (1846); W. Leaf in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>, +v.; E. Buchholz, <i>Die homerischen Realien</i> (1871-1885); W. Helbig, +<i>Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmälern erläutert</i> (1884), and +the article “Currus” in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des +Antiquités</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> Latin grammarian, +flourished about the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was +probably an African by birth, summoned to Constantinople to +take the place of Euanthius, a learned commentator on Terence. +The <i>Ars Grammatica</i> of Charisius, in five books, addressed to his +son (not a Roman, as the preface shows), has come down to us +in a mutilated condition, the beginning of the first, part of the +fourth, and the greater part of the fifth book having been lost. +The work, which is merely a compilation, is valuable as containing +excerpts from the earlier writers on grammar, who are in +many cases mentioned by name—Q. Remmius Palaemon, C. +Julius Romanus, Cominianus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best edition is by H. Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, i. (1857); see +also article by G. Götz in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 2 +(1899); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans.), +§ 419, I. 2; Fröhde, in <i>Jahr. f. Philol.</i>, 18 Suppl. (1892), 567-672.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARITON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> of Aphrodisias in Caria, the author of a Greek +romance entitled <i>The Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoë</i>, probably +flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The action of the story, +which is to a certain extent historical, takes place during the time +of the Peloponnesian War. Opinions differ as to the merits of the +romance, which is an imitation of Xenophon of Ephesus and Heliodorus.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Editions by J.P. D’Orville (1783), G.A. Hirschig (1856) and +R. Hercher (1859); there is an (anonymous) English translation +(1764); see also E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARITY AND CHARITIES.<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> The word “charity,” or love, +represents the principle of the good life. It stands for a mood +or habit of mind and an endeavour. From it, as a habit of mind, +springs the social and personal endeavour which in the widest +sense we may call charity. The two correspond. Where the +habit of mind has not been gained, the endeavour fluctuates +and is relatively purposeless. In so far as it has been gained, +the endeavour is founded on an intelligent scrutiny of social +conditions and guided by a definite purpose. In the one case +it is realized that some social theory must be found by us, if +our action is to be right and consistent; in the other case no +need of such a theory is felt. This article is based on the assumption +that there are principles in charity or charitable work, and +that these can be ascertained by a study of the development +of social conditions, and their relation to prevalent social aims +and religious or philosophic conceptions. It is assumed also +that the charity of the religious life, if rightly understood, cannot +be inconsistent with that of the social life.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Perhaps some closer definition of charity is necessary. The words +that signify goodwill towards the community and its members are +primarily words expressive of the affections of family life in the +relations existing between parents, and between parent and child. +As will be seen, the analogies underlying such phrases as “God the +Father,” “children of God,” “brethren,” have played a great part +in the development of charitable thought in pre-Christian as well +as in Christian days. The germ, if we may say so, of the words <span class="grk" title="philia, +agapê">φιλία, ἀγάπη</span>, <i>amor</i>, love; <i>amicitia</i>, friendship, is the sexual or the +parental relation. With the realization of the larger life in man the +meaning of the word expands. <i>Caritas</i>, or charity, strikes another +note—high price, and thus dearness. It is charity, indeed, expressed +in mercantile metaphor; and it would seem that it was associated +in thought with the word <span class="grk" title="charis">χάρις</span>, which has also a commercial +meaning, but signifies as well favour, gratitude, grace, kindness. Partly +thus, perhaps, it assumed and suggested a nobler conception; and +sometimes, as, for instance, in English ecclesiastical documents, it +was spelt <i>charitas</i>. <span class="grk" title="Agapê">Άγάπη</span>, which in the Authorized Version of the +Bible is translated charity, was used by St Paul as a translation of +the Hebrew word <i>hēsēd</i>, which in the Old Testament is in the same +version translated “mercy”—as in Hosea vi. 6, “I desired mercy, +and not sacrifice.” This word represents the charity of kindness +and goodness, as distinguished from almsgiving. Almsgiving, +<i>şedāqāh</i>, is translated by the word <span class="grk" title="eleêmosunê">ἐλεημούνη</span> in the +Septuagint, and in the Authorized Version by the word “righteousness.” It +represents the deed or the gift which is due—done or made, not spontaneously, +but under a sense of religious obligation. In the earlier +Christian period the word almsgiving has this meaning, and was in +that sense applied to a wide range of actions and contracts, from +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span> +a gift to a beggar at a church door to a grant and a tenure of land. +It also, in the word almoner, represented the fulfilment of the +religious obligation with the aid of an agent or delegate. The words +charity or love (<i>caritas</i> or <span class="grk" title="agapê">ἀγάπη</span>), on the other hand, without losing +the tone with which the thought of parental or family love inspires +them, assume a higher meaning. In religious thought they imply +an ideal life, as represented by such expressions as “love (<i>agape</i>) +of God.” This on the one side; and on the other an ideal social +relation, in such words as “love of man.” Thus in the word +“charity” religious and social associations meet; and thus regarded +the word means a disciplined and habitual mood in which the mind +is considerate of the welfare of others individually and generally, +and devises what is for their real good, and in which the intelligence +and the will strive to fulfil the mind’s purpose. Charity thus has +no necessary relation to relief or alms. To give a lecture, or to nurse +a sick man who is not in want or “poor,” may be equally a deed +of charity; though in fact charity concerns itself largely with the +classes usually called “the poor,” and with problems of distress and +relief. Relief, however, is not an essential part of charity or charitable +work. It is one of many means at its disposal. If the world +were so poor that no one could make a gift, or so wealthy that no one +needed it, charity—the charity of life and of deeds—would remain.</p> +</div> + +<p>The history of charity is a history of many social and religious +theories, influences and endeavours, that have left their mark +alike upon the popular and the cultivated thought of the present +day. The inconsistencies of charitable effort and argument +may thus in part be accounted for. To understand the problem +of charity we have therefore (1) to consider the stages of charitable +thought—the primitive, pagan, Greek and Roman, Jewish +and Christian elements, that make up the modern consciousness +in regard to charity, and also the growth of the habit of “charity” +as representing a gradually educated social instinct. (2) We +have also to consider in their relation to charity the results of +recent investigations of the conditions of social life. (3) At +each stage we have to note the corresponding stage of practical +administration in public relief and private effort—for the division +between public or “poor-law” relief and charity which prevails +in England is, comparatively speaking, a novelty, and, generally +speaking, the work of charity can hardly be appreciated or +understood if it be considered without reference to public +relief. (4) As to the present day, we have to consider practical +suggestions in regard to such subjects as charity and economic +thought, charity organization, friendly visiting and almonership, +co-operation with the poor-law, charity and thrift, parochial +management, hospitals and medical relief, exceptional distress +and the “unemployed,” the utilization of endowments and their +supervision, and their adaptation to new needs and emergencies. +(5) We have also throughout to consider charitable help in +relation to classes of dependants, who appear early in the history +of the question—widows and orphans, the sick and the aged, +vagrants and wayfarers.</p> + +<p>First in the series come the charities of the family and of +hospitality; then the wider charities of religion, the charities +of the community, and of individual donors and of mutual help. +These gradually assumed importance in communities which +consisted originally of self-supporting classes, within which +widows and orphans, for instance, would be rather provided for, +in accordance with recognized class obligations, than relieved. +Then come habitual almsgiving, the charitable endowment, and +the modern charitable institution and association. But throughout +the test of progress or decadence appears to be the condition +of the family. The family is the source, the home and the +hearthstone of charity. It has been created but slowly, and +there is naturally a constant tendency to break away from its +obligations and to ignore and depreciate its utility. Yet the +family, as we now have it, is itself the outcome of infinite thought +working through social instinct, and has at each stage of its +development indicated a general advance. To it, therefore, +constant reference must be made.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part I.—primitive Charity</p> + +<p>The study of early communities has brought to light the history +of the development of the family. “Marriage in its lowest +phases is by no means a matter of affection or companionship”; +and only very slowly has the position of both parents been +recognized as implying different but correlative responsibilities +towards their child. Only very slowly, also, has the morality +necessary to the making of the family been won. Charity at +earlier stages is hardly recognized as a virtue, nor infanticide +as an evil. Hospitality—the beginning of a larger social life—is +non-existent. The self-support of the community is secured +by marriage, and when relations fail marriage becomes a provision +against poverty. Then by the tribal system is created +another safeguard against want. But apart also from these +methods of maintenance, at a very early stage there is charitable +relief. The festivals of the solstices and equinoxes, and of +the seasons, are the occasions for sacrifice and relief; and, as +Christmas customs prove, the instinct to give help or alms at +such festival periods still remains. Charity is concerned primarily +with certain elemental forces of social life: the relation +between these primitive instincts and impulses that still influence +charity should not, therefore, be overlooked. The basis of +social life is also the basis of charitable thought and action.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The savage is the civilized man in the rough. “The lowest races +have,” Lord Avebury writes, “no institution of marriage.” Many +have no word for “dear” or “beloved.” The child belongs to the +tribe rather than to the parent. In these circumstances a problem +of charity such as the following may arise:—“Am I to starve, while +my sister has children whom she can sell?” a question asked of +Burton by a negro. From the point of view of the tribe, an able-bodied +man would be more valuable than dependent children, and +the relationship of the larger family of brothers and sisters would +be a truer claim to help than that of mother and child. Subsequently +the child is recognized as related, not to the father, but to the +mother, and there is “a kind of bond which lasts for life between +mother and child, although the father is a stranger to it.” Slowly +only is the relative position of both parents, with different but correlative +responsibilities, recognized. The first two steps of charity +have then been made: the social value of the bond between the +mother, and then between the father, and the child has been recognized. +Until this point is reached the morality necessary to the +making of the family is wanting, and for a long time afterwards it +is hardly won. The virtue of chastity—the condition precedent to +the higher family life—is unrecognized. Indeed, the set of such +religious thought as there may be is against it. Abstract conceptions, +even in the nobler races, are lacking. The religion of life is vaguely +struggling with its animality, and that which it at last learns to rule +it at first worships. In these circumstances there is little charity +for the child and little for the stranger. “There is,” Dr Schweinfurth +wrote in his <i>Heart of Africa</i>, “an utter want of wholesome +intercourse between race and race. For any member of a tribe that +speaks one dialect to cross the borders of a tribe that speaks another +is to make a venture at the hazard of his life.” The religious obligations +that fostered and sanctified family life among the Greeks and +Romans and Jews are unknown. Much later in development comes +charity for the child, with the abhorrence of infanticide—against +which the Jewish-Christian charity of 2000 years ago uttered its +most vigorous protests. If the child belonged primarily to the tribe +or state, its maintenance or destruction was a common concern. +This motive influenced the Greeks, who are historically nearer the +earlier forms of social life than ourselves. For the common good they +exposed the deformed child; but also “where there were too many, +for in our state population has a limit,” as Aristotle says, “the babe +or unborn child was destroyed.” And so, to lighten their own +responsibilities, parents were wont to do in the slow years of the +degradation of the Roman empire, though the interest of the state +then required a contrary policy. The transition to our present +feeling of responsibility for child-life has been very gradual and +uncertain, through the middle ages and even till the 18th century. +Strictly it may be said that all penitentiaries and other similar +institutions are concrete protests on behalf of a better family life. +The movement for the care of children in the 18th century naturally +and instinctively allied itself with the penitentiary movement. The +want of regard for child-life, when the rearing of children becomes +a source of economic pressure, suggests why in earlier stages of +civilization all that charitable apparatus which we now think necessary +for the assistance of children is wanting, even if the need, so far +as it does arise, is not adequately met by the recognized obligations +of the clan-family or brotherhood.</p> + +<p>In the case of barbarous races charity and self-support may be +considered from some other points of view. Self-support is secured +in two ways—by marriage and by slavery. “For a man or woman +to be unmarried after the age of thirty is unheard of” (T.H. Lewin, +<i>Wild Races of South-East India</i>). On the other hand, if any one is +without a father, mother or other relative, and destitute of the +necessaries of life, he may sell himself and become a slave. Thus +slavery becomes a provision for poverty when relations fail. The +clan-family may serve the same purpose. David Livingstone describes +the formation of the clan-family among the Bakuena. “Each +man, by virtue of paternity, is chief of his own children. They build +huts round his.... Near the centre of each circle of huts is a spot +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span> +called a ‘kotla,’ with a fireplace; here they work, eat, &c. A poor +man attaches himself to the ‘kotla’ of a rich one, and is considered +a child of the latter.” Thus the clan-family is also a poor-relief +association.</p> + +<p>Studies in folklore bring to light many relations between the +charity of the old world and that of our own day.</p> +</div> + +<p>In regard to the charity of the early community, we may take +the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the point of departure. The <i>Odyssey</i> +(about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Hesiod (about 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are +roughly parallel with Amos (816-775), and represent +<span class="sidenote">The early community.</span> +two streams of thought that meet in the early Christian +period. The period covered by the <i>Odyssey</i> seems to +merge into that of Hesiod. We take the former first, dealing +with the clan-family and the phratry, which are together the +self-maintaining unit of society, with the general relief of the +poor, with hospitality, and with vagrancy. In Hesiod we find +the customary law of charity in the earlier community definitely +stated, and also indications of the normal methods of neighbourly +help which were in force in country districts. First of the family +and brotherhood, or phratry. The family (<i>Od</i>. viii. 582) included +alike the wife’s father and the daughter’s husband. It was thus +a clanlike family. Out of this was developed the phratry or +brotherhood, in which were included alike noble families, peasants +and craftsmen, united by a common worship and responsibilities +and a common customary law (<i>themis</i>). Zeus, the god of social +life, was worshipped by the phratry. He was the father of the +law (<i>themis</i>). He was god of host and guest. Society was thus +based on law, the brotherhood and the family. The irresponsible +man, the man worthy of no respect or consideration, was one +who belonged to no brotherhood, was subject to no customary +law, and had no hearth or family. The phratry was, and became +afterwards still more, “a natural gild.” Outside the self-sustaining +phratry was the stranger, including the wayfarer and +the vagrant; and partly merged in these classes was the beggar, +the recognized recipient of the alms of the community. To +change one’s abode and to travel was assumed to be a cause of +reproach (<i>Il</i>. ix. 648). The “land-louper” was naturally suspected. +On the other hand, a stranger’s first thought in a new +country was whether the inhabitants were wild or social (<span class="grk" title="dikaioi">δίκαιοι</span>), +hospitable and God-fearing (<i>Od</i>. xiii. 201). Hospitality thus +became the first public charity; Zeus sent all strangers and +beggars, and it was against all law (<span class="grk" title="themis">θέμις</span>) to slight them. Out +of this feeling—a kind of glorified almsgiving—grew up the +system of hospitality in Greek states and also in the Roman +world. The host greeted the stranger (or the suppliant). An +oath of friendship was taken by the stranger, who was then +received with the greeting, Welcome (<span class="grk" title="chaire">χαῖρε</span>), and water was +provided for ablution, and food and shelter. In the larger +house there was a guests’ table. In the hut he shared the peasant’s +meal. The custom bound alike the rich and the poor. On parting +presents were given, usually food for the onward journey, +sometimes costly gifts. The obligation was mutual, that the +host should give hospitality, and that the guest should not abuse +it. From early times tallies were exchanged between them as +evidence of this formal relationship, which each could claim +again of the other by the production of the token. And further, +the relationship on either side became hereditary. Thus individuals +and families and tribes remained linked in friendship +and in the interchange of hospitalities.</p> + +<p>Under the same patronage of Zeus and the same laws of +hospitality were vagrants and beggars. The vagrant and loafer +are sketched in the <i>Odyssey</i>—the vagrant who lies glibly that he +may get entertainment, and the loafer who prefers begging to +work on a farm. These and the winter idlers, whom Hesiod +pictures—a group known to modern life—prefer at that season +to spend their time in the warmth of the village smithy, or at a +house of common resort (<span class="grk" title="leschê">λέσχη</span>)—a common lodging-house, +we might say—where they would pass the night. Apparently, +as in modern times, the vagrants had organized their own system +of entertainment, and, supported by the public, were a class for +whom it was worth while to cater. The local or public beggars +formed a still more definite class. Their begging was a recognized +means of maintenance; it was a part of the method of poor +relief. Thus of Penelope it was said that, if Odysseus’ tale were +true, she would give him better clothes, and then he might beg +his bread throughout the country-side. Feasts, too, and almsgiving +were nearly allied, and feasts have always been one resource +for the relief of the poor. Thus naturally the beggars frequented +feasts, and were apparently a recognized and yet inevitable +nuisance. They wore, as part of their dress, scrips or wallets +in which they carried away the food they received, as later +Roman clients carried away portions of food in baskets (<i>sportula</i>) +from their patron’s dinner. Odysseus, when he dresses up as a +beggar, puts on a wallet as part of his costume. Thus we find +a system of voluntary relief in force based on a recognition of the +duty of almsgiving as complete and peremptory as that which we +shall notice later among the Jews and the early Christians. We +are concerned with country districts, and not with towns, and, +as social conditions that are similar produce similar methods +of administration, so we find here a general plan of relief similar +to that which was in vogue in Scotland till the Scottish Poor Law +Act of 1845.</p> + +<p>In Hesiod the fundamental conceptions of charity are more +clearly expressed. He has, if not his ten, at least his four +commandments, for disobedience to which Zeus will punish the +offender. They are: Thou shalt do no evil to suppliant or guest; +thou shalt not dishonour any woman of the family; thou shalt +not sin against the orphan; thou shalt not be unkind to aged +parents.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The laws of social life are thus duty to one’s guest and duty to +one’s family; and chastity has its true place in that relation, as the +later Greeks, who so often quote Hesiod (cf. the so-called <i>Economics</i> +of Aristotle), fully realized. Also the family charities due to the +orphan, whose lot is deplored in the <i>Iliad</i> (xxii. 490), and to the aged +are now clearly enunciated. But there is also in Hesiod the duty to +one’s neighbour, not according to the “perfection” of “Cristes +lore,” but according to a law of honourable reciprocity in act and +intent. “Love him who loves thee, and cleave to him who cleaveth +to thee: to him who would have given, give; to him who would not +have given, give not.” The groundwork of Hesiod’s charity outside +the family is neighbourly help (such as formed no small part of old +Scottish charity in the country districts); and he put his argument +thus: Competition, which is a kind of strife, “lies in the roots of the +world and in men.” It is good, and rouses the idle “handless” man +to work. On one side are social duty (<span class="grk" title="dikê">δίκη</span>) and work, done briskly +at the right season of the year, which brings a full barn. On the other +side are unthrift and hunger, and relief with the disgrace of begging; +and the relief, when the family can do no more, must come from +neighbours, to whose house the beggar has to go with his wife and +children to ask for victual. Once they may be helped, or twice, +and then they will be refused. It is better, Hesiod tells his brother, +to work and so pay off his debts and avoid hunger (see <i>Erga</i>, 391, +&c., and elsewhere). Here indeed is a problem of to-day as it +appeared to an early Greek. The alternatives before the idler—so +far as his own community is concerned—are labour with neighbourly +help to a limited extent, or hunger.</p> + +<p>Hesiod was a farmer in Boeotia. Some 530 years afterwards a +pupil of Aristotle thus describes the district and its community of +farmers. “They are,” he says, “well to do, but simple in their +way of life. They practise justice, good faith, and hospitality. +To needy townsmen and vagabonds they give freely of their substance; +for meanness and covetousness are unknown to them.” +The charitable method of Homeric and Hesiodic days still continued.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part II.—Charity among the Greeks</p> + +<p>Society in a Greek state was divided into two parts, citizens +and slaves. The citizens required leisure for education, war +and government. The slaves were their ministers +and servants to enable them to secure this leisure. +<span class="sidenote">The Greek state.</span> +We have therefore to consider, on the one hand, the +position of the family and the clan-family, and the maintenance +of the citizen from public funds and by public and private +charities; and on the other hand the condition of the slaves, +and the relation between slavery and charity.</p> + +<p>The slaves formed the larger part of the population. The +census of Attica, made between 317 and 307 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, gives their +numbers at 400,000 out of a population of about 500,000; and +even if this be considered excessive, the proportion of slaves +to citizens would certainly be very large. The citizens with their +wives and children formed some 12% of the community. Thus, +apart from the resident aliens, returned in the census at 10,000, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span> +and their wives and children, we have two divisions of society: +the citizens, with their own organization of relief and charities; +and the slaves, permanently maintained by reason of their +dependence on individual members of the civic class. Thus, +there is no poverty but that of the poor citizens. Poverty is +limited to them. The slaves—that is to say, the bulk of the +labouring population—are provided for.</p> + +<p>From times relatively near to Hesiod’s we may trace the growth +and influence of the clan-family as the centre of customary +charity within the community, the gradual increase of a class of +poor either outside the clan-family or eventually independent +of it, and the development of a new organization of relief introduced +by the state to meet newer demands. We picture the +early state as a group of families, each of which tends to form +in time a separate group or clan. At each expansion from the +family to the clan the members of the clan retain rights and have +to fulfil duties which are the same as, or similar to, those which +prevailed in the family. Thus, in Attica the clan-families +(<i>genos</i>) and the brotherhoods (<i>phratria</i>) were “the only basis of +legal rights and obligations over and above the natural family.” +The clan-family was “a natural guild,” consisting of rich and +poor members—the well-born or noble and the craftsman alike. +Originally it would seem that the land was divided among the +families of the clan by lot and was inalienable. Thus with the +family was combined the means of supporting the family. On +the other hand, every youth was registered in his phratry, and +the phratry remained till the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +a political, and even after that time a social, organization of +importance.</p> + +<p>First, as to the family—the mother and wife, and the father. +Already before the age of Plato and Xenophon (450-350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +we find that the family has suffered a slow decline. The wife, +according to later Greek usage, was married as a child, hardly +educated, and confined to the house, except at some festival or +funeral. But with the decline came criticism and a nobler +conception of family life. “First, then, come laws regarding +the wife,” writes the author of the so-called <i>Economics</i> of Aristotle, +and the law, “thou shalt do no wrong; for, if we do no +wrong, we shall not be wronged.” This is the “common law,” +as the Pythagoreans say, “and it implies that we must not wrong +the wife in the least, but treat her with the reverence due to a +suppliant, or one taken from the altar.” The sanctity of marriage +is thus placed among the “commandments” of Hesiod, beside +the duty towards the stranger and the orphan. These and other +references to the Pythagoreans suggest that they, possibly in +common with other mystics, preached the higher religion of +marriage and social life, and thus inspired a deeper social feeling, +which eventually allied itself with the Christian movement.</p> + +<p>Next, as to parents and children: the son was under an obligation +to support his father, subject, after Solon’s time, to the +condition that he had taught him a trade; and after Solon’s +time the father had no claim for support from an illegitimate +son. “The possession of children,” it was said (Arist. <i>Econ.</i>), +“is not by nature for the public good only, but also for private +advantage. For what the strong may gain by their toil for the +weak, the weak in their old age receive from the strong... Thus +is the nature of each, the man and the woman, prearranged by the +Divine Being for a life in common.” Honour to parents is “the +first and greatest and oldest of all debts” (Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 717). +The child has to care for the parent in his old age. “Nemesis, +the minister of justice (<span class="grk" title="dikê">δίκη</span>), is appointed to watch over all these +things.” And “if a man fail to adorn the sepulchre of his dead +parents, the magistrates take note of it and inquire” (Xen. +<i>Mem.</i> ii. 14). The heightened conception of marriage implies +a fuller interpretation of the mutual relations of parent and child +as well; both become sacred.</p> + +<p>Then as to orphans. Before Solon’s time (594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the property +of any member of the clan-family who died without children +went to the clan; and after his time, when citizens were permitted +to leave their property by will, the property of an intestate fell +to the clan. This arrangement carried with it corresponding +duties. Through the clan-family provision was made for orphans. +Any member of the clan had the legal right to claim an orphan +member in marriage; and, if the nearest agnate did not marry +her, he had to give her a dowry proportionate to the amount of +his own property. Later, there is evidence of a growing sense of +responsibility in regard to orphans. Hippodamus (about 443 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in his scheme of the perfected state (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1268), +suggested that there should be public magistrates to deal with +the affairs of orphans (and strangers); and Plato, his contemporary, +writes of the duty of the state and of the guardian towards +them very fully. Orphans, he proposes (<i>Laws</i>, 927), should be +placed under the care of public guardians. “Men should have +a fear of the loneliness of orphans ... and of the souls of the +departed, who by nature take a special care of their own children.... +A man should love the unfortunate orphan (boy or girl) +of whom he is guardian as if he were his own child; he should +be as careful and diligent in the management of the orphan’s +property as of his own—or even more careful still.”</p> + +<p>To relieve the poverty of citizens and to preserve the citizen-hood +were objects of public policy and of charity. In Crete and +Sparta the citizens were wholly supported out of the public +resources. In Attica the system was different. The citizens +were aided in various ways, in which, as often happens, legal +or official and voluntary or private methods worked on parallel +lines. The means were (1) legal enactment for release of debts; +(2) emigration; (3) the supply of corn; (4) poor relief for the +infirm, and relief for the children of those fallen in war; (5) +emoluments; (6) voluntary public service, separate gifts and +liberality; (7) loan societies.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) In 594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the labouring class in Attica were overwhelmed +with debts and mortgages, and their persons pledged as security. +Only by a sharp reform was it possible to preserve them from +slavery. This Solon effected. He annulled their obligations, +abolished the pledge of the person, and gave the labourers the +franchise (but see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>). Besides the laws above mentioned, +he gave power to the Areopagus to inquire from what sources +each man obtained the necessaries of life, and to punish those who +did not work. His action and that of his successor, Peisistratus +(560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), suggest that the class of poor (<span class="grk" title="aporoi">ἄποροι</span>) was increasing, +and that by the efforts of these two men the social decline of the +people was avoided or at least postponed. Peisistratus lent the poor +money that they might maintain themselves in husbandry. He wished, +it is said (Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xvi.), to enable them to earn a moderate +living, that they might be occupied with their own affairs, instead +of spending their time in the city or neglecting their work in order +to visit it. As rent for their land they paid a tenth of the produce.</p> + +<p>(2) Akin to this policy was that of emigration. Athenians, selected +in some instances from the two lowest political classes, emigrated, +though still retaining their rights of citizenship. In 570-565 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Salamis was annexed and divided into lots and settled, and later +Pericles settled more than 2750 citizens in the Chersonese and elsewhere—practically +a considerable section of the whole body of +citizens. “By this means,” says Plutarch, “he relieved the state +of numerous idle agitators and assisted the necessitous.” In other +states this expedient was frequently adopted.</p> + +<p>(3) A third method was the supply of corn at reduced rates—a +method similar to that adopted, as we shall see, at Rome, Constantinople +and elsewhere. The maintenance of the mass of the people +depended on the corn fleets. There were public granaries, where +large stores were laid up at the public expense. A portion of all +cargoes of corn was retained at Athens and in other ways importation +was promoted. Exportation was forbidden. Public donations +and distributions of corn were frequent, and in times of scarcity rich +citizens made large contributions with that object. The distributions +were made to adult citizens of eighteen years of age and upwards +whose names were on the registers.</p> + +<p>(4) In addition to this there was a system of public relief for those +who were unable to earn a livelihood on account of bodily defects +and infirmities. The qualification was a property test. The property +of the applicant had to be shown to be of a value of not more +than three minae (say £12). Socrates, it may be noted, adopts the +same method of estimating his comparative poverty (Xen. <i>Econ.</i> 2. +6), saying that his goods would realize about five minae (or about +twenty guineas). The senate examined the case, and the ecclesia +awarded the bounty, which amounted to 1 or 2 obols a day, rather +more than 1½d. or 3d.—out-door relief, as we might say, amounting +at most to about 1s. 9d. a week. There was also a fund for the +maintenance of the children of those who had fallen in war, up to the +age of eighteen.</p> + +<p>(5) But the main source of support was the receipt of emoluments +for various public services. This was not relief, though it produced +in the course of time the effect of relief. It was rather the Athenian +method of supporting a governing class of citizens.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span> </p> + +<p>The inner political history of Athens is the history of the extension +of the franchise to the lower classes of citizens, with the privileges +of holding office and receiving emoluments. In early times, either +by Solon (<i>q.v.</i>) or previously, the citizens were classified on the +basis of property. The rich retained the franchise and the right +of holding office; the middle classes obtained the franchise; the +fourth or lowest class gained neither. By the reforms of Cleisthenes +(509 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the clan-family and the phratry were set aside for +the <i>deme</i> or parish, a geographical division superseding the social. +Finally, about 478 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when all had acquired the franchise, the +right to hold office also was obtained by the third class. These +changes coincided with a period of economic progress. The rate of +interest was high, usually 12%; and in trading and bottomry the +returns were much higher. A small capital at this interest soon +produced comparative wealth; and simultaneously prices were +falling. Then came the reaction. “After the Peloponnesian war” +(432-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), writes Professor Jebb, “the wealth of the country +ceased to grow, as population had ceased to grow about 50 years +sooner. The rich went on accumulating: the poor, having no means +of enriching themselves by enterprise, were for the most part occupied +in watching for some chance of snatching a larger share of the +stationary total.” Thus the poorer classes in a time of prosperity +had won the power which they were able to turn to their own account +afterwards. A period of economic pressure followed, coupled with a +decline in the population; no return to the land was feasible, nor +was emigration; the people had become town-folk inadaptable to +new uses; decreasing vitality and energy were marked by a new +temper, the “pauper” temper, unsettled, idle and grasping, and +political power was utilized to obtain relief. The relief was forthcoming, +but it was of no avail to stop the general decline. The state, +it might almost be said, in giving scope to the assertion of the spirit +of dependence, had ruined the self-regarding energy on which both +family and state alike depended. The emoluments were diverse. +The number of citizens was not large; the functions in which citizens +could take part were numerous; and when payment was forthcoming +the poorer citizens pressed in to exercise their rights (cf. +Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1293 a). All Athenian citizens could attend the public +assembly or <i>ecclesia</i>. Probably the attendance at it varied from +a few hundred to 5000 persons. In 395 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the payment for attendance +was fixed at 3 obols, or little more than 4½d. a day—for the +system of payment had probably been introduced a few years before +(but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span> and refs.). A juror or <i>dicast</i> would receive +the same sum for attendance, and the courts or juries often consisted +of 500 persons. If the estimate (Böckh, <i>Public Economy of Athens</i>, +Eng. trans. pp. 109, 117) holds good that in the age of Demosthenes +(384-323 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the member of a poor family of four free persons could +live (including rent) on about 3.3d. or between 2 and 3 obols a day, +the pay of the citizen attending the assembly or the court would at +least cover the expenses of subsistence. On the other hand, it would +be less than the pay of a day labourer, which was probably about +4 obols or 6d. a day. In any case many citizens—they numbered +in all about 20,000—in return for their participation in political +duties would receive considerable pecuniary assistance. Attending +a great public festival also, the citizen would receive 2 obols or 3d. +a day during the festival days; and there were besides frequent +public sacrifices, with the meal or feast which accompanied them. +But besides this there were confiscations of private property, which +produced a surplus revenue divisible among the poorer citizens. +(Some hold that there were confiscations in other Greek states, but +not in Athens.) In these circumstances it is not to be wondered +that men like Isocrates should regret that the influence of the +Areopagus, the old court of morals and justice in Athens, had disappeared, +for it “maintained a sort of censorial police over the lives +and habits of the citizens; and it professed to enforce a tutelary +and paternal discipline, beyond that which the strict letter of the +law could mark out, over the indolent, the prodigal, the undutiful, +and the deserters of old rite and custom.”</p> + +<p>(6) In addition to public emoluments and relief there was much +private liberality and charity. Many expensive public services +were undertaken honorarily by the citizens under a kind of civic +compulsion. Thus in a trial about 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Lysias, <i>Or.</i> 19. 57) a +citizen submitted evidence that his father expended more than +£2000 during his life in paying the expenses of choruses at festivals, +fitting out seven triremes for the navy, and meeting levies of income +tax to meet emergencies. Besides this he had helped poor citizens +by portioning their daughters and sisters, had ransomed some, and +paid the funeral expenses of others (cf. for other instances Plutarch’s +<i>Cimon</i>, Theophrastus, <i>Eth.</i>, and Xen. <i>Econ.</i>).</p> + +<p>(7) There were also mutual help societies (<span class="grk" title="eranoi">ἔρανοι</span>). Those for +relief would appear to have been loan societies (cf. Theoph. <i>Eth.</i>), +one of whose members would beat up contributions to help a friend, +who would afterwards repay the advance.</p> + +<p>The criticisms of Aristotle (384-321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) suggest the direction +to which he looked for reform. He (<i>Pol.</i> 1320 a) passes a very +unfavourable judgment on the distribution of public money to the +poorer citizens. The demagogues (he does not speak of Athens +particularly) distributed the surplus revenues to the poor, who +received them all at the same time; and then they were in want +again. It was only, he argued, like pouring water through a sieve. +It were better to see to it that the greater number were not so entirely +destitute, for the depravity of a democratic government was due to +this. The problem was to contrive how plenty (<span class="grk" title="euporia">εὐπορία</span>, not poverty, +<span class="grk" title="aporia">ἀπορία</span>) should become permanent. His proposals are adequate aid +and voluntary charity. Public relief should, he urges, be given in +large amounts so as to help people to acquire small farms or start +in business, and the well-to-do (<span class="grk" title="euporoi">εὔποροι</span>) should in the meantime +subscribe to pay the poor for their attendance at the public assemblies. +(This proves, indeed, how the payments had become poor +relief.) He mentions also how the Carthaginian notables divided +the destitute amongst them and gave them the means of setting +to work, and the Tarentines (<span class="grk" title="koina poiountes">κοινὰ ποιοῦντες</span>) shared their property +with the poor. (The Rhodians also may be mentioned (Strabo xiv. +c. 652), amongst whom the well-to-do undertook the relief of the +poor voluntarily.) The later word for charitable distribution was +a sharing (<span class="grk" title="koinonia">κοινωνία</span>, Ep. Rom. xv. 26), which would seem to indicate +that after Aristotle’s time popular thought had turned in that +direction. But the chief service rendered by Aristotle—a service +which covered indeed the whole ground of social progress—was to +show that unless the purpose of civil and social life was carefully +considered and clearly realized by those who desired to improve its +conditions, no change for the better could result from individual +or associated action.</p> +</div> + +<p>Two forms of charity have still to be mentioned: charity +to the stranger and to the sick. It will be convenient to consider +both in relation to the whole classical period.</p> + +<p>With the growth of towns the administration of hospitality +was elaborated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) There was hospitality between members of families bound +by the rites of host and guest. The guest received as a right only +shelter and fire. Usually he dined with the host the first +day, and if afterwards he was fed provisions were supplied +<span class="sidenote">The stranger.</span> +to him. There were large guest-chambers (<span class="grk" title="xenon">ξενών</span>) or small +guest-houses, completely isolated on the right or left of the principal +house; and here the guest was lodged. (2) There were also, <i>e.g.</i> at +Hierapolis (Sir W.M. Ramsay’s <i>Phrygia</i>, ii. 97), brotherhoods +of hospitality (<span class="grk" title="xenoi tekmêreioi">ξένοι τεκμηρεῖοι</span>, bearers of the sign), which made +hospitality a duty, and had a common chest and Apollo as their +tutelary god. (3) There were inns or resting-places (<span class="grk" title="katagogia">καταγώγια</span>) +for strangers at temples (Thuc. iii. 68; Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 953 A) and +places of resort (<span class="grk" title="lesche">λέσχη</span>) at or near the temples for the entertainment +of strangers—for instance, at a temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus +(Pausanias ii. 174); and Pausanias argues that they were +common throughout the country. Probably also at the temples +hospitable provision was made for strangers. The evidence at +present is not perhaps sufficiently complete, but, so far as it goes, +it tends to the conclusion that in pre-Christian times hospitality +was provided to passers-by and strangers in the temple buildings, +as later it was furnished in the monasteries and churches. (4) There +were also in towns houses for strangers (<span class="grk" title="xenon">ξενών</span>) provided at the +public cost. This was so at Megara; and in Crete strangers had a +place at the public meals and a dormitory. Xenophon suggested +that it would be profitable for the Athenian state to establish inns +for traders (<span class="grk" title="katagogia dêmusia">καταγώγια δημόσια</span>) at Athens. Thus, apart from the +official hospitality of the proxenus or “consul,” who had charge of +the affairs of foreigners, and the hospitality which was shown to +persons of distinction by states or private individuals, there was in +Greece a large provision for strangers, wayfarers and vagrants based +on the charitable sentiment of hospitality. Among the Romans +similar customs of private and public hospitality prevailed; and +throughout the empire the older system was altered, probably very +slowly. In Christian times (cf. Ramsay above) Pagan temples were +(about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 408) utilized for other purposes, including that of hospitality +to strangers.</p> +</div> + +<p>Round the temples, at first probably village temples, the +organization of medical relief grew up. Primitive medicine is +connected with dreams, worship, and liturgical +“pollution,” punishment and penitence, and an +<span class="sidenote">The sick.</span> +experimental practice. Finally, systematic observation and +science (with no knowledge of chemistry and little of physiology) +assert themselves, and a secular administration is created by +the side of the older religious organization.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Sickness among primitive races is conceived to be a material +substance to be extracted, or an evil spirit to be driven away by +incantation. Religion and medicine are thus at the beginning +almost one and the same thing. In Anatolia, in the groups of +villages (cf. Ramsay as above, i. 101) under the theocratic government +of a central <span class="grk" title="ieron">ἱερόν</span> or temple, the god Men Karou was the +physician and saviour (<span class="grk" title="soter">σωτήρ</span> and <span class="grk" title="sozon">σώζων</span>) of his people. +Priests, prophets and physicians were his ministers. He punished wrong-doing +by diseases which he taught the penitent to cure. So elsewhere +pollution, physical or moral, was chastened by disease and +loss of property or children, and further ills were avoided by sacrifice +and expiation and public warning. In the temple and out of this +phase of thought grew up schools of medicine, in whose practice +dreams and religious ritual retained a place. The newer gods, +Asclepius and Apollo, succeeded the older local divinities; and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span> +the “sons” of Asclepius became a profession, and the temple with +its adjacent buildings a kind of hospital. There were many temples +of Asclepius in Greece and elsewhere, placed generally in high and +salubrious positions. After ablution the patient offered sacrifices, +repeating himself the words of the hymn that was chanted. Then, +when night came on, he slept in the temple. In the early dawn he +was to dream “the heavenly dream” which would suggest his cure; +but if he did not dream, relations and others—officials at the +temple—might dream for him. At dawn the priests or sons of Asclepius +came into the temple and visited the sick, so that, in a kind of +drama, where reality and appearance seemed to meet, the patients +believed that they saw the god himself. The next morning the +prescription and treatment were settled. At hand in the inn or +guest-chambers of the temple the patient could remain, sleeping +again in the temple, if necessary, and carrying out the required +regimen. In the temple were votive tablets of cases, popular and +awe-inspiring, and records and prescriptions, which later found +their way into the medical works of Galen and others. At the +temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus was an inn (<span class="grk" title="katagogion">καταγώγιον</span>) with +four courts and colonnades, and in all 160 rooms. (Cf. Pausanias +ii. 171; and <i>Report, Archaeol. in Greece</i>, R.C. Bosanquet, 1899, +1900.)</p> +</div> + +<p>At three centres more particularly, Rhodes, Cnidos and Cos, +were the medical schools of the Asclepiads. If one may judge +from an inscription at Athens, priests of Asclepius attended the +poor gratuitously. And years afterwards, in the 11th century, +when there was a revival of medicine, we find (Daremberg, <i>La +Médecine: histoire et doctrines</i>) at Salerno the Christian priest as +doctor, a simple and less palatable pharmacy for the poor than +for the rich, and gratuitous medical relief.</p> + +<p>Besides the temple schools and hospitals there was a secular +organization of medical aid and relief. States appointed trained +medical men as physicians, and provided for them medical +establishments (<span class="grk" title="iatreia">ἰατρεῖα</span>, “large houses with large doors full of +light”) for the reception of the sick, and for operations there +were provided beds, instruments, medicines, &c. At these places +also pupils were taught. A lower degree of medical establishment +was to be found at the barbers’ shops. Out-patients were seen +at the <i>iatreia</i>. They were also visited at home. There were +doctors’ assistants and slave doctors. The latter, apparently, +attended only slaves (Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 720); they do “a great +service to the master of the house, who in this manner is relieved +of the care of his slaves.” It was a precept of Hippocrates that +if a physician came to a town where there were sick poor, he +should make it his first duty to attend to them; and the state +physician attended gratuitously any one who applied to him. +There were also travelling physicians going rounds to heal +children and the poor. These methods continued, probably all +of them, to Christian times.</p> + +<p>It has been argued that medical practice was introduced into +Italy by the Greeks. But the evidence seems to show that there +was a quite independent Latin tradition and school of medicine +(René Brian, “Médecine dans le Latium et à Rome,” <i>Rev. +Archéol.</i>, 1885). In Rome there were consulting-rooms and +dispensaries, and houses in which the sick were received. +Hospitals are mentioned by Roman writers in the 1st century +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> There were infirmaries—detached buildings—for sick +slaves; and in Rome, as at Athens, there were slaves skilled in +medicine. In Rome also for each <i>regio</i> there was a chief physician +who attended to the poorer people.</p> + +<p>Slavery was so large a factor in pre-Christian and early +Christian society that a word should be said on its relation +to charity. Indirectly it was a cause of poverty +and social degradation. Thus in the case of Athens, +<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span> +with the achievement of maritime supremacy the number of +slaves increased greatly. Manual arts were despised as unbecoming +to a citizen, and the slaves carried on the larger part +of the agricultural and industrial work of the community; and +for a time—until after the Peloponnesian War (404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)—slavery +was an economic success. But by degrees the slave, it +would seem, dispossessed the citizen and rendered him unfit +for competition. The position of the free artisan thus became +akin to that of the slave (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1260 a, &c.), and slavery +became the industrial method of the country. Though Greeks, +Romans, Jews and Christians spent money in ransoming +individual slaves and also enfranchised many, no general abolition +of slavery was possible. At last through economic changes the +new status of <i>coloni</i>, who paid as rent part of the produce of the +land they tilled, superseded the status of slavery (cf. above; +the system turned to account by Peisistratus). But this result +was only achieved much later, when a new society was being +created, when the slaves from the slave prisons (<i>ergastula</i>) of +Italy joined its invaders, and the slave-owner or master, as one +may suppose, unable any longer to work the gangs, let them +become <i>coloni</i>.</p> + +<p>In Greece the feeling towards the slave became constantly +more humane. Real slavery, Aristotle said, was a cast of mind, +not a condition of life. The slave was not to be ordered about, +but to be commanded and persuaded like a child. The master +was under the strongest obligation to promote his welfare. In +Rome, on the other hand, slavery continued to the end a massive, +brutal, industrial force—a standing danger to the state. But +alike in Greece and Rome the influence of slavery on the family +was pernicious. The pompous array of domestic slaves, the +transfer of motherly duties to slave nurses, the loss of that +homely education which for most people comes only from the +practical details of life—all this in later Greece and Italy, and +far into Christian times, prevented that permanent invigoration +and reform of family life which Jewish and Christian influences +might otherwise have produced.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part III.—Charity in Roman Times</p> + +<p>The words that suggest most clearly the Roman attitude +towards what we call charity are <i>liberalitas</i>, <i>beneficentia</i> and +<i>pietas</i>. The two former are almost synonymous (Cicero, <i>De +Offic.</i> i. 7, 14). Liberality lays stress on the mood—that of the +<i>liber</i>, the freeborn, and so in a sense the independent and superior; +beneficence on the deed and its purpose (Seneca, <i>De Benef.</i> vi. 10). +The conditions laid down by Cicero, following Panaetius the Stoic +(185-112 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are three: not to do harm to him whom one would +benefit, not to exceed one’s means, and to have regard to merit. +The character of the person whom we would benefit should be +considered, his feelings towards us, the interest of the community, +our social relations in life, and services rendered in the past. +The utility of the deed or gift graded according to social relationship +and estimated largely from the point of view of ultimate +advantage to the doer or donor seems to predominate in the +general thought of the book, though (cf. Aristotle, <i>Eth.</i> viii. 3) +the idea culminates in the completeness of friendship where “all +things are in common.” <i>Pietas</i> has the religious note which the +other words lack, loving dutifulness to gods and home and +country. Not “piety” only but “pity” derive from it: thus +it comes near to our “charity.” Both books, the <i>De Officiis</i> +and the <i>De Beneficiis</i>, represent a Roman and Stoical revision +of the problem of charity and, as in Stoicism generally, there +seems to be a half-conscious attempt to feel the way to a new +social standpoint from this side.</p> + +<p>As from the point of view of charity the well-being of the +community depends upon the vigour of the deep-laid elemental +life within it, so in passing to Roman times we consider +the family first. The Roman family was unique in its +<span class="sidenote">Roman times.</span> +completeness, and by some of its conditions the world +has long been bound. The father alone had independent authority +(<i>sui juris</i>), and so long as he lived all who were under his power—his +wife, his sons, and their wives and children, and his unmarried +daughters—could not acquire any property of their own. Failing +father or husband, the unmarried daughters were placed under +the guardianship of the nearest male members of the family. +Thus the family, in the narrower sense in which we commonly +use the word, as meaning descendants of a common father or +grandfather, was, as it were, a single point of growth in a larger +organism, the <i>gens</i>, which consisted of all those who shared a +common ancestry.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The wife, though in law the property of her husband, held a +position of honour and influence higher than that of the Greek +wife, at least in historic times. She seems to come nearer to the +ideal of Xenophon: “the good wife should be the mistress of everything +within the house.” “A house of his own and the blessing +of children appeared to the Roman citizen as the end and essence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span> +of life” (Mommsen, <i>Hist. Rome</i>). The obligation of the father to +the sons was strongly felt. The family, past, present and future, +was conceived as one and indivisible. Each succeeding generation +had a right to the care of its predecessor in mind, body and estate. +The training of the sons was distinctly a home and not a school +training. Brought up by the father and constantly at his side, they +learnt spontaneously the habits and traditions of the family. The +home was their school. By their father they were introduced into +public life, and though still remaining under his power during his +lifetime, they became citizens, and their relation to the state was +direct. The nation was a nation of yeomen. Only agriculture and +warfare were considered honourable employments. The father and +sons worked outdoors on the farm, employing little or no slave +labour; the wife and daughters indoors at spinning and weaving. +The drudgery of the household was done by domestic slaves. The +father was the working head of a toiling household. Their chief +gods were the same as those of early Greece—Zeus-Diovis and +Hestia-Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home. Out of this +solid, compact family Roman society was built, and so long as the +family was strong attachment to the service of the state was intense. +The <i>res publica</i>, the common weal, the phrase and the thought, meet +one at every turn; and never were citizens more patient and +tenacious combatants on their country’s behalf. The men were +soldiers in an unpaid militia and were constantly engaged in wars +with the rivals of Rome, leaving home and family for their campaigns +and returning to them in the winter. With a hardness and +closeness inconsistent with—indeed, opposed to—the charitable +spirit, they combined the strength of character and sense of justice +without which charity becomes sentimental and unsocial. In the +development of the family, and thus, indirectly, in the development +of charity, they stand for settled obligation and unrelenting duty.</p> +</div> + +<p>Under the protection of the head of the family “in dependent +freedom” lived the clients. They were in a middle position +between the freemen and the slaves. The relation between +patron and client lasted for several generations; and there were +many clients. Their number increased as state after state was +conquered, and they formed the <i>plebs</i>, in Rome the <i>plebs urbana</i>, +the lower orders of the city.</p> + +<p>In relation to our subject the important factors are the family, +the <i>plebs</i> and slavery.</p> + +<p>Two processes were at work from an early date, before the first +agrarian law (486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>): the impoverishment of the <i>plebs</i> and +the increase of slavery. The former led to the <i>annona civica</i>, or +the free supply of corn to the citizens, and to the <i>sportula</i> or the +organized food-supply for poor clients, and ultimately to the +<i>alimentarii pueri</i>, the maintenance of children of citizens by +voluntary and imperial bounty. The latter (slavery) was the +standing witness that, as self-support was undermined, the task +of relief became hopeless, and the impoverished citizen, as the +generations passed, became in turn dependant, beggar, pauper +and slave.</p> + +<p>The great patrician families—“an oligarchy of warriors and +slaveholders”—did not themselves engage in trade, but, entering +on large speculations, employed as their agents their clients, +<i>libertini</i> or freedmen, and, later, their slaves. The constant +wars, for which the soldiers of a local militia were eventually +retained in permanent service, broke up the yeomanry and very +greatly reduced their number. Whole families of citizens became +impoverished, and their lands were in consequence sold to +the large patrician families, members of which had acquired +lucrative posts, or prospered in their speculations, and assumed +possession of the larger part of the land, the <i>ager publicus</i>, +acquired by the state through conquest. The city had always +been the centre of the patrician families, the patron of the trading +<i>libertini</i> and other dependants. To it now flocked as well the +<i>metoeci</i>, the resident aliens from the conquered states, and the +poorer citizens, landless and unable for social reasons to turn to +trade. There was thus in Rome a growing multitude of aliens, +dispossessed yeomen and dependent clients. Simultaneously +slavery increased very largely after the second Punic War +(202 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Every conquest brought slaves into the market, for +whom ready purchasers were found. The slaves took the place +of the freemen upon the old family estates, and the free country +people became extinct. Husbandry gave place to shepherding. +The estates were thrown into large domains (<i>latifundia</i>), managed +by bailiffs and worked by slaves, often fettered or bound by +chains, lodged in cells in houses of labour (<i>ergastula</i>), and sometimes +cared for when ill in infirmaries (<i>valetudinaria</i>). In Crete +and Sparta the slaves toiled that the mass of citizens might have +means and leisure. In Rome the slave class was organized for +private and not for common ends. In Athens the citizens were +paid for their services; at Rome no offices were paid. Thus +the citizen at Rome was, one might almost say, forced into a +dependence on the public corn, for as the large properties +swallowed up the smaller, and the slave dispossessed the citizen, +a population grew up unfit for rural toil, disinclined to live by +methods that pride considered sordid, unstable and pleasure-loving, +and yet a serious political factor, as dependent on the +rich for their enjoyments as they were on their patrons or the +prefect of the corn in the city for their food.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It is estimated, from extremely difficult and uncertain data, that +the population of Rome in the time of Augustus was about 1,200,000 +or 1,500,000. At that time the<i> plebs urbana</i> numbered 320,000. If +this be multiplied by three, to give a low average of dependants, +wives and children, this section of the population would number +960,000. The remainder of the 1,500,000, 540,000, would consist of +(a) slaves, and (b) those, the comparatively few, who would be +members of the great clan-families (<i>gentes</i>). Proportionately to +Attica this seems to allow too small a population of slaves. But +however this be, we may picture the population of Rome as consisting +chiefly of a few patrician families ministered to by a very large +number of slaves, and a populace of needy citizens, in whose ranks it +was profitable for an outsider to find a place in order that he might +participate in the advantages of state maintenance.</p> +</div> + +<p>In Rome the clan-family became the dominant political factor. +As in England and elsewhere in the middle ages, and even in +later times, the family, in these circumstances, assumes +an influence which is out of harmony with the common +<span class="sidenote">The annona civica.</span> +good. The social advantage of the family lies in its +self-maintenance, its home charities, and its moral +and educational force, but if its separate interests are made +supreme, it becomes uncharitable and unsocial. In Rome this +was the line of development. The stronger clan-families crushed +the weaker, and became the “oligarchy of warriors and slaveholders.” +In the same spirit they possessed themselves of +the <i>ager publicus</i>. The land obtained by the Romans by right +of conquest was public. It belonged to the state, and to a yeoman +state it was the most valuable acquisition. At first part of +it was sold and part was distributed to citizens without property +and destitute (cf. Plutarch, <i>Tib. Gracchus</i>). At a very early date, +however, the patrician families acquired possession of much of +it and held it at a low rental, and thus the natural outlet for a +conquering farmer race was monopolized by one class, the richer +clan-families. This injustice was in part remedied by the +establishment of colonies, in which the emigrant citizens received +sufficient portions of land. But these colonies were comparatively +few, and after each conquest the rich families made large purchases, +while the smaller proprietors, whose services as soldiers +were constantly required, were unable to attend to their lands +or to retain possession of them. To prevent this (367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +the Licinian law was passed, by which ownership in land was +limited to 500 <i>jugera</i>, about 312 acres. This law was ignored, +however, and more than two centuries later the evil, the double +evil of the dispossession of the citizen farmer and of slavery, +reached a crisis. The slave war broke out (134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +Tiberius Gracchus made his attempt to re-endow the Roman +citizens with the lands which they had acquired by conquest. +He undertook what was essentially a charitable or philanthropic +movement, which was set on foot too late. He had passed through +Tuscany, and seen with resentment and pity the deserted +country where the foreign slaves and barbarians were now +the only shepherds and cultivators. He had been brought up +under the influence of Greek Stoical thought, with which, almost +in spite of itself, there was always associated an element of pity. +The problem which he desired to solve, though larger in scale, +was essentially the same as that with which Solon and Peisistratus +had dealt successfully. At bottom the issue lay between +private property, considered as the basis of family life for the +great bulk of the community, with personal independence, and +pauperism, with the <i>annona</i> or slavery. In 133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Tiberius +Gracchus became tribune. To expand society on the lines of +private property, he proposed the enforcement of “the Licinian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span> +Rogations”; the rich were to give up all beyond their rightful +312 acres, and the remainder was to be distributed amongst +the poor. The measure was carried by the use of arbitrary +powers, and followed by the death of Tiberius at the hands of +the patricians, the dominant clan-families. In 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Caius +Gracchus took up his brother’s quarrel, and adopting, it would +seem, a large scheme of political and social reform, proposed +measures for emigration and for relief. The former failed; the +latter apparently were acceptable to all parties, and continued +in force long after C. Gracchus had been slain (121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Already, +at times, there had been sales of corn at cheap prices. Now, by +the <i>lex frumentaria</i> he gave the citizens—those who had the +Roman franchise—the right to purchase corn every month from +the public stores at rather more than half-price, 6<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> <i>asses</i> or about +3.3d. the peck. This, the fatal alternative, was accepted, and +henceforth there was no possibility of a reversion to better social +conditions.</p> + +<p>The provisioning of Rome was, like that of Athens, a public +service. There were public granaries (267 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and there was +a quaestor to supervise the transit of the corn from Sicily and, +later, from Spain and Africa, and an elaborate administration +for collecting and conveying it. The <i>lex frumentaria</i> of Caius was +followed by the <i>lex Octavia</i>, restricting the monthly sale to citizens +settled in Rome, and to 5 <i>modii</i> (1¼ bushels). According to +Polybius, the amount required for the maintenance of a slave +was 5 <i>modii</i> a month, and of a soldier 4. Hence the allowance, +if continued at this rate, was practically a maintenance. The +<i>lex Clodia</i> (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) made the corn gratuitous to the <i>plebs +urbana</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Julius Caesar (5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) found the number of recipients to be 320,000, +and reduced them to 150,000. In Augustus’s time they rose to +200,000. There seems, however, to be some confusion as to the +numbers. From the <i>Ancyranum Monumentum</i> it appears that the +<i>plebs urbana</i> who received Augustus’s dole of 60 <i>denarii</i> (37s. 6d.) +in his eighth consulship numbered 320,000. And (Suet. <i>Caes.</i> 41) +it seems likely that in Caesar’s time the lists of the recipients were +settled by lot; further, probably only those whose property was +worth less than 400,000 <i>sesterces</i> (£3541) were placed on the lists. +It is probable, therefore, that 320,000 represents a maximum, +reduced for purposes of administration to a smaller number (a) by +a property test, and (b) by some kind of scrutiny. The names of +those certified to receive the corn were exposed on bronze tablets. +They were then called <i>aerarii</i>. They had tickets (<i>tesserae</i>) for +purposes of identification, and they received the corn or bread in the +time of the republic at the temple of Ceres, and afterwards at steps +in the several (14) regions or wards of Rome. Hence the bread was +called <i>panis gradilis</i>. In the middle of the 2nd century there were +state bakeries, and wheaten loaves were baked for the people perhaps +two or three times a week. In Aurelian’s time (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 270) the flour +was of the best, and the weight of the loaf (one <i>uncia</i>) was doubled. +To the gifts of bread were added pork, oil and possibly wine; +clothes also—white tunics with long sleeves—were distributed. +In the period after Constantine (cf. <i>Theod. Code</i>, xiv. 15) three +classes received the bread—the palace people (<i>palatini</i>), soldiers +(<i>militares</i>), and the populace (<i>populares</i>). No distribution was +permitted except at the steps. Each class had its own steps in the +several wards. The bread at one step could not be transferred to +another step. Each class had its own supply. There were arrangements +for the exchange of stale loaves. Against misappropriation +there were (law of Valentinian and Valens) severe penalties. If a public +prosecutor (<i>actor</i>), a collector of the revenue (<i>procurator</i>), or +the slave of a senator obtained bread with the cognizance of the +clerk, or by bribery, the slave, if his master was not a party to the +offence, had to serve in the state bakehouse in chains. If the master +were involved, his house was confiscated. If others who had not the +right obtained the bread, they and their property were placed at +the service of the bakery (<i>pistrini exercitio subjugari</i>). If they were +poor (<i>pauperes</i>) they were enslaved, and the delinquent client was +to be put to death.</p> +</div> + +<p>The right to relief was dependent on the right of citizenship. +Hence it became hereditary and passed from father to son. +It was thus in the nature of a continuous endowed charity, like the +well-known family charity of Smith, for instance, in which a +large property was left to the testator’s descendants, of whom +it was said that as a result no Smith of that family could fail to be +poor. But the <i>annona civica</i> was an endowed charity, affecting +not a single family, but the whole population. Later, when +Constantinople was founded, the right to relief was attached to +new houses as a premium on building operations. Thus it +belonged not to persons only, but also to houses, and became a +species of “immovable” property, passing to the purchaser of +the house or property, as would the adscript slaves. The bread +followed the house (<i>aedes sequantur annonae</i>). If, on the transfer +of a house, bread claims were lost owing to the absence of +claimants, they were transferred to the treasury (<i>fisci viribus +vindicentur</i>). But the savage law of Valentinian, referred to +above, shows to what lengths such a system was pushed. Early +in its history the <i>annona civica</i> attracted many to Rome in the +hope of living there without working. For the 400 years since +the <i>lex Clodia</i> was enacted constant injury had been done by it, +and now (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 364) people had to be kept off the civic bounty as +if they were birds of prey, and the very poor man (<i>pauperrimus</i>), +who had no civic title to the food, if he obtained it by fraud, +was enslaved. Thus, in spite of the abundant state relief, there +had grown up a class of the very poor, the Gentiles of the state, +who were outside the sphere of its ministrations. The <i>annona +civica</i> was introduced not only into Constantinople, but also +into Alexandria, with baleful results, and into Antioch. When +Constantinople was founded the corn-ships of Africa sailed there +instead of to Rome. On charitable relief, as we shall see, the +<i>annona</i> has had a long-continued and fatal influence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. If the government considers itself responsible for provisioning +the people it must fix the price of necessaries, and to meet distress +or popular clamour it will lower the price. It becomes thus a large +relief society for the supply of corn. In a time of distress, when the +corn laws were a matter of moment in England, a similar system was +adopted in the well-known Speenhamland scale (1795), by which a +larger or lesser allowance was given to a family according to its size +and the prevailing price of corn. A maintenance was thus provided +for the able-bodied and their families, at least in part, without any +equivalent in labour; though in England labour was demanded of +the applicant, and work was done more or less perfunctorily. In +amount the Roman dole seems to have been equivalent to the +allowance provided for a slave, but the citizen received it without +having to do any labour task. He received it as a statutory right. +There could hardly be a more effective method for degrading his +manhood and denaturalizing his family. He was also a voter, and +the alms appealed to his weakness and indolence; and the fear of +displeasing him and losing his vote kept him, socially, master of the +situation, to his own ruin. If in England now relief were given to +able-bodied persons who retained their votes, this evil would also +attach to it.</p> + +<p>2. The system obliged the hard-working to maintain the idlers, +while it continually increased their number. The needy teacher +in Juvenal, instead of a fee, is put off with a <i>tessera</i>, to which, not +being a citizen, he has no right. “The foreign reapers,” it was said, +“filled Rome’s belly and left Rome free for the stage and the circus.” +The freeman had become a slave—“stupid and drowsy, to whom +days of ease had become habitual, the games, the circus, the theatre, +dice, eating-houses and brothels.” Here are all the marks of a +degraded pauperism.</p> + +<p>3. The system led the way to an ever more extensive slavery. +The man who could not live on his dole and other scrapings had the +alternative of becoming a slave. “Better have a good master than +live so distressfully”; and “If I were free I should live at my own +risk; now I live at yours,” are the expressions suggestive of the +natural temptations of slavery in these conditions. The escaped +slaves returned to “their manger.” The <i>annona</i> did not prevent +destitution. It was a half-way house to slavery.</p> + +<p>4. The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce +generally, was ruinous. The largest corn-market, Rome, was withdrawn +from the trade—the market to which all the necessaries of +life would naturally have gravitated; and the supply of corn was +placed in the hands of producers at a few centres where it could be +grown most cheaply—Sicily, Spain and Africa. The Italian farmer +had to turn his attention to other produce—the cultivation of the +olive and the vine, and cattle and pig rearing. The greater the +extension of the system the more impossible was the regeneration of +Rome. The Roman citizen might well say that he was out of +work, for, so far as the land was concerned, the means of obtaining +a living were placed out of his reach. While not yet unfitted for +the country by life in the town, he at least could not “return to the land.”</p> + +<p>5. The method was the outcome of distress and political hopelessness. +Yet the rich also adopted it in distributing their private +largess. Cicero (<i>De Off.</i> ii. 16) writes as though he recognized its +evil; but though he expresses his disapprobation of the popular +shows upon which the <i>aediles</i> spent large sums, he argues that +something must be done “if the people demand it, and if good men, +though they do not wish it, assent to it.” Thus in a guarded manner +he approves a distribution of food—a free breakfast in the streets +of Rome. One bad result of the <i>annona</i> was that it encouraged a +special and ruinous form of charitable munificence.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span> </p> + +<p>The <i>sportula</i> was a form of charity corresponding to the <i>annona +civica</i>. Charity and poor relief run on parallel lines, and when +the one is administered without discrimination, little +discrimination will usually be exercised in the other. +<span class="sidenote">The sportula.</span> +It was the charity of the patron of the chiefs of the +clan-families to their clients. Between them it was natural that +a relation, partly hospitable, partly charitable, should grow up. +The clients who attended the patron at his house were invited +to dine at his table. The patron, as Juvenal describes him, +dined luxuriously and in solitary grandeur, while the guests put +up with what they could get; or, as was usual under the empire, +instead of the dinner (<i>coena recta</i>) a present of food was given at +the outer vestibule of the house to clients who brought with them +baskets (<i>sportula</i>) to carry off their food, or even charcoal stoves +to keep it warm. There was endless trickery. The patron (or +almoner who acted for him) tried to identify the applicant, +fearing lest he might get the dole under a false name; and at each +mansion was kept a list of persons, male and female, entitled to +receive the allowance. “The pilferer grabs the dole” (<i>sportulam +furunculus captat</i>) was a proverb. The <i>sportula</i> was a charity +sufficiently important for state regulation. Nero (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 54) +reduced it to a payment in money (100 <i>quadrantes</i>, about 1s.). +Domitian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 81) restored the custom of giving food. Subsequently +both practices—gifts in money and in food—appear to have been continued.</p> + +<p>In these conditions the Roman family steadily decayed. Its +“old discipline” was neglected; and Tacitus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75), in his +dialogue on Oratory, wrote (c. xxviii.) what might be called its +epitaph. Of the general decline the laws of Caesar and Augustus +to encourage marriage and to reward the parents of large families +are sufficient evidence.</p> + +<p>The destruction of the working-class family must have been +finally achieved by the imperial control of the <i>collegia</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In old Rome there were corporations of craftsmen for common +worship, and for the maintenance of the traditions of the craft. +These corporations were ruined by slave labour, and +becoming secret societies, in the time of Augustus were +<span class="sidenote">The collegia.</span> +suppressed. Subsequently they were reorganized, and +gave scope for much friendliness. They often existed in connexion +with some great house, whose chief was their patron and whose +household gods they worshipped. The gilds of the poor, or rather +of the lower orders (<i>collegia tenuiorum</i>), consisted of artisans and +others, and slaves also, who paid monthly contributions to a common +fund to meet the expenses of worship, common meals, and funerals. +They were not in Italy, it would seem (J.P. Waltzing, <i>Études histor. +sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains</i>, i. 145, 300), +though they may have been in Asia Minor and elsewhere, societies +for mutual help generally. They were chiefly funeral benefit societies. +Under Severus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192) the <i>collegia</i> were extended and more +closely organized as industrial bodies. They were protected and +controlled, as in England in the 15th century the municipalities +affected the cause of the craft gilds and ended by controlling them. +Industrial disorder was thus prevented; the government were able +to provide the supplies required in Rome and the large cities with +less risk and uncertainty; and the workmen employed in trade, +especially the carrying trade, became almost slaves. In the 2nd +century, and until the invasions, there were three groups of <i>collegia</i>: +(1) those engaged in various state manufactures; (2) those engaged +in the provision trade; and (3) the free trades, which gradually +lapsed into a kind of slavery. If the members of these gilds fled they +were brought back by force. Parents had to keep to the trade to +which they belonged; their children had to succeed them in it. +A slave caste indeed had been formed of the once free workmen.</p> +</div> + +<p>As a charitable protest against the destruction of children, +in the midst of a broken family life, and increasing dependence +and poverty, a special institution was founded (to use +<span class="sidenote">Pueri alimentarii.</span> +the Scottish word) for the “alimentation” of the +children of citizens, at first by voluntary charity and +afterwards by imperial bounty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Nerva and Trajan adopted the plan. Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 18) refers +to it. There was a desire to give more lasting and certain help +than an allotment of food to parents. A list of children, whose +names were on the relief tables at Rome, was accordingly drawn +up, and a special service for their maintenance established. Two +instances are recorded in inscriptions—one at Veleia, one at Beneventum. +The emperor lent money for the purpose at a low percentage—2½ +or 5% as against the usual 10 or 12. At Veleia his loan +amounted to 1,044,000 <i>sesterces</i>—about £8156, and 51 of the local +landed proprietors mortgaged land, valued at 13 or 14 million +<i>sesterces</i>, as security for the debt. The interest on the emperor’s +money at 5% was paid into the municipal treasury, and out of it the +children were relieved. The figures seem small; at Veleia 300 +children were assisted, of whom 36 were girls. The annual interest +at 5% amounted to nearly £408, which divided among 300 gives +about 27s. a head. The figures suggest that the money served as a +charitable supplementation of the citizens’ relief in direct aid of +the children. Apparently the scheme was widely adopted. Curators +of high position were the patrons; procurators acted as inspectors +over large areas; and <i>quaestores alimentarii</i> undertook the local +management. Antoninus Pius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 138), and Marcus Aurelius +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160), and subsequently Severus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192) established these +bursaries for children in the names of their wives. In the 3rd century +the system fell into disorder. There were large arrears of payments, +and in the military anarchy that ensued it came to an end. It is of +special interest, as indicating a new feeling of responsibility towards +children akin to the humane Stoicism of the Antonines, and an +attempt to found, apart from temples or <i>collegia</i>, what was in the +nature of a public endowed charity.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part IV.—Jewish and Christian Charity</p> + +<p>With Christianity two elements came into fusion, the Jewish +and the Greco-Roman. To trace this fusion and its results it is +necessary to describe the Jewish system of charity, and to compare +it with that of the early Christian church, to note the theory +of love or friendship in Aristotle as representing Greek thought, +and of charity in St Paul as representing Christian thought, and +to mark the Roman influences which moulded the administration +of Ambrose and Gregory and Western Christianity generally.</p> + +<p>In the early history of the Hebrews we find the family, +clan-family and tribe. With the Exodus (probably about 1390 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) +comes the law of Moses (cf. Kittel, <i>Hist. of the Hebrews</i>, +Eng. trans. i. 244), the central and permanent element +<span class="sidenote">Hebrew charity.</span> +of Jewish thought. We may compare it to the +“commandments” of Hesiod. There is the recognition of the +family and its obligations: “Honour thy father and mother”; +and honour included help and support. There is also the law +essential to family unity: “Thou shalt not commit adultery”; +and as to property there is imposed the regulation of desire: +“Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour’s house.” Maimonides +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1135), true to the old conception of the family (x. 16), calls +the support of adult children, “after one is exempt from supporting +them,” and the support of a father or mother by a child, +“great acts of charity; since kindred are entitled to the first +consideration.” To relief of the stranger the Decalogue makes no +reference, but in the Hebraic laws it is constantly pressed; and +the Levitical law (xix. 18) goes further. It first applies a new +standard to social life: “Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.” +This thought is the outcome of a deep ethical fervour—the +element which the Jews brought into the work of charity. +In Judges and Joshua, the “Homeric” books of the Old Testament, +the Hebrews appear as a passionately fierce and cruel +people. Subsequently against their oppression of the poor the +prophets protested with a vehemence as great as the evil was +intense; and their denunciations remained part of the national +literature, a standing argument that life without charity is +nothing worth. Thus schooled and afterwards tutored into +discipline by the tribulation of the exile (587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), they turned +their fierceness into a zeal, which, as their literature shows, was +as fervent in ethics as it was in religion and ceremonial. In the +services at the synagogues, which supplemented and afterwards +took the place of the Temple, the Commandments were constantly +repeated and the Law and the Prophets read; and as the Jews +of the Dispersion increased in number, and especially after the +destruction of Jerusalem, the synagogues became centres of social +and charitable co-operation. Thus rightly would a Jewish rabbi +say, “On three things the world is stayed: on the Thorah (or +the law), and on worship, and on the bestowal of kindness.” +Also there was on the charitable side an indefinite power of +expansion. Rigid in its ceremonial, there it was free. Within +the nation, as the Prophets, and after the exile, as the Psalms +show, there was the hope of a universal religion, and with it of a +universally recognized charity. St Paul accentuated the prohibitive +side of the law and protested against it; but, even while +he was so doing, stimulated by the Jewish discipline, he was +moving unfettered towards new conceptions of charity and life—charity +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span> +as the central word of the Christian life, and life as a +participation in a higher existence—the “body of Christ.”</p> + +<p>To mark the line of development, we could compare—1. The +family among the Jews and in the early Christian church; +2. The sources of relief and the tithe, the treatment of the poor +and their aid, and the assistance of special classes of poor; +3. The care of strangers; and, lastly, we would consider the +theory of almsgiving, friendship or love, and charity.</p> + +<p>1. As elsewhere, property is the basis of the family. Wife and +children are the property of the father. But the wife is held +in high respect. In the post-exilian period the virtuous wife +is represented as laborious as a Roman matron, a “lady bountiful” +to the poor, and to her husband wife and friend alike. +Monogamy without concubinage is now the rule—is taken for +granted as right. There is no “exposure of children.” The +slaves are kindly treated, as servants rather than slaves—though +in Roman times and afterwards the Jews were great slave-traders. +The household is not allowed to eat the bread of idleness. +“Six days,” it was said, “<i>must</i> [not <i>mayest</i>] thou +work.” “Labour, if poor; but find work, if rich.” “Whoever +does not teach his son business or work, teaches him robbery.” +In Job xxxi., a chapter which has been called “an inventory of +late Old Testament morality,” we find the family life developed +side by side with the life of charity. In turn are mentioned the +relief of the widow, the fatherless and the stranger—the +classification of dependents in the Christian church; and the whole +chapter is a justification of the homely charities of a good family. +“The Jewish religion, more especially in the old and orthodox form, +is essentially a family religion” (C.G. Montefiore, <i>Religion +of Ancient Hebrews</i>).</p> + +<p>In the early documents of the Church the fifth commandment +is made the basis of family life (cf. Eph. vi. 1; <i>Apost. Const.</i> +ii. 32, iv. 11—if we take the first six books of the <i>Apost. Const.</i> +as a composite production before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, representing +Judaeo-Christian or Eastern church thought). But two points are +prominent. Duties are insisted on as reciprocal (cf. especially +St Paul’s Epistles), as, <i>e.g.</i> between husband and wife, parent +and child, master and servant. Charity is mutual; the family +is a circle of reciprocal duties and charities. This implies a +principle of the greatest importance in relation to the social +utility of charity. Further reference will be made to it later. +Next the “thou shalt love thy neighbour” is translated from +its position as one among many sayings to the chief place as a +rule of life. In the <i>Didachē</i> or <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i> +(Jewish-Christian, c. 90-120 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) the first commandment in “the +way of life” is adapted from St Matthew’s Gospel thus: “First, +thou shalt love God who made thee; secondly, thy neighbour +as thyself; and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have +done to thee, neither do thou to another.” A principle is thus +applied which touches all social relations in which the “self” +can be made the standard of judgment. Of this also later. To +touch on other points of comparison: the earlier documents +seem to ring with a reiterated cry for a purer family life (cf. the +second, the negative, group of commandments in the <i>Didachē</i>, +and the judgment of the apocalyptic writings, such as the +Revelations of Peter, &c.); and, sharing the Jewish feeling, the +riper conscience of the Christian community formulates and +accepts the injunction to preserve infant life at every stage. +It advocates, indeed, the Jewish purity of family life with a +missionary fervour, and it makes of it a condition of church +membership. The Jewish rule of labour is enforced (<i>Ap. Const.</i> +ii. 63). If a stranger settle (<i>Didachē</i>, xii. 3) among the brotherhood, +“let him work and eat.” And the father (<i>Constit.</i> iv. 11) +is to teach the children “such trades as are agreeable and +suitable to their need.” And the charities to the widow, the +fatherless, are organized on Jewish lines.</p> + +<p>2. The sources of relief among the Jews were the three gifts of +corn: (1) the corners of the field (cf. Lev. xix. &c.), amounting +to a sixtieth part of it; (2) the gleanings, a definite minimum +dropped in the process of reaping (Maimonides, <i>Laws of the +Hebrews relating to the Poor</i>, iv. 1); (3) corn overlooked and +left behind. So it was with the grapes and with all crops that +were harvested, as opposed, <i>e.g.</i> to figs, that were gathered from +time to time. These gifts were divisible three times in the day, +so as to suit the convenience of the poor (Maim. ii. 17), and the +poor had a right to them. They are indeed a poor-rate paid in +kind such as in early times would naturally spring up among an +agricultural people. Another gift “out of the seed of the +earth,” is the tithe. In the post-exilian period the septenniad +was in force. Each year a fiftieth part of the produce (Maim. +vi. 2, and Deut. xviii. 4) was given to the priest (the class which +in the Jewish state was supported by the community). Of the +remainder one-tenth went to the Levite, and one-tenth in three +years of the septennium was retained for pilgrimage to Jerusalem, +in two given to the poor. In the seventh year “all things were +in common.” Supplementing these gifts were alms to all who +asked; “and he who gave less than a tenth of his means was a +man of evil eye” (Maim. vii. 5). All were to give alms, even +the poor themselves who were in receipt of relief. Refusal +might be punished with stripes at the hand of the Sanhedrim. +At the Temple alms for distribution to the worthy poor were +placed by worshippers in the cell of silence; and it is said that +in Palestine at meal times the table was open to all comers. As +the synagogues extended, and possibly after the fall of Jerusalem +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70), the collections of alms was further systematized. There +were two collections. In each city alms of the box or chest +(<i>kupha</i>) were collected for the poor of the city on each Sabbath +eve (later, monthly or thrice a year), and distributed in money +or food for seven days. Two collected, three distributed. Three +others gathered and distributed daily alms of the basket +(<i>tamchui</i>). These were for strangers and wayfarers—casual +relief “for the poor of the whole world.” In the Jewish synagogue +community from early times the president (<i>parnass</i>) and +treasurer were elected annually with seven heads of the congregation +(see Abraham’s <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>, p. 54), +and sometimes special officers for the care of the poor. A staff +of almoners was thus forthcoming. In addition to these collections +were the <i>pruta</i> given to the poor before prayers (Maim. x. +15), and moneys gathered to help particular cases (cf. <i>Jewish +Life</i>, p. 322) by circular letter. There were also gifts at marriages +and funerals; and fines imposed for breach of the communal +ordinances were reserved for the poor. The distinctive feature +of the Jewish charity was the belief that “the poor would not +cease out of the land,” and that therefore on charitable grounds +a permanent provision should be made for them—a poor-rate, in +fact, subject to stripes and distraint, if necessary (Maim. vii. 10; +and generally cf. articles on “Alms” and “Charity” in the +<i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>If we compare this with the early church we find the following +sources of relief: (1) The Eucharistic offerings, some consumed at +the time, some carried home, some reserved for the absent (see +Hatch, <i>Early Church</i>, p. 40). The ministration, like the Eucharist, +was connected with the love feast, and was at first daily (Acts ii. +42, vi. 1, and the <i>Didache</i>). (2) Freewill offerings and first-fruits +and voluntary tithes (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 25) brought to the bishop and +used for the poor—orphans, widows, the afflicted and strangers +in distress, and for the clergy, deaconesses, &c. (3) Collections +in churches on Sundays and week-days, alms-boxes and gifts to +the poor by worshippers as they entered church; also collections +for special purposes (cf. for Christians at Jerusalem). Apart from +“the corners,” &c., the sources of relief in the Christian and Jewish +churches are the same. The separate Jewish tithe for the poor, +which (Maim. vi. II, 13) might be used in part by the donor as +personal charity, disappears. A voluntary tithe remains, in part +used for the poor. We do not hear of stripes and distraint, but in +both bodies there is a penitential system and excommunication +(cf. <i>Jewish Life</i>, p. 52), and in both a settlement of disputes within +the body (Clem. <i>Hov</i>. iii. 67). In both, too, there is the abundant +alms provided in the belief of the permanence of poverty and the duty +of giving to all who ask. As to administration in the early church +(Acts vi. 3), we find seven deacons, the number of the local Jewish +council; and later there were in Rome seven ecclesiastical relief +districts, each in charge of a deacon. The deacon acted as the +minister of the bishop (<i>Ep.</i> Clem, to Jam. xii.), reporting to him +and giving as he dictated (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 30, 31). He at first combined +disciplinary powers with charitable. The presbyters also (Polycarp, +<i>Ad Phil.</i> 6, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-155), forming (Hatch, p. 69) a kind of bishop’s +council, visited the sick, &c. The bishop was president and treasurer. +The bishop was thus the trustee of the poor. By reason of the +churches’ care of orphans, responsibilities of trusteeship also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span> +devolved on him. The temples were in pagan times depositories of +money. Probably the churches were also.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. Great stress is laid by the Jews on the duty of gentleness +to the poor (Maim. x. 5). The woman was to have first attention +(Maim. vi. 13). If the applicant was hungry he was to be fed, +and then examined to learn whether he was a deceiver (Maim. +vii. 6). Assistance was to be given according to the want—clothes, +household things, a wife or a husband—and according +to the poor man’s station in life. For widows and orphans the +“gleanings” were left. Both are the recognized objects of +charity (Maim. x. 16,17). “The poor and the orphan were to be +employed in domestic affairs in preference to servants.” The +dower was a constant form of help. The ransoming of slaves +took precedence of relief to the poor. The highest degree of +alms-deed (Maim. x. 7) was “to yield support to him who is +cast down, either by means of gifts, or by loan, or by commerce, +or by procuring for him traffic with others. Thus his hand +becometh strengthened, exempt from the necessity of soliciting +succour from any created being.”</p> + +<p>If we compare the Christian methods we find but slight +difference. The absoluteness of “Give to him that asketh” +is in the <i>Didachē</i> checked by the “Woe to him that receives: +for if any receives having need, he shall be guiltless, but he that +has no need shall give account, ... and coming into distress +... he shall not come out thence till he hath paid the last +farthing.” It is the duty of the bishop to know who is most +worthy of assistance (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 3, 4); and “if any one is in +want by gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve +assistance, or to be esteemed a member of the church.” The +widow assumes the position not only of a recipient of alms, but +a church worker. Some were a private charge, some were +maintained by the church. The recognized “widow” was +maintained: she was to be sixty years of age (cf. 1 Tim, v. 9 and +<i>Ap. Con.</i> iii. 1), and was sometimes tempted to become a bedes-woman +and gossipy pauper, if one may judge from the texts. +Remarriage was not approved. Orphans were provided for by +members of the churches. The virgins formed another class, as, +contrary to the earlier feeling, marriage came to be held a state +of lesser sanctity. They too seem to have been also, in part at +least, church workers. Thus round the churches grew up new +groups of recognized dependents; but the older theory of charity +was broad and practical—akin to that of Maimonides. “Love +all your brethren, performing to orphans the part of parents, to +widows that of husbands, affording them sustenance with all +kindliness, arranging marriages for those who are in their prime, +and for those who are without a profession the means of necessary +support through employment: giving work to the artificer and +alms to the incapable” (<i>Ep.</i> Clem, to James viii.).</p> + +<p>4. The Jews in pre-Christian and Talmudic times supported +the stranger or wayfarer by the distribution of food (<i>tamchui</i>); +the strangers were lodged in private houses, and there were inns +provided at which no money was taken (cf. <i>Jewish Life</i>, p. 314). +Subsequently, besides these methods, special societies were +formed “for the entertainment of the resident poor and of +strangers.” There were commendatory letters also. These conditions +prevailed in the Christian church also. The <i>Xenodocheion</i>, +coming by direct succession alike from Jewish and Greek precedents, +was the first form of Christian hospital both for strangers +and for members of the Christian churches. In the Christian +community the endowment charity comes into existence in the +4th century, among the Jews not till the 13th. The charities +of the synagogue without separate societies sufficed.</p> + +<p>We may now compare the conceptions of Jews and Christians +on charity with those of the Greeks. There are two chief exponents +of the diverse views—Aristotle and St Paul; +for to simplify the issues we refer to them only. +<span class="sidenote">Greek, Jewish and Christian thought.</span> +Thoughts such as Aristotle’s, recast by the Stoic +Panaetius (185-112 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and used by Cicero in his <i>De +Officiis</i>, became in the hands of St Ambrose arguments +for the direction of the clergy in the founding of the medieval +church; and in the 13th century Aristotle reasserts his influence +through such leaders of medieval thought as St Thomas Aquinas. +St Paul’s chapters on charity, not fully appreciated and understood, +one is inclined to think, have perhaps more than any other +words prevented an absolute lapse into the materialism of almsgiving. +After him we think of St Francis, the greatest of a group +of men who, seeking reality in life, revived charity; but to the +theory of charity it might almost be said that since Aristotle and +St Paul nothing has been added until we come to the economic +and moral issues which Dr Chalmers explained and illustrated.</p> + +<p>The problem turns on the conception (1) of purpose, (2) of the +self, and (3) of charity, love or friendship as an active force in +social life. To the Greek, or at least to Greek philosophic +thought, purpose was the measure of goodness. To have no +purpose was, so far as the particular act was concerned, to be +simply irrational; and the less definite the purpose the more +irrational the act. This conception of purpose was the touchstone +of family and social life, and of the civic life also. In no +sphere could goodness be irrational. To say that it was without +purpose was to say that it was without reality. So far as the +actor was concerned, the main purpose of right action was the +good of the soul (<span class="grk" title="psyche">ψυχή</span>); and by the soul was meant the better +self, “the ruling part” acting in harmony with every faculty +and function of the man. With faculties constantly trained and +developed, a higher life was gradually developed in the soul. +We are thus, it might be said, what we become. The gates of +the higher life are within us. The issue is whether we will open +them and pass in.</p> + +<p>Consistent with this is the social purpose. Love or friendship +is not conceived by Aristotle except in relation to social life. +Society is based on an interchange of services. This interchange +in one series of acts we call justice; in another friendship or +love. A man cannot be just unless he has acquired a certain +character or habit of mind; and hence no just man will act +without knowledge, previous deliberation and definite purpose. +So also will a friend fulfil these conditions in his acts of love or +friendship. In the love existing between good men there is +continuance and equality of service; but in the case of benefactor +and benefited, in deeds of charity, in fact, there is no such +equality. The satisfaction is on one side but often not on the +other. (The dilemma is one that is pressed, though not satisfactorily, +in Cicero and Seneca.) The reason for this will be found, +Aristotle suggests, in the feeling of satisfaction which men +experience in action. We realize ourselves in our deeds—throw +ourselves into them, as people say; and this is happiness. +What we make we like: it is part of us. On the other hand, +in the person benefited there may be no corresponding action, +and in so far as there is not, there is no exchange of service or the +contentment that arises from it. The “self” of the recipient +is not drawn out. On the contrary, he may be made worse, +and feel the uneasiness and discontent that result from this. +In truth, to complete Aristotle’s argument, the good deed on one +side, as it represents the best self of the benefactor, should on the +other side draw out the best self of the person benefited. And +where there is not ultimately this result, there is not effective +friendship or charity, and consequently there is no personal or +social satisfaction. The point may be pushed somewhat further. +In recent developments of charitable work the term “friendly +visitor” is applied to persons who endeavour to help families +in distress on the lines of associated charity. It represents the +work of charity in one definite light. So far as the relation is +mutual, it cannot at the outset be said to exist. The charitable +friend wishes to befriend another; but at first there may be no +reciprocal feeling of friendship on the other’s part—indeed, +such a feeling may never be created. The effort to reciprocate +kindness by becoming what the friend desires may be too painful +to make. Or the two may be on different planes, one not really +befriending, but giving without intelligence, the other not really +endeavouring to change his nature, but receiving help solely +with a view to immediate advantage. The would-be befriender +may begin “despairing of no man,” expecting nothing in return; +but if, in fact, there is never any kind of return, the friendship +actually fails of its purpose, and the “friend’s” satisfaction is +lost, except in that he may “have loved much.” In any case, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span> +according to this theory friendship, love and charity represent +the mood from which spring social acts, the value of which will +depend on the knowledge, deliberation and purpose with which +they are done, and accordingly as they acquire value on this +account will they give lasting satisfaction to both parties.</p> + +<p>St Paul’s position is different. He seems at first sight to ignore +the state and social life. He lays stress on motive force rather +than on purpose. He speaks as an outsider to the state, though +technically a citizen. His mind assumes towards it the external +Judaic position, as though he belonged to a society of settlers +(<span class="grk" title="paroikoi">πάροικοι</span>). Also, as he expects the millennium, social life and +its needs are not uppermost in his thoughts. He considers charity +in relation to a community of fellow-believers—drawn together +in congregations. His theory springs from this social base, though +it over-arches life itself. He is intent on creating a spiritual +association. He conceives of the spirit (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">πνεῦμα</span>) as “an immaterial +personality.” It transcends the soul (<span class="grk" title="psychê">ψυχή</span>), and is the +Christ life, the ideal and spiritual life. Christians participate +in it, and they thus become part of “the body of Christ,” +which exists by virtue of love—love akin to the ideal life, <span class="grk" title="agapê">ἀγάπη</span>. +The word represents the love that is instinct with reverence, +and not love <span class="grk" title="philia">φιλία</span> which may have in it some quality of passion. +This love is the life of “the body of Christ.” Therefore no act +done without it is a living act—but, on the contrary, must be +dead—an act in which no part of the ideal life is blended. On the +individual act or the purpose no stress is laid. It is assumed that +love, because it is of this intense and exalted type, will find the +true purpose in the particular act. And, when the expectation of +the millennium passed away, the theory of this ideal charity +remained as a motive force available for whatever new conditions, +spiritual or social, might arise. Nevertheless, no sooner does this +charity touch social conditions, than the necessity asserts itself +of submitting to the limitations which knowledge, deliberation +and purpose impose. This view had been depreciated or ignored +by Christians, who have been content to rely upon the strength +of their motives, or perhaps have not realized what the Greeks +understood, that society was a natural organism (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> +1253A), which develops, fails or prospers in accordance with +definite laws. Hence endless failure in spite of some success. +For love, whether we idealize it as <span class="grk" title="agapê">ἀγάπη</span> or consider it a social +instinct as <span class="grk" title="philia">φιλία</span>, cannot be love at all unless it quickens the +intelligence as much as it animates the will. It cannot, except +by some confusion of thought, be held to justify the indulgence +of emotion irrespective of moral and social results. Yet, though +this fatal error may have dominated thought for a long time, it +is hardly possible to attribute it to St Paul’s theory of charity +when the very practical nature of Judaism and early Christianity +is considered. In his view the misunderstanding could not arise. +And to create a world or “body” of men and women linked together +by love, even though it be outside the normal life of the +community, was to create a new form of religious organization, +and to achieve for it (so far as it was achieved) what, <i>mutatis +mutandis</i>, Aristotle held to be the indispensable condition of +social life, friendship (<span class="grk" title="philia">φιλία</span>), “the greatest good of states,” +for “Socrates and all the world declare,” he wrote, that “the +unity of the state” is “created by friendship” (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> ii. +1262 b).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It should, however, be considered to what extent charity in the +Christian church was devoid of social purpose, (1) The Jewish conceptions +of charity passed, one might almost say, in their completeness +into the Christian church. Prayer, the petition and the purging +of the mind, fasting, the humiliation of the body, and alms, as part of +the same discipline, the submissive renunciation of possessions—all +these formed part of the discipline that was to create the religious +mood. Alms henceforth become a definite part of the religious +discipline and service. Humility and poverty hereafter appear as +yoked virtues, and many problems of charity are raised in regard to +them. The non-Christian no less than the Christian world appreciated +more and more the need of self-discipline (<span class="grk" title="askêsis">ἄσκησις</span>); and it seems +as though in the first two centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> those who may have thought +of reinvigorating society searched for the remedy rather in the +preaching and practice of temperance than in the application of +ideas that were the outcome of the observation of social or economic +conditions. Having no object of this kind as its mark, almsgiving +took the place of charity, and, as Christianity triumphed, the family +life, instead of reviving, continued to decay, while the virtues of +the discipline of the body, considered apart from social life, became +an end in themselves, and it was desired rather to annihilate instinct +than to control it. Possibly this was a necessary phase in a movement +of progress, but however that be, charity, as St Paul understood +it, had in it no part. (2) But the evil went farther. Jewish religious +philosophy is not elaborated as a consistent whole by any one writer. +It is rather a miscellany of maxims; and again and again, as in much +religious thought, side issues assume the principal place. The +direct effect of the charitable act, or almsgiving, is ignored. Many +thoughts and motives are blended. The Jews spoke of the poor +as the means of the rich man’s salvation. St Chrysostom emphasizes +this: “If there were no poor, the greater part of your sins +would not be removed: they are the healers of your wounds” +(<i>Hom.</i> xiv., Timothy, &c., St Cyprian on works and alms). Alms +are the medicine of sin. And the same thought is worked into the +penitential system. Augustine speaks of “penance such as fasting, +almsgiving and prayer for breaches of the Decalogue” (Reichel, +<i>Manual of Canon Law</i>, p. 23); and many other references might be +cited. “Pecuniary penances (Ib. 154), in so far as they were relaxations +of, or substitutes for, bodily penances, were permitted +because of the greater good thereby accruing to others” (and in +this case they were—<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1284—legally enforceable under English +statute law). The penitential system takes for granted that the +almsgiving is good for others and puts a premium on it, even though in +fact it were done, not with any definite object, but really for the +good of the penitent. Thus almsgiving becomes detached from +charity on the one side and from social good on the other. Still further +is it vulgarized by another confusion of thought. It is considered +that the alms are paid to the credit of the giver, and are realized +as such by him in the after-world; or even that by alms present +prosperity may be obtained, or at least evil accident avoided. Thus +motives were blended, as indeed they now are, with the result that +the gift assumed a greater importance than the charity, by which +alone the gift should have been sanctified, and its actual effect +was habitually overlooked or treated as only partially relevant.</p> + +<p>(3) The Christian maxim of “loving (<span class="grk" title="agapê">ἀγάπη</span>) one’s neighbour as one’s +self” sets a standard of charity. Its relations are idealized according +as the “self” is understood; and thus the good self becomes +the measure of charity. In this sense, the nobler the self the completer +the charity; and the charity of the best men, men who +love and understand their neighbours best, having regard to their +chief good, is the best, the most effectual charity. Further, if in +what we consider “best” we give but a lesser place to social purpose +or even allow it no place at all, our “self” will have no sufficient +social aim and our charity little or no social result. For this “self,” +however, religion has substituted not St Paul’s conception of the +spirit (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">πνεῦμα</span>), but a soul, conceived as endowed with a substantial +nature, able to enjoy and suffer quasi-material rewards and punishments +in the after-life; and in so far as the safeguard of this soul +by good deeds or almsgiving has become a paramount object, the +purpose of charitable action has been translated from the actual +world to another sphere. Thus, as we have seen, the aid of the poor +has been considered not an object in itself, but as a means by which +the almsgiver effects his own ulterior purpose and “makes God his +debtor.” The problem thus handled raises the question of reward +and also of punishment. Properly, from the point of view of charity, +both are excluded. We may indeed act from a complexity of +motives and expect a complexity of rewards, and undoubtedly a +good act does refresh the “self,” and may as a result, though not as +a reward, win approval. But in reality reward, if the word be used +at all, is according to purpose; and the only reward of a deed lies +in the fulfilment of its purpose. In the theory of almsgiving which +we are discussing, however, act and reward are on different planes. +The reward is on that of a future life; the act related to a distressed +person here and now. The interest in the act on the doer’s part lies +in its post-mortal consequences to himself, and not either wholly +or chiefly in the act itself. Nor, as the interest ends with the act—the +giving—can the intelligence be quickened by it. The +questions “How? by whom? with what object? on what plan? +with what result?” receive no detailed consideration at all. Two +general results follow. In so far as it is thus practised, almsgiving +is out of sympathy with social progress. It is indeed alien to it. +Next also the self-contained, self-sustained poverty that will have +no relief and does without it, is outside the range of its thought and +understanding. On the other hand, this almsgiving is equally incapable +of influencing the weak and the vicious; and those who are +suffering from illness or trouble it has not the width of vision to +understand nor the moral energy to support so that they shall not +fall out of the ranks of the self-supporting. It believes that “the +poor” will not cease out of the land. And indeed, however great +might be the economic progress of the people, it is not likely that +the poor will cease, if the alms given in this spirit be large enough in +amount to affect social conditions seriously one way or the other. +When we measure the effects of charity, this inheritance of +divided thought and inconsistent counsels must be given its full +weight.</p> +</div> + +<p>The sub-apostolic church was a congregation, like a synagogue, +the centre of a system of voluntary and personal relief, connected +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span> +with the congregational meals (or <span class="grk" title="agapai">ἀγάπαι</span>) and the Eucharist, +<span class="sidenote">The organization of the parish and endowed charities.</span> +and under the supervision of no single officer or bishop. Out +of this was developed a system of relief controlled by +a bishop, who was assisted chiefly by deacons or +presbyters, while the <span class="grk" title="agapai">ἀγάπαι</span>, consisting of offerings +laid before the altar, still remained. Subsequently +the meal was separated from the sacrament, and +became a dole of food, or poor people’s meal—<i>e.g.</i> in +St Augustine’s time in western Africa—and it was not allowed +to be served in churches (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 391). As religious asceticism +became dominant, the sacrament was taken fasting; it appeared +unseemly that men and women should meet together for such +purposes, and the <span class="grk" title="agapai">ἀγάπαι</span> fell out of repute. Simultaneously +it would seem that the parish <span class="grk" title="paroikia">παροικία</span> became from a congregational +settlement a geographical area.</p> + +<p>The organization of relief at Rome illustrates both a type of +administration and a transition. St Gregory’s reforms (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 590) +largely developed it. The first factor in the transition was the +church fund of the second period of Christianity, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150 +to after 208 (Tertullian, <i>Apol</i>. 39). It served as a friendly fund, +was supported by voluntary gifts, and was used to succour and +to bury the poor, to help destitute and orphaned children, +old household slaves and those who suffered for the faith. This +fund is quite different from the <i>collegia tenuiorum</i> or <i>funeratica</i> +of the Romans, which were societies to which the members paid +stipulated sums at stated periods, for funeral benefits or for common +meals (J.P. Waltzing, <i>Corporations professionnelles chez +les Romains</i>, i. 313). It represents the charitable centre round +which the parochial system developed. That system was +adopted probably about the middle of the 3rd century, but in +Rome the diaconate probably remained centralized. At the +end of the 4th century Pope Anastasius had founded deaconries +in Rome, and endowed them largely “to meet the frequent +demands of the diaconate.” Gregory two hundred years later +reorganized the system. He divided the fourteen old “regions” +into seven ecclesiastical districts and thirty “titles” (or parishes). +The parishes were under the charge of sixty-six priests; the +districts were eleemosynary divisions. Each was placed under +the charge of a deacon, not (Greg. <i>Ep</i>. xi. and xxviii.) under the +priests (<i>presbyteri titularii</i>). Over the deacons was an archdeacon. +It was the duty of the deacons to care for the poor, widows, +orphans, wards, and old people of their several districts. They +inquired in regard to those who were relieved, and drew up under +the guidance of the bishop the register of poor (<i>matricula</i>). +Only these received regular relief. In each district was an +hospital or office for alms, of which the deacon had charge, +assisted by a steward (or <i>oeconomus</i>). Here food was given and +meals were taken, the sick and poor were maintained, and orphan +or foundling children lodged. The churches of Rome and of +other large towns possessed considerable estates, “the patrimony +of the patron saints,” and to Rome belonged estates in Sicily +which had not been ravaged by the invaders, and they continued +to pay to it their tenth of corn, as they had done since Sicily +was conquered. Four times a year (Milman, <i>Lat. Christ</i>, ii. 117) +the shares of the (1) clergy and papal officers, (2) churches and +monasteries, and (3) “hospitals, deaconries and ecclesiastical +wards for the poor,” were calculated in money and distributed; +and the first day in every month St Gregory distributed to the +poor in kind corn, wine, cheese, vegetables, bacon, meal, fish +and oil. The sick and infirm were superintended by persons +appointed to inspect every street. Before the pope sat down to his +own meal a portion was separated and sent out to the hungry at +his door. The Roman <i>plebs</i> had thus become the poor of Christ +(<i>pauperes Christi</i>), and under that title were being fed by <i>civica +annona</i> and <i>sportula</i> as their ancestors had been; and the deaconries +had superseded the “regions” and the “steps” from which +the corn had been distributed. The <i>hospitium</i> was now part of a +common organization of relief, and the sick were visited according +to Jewish and early Christian precedent. How far kindly Romans +visited the sick of their day we do not know. Alms and the +<i>annona</i> were now, it would seem, administered concurrently; +and there was a system of poor relief independent of the churches +and their alms (unless these, organized, as in Scottish towns, +on the ancient ecclesiastical lines, were paid wholly or in part to a +central diaconate fund). Much had changed, but in much Roman +thought still prevailed.</p> + +<p>On lines similar to these the organization of poor relief in the +middle ages was developed. In the provinces in the later empire +the senate or <i>ordo decurionum</i> were responsible for the public +provisioning of the towns (Fustel de Coulanges, <i>La Gaule romaine</i>, +p. 251), and no doubt the care of the poor would thus in some +measure devolve on them in times of scarcity or distress. On +the religious side, on the other hand, the churches would probably +be constant centres of almsgiving and relief; and then, further, +when the Roman municipal system had decayed, each citizen +(as in Charlemagne’s time, 742-814) was required to support his +own dependants—a step suggestive of much after-history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The change in sentiment and method could hardly be more +strongly marked than by a comparison of “the <i>Teaching</i>” with +St Ambrose’s (334-397) “Duties of the Clergy” (<i>De Officiis Ministrorum</i>). +For the old instinctive obedience to a command there is +now an endeavour to find a reasoned basis for charitable action. +Pauperism is recognized. “Never was the greed of beggars greater +than it is now.... They want to empty the purses of the poor, +to deprive them of the means of support. Not content with a little, +they ask for more.... With lies about their lives they ask for +further sums of money.” “A method in giving is necessary.” But +in the suggestions made there is little consistency. Liberality is +urged as a means of gaining the love of the people; a new and a +false issue is thus raised. The relief is neither to be “too freely given +to those who are unsuitable, nor too sparingly bestowed upon the +needy.” Everywhere there is a doctrine of the mean reflected +through Cicero’s <i>De Officiis</i>, the doctrine insufficiently stated, as +though it were a mean of quantity, and not that rightly tempered +mean which is the harmony of opposing moods. The poor are not +to be sent away empty. Those rejected by the church are not to +be left to the “outer darkness” of an earlier Christianity. They +must be supplied if they are in want. The methodic giver is “hard +towards none, but is free towards all.” Consequently none are +refused, and no account is taken of the regeneration that may spring +up in a man from the effort towards self-help which refusal may +originate. Thus after all it appears that method means no more +than this—to give sometimes more, sometimes less, to all needy +people. In the small congregational church of early Christianity, +each member of which was admitted on the conditions of strictest +discipline, the common alms of the faithful could hardly have done +much harm within the body, even though outside they created and +kept alive a horde of vagrant alms-seekers and pretenders. Now +in this department at least the church had become the state, and +discipline and a close knowledge of one’s fellow-Christians no longer +safeguarded the alms. From Cicero is borrowed the thought of +“active help,” which “is often grander and more noble,” but the +thought is not worked out. From the social side the problem is not +understood or even stated, and hence no principle of charity or of +charitable administration is brought to light in the investigation. +Still there are rudiments of the economics of charity in the praise of +Joseph, who made the people <i>buy</i> the corn, for otherwise “they +would have given up cultivating the soil; for he who has the use +of what is another’s often neglects his own.” Perhaps, as St Augustine +inspired the theology of the middle ages, we may say that St +Ambrose, in the mingled motives, indefiniteness, and kindliness of this +book, stands for the charity of the middle ages, except in so far as +the movement which culminated in the brotherhood of St Francis +awakened the intelligence of the world to wider issues.</p> +</div> + +<p>In Constantinople the pauperism seems to have been extreme. +The corn supplies of Africa were diverted there in great part +when it became the capital of the empire. This must have +left to Rome a larger scope for the development of the civic-religious +administration of relief. St Chrysostom’s sermons give +no impression of the rise of any new administrative force, alike +sagacious and dominant. The appeal to give alms is constant, +but the positive counsel on charitable work is <i>nil</i>. The people +had the <i>annona civica</i>, and imperial gifts, corn, allowances +(<i>salaria</i>) from the treasury granted for the poor and needy, +and an annual gift of 50 gold pounds (rather more than £1400) +for funerals. Besides these there were many institutions, and +the begging and the almsgiving at the church doors. “The land +could not support the lazy and valiant beggars.” There were +public works provided for them; if they refused to work on +them they were to be driven away. The sick might visit the +capital, but must be registered and sent back (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 382); the +sturdy beggar was condemned to slavery. So little did alms +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span> +effect. And in the East monasticism seems to have produced +no firmness of purpose such as led to the organization of the +church and of charitable relief under St Gregory.</p> + +<p>Another movement of the Byzantine period was the establishment +of the endowed charity. The Jewish synagogue long served +as a place for the reception of strangers—a religious <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">ξενοδοχεῖον</span>. +Probably the strangers referred to in “the <i>Teaching</i>” were so +entertained. The table of the bishop and a room in his house +served as the guest-chamber, for which afterwards a separate +building was instituted. In the East the Jewish charitable +inn first appears, and there took place the earliest extension of +institutions. There was probably a demand for an elaboration +of institutions as social changes made themselves felt in the +churches. We have seen this in the case of the <span class="grk" title="agapê">ἀγάπη</span>. Similar +changes would affect other branches of charitable work. The +hospital (<i>hospitalium</i>, <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">ξενοδοχεῖον</span>) is defined as a “house of +God in which strangers who lack hospitality are received” +(Suicerus, <i>Thesaur.</i>), a home separated from the church; and +round the church, out of the primitive <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">ξενοδοχεῖον</span> of early +Christian times and the entertainment of strangers at the houses +of members of the community, would grow up other similar +charities. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 321 licence was given by Constantine to leave +property to the Church. The churches were thus placed in the +same position as pagan temples, and though subsequently +Valentinian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 379) withdrew the permission on account +of the shameless legacy-hunting of the clergy, in that period +much must have been done to endow church and charitable +institutions. In the same period grew to its height the passion +for monasticism. This affected the parish and the endowed +charity alike. Under its influence the deacon as an almoner +tends to disappear, except where, as in Rome, there is an elaborate +system of relief. Nor does it seem that deaconesses, widows, +and virgins continued to occupy their old position as church +workers and alms-receivers. Naturally when marriage was +considered “in itself an evil, perhaps to be tolerated, but still +degrading to human nature,” and (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 385) the marriage of +the clergy was prohibited, men, except those in charge of parishes, +and women would join regular monastic bodies; the deacon, +as almoner, would disappear, and the “widows” and virgins +would become nuns. Thus there would grow up a large body +of men and women living segregated in institutions, and forming +a leisured class able to superintend institutional charities. And +now two new officers appear, the <i>eleemosynarius</i> or almoner +and the <i>oeconomus</i> or steward (already an assistant treasurer +to the bishop), who superintend and distribute the alms and +manage the property of the institution. (In the first six books +of the <i>Apost. Constit.</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, these officers are not mentioned.) +In these circumstances the <i>hospitium</i> or hospital (<span class="grk" title="xenon">ξενών</span>, <span class="grk" title="katagôgion">καταγώγιον</span>) +assumes a new character. It becomes in St Basil’s hands +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 330-379) a resort not only for those who “visit it from +time to time as they pass by, but also for those who need some +treatment in illness.” And round St Basil at Caesarea there +springs up a colony of institutions. Four kinds principally are +mentioned in the Theodosian code: (i) the guest-houses (<span class="grk" title="xenodocheia">ξενοδοχεῖα</span>); +(2) the poor-houses (<span class="grk" title="ptôcheia">πτωχεῖα</span>), where the poor (<i>mendici</i>) +were housed and maintained (the <span class="grk" title="ptôcheion">πτωχεῖον</span> was a general term +also applied to all houses for the poor, the aged, orphans and +sick); (3) there were orphanages (<span class="grk" title="orphanotropheia">ὀρφανοτροφεῖα</span>) for orphans +and wards; and (4) there were houses for infant children (<span class="grk" title="brephotropheia">βρεφοτροφεῖα</span>). +Thus a large number of endowed charities had grown +up. This new movement it is necessary to consider in connexion +with the law relating to religious property and bequests, in its +bearing on the rule of the monasteries, and in its effect on the +family.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The sacred property (<i>res sacra</i>) of Roman law consisted of things +dedicated to the gods by the pontiff with the approval of the civil +authority, in turn, the people, the senate and the emperor. Things +so consecrated were inalienable. Apart from this in the empire, +the municipalities as they grew up were considered “juristic persons” +who were entitled to receive and hold property. In a similar position +were authorized <i>collegia</i>, amongst which were the mutual aid societies +referred to above. Christians associated in these societies would +leave legacies to them. Thus (W.M. Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics +of Phrygia</i>, I. i. 119) an inscription mentions a bequest (possibly by +a Christian) to the council (<span class="grk" title="synhedrion">συνέδριον</span>) of the presidents of the dyers +in purple for a ceremonial, on the condition that, if the ceremony +be neglected, the legacy shall become the property of the gild for +the care of nurslings; and in the same way a bequest is left in Rome +(Orelli 4420) for a memorial sacrifice, on the condition that, if it be +not performed, double the cost be paid to the treasury of the corn-supply +(<i>fisco stationis annonae</i>). No unauthorized <i>collegia</i> could +receive a legacy. “The law recognized no freedom of association.” +Nor could any private individual create a foundation with separate +property of its own. Property could only be left to an authorized +juristic person, being a municipality or a <i>collegium</i>. But as the +problem of poverty was considered from a broader standpoint, there +was a desire to deal with it in a more permanent manner than by +the <i>annona civica</i>. The <i>pueri alimentarii</i> (see above) were considered +to hold their property as part of the <i>fiscus</i> or property of the state. +Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 18), seeking a method of endowment, transferred +property in land to the steward of public property, and then took +it back again subject to a permanent charge for the aid of children +of freemen. By the law of Constantine and subsequent laws no +such devices were necessary. Widows or deaconesses, or virgins +dedicated to God, or nuns (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 455), could leave bequests to a +church or memorial church (<i>martyrum</i>), or to a priest or a monk, or +to the poor in any shape or form, in writing or without it. Later +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 475) donations of every kind, “to the person of any martyr, +or apostle, or prophet, or the holy angels,” for building an oratory +were made valid, even if the building were promised only and not +begun; and the same rule applied to infirmaries (<span class="grk" title="nosokomoeia">νοσοκομεῖα</span>) and +poor-houses (<span class="grk" title="ptôcheia">πτωχεῖα</span>)—the bishop or steward being competent +to appear as plaintiff in such cases. Later, again (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 528), contributions +of 50 solidi (say about £19, 10s.) to a church, hostel (<span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">ξενοδοχεῖον</span>), +&c., were made legal, though not registered; while larger +sums, if registered, were also legalized. So (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529) property +might be given for “churches, hostels, poor-houses, infant and +orphan homes, and homes for the aged, or any such community” +(<i>consortium</i>), even though not registered, and such property was +free from taxation. The next year (530) it was enacted that prescription +even for 100 years did not alienate church and charitable +property. The broadest interpretation was allowed. If by will +a share of an estate was left “to Christ our Lord,” the church of the +city or other locality might receive it as heir; “let these, the law +says, belong to the holy churches, so that they may become the +alimony of the poor.” It was sufficient to leave property to the poor +(<i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i>, ed. Krueger, 1877, ii. 25). The bequest was +legal. It went to the legal representative of the poor—the church. +Charitable property was thus church property. The word “alms” +covered both. It was given to pious uses, and as a kind of public +institution “shared that corporate capacity which belonged to all +ecclesiastical institutions by virtue of a general rule of law.” On +a <i>pia causa</i> it was not necessary to confer a juristic personality. +Other laws preserved or regulated alienation (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 477, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 530), +and checked negligence or fraud in management. The clergy had +thus become the owners of large properties, with the <i>coloni</i> and +slaves upon the estates and the allowances of civic corn (<i>annona +civica</i>); and (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 357) it was stipulated that whatever they acquired +by thrift or trading should be used for the service of the poor and +needy, though what they acquired from the labour of their slaves +in the labour houses (<i>ergastula</i>) or inns (<i>tabernae</i>) might be considered +a profit of religion (<i>religionis lucrum</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>Thus grew up the system of endowed charities, which with +certain modifications continued throughout the middle ages, +and, though it assumed different forms in connexion with gilds +and municipalities, in England it still retains, partially at least, +its relation to the church. It remained the system of institutional +relief parallel to the more personal almsgiving of the parish.</p> + +<p>Monasticism, in acting on men of strong character, endowed +them with a double strength of will, and to men like St Gregory +it seemed to give back with administrative power the relentless +firmness of the Roman. In the East it produced the turbulent +soldiery of the church, in the West its missionaries; and each +mission-monastery was a centre of relief. But whatever the +services monasticism rendered, it can hardly be said to have +furthered true charity from the social standpoint, though out of +regard to some of its institutional work we may to a certain degree +qualify this judgment. The movement was almost of necessity +in large measure anti-parochial, and thus out of sympathy with +the charities of the parish, where personal relations with the poor +at their homes count for most.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The good and evil of it may be weighed. Monasticism working +through St Augustine helped the world to realize the mood of love +as the real or eternal life. Of the natural life of the world and its +responsibilities, through which that mood would have borne its +completest fruit, it took but little heed, except in so far as, by +creating a class possessed of leisure, it created able scholars, lawyers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span> +and administrators, and disciplined the will of strong men. It had +no power to stay the social evils of the day. Unlike the friars, at +their best the monks were a class apart, not a class mixed up with +the people. So were their charities. The belief in poverty as a +fixed condition—irretrievable and ever to be alleviated without +any regard to science or observation, subjected charity to a perpetual +stagnation. Charity requires belief in growth, in the sharing +of life, in the utility and nobility of what is done here and now for +the hereafter of this present world. Monasticism had no thought +of this. It was based on a belief in the evil of matter; and from +that root could spring no social charity. Economic difficulties also +fostered monasticism. Gold was appreciated in value, and necessaries +were expensive, and the cost of maintaining a family was great. +It was an economy to force a son or a brother into the church. The +population was decreasing; and in spite of church feeling Marjorian +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 461) had to forbid women from taking the veil before forty, and +to require the remarriage of widows, subject to a large forfeit of +property (Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, ii. 420). Monasticism +was inconsistent with the social good. As to the family—like the +moderns who depreciate thrift and are careless of the life of the +family, the monks, believing that marriage was a lower form of +morality, if not indeed, as would at times appear, hardly moral at +all, could feel but little enthusiasm for what is socially a chief source +of health to the community and a well-spring of spontaneous charitable +feeling. By the sacerdotal-monastic movement the moralizing +force of Christianity was denaturalized. Among the secular clergy +the falsity of the position as between men and women revealed +itself in relations which being unhallowed and unrecognized became +also degrading. But worse than all, it pushed charity from its +pivot. For this no monasteries or institutions, no domination of +religious belief, could atone. The church that with so fine an intensity +of purpose had fostered chastity and marriage was betraying +its trust. It was out of touch with the primal unit of social life, the +child-school of dawning habits and the loving economy of the home. +It produced no treatise on economy in the older Greek sense of the +word. The home and its associations no longer retained their pre-eminence. +In the extreme advocacy of the celibate state, the +honourable development of the married life and its duties were +depreciated and sometimes, one would think, quite forgotten.</p> +</div> + +<p>We may ask, then, What were the results of charity at the +close of the period which ends with St Gregory and the founding of +the medieval church?—for if the charity is reflected in the social +good the results should be manifest. Economic and social +conditions were adverse. With lessened trade the middle class +was decaying (Dill, <i>Roman Society in the Last Century of the +Western Empire</i>, p. 204) and a selfish aristocracy rising up. Municipal +responsibility had been taxed to extinction. The public +service was corrupt. The rich evaded taxation, the poor were +oppressed by it. There were laws upon laws, endeavours to +underpin the framework of a decaying society. Society was +bankrupt of skill—and the skill of a generation has a close bearing +on its charitable administration. While hospitals increased, +medicine was unprogressive. There were miserable years of +famine and pestilence, and constant wars. The care of the +poorer classes, and ultimately of the people, was the charge of the +church. The church strengthened the feeling of kindness for +those in want, widows, orphans and the sick. It lessened the +degradation of the “actresses,” and, co-operating with Stoic +opinion, abolished the slaughter of the gladiatorial shows. It +created a popular “dogmatic system and moral discipline,” +which paganism failed to do; but it produced no prophet of +charity, such as enlarged the moral imagination of the Jews. +It ransomed slaves, as did paganism also, but it did not abolish +slavery. Large economic causes produced that great reform. +The serf attached to the soil took the place of the slave. The +almsgiving of the church by degrees took the place of <i>annona</i> and +<i>sportula</i>, and it may have created pauperism. But dependence on +almsgiving was at least an advance on dependence founded on a +civic and hereditary right to relief. As the <i>colonus</i> stood higher +than the slave, so did the pauper, socially at any rate, free to +support himself, exceed the <i>colonus</i>. Bad economic conditions +and traditions, and a bad system of almsgiving, might enthral +him. But the way, at least, was open; and thus it became +possible that charity, working in alliance with good economic +traditions, should in the end accomplish the self-support of society, +the independence of the whole people.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part V.—Medieval Charity and its Development</p> + +<p>It remains to trace the history of thought and administration +in relation to (1) the development of charitable responsibility in +the parish, and the use of tithe and church property for poor +relief; and (2) the revision of the theory of charity, with which +are associated the names of St Augustine (354-430), St Benedict +(480-542), St Bernard (1091-1153), St Francis (1182-1226), and +St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). (3) There follows, in reference +chiefly to England, a sketch of the dependence of the poor under +feudalism, the charities of the parish, the monastery and the +hospital—the medieval system of endowed charity; the rise of +gild and municipal charities; the decadence at the close of the +15th century, and the statutory endeavours to cope with economic +difficulties which, in the 16th century, led to the establishment of +statutory serfdom and the poor-laws. New elements affect the +problem of charity in the 17th and 18th centuries; but it is not +too much to say that almost all these headings represent phases +of thought or institutions which in later forms are interwoven +with the charitable thought and endeavours of the present day.</p> + +<p>Naturally, two methods of relief have usually been prominent: +relief administered locally, chiefly to residents in their own +homes, and relief administered in an institution. At +the time of Charlemagne (742-814) the system of +<span class="sidenote">The parish and charitable relief.</span> +relief was parochial, consisting principally of assistance +at the home. After that time, except probably in +England, the institutional method appears to have predominated, +and the monastery or hospital in one form or another gradually +encroached on the parish.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The system of parochial charity was the outcome, apparently, +of three conditions: the position and influence of the bishop, the +eleemosynary nature of the church funds, and the need of some +responsible organization of relief. It resulted in what might almost +be called an ecclesiastical poor-law. The affairs of a local church +or congregation were superintended by a bishop. To deal with the +outlying districts he detached priests for religious work and, as in +Rome and (774) Strassburg, deacons also for the administration +of relief. Originally all the income of the church or congregation +was paid into one fund only, of which the bishop had charge, and +this fund was available primarily for charitable purposes. Church +property was the patrimony of the poor. In the 4th century (IV. +Council of Carthage, 398) the names of the clergy were entered on +a list (<i>matricula</i> or <i>canon</i>), as were also the names of the poor, and +both received from the church their daily portion (cf. Ratzinger, +<i>Geschichte der kirchlichen Armenpflege</i>, p. 117). There were no +expenses for building. Before the reign of Constantine (306) very +few churches were built (Ratzinger, p. 120). Thus the early church +as has been said, was chiefly a charitable society. By degrees the +property of the church was very largely increased by gifts and +bequests, and in the West before St Gregory’s time the division +of it for four separate purposes—the support of the bishop, of the +clergy, and of the poor, and for church buildings—still further +promoted decentralization. Apart from any special gifts, there was +thus created a separate fund for almsgiving, supervised by the bishop, +consisting of a fourth of the church property, the oblations (mostly +used for the poor), and the tithe, which at first was used for the +poor solely. The organization of the church was gradually extended. +The church once established in the chief city of a district would +become in turn the mother church of other neighbourhoods, and the +bishop or priest of the mother church would come to exercise supervision +over them and their parishes.</p> + +<p>In France, which may serve as a good illustration, in the 4th century +(Ratzinger, p. 181) the civic organization was utilized for a +further change. The Roman provinces were divided into large +areas, <i>civitales</i>, and these were adopted by the church as bishop’s +parishes or, as we should call them, dioceses; and the chief city +became the cathedral city. The bishop thus became responsible +in Charlemagne’s time both for his own parish—that of the mother +church—and for the supervision of the parishes in the <i>civitas</i>, and +so for the sick and needy of the diocese generally. He had to take +charge of the poor in his own parish personally, keep the list of the +poor, and houses for the homeless. The other parishes were at first, +or in some measure, supported from his funds, but they acquired +by degrees tithe and property of their own and were endowed by +Charlemagne, who gave one or more manses or lots of land (cf. +Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Hist, des institutions politiques de l’ancienne +France</i>, p. 360) for the support of each parish priest. The priests +were required to relieve their own poor so that they should not stray +into other cities (II. Counc. Tours, 567), and to provide food and +lodging for strangers. The method was indeed elaborated and +became, like the Jewish, that contradiction in terms—a compulsory +system of charitable relief. The payment of tithe was enforced by +Charlemagne, and it became a legal due (Counc. Frankfort, 794; +Arelat. 794). At the same time two other conditions were enforced. +Each person (<i>unusquisque fidelium nostrorum</i> or <i>omnes cives</i>) was +to keep his own family, <i>i.e.</i> all dependent on him—all, that is, upon +his freehold estate (<i>allodium</i>), and no one was to presume to give +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span> +relief to able-bodied beggars unless they were set to work (Charlem. +<i>Capit</i>. v. 10). Thus we find here the germ of a poor-law system. +As in the times of the <i>annona civica</i>, slavery, feudalism, or statutory +serfdom, the burthen of the maintenance of the poor fell only in +part on charity. Only those who could not be maintained as +members of some “family” were properly entitled to relief, and +in these circumstances the officially recognized clients of the church +consisted of the gradually decreasing number of free poor and those +who were tenants of church lands.</p> + +<p>Since 817 there has been no universally binding decision of the +church respecting the care of the poor (Ratzinger, p. 236). So long +ago did laicization begin in charity. In the wars and confusion of +the 9th and 10th centuries the poorer freemen lapsed still further +into slavery, or became <i>coloni</i> or bond servants; and later they +passed under the feudal rule. Thus the church’s duty to relieve them +became the masters’ obligation to maintain them. Simultaneously +the activity of the clergy, regular and secular alike, dwindled. They +were exhorted to increase their alms. The revenues and property +of “the poor” were largely turned to private or partly ecclesiastical +purposes, or secularized. Legacies went wholly to the clergy, but +only the tithe of the produce of their own lands was used for relief; +and of the general tithe, only a third or fourth part was so applied. +Eventually to a large extent, but more elsewhere than in England +(Ratzinger, pp. 246, 269), the tithe itself was appropriated by nobles +or even by the monasteries; and thus during and after the 10th +century a new organization of charity was created on non-parochial +methods of relief. Alms, with prayer and fasting, had always been +connected with penance. But the character of the penitential +system had altered. By the 7th century private penance had superseded +the public and congregational penance of the earlier church +(<i>Dict. Christian Antiquities</i>, art. “Penitence”). To the penalties +of exclusion from the sacraments or from the services of the church +or from its communion was coupled, with other penitential discipline, +an elaborate penitential system, in which about the 7th century the +redemption of sin by the “sacrifice” of property, payments of +money fines, &c., was introduced. (Cf. for instance Conc. Elberti:—Labbeus +i. 969 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 305), with Conc. Berghamstedense, Wilkins, +Conc. p. 60 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 696), and the Penitential (p. 115) and Canons +(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960), p. 236.) The same sin committed by an overseer (<i>praepositus +paganus</i>) was compensated by a fine of 100 <i>solidi</i>; in the +case of a <i>colonus</i> by a fine of 50. So amongst the ways of penitence +were entered in the above-mentioned Canons, to erect a church, and +if means allowed, add to it land ... to repair the public roads ... +“to distribute,” to help poor widows, orphans and strangers, redeem +slaves, fast, &c.—a combination of “good deeds” which suggests a line +of thought such as ultimately found expression in the definition of +charities in the Charitable Uses Act of Queen Elizabeth. The confessor, +too, was “<i>spiritualis medicus</i>,” and much that from the point +of view of counsel would now be the work of charity would in his +hands be dealt with in that capacity. For lesser sins (cf. Bede (673-735), +<i>Hom.</i> 34, quoted by Ratzinger) the penalty was prayer, fasting +and alms; for the greater sins—murder, adultery and idolatry—to +give up all. Thus while half-converted barbarians were kept in +moral subjection by material penances, the church was enriched +by their gifts; and these tended to support the monastic and +institutional methods which were in favour, and to which, on the +revival of religious earnestness in the 11th century, the world looked +for the reform of social life.</p> +</div> + +<p>To understand medieval charity it is necessary to return +to St Augustine. According to him, the motive of man in his +legitimate effort to assert himself in life was love or +desire (<i>amor</i> or <i>cupido</i>). “All impulses were only +<span class="sidenote">Medieval revision of the theory of charity.</span> +evolutions of this typical characteristic” (Harnack, +<i>History of Dogma</i> (trans.), v. iii.); and this was so +alike in the spiritual and the sensuous life. Happiness thus +depended on desire; and desire in turn depended on the +regulation of the will; but the will was regulated only by grace. +God was the <i>spiritualis substantia</i>; and freedom was the identity +of the will with the omnipotent unchanging nature. This +highest Being was “holiness working on the will in the form of +omnipotent love.” This love was grace—“grace imparting itself +in love.” Love (<i>caritas</i>—charity) is identified with justice; and +the will, the goodwill, is love. The identity of the will with the +will of God was attained by communion with Him. The after-life +consummated by sight this communion, which was here +reached only by faith. Such a method of thought was entirely +introspective, and it turned the mind “wholly to hope, asceticism +and the contemplation of God in worship.” “Where St Augustine +indulges in the exposition of practical piety he has no theory +at all of Christ’s work.” To charity on that side he added +nothing. In the 11th century there was a revival of piety, which +had amongst its objects the restoration of discipline in the +monasteries and a monastic training for the secular clergy. +To this Augustinian thought led the way. “Christianity was +asceticism and the city of God” (Harnack vi. 6). A new religious +feeling took possession of the general mind, a regard and adoration +of the actual, the historic Christ. Of this St Bernard was +the expositor. “Beside the sacramental Christ the image of the +historical took its place,—majesty in humility, innocence in +penal suffering, life in death.” The spiritual and the sensuous +were intermingled. Dogmatic formulae fell into the background. +The picture of the historic Christ led to the realization of the +Christ according to the spirit (<span class="grk" title="kata pneuma">κατὰ πνεῦμα</span>). Thus St Bernard +carried forward Augustinian thought; and the historic Christ +became the “sinless man, approved by suffering, to whom the +divine grace, by which He lives, has lent such power that His +image takes shape in other men and incites them to corresponding +humility and love.”</p> + +<p>Humility and poverty represented the conditions under +which alone this spirit could be realized; and the poverty must +be spiritual, and therefore self-imposed (“wilful,” as it was +afterwards called). This led to practical results. Poverty was +not a social state, but a spiritual; and consequently the poor +generally were not the <i>pauperes Christi</i>, but those who, like the +monks, had taken vows of poverty. From these premisses +followed later the doctrine that gifts to the church were not +gifts to the poor, as once they had been, but to the religious +bodies. The church was not the church of the poor, but of the +poor in spirit. But the immediate effect was the belief for a time, +apparently almost universal, that the salvation of society would +come from the monastic orders. By their aid, backed by the +general opinion, the secular clergy were brought back to celibacy +and the monasteries newly disciplined. But charity could not +thus regain its touch of life and become the means of raising +the standard of social duty.</p> + +<p>Next, one amongst many who were stirred by a kindred +inspiration, St Francis turned back to actual life and gave a new +reality to religious idealism. For him the poor were once again +the <i>pauperes Christi</i>. To follow Christ was to adopt the life of +“evangelical poverty,” and this was to live among the poor the +life of a poor man. The follower was to work with his hands (as +the poor clergy of the early church had done and the clergy of +the early English church were exhorted to do); he was to receive +no money; he was to earn the actual necessaries of life, though +what he could not earn he might beg. To ask for this was a right, +so long as he was bringing a better life into the world. All in +excess of this he gave to the poor. He would possess no property, +buildings or endowments, nor was his order to do so. The fulness +of his life was in the complete realization of it now, without the +cares of property and without any fear of the future. Having a +definite aim and mission, he was ready to accept the want that +might come upon him, and his life was a discipline to enable him +to suffer it if it came. To him humility was the soul making +itself fit to love; and poverty was humility expanded from a +mood to a life, a life not guarded by seclusion, but spent amongst +those who were actually poor. The object of life was to console +the poor—those outside all monasteries and institutions—the +poor as they lived and worked. The movement was practically +a lay movement, and its force consisted in its simplicity and +directness. Book learning was disparaged: life was to be the +teacher. The brothers thus became observant and practical, +and afterwards indeed learned, and their learning had the same +characteristics. Their power lay in their practical sagacity, +in their treatment of life, outside the cloister and the hospital, +at first hand. They knew the people because they settled +amongst them, living just as they did. This was their method +of charity.</p> + +<p>The inspiration that drew St Francis to this method was +the contemplation of the life of Christ. But it was more than +this. The Christ was to him, as to St Bernard, an ideal, whose +nature passed into that of the contemplating and adoring +beholder, so that, as he said, “having lost its individuality, of +itself the creature could no longer act.” He had no impulse +but the Christ impulse. He was changed. His identity was +merged in that of Christ. And with this came the conception of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span> +gracious and finely ordered charity, moving like the natural +world in a constant harmonious development towards a definite +end. The mysticism was intense, but it was practical because it +was intense. In that lay the strength of the movement of the +true Franciscans, and in those orders that, whether called +heretical or not, followed them—Lollards and others. Religion +thus became a personal and original possession. It became +individual. It was inspired by a social endeavour, and for the +world at large it made of charity a new thing.</p> + +<p>St Thomas Aquinas took up St Bernard’s position. Renunciation +of property, voluntary poverty, was in his view +also a necessary means of reaching the perfect life; and the +feeling that was akin to this renunciation and prompted it was +charity. “All perfection of the Christian life was to be attained +according to charity,” and charity united us to God.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the system elaborated by St Thomas Aquinas two lines of +thought are wrought into a kind of harmony. The one stands +for Aristotle and nature, the other for Christian tradition and +theology. We have thus a duplicate theory of thought and action +throughout, both rational and theologic virtues, and a duplicate +beatitude or state of happiness correspondent to each. On the one +hand it is argued that the good act is an act which, in relation to +its object, wholly serves its purpose; and thus the measure of goodness +(<i>Prima Secundae Summae Theolog. Q.</i> xviii. 2) is the proportion +between action and effect. On the other hand, the act has to satisfy +the twofold law, human reason and eternal reason. From the point +of view of the former the cardinal factor is desire, which, made proportionate +to an end, is love (<i>amor</i>); and, seeking the good of others, +it loses its quality of concupiscence and becomes friendly love (<i>amor +amicitiae</i>). But this rational love (<i>amor</i>) and charity (<i>caritas</i>), the +theologic virtue, may meet. All virtue or goodness is a degree of +love (<i>amor</i>), if by virtue we mean the cardinal virtues and refer to the +rule of reason only. But there are also theologic virtues, which +are on one side “essential,” on the other side participative. As +wood ignited participates in the natural fire, so does the individual +in these virtues (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> lxii. l). Charity is a kind of friendship +towards God. It is received <i>per infusionem spiritus sancti</i>, and is +the chief and root of the theologic virtues of faith and hope, and on +it the rational virtues depend. They are not degrees of charity as +they are of (<i>amor</i>) love, but charity gives purpose, order and quality +to them all. In this sense the word is applied to the rational virtues—as, +for instance, beneficence. The counterpart of charity in social +life is pity (<i>misericordia</i>), the compassion that moves us to supply +another’s want (<i>summa religionis Christianae in misericordia consistit +quantum ad exteriora opera</i>). It is, however, an emotion, not a virtue, +and must be regulated like any other emotion (... <i>passio est et +non virtus. Hic autem motus potest esse secundum rationem regulatus</i>, +II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxx. 3). Thus we pass to alms, which are the instrument of +pity—an act of charity done through the intervention of pity. The +act is not done in order to purchase spiritual good by a corporal +means, but to merit a spiritual good (<i>per effectum caritatis</i>) through +being in a state of charity; and from that point of view its effect +is tested by the recipient being moved to pray for his benefactor. +The claim of others on our beneficence is relative, according to +consanguinity and other bonds (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxxi. 3), subject to the +condition that the common good of many is a holier obligation +(<i>divinius</i>) than that of one. Obedience and obligation to parents +may be crossed by other obligations, as, for instance, duty to the +church. To give alms is a command. Alms should consist of the +superfluous—that is, of all that the individual possesses after he has +reserved what is necessary. What is necessary the donor should +fix in due relation to the claims of his family and dependants, his +position in life (<i>dignitas</i>), and the sustenance of his body. On the +other hand, his gift should meet the actual necessities of the recipient +and no more. More than this will lead to excess on the recipient’s +part (<i>ut inde luxurietur</i>) or to want of spirit and apathy (<i>ut aliis +remissio et refrigerium sit</i>), though allowance must be made for +different requirements in different conditions of life. It were better +to distribute alms to many persons than to give more than is necessary +to one. In individual cases there remains the further question +of correction—the removing of some evil or sin from another; and +this, too, is an act of charity.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that though St Thomas bases his argument on a +duplicate theory of thought, action and happiness, part natural, +part theologic, and states fully the conditions of good action, he +does not bring the two into unison. Logically the argument should +follow that alms that fail in social benefit (produce <i>remissionem et +refrigerium</i>, for instance) fail also in spiritual good, for the two cannot +be inconsistent. But in regard to the former he does not press the +importance of purpose, and, in spite of his Aristotle, he misses the +point on which Aristotle, as a close observer of social conditions, +insists, that gifts without purpose and reciprocity foster the dependence +they are designed to meet. The proverb of the “pierced cask” +is as applicable to ecclesiastical as to political almsgiving, as has +often been proved by the event. The distribution of all “superfluous” +income in the form of alms would have the effect of a huge +endowment, and would stereotype “the poor” as a permanent and +unprogressive class. The proposal suggests that St Thomas contemplated +the adoption of a method of relief which would be like +a voluntary poor-law; and it is noteworthy that his phrase “necessary +relief” forms the defining words of the Elizabethan poor-law, +while he also lays stress on the importance of “correction,” which, +on the decline and disappearance of the penitential system, assumed +at the Reformation a prominent position in administration in relation +not only to “sin,” but also to offences against society, such as +idleness, &c.</p> +</div> + +<p>On this foundation was built up the classification of acts of +charity, which in one shape or another has a long social tradition, +and which St Thomas quotes in an elaborated form—the seven +spiritual acts (<i>consule</i>, <i>carpe</i>, <i>doce</i>, <i>solare</i>, <i>remitte</i>, <i>fer</i>, <i>ora</i>), +counsel, sustain, teach, console, save, pardon, pray; and the +seven corporal (<i>vestio</i>, <i>poto</i>, <i>cibo</i>, <i>redimo</i>, <i>tego</i>, <i>colligo</i>, <i>condo</i>) +I clothe, I give drink to, I feed, I free from prison, I shelter, +I assist in sickness, I bury (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxxii. 2). These in subsequent +thought became “good works,” and availed for the +after-life, bringing with them definite boons. Thus charity +was linked to the system of indulgences. The bias of the act +of charity is made to favour the actor. Primarily the benefit +reverts to him. He becomes conscious of an ultimate reward +accruing to himself. The simplicity of the deed, the spontaneity +from which, as in a well-practised art, its freshness springs and +its good effects result, is falsified at the outset. The thought +that should be wholly concerned in the fulfilment of a definite +purpose is diverted from it. The deed itself, apart from the +outcome of the deed, is highly considered. An extreme inducement +is placed on giving, counselling, and the like, but none on +the personal or social utility of the gift or counsel. Yet the +value of these lies in their end. No policy or science of charity +can grow out of such a system. It can produce innumerable +isolated acts, which may or may not be beneficent, but it cannot +enkindle the “ordered charity.” This charity is, strictly speaking, +by its very nature alike intellectual and emotional. Otherwise +it would inevitably fail of its purpose, for though emotion +might stimulate it, intelligence would not guide it.</p> + +<p>There are, then, these three lines of thought. That of St +Bernard, who invigorated the monastic movement, and helped +to make the monastery or hospital the centre of charitable +relief. That of St Francis, who, passing by regular and secular +clergy alike, revived and reinvigorated the conception of charity +and gave it once more the reality of a social force, knowing that +it would find a freer scope and larger usefulness in the life of the +people than in the religious aristocracy of monasteries. And +that of St Thomas Aquinas, who, analysing the problem of +charity and almsgiving, and associating it with definite groups +of works, led to its taking, in the common thought, certain +stereotyped forms, so that its social aim and purpose were +ignored and its power for good was neutralized.</p> + +<p>We have now to turn to the conditions of social life in +which these thoughts fermented and took practical shape. The +population of England from the Conquest to the +14th century is estimated at between 1½ and 2½ +<span class="sidenote">Charity and social conditions in England.</span> +millions. London, it is believed, had a population +of about 40,000. Other towns were small. Two or +three of the larger had 4000 or 5000 inhabitants. The +only substantial building in a village, apart perhaps from the +manor-house, was the church, used for many secular as well +as religious purposes. In the towns the mud or wood-paved huts +sheltered a people who, accepting a common poverty, traded +in little more than the necessaries of life (Green, <i>Town Life in +the 15th Century</i>, i. 13). The population was stationary. Famine +and pestilence were of frequent occurrence (Creighton, <i>Epidemics +in Britain</i>, p. 19), and for the careless there was waste at harvest-time +and want in winter. Hunger was the drill-sergeant of +society. Owing to the hardship and penury of life infant mortality +was probably very great (Blashill, <i>Sutton in Holdernesse</i>, +p. 123). The 15th century was, however, “the golden age of +the labourer.” Our problem is to ascertain what was the service +of charity to this people till the end of that century. In order +to estimate this we have to apply tests similar to those we +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span> +applied before to Greece and Rome and the pre-medieval +church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Family.</i>—Largely Germanic in its origin, we may perhaps +set down as elemental in the English race what Tacitus said of the +Germans. They had the home virtues. They had a high regard +for chastity, and respected and enforced the family tie. The wife +was honoured. The men were poor, but when the actual pressure +of their work—fighting—was removed, idle. They were born +gamblers. Much toil fell upon the wife; but slavery was rather a +form of tenure than a Roman bondage. As elsewhere, there was in +England “the joint family or household” (Pollock and Maitland, +<i>English Law before Edward I.</i> i. 31). Each member of the community +was, or should be, under some lord; for the lordless man +was, like the wanderer in Homer, who belonged to no phratry, +suspected and dangerous, and his kinsfolk might be required to find +a lord for him. There was personal servitude, but it was not of one +complexion; there were grades amongst the unfree, and the general +advance to freedom was continuous. By the 9th century the larger +amount of the slavery was bondage by tenure. In the reign of +Edward I., though “the larger half of the rural population was +unfree,” yet the serf, notwithstanding the fact that he was his lord’s +chattel, was free against all save his lord. A century later (1381) +villenage—that is payment for tenancy by service, instead of by +quit-rent—was practically extinguished. So steady was the progress +towards the freedom and self-maintenance of the individual and his +family.</p> + +<p><i>The Manor.</i>—In social importance, next to the family, comes +the manor, the organization of which affected charity greatly on +one side. It was “an economic unit,” the estate of a lord on which +there were associated the lord with his demesne, tenants free of +service, and villeins and others, tenants by service. All had the use +of land, even the serf. The estate was regulated by a manor court, +consisting of the lord of the manor or his representative, and the free +tenants, and entrusted with wide quasi-domestic jurisdiction. The +value of the estate depended on the labour available for its cultivation, +and the cultivators were the unfree tenants. Hence the lord, through +the manor-court, required an indemnity or fine if a child, for instance, +left the manor; and similarly, if a villein died, his widow might have +to remarry or pay a fine. Thus the lord reacquired a servant and +the widow and her family were maintained. The courts, too, fixed +prices, and thus in local and limited conditions of supply and demand +were able to equalize them in a measure and neutralize some of the +effects of scarcity. In this way, till the reign of Edward I., and, where +the manor courts remained active, till much later, a self-supporting +social organization made any systematic public or charitable relief +unnecessary.</p> + +<p><i>The Parish and the Tithe.</i>—The conversion of England in the +7th century was effected by bishops, accompanied by itinerant +priests, who made use of conventual houses as the centres of their +work. The parochial system was not firmly established till the +10th century (970). Then, by a law of Edgar, a man who had a +church on his own land was allowed to pay a third of his tithe to his +own church, instead of giving the whole of it to the minister or +conventual church. Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury (667), had +introduced the Carolingian system into England; and, accordingly, +the parish priest was required to provide for strangers and to keep +a room in his house for them. Of the tithe, a third and not a fourth +was to go to the poor with any surplus; and in order to have larger +means of helping them, the priests were urged to work themselves, +according to the ancient canons of the church (cf. Labbeus, IV. +Conc. Carthag. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 398). The importance of the tithe to the poor +is shown by acts of Richard II. and Henry IV., by which it was +enacted that, if parochial tithes were appropriated to a monastery, +a portion of them should be assigned to the poor of the parish. At +a very early date (1287) quasi-compulsory charges in the nature of +a rate were imposed on parishioners for various church purposes +(Pollock and Maitland, i. 604), though in the 14th and 15th centuries +a compulsory church rate was seldom made. Collections were made +by paid collectors, especially for Hock-tide (<i>q.v.</i>) money—gathered for +church purposes (Brand’s <i>Antiquities</i>, p. 112). But there must have +been many varieties in practice. In Somersetshire the churchwardens’ +accounts (1349 to 1560) show that the parish contributed +nothing to the relief of the poor, and it seems probable that the +personal charities of the parishioners, and the charities of the gild +fellowships and of the parsonage house sufficed (Bishop Hobhouse, +<i>Churchwardens’ Accounts, 1349-1560</i>, Somerset Record Society). +Many parishes possessed land, houses and cattle, and received gifts +and legacies of all kinds. The proceeds of this property, if given +for the use of the parish generally, might, if necessary, be available +for the relief of the poor, but, if given definitely for their use, would +provide doles, or stock cattle or “poor’s” lands, &c. (Cf. Augustus +Jessopp, <i>Before the Great Pillage</i>, p. 40; and many instances in the +reports of the Charity Commissioners, 1818-1835.) Of the endowments +for parish doles very many may have disappeared in the break-up +of the 16th century. There were also “Parish Ales,” the proceeds +of which would be used for parish purposes or for relief. Further, +all the greater festivals were days of feasting and the distribution +of food; at funerals also there were often large distributions, and +also at marriages. The faithful generally, subject to penance, were +required to relieve the poor and the stranger. In the larger part of +England the parish and the vill were usually coterminous. In the +north a parish contained several vills. There were thus side by side +the charitable relief system of the parish, which at an early date +became a rating area, and the self-supporting system of the manor.</p> + +<p><i>The Monasteries.</i>—As Christianity spread monasteries spread, +and each monastery was a centre of relief. Sometimes they were +established, like St Albans (796), for a hundred Benedictine monks +and for the entertainment of strangers; or sometimes without any +such special purpose, like the abbey of Croyland (reorganized 946), +which, becoming exceeding rich from its <i>diversorium pauperum</i>, +or almonry, “relieved the whole country round so that prodigious +numbers resorted to it.” At Glastonbury, for instance (1537), +£140 16s. 8d. was given away in doles. But documents seem to +prove (Denton, <i>England in Fifteenth Century</i>, p. 245) that the +relief generally given by monasteries was much less than is usually +supposed.</p> + +<p>The general system may be described (cf. Rule, <i>St Dunst. Cant. +Archp.</i> p. 42, Dugdale; J.B. Clark, <i>The Observances</i>, Augustinian +Priory, Barnwell; Abbot Gasquet, <i>English Monastic Life</i>). The +almonry was usually near the church of the monastery. An almoner +was in charge. He was to be prudent and discreet in the distribution +of his doles (<i>portiones</i>) and to relieve travellers, palmers, chaplains +and mendicants (<i>mendicantes</i>, apparently the beggars recognized +as living by begging, such as we have noted under other social conditions), +and the leprous more liberally than others. The old and +infirm, lame and blind who were confined to their beds he was to +visit and relieve suitably (<i>in competenti annona</i>). The importunity +of the poor he was to put up with, and to meet their need as far as +he could. In the almonry there were usually rooms for the sick. +The sick outside the precincts were relieved at the almoner’s discretion. +Continuous relief might be given after consultation with +the superior. All the remnants of meals and the old clothes of the +monks were given to the almoner for distribution, and at Christmas +he had a store of stockings and other articles to give away as +presents to widows, orphans and poor clerks. He also provided +the Maundy gifts and selected the poor for the washing of feet. +He was thus a local visitor and alms distributor, not merely at the +gate of the monastery but in the neighbourhood, and had also at +his disposal “indoor” relief for the sick. Separate from the rest +the house there was also a dormitory and rooms and the kitchen +for strangers. A <i>hospitularius</i> attended to their needs and novices +waited on them. Guests who were laymen might stay on, working +in return for board and lodging (Smith’s <i>Dict. Christian Antiq.</i>, +“Benedictine”).</p> + +<p>The monasteries often established hospitals; they served also as +schools for the gentry and for the poor; and they were pioneers of +agriculture. In the 12th century, in which many monastic orders +were constituted, there were many lavish endowments. In the 14th +century their usefulness had begun to wane. At the end of that +century the larger estates were generally held in entail, with the +result that younger sons were put into religious houses. This +worldliness had its natural consequences. In the 15th century, +owing to mismanagement, waste, and subsequently to the decline +of rural prosperity, their resources were greatly crippled. In their +relation to charity one or two points may be noted: (1) Of the small +population of England the professed monks and nuns with the parish +priests (Rogers, <i>Hist. Agric. and Prices</i>, i. 58) numbered at least +30,000 or 40,000. This number of celibates was a standing protest +against the moral sufficiency of the family life. On the other hand, +amongst them were the brothers and sisters who visited the poor +and nursed the sick in hospitals; and many who now succumb +physically or mentally to the pressure of life, and are cared for in +institutions, may then have found maintenance and a retreat in +the monasteries. (2) Bound together by no common controlling +organization, the monasteries were but so many miscellaneous +centres of relief, chiefly casual relief. They were mostly “magnificent +hostelries.” (3) They stood outside the parish, and they +weakened its organization and hampered its development.</p> + +<p><i>The Hospitals.</i>—The revival of piety in the 11th century led to +a large increase in the number of hospitals and hospital orders. +To show how far they covered the field in England two instances +may be quoted. At Canterbury (Creighton, <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 87) there +were four for different purposes, two endowed by Lanfranc (1084), +one for poor, infirm, lame and blind men and women, and one outside +the town for lepers. These hospitals were put under the charge +of a priory, and endowed out of tithes payable to the secular clergy. +Later (Henry II.), a hospital for leprous sisters was established, +and afterwards a hospital for leprous monks and poor relations of +the monks of St Augustine’s. In a less populous parish, Luton +(Cobbe, <i>Luton Church</i>), there were a hospital for the poor, an almshouse, +and two hospitals, one for the sick and one for the leprous. +The word “leper,” it is evident, was used very loosely, and was +applied to many diseases other than leprosy. There were hospitals +for the infirm and the leprous; the disease was not considered +contagious. The hospital in its modern sense was but slowly created. +Thus St Bartholomew’s in London was founded (1123) for a master, +brethren and sisters, and for the entertainment of poor diseased +persons till they got well; of distressed women big with child till +they were able to go abroad; and for the maintenance, until the age +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span> +of seven, of all such children whose mothers died in the house. +St Thomas’s (rebuilt 1228) had a master and brethren and three lay +sisters, and 40 beds for poor, infirm and impotent people, who +had also victual and firing. There were hospitals for many special +purposes—as for the blind, for instance. There were also many +hospital orders in England and on the continent. They sprang up +beside the monastic orders, and for a time were very popular: +brothers and sisters of the Holy Ghost (1198), sisters of St Elizabeth +(1207-1231), Beguines and Beghards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>), knights of St +John and others.</p> + +<p><i>The Mendicant Orders.</i>—The Franciscans tended the sick and +poor in the slums of the towns with great devotion—indeed, the +whole movement tells of a splendid self-abandonment and an +intensity of effort in the early spring of its enthusiasm, and with +the aid of reform councils and reformations it lengthened out its +usefulness for two centuries.</p> +</div> + +<p>As in the pre-medieval church, the system of relief is that +of charitable endowments—a marked contrast to +<span class="sidenote">Medieval endowed charities.</span> +the modern method of voluntary associations or +rate-supported institutions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) <i>The Church as Legatee.</i>—The church building among the +Teutonic races was not held by the bishop as part of what was +originally the charitable property of the church. It was assigned +to the patron saint of the church by the donor, who retained the +right of administration, of which his own patronage or right of +presentation is a relic. Subsequently, with the study of Roman +law, the conception of the church as a <i>persona ficta</i> prevailed; and +till the larger growth of the gilds and corporations it was the only +general legatee for charitable gifts. As these arise a large number +of charitable trusts are created and held by lay corporations; and +“alms” include gifts for social as well as religious or eleemosynary +purposes. (2) <i>Freedom from Taxation and Service.</i>—Gifts to the +church for charitable or other purposes were made in free, pure and +perpetual alms (“<i>ad tenendum in puram et perpetuam eleemosynam +sine omni temporali servicio et consuetudine</i>”). Land held under this +<i>frankalmoigne</i> was given “in perpetual alms,” therefore the donor +could not retract it; in free alms, therefore he could exact no services +in regard to it; and in pure alms as being free from secular +jurisdiction (cf. Pollock and Maitland). (3) <i>Alienation and +Mortmain.</i>—To prevent alienation of property to religious houses, with +the consequent loss of service to the superior or chief lords, a licence +from the chief lord was required to legalize the alienation (Magna +Carta, and Edw. I., <i>De viris religiosis</i>). Other statutes (Edw. I. +and Rich. II.) enacted that this licence should be issued out of +chancery after investigation; and the principle was applied to +civil corporations. The necessity of this licence was one lay check +on injurious alienation. (4) <i>Irresponsible Administration.</i>—Until +after the 13th century, when the lay courts had asserted their +right to settle disputes as to lands held in alms, the administration +of charity was from the lay point of view entirely irresponsible. +It was outside the secular jurisdiction; and civilly the professed +clergy, who were the administrators, were “dead.” They could +not sue or be sued except through their sovereign—their chief, the +abbot. They formed a large body of non-civic inhabitants free from +the pressure and the responsibilities of civil life. +(5) <i>Control</i>.—Apart +from the control of the abbot, prior, master or other head, the +bishop was visitor, or, as we should say, inspector; and abuses +might be remedied by the visit of the bishop or his ordinary. The +bishop’s ordinary (2 Henry V. i. 1) was the recognized visitor of all +hospitals apart from the founder. The founder and his family +retained a right of intervention. Sometimes thus an institution +was reorganized, or even dissolved, the property reverting to the +founder (Dugdale, <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, vi. 2. 715). +(6) <i>Cy-près.</i>—Charities +were, especially after Henry V.’s reign, appropriated to +other uses, either because their original purpose failed or because +some new object had become important. Thus, for instance, a +college or hospital for lepers (1363) is re-established by the founder’s +family with a master and priest, <i>quod nulli leprosi reperiebantur</i>; +and a similar hospital founded in Henry I.’s time near Oxford has +decayed, and is given by Edward III. to Oriel College, Oxford, to +maintain a chaplain and poor brethren. Thus, apart from alienation +pure and simple, the principle of adaptation to new uses was put in +force at an early date, and supplied many precedents to Wolsey, +Edward VI. and the post-Reformation bishops. The system of +endowments was indeed far more adaptable than it would at first +sight seem to have been. (7) <i>The Sources of Income.</i>—The hospitals +were chiefly supported by rents or the produce of land; or, if +attached to monasteries, out of the tithe of their monastic lands or +other sources of revenue, or out of the appropriated tithes of the +secular clergy; or they might be in part maintained by collections +made, for instance, by a commissioner duly authorized by a formal +attested document, in which were recounted the indulgences by +popes, archbishops and bishops to those who became its benefactors +(Cobbe, p. 75); or, in the case of leper hospitals, by a leper with a +“clapdish,” who begged in the markets; or by a proctor, in the +case of more important institutions in towns, who “came with his +box one day in every month to the churches and other religious +houses, at times of service, and there received the voluntary gifts +of the congregation”; or they might receive inmates on payment, +and thus apparently a frequent abuse, decayed servants of the court +and others, were “farmed out.” (8) <i>Mode of Admission.</i>—The +admission was usually, no doubt, regulated by the prior or master. +At York, at the hospital of St Nicholas for the leprous, the conditions +of admission were: promise or vow of continence, participation in +prayer, the abandonment of all business, the inmate’s property at +death to go to the house. This may serve as an example. The +master was usually one of the regular clergy. (9) <i>Decline of the +Hospitals.</i>—It is said that, in addition to 645 monasteries and +90 “colleges” and many chantries, Henry VIII. suppressed 110 +hospitals (Speed’s <i>Chronicle</i>, p. 778). The numbers seem small. +In the economic decline at the end of the 15th and beginning of the +16th centuries many hospitals may have lapsed.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the 15th century the towns grew in importance. First the +wool trade and then the cloth trade flourished, and the English +developed a large shipping trade. The towns grew up +like “little principalities”; and for the advancement +<span class="sidenote">Gild and municipal charities.</span> +of trade, gilds, consisting alike of masters and workmen, +were formed, which endeavoured to regulate and then +to monopolize the market. By degrees the corporations of the +towns were worked in their interests, and the whole commercial +system became restrictive and inadaptable. Meanwhile the +towns attracted newcomers; freedom from feudal obligations +was gained with comparative ease; and a new <i>plebs</i> was congregating, +a population of inhabitants not qualified as burghers +or gild members, women, sons living with their fathers, menial +servants and apprentices. There was thus an increasing restriction +imposed on trade, coupled with a growing <i>plebs</i>. Naturally, +then, lay charities sprang up for members of gilds, and for +burghers and for the commonalty. Men left estates to their gilds +to maintain decayed members in hospitals, almshouses or otherwise, +to educate their children, portion their daughters, and to +assist their widows. The middle-class trader was thus in great +measure insured against the risks of life. The gilds were one +sign of the new temper and wants of burghers freed from feudalism. +Another sign was a new standard of manners. Rules and +saws, Hesiodic in their tone, became popular—in regard, for +instance, to such a question as “how to enable a man to live +on his means, and to keep himself and those belonging to him.” +The boroughs established other charities also, hospitals and almshouses +for the people, a movement which, like that of the gilds, +began very early—in Italy as early as the 9th century. They +sometimes gave outdoor relief also to registered poor (Green i. 41), +and they had in large towns courts of orphans presided over by +the mayor and aldermen, thus taking over a duty that previously +had been one of conspicuous importance in the church. As early +as 1257 in Westphalian towns there was a rough-and-ready +system of Easter relief of the poor; and in Frankfort in 1437 +there was a town council of almoners with a systematic programme +of relief (Ratzinger, p. 352). Thus at the close of the +middle ages the towns were gradually assuming what had been +charitable functions of the church.</p> + +<p>While a new freedom was being attained by the labourer in +the country and the burgher in the town, the difficulty of obtaining +a sufficient supply of labour for agriculture must +have been constant, especially at every visitation of +<span class="sidenote">Statutory wage control.</span> +plague and famine. In accordance with a general +policy of state regulation which was to control and +supervise industry, agriculture and poor relief and to repress +vagrancy by gaols and houses of correction, the state stepped +in as arbiter and organizer. By Statutes of Labourers beginning +in 1351 (25 Edw. III. 135), it aimed at enforcing a settled wage +and restraining migration. From 1351 it endeavoured to suppress +mendicity, and in part to systematize it in the interest of infirm +and aged mendicants. Each series of enactments is the natural +complement of the other. In the main their signification, from +the point of view of charity, lies in the fact that they represent +a persistent endeavour to prevent social unsettlement and in +part the distress which unsettlement causes, and which vagrancy +in some measure indicates, by keeping the people within the +ranks of recognized dependence, the settled industry of the +crafts and of agriculture, or forcing them back into it by fear +of the gaol or the stocks. The extreme point of this policy was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span> +reached when by the laws of Edward VI. and Elizabeth the +“rogue, vagabond or sturdy beggar” was branded with an <b>R</b> +on the shoulder and handed over as a bondman for a period to any +one who would take him. On the other hand, it was desired +that relief should be a means of preventing migration. In any +time of general pressure there is a desire to organize mendicity, +to prevent the wandering of beggars, to create a kind of settled +poor, distinguished from the rest as infirm and not able-bodied, +and to keep these at least at home sufficiently supported by local +and parochial relief; and this, in its simpler form all the world +over, has in the past been by response to public begging. The +argument may be summed up thus: We cannot have begging, +which implies that the beggar is cared for by no one, belongs +to no one, and therefore throws himself on the world at large. +Therefore, if he is able-bodied he must be punished as unsocial, +for it is his fault that he belongs to no one; or we must make +him some one’s dependant, and so keep him; or if he is infirm, +and therefore of no service to any one—if no one will keep him—we +must organize his mendicity, for such mendicity is justified. +If he cannot dig for the man to whom he does or should belong, +he must beg. Then out of the failure to organize mendicity—for +relief of itself is no remedy, least of all casual relief—a +poor-law springs up, which, afterwards associated with the +provision of employment, will, it is hoped, make relief in some +measure remedial by increasing its quantity by means of compulsory +levies. This argument, which combined statutory wage +control and statutory poor relief, seems to have been firmly +bedded in the English legislative mind for more than two centuries, +from 1351 till after 1600; and until 1834 these two series of laws +effectually reduced the English labourer to a new industrial +dependence. To people imbued with ideas of feudalism the way +of escape from villenage seemed to be not independence, but +a new reversion to it.</p> + +<p>Many elements produced the social and economic catastrophe +of the 16th century, for the condition into which the country +fell can hardly be considered less than a catastrophe. +With the growing independence of the people there was +<span class="sidenote">The decadence.</span> +created after the 13th century an unsettled “masterless” +class, a residue of failure resulting from social changes, +which was large and important enough to call for legislation. +In the 15th century, “the golden age of the English labourer,” +the towns increased and flourished. Both town and country did +well. At the end of the century came the decadence. The +measure of the strain, when perhaps it had reached its lowest +level, is indicated by the following comparison: “The cost of +a peasant’s family of four in the early part of the 14th century +was £3:4:9; after 1540 it was £8” (Rogers, <i>Hist, of Agric. and +Prices</i>, iv. 756).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The cause of this has now been fairly investigated. The value +of land in the 13th century generally depended chiefly on “the +head of labour” retained upon it. Its fertility depended on mainoeuvre +(manure). To keep labour upon it was therefore the aim +of the lord or owner. The enclosing of lands for sheep began early, +and in the time of Edward III., in the great days of the woolstaple, +must have been extensive. So long as the demand for the exportation +of wool, and then for its consumption at home in the cloth trade, +continued, the towns prospered, and the enclosures did not become +a grievance. Even before the reign of Henry VII., with the decay +of trade, the towns decayed, and their population in some cases +diminished extraordinarily. This reacted on the country, where the +great families had already become impoverished, and were hardly +able to support their retainers. In Henry VIII.’s time the lands of +the religious houses were confiscated. Worked on old lines, the +custom of tillage remained in force on them. Accordingly, when +these estates fell into private hands they were transferred subject +to the condition that they should be tilled as heretofore. The condition +was evaded by the new owners, and the disbandment of farm +labourers went on apace. In England and Wales these changes, it is +said, affected a third of the country, more than 12,000,000 acres, if +the estimates be correct, or rather a third of the best land in the +kingdom. With towns decaying, the effect of this must have been +terrible. What were really “latifundia” were created, “great +landes,” “enclosures of a mile or two or thereabouts ... destroying +thereby not only the farms and cottages within the same circuits, +but also the towns and villages adjoining.” A herdsman and his +wife took the place of eighteen to twenty-four farm hands. The +people thus set wandering could only join the wanderers from the +decaying towns. At the same time the economic difficulty was +aggravated by a new patrician or commercial greed; and once more +the land question—the absorption of property into a few hands +instead of its free exchange—led to lasting social demoralization. +A few years after the alienation of the monasteries the coinage +(1543) was debased. By this means prices were arbitrarily raised, +and wages were increased nominally; but nevertheless the price +of necessaries was “so enhanced” that neither “the poor labourers +can live with their wages that is limited by your grace’s laws, nor +the artificers can make, much less sell, their wares at any reasonable +price” (Lamond, <i>The Commonweal of this Realm of England</i>, p. xlvii). +No social reformation, such as the charitable instincts of Wycliffe, +More, Hales, Latimer and other men suggested, was attempted, or +at least persistently carried out. In towns the organization of labour +had become restrictive, exclusive and inadaptable, or, judged from +the moral standpoint, uncharitable. There had been a time of plenty +and extravagance, of which in high quarters the famous “field of +the cloth of gold” was typical; and probably, in accordance with +the frequently observed law of social economics, as the advance in +wages and their purchasing power in the earlier part of the 15th +century had not been accompanied by a simultaneous advance in +self-discipline and intelligent expenditure, it resulted in part in +lessened competence and industrial ability on the part of the workmen, +and thus in the end produced pauperism.</p> +</div> + +<p>The poverty of the country was very great in the reigns of +Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Adversity then taught the people +new manners, and households became more simple and thrifty. +In the reign of James I., with enforced economy and thrift, a +“slow but substantial improvement in agriculture” took place, +and a new growth of commercial enterprise. The vigour of the +municipalities had abated, so that in Henry VIII.’s time they +had become the very humble servants of the government; +and the government, on the other hand, had become strongly +centralized—in itself a sign of the general withdrawal of self-sustaining +activity in all administration, in the administration +of charitable relief no less than in other departments. A system +of endowed charities had been built up, supported chiefly by +rents from landed property. These now had disappeared, and +thus the means of relief, which Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth +might have utilized at a time of general distress, had been dissipated +by the acts of their predecessors. The civil independence +of the monasteries and religious houses might have been justified, +possibly, when they were engaged in missionary work and were +instilling into the people the precepts of a higher moral law than +that which was in force around them. But afterwards, as the +ability and intelligence of the community increased, their privileges +became more and more antagonistic to charity, and tended +to create a non-social and even anti-social ecclesiastical democracy +actuated by aims and interests in which the general good of the +people had little or no place. There was a growing alienation +between religious tradition and secular opinion, as Lollardism +slowly permeated the thought of the people and led the way +to the Reformation. While this alienation existed no national +system of charity, civic and yet religious, could be created. But +worse than all, the ideal of charity had been degraded. A self-regarding +system of relief had superseded charity, and it was +productive of nothing but alms, large or small, isolated and unmethodic, +given with a wrong bias, and thus almost inevitably +with evil results. Out of this could spring no vigorous co-operative +charity. Charity—not relief—indeed seemed to have left +the world. The larger issues were overlooked. Then the property +of the hospitals and the gilds was wantonly confiscated, though +the poor had already lost that share in the revenues of the church +to which at one time they were admitted to have a just claim. +A new beginning had to be made. The obligations of charity had +to be revived. A new organization of charitable relief had to +be created, and that with an empty exchequer and after a vast +waste of charitable resources. There were signs of a new congregational +and parochial energy, yet the task could not be +entrusted to the religious bodies, divided and disunited as they +were. In their stead it could be imposed only on some authority +which represented the general community, such as municipalities; +and in spite of the centralization of the government there seemed +some hope of creating a system of relief in connexion with them. +They were tried, and, very naturally, failed. In the poverty of +the time it seemed that the poor could be relieved only by a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span> +compulsory rate, and the administration of statutory relief +naturally devolved on the central government—the only vigorous +administrative body left in the country. The government might +indeed have adopted the alternative of letting the industrial +difficulties of the country work themselves out, but they had +inherited a policy of minute legislative control, and they continued +it. Revising previous statutes, they enacted the Poor Law, +which still remains on the statute book. It could be no remedy +for social offences against charity and the community. But in +part at least it was successful. It helped to conceal the failure +to find a remedy.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Part VI.—After the Reformation</p> + +<p>During the Reformation, which extended, it should be understood, +from the middle of the 14th century to the reign of James I., +the groundwork of the theory of charity was being +recast. The old system and the narrow theory on which +<span class="sidenote">The Reformation theory of charity.</span> +it had come to depend were discredited. The recoil +is startling. To a very large extent charitable administration +had been in the hands of men and women who, as +an indispensable condition to their participation in it, took +the vows of obedience, chastity and “wilful” poverty. Now +this was all entirely set aside. It was felt (see <i>Homilies on Faith +and Good Works, &c.</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1547) that socially and morally the +method had been a failure. The vow of obedience, it was argued, +led to a general disregard of the duties of civic and family life. +Those who bound themselves by it were outside the state and +did not serve it. In regard to chastity the <i>Homily</i> states the +common opinion: “How the profession of chastity was kept, +it is more honesty to pass over in silence and let the world judge +of what is well known.” As to wilful poverty, the regulars, it +is urged, were not poor, but rich, for they were in possession of +much wealth. Their property, it is true, was held <i>in communi</i>, +and not personally, but nevertheless it was practically theirs, +and they used it for their personal enjoyment; and “for all +their riches they might never help father nor mother, nor others +that were indeed very needy and poor, without the license of +their father abbot” or other head. This was the negative position. +The positive was found in the doctrine of justification—the central +point in the discussions of the time, a plant from the garden of +St Augustine. Justification was the personal conviction of a +lively (or living) faith, and was defined as “a true trust and +confidence of the mercy of God through our Lord Jesus Christ, +and a stedfast hope of all good things to be received at His hands.” +Without this justification there could be no good works. They +were the signs of a lively faith and grew out of it. Apart from +it, what seemed to be “good works” were of the nature of sin, +phantom acts productive of nothing, “birds that were lost, +unreal.” So were the works of pagans and heretics. The +relation of almsgiving to religion was thus entirely altered. The +personal reward here or hereafter to the actor was eliminated. +The deed was good only in the same sense in which the doer was +good; it had in itself no merit. This was a great gain, quite +apart from any question as to the sufficiency or insufficiency of +the Protestant scheme of salvation. The deed, it was realized, +was only the outcome of the doer, the expression of himself, +what he was as a whole, neither better nor worse. Logically +this led to the discipline of the intelligence and the emotions, +and undoubtedly “justification” to very many was only consistent +with such discipline and implied it. Thus under a new +guise the old position of charity reasserted itself. But there were +other differences.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The relation of charity to prayer, fasting, almsgiving and penance +was altsred. The prayerful contemplation of the Christ was preserved +in the mysticism of Protestantism; but it was dissociated +from the “historic Christ,” from the fervent idealization of whom +St Francis drew his inspiration and his active charitable impulse. +The tradition did not die out, however. It remained with many, +notably with George Herbert, of whom it made, not unlike St Francis, +a poet as well as a practical parish priest; but the absence of it +indicated in much post-Reformation endeavour a want, if not of +devotion, yet of intensity of feeling which may in part account for +the fact that sectarianism in relief has since proved itself stronger +than charity, instead of yielding to charity as its superior and its +organizer. Fasting was parted from prayer and almsgiving. It +was “a thing not of its own proper nature good as the love of father +or mother or neighbour, but according to its end.” Almsgiving also +as a “work” disappeared and with it a whole series of inducements +that from the standpoint of the pecuniary and material supply of +relief had long been active. It was no wonder that the preachers +advocated it in vain, and reproached their hearers with their diminished +bounty to the poor; the old personal incentive had gone, and +could only gradually be superseded by the spontaneous activity of +personal religion very slowly wedding itself to true views of social +duty and purpose. Penance, once so closely related to almsgiving, +passed out of sight. Charity, the love of God and our neighbour, had +two offices, it was said, “to cherish good and harmless men” and +“to correct and punish vice without regard to persons.” Correction +as a means of discipline takes the place of penance, and it becomes +judicial, regulating and controlling church membership by the +authority of the church, a congregation, minister or elder; or dealing +with laziness or ill-doing through the municipality or state, in +connexion with what now first appear, not prisons, but houses of +correction.</p> +</div> + +<p>The religious life was to be democratic—not in religious +bodies, but in the whole people; and in a new sense—in relation +to family and social life—it was to be moral. That was the +significance of the Reformation for charity.</p> + +<p>Consistently with this movement of religious activity towards +a complete fulfilment of the duties of civic life, the older classical +social theory, fostered by the Renaissance, assumed a +new influence—the great conception of the state as a +<span class="sidenote">The organization of municipal relief.</span> +community bound together by charity and friendship, +“We be not born to ourselves,” it was said, “but +partly to the use of our country, of our parents, of our +kinsfolk, and partly of our friends and neighbours; and therefore +all good virtues are grafted on us naturally, whose effects be +to do good to others, when it showeth forth the image of God +in man, whose property is ever to do good to others” (Lamond, +p. 14). Economic theory also changed. Instead of the medieval +opinion of the “theologian or social preacher,” that “trade +could only be defended on the ground that honestly conducted +it made no profit” (Green, ii. 71), we have a recognition of the +advantages resulting from exchange, and individual interests, +it is argued, are not necessarily inconsistent with those of the +state, but are, on the contrary, a source of solid good to the whole +community.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Municipal laws for the suppression of the mendicity of the able-bodied +and the organization of relief on behalf of the infirm were +common in England and on the continent (Colmar, 1362; Nuremberg, +1478; Strassburg, 1523; London, 1514). Vives (Ehrle, <i>Beitrage +zur Geschichte und Reform der Armenpflege</i>, p. 26), a Spaniard, who +had been at the court of Henry VIII., in a book translated into +several languages and widely read, seems to have summed up the +thought of the time in regard to the management of the poor. +He divided them into three classes: those in hospitals and poor-houses, +the public homeless beggars and the poor at home. He +would have a census taken of the number of each class in the town, +and information obtained as to the causes of their distress. Then +he would establish a central organization of relief under the magistrates. +Work was to be supplied for all, while begging was strictly +forbidden. Non-settled poor who were able-bodied were to be sent +to their homes. Able-bodied settled poor who knew no craft were +to be put on some public work—the undeserving being set to hard +labour. For others work was to be found, or they were to be assisted +to become self-supporting. The hospitals provided with medical +advice and necessaries were to be classified to meet the needs of the +sick, the blind and lunatics. The poor living at home were to work +with a view to their self-support. What they earned, if insufficient, +might be supplemented. If a citizen found a case of distress he was +not to help it, but to send it for inquiry to the magistrate. Children +were to be taught. Private relief was to be obtained from the rich. +The funds of endowed charities were to be the chief source of income; +if more was wanted, bequests and church collections would suffice. +The scheme was put in force in Yprès in 1524. The Sorbonne +approved it, and similar plans were adopted in Paris and elsewhere. +It is in outline the scheme of London municipal charity promoted +by Edward VI., by which the poor were classified, St Bartholomew’s +and St Thomas’s hospitals appropriated for the sick, Christ’s hospital +for the children of the poor, and Bridewell for the correction of the +able-bodied. Less the institutional arrangements and plus the +compulsory rate, the methods are those of the Poor Relief Act of +Queen Elizabeth of 1601. At first the attempt had been made to +introduce state relief in reliance on voluntary alms (1 Mary 13, +5 Eliz. 3, 1562-1563), subject to the right of assessment if alms were +refused. But the position was anomalous. Charity is voluntary, +and spontaneously meets the demands of distress. Such demands +have always a tendency to increase with the supply. Hence the very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span> +limitations of charitable finance are in the nature of a safeguard. +At most economic trouble can only be assuaged by relief, and it can +only be met or prevented by economic and social reforms. If a +compulsory rate be not enforced, as in Scotland and formerly in +some parishes in England, a voluntary rate may be made in supplementation +of the local charities. In Scotland, where the compulsory +clauses of the Poor Relief Act of James I. were not put in force, the +country weathered the storm without them, and the compulsory +rate, which was extended throughout the country by the Poor Act of +1844, came in very slowly in the 18th and 19th centuries. In +France (1566) a similar act was passed and set aside. If a compulsory +rate be enforced, it is inevitable that the resources of charity, +unless kept apart from the poor-law and administered on different +lines from it, will diminish, and at the same time, as has happened +often in the case of endowed charities, the interest in charitable +administration will lapse, while the charges for poor-law relief, +drawn without much scruple from the taxation of the community, +will mount to millions either to meet increasing demands or to provide +more elaborate institutional accommodation. The principle +once adopted, it was enacted (1572-1573) that the aged and infirm +should be cared for by the overseers of the poor, a new authority; +and in 1601 the duplicate acts were passed, that for the relief of +the poor (43 Eliz. 2), and that for the furtherance and protection +of endowed charities. Thus the poor were brought into the dependence +of a legally recognized class, endowed with a claim for relief, +on the fulfilment of which, after a time, they could without difficulty +insist if they were so minded. The civic authority had indeed taken +over the alms of the parish, and an <i>eleemosyna civica</i> had taken the +place of the <i>annona civica</i>. It was a similar system under a different +name.</p> +</div> + +<p>A phrase of Robert Cecil’s (1st earl of Salisbury) indicates the +minute domestic character of the Elizabethan legislation (D’Ewes, +674). The question (1601) was the repeal of a statute +of tillage. Cecil says: “If in Edward I.’s time a +<span class="sidenote">Poor Relief Acts and statutory serfdom.</span> +law was made for the maintenance of the fry of fish, +and in Henry VII.’s for the preservation of the eggs +of wild fowl, shall we now throw away a law of more +consequence and import? If we debar tillage, we give scope +to the depopulating. And then, if the poor being thrust out of +their houses go to dwell with others, straight we catch them +with the statute of inmates; if they wander abroad, they are +within the danger of the statute of the poor to be whipt. So by +this undo this statute, and you endanger many thousands.” +A strong central government, a local authority appointed directly +by the government, and a network of legislation controlled the +whole movement of economic life. On this reliance was placed +to meet economic difficulties. The local authorities were the +justices of the peace; and they had to carry out the statutes +for this purpose, to assess the wages of artisans and labourers, +and to enforce the payment of the wages they had fixed; to +ensure that suitable provision was made for the relief of the poor +at the expense of rates which they also fixed; and to suppress +vagabondage. Since 23 Edw. III. there had been labour statutes, +and in 1563 a new statute was passed, an “Act containing divers +orders for Artificers, Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and +Apprentices” (5 Eliz. c. 4). It recognized and upheld a social +classification. On the one hand there was the gentleman or +owner of property to which the act was not to apply; and on +the other the artisan and labouring class. This class in turn was +subdivided, and the justices were to assess their wages annually +according to “the plenty and scarcity of the time and other +circumstances.” Persons between the ages of twelve and sixty, +who were not apprentices or engaged in certain specified employments, +were compelled to serve in husbandry by the year “with +any person that keepeth husbandry.” The length of the day’s +work and the conditions of apprenticeship were fixed. The +assessed rate of wages was enforceable by fine and imprisonment, +and refusal to be apprenticed by imprisonment. Thus there +was created a life control over labour with an industrial settlement +and a wage fixed by the justices annually. There are +differences of opinion in regard to the extent to which this act +was enforced; and the evidence on the point is comparatively +scanty. It was enforced throughout the century in which it +was passed, and it probably continued in force generally until +the Restoration, while subsequently it was put in operation to +meet special emergencies, such as times of distress when some +settlement of wages seemed desirable (cf. Rogers, v. 611; +Hewins, <i>English Trade and Finance</i>, p. 82; Cunningham, <i>Growth +of English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times</i>, i. 168). It +was not repealed till 1814.</p> + +<p>From 1585 to 1622 there was, it is said, a slight increase in +labourers’ wages, which fluctuated from 5s. <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>d. to 5s. 8 ¼d. a +week, with a declining standard of comfort and at times great +distress. Then there was a marked increase of wage till 1662 +and “a very marked improvement; the rate of increase being +very nearly double that of the earlier periods,” and reaching +9s., “as the highest weekly rate for the whole period.” Then +from 1662 to 1702 there was “a slight improvement” (Hewins, +p. 89). It would seem indeed that the stir of the times between +1622 and 1662 may have caused a great demand for labour. +But with the Restoration, when the assessment system was +falling into desuetude, came the Poor Relief Act of 1662 (13 & +14 Car. II. cap. 62), which brought in the law of settlement, and +a settlement for relief of a very strict nature was added to the +industrial settlement of the Artificers and Labourers Act. Thus, +if the influence of that act, which had so long controlled labour, +was waning, its place was now taken by an act which, though it +had nothing to do with the assessment of wage, yet so settled the +labourer within the bounds of his parish that he had practically +to rely, if not upon a wage fixed by the justices, yet upon a +customary wage limited and restricted as a result of the law of +settlement. And the assessment by the justices, in so far as it +may have continued, would therefore be of little or no consequence. +Settlement also, like the Artificers and Labourers Act, +would prevent the country labourer from passing to the towns, +or the townsmen passing to other towns. At least they would +do so at the risk of forfeiting their right to relief if they lost their +settlement without acquiring a new one. Hence the industrial +control, though under another name and other conditions, +remained in force to a large extent in practice.</p> + +<p>By the Artificers and Labourers Act then, in conjunction with +other measures, the labouring classes were finally committed to +a new bondage, when they had freed themselves from the serfdom +of feudalism, and when the control exercised over them by the +gild and municipality was relaxed. The statute was so enforced +that to earn a year’s livelihood would have taken a labourer not +52 weeks, but sometimes two years, or 58 weeks, or 80 weeks, +or 72 weeks; sometimes, however, less—48 or 35. It followed +that on such a system the country could only with the utmost +good fortune free itself from the economic difficulties of the +century, and that the need of a poor-law was felt the more as +these difficulties persisted. A voluntary or a municipal system +could not suffice, even as a palliative, while such statutes as +these were in force to render labour immobile and unprogressive. +Also, while wages were fixed by statute or order, whether chiefly +in the interest of the employers or not, obviously any shortage +on the wages had to be made good by the community. The +community, by fixing the wages to be earned in a livelihood, +made itself responsible for their sufficiency. And it is suggestive +to find that in the year in which the Artificers and Labourers Act +(1563) was passed, the act for the enforcement of assessments +of poor-rate (5 Eliz. cap. 3) was also enacted. The Law of +Settlement, to which we have referred, passed in the reign of +Charles II., was due, it is said, to a migration of labourers +southward from counties where less favourable statutory wages +prevailed; but it was, in fact, only a corollary of the Artificers +and Labourers Act of 1563 and the Poor Relief Act of 1601. +These laws, it may be said, were the means of making the English +labourer, until the poor-law reform of 1834, a settled but landless +serf, supported by a fixed wage and a state bounty. By the poor-law +it was possible to continue this state of things till, in consequence +of an absolute economic breakdown, there was no +alternative but reform.</p> + +<p>The philanthropic nature of the poor-law is indicated by its +antecedents: once enacted, its bounties became a right; its +philanthropy disappeared in a quasi-legal claim. Its object was +to relieve the poor by home industries, apprentice children, and +provide necessary relief to the poor unable to work. The act was +commonly interpreted so as to include the whole of that indefinite +class, the “poor”; by a better and more rigid interpretation it +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span> +was, at least in the 19th century, held to apply only to the “destitute,” +that is, to those who required “necessary relief”—according +to the actual wording of the statute. The economic fallacy +of home industries founded on rate-supplied capital early declared +itself, and the method could only have continued as long as it did +because it formed part of a general system of industrial control. +When in the 18th century workhouses were established, the same +industrial fallacy, as records show, repeated itself under new +conditions. Within the parish it resulted in the farmer paying +the labourer as small a wage as possible, and leaving the parish +to provide whatever he might require in addition during his +working life and in his old age. Thus, indeed, a gigantic experiment +in civic employment was made for at least two centuries on +a vast scale throughout the country—and failed. As was natural, +the lack of economic independence reacted on the morals of +the people. With pauperism came want of energy, idleness and +a disregard for chastity and the obligations of marriage. The law, +it is true, recognized the mutual obligations of parents and +grandparents, children and grandchildren; but in the general poverty +which it was itself a means of perpetuating such obligations +became practically obsolete, while at all times they are difficult +to enforce. Still, the fact that they were recognized implies a +great advance in charitable thought. The act, passed at first +from year to year, was very slowly put in force. Even before it +was passed the poor-rate first assessed under the act of 1563 was +felt to be “a greater tax than some subsidies,” and in the time +of Charles II. it amounted to a third of the revenue of England +and Wales (Rogers, v. 81).</p> + +<p>The service of villein and cottar was, as we have now seen, in +part superseded by what we have called a statutory wage-control, +founded on a basis of wage supplemented by relief, provided by a +rate-supported poor-law. But it follows that with the decay of +this system the poor-law itself should have disappeared, or +should have taken some new and very limited form. Unfortunately, +as in Roman times, state relief proved to be a popular and +vigorous parasite that outlived the tree on which it was rooted: +assessments of wage under the Statute of Labourers fell into +disuse after the Restoration, it is said, and the statute was +finally repealed in 1814, and sixty years later the act against +illegal combinations of working men; but the serfdom of the +poor-law, the <i>eleemosyna civica</i>, remained, to work the gravest +evil to the labouring classes, and even after the reform of 1834 +greatly impeded the recovery of their independence. Nevertheless, +by a new law of state alms for the aged, or by statutory +outdoor relief with, as some would wish, a regulated wage, it is +now proposed to bring them once again under a thraldom similar +to that from which they have so slowly emancipated themselves.</p> + +<p>The policy adopted by Queen Elizabeth for the relief of the +poor (1601) included a scheme for the reorganization of voluntary +charity as well as plans for the extension of rate-aided +relief. During the century, as we have seen, endeavours +<span class="sidenote">The endowed charities.</span> +had been made to create a system of voluntary charity. +This it was proposed to safeguard and promote concurrently +with the extension of the poor-rate. Accordingly, in +the poor-law it was arranged that the overseers, the new civic +authority, and the churchwardens, the old parochial and charitable +authority, should act in conjunction, and, subject to magisterial +approval, together “raise weekly or otherwise” the +necessary means “by taxation of every inhabitant.” The old +charitable organization was based on endowment, and the +churchwarden was responsible for the administration of many such +endowments. What was not available from these and other +sources was to be raised “by taxation.” The object of the new +act was to encourage charitable gifts.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 18th century, when the administration +of poor relief fell into confusion, many charities were lost, or were +in danger of being lost, and many were mismanaged. In 1786 +and 1788 a committee of the House of Commons reported on the +subject. In 1818, chiefly through the instrumentality of Lord +Brougham, a commission of inquiry on educational charities was +appointed, and in 1819 another commission to investigate (with +some exceptions) all the charities for the poor in England and +Wales. These and subsequent commissions continued their +inquiries till 1835, when a select committee of the House of +Commons made a strong report, advocating the establishment +of a permanent and independent board, to inquire, to compel +the production of accounts, to secure the safe custody of charity +property, to adapt it to new uses on cy-près lines, &c. A commission +followed in 1849, and eventually in 1853 the first +Charitable Trusts Act was passed, under which “The Charity +Commissioners of England and Wales” were appointed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are details of importance:—(1) <i>Definition.</i>—The +definition of the act of 1601 (Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz. 4) still holds +good. It enumerates as charitable objects all that was once called +“alms”: (a) “The relief of aged, impotent and poor people”—the +normal poor; “the maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers +and mariners”—the poor chiefly by reason of war, sometime a class +of privileged mendicants; (b) education, “schools of learning, free +schools and scholars in universities”; and then (c) a group of +objects which include general civic and religious purposes, and the +charities of gilds and corporations; “the repair of bridges, ports, +havens, causeways, churches, sea-banks and highways; the education +and preferment of orphans; the relief, stock, or maintenance for +houses of correction; marriages of poor maids, supportation, aid, +and help of young tradesmen, handicraftsmen, and persons decayed”; +and there follows (d) “the relief or redemption of prisoners +or captives”; and, lastly, (e) “the aid and ease of any poor +inhabitants concerning payment of fifteens” (the property-tax of Tudor +times), setting out of soldiers, and other taxes. The definition might +be illustrated by the charitable bequests of the next 60, or indeed +225, years. It is a fair summary of them. (2) <i>Charitable Gifts.</i>—A +public trust and a charitable trust are, as this definition shows, +synonymous. It is a trust which relates to public charities, and +is not held for the benefit of private persons, <i>e.g.</i> relations, but for +the common good, and, subject to the instructions of the founder, +by trustees responsible to the community. Gifts for charitable +purposes, other than those affected by the law of mortmain, have +always been viewed with favour. “Where a charitable bequest is +capable of two constructions, one of which would make it void and +the other would make it effectual, the latter will be adopted by the +court” (Tudor’s <i>Charitable Trusts</i>, ed. 1906, by Bristowe, Hunt and +Burdett, p. 167). Gifts to the poor, or widows, or orphans, indefinitely, +or in a particular parish, were valid under the act, or for +any purpose or institution for the aid of the “poor.” Thus practically +the act covered the same field as the poor-law, though afterwards +it was decided that, “as a rule, persons receiving parochial +relief were not entitled to the benefit of a charity intended for the +poor” (Tudor, p. 167). (3) <i>Religious Differences.</i>—In the +administration of charities which are for the poor the broadest view is +taken of religious differences. (4) <i>Superstitious Uses.</i>—The +superstitious use is one that has for its object the propagation of the +rights of a religion not tolerated by the law (Tudor, p. 4). Consequently, +so far as charities were held or left subject to such rights, they +were illegal, or became legal only as toleration was extended. Thus +by degrees, since the Toleration Act of 1688, all charities to +dissenters have become legal—that is, trusts for schools, places for +religious instruction, education and charitable purposes generally. But +bequests for masses for the soul of the donor, or for monastic orders, +are still void. (5) <i>Administration.</i>—The duty of administering +charitable trusts falls upon trustees or corporations, and under the +term “eleemosynary corporations” are included endowed hospitals +and colleges. Under schemes of the Charity Commissioners, where +charities have been remodelled, besides trustees elected by corporations, +there are now usually appointed <i>ex-officio</i> trustees who represent +some office or institution of importance in connexion with the +charity. (6) <i>Jurisdiction by Chancery and Charity Commission.</i>—The +Court of Chancery has jurisdiction over charities, under the old +principle that “charities are trusts of a public nature, in regard to +which no one is entitled by an immediate and peculiar interest to +prefer a complaint for compelling the performance by the trustees +of their obligations.” The court, accordingly, represents the crown +as <i>parens patriae</i>. Now, by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853, and +subsequent acts, a charity commission has been formed which is +entrusted with large powers, formerly enforced only by the Court +of Chancery. (7) <i>Jurisdiction by Visitor.</i>—A further jurisdiction +is by the “visitor,” a right inherent in the founder of any eleemosynary +corporation, and his heirs, or those whom he appoints, or in +their default, the king. The object of the visitor is “to prevent all +perverting of the charity, or to compose differences among members +of the corporation.” Formerly the bishop’s ordinary was the +recognized visitor (2 Henry V. I, 1414) of hospitals, apart from the +founder. Subsequently his power was limited (14 Eliz. c. 5, 1572) +to hospitals for which the founders had appointed no visitors. +Then (1601) by the Charitable Uses Act commissions were issued +for inquiry by county juries. Now, apart from the duty of visitors, +inquiry is conducted by the charity commissioners and the assistant +commissioners. By subsequent acts (see below) ecclesiastical and +eleemosynary charities have been still further separated and defined. +(8) <i>Advice.</i>—“Trustees, or other persons concerned in the management +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span> +of a charity, may apply to the charity commissioners for their +opinion, advice or direction; and any person acting under such +advice is indemnified, unless he has been guilty of misrepresentation +in obtaining it.” (9) <i>Limitation of Charity Commissioners’ Powers,</i>—The +commissioners cannot, however, make any order with respect +to any charity of which the gross annual income amounts to £50 or +upwards, except on the application (in writing) of the trustees or a +majority of them. Their powers are thus very limited, except when +put in motion by the trustees. If a parish is divided they can +apportion the charities if the gross income does not exceed £20. +(10) <i>General Powers of the Charity Commission.</i>—Subject to the +limitation of £50, &c., the charity commissioners have power (Charitable +Trusts Act 1860) to make orders for the appointment or +removal of trustees, or of any officer, and for the transfer, payment +and vesting of any real or personal estate, or “for the establishment +of any scheme for the administration” of the charity, (11) <i>Schemes +and Remodelling of Charities.</i>—Under this power charities are remodelled, +and small and miscellaneous charities put into one fund +and applied to new purposes. The cy-près doctrine is applied, by +which if a testator leaves directions that are only indefinite, or if the +objects for which a charity was founded are obsolete, the charity is +applied to some purpose, as far as possible, in accordance with +the charitable intention of the founder. This doctrine probably +received its widest application in the City of London Parochial +Charities Act of 1883. Under other acts doles have been applied to +education and to allotments. About 380 schemes are issued in the +course of a year. (12) <i>Objects adopted in remodelling Charities.</i>—In +the remodelling of charities for the general benefit of the poor +some one or more of thirteen objects are usually included in the +scheme. These are subscriptions to a medical charity, to a provident +club or coal or clothing society, to a friendly society; for nurses, for +annuities, for outfit for service, &c.; for emigration; for recreation +grounds, clubs, reading-rooms, museums, lectures; for temporary +relief to a limited amount in each year; for clothes fuel, tools, +medical aid, food, &c., or in money “in cases of unexpected loss or +sudden destitution”; for pensions. (13) <i>Parochial Charities.</i>—By +the Local Government Act of 1892, local ecclesiastical charities, <i>i.e.</i> +endowments for “any spiritual purpose that is a legal purpose” (for +spiritual persons, church and other buildings, for spiritual uses, &c.), +are separated from parochial charities, “the benefits of which are, +or the separate distribution of the benefits of which is, confined to +inhabitants of a single parish, or of a single ancient ecclesiastical +parish, or not more than five neighbouring parishes.” These +charities, since the Local Government Act 1894, are under the +supervision of the parish councils, who appoint trustees for their +management in lieu of the former overseer or vestry trustees, or, +under certain conditions, “additional trustees.” The accounts +have to be submitted to the parish meeting, and the names of the +beneficiaries of dole charities published. (14) <i>Official Trustees.</i>—There +is also “an official trustee of charity lands,” who as “bare +trustee” may hold the land or stock of the charity managed by +the trustees or administrators. In 1905 the stock transferred to +the official trustees amounted to £24,820,945. (15) <i>Audit</i>.—The +charity commissioners have no power of audit, but the trustees +of every charity have to prepare a statement of accounts annually, +and transmit it to the commission. The accounts have to be “certified +under the hand of one or more of the trustees and by the auditor +of the charity.” (16) <i>Taxation</i>.—In the case of rents and profits of +lands, &c., belonging to hospitals or almshouses, or vested in trustees +for charitable purposes, allowances are made in diminution of income-tax +(56 Vict. 35 § 61). From the inhabited house duty any hospital +charity school, or house provided for the reception or relief of +poor persons, is exempted (House Tax Act 1808). Also there is an +exemption from the land-tax in regard to land rents, &c., in possession +of hospitals before 1693. (17) <i>The Digest.</i>—A digest of +endowed charities in England and Wales was compiled in the years +1861 to 1876. A new digest of reports and financial particulars +has since been completed.</p> + +<p>The income of endowed charities in 1876 was returned at £2,198,463. +It is now, no doubt, considerably larger than it was in 1876. Partial +returns show that at least a million a year is now available in England +and Wales for the assistance of the aged poor and for doles. Between +the poor-law, which, as it is at present administered, is a permanent +endowment provided from the rates for the support of a class of +permanent “poor,” and endowed charities, which are funds available +for the poor of successive generations, there is no great difference. +But in their resources and administration the difference is marked. +Local endowed charities were constantly founded after Queen +Elizabeth’s time till about 1830, and the poor-rate was at first supplementary +of the local charities. When corn and fuel were dear and +clothes very expensive, what now seem trivial endowments for food, +fuel, coal and clothes were important assets in the thrifty management +of a parish. But when the poor were recognized as a class of +dependants entitled by law to relief from the community, the rate +increased out of all proportion to the charities. A distinction then +made itself felt between the “parish” poor and the “second” +poor, or the poor who were not relieved from the rates, and relief +from the rates altogether overshadowed the charitable aid. Charitable +endowments were ignored, ill-administered, and often were +lost. After 1834 the poor-law was brought under the control of the +central government. Poor relief was placed in the hands of boards +of guardians in unions of parishes. The method of co-operation +between poor-law and charity suggested by the acts of Queen +Elizabeth was set aside, and, as a responsible partner in the public +work of relief, charity was disestablished. In the parishes the +endowed charities remained in general a disorganized medley of +separate trusts, jealously guarded by incompetent administrators. +To give unity to this mass of units, so long as the principles of charity +are misunderstood or ignored, has proved an almost impossible and +certainly an unpopular task. So far as it has been achieved, it has +been accomplished by the piecemeal legislation of schemes cautiously +elaborated to meet local prejudices. Active reform has been resented, +and politicians have often accentuated this resentment. In 1894 a +select committee was appointed to inquire whether it was desirable +to take measures to bring the action of the Charity Commission +more directly under the control of parliament, but no serious grievances +were substantiated. The committees’ reports are of interest, +however, as an indication of the initial difficulties of all charitable +work, the general ignorance that prevails in regard to the elementary +conditions that govern it, the common disregard of these principles, +and the absence of any accepted theory or constructive policy that +should regulate its development and its administration.</p> +</div> + +<p>After the Poor-Law Act of 1601 the history of the voluntary +parochial charities in a town parish is marked by their decreasing +amount and utility, as poor-law relief and pauperism +increased. The act, it would seem, was not adopted +<span class="sidenote">Charity in the parish after 1601.</span> +with much alacrity by the local authorities. From +1625 to 1646 there were many years of plague and +sickness, but in St Giles’s, London, as late as 1649, the amount +raised by the “collectors” (or overseers) was only £176. They +disbursed this to “the visited poor” as “pensions.” In 1665 +an extra levy of £600 is mentioned. In the accounts of St +Martin’s-in-the-Fields, where, as in St Giles’s, gifts were received, +the change wrought by another half-century (1714) is apparent. +The sources of charitable relief are similar to those in all the +Protestant churches—English, Scottish or continental: church +collections and offertories; correctional fines, such as composition +for bastards and conviction money for swearers; and +besides these, income from annuities and legacies, the parish +estate, the royal bounty, and “petitions to persons of quality.” +In all £2041 was collected, but, so far as relief was concerned, +the parish relied not on it, but on the poor-rate, which produced +£3765. All this was collected and disbursed on their own +authority by collectors, to orphans, “pensioners” or the “known +or standing” poor, or to casual poor (£1818), including nurse +children and bastards. The begging poor were numerous and +the infant death-rate enormous, and each year three-fourths +of those christened were “inhumanly suffered to die by the +barbarity of nurses.” The whole administration was uncharitable, +injurious to the community and the family, and inhuman +to the child. If one may judge from later accounts of other +parishes even up to 1834, usually it remained the same, purposeless +and unintelligent; and it can hardly be denied that, generally +speaking, only since the middle of the 19th century has any +serious attention been paid to the charitable side of parochial +work. Parallel to the parochial movement of the poor-law in +England, in France (about 1617) were established the <i>bureaux +de bienfaisance</i>, at first entirely voluntary institutions, then +recognized by the state, and during the Revolution made the +central administration for relief in the communes.</p> + +<p>In the 17th century in England, as in France, opinion favoured +the establishment of large hospitals or <i>maisons Dieu</i> for the +reception of the poor of different classes. In France +throughout the century there was a continuous struggle +<span class="sidenote">Charitable movements after 1601.</span> +with mendicancy, and the hospitals were used as +places into which offenders were summarily driven. +A new humanity was, however, beginning its protest. The pitiful +condition of abandoned children attracted sympathy in both +countries. St Vincent de Paul established homes for the <i>enfants +trouvés</i>, followed in England by the establishment of the Foundling +hospital (1739). In both countries the method was applied +inconsiderately and pushed to excess, and it affected family +life most injuriously. Grants from parliament supported the +foundling movement in England, and homes were opened in +many parts of the country. The demand soon became overwhelming; +the mortality was enormous, and the cost so large +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span> +that it outstripped all financial expedients. The lesson of the +experiment is the same as that of the poor-law catastrophe +before 1834; only, instead of the able-bodied poor of another +age, infants were made the object of a compassionate but +undiscerning philanthropy. With widespread relief there came +widespread abandonment of duty and economic bankruptcy. +Had the poor-rates instead of charitable relief been used in the +same way, the moral injury would have been as great, but the +annual draft from the rates would have concealed the moral +and postponed the economic disaster. To amend the evil, changes +were made by which the relation between child and mother was +kept alive, and a personal application on her part was required; +the character of the mother and her circumstances were investigated, +and assistance was only given when it would be “the +means of replacing the mother in the course of virtue and the +way of an honest livelihood.” General reforms were also made, +especially through the instrumentality of Jonas Hanway, to +check infant mortality, and metropolitan parishes were required +to provide for their children outside London. A kindred movement +led to the establishment of penitentiaries (1758), of lock +hospitals and lying-in hospitals (1749-1752).</p> + +<p>In Queen Anne’s reign there was a new educational movement, +“the charity school”—“to teach poor children the alphabet +and the principles of religion,” followed by the Sunday-school +movement (1780), and about the same time (1788) by “the +school of industry”—to employ children and teach them to be +industrious. In 1844 the Ragged School Union was established, +and until the Education Act of 1870 continued its voluntary +educational work. As an outcome of these movements, +through the efforts of Miss Mary Carpenter and many others, +in 1854-1855 industrial and reformatory schools were established, +to prevent crime and reform child criminals. The orphanage +movement, beginning in 1758, when the Orphan Working Home +was established, has been continued to the present day on a vastly +extended scale. In 1772 a society for the discharge of persons +imprisoned for small debts was established, and in 1773 Howard +began his prison reforms. This raised the standard of work in +institutional charities generally. After the civil wars the old +hospital foundations of St Bartholomew and St Thomas, municipalized +by Edward VI., became endowed charities partly supported +by voluntary contributions. The same fate befell Christ’s +Hospital, in connexion with which the voting system, the admission +of candidates by the vote of the whole body of subscribers—that +peculiarly English invention—first makes its appearance.</p> + +<p>A new interest in hospitals sprang up at the end of the 17th +century. St Thomas’s was rebuilt (1693) and St Bartholomew’s +(1739); Guy’s was founded in 1724, and on the system of free +“letters” obtainable in exchange for donations, voluntary +hospitals and infirmaries were established in London (1733 and +later) and in most of the large towns. Towards the end of +the 18th century the dispensary movement was developed—a +system of local dispensaries with fairly definite districts and home +visiting, a substitute for attendance at a hospital, where “hospital +fever” was dreaded, and an alternative to what was then +a very ill-administered system of poor-law medical relief. After +1840 the provident dispensary was introduced, in order that the +patients by small contributions in the time of health might +provide for illness without having to meet large doctors’ bills, +and the doctor might receive some sufficient remuneration for +his attendance on poor patients. This movement was largely +extended after 1860. Three hospital funds for collecting contributions +for hospitals and making them grants, a movement +that originated in Birmingham in 1859, were established in +London in 1873 and 1897.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Since 1868 the poor-law medical system of Great Britain has been +immensely improved and extended, while at the same time the +number of persons in receipt of free medical relief in most of the large +towns has greatly increased. The following figures refer to London: +at hospitals, 97 in number, in-patients (1904) during the year, +118,536; out-patients and casualty cases, 1,858,800; patients at +free, part-pay, or provident dispensaries, about 280,000; orders +issued for attendance at poor-law dispensaries and at home, 114,158. +The number of beds in poor-law infirmaries (1904) was 16,976. +There are in London 12 general hospitals with, 18 without, medical +schools, and 67 special hospitals. Thus the population in receipt +of public and voluntary medical relief is very large, indeed altogether +excessive.</p> +</div> + +<p>Each religious movement has brought with it its several +charities. The Society of Friends, the Wesleyans, the Baptists +have large charities. With the extension of the High Church +movement there have been established many sisterhoods which +support penitentiaries, convalescent homes and hospitals, schools, +missions, &c.</p> + +<p>The magnitude of this accumulating provision of charitable relief +is evident, though it cannot be summed up in any single total.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of the 19th century anti-mendicity societies +were established; and later, about 1869, in England and Scotland +a movement began for the organization of charitable relief, +in connexion with which there are now societies and committees +in most of the larger towns in Great Britain, in the colonies, and +in the United States of America. More recently the movement +for the establishment of settlements in poor districts, initiated +by Canon Barnett at Toynbee Hall—“to educate citizens in the +knowledge of one another, and to provide them with teaching and +recreation”—has spread to many towns in England and America.</p> + +<p>These notes of charitable movements suggest an altogether +new development of thought. On behalf of the charity school +of Queen Anne’s time were preached very formal +sermons, which showed but little sympathy with child +<span class="sidenote">Progress of thought in 18th and 19th centuries.</span> +life. After the first half of the century a new humanism +with which we connect the name of Rousseau, slowly +superseded this formal beneficence. Rousseau made +the world open its eyes and see nature in the child, +the family and the community. He analysed social life, intent +on explaining it and discovering on what its well-being +depended; and he stimulated that desire to meet definite social +needs which is apparent in the charities of the century. Little +as it may appear to be so at first sight, it was a period of +charitable reformation. Law revised the religious conception +of charity, though he was himself so strangely devoid of social +instinct that, like some of his successors, he linked the utmost +earnestness in belief to that form of almsgiving which most +effectually fosters beggardom. Howard introduced the era of +inspection, the ardent apostle of a new social sagacity; and +Bentham, no less sagacious, propounded opinions, plans and +suggestions which, perhaps it may be said, in due course moulded +the principles and methods of the poor-law of 1834. In the +broader sense the turn of thought is religious, for while usually +stress is laid on the religious scepticism of the century, the +deeper, fervent, conscientious and evangelical charity in which +Nonconformists, and especially “the Friends,” took so large a +part, is often forgotten. Sometimes, indeed, as often happens +now, the feeling of charity passed into the merest sentimentality. +This is evident, for instance, from so ill-considered a measure as +Pitt’s Bill for the relief of the poor. On the other hand, during +the 18th century the poor-law was the object of constant criticism, +though so long as the labour statutes and the old law of settlement +were in force, and the relief of the labouring population +as state “poor” prevailed, it was impossible to reform it. +Indeed, the criticism itself was generally vitiated by a tacit +acceptance of “the poor” as a class, a permanent and irrevocable +charge on the funds of the community; and at the end of the +18th century, when the labour statutes were abrogated, but +the conditions under which poor relief was administered remained +the same, serfdom in its later stage, the serfdom of the poor-law, +asserted itself in its extremest form in times of dearth and +difficulty during the Napoleonic War. In 1802-1803 it was +calculated (Marshall’s <i>Digest</i>) that 28% of the population were +in receipt of permanent or occasional relief. Those in receipt +of the former numbered 734,817, including children—so real +had this serfdom of the poor become.</p> + +<p>In 1832 the expenditure on pauperism in England and Wales +was £7,036,968. In the early years of the 19th century the +mendicity societies, established in some of the larger towns, were +a sign of the general discontent with existing methods of administration. +The Society for Bettering the Condition of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span> +Poor—representing a group of men such as Patrick Colquhoun, +Sir I. Bernard, Dr Lettsom, Dr Haygarth, James Neald, Count +Rumford and others—took a more positive line and issued +many useful publications (1796). After 1833 the very atmosphere +of thought seems changed. There was a general desire to be quit +of the serfdom of pauperism. The Poor-law Amendment Act +was passed in 1834, and since then male able-bodied pauperism +has dwindled to a minimum. The bad years of 1860-1870 +revived the problem in England and Scotland, and the old spirit +of reform for a time prevailed. Improved administration working +with economic progress effected still further reductions of +pauperism, till on the 1st of January 1905 (exclusive of lunatics +in county asylums and casual paupers) the mean number of +paupers stood at 764,589, or 22.6 per thousand of the population, +instead of 41.8 per thousand as in 1859 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor-law</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Charity organization societies were formed after 1869, with +the object of “improving the condition of the poor,” or, in other +words, to promote independence by an ordered and co-operative +charity; and the Association for Befriending Young Servants, +and workhouse aid committees, in order to prevent relapse into +pauperism on the part of those who as children or young women +received relief from the poor-law. The Local Government Board +adopted a restricted out-door relief policy, and a new interest +was felt in all the chief problems of local administration. The +movement was general. The results of the Elberfeld system +of municipal relief administered by unpaid almoners, each +dealing with but one or two cases, influenced thought both in +England and America. The experience gained by Mr Joseph +Tuckerman of Boston of the utility of registering applications +for relief, and the teaching of Miss Octavia Hill, led to the foundation +of the system of friendly visiting and associated charity at +Boston (1880) and elsewhere. Since that time the influence of +Arnold Toynbee and the investigations of Charles Booth have led +to a better appreciation of the conditions of labour; and to some +extent, in London and elsewhere, the spirit of charity has assumed +the form of a new devotion to the duties of citizenship. But +perhaps, in regard to charity in Great Britain, the most important +change has been the revival of the teaching of Dr Chalmers (1780-1847), +who (1819) introduced a system of parochial charity at +St John’s, Glasgow, on independent lines, consistent with the best +traditions of the Scottish church. In the development of the +theory of charitable relief on the economic side this has been a +main factor. His view, which he tested by experience, may be +summed up as follows: Society is a growing, self-supporting +organism. It has within it, as between family and family, +neighbour and neighbour, master and employee, endless links of +sympathy and self-support. Poverty is not an absolute, but a +relative term. Naturally the members of one class help one +another; the poor help the poor. There is thus a large invisible +fund available and constantly used by those who, by their +proximity to one another, know best how to help. The philanthropist +is an alien to this life around him. Moved by a sense of +contrast between his own lot, as he understands it, and the lot of +those about him, whom he but little understands, he concludes +that he should relieve them. But his gift, unless it be given in +such a way as to promote this self-support, instead of weakening +it, is really injurious. In the first place, by his interference he +puts a check on the charitable resources of another class and +lessens their social energy. What he gives they do not give, +though they might do so. But next, he does more harm than this. +He stimulates expectation, so that by a false arithmetic his gift of +a few shillings seems to those who receive it and to those who +hear of it a possible source of help in any difficulty. To them it +represents a large command of means; and where one has +received what, though it be little, is yet, relative to wage, a large +sum to be acquired without labour, many will seek more, and +with that object will waste their time and be put off their work, +or even be tempted to lie and cheat. So social energy is diverted +from its proper use. Alms thus given weakens social ties, +diminishes the natural relief funds of mutual help, and beggars +a neighbour instead of benefiting him. By this argument a +clear and well-defined purpose is placed before charity. Charity +becomes a science based on social principles and observation. +Not to give alms, but to keep alive the saving health of the +family, becomes its problem: relief becomes altogether subordinate +to this, and institutions or societies are serviceable or the +reverse according as they serve or fail to serve this purpose. +Not poverty, but distress is the plea for help; not almsgiving, +but charity the means. To charity is given a definite social aim, +and a desire to use consistently with this aim every method that +increasing knowledge and trained ability can devise.</p> + +<p>Under such influences as these, joined with better economic +conditions, a great reform has been made. The poor-law, however, +remains—the modern <i>eleemosyna civica</i>. It now, indeed, +absorbs a proportionately lesser amount of the largely increased +national income, but, excluding the maintenance of lunatics, it +costs Great Britain more than twelve millions a year; and among +the lower classes of the poor, directly or indirectly, it serves as a +bounty on dependence and is a permanent obstacle to thrift and +self-reliance. The number of those who are within the circle +of its more immediate attraction is now perhaps, in different +parts of the country or different districts in a town, not more +than, say, 20% of the population. Upon that population the +statistics of a day census would show a pauperism not of 2.63, the +percentage of the mean day pauperism on the population in 1908, +but of 13.15%; and the percentage would be much greater—twice +as large, perhaps—if the total number of those who in some +way received poor relief in the course of a year were taken into +account. The English poor-law is thus among the lower classes, +those most tempted to dependence—say some six or seven millions +of the people—a very potent influence definitely antagonistic +to the good development of family life, unless it be limited to very +narrow proportions; as, for instance, to restricted indoor or +institutional relief for the sick, for the aged and infirm, who in +extreme old age require special care and nursing, and for the +afflicted, for whom no sufficient charitable provision is procurable. +As ample experience shows, only on these conditions can poor-law +relief be justified from the point of view of charity and the +common good. In marked contrast to this opinion is the English +movement for Old Age pensions, which came to its first fruition in +1908—a huge charity started on the credit of the state, the +extension of which might ultimately involve a cost comparable +with that of the army or the navy. Schemes of the kind have +been adopted in the Australasian colonies with limitations and +safeguards; and they seem likely to develop into a new type of +poor-relief organization for the aged and infirm (Report: Royal +Commission on Old Age Pensions, Commonwealth of Australia, +1906). In England, partly to meet the demand for better state +provision for the aged, the Local Government Board in 1900 urged +the boards of guardians to give more adequate outdoor relief to +aged deserving people, and laid no stress on the test of destitution, +or, in other words, the limitation of relief to what was +actually “necessary,” the neglect of which has led to new difficulties. +History has proved that demoralization results from the +wholesale relief whether of the mass of the citizens, or of the +able-bodied, or of the children, and the proposal to limit the +endowment to the aged makes no substantial difference. The +social results must be similar; but social forces work slowly, +and usually only the unanswerable argument of financial bankruptcy +suffices to convert a people habituated to dependence, +though the inward decay of vitality and character may long +before be manifest. Ultimately the distribution of pensions by +way of out-door relief, corrupting a far more independent people, +is calculated to work a far greater injury than the <i>annona civica</i>. +Such an endowment of old age might indeed be justified as part of +a system of regulated labour, which, as in earlier times, could not +be enforced without some such extraneous help, but it could not +be justified otherwise. It is naturally associated, therefore, with +socialistic proposals for the regulation of wage.</p> + +<p>In the light of the principles of charity, which we have considered +historically, we have now to turn to two questions: +charity and economics, and charity and socialism.</p> + +<p>The object of charity is to render to our neighbour the services +and duties of goodwill, friendship and love. To prevent distress +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span> +charity has for its further object to preserve and develop the +manhood and womanhood of individuals and their self-maintenance +<span class="sidenote">The economics of charity.</span> +in and through the family; and any form of +state intervention is approved or disapproved by the +same standard. By self-maintenance is meant self-support +throughout life in its ordinary contingencies—sickness, +widowhood, old age, &c. Political economy we +would define as the science of exchange and exchange value. +Here it has to be considered in relation to the purposes of charity. +By way of illustration we take, accordingly, three points: +distribution and use, supplementation of wage, and the standard +of well-being or comfort in relation to wage.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) <i>Distribution and Use.</i>—Economy in the Greek sense begins at +this point—the administration and the use of means and resources. +Political economy generally ignores this part of the problem. Yet +from the point of view of charity it is cardinal to the whole issue. +The distribution of wage may or may not be largely influenced by +trades unions; but the variation of wage, as is generally the case, +by the increase or decrease of a few pence is of less importance than +its use. Comparing a careful and an unthrifty family, the difference +in use may amount to as much as a third on the total wage. Mere +abstention from alcohol may make, in a normal family, a difference +of 6s. in a wage of 25s. On the other hand, membership of a friendly +society is at a time of sickness equivalent to the command of a large +sum of money, for the common stock of capital is by that means +placed at the disposal of each individual who has a share in it. +Further, even a small amount saved may place the holder in a +position to get a better market for his labour; he can wait when +another man cannot. Rent may be high, but by co-operation that +too may be reduced. Other points are obvious and need not be +mentioned. It is evident that while the amount of wage is important, +still more important is its use. In use it has a large +expansive value. (2) <i>Supplementation of Wage.</i>—The exchange +between skill and wage must be free if it is to be valid. The less the +skill the greater is the temptation to philanthropists to supplement +the lesser wage; and the more important is non-supplementation, +for the skilled can usually look after their own interests in the +market, while the less skilled, because their labour is less marketable, +have to make the greater effort to avoid dependence. But the dole +of endowed charities, outdoor relief, and any constant giving, tend +to reduce wage, and thus to deprive the recipients of some part of the +means of independence. The employer is pressed by competition +himself, and in return he presses for profit through a reduced wage, +if circumstances make it possible for the workman to take it. And +thus a few individuals may lower the wages of a large class of poorly +skilled or unskilled hands. In these conditions unionism, even if it +were likely to be advantageous, is not feasible. Unionism can only +create a coherent unit of workers where there is a limited market +and a definite saleable skill. Except for the time, insufficient wage +will not be remedied in the individual case by supplementation in +any form—doles, clothes, or other kinds of relief; and in that case, +too, the relief will probably produce lessened energy after a short +time, or in other words lessened ability to live. An insufficient wage +may be prevented by increasing the skill of the worker, who will +then have the advantage of a better series of economic exchanges, +but hardly otherwise. If the supplementation be not immediate, +but postponed, as in the case of old-age pensions, its effect will be +similar. To the extent of the prospective adventitious gain the +attraction to the friendly society and to mutual help and saving will +grow less. Necessity has been the inventor of these; and where +wage is small, a little that would otherwise be saved is quickly spent +if the necessity for saving it is removed. Only necessity schools +most men, especially the weak, to whom it makes most difference +ultimately, whether they are thrifty or whether or not they save for +the future in any way. (3) <i>The Standard of Well-being or Comfort +in Relation to Wage.</i>—With an increase of income there has to be +an increase in the power to use income intelligently. Whatever is +not so used reacts on the family to its undoing. Constantly when +the wife can earn a few shillings a week, the husband will every week +idle for two or three days; so also if the husband finds that in a few +days he can earn enough to meet what he considers to be his requirements +for the week. In these circumstances the standard of well-being +falls below the standard of wage; the wage is in excess of the +energy and intelligence necessary to its economic use, and in these +cases ultimately pauperism often ensues. The family is demoralized. +Thus, with a view to the prevention of distress in good times, when +there is the less poverty there is the more need of charity, rightly +understood; for charity would strive to promote the right use of +wage, as the best means of preventing distress and preserving the +economic well-being of the family.</p> +</div> + +<p>The theory of charity separates it entirely from socialism, +as that word is commonly used. Strictly socialism means, in +questions affecting the community, a dominant regard for the +common or social good in so far as it is contrary to private or +<span class="sidenote">Charity and socialism.</span> +individual advantage. But even so the antithesis is misleading, +for the two need not be inconsistent. On the contrary, the +common good is really and ultimately only individual good (not +advantage) harmonized to a common end. The issue, +indeed, is that of old Greek days, and the conditions +of a settlement of it are not substantially different. +Using modern terms one may say that charity is +“interventionist.” It has sought to transform the world by the +transformation of the will and the inward life in the individual +and in society. It would intensify the spirit and feeling of +membership in society and would aim at improving social conditions, +as science makes clear what the lines of reform should +be. So it has constantly intervened in all kinds of ways, and, +in the 19th century for instance, it has initiated many movements +afterwards taken up by public authorities—such as prison +reform, industrial schools, child protection, housing, food +reform, &c., and it has been a friendly ally in many reforms that +affect industry very closely, as, for instance, in the introduction +of the factory acts. But it has never aimed at recasting society +itself on a new economic plan, as does socialism. Socialism +indeed offers the people a new state of social security. It +recognizes that the <i>annona civica</i> and the old poor-law may have +been bad, but it would meet the objection made against them by +insisting on the gradual creation of a new industrial society +in which wage would be regulated and all would be supported, +some by wage in adult life, some by allowance in old age, and +others by maintenance in childhood. Accordingly for it all +schemes for the state maintenance of school children, old age +pensions, or state provision for the unemployed are, like municipal +trading, steps towards a final stage, in which none shall want +because all shall be supported by society or be dependent on it +industrially. To charity this position seems to exclude the ethical +element in life and to treat the people primarily or chiefly as +human animals. It seems also to exclude the motives for energy +and endeavour that come from self-maintenance. Against it, +on the other hand, socialism would urge, that only by close +regulation and penalty will the lowest classes be improved, and +that only the society that maintains them can control them. +Charity from its experience doubts the possibility of such control +without a fatal loss of initiative on the part of those controlled, +and it believes both that there is constant improvement on the +present conditions of society and that there will be constantly +more as science grows and its conclusions are put in force. +Thus charity and socialism, in the usual meaning of the word, +imply ultimately two quite different theories of social life. +The one would re-found society industrially, the other would +develop it and allow it to develop.</p> + +<p>The springs of charity lie in sympathy and religion, and, one +would now add, in science. To organize it is to give to it the +“ordered nature” of an organic whole, to give it a +definite social purpose, and to associate the members +<span class="sidenote">The organization of charity.</span> +of the community for the fulfilment of that purpose. +This in turn depends on the recognition of common +principles, the adoption of a common method, self-discipline +and training, and co-operation. In a mass of people there may +be a large variation in motives coincident with much unity in +action. Thus there may be acceptance of a common social +purpose in charity, while in one the impulse is similar to that +which moved St Francis or George Herbert, in another to that +which moved Howard or Dr Chalmers, or a modern poor-law +reformer like Sir G. Nicholls or E. Denison. Accepting, then, +the principles of charity, we pass to the method in relation to +assistance and relief. Details may vary, but on the following +points there is general agreement among students and workers:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>(1) <i>The Committee or Conference.</i>—There are usually two kinds +of local relief: the public or poor-law relief, and relief connected +with religious agencies. Besides, there is the relief of endowments, +societies and charitable persons. Therefore, as a condition precedent +to all organization, there must be some local centre of association +for information and common help. A town should be divided for +this purpose into manageable areas coincident with parishes or +poor-law divisions, or other districts. Subject to an acceptance of +general principles, those engaged in charity should be members of a +local conference or committee, or allied to it. The committee would +thus be the rallying-point of a large and somewhat loosely knit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span> +association of friends and workers. (2) <i>Inquiry, Aid and Registration</i>.—The +object of inquiry is to ascertain the actual causes of distress +or dependence, and to carry on the work there must usually be a +staff of several honorary and one or two paid workers. Two methods +may be adopted: to inquire in regard to applications for help with +a view to forming some plan of material help or friendly aid, or both, +which will lead to the ultimate self-support of the family and its +members, and, under certain conditions, in the case of the aged or +sick, to their continuous or their sufficient help; or to ascertain +the facts partly at once, partly by degrees, and then to form and +carry out some plan of help, or continue to befriend the family in +need of help, in the hope of bringing them to conditions of self-support, +leaving the work of relief entirely to other agencies. The +committee in neither case should be a relief committee—itself a +direct source of relief. On the former method it has usually no relief +fund, but it raises from relations, employers, charities and charitable +persons the relief required, according to the plan of help agreed +upon, unless, indeed, it is better not to relieve the case, or to leave +it to the poor-law. The committee thus makes itself responsible +for endeavouring to the best of its ability to raise the necessary +relief, and acts as trustee for those who co-operate without it, in +such a way as to keep intact and to give play to all the natural +obligations that lie within the inner circles of a self-supporting +community. On the latter method the work of relief is left to general +charity, or to private persons, or to the poor-law; and the effort is +made to help the family to self-support by a friendly visitor. This +procedure is that adopted by the associated charities in Boston, +Mass., and other similar societies in America and elsewhere. It is +akin also to that adopted in the municipal system of relief in +Elberfeld—which has become with many variations in detail the standard +method of poor relief in Germany. The method of associated help, +combined with personal work, represents the usual practice of +charity organization societies. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, the plan can be +adopted on the simplest scale in parochial or other relief committees, +subject to the safeguards of sufficient training and settled method. +The inquiry should cover the following points: names and address, +and ages of family, previous addresses, past employment and wages, +present income, rent and liabilities, membership of friendly or other +society, and savings, relations, relief (if any) from any source. +These points should be verified, and reference should be made to the +clergy, the poor-law authorities, and others, to ascertain if they +know the applicant. The result should be to show how the applicant +has been living, and what are the sources of possible help, and also +what is his character. The problem, however, is not whether the +person is “deserving” or “undeserving,” but whether, granted the +facts, the distress can be stayed and self-support attained. If the +help can be given privately from within the circle of the family, so +much the better. Often it may be best to advise, but not to interfere. +In some cases but little help may be necessary; in others +again the friendly relation between applicant and friend may last +for months and even years. Usually in charitable work the question +of the kind of relief available—money, tickets, clothes, &c.—governs +the decision how the case should be assisted. But this is quite +wrong: the opposite is the true rule. The wants of the case, rightly +understood, should govern the decision as to what charity should +do and what it should provide. Cases are overwhelming in number, +as at the out-patient and casualty departments of a hospital, where +the admissions are made without inquiry, and subject practically +to no restrictions; but when there is inquiry, and each case is +seriously considered and aided with a view to self-support, the +numbers will seldom be overwhelming. On this plan appeal is made +to the strength of the applicant, and requires an effort on his part. +Indiscriminate relief, on the other hand, attracts the applicant by +an appeal to his weakness, and it requires of him no effort. Hence, +apart even from the differentiating effect of inquiry, one method +makes applicants, the other limits their number, although on the +latter plan much more strenuous endeavours be made to assist the +lesser number of claimants. For the routine work of the office an +extremely simple system of records with card index, &c., has been +devised. In some cities, particularly in the United States of America, +there is a central registration of cases, notified by individual charities, +poor-relief authorities and private persons. The system of charity +organization or associated charity, it will be seen, allows of the +utmost variety of treatment, according to the difficulties in each +instance and the remedies available, and the utmost scope for personal +work. (3) <i>Training.</i>—If charitable work is an art, those who +undertake it must needs be trained both in practice and method +and in judgment. It requires, too, that self-discipline which blends +intelligence with emotion, and so endows emotion with strength +and purpose. In times of distress a reserve of trained workers is +of the utmost service. At all times they do more and produce, +socially, better results; but when there is general distress of any +kind they do not lose their heads like new recruits, but prevent +at least some of the mischief that comes of the panic which often +takes possession of a community, when distress is apprehended, +and leads to the wildest distribution of relief. Also trained workers +make the most useful poor-law guardians, trustees of charities, +secretaries of charitable societies and district visitors. All clergy +and ministers and all medical men who have to be engaged in the +administration of medical relief should learn the art of charity. +Poor-law guardians are usually elected on political or general grounds, +and have no special knowledge of good methods of charity; and +trustees are seldom appointed on the score of their qualifications +on this head. To provide the necessary education in charity there +should be competent helpers and teachers at charity organization +committees and elsewhere, and an alliance for this purpose should +be formed between them and professors and teachers of moral science +and economics and the “settlements.” Those who study social +problems in connexion with what a doctor would call “cases” or +“practice” see the limits and the falsity of schemes that on paper +seem logical enough. This puts a check on the influence of +scheme-building and that literary sensationalism which makes capital out +of social conditions. (4) <i>Co-operation.</i>—Organization in charity +depends on extensive co-operation, and ultimately on the acceptance +of common views. This comes but slowly. But with much tribulation +the goal may be reached, if in case after case the effort is made +to provide friendly help through charities and private persons,—unless, +as may well be, it should seem best not to interfere, but to +leave the applicant to apply to the administrators of public relief. +Experience of what is right and wrong in charity is thus gained on +both sides. Many sources may have to be utilized for aid of different +kinds even in a single case, and for the prevention of distress +co-operation with members of friendly societies and with co-operative +and thrift agencies is indispensable.</p> +</div> + +<p>Where there is accord between charity and the poor-law pauperism +may be largely reduced. The poor-law in most countries has +at its disposal certain institutional relief and out-door +allowances, but it has no means of devising plans of +<span class="sidenote">The poor law.</span> +help which may prevent application to the rates or +“take” people “off the rates.” Thus a widow in the first days +of widowhood applies and receives an allowance according to +the number of her children. Helped at the outset by charity on +some definite plan, she may become self-supporting; and if her +family be large one or two of her children may be placed in schools +by the guardians, while she maintains the remaining children +and herself. As far as possible there should be a division of +labour between the poor-law and charity. Except where some +plan such as that just mentioned is adopted, one or the other +should take whole charge of the case relieved. There should be +no supplementation of poor-law relief by charity. This will +weaken the strength and dissipate the resources of charity without +adding to the efficiency of the poor-law. Unless the guardians +adopt a restrictive out-door relief policy, there is no scope for +any useful division of labour between them and charity; for the +many cases which, taken in time, charity might save from +pauperism, they will draw into chronic dependence by their +allowances a very much larger number. But if there is a +restrictive out-door policy, so far as relief is necessary, charity +may undertake to meet on its own lines distress which the poor-law +would otherwise have met by allowances, and, subject to +the assistance of urgent cases, poor-law relief may thus by +degrees become institutional only. Then, in the main, natural +social forces would come into play, and dependence on any form +of <i>annona civica</i> would cease.</p> + +<p>Open-handed hospitality always creates mendicants. This is +what the hospitals offer in the out-patient and casualty +departments, and they have created a class of hospital +mendicants. The cases are quickly dealt with, without +<span class="sidenote">Hospitals.</span> +inquiry and without regard to home conditions. The medical +man in the hospital does not co-operate with any fellow-workers +outside the hospital. Where his physic or advice ceases to +operate his usefulness ceases. He regards no conditions of +morality. In a large number of cases drink or vice is the cause +of application, and the cure of the patient is dependent on moral +conditions; but he returns home, drinks and may beat his wife, +and then on another visit to the hospital he will again be +physicked and so on. The man is not even referred to the poor-law +infirmary for relief. Nor are conditions of home sanitation +regarded. One cause of constant sickness is thus entirely +overlooked, while drugs, otherwise unnecessary, are constantly +given at the hospital. The hospitals are thus large isolated +relief stations which are creating a new kind of pauperism. +So far as the patients can pay—and many can do so—the +general practitioners, to whom they would otherwise go, are +deprived of their gains. Still worse is it when the hospital itself +charges a fee in its out-patient department. The relief is then +claimed even more absolutely as a right, and the general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span> +practitioners are still further injured. The doctors, as a medical +staff, are not only medical men, but whether they recognize the fact +or not, they are also almsgivers or almoners; what they give is +relief. Yet few or none of them have ever been trained for that +work, and consequently they do not realize how very advantageous, +even for the cure of their own patients, would be a thorough +treatment of each case both at the hospital and outside it. Nor +can they understand how their methods at present protract +sickness and promote habitual dependence. Were this side of +their work studied by them in any way they would be the first, +probably, to press upon the governors of their hospitals the +necessity for a change. Unfortunately, at present the governors +are themselves untrained, and to finance the hospital and to +make it a good institution is their sole object. Hospitals, however, +are, after all, only a part of the general administration of +charity, though as they are now managed they have seldom any +systematic connexion with that administration. Nor is there +any co-ordination between the several hospitals and dispensaries. +If one rightly refuses further treatment to certain applicants, +they have only to wander to some other hospital, there to be +admitted with little or no scrutiny. For usually out-patients +and casualty patients are not even registered, nor can they be +identified if they apply again. Practically they come and go at +will. The definite limitation of cases, according to some standard +of effectual work, association with general charity, trained +almonership and inquiry, and a just regard for the interests of +general practitioners, are stepping-stones to reform. In towns +where medical charities are numerous a representative board +would promote mutual help and organization.</p> + +<p>Like the poor-law, endowed charities may be permanent +institutions established to meet what should be passing and +decreasing needs (cf. the arguments in <i>The State and +Charity</i>, by T. Mackay). Administered as they usually +<span class="sidenote">Endowed charities.</span> +are in isolation—apart from the living voluntary +charities of the generation, and consisting often of small trusts +difficult to utilize satisfactorily, they tend to create a permanent +demand which they meet by fixed quantities of relief. Also, as +a rule, they make no systematic inquiries with a view to the +verification of the statements of the applicants, for they have no +staff for these purposes; nor have they the assistance of almoners +or friendly visitors. Nor does the relief which they give form +part of any plan of help in conjunction with other aid from +without; nor is the administration subject to frequent inspection, +as in the case of the poor-law. All these conditions have led to +a want of progress in the actual administration of endowed +charities, in regard to which it is often very difficult to prevent +the exercise of an undue patronage. But there is no reason why +these charities should not become a responsible part of the +country’s administration, aiding it to reduce outdoor pauperism. +It was never intended that the poor-law should extinguish the +endowed charities, still less, as statistics now prove, that where +endowments abound the rate of pauperism should be considerably +above the average of the rest of the country. This shows that +these charities often foster pauperism instead of preventing it. +As a step to reform, the publication of an annual register of +endowed charities in England and Wales is greatly needed. The +consolidating schemes of the charity commissioners have done +much good; still more may be done in some counties by extending +to the county the benefits of the charities of well-endowed towns, +as has been accomplished by the extension of the eleemosynary +endowments of the city of London to the metropolitan police +area. Nor, again, until quite lately, and that as yet only in a few +schemes, has the principle been adopted that pensions or other +relief should be given only in supplementation of the relief of +relations, former employers and friends, and not in substitution +of it. This, coupled with good methods of inquiry and supervision, +has proved very beneficial. Hitherto, however, to a large +extent, endowed charities, it must be admitted, have tended to +weaken the family and to pauperize.</p> + +<p>In many places funds are raised for the relief of school children +by the supply of meals during the winter and spring; and an act +has now been passed in England (1906) enabling the cost to be +put upon the rates. Usually a very large number of children +<span class="sidenote">Relief to children at school.</span> +are said to be underfed, but inquiry shows that such statements +may be taken as altogether excessive. They +are sometimes based on information drawn from the +children at school; or sometimes on general deductions; +they are seldom founded on any systematic and +competent inquiry at the homes. When this has been made, +the numbers dwindle to very small proportions. Teachers of +experience have noted the effect of the meals in weakening +the independence of the family. While they are forthcoming +women sometimes give up cooking meals at home, use their money +for other things, and tell the child he can get his meal at school. +Great temptations are put before a parent to neglect her family, +and very much distress is due to this. The meals—just at a +time when, owing to the age of her children, the mother’s care +is most needed, and just in those families where the temptation +is greatest, and where the family instinct should be strengthened—stimulate +this neglect. Considered from the point of view +of meeting by eleemosynary provision a normal economic +demand for food, intervention can only have one result. The +demand must continue to outstrip the supply, so long as there are +resources available on the one side, and until on the other side +the desire of the social class that is chiefly exposed to the temptations +of dependence in relation to such relief has been satisfied. +If the provision be made from the resources of local or general +taxation the largeness of the fund available will allow practically +of an unlimited expansion of the supply of food. If the provision +be made from voluntary sources, in some measure limited therefore +and less certain, this very fact will tend to circumscribe +demand and limit the offer of relief. It is indeed the problem +of poor-law relief in 1832 over again. The relief provided by +local taxation practically unlimited will create a mass of constant +claimants, with a kind of assumed right to aid based on the +payment of rates; while voluntary relief, whatever its short-comings, +will be less injurious because it is less amply endowed. +In Paris the municipal subvention for meals rose from 545,900 +francs in 1892 to 1,000,000 in 1904. Between 1894 and 1904 there +was an increase of 9% in the school population; and an increase +of 28% in the municipal grant. In that period the contributions +from the local school funds (<i>caisses des écoles</i>) decreased +36%; while the voluntary contributions otherwise received +were insignificant; and the payments for meals increased 2%.</p> + +<p>The subject has been lately considered from a somewhat +different standpoint (cf. the reports of the Scottish Royal Commission +on Physical Education, 1903; of the Inter-departmental +committees on Physical Deterioration, 1905, and on Medical +Inspection and the Feeding of School Children, 1905; also the +report of the special committee of the Charity Organization +Society on “the assistance of school children,” 1893). After +careful investigations medical officers especially have drawn +attention to the low physical condition of children in schools +in the poorer parts of large English towns, their low stature, +their physical defects, the improper food supplied to them at +home, their uncleanliness, and their want of decent bringing-up, +and sometimes their want of food. Other inquiries have shown +that, as women more usually become breadwinners their children +receive less attention, and the home and its duties are neglected, +while in the lowest sections of the poorer classes social irresponsibility +reaches its maximum. Cheap but often quite improper +food is provided, and infant mortality, which is largely preventable, +remains as high as ever, though adult life is longer. This +with a marked decrease in the birth-rate in recent years, has, +it may be said, opened out a new field for charitable effort and +social work. Science is at each revision of the problem making +its task more definite. Actually the mere demand for meals +stands for less; the reform of home conditions for more. So it +was hoped that instead of making school meals a charge on +taxation, as parliament has done, it would be content to leave +it a voluntary charge, while the medical inspection of elementary +Schools will be made universal; representative relief committees +formed for schools or groups of schools; the cases of want or +distress among the school children dealt with individually in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span> +connexion with their families, and, where necessary, day schools +established on the lines of day industrial schools.</p> + +<p>At a time of exceptional distress the following suggestions +founded on much English experience may be of service (cf. +Report of special committee of the Charity Organization +Society on the best means of dealing with exceptional +<span class="sidenote">Exceptional distress.</span> +distress, 1886). Usually at such a time proposals are +made to establish special funds, and to provide employment +to men and women out of work. But it is best, if possible +and as long as possible, to rely on existing agencies, and to +strengthen them. Round them there are usually workers more +or less trained. A new fund usually draws to it new people, many +of whom may not have had any special experience at all. If a +new fund is inevitable, it is best that it should make its grants +to existing agencies after consultation with them. In any case, +a clear policy should be adopted, and people should keep their +heads. The exaggeration of feeling at a time of apprehended or +actual distress is sometimes extraordinary, and the unwise action +which it prompts is often a cause of continuing pauperism afterwards. +Where there is public or poor-law relief the following +plan may be adopted:—In any large town there are usually +different recognized poor-law, charitable or other areas. The +local people already at work in these areas should be formed +into local committees. In each case a quick inquiry should be +made, and the relieving officer communicated with, some central +facts verified, and the home visited. Roughly, cases may be +divided into three classes: the irresponsible casual labouring +class, a middle class of men with decent homes, who have made +no provision for the future, and are not members of either friendly +society or trades union; and a third class, who have made some +provision. These usually are affected last of all; at all hazards +they should be kept from receiving public relief, and should be +helped, as far as possible, privately and personally. If there +are public works, the second class might be referred to them; if +there are not, probably some should be left to the poor-law, some +assisted in the same way as members of class three. Much would +turn upon the family and the home. The first class should be +left to the poor-law. If there is no poor-law system at work they +should be put on public works. Working men of independent +position, not the creatures of any political club, but such as are +respected members of a friendly society, or are otherwise well +qualified for the task, should be called into consultation. The +relief should be settled according to the requirements of each case, +but if the pressure is great, at first at least it may be necessary +to make grants according to some generally sufficient scale. There +should be as constant a revision of cases as time permits. Great +care should be taken to stop the relief as soon as possible, and to do +nothing to make it the stepping-stone to permanent dependence.</p> + +<p>If employment be provided it should be work within the skill +of all; it should be fairly remunerated, so that at least the +scantiness of the pay may not be an excuse for neglect; and it +should be paid for according to measured or piece work. The +discipline should be strict, though due regard should be paid +at first to those unaccustomed to digging or earthwork. In +England and Wales the guardians have power to open labour +yards. These, like charities which provide work, tend to attract +and keep in employment a low class of labourer or workman, +who finds it pays him to use the institution as a convenience. +It is best, therefore, to avoid the opening of a labour yard +if possible. If it is opened, the discipline should be very strict, +and when there is laziness or insubordination, relief in the workhouse +should at once be offered. The relief furnished to men +employed in a labour yard, of which in England at least half has +to be given ih kind, should, it has been said, be dealt out from +day to day. This leads to the men giving up the work sooner +than they otherwise would. They have less to spend.</p> + +<p>In Great Britain a great change has taken place in regard +to the provision of employment in connexion with the state. +Since about 1890 there has been a feeling that men in +distress from want of employment should not be dealt +<span class="sidenote">Unemployment.</span> +with by the poor-law. A circular letter issued by the +Local Government Board in 1886, and subsequently in 1895, +coincided with this feeling. It was addressed to town councils +and other local authorities, asking them to provide work (1) +which will not involve the stigma of pauperism, (2) which all +can perform whatever may have been their previous avocations, +and (3) which does not compete with that of other labourers +at present in employment. This circular led to the vestries and +subsequently the borough councils in many districts becoming +partially recognized relief authorities for the unemployed, +concurrently with the poor-law. Much confusion resulted. +The local authorities had seldom any suitable organization for +the investigation of applications. It was difficult to supply +work on the terms required; and the work was often ill-done +and costly. Also it was found that the same set of people would +apply year after year, unskilled labourers usually out of work +part of the winter, or men habitually “unemployed.” As on +other occasions when public work was provided, very few of the +applicants were found to be artisans, or members of trades +unions or of friendly societies. In 1904 Mr Long, then president +of the Local Government Board, proposed that local voluntary +distress committees should be established in London consisting +of poor-law guardians and town councillors and others, more or +less supervised by a central committee and ultimately by the +Local Government Board. This organization was set on foot +and large sums were subscribed for its work. The report on +the results of the movement was somewhat doubtful (Report, +London Unemployed Fund, 1904-1905, p. 101, &c.), but in 1905 +the Unemployed Workmen’s Act was passed, and in London +and elsewhere distress committees like the voluntary committees +of the previous year were established by statute. It was enacted +that for establishment expenses, emigration and removal, labour +exchanges, and the acquisition of land a halfpenny rate might +be levied, but that the rate would not be available for the remuneration +of men employed. For this purpose (1905-1906) +a large charitable fund was raised. A training farm at Hollesley +Bay was acquired, and it was hoped to train Londoners there +to become fit for agricultural work. It is impossible to judge this +experiment properly, on the evidence available up to 1908. +But one or two points are important: (1) something very like +the “right to labour” has been granted by the legislature; +(2) this has been done apart from the conditions required by the +poor-laws and orders of the Local Government Board on poor +relief and without imposing disfranchisement on the men +employed; (3) a labour rate has not been levied, but a rate has +been levied in aid of the provision of employment; (4) if the line +of development that the act suggests were to be followed (as the +renewed Labour agitation in 1908-1909 made probable) it must +tend to create a class of “unemployed,” unskilled labourers +of varying grades of industry who may become the dependent +and state-supported proletariat of modern urban life. Thus, +unless the administration be extremely rigorous, once more +will a kind of serfdom be established, to be, as some would say, +taken over hereafter by the socialist state.</p> + +<p>In some of the English colonies Homeric hospitality still +prevails, but by degrees the station-house or some refuge is +established in the towns as they grow more populous. +Finally, some system of labour in exchange for relief +<span class="sidenote">Vagrancy.</span> +is evolved. At first this is voluntary, afterwards it is officially +recognized, and finally it may become part of the system of +public relief. As bad years come, these changes are made step +by step. In England the vagrant or wayfarer is tolerated and +discouraged, but not kept employed. He should be under greater +pressure to maintain himself, it is thought. The provision made +for him in different parts of the country is far from uniform, and +now, usually, at least in the larger towns, after he has had a bath +and food, he is admitted to a separate room or cell in a casual +ward. Before he leaves he has to do a task of work, and, subject +to the discretion of the master, he is detained two nights. This +plan has reduced vagrancy, and if it were universally adopted +clean accommodation would everywhere be provided for the +vagrant without the attractions of a common or “associated” +ward; and probably vagrancy would diminish still further. It +seems almost needless to say that, in these circumstances at any +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span> +rate, casual alms should not be given to vagrants. They know +much better how to provide for themselves than the almsgiver +imagines, for vagrancy is in the main a mode of life not the result +of any casual difficulty. Vagrancy and criminality are also nearly +allied. The magistrate, therefore, rather than the almsgiver, +should usually interfere; and, as a rule, where the magistrates +are strict, vagrancy in a county diminishes. An inter-departmental +committee (1906) taking generally this line, reported +in favour of vagrants being placed entirely under police control, +and it recommended a system of wayfarers’ tickets for men on +the roads who are not habitual vagrants, and the committal +of men likely to become habitual vagrants to certified labour +colonies for not less than six months. Still undoubtedly vagrancy +has its economic side. In a bad year the number of tramps is +increased by the addition of unskilled and irresponsible labourers, +who are soonest discharged when work is slack. As a part-voluntary +system under official recognition the German <i>Arbeiter-colonien</i> +are of interest. This in a measure has led to the introduction +of labour homes in England, the justification of which should +be that they recruit the energy of the men who find their way to +them, and enable them to earn a living which they could not do +otherwise. In a small percentage of cases their result may be +achieved. Charitable refuges or philanthropic common lodging-houses, +usually established in districts where this class already +congregate, only aggravate the difficulty. They give additional +attractions to a vagrant and casual life, and make it more +endurable. They also make a comfortable avoidance of the +responsibilities of family life comparatively easy, and in so far +as they do this they are clearly injurious to the community.</p> + +<p>The English colonists of the New England states and Pennsylvania +introduced the disciplinary religious and relief system of +Protestantism and the Elizabethan poor-law. To +the former reference has already been made. With an +<span class="sidenote">American conditions and methods.</span> +appreciation of the fact that the cause of distress is +not usually poverty, but weakness of character and +want of judgment, and that relief is in itself no remedy, those +who have inherited the old Puritan traditions have, in the light +of toleration and a larger social experience, organized the +method of friendly visiting, the object of which is illustrated by +the motto, “Not alms, but a friend.” To the friendship of +charity is thus given a disciplinary force, capable of immense +expansion and usefulness, if the friendship on the side of those +who would help is sincere and guided by practical knowledge +and sagacity, and if on the side of those in distress there is +awakened a reciprocal regard and a willingness to change their +way of life by degrees. Visiting by “districts” is set aside, for +“friendliness” is not a quality easily diffused over a wide area. +To be real it must be limited as time and ability allow. Consequently, +a friendly visitor usually befriends but one or two, +or in any case only a few, families. The friendly visitor is the +outcome of the movement for “associated charities,” but in +America charity organization societies have also adopted the +term, and to a certain extent the method. Between the two +movements there is the closest affinity. The registration of +applicants for relief is much more complete in American cities +than in England, where the plan meets with comparatively little +support. At the office of the associated charities in Boston there +is a central and practically a complete register of all the applications +made to the public authority for poor relief, to the associated +charities, and to many other voluntary bodies.</p> + +<p>The Elizabethan poor-law system, with the machinery of +overseers, poor-houses and out-door relief, is still maintained +in New England, New York state and Pennsylvania, but with +many modifications, especially in New York. A chief factor in +these changes has been immigration. While the County or town +remained the administrative area for local poor relief, the large +number of immigrant and “unsettled” poor, and the business +connected with their removal from the state, entailed the establishment +of a secondary or state system of administration and +aid, with special classes of institutions to which the counties +or towns could send their poor, as, for instance, state reform +schools, farms, almshouses, &c. For the oversight of these +institutions, and often of prisons also and lunatic asylums, in +many states there have been established state boards of “charity +or corrections and charity.” The members of these boards are +selected by the state for a term of years, and give their services +honorarily. There are state boards in Massachusetts, New York, +Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, +Iowa, Colorado, North Carolina and elsewhere. There is also a +district board of charities in the district of Columbia. These +boards publish most useful and detailed reports. Besides the state +board there is sometimes also, as in New York, a State Charities +Aid Association, whose members, in the counties in which they +reside, have a legal right of entry to visit and inspect any public +or charitable institution owned by the state, and any county and +other poor-house. A large association of visitors accustomed +to inspect and report on institutions has thus been created. +Further, the counties and towns in New York state, for instance, +and Massachusetts, and the almshouse districts in Pennsylvania, +are under boards of supervision. Usually the overseers give out-door +relief, and the pauperism of some areas is as high as that +in some English unions, 3, 4 and 5%. On the whole population +of the United States, however, and of individual states, consisting +to a great extent of comparatively young and energetic immigrants, +the pauperism is insignificant. In Massachusetts “it +has been the general policy of the state to order the removal +to the state almshouse of unsettled residents of the several cities +and towns in need of temporary aid, thus avoiding some of the +abuses incident to out-door relief.” In New York state, in the +city of New York, including Brooklyn, the distribution of out-door +relief by the department of charities is forbidden, except +for purposes of transportation and for the adult blind. Most +counties in the state have an almshouse, and the county superintendents +and overseers of the poor “furnish necessary relief to +such of the county poor as may require only temporary assistance, +or are so disabled that they cannot be safely removed to the +almshouse.” Public attention is in many cases being drawn +to the inutility and injury of out-door relief.</p> + +<p>In some states and cities the system of subsidizing voluntary +institutions is in full force, and it is in force also in many English +colonies. At first sight it has the advantage of providing relief +for public purposes without the creation of a new staff or establishment. +There is thus an apparent economy. But the evils +are many. Political partisanship and favour may influence the +amount and disposition of the grants. The grants act as a +bounty on the establishment and continuance of charitable +institutions, homes for children, hospitals, &c., but not on the +expansion of the voluntary charitable funds and efforts that +should maintain them; and thus charitable homes exist in which +charity in its truer sense may have little part, but in which the +chief motive of the administration may be to support sectarian +interests by public subsidies. Claimants for relief have little +scruple in turning such institutions to their own account; and +the institutions, being financially irresponsible, are not in these +circumstances scrupulous on their side to prevent a misdirection +of their bounties. “Parents unload their children upon the +community more recklessly when they know that such children +will be provided for in private orphan asylums and protectories, +where the religious training that the parents prefer will be given +them” (Amos G. Warner, in <i>International Congress: Charities +and Correction</i>, 1893). Past history in New York city illustrates +the same evil. The admission was entirely in the hands of the +managers. They admitted; the city paid. In New York city +the population between 1870 and 1890 increased about 80%; +the subsidies for prisoners and public paupers increased by 43%, +but those for paupers in private institutions increased from +$334,828 to $1,845,872, or about 461%. The total was at that +time $3,794,972; in 1898 it was rather less, $3,132,786. The +alternative to this system is either the establishment of state or +municipal institutions, and possibly in special cases payments +to voluntary homes for the maintenance of inmates admitted at +the request of a state authority, as at certified and other homes in +England, with grants made conditional on the work being conducted +on specified lines, and subject to a certain increasing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span> +amount of voluntary financial support; or a close general and +financial inspection of charitable institutions—the method of +reform adopted in New York; or payment for only those inmates +who are sent by public authorities and admitted on their request.</p> + +<p>The enormous extent to which children’s aid societies have +been increased in the United States, sometimes with the help of +considerable public grants, suggests the greatest need for caution +from the point of the preservation of the family as the central +element of social strength in the community. The problem of +charity in relation to medical relief in the large towns of the +United States is similar to that of England; its difficulties are +alike.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—As good translations of the classics become accessible +it is easy for the general reader or student to combine a +study of the principles of charity in relation to the community with +a study of history. Thus, and in connexion with special investigations +and the conditions of practical charity, social economics +may best be studied. In N. Masterman, <i>Chalmers on Charity</i> (1900); +T. Mackay, <i>Methods of Social Reform</i> (1896); B. Bosanquet and +others, <i>Some Aspects of the Social Problem</i> (1894); and C.S. Loch, +<i>Methods of Social Advance</i> (1904), this point of view is generally +assumed. Special investigations of importance may be found in the +reports of medical officers of health. See Report of Committee on +Physical Deterioration referred to above, and, for instance, Dr Newsholme’s +<i>Vital Statistics</i> and Charles Booth’s <i>Labour and Life in +London</i>. For the history of charity there is no good single work. +On details there are many good articles in Daremberg’s <i>Dictionary +of Classical Antiquities</i>, and similar works. <i>Modern Methods of +Charity</i>, by C.H. Henderson and others (1904), supplies much +general information in regard to poor relief and charity in different +countries. Apart from books and official documents mentioned +in the text as indicating the present state of charitable and public +relief, or as aids to practical work, the following may be of service. +England:—<i>Annual Charities’ Register and Digest, with Introduction +on “How to help Cases of Distress”</i>; the <i>Charity Organization +Review; Occasional Papers</i> (3 vols.), published by the London +Charity Organization Society (1896-1906); <i>Reports of Proceedings +of Conferences of Poor-Law Guardians; The Strength of the People</i>, +by Helen Bosanquet; <i>Homes of the London Poor</i> and <i>Our Common +Land</i>, by Miss Octavia Hill; <i>The Queen’s Poor</i>, by M. Loane. United +States of America:—<i>The Proceedings of the International Conference +on Charities and Correction</i> (1894), and the proceedings of the annual +conferences; <i>Friendly Visiting among the Poor</i>, by Mary E. Richmond +(1899); <i>American Charities</i>, by Amos G. Warner (1908); +<i>The Practice of Charity</i>, by E.T. Devine; <i>Handworterbuch der +Staatswissenschaften</i>, by Dr J. Conrad, &c., vol. ii.; <i>Das Armenwesen +in den Vereinigten Staaten von America</i>, by Dr Francis G. Peabody +(1897); the <i>Charities Review</i>, published monthly by the New York +Charity Organization Society; the Papers and Reports of the Boston +and Baltimore societies. France:—<i>La Bibliographie charitable</i>, by +Camille Granier (1891); <i>La Charité avant et depuis 1789</i>, by P. +Hubert Valleroux; Fascicules of the <i>Conseil supérieur de l’assistance +publique, Revue d’assistance</i>, published by the <i>Société Internationale +pour l’étude des questions d’assistance</i>. Germany:—Reports and Proceedings +of the <i>Deutsche Vereine für Armenpflege und Wohltätigkeit; +Die Armenpflege</i>, a practical handbook, by Dr E. Münsterberg (1897). +Austria:—<i>Österreichs Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen, 1848-1898</i>, by Dr +Ernest Mischler (1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. S. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARIVARI,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a French term of uncertain origin, but probably +onomatopoeic, for a mock serenade “rough music,” made by +beating on kettles, fire-irons, tea-trays or what not. The +charivari was anciently in France a regular wedding custom, all +bridal couples being thus serenaded. Later it was reserved for +ill-assorted and unpopular marriages, for widows or widowers +who remarried too soon, and generally as a mockery for all who +were unpopular. At the beginning of the 17th century, wedding +charivaris were forbidden by the Council of Tours under pain of +excommunication, but the custom still lingers in rural districts. +The French of Louisiana and Canada introduced the charivari +into America, where it became known under the corrupted name +of “shivaree.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARKHARI,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of +Central India. Area, 745 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 123,594; estimated +revenue £33,000. It is surrounded on all sides by other states of +Central India, except near Charkhari town, where it meets the +United Provinces. It was founded by Bijai Bahadur (vikramaditya), +a <i>sanad</i> being granted him in 1804 and another in 1811. +The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the Bundela +clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the independence +of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. In 1857 Raja +Ratan Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a <i>khilat</i> and +a perpetual <i>jagir</i> of £1300 a year in recognition of his services +during the Mutiny. The town of Charkhari (locally <i>Maharajnagar</i>) +is 40 m. W. of Banda; pop. (1901) 11,718.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLATAN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (Ital. <i>ciarlatano</i>, from <i>ciarlare</i>, to chatter), +originally one who “patters” to a crowd to sell his wares, like a +“cheap-jack” or “quack” doctor—“quack” being similarly +derived from the noise made by a duck; so an impostor who +pretends to have some special skill or knowledge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMAGNE<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles the Great</span>] (c. 742-814), Roman +emperor, and king of the Franks, was the elder son of Pippin the +Short, king of the Franks, and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of +Charibert, count of Laon. The place of his birth is unknown and +its date uncertain, although some authorities give it as the 2nd of +April 742; doubts have been cast upon his legitimacy, and it is +just possible that the marriage of Pippin and Bertha took place +subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When Pippin was +crowned king of the Franks at St Denis on the 28th of July 754 +by Pope Stephen II., Charles, and his brother Carloman were +anointed by the pope as a sign of their kingly rank. The rough +surroundings of the Frankish court were unfavourable to the +acquisition of learning, and Charles grew up almost ignorant of +letters, but hardy in body and skilled in the use of weapons.</p> + +<p>In 761 he accompanied his father on a campaign in Aquitaine, +and in 763 undertook the government of several counties. In +768 Pippin divided his dominions between his two sons, and on his +death soon afterwards Charles became the ruler of the northern +portion of the Frankish kingdom, and was crowned at Noyon on +the 9th of October 768. Bad feeling had existed for some time +between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles early in 769 +was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother +refused to afford him any assistance. This rebellion, however, +was easily crushed, its leader, the Aquitainian duke Hunold, was +made prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the +Frankish kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a +temporary reconciliation between her sons, overcame the repugnance +with which Pope Stephen III. regarded an alliance +between Frank and Lombard, and brought about a marriage +between Charles and a daughter of Desiderius, king of the +Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a union, probably +of an irregular nature, with a Frankish lady named Himiltrude, +who had borne him a son Pippin, the “Hunchback.” The peace +with the Lombards, in which the Bavarians as allies of Desiderius +joined, was, however, soon broken. Charles thereupon repudiated +his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and married in +771 a princess of the Alamanni named Hildegarde. Carloman +died in December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at +Corbeny as sole king of the Franks. Carloman’s widow Gerberga +had fled to the protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her +cause and requested the new pope, Adrian I., to recognize her two +sons as the lawful Frankish kings. Adrian, between whom and +the Lombards other causes of quarrel existed, refused to assent +to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded the papal territories +he appealed to the Frankish king for help. Charles, who +was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign, expostulated +with Desiderius; but when such mild measures +proved useless he led his forces across the Alps in 773. Gerberga +and her children were delivered up and disappear from history; +the siege of Pavia was undertaken; and at Easter 774 the king +left the seat of war and visited Rome, where he was received with +great respect.</p> + +<p>During his stay in the city Charles renewed the donation which +his father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This +transaction has given rise to much discussion as to its trustworthiness +and the extent of its operation. Our only authority, +a passage in the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>, describes the gift as including +the whole of Italy and Corsica, except the lands north of the Po, +Calabria and the city of Naples. The vast extent of this donation, +which, moreover, included territories not owning Charles’s +authority, and the fact that the king did not execute, or +apparently attempt to execute, its provisions, has caused many +scholars to look upon the passage as a forgery; but the better +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span> +opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a +genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The +area of the grant may have been enlarged by later interpolations; +or it may have dealt with property rather than with +sovereignty, and have only referred to estates claimed by the +pope in the territories named; or it is possible that Charles may +have actually intended to establish an extensive papal kingdom +in Italy, but was released from his promise by Adrian when the +pope saw no chance of its fulfilment. Another supposition is that the +author of the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i> gives the papal interpretation +of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in ambiguous +terms; and this view is supported by the history of the +subsequent controversy between king and pope.</p> + +<p>Returning to the scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the +capitulation of Pavia in June 774, and the capture of Desiderius, +who was sent into a monastery. He now took the title “king of +the Lombards,” to which he added the dignity of “Patrician of +the Romans,” which had been granted to his father. Adalgis, +the son of Desiderius, who was residing at Constantinople, hoped +the emperor Leo IV. would assist him in recovering his father’s +kingdom; but a coalition formed for this purpose was ineffectual, +and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of Friuli, was easily +crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was visited at Paderborn +by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid against +Abd-ar-Rahman, the caliph of Cordova, and promised some Spanish +cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his +influence Charles marched into Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna, +but meeting with some checks decided to return. As the Frankish +forces were defiling through the passes of the Pyrenees they were +attacked by the Wascones (probably Basques), and the rear-guard +of the army was almost annihilated. It was useless to +attempt to avenge this disaster, which occurred on the 15th of +August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly as he came; +the incident has passed from the domain of history into that of +legend and romance, being associated by tradition with the pass +of Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland, or Roland, +margrave of the Breton march, whose death gave rise to the +<i>Chanson de Roland</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland, Legend of</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where +Frankish counts were set over various districts, and where +Hildebrand, duke of Spoleto, appears to have recognized his +overlordship. In 780 he was again in the peninsula, and at +Mantua issued an important <i>capitulary</i> which increased the +authority of the Lombard bishops, relieved freemen who under +stress of famine had sold themselves into servitude, and +condemned abuses of the system of vassalage. At the same time +commerce was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized +tolls and by an improvement of the coinage; while the sale of +arms to hostile peoples, and the trade in Christian slaves were +forbidden. Proceeding to Rome, the king appears to have +come to some arrangement with Adrian about the donation of +774. At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde, +was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian, +and his youngest son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine; +but no mention was made at the time of his eldest son Charles, +who was doubtless intended to be king of the Franks. In 783 +the king, having lost his wife Hildegarde, married Fastrada, +the daughter of a Frankish count named Radolf; and in the +same year his mother Bertha died. The emperor Constantine VI. +was at this time exhibiting some interest in Italian affairs, and +Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so Charles +sought to avert danger from this quarter by consenting in 781 to +a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude. +In 786 the entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of +Arichis II., duke of Benevento, a son-in-law of Desiderius, called +the king again into Italy. Arichis submitted without a struggle, +though the basis of Frankish authority in his duchy was far from +secure; but in conjunction with Adalgis he sought aid from +Constantinople. His plans were ended by his death in 787, and +although the empress Irene, the real ruler of the eastern empire, +broke off the projected marriage between her son and Rothrude, +she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis, +whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit +Charles had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrangement +soon arose between king and pope over the claim of Charles +to confirm the election to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and it +was accentuated by Adrian’s objection to the establishment by +Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of Benevento, in succession to +his father Arichis.</p> + +<p>These journeys and campaigns, however, were but interludes +in the long and stubborn struggle between Charles and the Saxons, +which began in 772 and ended in 804 with the incorporation of +Saxony in the Carolingian empire (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>). This contest, +in which the king himself took a very active part, brought the +Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe dwelling east of the +Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A similar sequence +of events took place in southern Germany. Tassilo III., duke of +the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a line of +conduct inconsistent with his allegiance to Charles, was deposed +in 788 and his duchy placed under the rule of Gerold, a +brother-in-law of Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bavaria</a></span>). Having thus taken upon himself the control of +Bavaria, Charles felt himself responsible for protecting its +eastern frontier, which had long been menaced by the Avars, +a people inhabiting the region now known as Hungary. He +accordingly ravaged their country in 791 at the head of an army +containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors, +which penetrated as far as the Raab; and he spent the following +year in Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them, +the conduct of which, however, he was compelled by further +trouble in Saxony to entrust to his son king Pippin, and to Eric, +margrave of Friuli. These deputies succeeded in 795 and 796 +in taking possession of the vast treasures of the Avars, which +were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to churches, +courtiers and friends. A conspiracy against Charles, which his +friend and biographer Einhard alleges was provoked by the +cruelties of Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty +in 792, and its leader, the king’s illegitimate son Pippin, was +confined in a monastery till his death in 811. Fastrada died in +August 794, when Charles took for his fourth wife an Alamannian +lady named Liutgarde.</p> + +<p>The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical +affairs was shown at the synod of Frankfort, over which he +presided in 794. It was on his initiative that this synod +condemned the heresy of <i>adoptianism</i> and the worship of images, +which had been restored in 787 by the second council of Nicaea; +and at the same time that council was declared to have been +superfluous. This policy caused a further breach with Pope +Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor, +Leo III., in notifying his elevation to the king, sent him the keys +of St Peter’s grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles +to send an envoy to receive his oath of fidelity. There is no +doubt that Leo recognized Charles as sovereign of Rome. He +was the first pope to date his acts according to the years of the +Frankish monarchy, and a mosaic of the time in the Lateran +palace represents St Peter bestowing the banners upon Charles +as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued by +the pope bears witness to the same idea. Leo soon had occasion +to invoke the aid of his protector. In 799, after he had been +attacked and maltreated in the streets of Rome during a procession, +he escaped to the king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him +back to Italy escorted by some of his most trusted servants. +Taking the same journey himself shortly afterwards, the king +reached Rome in 800 for the purpose (as he declared) of restoring +discipline in the church. His authority was undisputed; and +after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain charges made +against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his leading +opponents.</p> + +<p>The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding +Christmas Day, when Charles on rising from prayer in St Peter’s +was crowned by Leo and proclaimed emperor and <i>augustus</i> +amid the acclamations of the crowd. This act can hardly have +been unpremeditated, and some doubt has been cast upon the +statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that he would not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span> +have entered the building had he known of the intention of Leo. +He accepted the dignity at any rate without demur, and there +seems little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining, +this title had previously been discussed. His policy had been +steadily leading up to this position, which was rather the +emblem of the power he already held than an extension of the +area of his authority. It is probable therefore that Charles +either considered the coronation premature, as he was hoping +to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that, +from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope +to crown the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the +evidence tends to show that it was the time or manner of the +act rather than the act itself which aroused his temporary +displeasure. Contemporary accounts lay stress upon the fact +that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople being under +the rule of Irene, it seemed good to Leo and his counsellors and +the “rest of the Christian people” to choose Charles, already +ruler of Rome, to fill the vacant office. However doubtful such +conjectures concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that +immediately after his coronation Charles sought to establish +friendly relations with Constantinople, and even suggested a +marriage between himself and Irene, as he had again become a +widower in 800. The deposition and death of the empress foiled +this plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between the +two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led +to an arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor, +Nicephorus I. The death of Nicephorus and the accession of +Michael I. did not interfere with the relations, and in 812 an +embassy from Constantinople arrived at Aix-la-Chapelle, when +Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return agreed to +cede Venice and Dalmatia to Michael.</p> + +<p>Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused +the emperor to alter somewhat his manner of life. No longer +leading his armies in person he entrusted the direction of +campaigns in various parts of his empire to his sons and other +lieutenants, and from his favourite residence at Aix watched their +progress with a keen and sustained interest. In 802 he ordered +that a new oath of fidelity to him as emperor should be taken by +all his subjects over twelve years of age. In 804 he was visited +by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with gifts. Before +his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into communications +with the caliph of Bagdad, Harun-al-Rashid, probably in +order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received +an embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the +patriarch of Jerusalem sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre; +and in 807 Harun not only sent further gifts, but appears to +have confirmed the emperor’s rights in Jerusalem, which, however, +probably amounted to no more than an undefined protectorate +over the Christians in that part of the world. While thus +extending his influence even into Asia, there was scarcely any +part of Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself +felt. He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles, +but he continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that +country. In 798 he had concluded an alliance with Alphonso II., +king of the Asturias, and a series of campaigns mainly under the +leadership of King Louis resulted in the establishment of the +“Spanish march,” a district between the Pyrenees and the Ebro +stretching from Pampeluna to Barcelona, as a defence against +the Saracens. In 799 the Balearic Islands had been handed over +to Charles, and a long warfare was carried on both by sea and +land between Frank and Saracen until 810, when peace was made +between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy +was equally the scene of continuous fighting. Grimoald of Benevento +rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice +and Dalmatia was disputed by the two empires; and Istria +was brought into subjection.</p> + +<p>With England the emperor had already entered into relations, +and at one time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles +and a daughter of Offa, king of the Mercians. English exiles +were welcomed at his court; he was mainly instrumental in +restoring Eardwulf to the throne of Northumbria in 809; and +Einhard includes the Scots within the sphere of his influence. +In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves completely +under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 805 +and 806 had met with some success, and about the same time +the land of the Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western extremity +of the continent the Breton nobles had done homage +to Charles at Tours in 800. Thus the emperor’s dominions now +stretched from the Eider to the Ebro, and from the Atlantic to +the Elbe, the Saale and the Raab, and they also included the +greater part of Italy; while even beyond these bounds he exercised +an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 806 Charles +arranged a division of his territories among his three legitimate +sons, but this arrangement came to nothing owing to the death +of Pippin in 810, and of the younger Charles in the following +year. Charles then named his remaining son Louis as his successor; +and at his father’s command Louis took the crown from +the altar and placed it upon his own head. This ceremony took +place at Aix on the 11th of September 813. In 808 the Frankish +authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod +(Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts +and spoke boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To ward off +these attacks Charles took a warm interest in the building of a +fleet, which he reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had +been killed, and his successor Hemming made peace with the +emperor.</p> + +<p>In 811 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated +the possibility of abdication. The bulk of his possessions were +left to the twenty-one metropolitan churches of his dominions, +and the remainder to his children, his servants and the poor. +In his last years he passed most of his days at Aix, though +he had sufficient energy to take the field for a short time during +the Danish War. Early in 814 he was attacked by a fever which +he sought to subdue by fasting; but pleurisy supervened, and +after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of January +814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of +St Mary at Aix. In the year 1000 his tomb was opened by the +emperor Otto III., but the account that Otto found the body +upright upon a throne with a golden crown on the head and holding +a golden sceptre in the hands, is generally regarded as legendary. +The tomb was again opened by the emperor Frederick I. +in 1165, when the remains were removed from a marble sarcophagus +and placed in a wooden coffin. Fifty years later they were +transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid +shrine, in which the relics are still exhibited once in every six +years. The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may +still be seen at Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in +the imperial treasury at Vienna. In 1165 Charles was canonized +by the antipope Paschal III. at the instance of the emperor +Frederick I., and Louis XI. of France gave strict orders that the +feast of the saint should be observed.</p> + +<p>The personal appearance of Charles is thus described by +Einhard:—“Big and robust in frame, he was tall, but not +excessively so, measuring about seven of his own feet in height. +His eyes were large and lustrous, his nose rather long and +his countenance bright and cheerful.” He had a commanding +presence, a clear but somewhat feeble voice, and in later life +became rather corpulent. His health was uniformly good, owing +perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to +his love for hunting and swimming. He was an affectionate +father, and loved to pass his time in the company of his children, +to whose education he paid the closest attention. His sons were +trained for war and the chase, and his daughters instructed in the +spinning of wool and other feminine arts. His ideas of sexual +morality were primitive. Many concubines are spoken of, he +had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his daughters +were very loose. He was a regular observer of religious rites, +took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church, +and was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and +without. He reformed the Frankish liturgy, and brought singers +from Rome to improve the services of the church. He had +considerable knowledge of theology, took a prominent part in the +theological controversies of the time, and was responsible for the +addition of the clause <i>filioque</i> to the Nicene Creed. The most +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span> +attractive feature of his character, however, was his love of +learning. In addition to his native tongue he could read Latin and +understood Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard +gives an account of his futile efforts to learn this art in later life. +He loved the reading of histories and astronomy, and by questioning +travellers gained some knowledge of distant parts of the +earth. He attended lectures on grammar, and his favourite +work was St Augustine’s <i>De civitate Dei</i>. He caused Frankish +sagas to be collected, began a grammar of his native tongue, and +spent some of his last hours in correcting a text of the Vulgate. +He delighted in the society of scholars—Alcuin, Angilbert, Paul +the Lombard, Peter of Pisa and others, and in this company the +trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known +simply as David. Under his patronage Alcuin organized the +school of the palace, where the royal children were taught in the +company of others, and founded a school at Tours which became +the model for many other establishments. Charles was unwearying +in his efforts to improve the education of clergy and +laity, and in 789 ordered that schools should be established in +every diocese. The atmosphere of these schools was strictly +ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were +often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of +Charles will not be doubted when one considers the rude condition +of Frankish society half a century before. The main work +of the Carolingian renaissance was to restore Latin to its +position as a literary language, and to reintroduce a correct +system of spelling and an improved handwriting. The +manuscripts of the time are accurate and artistic, copies of +valuable books were made and by careful collation the texts +were purified.</p> + +<p>Charles was not a great warrior. His victories were won rather +by the power of organization, which he possessed in a marked +degree, and he was eager to seize ideas and prompt in their +execution. He erected a stone bridge with wooden piers across +the Rhine at Mainz, and began a canal between the Altmühl and +the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the Danube, but this work +was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite residence), +Nijmwegen and Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary +at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned +with columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He +loved the simple dress and manners of the Franks, and on two +occasions only did he assume the more stately attire of a Roman +noble. The administrative system of Charles in church and +state was largely personal, and he brought to the work an untiring +industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He admonished +the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and +work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations +of church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries, +was lavish in his gifts to ecclesiastical foundations, and chose +bishops and abbots for administrative work. As the real +founder of the ecclesiastical state, he must be held mainly +responsible for the evils which resulted from the policy of +the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the secular +authority.</p> + +<p>In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed +counts over districts smaller than the former duchies, and +supervised their government by means of <i>missi dominici</i>, +officials responsible to himself alone. Marches were formed on all the +borders of the empire, and the exigencies of military service +led to the growth of a system of land-tenure which contained +the germ of feudalism. The assemblies of the people gradually +changed their character under his rule. No longer did the nation +come together to direct and govern, but the emperor summoned +his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in +commerce and agriculture, Charles issued various regulations +for the organization of the one and the improvement of the other. +He introduced a new system of weights and measures, which he +ordered should be used throughout his kingdom, and took steps +to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous lawgiver. Without +abolishing the customary law of the German tribes, which is +said to have been committed to writing by his orders, he +added to it by means of <i>capitularies</i>, and thus introduced +certain Christian principles and customs, and some degree of +uniformity.</p> + +<p>The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell +on western Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors +was to restore it to its pristine position and influence, while +many of the French rulers made its re-establishment the goal of +their policy. Otto the Great to a considerable extent succeeded; +Louis XIV. referred frequently to the empire of Charlemagne; +and Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and predecessor. +The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting. In spite of his +own wonderful genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his +lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism +was present, and there was no real bond of union between the +different races that acknowledged his authority. All the vigilance +of the emperor could not restrain the dishonesty and the +cupidity of his servants, and no sooner was the strong hand of +their ruler removed than they began to acquire territorial power +for themselves.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The chief authorities for the life and times of +Charlemagne are Einhard’s <i>Vita Karoli Magni</i>, +the <i>Annales Laurissenses majores</i>, +the <i>Annales Fuldenses</i>, and other annals, +which are published in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>. +<i>Scriptores</i>, Band i. and ii., edited by G.H. Pertz +(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892). +For the capitularies see <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>, +edited by A. Boretius in the <i>Monumenta. Leges</i>. +Many of the songs of the period appear in the <i>Poetae Latini +aevi Carolini</i>, edited by E. Dümmler (Berlin, 1881-1884). The +<i>Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum</i>, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffé +(Berlin, 1864-1873), contains some of the emperor’s correspondence, +and Hincmar’s <i>De ordine palatii</i>, edited by M. Prou +(Paris, 1884), is also valuable.</p> + +<p>The best modern authorities are S. Abel and B. Simson, <i>Jahrbücher +des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen</i> (Leipzig, 1883-1888); +G. Richter and H. Kohl, <i>Annalen des fränkischen Reichs im Zeitalter +der Karolinger</i> (Halle, 1885-1887); +E. Mühlbacher, <i>Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern</i> +(Stuttgart, 1886); +H. Brosien, <i>Karl der Grosse</i> (Leipzig and Prague, 1885); +J.I. Mombert, <i>History of Charles the Great</i> (London, 1888); +M. Lipp, <i>Das fränkische Grenzsystem unter Karl dem Grossen</i> +(Breslau, 1892); +J. von Döllinger, <i>Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen +und seiner Nachfolger</i> (Munich, 1864); +F. von Wyss, <i>Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber</i> (Zürich, 1869); +Th. Sickel, <i>Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger</i> +(Vienna, 1867); +E. Dümmler in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, Band xv.; +Th. Lindner, <i>Die Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen</i> +(Aix-la-Chapelle, 1893); +J.A. Ketterer, <i>Karl der Grosse und die Kirche</i> +(Munich and Leipzig, 1898); +and J.B. Mullinger, <i>The Schools of Charles the Great and the +Restoration of Education in the 9th century</i> (London, 1877).</p> + +<p>The work of the monk of St Gall is found in the <i>Monumenta</i>, Band +ii.; an edition of the <i>Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi</i>, +edited by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition +of the <i>Kaiserchronik</i>, edited by E. Schröder (Hanover, 1892). +See also P. Clemen, <i>Die Porträtdarstellung Karls des Grossen</i> +(Aix-la-Chapelle, 1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">The Charlemagne Legends</p> + +<p>Innumerable legends soon gathered round the memory of the +great emperor. He was represented as a warrior performing +superhuman feats, as a ruler dispensing perfect justice, and even +as a martyr suffering for the faith. It was confidently believed +towards the close of the 10th century that he had made a +pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and, like many other great rulers, it +was reported that he was only sleeping to awake in the hour of +his country’s need. We know from Einhard (<i>Vita Karoli</i>, cap. +xxix.) that the Frankish heroic ballads were drawn up in writing +by Charlemagne’s order, and it may be accepted as certain +that he was himself the subject of many such during his lifetime. +The legendary element crept even into the Latin panegyrics +produced by the court poets. Before the end of the 9th century +a monk of St Gall drew up a chronicle <i>De gestis Karoli Magni</i>, +which was based partly on oral tradition, received from an old +soldier named Adalbert, who had served in Charlemagne’s +army. This recital contains various fabulous incidents. The +author relates a conversation between Otkar the Frank (Ogier +the Dane) and the Lombard king Desiderius (Didier) on the walls +of Pavia in view of Charlemagne’s advancing army. To Didier’s +repeated question “Is this the emperor?” Otkar continues +to answer “Not yet,” adding at last “When thou shalt see +the fields bristling with an iron harvest, and the Po and the +Ticino swollen with sea-floods, inundating the walls of the city +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span> +with iron billows, then shall Karl be nigh at hand.” This episode, +which bears the marks of popular heroic poetry, may well be the +substance of a lost Carolingian <i>cantilena</i>.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>The legendary Charlemagne and his warriors were endowed +with the great deeds of earlier kings and heroes of the Frankish +kingdom, for the romancers were not troubled by considerations +of chronology. National traditions extending over centuries were +grouped round Charlemagne, his father Pippin, and his son Louis. +The history of Charles Martel especially was absorbed in the +Charlemagne legend. But if Charles’s name was associated +with the heroism of his predecessors he was credited with equal +readiness with the weaknesses of his successors. In the earlier +<i>chansons de geste</i> he is invariably a majestic figure and represents +within limitations the grandeur of the historic Charles. But in +the histories of the wars with his vassals he is often little more +than a tyrannical dotard, who is made to submit to gross insult. +This picture of affairs is drawn from later times, and the sympathies +of the poet are generally with the rebels against the +monarchy. Historical tradition was already dim when the +hypothetical and much discussed <i>cantilenae</i>, which may be taken +to have formed the repository of the national legends from the +8th to the 10th century, were succeeded in the 11th and the +early l2th centuries by the <i>chansons de geste</i>. The early poems +of the cycle sometimes contain curious information on the +Frankish methods in war, in council and in judicial procedure, +which had no parallels in contemporary institutions. The account +in the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> of the trial of Ganelon after the +battle of Roncesvalles must have been adopted almost intact from +earlier poets, and provides a striking example of the value of the +<i>chansons de geste</i> to the historian of manners and customs. +In general, however, the trouvère depicted the feeling and +manners of his own time.</p> + +<p>Charlemagne’s wars in Italy, Spain and Saxony formed part +of the common epic material, and there are references to his +wars against the Slavs; but especially he remained in the popular +mind as the great champion of Christianity against the creed +of Mahomet, and even his Norman and Saxon enemies became +Saracens in current legend. He is the Christian emperor directly +inspired by angels; his sword Joyeuse contained the point +of the lance used in the Passion; his standard was Romaine, the +banner of St Peter, which, as the oriflamme of Saint Denis, was +later to be borne in battle before the kings of France; and in +1164 Charles was canonized at the desire of the emperor Frederick +I. Barbarossa by the anti-pope Pascal III. This gave him no +real claim to saintship, but his festival was observed in some +places until comparatively recent times. Charlemagne was +endowed with the good and bad qualities of the epic king, and +as in the case of Agamemnon and Arthur, his exploits paled +beside those of his chief warriors. These were not originally +known as the twelve peers<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> famous in later Carolingian romance. +The twelve peers were in the first instance the companions in +arms of Roland in the Teutonic sense.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The idea of the paladins +forming an association corresponding to the Arthurian Round +Table first appears in the romance of <i>Fierabras</i>. The lists of +them are very various, but all include the names of Roland and +Oliver. The chief heroes who fought Charlemagne’s battles +were Roland; Ganelon, afterwards the traitor; Turpin, the +fighting archbishop of Reims; Duke Naimes of Bavaria, the +wise counsellor who is always on the side of justice; Ogier +the Dane, the hero of a whole series of romances; and Guillaume +of Toulouse, the defender of Narbonne. Gradually most of the +<i>chansons de geste</i> were attached to the name of Charlemagne, +whose poetical history falls into three cycles:—the <i>geste du roi</i>, +relating his wars and the personal history of himself and his +family; the southern cycle, of which Guillaume de Toulouse is +the central figure; and the feudal epic, dealing with the revolts +of the barons against the emperor, the rebels being invariably +connected by the trouverès with the family of Doon de Mayence (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The earliest poems of the cycle are naturally the closest to +historical truth. The central point of the <i>geste du roi</i> is the +11th-century <i>Chanson de Roland</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland, Legend of</a></span>), one of +the greatest of medieval poems. Strangely enough the defeat +of Roncesvalles, which so deeply impressed the popular mind, +has not a corresponding importance in real history. But it +chanced to find as its exponent a poet whose genius established +a model for his successors, and definitely fixed the type of later +heroic poems. The other early <i>chansons</i> to which reference is +made in <i>Roland—Aspremont, Enfances Ogier, Guiteclin, Balan</i>, +relating to Charlemagne’s wars in Italy and Saxony—are not +preserved in their original form, and only the first in an early +recension. <i>Basin</i> or <i>Carl el Élégast</i> (preserved in Dutch and +Icelandic), the <i>Voyage de Charlemagne à Jerusalem</i> and <i>Le +Couronnement Looys</i> also belong to the heroic period. The purely +fictitious and romantic tales added to the personal history of +Charlemagne and his warriors in the 13th century are inferior +in manner, and belong to the decadence of romance. The old +tales, very much distorted in the 15th-century prose versions, +were to undergo still further degradation in 18th-century compilations.</p> + +<p>According to <i>Berte aus grans piés</i>, in the 13th-century +<i>remaniement</i> of the Brabantine trouvère Adenès li Rois, Charlemagne +was the son of Pippin and of Berte, the daughter of Flore and +Blanchefleur, king and queen of Hungary. The tale bears marks +of high antiquity, and presents one of the few incidents in the +French cycle which may be referred to a mythic origin. On the +night of Berte’s marriage a slave, Margiste, is substituted for +her, and reigns in her place for nine years, at the expiration of +which Blanchefleur exposes the deception; whereupon Berte is +restored from her refuge in the forest to her rightful place as +queen. <i>Mainet</i> (12th century) and the kindred poems in German +and Italian are perhaps based on the adventures of Charles +Martel, who after his father’s death had to flee to the Ardennes. +They relate that, after the death of his parents, Charles was +driven by the machinations of the two sons of Margiste to take +refuge in Spain, where he accomplished his <i>enfances</i> (youthful +exploits) with the Mussulman king Galafre under the feigned +name of Mainet. He delivered Rome from the besieging Saracens, +and returned to France in triumph. But his wife Galienne, +daughter of Galafre, whom he had converted to the Christian +faith, died on her way to rejoin him. Charlemagne then made +an expedition to Italy (<i>Enfances Ogier</i> in the Venetian +<i>Charlemagne</i>, and the first part of the <i>Chevalerie Ogier de +Dannemarche</i> by Raimbert of Paris, 12th century) to raise the siege +of Rome, which was besieged by the Saracen emir Corsuble. He crossed +the Alps under the guidance of a white hart, miraculously sent +to assist the passage of the army. <i>Aspremont</i> (12th century) +describes a fictitious campaign against the Saracen King Agolant +in Calabria, and is chiefly devoted to the <i>enfances</i> of Roland. +The wars of Charlemagne with his vassals are described in +<i>Girart de Roussillon, Renaus de Montauban</i>, recounting the deeds +of the four sons of Aymon, <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i>, and in the latter +part of the <i>Chevalerie Ogier</i>, which belong properly to the cycle +connected with Doon of Mayence.</p> + +<p>The account of the pilgrimage of Charlemagne and his twelve +paladins to the Holy Sepulchre must in its first form have been +earlier than the Crusades, as the patriarch asks the emperor to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span> +free Spain, not the Holy Land, from the Saracens. The legend +probably originated in a desire to authenticate the relics in the +abbey of Saint Denis, supposed to have been brought to Aix by +Charlemagne, and is preserved in a 12th-century romance, <i>Le +Voyage de Charlemagne à Jerusalem et à Constantinople</i>.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> This +journey forms the subject of a window in the cathedral of +Chartres, and there was originally a similar one at Saint-Denis. +On the way home Charles and his paladins visited the emperor +Hugon at Constantinople, where they indulged in a series of +<i>gabs</i> which they were made to carry out. <i>Galien</i>, a favourite +15th-century romance, was attached to this episode, for Galien +was the son of the amours of Oliver with Jacqueline, Hugon’s +daughter. The traditions of Charlemagne’s fights with the +Norsemen (Norois, Noreins) are preserved in <i>Aiquin</i> (12th +century), which describes the emperor’s reconquest of Armorica +from the “Saracen” king Aiquin, and a disaster at Cézembre +as terrible in its way as those of Roncesvalles and Aliscans. <i>La +destruction de Rome</i> is a 13th-century version of the older <i>chanson</i> +of the emir Balan, who collected an army in Spain and sailed to +Rome. The defenders were overpowered and the city destroyed +before the advent of Charlemagne, who, however, avenged the +disaster by a great battle in Spain. The romance of <i>Fierabras</i> +(13th century) was one of the most popular in the 15th century, +and by later additions came to have pretensions to be a complete +history of Charlemagne. The first part represents an episode +in Spain three years before Roncesvalles, in which Oliver defeats +the Saracen giant Fierabras in single combat, and converts him. +The hero of the second part is Gui de Bourgogne, who recovers +the relics of the Passion, lost in the siege of Rome. <i>Otinel</i> (13th +century) is also pure fiction. <i>L’Entrée en Espagne</i>, preserved in +a 14th-century Italian compilation, relates the beginning of the +Spanish War, the siege of Pampeluna, and the legendary combat +of Roland with Ferragus. Charlemagne’s march on Saragossa, +and the capture of Huesca, Barcelona and Girone, gave rise to +<i>La Prise de Pampelune</i> (14th century, based on a lost <i>chanson</i>); +and <i>Gui de Bourgogne</i> (12th century) tells how the children of the +barons, after appointing Guy as king of France, set out to find +and rescue their fathers, who are represented as having been +fighting in Spain for twenty-seven years. The <i>Chanson de Roland</i> +relates the historic defeat of Roncesvalles on the 15th of August +778, and forms the very crown of the whole Carolingian legend. +The two 13th-century romances, <i>Gaidon</i>, by Herbert Leduc +de Dammartin, and <i>Anséis de Carthage</i>, contain a purely fictitious +account of the end of the war in Spain, and of the establishment +of a Frankish kingdom under the rule of Anséis. Charlemagne +was recalled from Spain by the news of the outbreak of the +Saxons. The contest between Charlemagne and Widukind +(<i>Guiteclin</i>) offered abundant epic material. Unfortunately the +original <i>Guiteclin</i> is lost, but the legend is preserved in <i>Les +Saisnes</i> (c. 1300) of Jehan Bodel, which is largely occupied by +the loves of Baudouin and Sibille, the wife of Guiteclin. The +adventures of Blanchefleur, wife of Charlemagne, form a variation +of the common tale of the innocent wife falsely accused, and are told +in <i>Macaire</i> and in the extant fragments of <i>La Reine Sibille</i> +(14th century). After the conquest of the Saracens and the +Saxons, the defeat of the Northmen, and the suppression of the +feudal revolts, the emperor abdicated in favour of his son Louis +(<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i>, 12th century). Charles’s harangue to his +son is in the best tradition of epic romance. The memory of +Roncesvalles haunts him on his death-bed, and at the moment +of death he has a vision of Roland.</p> + +<p>The mythic element is practically lacking in the French +legends, but in Germany some part of the Odin myth was +associated with Charles’s name. The constellation of the Great +Bear, generally associated with Odin, is Karlswagen in German, +and Charles’s Wain in English. According to tradition in Hesse, +he awaits resurrection, probably symbolic of the triumph of the +sun over winter, within the Gudensberg (Hill of Odin). Bavarian +tradition asserts that he is seated in the Untersberg in a chair, +as in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle. His white beard goes on growing, +and when it has thrice encircled the stone table before him +the end of the world will come; or, according to another version, +Charles will arise and after fighting a great battle on the plain +of Wals will reign over a new Germany. There were medieval +chroniclers who did not fear to assert that Charles rose from +the dead to take part in the Crusades. In the MS. <i>Annales S. +Stephani Frisingenses</i> (15th century), which formerly belonged +to the abbey of Weihenstephan, and is now at Munich, the +childhood of Charlemagne is practically the same as that of many +mythic heroes. This work, generally known as the chronicle +of Weihenstephan, gives among other legends a curious history +of the emperor’s passion for a dead woman, caused by a charm +given to Charles by a serpent to whom he had rendered justice. +The charm was finally dropped into a well at Aix, which +thenceforward became Charles’s favourite residence. The story of +Roland’s birth from the union of Charles with his sister Gilles, +also found in German and Scandinavian versions, has abundant +parallels in mythology, and was probably transferred from +mythology to Charlemagne.</p> + +<p>The Latin chronicle, wrongly ascribed to Turpin (Tilpinus), +bishop of Reims from 753 to 800, was in reality later than +the earlier poems of the French cycle, and the first properly +authenticated mention of it is in 1165. Its primary object +was to authenticate the relics of St James at Compostella. +Alberic Trium Fontium, a monk of the Cistercian monastery of +Trois Fontanes in the diocese of Châlons, embodied much +poetical fiction in his chronicle (c. 1249). A large section of the +<i>Chronique rimée</i> (c. 1243) of Philippe Mousket is devoted to +Charlemagne’s exploits. At the beginning of the 14th century +Girard of Amiens made a dull compilation known as <i>Charlemagne</i> +from the <i>chansons de gests</i>, authentic history and the pseudo-Turpin. +<i>La Conqueste que fit le grand roi Charlemaigne es Espaignes</i> +(pr. 1486) is the same work as the prose compilation of <i>Fierabras</i> +(pr. 1478), and Caxton’s <i>Lyf of Charles the Grete</i> (1485).</p> + +<p>The Charlemagne legend was fully developed in Italy, where it +was to have later a great poetic development at the hands of +Boiardo, Ariosto and Tasso. There are two important Italian +compilations, MS. XIII. of the library of St Mark, Venice +(c. 1200), and the <i>Reali di Francia</i> (c. 1400) of a Florentine +writer, Andrea da Barberino (b. 1370), edited by G. Vandelli +(Bologna, 1892). The six books of this work are rivalled in +importance by the ten branches of the Norse <i>Karlamagnus saga</i>, +written under the reign of Haakon V. This forms a consecutive +legendary history of Charles, and is apparently based on earlier +versions of the French Charlemagne poems than those which +we possess. It thus furnishes a guide to the older forms of +stories, and moreover preserves the substance of others which +have not survived in their French form. A popular abridgment, +the <i>Keiser Karl Magnus Krönike</i> (pr. Malmõ, 1534), drawn up +in Danish, serves in some cases to complete the earlier work. +The 2000 lines of the German <i>Kaiserchronik</i> on the history of +Charlemagne belong to the first half of the 12th century, and +were perhaps the work of Conrad, the poet of the <i>Ruolantes +Liet</i>. The German poet known as the Stricker used the +same sources as the author of the chronicle of Weihenstephan +for his <i>Karl</i> (c. 1230). The earliest important Spanish +version was the <i>Chronica Hispaniae</i> (c. 1284) of Rodrigo de +Toledo.</p> + +<p>The French and Norman-French chansons circulated as freely +in England as in France, and it was therefore not until the period +of decadence that English versions were made. The English +metrical romances of Charlemagne are:—<i>Rowlandes Song</i> (15th +century); <i>The Taill of Rauf Coilyear</i> (c. 1475, pr. by R. +Lekpreuik, St Andrews, 1472), apparently original; <i>Sir Ferumbras</i> +(c. 1380) and the <i>Sowdone of Babylone</i> (c. 1400) from an early +version of <i>Fierabras</i>; a fragmentary <i>Roland and Vernagu</i> +(Ferragus); two versions of <i>Otuel</i> (Otinel); and a <i>Sege of +Melayne</i> (c. 1390), forming a prologue to Otinel unknown in French.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span> </p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The most important works on the Charlemagne +cycle of romance are:—G. Paris, <i>Hist. poétique de Charlemagne</i> +(Paris, 1865; reprint, with additional notes by Paris and P. Meyer, 1905); +L. Gautier, <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (Paris, 4 vols. new ed., +1878, 1892, 1880, 1882) and the supplementary <i>Bibliographie des +chansons de geste</i> (1897). The third volume of the <i>Épopées françaises</i> +contains an analysis and full particulars of the <i>chansons de geste</i> +immediately connected with the history of Charlemagne. See also +G. Rauschen, <i>Die Legende Karls des Grossen im 11ten und 12ten +Jahrhundert</i> (Leipzig, 1890); Kristoffer Nyrop, <i>Den oldfranske +Heldedigtning</i> (Copenhagen, 1883; Ital. trans. Turin, 1886); +Pio Rajna, <i>Le Origini dell’ epopea francese</i> (Florence, 1884); +G.T. Graesse, “Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters,” in his +<i>Litterärgeschichte</i> (Dresden, 1842); +<i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852); +H.L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of Romances in the Dept. of MSS. +in the British Museum</i> (1883), vol. i. pp. 546-689; E. Muntz, +<i>La Légende de Charlemagne dans l’art du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1885); +and for the German legend, vol. iii. of H.F. Massmann’s edition of the +<i>Kaiserchronik</i> (Quedlinburg, 1849-1854). +<i>The English Charlemagne Romances</i> were edited (extra series) for the +Early Eng. Text Soc. by Sidney J. Herrtage, Emil Hausknecht, Octavia +Richardson and Sidney Lee (1879-1881), the romance of <i>Duke Huon of +Bordeaux</i> containing a general account of the cycle by Sidney Lee; +the <i>Karlamagnussaga</i>, by C.R. Unger (Christiania, 1860), see also +G. Paris in <i>Bibl. de l’École des Charles</i> (1864-1865). For individual +<i>chansons</i> see <i>Anséis de Carthage</i>, ed. J. Alton (Tubingen, 1892); +<i>Aiquin</i>, ed. F. Jouon des Longrais (Nantes, 1880); +<i>Aspremont</i>, ed. F. Guessard and L. Gautier (Paris, 1885); <i>Basin</i>, +or <i>Charles et Élégast</i> or <i>Le Couronnement de Charles</i>, preserved +only in foreign versions (see Paris, <i>Hist. Poét.</i> pp. 315, seq.); +<i>Berta de li gran pié</i>, ed. A. Mussafia, in <i>Romania</i> +(vols. iii. and iv., 1874-1875); +<i>Berte aus grans piés</i>, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874); +<i>Charlemagne</i>, by Girard d’Amiens, detailed analysis in Paris, +<i>Hist. Poét.</i> (Appendix iv.); +<i>Couronnement Looys</i>, ed. E. Langlois (Le Puy, 1888); +<i>Désier</i> (Desiderius or Didier), lost songs of the wars of Lombardy, +some fragments of which are preserved in <i>Ogier le Danois; Destruction de +Rome</i>, ed. G. Gröber in <i>Romania</i>(1873); +A. Thomas, <i>Nouvelles recherches sur “l’entrée de Spagne</i>,” +in <i>Bibl. des écoles françaises de Rome</i> (Paris, 1882); +<i>Fierabras</i>, ed. A. Kröber and G. Servois (Paris, 1860) +in <i>Anciens poètes de la France</i>, and Provençal text, ed. I. Bekker +(Berlin, 1829); +<i>Galien</i>, ed. E. Stengel and K. Pfeil (Marburg, 1890); +<i>Gaydon</i>, ed. F. Guessard and S. Luce (<i>Anciens poètes</i> ... 1862); +<i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, ed. F. Guessard and H. Michelant (same series, 1859); +<i>Mainet</i> (fragments only extant), ed. G. Paris, in <i>Romania</i> (1875); +<i>Otinel</i>, ed Guessard and Michelant <i>(Anciens poètes</i>, 1859), +and <i>Sir Otuel</i>, ed. S.J. Herrtage (<i>E.E.T.S.</i>, 1880); +<i>Prise de Pampelune</i> (ed. A. Mussafia, Vienna, 1864); +for the Carolingian romances relating to Roland, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland</a></span>; +<i>Les Saisnes</i>, ed. F. Michel (1839); +<i>The Sege of Melaine</i>, introductory to Otinel, preserved in English +only (ed. <i>E.E.T.S.</i>, 1880); +<i>Simon de Pouille</i>, analysis in <i>Épop. fr.</i> (iii. pp. 346 sq.); +<i>Voyage de C. à Jerusalem</i>, ed. E. Koschwitz (Heilbronn, 1879). +For the chronicle of the Pseudo-Turpin, see an edition by Castets +(Paris, 1881) for the “Société des langues romanes,” and the dissertation +by G. Paris, <i>De Pseudo-Turpino</i> (Paris, 1865). +The Spanish versions of Carolingian legends are studied by Milà y Fontanals +in <i>De la poesia heroico-popular castellana</i> (Barcelona, 1874).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A remnant of the popular poetry contemporary with Charlemagne +and written in the vernacular has been thought to be discernible +under its Latin translation in the description of a siege +during Charlemagne’s war against the Saracens, known as the +“Fragment from the Hague” (Pertz, <i>Script.</i> iii. pp. 708-710).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The words <i>douze pairs</i> were anglicized in a variety of forms +ranging from douzepers to dosepers. The word even occurred as a +singular in the metrical romance of <i>Octavian</i>:—“Ferst they sent +out a doseper.” At the beginning of the 13th century there existed a +<i>cour des pairs</i> which exercised judicial functions and dated possibly +from the 11th century, but their prerogatives at the beginning of the +14th century appear to have been mainly ceremonial and decorative. +In 1257 the twelve peers were the chiefs of the great feudal provinces, +the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy and Aquitaine, the counts of +Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders, and six spiritual peers, the +archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Laon, Châlons-sur-Marne, +Beauvais, Langres and Noyon. (See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> “Par.”).</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See J. Flach, <i>Le Compagnonnage dans les chansons de geste</i> (Paris, 1891).</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For clerical accounts of Charles’s voyage to the Holy Land see the +<i>Chronicon</i> (c. 968) of Benedict, a monk of St André, and +<i>Descriptio qualiter Karolus Magnus clavum et coronam Domini ... +detulerit</i>, by an 11th-century writer.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1753-1838), French +dramatic author, was born at Bourget (Seine) on the 30th of +November 1753. Originally intended for the church, he turned +first to being a lawyer’s clerk and then a soldier. He served in +the American War of Independence, and on returning to France +(1783) began to employ his pen on economic subjects, and later +in writing for the stage. He became the author of a large number +of plays, poems and romances, among which may be mentioned +the comedies <i>M. de Crac à Paris</i> (1793), <i>Le Souper des Jacobins</i> +(1795)and <i>L’Agioteur</i> (1796) and <i>Observations de quelques patriotes +sur la nécessité de conserver les monuments de la littérature et des +arts</i> (1794), an essay written in collaboration with M.M. Chardin +and Renouard, which induced the Convention to protect books +adorned with the coats of arms of their former owners and other +treasures from destruction at the hands of the revolutionists. +He died in Paris on the 6th of March 1838.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1728-1799), +Irish statesman, son of the 3rd viscount Charlemont, was +born in Dublin on the 18th of August 1728, and succeeded his +father as 4th viscount in 1734. The title of Charlemont descended +from Sir Toby Caulfeild (1565-1627) of Oxfordshire, England, +who was given lands in Ireland, and created Baron Charlemont +(the name of a fort on the Blackwater), for his services to King +James I. in 1620, and the 1st viscount was the 5th baron (d. 1671), +who was advanced by Charles II. Lord Charlemont is historically +interesting for his political connexion with Flood and Grattan; +he was a cultivated man with literary and artistic tastes, and both +in Dublin and in London his amiable character gave him considerable +social influence. For various early services in Ireland +he was made an earl in 1763, but he disregarded court favours and +cordially joined Grattan in 1780 in the assertion of Irish +independence. He was president of the volunteer convention in +Dublin in November 1783, having taken from the first a leading +part in the embodiment of the volunteers; and he was a strong +opponent of the proposals for the Union. He died on the 4th of +August 1799; his eldest son, who succeeded him, being subsequently +(1837) created an English baron.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Life</i>, by F. Hardy, appeared in 1810.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEROI<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (<i>Carolus Rex</i>), a town in the province of Hainaut, +Belgium. Pop. (1904) 26,528. It was founded in 1666 on the +site of a village called Charnoy by the Spanish governor Roderigo +and named after his sovereign Charles II. of Spain. Charleroi +is the centre of the iron industry of Belgium. It is connected by +a canal with Brussels, and from its position on the Sambre enjoys +facilities of communication by water with France as well as +Belgium. It was ceded soon after its foundation to France by +the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and Vauban fortified it. During +the French occupation the town was considerably extended, and +the fortifications were made so strong that Charleroi twice +successfully resisted the strenuous attacks of William of Orange. +In 1794 Charleroi again fell into the hands of the French, and on +this occasion instead of fortifying they dismantled it. In 1816 +Charleroi was refortified under Wellington’s direction, and it was +finally dismantled in 1859. Some portions of the old ramparts +are left near the railway station. There is an archaeological +museum with a miscellaneous collection of Roman and Frank antiquities.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEROI,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a borough of Washington county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, near the S.W. corner of the +state, about 20 m. S. of Pittsburgh. Pop. (1900) 5930, (1749 +foreign-born); (1910) 9615. It is served by the Pennsylvania +railway. The surrounding country has good farming land and +large coal mines. In 1905 the borough ranked fifth among the +cities of the United States in the manufacture of glass +(plate-glass, lamp chimneys and bottles), its product (valued at +$1,841,308) being 2.3% of that of the whole country. Charleroi +was settled in 1890 and was incorporated in 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Charles</i>; Span. <i>Carlos</i>; Ital. <i>Carlo</i>; +Ger. <i>Karl</i>; derived from O.H.G. <i>Charal</i>, latinized as +<i>Carolus</i>, meaning originally “man”: cf. Mod. Ger., <i>Kerl</i>, +“fellow,” A.S. <i>ceorl</i>, Mod. Eng. “churl”), a masculine proper name. +It has been borne by many European princes, notices of the more important +of whom are given below in the following order: (1) Roman emperors, +(2) kings of England, (3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their +states, (4) other reigning princes in the same order, +(5) non-reigning princes. Those princes who are known by a name in +addition to Charles (Charles Albert, &c.) will be found after the +private individuals bearing Charles as a surname.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> called <span class="sc">The Bald</span> (823-877), Roman emperor +and king of the West Franks, was the son of the emperor Louis +the Pious and of his second wife Judith and was born in 823. +The attempts made by his father to assign him a kingdom, first +Alamannia (829), then the country between the Meuse and the +Pyrenees (839), at the expense of his half-brothers Lothair and Louis +led to a rising on the part of these two (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louis I.</a></span>, the Pious). +The death of the emperor in 840 was the signal for the outbreak +of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his brother +Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the emperor Lothair, +and the two allies conquered him in the bloody victory of +Fontenoy-en-Puisaye (25 June 841). In the following year, the two brothers +confirmed their alliance by the celebrated oaths of Strassburg, +made by Charles in the Teutonic language spoken by the subjects +of Louis, and by Louis in the Romance tongue of Charles’s +subjects. The war was brought to an end by the treaty of +Verdun (August 843), which gave to Charles the Bald the kingdom +of the western Franks, which practically corresponded with what +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span> +is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Saône and the Rhone, +with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the Ebro. The +first years of his reign up to the death of Lothair I. (855) were +comparatively peaceful, and during them was continued the +system of “confraternal government” of the sons of Louis the +Pious, who had various meetings with one another, at Coblenz +(848), at Meersen (851), and at Attigny (854). In 858 Louis the +German, summoned by the disaffected nobles, invaded the kingdom +of Charles, who fled to Burgundy, and was only saved by +the help of the bishops, and by the fidelity of the family of the +Welfs, who were related to Judith. In 860 he in his turn tried to +seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of Provence, but met +with a repulse. On the death of Lothair II. in 869 he tried to +seize his dominions, but by the treaty of Mersen (870) was compelled +to share them with Louis the German. Besides this, +Charles had to struggle against the incessant rebellions in Aquitaine, +against the Bretons, whose revolt was led by their chief +Nomenoé and Erispoé, and who inflicted on the king the defeats +of Ballon (845) and Juvardeil (851), and especially against the +Normans, who devastated the country in the north of Gaul, the +valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to the borders of +Aquitaine. Charles was several times compelled to purchase +their retreat at a heavy price. He has been accused of being +incapable of resisting them, but we must take into account the +unwillingness of the nobles, who continually refused to join the +royal army; moreover, the Frankish army does not seem to have +been sufficiently accustomed to war to make any headway against +the pirates. At any rate, Charles led various expeditions against +the invaders, and tried to put a barrier in their way by having +fortified bridges built over all the rivers. In 875, after the death +of the emperor Louis II., Charles the Bald, supported by Pope +John VIII., descended into Italy, receiving the royal crown at +Pavia and the imperial crown at Rome (29th December). But +Louis the German, who was also a candidate for the succession of +Louis II., revenged himself for Charles’s success by invading and +devastating his dominions. Charles was recalled to Gaul, and +after the death of Louis the German (28th August 876), in his +turn made an attempt to seize his kingdom, but at Andernach +met with a shameful defeat (8th October 876). In the meantime, +John VIII., who was menaced by the Saracens, was continually +urging him to come to Italy, and Charles, after having taken at +Quierzy the necessary measures for safeguarding the government +of his dominions in his absence, again crossed the Alps, but +this expedition had been received with small enthusiasm by the +nobles, and even by Boso, Charles’s brother-in-law, who had been +entrusted by him with the government of Lombardy, and they +refused to come with their men to join the imperial army. At +the same time Carlo man, son of Louis the German, entered +northern Italy. Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his +way back to Gaul, and died while crossing the pass of the Mont +Cenis on the 5th or 6th of October 877. He was succeeded by his +son Louis the Stammerer, the child of Ermentrude, daughter of a +count of Orleans, whom he had married in 842, and who had died in +869. In 870 he had married Richilde, who was descended from a +noble family of Lorraine, but none of the children whom he had by +her played a part of any importance. Charles seems to have been +a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and +conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against +his unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors for preference +from among the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens, +who betrayed him, or of Hincmar of Reims. But his character +and his reign have been judged very variously. The general +tendency seems to have been to accept too easily the accounts +of the chroniclers of the east Frankish kingdom, which are +favourable to Louis the German, and to accuse Charles of +cowardice and bad faith. He seems on the contrary not to have +lacked activity or decision.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The most important authority for the history +of Charles’s reign is represented by the <i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, which +were the work of Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, up to 861, then up +to 882 of the celebrated Hincmar, archbishop of Reims. This +prince’s charters are to be found published in the collections of the +<i>Académie des Inscriptions</i>, by M.M. Prou. The most complete +history of the reign is found in E. Dümmler, <i>Geschichte des ostfrankischen +Reiches</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1887-1888). See also J. Calmette, +<i>La Diplomatie carolingienne du traité de Verdun à la mort de +Charles le Chauve</i> (Paris, 1901), and F. Lot, “Une Année du règne de +Charles le Chauve,” in <i>Le Moyen-Âge</i>, (1902) pp. 393-438.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Charles I., Roman emperor, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>; cf. under +Charles I. of France below.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> <span class="sc">The Fat</span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (832-888), Roman emperor and king +of the West Franks, was the youngest of the three sons of Louis +the German, and received from his father the kingdom of Swabia +(Alamannia). After the death of his two brothers in succession, +Carloman (881) and Louis the Young (882), he inherited the whole +of his father’s dominions. In 880 he had helped his two cousins +in the west Frankish realm, Louis III. and Carloman, in their +struggle with the usurper Boso of Provence, but abandoned +them during the campaign in order to be crowned emperor at +Rome by Pope John VIII. (February 881). On his return he led +an expedition against the Norsemen of Friesland, who were +entrenched in their camp at Elsloo, but instead of engaging with +them he preferred to make terms and paid them tribute. In 884 the +death of Carloman brought into his possession the west Frankish +realm, and in 885 he got rid of his rival Hugh of Alsace, an +illegitimate son of Lothair II., taking him prisoner by treachery +and putting out his eyes. However, in spite of his six expeditions +into Italy, he did not succeed in pacifying the country, nor in +delivering it from the Saracens. He was equally unfortunate in +Gaul and in Germany against the Norsemen, who in 886-887 +besieged Paris. The emperor appeared before the city with a +large army (October 886), but contented himself by treating with +them, buying the retreat of the invaders at the price of a heavy +ransom, and his permission for them to ravage Burgundy without +his interfering. On his return to Alamannia, however, the general +discontent showed itself openly and a conspiracy was formed +against him. He was first forced to dismiss his favourite, the +chancellor Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. The dissolution of his +marriage with the pious empress Richarde, in spite of her innocence +as proved by the judicial examination, alienated his nobles +still more from him. He was deposed by an assembly which met +at Frankfort or at Tribur (November 887), and died in poverty +at Neidingen on the Danube (18th January 888).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Dümmler, <i>Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches</i> vol. iii. +(Leipzig 1888).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This surname has only been applied to Charles since the 13th +century.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1316-1378), Roman emperor and king of +Bohemia, was the eldest son of John of Luxemburg, king of +Bohemia, and Elizabeth, sister of Wenceslas III., the last +Bohemian king of the Premyslides dynasty. He was born at +Prague on the 14th of May 1316, and in 1323 went to the court +of his uncle, Charles IV., king of France, and exchanged his +baptismal name of Wenceslas for that of Charles. He remained +for seven years in France, where he was well educated and learnt +five languages; and there he married Blanche, sister of King +Philip VI., the successor of Charles IV. In 1331 he gained some +experience of warfare in Italy with his father; and on his return +to Bohemia in 1333 he was made margrave of Moravia. Three +years later he undertook the government of Tirol on behalf of his +brother John Henry, and was soon actively concerned in a +struggle for the possession of this county. In consequence of an +alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI., the relentless +enemy of the emperor Louis IV., Charles was chosen German king +in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rense on the +11th of July 1346. As he had previously promised to be subservient +to Clement he made extensive concessions to the pope +in 1347. Confirming the papacy in the possession of wide +territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against +Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend and +protect the church. Meanwhile he had accompanied his father +into France and had taken part in the battle of Crecy in August +1346, when John was killed and Charles escaped wounded from +the field. As king of Bohemia he returned to Germany, and +after being crowned German king at Bonn on the 26th of +November 1346, prepared to attack Louis. Hostilities were +interrupted by the death of the emperor in October 1347, and +Günther, count of Schwarzburg, who was chosen king by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span> +partisans of Louis, soon abandoned the struggle. Charles, +having made good use of the difficulties of his opponents, was +recrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1349, and was +soon the undisputed ruler of Germany. Gifts or promises had +won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a marriage +alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and that of +Rudolph II., count palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when +Charles, who had become a widower in 1348, married his daughter +Anna.</p> + +<p>In 1350 the king was visited at Prague by Cola di Rienzi, who +urged him to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the +citizens of Florence also implored his presence. Turning a deaf +ear to these entreaties, Charles kept Rienzi in prison for a year, +and then handed him as a prisoner to Clement at Avignon. +Four years later, however, he crossed the Alps without an army, +received the Lombard crown at Milan on the 6th of January +1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on the +5th of April in the same year. His sole object appears to have +been to obtain the imperial crown in peace, and in accordance +with a promise previously made to Pope Clement he only remained +in the city for a few hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the +Romans. Having virtually abandoned all the imperial rights +in Italy, the emperor recrossed the Alps, pursued by the scornful +words of Petrarch but laden with considerable wealth. On his +return Charles was occupied with the administration of Germany, +then just recovering from the Black Death, and in 1356 he +promulgated the Golden Bull (<i>q.v.</i>) to regulate the election of +the king. Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry, +and erected the county of Luxemburg into a duchy for another, +Wenceslas, he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other +territories as compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian +monarchy. To this end he purchased part of the upper Palatinate +of the Rhine in 1353, and in 1367 annexed Lower Lusatia to +Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various parts of +Germany. On the death in 1363 of Meinhard, duke of Upper +Bavaria and count of Tirol, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the +sons of the emperor Louis IV., and Tirol by Rudolph IV., duke +of Austria. Both claims were admitted by Charles on the +understanding that if these families died out both territories +should pass to the house of Luxemburg. About the same time +he was promised the succession to the margraviate of Brandenburg, +which he actually obtained for his son Wenceslas in 1373. +He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian territory, +partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna, daughter of +Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. In 1365 Charles visited Pope +Urban V. at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome; +and on the same occasion was crowned king of Burgundy, or +Arles, at Arles on the 4th of June 1365.</p> + +<p>His second journey to Italy took place in 1368, when he had +a meeting with Urban at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at +Siena, and left the country before the end of the year 1369. +During his later years the emperor took little part in German +affairs beyond securing the election of his son Wenceslas as king +of the Romans in 1376, and negotiating a peace between the +Swabian league and some nobles in 1378. After dividing his +lands between his three sons, he died on the 29th of November +1378 at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was +erected to his memory in 1848.</p> + +<p>Charles, who according to the emperor Maximilian I. was +the step-father of the Empire, but the father of Bohemia, brought +the latter country to a high state of prosperity. He reformed +the finances, caused roads to be made, provided for greater +security to life and property, and introduced or encouraged +various forms of industry. In 1348 he founded the university +of Prague, and afterwards made this city the seat of an archbishop, +and beautified it by the erection of several fine buildings. +He was an accomplished diplomatist, possessed a penetrating +intellect, and was capable of much trickery in order to gain his +ends. By refusing to become entangled in Italian troubles and +confining himself to Bohemia, he proved that he preferred the +substance of power to its shadow. Apparently the most pliant +of men, he had in reality great persistence of character, and if +foiled in one set of plans readily turned round and reached his +goal by a totally different path. He was superstitious and peace-loving, +had few personal wants, and is described as a round-shouldered +man of medium height, with black hair and beard, +and sallow cheeks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His autobiography the “Vita Caroli IV.,” which deals with events +down to the year 1346, and various other documents relating to his +life and times, are published in the <i>Fontes rerum Germanicarum</i>, +Band I., edited by J.F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1885). For other documents +relating to the time see <i>Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter +Kaiser Karl IV.</i>, edited by J.F. Böhmer and A. Huber (Innsbruck, +1889); <i>Acta Karoli IV. imperatoris inedita</i> (Innsbruck, 1891); +E. Werunsky, <i>Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI.</i> +(Innsbruck, 1885). See also E. Werunsky, <i>Geschichte Kaiser Karls +IV. und seiner Zeit</i> (Innsbruck, 1880-1892); H. Friedjung, +<i>Kaiser Karl IV. und sein Antheil am geistigen Leben seiner Zeit</i> +(Vienna, 1876); A. Gottlob, <i>Karls IV. private und politische Beziehungen +zu Frankreich</i> (Innsbruck, 1883); O. Winckelmann, <i>Die +Beziehungen Kaiser Karls IV. zum Königreich Arelat</i> (Strassburg, +1882); K. Palm, “Zu Karls IV. Politik gegen Baiern,” in the +<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band XV. (Göttingen, 1862-1866); +Th. Lindner, “Karl IV. und die Wittelsbacher,” and S. +Stienherz, “Die Beziehungen Ludwigs I. von Ungarn zu Karl IV.,” +and “Karl IV. und die österreichischen Freiheitsbriefe,” in the +<i>Mittheilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i> +(Innsbruck, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1500-1558), Roman emperor and (as <span class="sc">Charles I.</span>) +king of Spain, was born at Ghent on the 24th of February 1500. +His parents were Philip of Burgundy and Joanna, third child +of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip died in 1506, and Charles +succeeded to his Netherland possessions and the county of +Burgundy (Franche Comté). His grandfather, the emperor +Maximilian, as regent, appointed his daughter Margaret vice-regent, +and under her strenuous guardianship Charles lived in +the Netherlands until the estates declared him of age in 1515. +In Castile, Ferdinand, king of Aragon, acted as regent for his +daughter Joanna, whose intellect was already clouded. On the +23rd of January 1516 Ferdinand died. Charles’s visit to Spain +was delayed until the autumn of 1517, and only in 1518 was he +formally recognized as king conjointly with his mother, firstly +by the cortes of Castile, and then by those of Aragon. Joanna +lived to the very eve of her son’s abdication, so that he was only +for some months technically sole king of Spain. During this +Spanish visit Maximilian died, and Charles succeeded to the +inheritance of the Habsburgs, to which was shortly added the +duchy of Württemberg. Maximilian had also intended that he +should succeed as emperor. In spite of the formidable rivalry of +Francis I. and the opposition of Pope Leo X., pecuniary corruption +and national feeling combined to secure his election in 1519. +Charles hurriedly left Spain, and after a visit to Henry VIII. +and his aunt Catherine, was crowned at Aix on the 23rd of +October 1520.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of Charles’s reign consists in the complexity of +interests caused by the unnatural aggregate of distinct territories +and races. The crown of Castile brought with it the two recently +conquered kingdoms of Navarre and Granada, together with +the new colonies in America and scattered possessions in northern +Africa. That of Aragon comprised the three distinct states of +Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, and in addition the kingdoms +of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, each with a separate character +and constitution of its own. No less than eight independent +cortes or parliaments existed in this Spanish-Italian group, +adding greatly to the intricacy of government. In the Netherland +provinces again the tie was almost purely personal; there +existed only the rudiments of a central administration and a +common representative system, while the county of Burgundy +had a history apart. Much the same was true of the Habsburg +group of states, but Charles soon freed himself from direct +responsibility for their government by making them over, +together with Württemberg, to his brother Ferdinand. The +Empire entailed serious liabilities on its ruler without furnishing +any reliable assets: only through the cumbrous machinery of +the diet could Charles tap the military and financial resources of +Germany. His problem here was complicated by the growth of +Lutheranism, which he had to face at his very first diet in 1521. +In addition to such administrative difficulties Charles had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span> +inherited a quarrel with France, to which the rivalry of Francis I. +for the Empire gave a personal character. Almost equally +formidable was the advance of Sultan Suliman up the Danube, +and the union of the Turkish naval power with that of the +Barbary States of northern Africa. Against Lutheran Germany +the Catholic emperor might hope to rely upon the pope, and +against France on England. But the attitude of the popes was +almost uniformly disagreeable, while from Henry VIII. and +Edward VI. Charles met with more unpleasantness than favour.</p> + +<p>The difficulty of Charles himself is also that of the historian +and reader of his reign. It is probably more instructive to treat +it according to the emperor’s several problems than in strict +chronological order. Yet an attempt to distinguish the several +periods of his career may serve as a useful introduction. The two +best dividing lines are, perhaps, the coronation as emperor at +Bologna in 1530, and the peace of Crépy in 1544. Until his visit +to Italy (1529) Charles remained in the background of the +European stage, except for his momentous meeting with Luther +at the diet of Worms (1521). This meeting in itself forms a +subdivision. Previously to this, during his nominal rule in the +Netherlands, his visit to Spain, and his candidature for the +Empire, he seemed, as it was said, spell-bound under the ferule +of his minister Chièvres. Almost every report represented him +as colourless, reserved and weak. His dependence on his Flemish +counsellors provoked the rising in Castile, the feebleness of his +government the social war in Aragon. The religious question +first gave him a living interest, and at this moment Chièvres died. +Aleander, the papal nuncio at Worms, now recognized that public +opinion had been wrong in its estimate of Charles. Never again +was he under tutelage. The necessity, however, of residence in +Spain prevented his taking a personal part in the great fight with +Francis I. for Italy. He could claim no credit for the capture of +his rival at Pavia. When his army sacked Rome and held Pope +Clement VII. prisoner, he could not have known where this +army was. And when later the French overran Naples, and +all but deprived him of his hold on Italy, he had to instruct his +generals that they must shift for themselves. The world had +become afraid of him, but knew little of his character. In the +second main division of his career Charles changed all this. +No monarch until Napoleon was so widely seen in Europe and in +Africa. Complexity of problems is the characteristic of this +period. At the head of his army Charles forced the Turks backwards +down the Danube (1532). He personally conquered Tunis +(1535), and was only prevented by “act of God” from winning +Algiers (1541). The invasion of Provence in 1536 was headed by +the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of Ghent (1540). +In his last war with Francis (1542-44) he journeyed from Spain to +the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his +knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace +of Crépy (1544). In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augsburg +(1530) onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences, +which, as he hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.</p> + +<p>Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness +with Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole +energies to the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving +impossible, he led the army which received the submission of the +Lutheran states, and then captured the elector of Saxony at +Mühlberg, after which the other leader, Philip of Hesse, capitulated. +The Armed Diet of 1548 was the high-water mark of +Charles’s power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he published the +Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with the +church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses. +During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight, +his power was ebbing. In 1552 he was flying over the Brenner +from Maurice of Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had +made. Once again the old complications had arisen. His old +enemy’s son, Henry II., had attacked him indirectly in Piedmont +and Parma, and then directly in Germany in alliance with +Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and +in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight +gave Charles new spirit, and he once more led an army through +Germany against the French, only to be checked by the duke of +Guise’s defence of Metz. Henceforth the waves of his fortune +plashed to and fro until his abdication without much ostensible +loss or gain.</p> + +<p>Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius, +and he was by nature conservative. Consequently he never +sought to impose any new or common principles of administration +on his several states. He took them as he found them, and +at most, as in the Netherlands, improved upon what he found. +So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may be called +opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating +Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have +frequently repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life +laughingly denied the imputation, and facts are in favour of his +denial. When Francis I. was in his power he made no attempt to +dismember France, in spite of his pledges to his allies Henry VIII. +and the duke of Bourbon. He did, indeed, demand the duchy +of Burgundy, because he believed this to have been unrighteously +stolen by Louis XI. from his grandmother when a helpless girl. +The claim was not pressed, and at the height of his fortunes in +1548 he advised his son never to surrender it, but also never to +make it a cause of war. When Clement VII. was his prisoner, he +was vehemently urged to overthrow the temporal power, to +restore imperial dominion in Italy, at least to make the papacy +harmless for the future. In reply he restored his enemy to the +whole of his dominions, even reimposing him by force on the +Florentine republic. To the end of his life his conscience was +sensitive as to Ferdinand’s expulsion of the house of Albret from +Spanish Navarre, though this was essential to the safety of Spain. +Though always at war he was essentially a lover of peace, and all +his wars were virtually defensive. “Not greedy of territory,” +wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, “but most greedy of peace +and quiet.” For peace he made sacrifices which angered his +hot-headed brother Ferdinand. He would not aid in expelling the +sultan’s puppet Zapolya from Ferdinand’s kingdom of Hungary, +and he suffered the restoration of the ruffianly duke of Württemberg, +to the grave prejudice of German Catholicism. In spite of +his protests, Henry VIII. with impunity ill-treated his aunt +Catherine, and the feeble government of Edward VI. bullied his +cousin Mary, who had been his fiancée. No serious efforts were +made to restore his brother-in-law, Christian II., to the throne of +Denmark, and he advised his son Philip to make friends with the +usurper. After the defeat of the Lutheran powers in 1547 he did +not gain a palm’s breadth of territory for himself. He resisted +Ferdinand’s claim for Wurttemberg, which the duke had deserved +to forfeit; he disliked his acceptance of the voluntary surrender +of the city of Constance; he would not have it said that he had +gone to war for the benefit of the house of Habsburg.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Charles V.’s policy was not merely negative. +He enlarged upon the old Habsburg practice of marriage as a +means of alliance of influence. Previously to his election as +emperor, his sister Isabella was married to Christian II. of +Denmark, and the marriages of Mary and Ferdinand with the +king of Hungary and his sister had been arranged. Before he was +twenty Charles himself had been engaged some ten times with a +view to political combinations. Naturally, therefore, he regarded +his near relations as diplomatic assets. The federative system +was equally familiar; Germany, the Netherlands, and even Spain, +were in a measure federations. Combining these two principles, he +would within his more immediate spheres of influence strengthen +existing federations by intermarriage, while he hoped that the +same means would convert the jarring powers of Europe into a +happy family. He made it a condition of the treaty of Madrid +(1526) that Francis I. should marry his sister Eleanor, Manuel of +Portugal’s widow, in the hope, not that she would be an ally or a +spy within the enemy’s camp, but an instrument of peace. His +son’s marriage with Mary Tudor would not only salve the rubs +with England, but give such absolute security to the Netherlands +that France would shrink from war. The personal union of all +the Iberian kingdoms under a single ruler had long been an aim of +Spanish statecraft. So Charles had married his sister Eleanor, +much against her will, to the old king Manuel, and then his sister +Catherine to his successor. The empress was a Portuguese +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span> +infanta, and Philip’s first wife was another. It is thus small +wonder that, within a quarter of a century of Charles’s death, +Philip became king of Portugal.</p> + +<p>In the wars with Francis I. Italy was the stake. In spite of his +success Charles for long made no direct conquests. He would +convert the peninsula into a federation mainly matrimonial. +Savoy, the important buffer state, was detached from France by +the marriage of the somewhat feeble duke to Charles’s capable +and devoted sister-in-law, Beatrice of Portugal. Milan, +conquered from France, was granted to Francesco Sforza, heir +of the old dynasty, and even after his treason was restored to +him. In the vain hope of offspring Charles sacrificed his niece, +Christina of Denmark, to the valetudinarian duke. In the long +negotiations for a Habsburg-Valois dynasty which followed +Francesco’s death, Charles was probably sincere. He insisted +that his daughter or niece should marry the third rather than the +second son of Francis I., in order, apart from other reasons, to +run less risk of the duchy falling under French dominion. The +final investiture of Philip was forced upon him, and does not +represent his saner policy. The Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga +of Mantua, the papal house of Farnese, were all attached by +Habsburg marriages. The republics of Genoa and Siena were +drawn into the circle through the agency of their chief noble +families, the Doria and Piccolomini; while Charles behaved +with scrupulous moderation towards Venice in spite of her active +hostility before and after the League of Cognac. Occasional +acts of violence there were, such as the participation in the +murder of Pierluigi Farnese, and the measures which provoked +the rebellion of Siena. These were due to the difficulty of +controlling the imperial agents from a distance, and in part to +the faults of the victim prince and republic. On the whole, the +loose federation of viceroyalties and principalities harmonized +with Italian interests and traditions. The alternative was not +Italian independence, but French domination. At any rate, +Charles’s structure was so durable that the French met with no +real success in Italy until the 18th century.</p> + +<p>Germany offered a fine field for a creative intellect, since the +evils of her disintegration stood confessed. On the other hand, +princes and towns were so jealous of an increase of central +authority that Charles, at least until his victory over the League +of Schmalkalden, had little effective power. Owing to his wars +with French and Turks he was rarely in Germany, and his visits +were very short. His problem was infinitely complicated by the +union of Lutheranism and princely independence. He fell back +on the old policy of Maximilian, and strove to create a party by +personal alliances and intermarriage. In this he met with some +success. The friendship of the electors of Brandenburg, whether +Catholic or Protestant, was unbroken. In the war of Schmalkalden +half the Protestant princes were on Charles’s side or +friendly neutrals. At the critical moment which preceded this, +the lately rebellious duke of Cleves and the heir of Bavaria +were secured through the agency of two of Ferdinand’s invaluable +daughters. The relations, indeed, between the two old enemies, +Austria and Bavaria, were permanently improved. The elector +palatine, whose love affairs with his sister Eleanor Charles as a +boy had roughly broken, received in compensation a Danish +niece. Her sister, widow of Francesco Sforza, was utilized to +gain a hold upon the French dynasty which ruled Lorraine. +More than once there were proposals for winning the hostile +house of Saxony by matrimonial means. After his victory over +the League of Schmalkalden, Charles perhaps had really a chance +of making the imperial power a reality. But he lacked either +courage or imagination, contenting himself with proposals for +voluntary association on the lines of the defunct Swabian +League, and dropping even these when public opinion was against +them. Now, too, he made his great mistake in attempting to +foist Philip upon the Empire as Ferdinand’s successor. Gossip +reported that Ferdinand himself was to be set aside, and careless +historians have given currency to this. Such an idea was +impossible. Charles wished Philip to succeed Ferdinand, while he +ultimately conceded that Ferdinand’s son Maximilian should +follow Philip, and even in his lifetime exercise the practical +power in Germany. This scheme irritated Ferdinand and his +popular and ambitious son at the critical moment when it was +essential that the Habsburgs should hold together against +princely malcontents. Philip was imprudently introduced to +Germany, which had also just received a foretaste of the unpleasant +characteristics of Spanish troops. Yet the person rather +than the policy was, perhaps, at fault. It was natural that the +quasi-hereditary succession should revert to the elder line. +France proved her recuperative power by the occupation of +Savoy and of Metz, Toul and Verdun, the military keys of +Lorraine. The separation of the Empire and Spain left two +weakened powers not always at accord, and neither of them +permanently able to cope on equal terms with France. Nevertheless, +this scheme did contribute in no small measure to the +failure of Charles in Germany. The main cause was, of course, +the religious schism, but his treatment of this requires separate +consideration.</p> + +<p>The characteristics of Charles’s government, its mingled +conservatism and adaptability, are best seen in Spain and the +Netherlands, with which he was in closer personal contact than +with Italy and Germany. In Spain, when once he knew the +country, he never repeated the mistakes which on his first visit +caused the rising of the communes. The cortes of Castile were +regularly summoned, and though he would allow no encroachment +on the crown’s prerogatives, he was equally scrupulous +in respecting their constitutional rights. They became, perhaps, +during the reign slightly more dependent on the crown. This +has been ascribed to the system of gratuities which in later reigns +became a scandal, but was not introduced by Charles, and as +yet amounted to little more than the payment of members’ +expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased owing to the +greater control which had gradually been exercised over the +composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the +deputies for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to +the power and wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than +the crown had conquered the communes, and in the past they +rather than the towns had been the enemies of monarchy. He +earnestly warned his son against giving them administrative +power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his sanctimonious +and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions: +in foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was +Spain’s best soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into +collision with the nobles as a class. They usually attended only +on ceremonial occasions, since they were exempted from direct +taxation, which was the main function of the cortes. Now, +however, they were summoned, because Charles was bent upon +a scheme of indirect taxation which would have affected all +classes. They offered an uncompromising opposition, and Charles +somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon +them again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental +councils was further developed, so that it may be said that the +bureaucratic element was slightly increasing just as the parliamentary +element was on the wane. The evils of this tendency +were as yet scarcely apparent owing to Charles’s personal intervention +in all departments. The councils presented their reports +through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles heard their +advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon +Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers: +let him hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he +was well served by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed. +After the death of the Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on +Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella for Netherland and German +affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for Spanish, while the +younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to 1555 these +were the only ministers of high importance. Above all, Charles +never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised +any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret +and his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortunate. +Charles was never quite popular in Spain, but the empress +whom he married at his people’s request was much beloved. +Complaints were made of his absenteeism, but until 1543 he +spent the greater portion of his reign in Spain, or on expeditions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span> +such as those against Tunis and Algiers which were distinctively +in Spanish interests. Spaniards disliked his Netherland and +German connexions, but without the vigorous blows which these +enabled him to strike at France, it is improbable that Spain +could have retained her hold on Italy, or her monopoly of +commerce with the Indies. The wars with Francis I. were, in +spite of the rival candidature for the Empire, Spanish wars +entailed by Ferdinand’s retention of Roussillon, his annexation +of Navarre, his summary eviction of the French from Naples. +The Netherlands had become convinced on commercial grounds +of the wisdom of peace with France, and the German interest in +Milan was not sufficiently active to be a standing cause of war. +Charles and Francis had inherited the hostility of Ferdinand and +Louis XII.</p> + +<p>The reign of Charles was in America the age of conquest and +organization. Upon his accession the settlements upon the +mainland were insignificant; by 1556 conquest was practically +complete, and civil and ecclesiastical government firmly established. +Actual expansion was the work of great adventurers +starting on their own impulse from the older colonies. To +Charles fell the task of encouraging such ventures, of controlling +the conquerors, of settling the relations between colonists and +natives, which involved those between the colonists and the +missionary colonial church. He must arrest depopulation, +provide for the labour market, regulate oceanic trade, and check +military preponderance by civil and ecclesiastical organization. +In America Charles took an unceasing interest; he had a boundless +belief in its possibilities, and a determination to safeguard +the interests of the crown. Cortes, Alvarado and the brothers +Pizarro were brought into close personal communication with +the emperor. If he bestowed on Cortes the confidence which the +loyal conqueror deserved, he showed the sternest determination +in crushing the rebellious and autonomous instincts of Almagro +and the Pizarros. But for this, Peru and Chile must have become +independent almost as soon as they were conquered. Throughout +he strove to protect the natives, to prevent actual slavery, and +the consequent raids upon the natives. Legislation was not, +indeed, always consistent, because the claims of the colonists +could not always be resisted, but on the whole he gave earnest +support to the missionaries, who upheld the cause of the natives +against the military, and sometimes the civil and ecclesiastical +elements. His humane care for his native subjects may well be +studied in the instructions sent to Philip from Germany in 1548, +when Charles was at the summit of his power. If Charles had +had his will, he would have opened the colonial trade to the whole +of his wide possessions. The Castilians, however, jealously confined +it to the city of Seville, artificially fostering the indolence +of the colonists to maintain the agricultural and manufacturing +monopoly of Castile, and by extreme protective measures +forcing them to live on smuggled goods from other countries. +Charles did actually attempt to cure the exclusive interest of +the colonists in mineral wealth by the establishment of peasant +and artisan colonies. If in many respects he failed, yet the +organization of Spanish America and the survival of the native +races were perhaps the most permanent results of his reign. It +is a proof of the complexity of his interests that the march of the +Turk upon Vienna and of the French on Naples delayed until +the following reign the foundation of Spain’s eastern empire. +Charles carefully organized the expedition of Magellan, which +sailed for the Moluccas and discovered the Philippines. Unfortunately, +his straits for money in 1529 compelled him to +mortgage to Portugal his disputed claim to the Moluccas, and the +Philippines consequently dropped out of sight.</p> + +<p>If in the administration of Spain Charles did little more than +mark time, in the Netherlands advance was rapid. Of the seven +northern provinces he added five, containing more than half the +area of the later United Provinces. In the south he freed +Flanders and Artois from French suzerainty, annexed Tournai +and Cambrai, and closed the natural line of French advance +through the great bishopric of Liége by a line of fortresses across +its western frontier. Much was done to convert the aggregate +of jarring provinces into a harmonious unity by means of common +principles of law and finance, and by the creation of a national +army. While every province had its own assembly, there were +at Charles’s accession only the rudiments of estates general +for the Netherlands at large. At the close of the reign the +common parliamentary system was in full swing, and was fast +converting the loosely knit provinces into a state. By these +means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of supply, +but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could +recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip +II. all patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of +his father as the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process +of consolidation was infinitely difficult, and conflicts between +local and central authorities were frequent. That they were +safely tided over was due to Charles’s moderation and his legal +mind, which prompted him to draw back when his case was bad. +The harshest act of his life was the punishment of the rebellion +of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy in other +quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the other +members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere +local quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.</p> + +<p>In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with +which he regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the +growth of large estates through primogeniture; he gave the +nobles the provincial governorships, the great court offices, the +command of the professional cavalry. In the Order of the Golden +Fleece and the long established presence of the court at Brussels, +he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The nobility +were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces. +Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part +of the Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly +liable to papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers. +Thus the usual conflict between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction +was peculiarly acute. To remedy this dualism of +authority and the consequent moral and religious abuses, +Charles early designed the creation of a national diocesan +system, and this was a darling project throughout his life. +He was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or +Lutheran, attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent +on the crown, with nomination and institution in his hands, +and with reasonable control over taxation and jurisdiction. +The papacy unfortunately thwarted him, and the scheme, +which under Charles would have been carried with national +assent, and created a national church, took the appearance under +Philip of alien domination.</p> + +<p>If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands +territorial prince, and thus his interests might easily be at +disaccord with those of the Empire. Consequently, just as he had +shaken off French suzerainty from Flanders and Artois, so he +loosened the tie of the other provinces to Germany. In 1548 +they were declared free and sovereign principalities not subject +to imperial laws, and all the territories were incorporated in the +Burgundian circle. It was, indeed, agreed that they should +contribute to imperial taxation, and in return receive imperial +protection. But this soon became a dead letter, and the Netherlands +were really severed from the Empire, save for the nominal +feudal tie in the case of some provinces. Thus some writers have +dated their independence from Charles’s convention of 1548 +rather than from the peace of Westphalia, a century later. +Having converted his heterogeneous territories into a self-sufficient +state, Charles often contemplated the formation of a +middle kingdom between France and Germany. At the last +moment he spoiled his own work by granting the Netherlands to +Philip. It was indeed hard to set aside the order of inheritance, +and the commercial interests of the provinces were closely bound +with Spain, and with England, whose queen Philip had married. +Under any other ruler than Philip the breach might not have +come so early. Yet it must be regretted that Charles had not +the courage of his convictions, and that he lost the opportunity +of completing the new nation which he had faithfully laboured to +create.</p> + +<p>Charles V. is in the eyes of many the very picture of a Catholic +zealot. Popular opinion is probably mainly based upon the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span> +letters written from Yuste in 1558, when two hot-beds of heresy +had been discovered in Spain herself, and on the contemporary +codicil to his will. These were, perhaps, really in part responsible +for the later persecution. Yet the circumstances were far from +being typical of the emperor’s career. Death was very near +him; devotional exercises were his main occupation. The +letters, moreover, were cries of warning, and not edicts. Charles +was not then the responsible authority. There is a long step +between a violent letter and a violent act. Few men would +care to have their lives judged by letters written in the last +extremities of gout. Less pardonable was the earlier persecution +of the Valencian Moriscoes in 1525-1526. They had fought for +their landlords in the cause of order, had been forcibly converted +by the revolutionaries, and on the suppression of revolution had +naturally relapsed. But for this momentary conversion the +Inquisition would have had no hold upon them. The edict of +persecution was cruel and unnecessary, and all expert opinion in +Valencia was against it. It was not, however, actually enforced +until after the victory of Pavia. It seems likely that Charles +in a fit of religious exaltation regarded the persecution as a +sacrificial thank-offering for his miraculous preservation. It is +characteristic that, when in the following year he was brought +into personal contact with the Moors of Granada, he allowed +them to buy themselves off from the more obnoxious measures +of the Inquisition. Henceforth the reign was marked by extreme +leniency. Spain enjoyed a long lull in the activity of her Inquisition. +At Naples in 1547 a rumour that the Spanish +Inquisition was to be introduced to check the growth of heresy +in influential quarters produced a dangerous revolt. The +briefs were, however, issued by Paul III., no friend of Charles, +and when a Neapolitan deputation visited the emperor he disclaimed +any intention of making innovations. Of a different +type to all the above was the persecution in the Netherlands. +Here it was deliberate, chronic, and on an ascending scale. +It is not a sufficient explanation that heresy also was persistent, +ubiquitous and increasing, for this was also the case in Germany +where Charles’s methods were neither uniform nor drastic. But +in the Netherlands the heretics were his immediate subjects, +and as in every other state, Catholic or Lutheran, they must +conform to their prince’s religion. But there was more than this. +After the suppression of the German peasant revolt in 1525 +many of the refugees found shelter in the teeming Netherland +cities, and heresy took the form, not of Lutheranism, but of +Anabaptism, which was believed to be perilous to society and +the state. The government put down Anabaptism, as a modern +government might stamp out Anarchism. The edicts were, +indeed, directed against heresy in general, and were as harsh +as they could be—at least on paper. Yet when Charles was +assured that they were embarrassing foreign trade he let it be +understood that they should not affect the foreign mercantile +communities. Prudential considerations proved frequently a +drag upon religious zeal.</p> + +<p>The relations of Charles to heresy must be judged in the main +by his treatment of German Lutheranism. Here he had to deal, +not with drawing-room imprudences nor hole-and-corner conventicles, +not with oriental survivals nor millenary aspirations, +but with organized churches protected by their princes, supported +by revenues filched from his own church and stiffened by formulae +as rigid as those of Catholicism. The length and stubbornness of +the conflict will serve to show that Charles’s religious conservatism +had a measure of elasticity, that he was not a bigot and +nothing more. It should be remembered that all his principal +ministers were inclined to be Erasmian or indifferent, that one of +his favourite confessors, Loaysa, advised compromise, and that +several intimate members of his court and chapel were, after his +death, victims of the Inquisition. The two more obvious courses +towards the restoration of Catholic unity were force and reconciliation, +in other words, a religious war or a general council. +Neither of these was a simple remedy. The latter was impossible +without papal concurrence, inoperative without the assistance of +the European powers, and merely irritant without the adhesion +of the Lutherans. It was most improbable that the papacy, the +powers and the Lutherans would combine in a measure so +palpably advantageous to the emperor. Force was hopeless +save in the absence of war with France and the Turk, and of +papal hostility in Italian territorial politics. Charles must obtain +subsidies from ecclesiastical sources, and the support of all German +Catholics, especially of the traditional rival, Bavaria. Even so +the Protestants would probably be the stronger, and therefore +they must be divided by utilizing any religious split, any class +distinction, any personal or traditional dislikes, or else by bribery. +Force and reconciliation seeming equally difficult, could an +alternative be found in toleration? The experiment might take +the form either of individual toleration, or of toleration for the +Lutheran states. The former would be equally objectionable +to Lutheran and Catholic princes as loosening their grip upon +their subjects. Territorial toleration might seem equally +obnoxious to the emperor, for its recognition would strengthen +the anti-imperial particularism so closely associated with +Lutheranism. If Charles could find no permanent specific, he +must apply a provisional palliative. It was absolutely necessary +to patch, if not to cure, because Germany must be pulled together +to resist French and Turks. Such palliatives were two—suspension +and comprehension. Suspension deferred the execution of +penalties incurred by heresy, either for a term of years, or until +a council should decide. Thus it recognized the divorce of the +two religions, but limited it by time. Comprehension instead of +recognizing the divorce would strive to conceal the breach. It +was a domestic remedy, German and national, not European and +papal. To become permanent it must receive the sanction of +pope and council, for the Roman emperor could not set up a +church of Germany. Yet the formula adopted might conceivably +be found to fall within the four corners of the faith, and so +obviate the necessity alike of force or council. Such were the +conditions of the emperor’s task, and such the methods which he +actually pursued. He would advance now on one line, now on +another, now on two or three concurrently, but he never definitely +abandoned any. This fusion of obstinacy and versatility +was a marked feature of his character.</p> + +<p>Suspension was of course often accidental and involuntary. +The two chief stages of Lutheran growth naturally corresponded +with the periods, each of nine years, when Charles was absent. +Deliberate suspension was usually a consequence of the failure +of comprehension. Thus at Augsburg in 1530 the wide gulf +between the Lutheran confession and the Catholic confutation +led to the definite suspensive treaty granted to the Lutherans at +Nuremberg (1532). Charles dared not employ the alternative +of force, because he needed their aid for the Turkish war. In +1541, after a series of religious conferences, he personally presented +a compromise in the so-called Book of Regensburg, which was +rejected by both parties. He then proposed that the articles +agreed upon should be compulsory, while on others toleration +should be exercised until a national council should decide. Never +before nor after did he go so far upon the path of toleration, or so +nearly accept a national settlement. He was then burning to set +sail for Algiers. His last formal suspensive measure was that of +Spires (Speyer) in 1544, when he was marching against Francis. +He promised a free and general council to be held in Germany, +and, as a preparation, a national religious congress. The +Lutherans were privately assured that a measure of comprehension +should be concluded with or without papal approval. +Meanwhile all edicts against heresy were suspended. No wonder +that Charles afterwards confessed that he could scarcely reconcile +these concessions with his conscience, but he won Lutheran aid +for his campaign. The peace of Crépy gave all the conditions +required for the employment of force. He had peace with French +and Turk, he won the active support of the pope, he had deeply +divided the Lutherans and reconciled Bavaria. Finding that the +Lutherans would not accept the council summoned by the pope to +Trent, he resorted to force, and force succeeded. At the Armed +Diet of 1548 reunion seemed within reach. But Paul III. in direct +opposition to Charles’s wish had withdrawn the council from +Trent to Bologna. Charles could not force Lutherans to submit +to a council which he did not himself recognize, and he could not +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span> +bring himself to national schism. Thus, falling back upon his old +palliatives, he issued the Interim and the accompanying Reform +of the Clergy, pending a final settlement by a satisfactory general +council. These measures pleased neither party, and Charles at +the very height of his power had failed. He was conscious of +failure, and made few attempts even to enforce the Interim. +Henceforward political complications gathered round him anew. +The only remedy was toleration in some form, independent of +the papacy and limitless in time. To this Charles could never +assent. His ideal was shattered, but it was a great ideal, +and the patience, the moderation, even at times the adroitness +with which he had striven towards it, proved him to be no +bigot.</p> + +<p>The idea of abdication had long been present with Charles. +After his failure to eject the French from Metz he had not shrunk +from a wearisome campaign against Henry II., and he was now +tired out. His mother’s death removed an obstacle, for there +could now be no question as to his son’s succession to the Spanish +kingdoms. Religious settlement in Germany could no longer be +postponed, and he shrank from the responsibility; the hand that +should rend the seamless raiment of God’s church must not be +his. To Ferdinand he gave his full authority as emperor, although +at his brother’s earnest request formal abdication was delayed +until 1558. In the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels on +the 25th of October 1555 he formally resigned to Philip the +sovereignty of his beloved Netherlands. Turning from his son to +the representatives of the estates he said, “Gentlemen, you must +not be astonished if, old and feeble as I am in all my members, +and also from the love I bear you, I shed some tears.” In the +Netherlands at least the love was reciprocal, and tears were +infectious among the thousand deputies who listened to their +sovereign’s last speech. On the 16th of January 1556, Charles +resigned his Spanish kingdoms and that of Sicily, and shortly +afterwards his county of Burgundy. On the 17th of September +he sailed from Flushing on the last of his many voyages, an +English fleet from Portland bearing him company down the +Channel. In February 1557 he was installed in the home which he +had chosen at Yuste in Estremadura.</p> + +<p>The excellent books which have been written upon the +emperor’s retirement have inspired an interest out of all proportion +to its real significance. His little house was attached to +the monastery, but was not within it. He was neither an ascetic +nor a recluse. Gastronomic indiscretions still entailed their +inevitable penalties. Society was not confined to interchange of +civilities with the brethren. His relations, his chief friends, his +official historians, all found their way to Yuste. Couriers brought +news of Philip’s war and peace with Pope Paul IV., of the victories +of Saint Quentin and Gravelines, of the French capture of Calais, +of the danger of Oran. As head of the family he intervened in the +delicate relations with the closely allied house of Portugal: he +even negotiated with the house of Navarre for reparation for the +wrong done by his grandfather Ferdinand, which appeared to +weigh upon his conscience. Above all he was shocked by the +discovery that Spain, his own court, and his very chapel were +infected with heresy. His violent letters to his son and daughter +recommending immediate persecution, his profession of regret at +having kept his word when Luther was in his power, have weighed +too heavily on his reputation. The feverish phrases of religious +exaltation due to broken health and unnatural retirement cannot +balance the deliberate humanity and honour of wholesome +manhood. Apart from such occasional moments of excitement, +the emperor’s last years passed tranquilly enough. At first he +would shoot pigeons in the monastery woods, and till his last +illness tended his garden and his animal pets, or watched the +operations of Torriani, maker of clocks and mechanical toys. +After an illness of three weeks the call came in the early hours of +the feast of St Matthew, who, as his chaplain said, had for Christ’s +sake forsaken wealth even as Charles had forsaken empire. The +dying man clasped his wife’s crucifix to his breast till his fingers +lost their hold. The archbishop held it before his eyes, and with +the cry of “<i>Ay Jesus!</i>” died, in the words of his faithul squire +D. Luis de Quijada, “the chief of men that had ever been or +would ever be.” Posterity need not agree, but no great man can +boast a more honest panegyric.</p> + +<p>In character Charles stands high among contemporary princes. +It consists of pairs of contrasts, but the better side is usually +stronger than the worse. Steadfast honesty of purpose was +occasionally warped by self-interest, or rather he was apt to +think that his own course must needs be that of righteousness. +Self-control would give way, but very rarely, to squalls of passion. +Obstinacy and irresolution were fairly balanced, the former +generally bearing upon ends, the latter upon means. His own +ideals were constant, but he could gradually assimilate the views +of others, and could bend to argument and circumstance; yet +even here he had a habit of harking back to earlier schemes +which he had seemed to have definitely abandoned. Intercourse +with different nationalities taught him a certain versatility; he +was dignified with Spaniards, familiar with Flemings, while the +material Italians were pleased with his good sense. His sympathies +were neither wide nor quick, but he was a most faithful +friend, and the most considerate of masters. For all who sought +him his courtesy and patience were unfailing. At his abdication +he dwelt with reasonable pride upon his labours and his journeyings. +Few monarchs have lived a more strenuous life. Yet his +industry was broken by fits of indolence, which were probably due +to health. In his prime his confessor warned him against this +defect, and it caused, indeed, the last great disaster of his life. +Fortunately he was conscious of his obstinacy, his irresolution +and his indolence. He would accept admonition from the chapter +of the Golden Fleece, would comment on his failings as a warning +to his son. When Cardinal Contarini politely assured him that +to hold fast to good opinions is not obstinacy but firmness, +the emperor replied, “Ah! but I sometimes stick to bad ones.” +Charles was not cruel, indeed the character of his reign was +peculiarly merciful. But he was somewhat unforgiving. He +especially resented any slight upon his honour, and his unwise +severity to Philip of Hesse was probably due to the unfounded +accusation that he had imprisoned him in violation of his pledge. +The excesses of his troops in Italy, in Guelders and on the +Austrian frontiers caused him acute pain, although he called himself +“hard to weep.” No great nobleman, statesman or financier +was executed at Charles’s order. He was proud of his generalship, +classing himself with Alva and Montmorenci as the best of his +day. Yet his failures nearly balanced his successes. It is true +that in his most important campaign, that against the League +of Schmalkalden, the main credit must be ascribed to his well-judged +audacity at the opening, and his dogged persistency at +the close. As a soldier he must rank very high. It was said +that his being emperor lost to Spain the best light horseman of +her army. At every crisis he was admirably cool, setting a truly +royal example to his men. His mettle was displayed when he +was attacked on the burning sands of Tunis, when his troops +were driven in panic from Algiers, when in spite of physical +suffering he forded the Elbe at Mühlberg, and when he was +bombarded by the vastly superior Lutheran artillery under the +walls of Ingolstadt. When blamed for exposing himself on this +last occasion, “I could not help it,” he apologized; “we were +short of hands, 1 could not set a bad example.” Nevertheless +he was by nature timid. Just before this very action he had a +fit of trembling, and he was afraid of mice and spiders. The +force of his example was not confined to the field. Melanchthon +wrote from Augsburg in 1530 that he was a model of continence, +temperance and moderation, that the old domestic discipline +was now only preserved in the imperial household. He tenderly +loved his wife, whom he had married for pecuniary and diplomatic +reasons. Of his two well-known illegitimate children, Margaret +was born before he married, and Don John long after his wife’s +death, but he felt this latter to be a child of shame. His sobriety +was frequently contrasted with the universal drunkenness of the +German and Flemish nobles, which he earnestly condemned. +But on his appetite he could place no control, in spite of the +ruinous effects of his gluttony upon his health. In dress, in his +household, and in his stable he was simple and economical. +He loved children, flowers, animals and birds. Professional +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span> +jesters amused him, and he was not above a joke himself. Maps +and mechanical inventions greatly interested him, and in later +life he became fond of reading. He takes his place indeed among +authors, for he dictated the commentaries on his own career. +Of music he possessed a really fine knowledge, and his high +appreciation of Titian proves the purity of his feeling for art. +The little collection of books and pictures which he carried to +Yuste is an index of his tastes. Charles was undeniably plain. +He confessed that he was by nature ugly, but that as artists +usually painted him uglier than he was, strangers on seeing him +were agreeably disappointed. The protruding lower jaw and +the thin pale face were redeemed by the fine open brow and +the bright speaking eyes. He was, moreover, well made, and +in youth had an incomparable leg. Above all no man could +doubt his dignity; Charles was every inch an emperor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—<i>Commentaries de Charles-quint</i>, ed. by Baron +Kervyn de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1862); <i>Memoirs</i> written by Charles +in 1550, and treating somewhat fully of the years 1543-1548; +W. Robertson, <i>History of the Emperor Charles V.</i> (latest ed., London, +1887), an English classic, which needs supplementing by later authorities; +F.A. Mignet, <i>Rivalité de François I et de Charles-quint</i> +(2 vols., Paris, 1875); E. Armstrong, <i>The Emperor Charles V.</i> +(2 vols., London, 1902), to which reference may be made for monographs +and collections of documents bearing on the reign; H. Baumgarten, +<i>Geschichte Karls V.</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885-1893), very full but +extending only to 1539; G. de Leva, <i>Storia documentata di Carlo V. +in correlazione all’ Italia</i> (5 vols., Venice, 1862-1894), a general +history of the reign, though with special reference to its Italian aspects, +and extending to 1552; article by L.P. Gachard in <i>Biographie +nationale</i>, vol. iii., 1872, an excellent compressed account. The +life of Charles V. at Yuste may be studied in L.P. Gachard’s <i>Retraite +et mort de Charles-quint au monastère de Yuste</i> (Brussels, 1854-1855), +and in Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell’s <i>The Cloister Life of the Emperor +Charles V.</i> (London, 4 editions from 1852); also in W.H. Prescott’s +edition of Robertson’s <i>History</i> (1857).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Ar.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VI.<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1685-1740), Roman emperor, was born on the +1st of October 1685 at Vienna. He was the second son of the +emperor Leopold I. by his third marriage with Eleanore, daughter +of Philip William of Neuburg, elector palatine of the Rhine. +When the Spanish branch of the house of Habsburg became +extinct in 1700, he was put forward as the lawful heir in opposition +to Philip V., the Bourbon to whom the Spanish dominions +had been left by the will of Charles II. of Spain. He was +proclaimed at Vienna on the 19th of September 1703, and made +his way to Spain by the Low Countries, England and Lisbon, +remaining in Spain till 1711, mostly in Catalonia, where the +Habsburg party was strong. Although he had a certain tenacity of +purpose, which he showed in later life, he displayed none of the +qualities required in a prince who had to gain his throne by the +sword (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession, War of</a></span>). He was so afraid of +appearing to be ruled by a favourite that he would not take +good advice, but was easily earwigged by flatterers who played +on his weakness for appearing independent. In 1708 he was married +at Barcelona to Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel +(1691-1750), a Lutheran princess who was persuaded +to accept Roman Catholicism by the assurances of +Protestant divines and of the philosopher Leibnitz, that she +could always give an Evangelical meaning to Catholic ceremonies. +On the death of his elder brother Joseph I. on the 17th of April +1711, Charles inherited the hereditary possessions of the house +of Habsburg, and their claims on the Empire. The death of +Joseph without male issue had been foreseen, and Charles had +at one time been prepared to give up Spain and the Indies on +condition that he was allowed to retain Naples, Sicily and the +Milanese. But when the case arose, his natural obstinacy led +him to declare that he would not think of surrendering any of +the rights of his family. It was with great difficulty that he +was persuaded to leave Spain, months after the death of his +brother (on the 27th of September 1711). Only the emphatic +refusal of the European powers to tolerate the reconstruction +of the empire of Charles V. forced him to give a sullen submission +to necessity. He abandoned Spain and was crowned emperor +in December 1711, but for a long time he would not recognize +Philip V. It is to his honour that he was very reluctant to +desert the Catalans who had fought for his cause. Some of their +chiefs followed him to Vienna, and their advice had an unfortunate +influence on his mind. They almost succeeded in +arousing his suspicions of the loyalty of Prince Eugene at the +very moment when the prince’s splendid victories over the Turks +had led to the peace of Passarowitz on the 28th of July 1718, and +a great extension of the Austrian dominions eastward. Charles +showed an enlightened, though not always successful, interest +in the commercial prosperity of his subjects, but from the date +of his return to Germany till his death his ruling passion was to +secure his inheritance against dismemberment. As early as +1713 he had begun to prepare the “Pragmatic Sanction” +which was to regulate the succession. An only son, born on the +13th of April 1716, died in infancy, and it became the object of +his policy to obtain the recognition of his daughter Maria Theresa +as his heiress. He made great concessions to obtain his aim, +and embarked on complicated diplomatic negotiations. His +last days were embittered by a disastrous war with Turkey, in +which he lost almost all he had gained by the peace of Passarowitz. +He died at Vienna on the 20th of October 1740, and +with him expired the male line of his house. Charles VI. was +an admirable representative of the tenacious ambition of the +Habsburgs, and of their belief in their own “august greatness” +and boundless rights.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the personal character of Charles VI. see A. von Arneth, +<i>Geschichte Maria Theresias</i> (Vienna, 1863-1879). Dr Franz Krones, +R. v. Marchland, <i>Grundriss der dsterreichischen Geschichte</i> (Vienna, +1882), gives a very copious bibliography.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VII.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1697-1745), Roman emperor, known also as +Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, was the son of the elector +Maximilian Emanuel and his second wife, Theresa Cunigunda, +daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland. He was born on the +6th of August 1697. His father having taken the side of Louis +XIV. of France in the War of the Spanish Succession (<i>q.v.</i>), +Bavaria was occupied by the allies. Charles and his brother +Clement, afterwards archbishop of Cologne, were carried prisoners +to Vienna, and were educated by the Jesuits under the name of +the counts of Wittelsbach. When his father was restored to his +electorate, Charles was released, and in 1717 he led the Bavarian +contingent of the imperial army which served under Prince +Eugene against the Turks, and is said to have distinguished +himself at Belgrade. On the 25th of September 1722 he was +betrothed to Maria Amelia, the younger of the two orphan +daughters of the emperor Joseph I. Her uncle Charles VI. +insisted that the Bavarian house should recognize the Pragmatic +Sanction which established his daughter Maria Theresa as heiress +of the Habsburg dominions. They did so, but with secret protests +and mental reservations of their rights, which were designed to +render the recognition valueless. The electors of Bavaria had +claims on the possessions of the Habsburgs under the will of +the emperor Ferdinand I., who died in 1564.</p> + +<p>Charles succeeded his father on the 26th of February 1726. +As a ruler of Bavaria, he showed a vague disposition to improve +the condition of his subjects, but his profuse habits and his efforts +to rival the splendour of the French court crippled his finances. +His policy was one of much duplicity, for he was constantly +endeavouring to keep on good terms with the emperor while +slipping out of his obligation to accept the Pragmatic Sanction +and intriguing to secure French support for his claims whenever +Charles VI. should die. On hearing of the emperor’s last illness, +he ordered his agent at Vienna to renew his claim to the Austrian +inheritance. The claim was advanced immediately after the +death of Charles VI. on the 20th of October 1740. Charles Albert +now entered into the league against Maria Theresa, to the great +misfortune of himself and his subjects. By the help of her enemies +he was elected emperor in opposition to her husband Francis, +grand duke of Tuscany, on the 24th of January 1742, under the +title of Charles VII., and was crowned at Frankfort-on-Main +on the 12th of February. But as his army had been neglected, +he was utterly unable to resist the Austrian troops. While he was +being crowned his hereditary dominions in Bavaria were being +overrun. He described himself as attacked by stone and gout, +ill, without money or land, and in distress comparable to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span> +sorrows of Job. During the War of the Austrian Succession +(<i>q.v.</i>) he was a mere puppet in the hands of the anti-Austrian +coalition, and was often in want of mere necessaries. In the +changes of the war he was able to re-enter his capital, Munich, +in 1743, but had immediately afterwards to take flight again. +He was restored by Frederick the Great in October 1744, but died +worn out at Munich on the 20th of January 1745.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Arneth, <i>Geschichte Maria Theresias</i> (Vienna, 1863-1879); +and P.T. Heigel. <i>Der österreichische Erbfolgestreit und die +Kaiserwahl Karls VII.</i> (Munich, 1877).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1600-1649), king of Great Britain and Ireland, +second son of James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at +Dunfermline on the 19th of November 1600. At his baptism he +was created duke of Albany, and on the 16th of January 1605 +duke of York. In 1612, by the death of his elder brother Henry, +he became heir-apparent, and was created prince of Wales on the +3rd of November 1616. In 1620 he took up warmly the cause +of his sister the queen of Bohemia, and in 1621 he defended Bacon, +using his influence to prevent the chancellor’s degradation from +the peerage. The prince’s marriage with the infanta Maria, +daughter of Philip III. of Spain, had been for some time the +subject of negotiation, James desiring to obtain through Spanish +support the restitution of his son-in-law, Frederick, to the +Palatinate; and in 1623 Charles was persuaded by Buckingham, +who now obtained a complete ascendancy over him in opposition +to wiser advisers and the king’s own wishes, to make a secret +expedition himself to Spain, put an end to all formalities, and +bring home his mistress himself: “a gallant and brave thing +for his Highness.” “Steenie” and “Baby Charles,” as James +called them, started on the 17th of February, arriving at Paris +on the 21st and at Madrid on the 7th of March, where they +assumed the unromantic names of Mr Smith, and Mr Brown. +They found the Spanish court by no means enthusiastic for the +marriage<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the princess herself averse. The prince’s immediate +conversion was expected, and a complete religious +tolerance for the Roman Catholics in England demanded. James +engaged to allow the infanta the right of public worship and to +use his influence to modify the law, but Charles himself went +much further. He promised the alteration of the penal laws +within three years, conceded the education of the children to +the mother till the age of twelve, and undertook to listen to the +infanta’s priests in matters of religion, signing the marriage +contract on the 25th of July 1623. The Spanish, however, did +not trust to words, and Charles was informed that his wife could +only follow him to England when these promises were executed. +Moreover, they had no intention whatever of aiding the Protestant +Frederick. Meanwhile Buckingham, incensed at the failure of +the expedition, had quarrelled with the grandees, and Charles +left Madrid, landing at Portsmouth on the 5th of October, to the +joy of the people, to whom the proposed alliance was odious. +He now with Buckingham urged James to make war on Spain, +and in December 1624 signed a marriage treaty with Henrietta +Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. In April Charles had +declared solemnly to the parliament that in case of his marriage +to a Roman Catholic princess no concessions should be granted to +recusants, but these were in September 1624 deliberately promised +by James and Charles in a secret article, the first instance of the +duplicity and deception practised by Charles in dealing with the +parliament and the nation. The French on their side promised +to assist in Mansfeld’s expedition for the recovery of the +Palatinate, but Louis in October refused to allow the men to pass +through France; and the army, without pay or provisions, +dwindled away in Holland to nothing.</p> + +<p>On the 27th of March 1625 Charles I. succeeded to the throne +by the death of his father, and on the 1st of May he was married +by proxy to Henrietta Maria. He received her at Canterbury +on the 13th of June, and on the 18th his first parliament +assembled. On the day of his marriage Charles had given directions +that the prosecutions of the Roman Catholics should cease, +but he now declared his intention of enforcing the laws against +them, and demanded subsidies for carrying on the war against +Spain. The Commons, however, responded coldly. Charles had +lent ships to Louis XIII. to be used against the Protestants at +La Rochelle, and the Commons were not aware of the subterfuges +and fictitious delays intended to prevent their employment. +The Protestant feelings of the Commons were also aroused by the +king’s support of the royal chaplain, Richard Montagu, who had +repudiated Calvinistic doctrine. They only voted small sums, +and sent up a petition on the state of religion and reflecting upon +Buckingham, whom they deemed responsible for the failure of +Mansfeld’s expedition, at the same time demanding counsellors in +whom they could trust. Parliament was accordingly dissolved +by Charles on the 12th of August. He hoped that greater success +abroad would persuade the Commons to be more generous. +On the 8th of September 1625 he made the treaty of Southampton +with the Dutch against Spain, and sent an expedition to Cadiz +under Sir Edward Cecil, which, however, was a failure. In order to +make himself independent of parliament he attempted to raise +money on the crown jewels in Holland, and to diminish the +opposition in the Commons he excluded the chief leaders by +appointing them sheriffs. When the second parliament met, +however, on the 6th of February 1626, the opposition, led by Sir +John Eliot, was more determined than before, and their attack +was concentrated upon Buckingham. On the 29th of March, +Charles, calling the Commons into his presence, accused them of +leading him into the war and of taking advantage of his difficulties +to “make their own game.” “I pray you not to be deceived,” +he said, “it is not a parliamentary way, nor ’tis not a way to deal +with a king. Remember that parliaments are altogether in my +power for their calling, sitting, and dissolution; therefore as I +find the fruits of them good or evil, they are to continue or not to +be.” Charles, however, was worsted in several collisions with the +two houses, with a consequent loss of influence. He was obliged +by the peers to set at liberty Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, +whom he had put into the Tower, and to send a summons to the +earl of Bristol, whom he had attempted to exclude from parliament, +while the Commons compelled him, with a threat of doing +no business, to liberate Eliot and Digges, the managers of Buckingham’s +impeachment, whom he had imprisoned. Finally in June +the Commons answered Charles’s demand for money by a remonstrance +asking for Buckingham’s dismissal, which they +decided must precede the grant of supply. They claimed responsible +ministers, while Charles considered himself the executive +and the sole and unfettered judge of the necessities of the state. +Accordingly on the 15th Charles dissolved the parliament.</p> + +<p>The king was now in great need of money. He was at war +with Spain and had promised to pay £30,000 a month to Christian +IV. of Denmark in support of the Protestant campaign in +Germany. To these necessities was now added a war with +France. Charles had never kept his promise concerning the +recusants; disputes arose in consequence with his wife, and on +the 31st of July 1626 he ordered all her French attendants to be +expelled from Whitehall and sent back to France. At the same +time several French ships carrying contraband goods to the +Spanish Netherlands were seized by English warships. On the +27th of June 1627 Buckingham with a large expedition sailed to +the Isle of Ré to relieve La Rochelle, then besieged by the forces +of Louis XIII. Though the success of the French Protestants was +an object much desired in England, Buckingham’s unpopularity +prevented support being given to the expedition, and the duke +returned to Plymouth on the 11th of November completely +defeated. Meanwhile Charles had endeavoured to get the money +refused to him by parliament by means of a forced loan, dismissing +Chief Justice Crewe for declining to support its legality, +and imprisoning several of the leaders of the opposition for refusing +to subscribe to it. These summary measures, however, +only brought a small sum into the treasury. On the 2nd of +January 1628 Charles ordered the release of all the persons +imprisoned, and on the 17th of March summoned his third +parliament.</p> + +<p>Instead of relieving the king’s necessities the Commons immediately +proceeded to discuss the constitutional position and +to formulate the Petition of Right, forbidding taxation without +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span> +consent of parliament, arbitrary and illegal imprisonment, +compulsory billeting in private houses, and martial law. Charles, +on the 1st of May, first demanded that they should “rest on his +royal word and promise.” He obtained an opinion from the +judges that the acceptance of the petition would not absolutely +preclude in certain cases imprisonments without showing cause, +and after a futile endeavour to avoid an acceptance by returning +an ambiguous answer which only exasperated the Commons, he +gave his consent on the 7th of June in the full and usual form. +Charles now obtained his subsidies, but no real settlement was +reached, and his relations with the parliament remained as +unfriendly as before. They proceeded to remonstrate against his +government and against his support of Buckingham, and denied +his right to tonnage and poundage. Accordingly, on the 26th of +June they were prorogued. New disasters befell Charles, in the +assassination of Buckingham and in the failure of the fresh +expedition sent to Ré. In January 1629 the parliament reassembled, +irritated by the exaction of the duties and seizure of +goods during the interval, and suspicious of “innovations in +religion,” the king having forbidden the clergy to continue +the controversy concerning Calvinistic and Arminian doctrines, +the latter of which the parliament desired to suppress. While +they were discussing these matters, on the 2nd of March 1629, +the king ordered them to adjourn, but amidst a scene of great +excitement the speaker, Sir John Finch, was held down in his +chair and the doors were locked, whilst resolutions against innovations +in religion and declaring those who levied or paid tonnage and +poundage enemies to their country were passed. Parliament was +immediately dissolved, and Charles imprisoned nine members, +leaders of the opposition, Eliot, Holles, Strode, Selden, Valentine, +Coryton, Heyman, Hobart and Long, his vengeance being especially +shown in the case of Eliot, the most formidable of his +opponents, who died in the Tower of consumption after long +years of close and unhealthy confinement, and whose corpse even +Charles refused to give up to his family.</p> + +<p>For eleven years Charles ruled without parliaments and with +some success. There seemed no reason to think that “that +noise,” to use Laud’s expression concerning parliaments, would +ever be heard again by those then living. A revenue of about +£618,000 was obtained by enforcing the payment of tonnage and +poundage, and while avoiding the taxes, loans, and benevolences +forbidden by the petition of right, by monopolies, fines for +knighthood, and for pretended encroachments on the royal +domains and forests, which enabled the king to meet expenditure +at home. In Ireland, Charles, in order to get money, had granted +the Graces in 1628, conceding security of titles of more than +sixty years’ standing, and a more moderate oath of allegiance for +the Roman Catholics, together with the renunciation of the shilling +fine for non-attendance at church. He continued, however, to +make various attempts to get estates into his possession on the +pretext of invalid title, and on the 12th of May 1635 the city of +London estates were sequestered. Charles here destroyed one of +the most valuable settlements in Ireland founded by James I. +in the interests of national defence, and at the same time extinguished +the historic loyalty of the city of London, which +henceforth steadily favoured the parliamentary cause. In 1633 +Wentworth had been sent to Ireland to establish a medieval +monarchy and get money, and his success in organization seemed +great enough to justify the attempt to extend the system to +England. Charles at the same time restricted his foreign policy +to scarcely more than a wish for the recovery of the Palatinate, to +further which he engaged in a series of numerous and mutually +destructive negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus and with +Spain, finally making peace with Spain on the 5th of November +1630, an agreement which was followed on the 2nd of January +1631 by a further secret treaty, the two kings binding themselves +to make war on the Dutch and partition their territories. A +notable feature of this agreement was that while in Charles’s +portion Roman Catholicism was to be tolerated, there was no +guarantee for the security of Protestantism in the territory to be +ceded to Spain.</p> + +<p>In 1634 Charles levied ship-money from the seaport towns for +the increase of the navy, and in 1635 the tax was extended to +the inland counties, which aroused considerable opposition. In +February 1637 Charles obtained an opinion in favour of his claims +from the judges, and in 1638 the great Hampden case was decided +in his favour. The apparent success, however, of Charles was +imperilled by the general and growing resentment aroused by his +exactions and whole policy, and this again was small compared +with the fears excited by the king’s attitude towards religion and +Protestantism. He supported zealously Laud’s rigid Anglican +orthodoxy, his compulsory introduction of unwelcome ritual, and +his narrow, intolerant and despotic policy, which was marked by +several savage prosecutions and sentences in the Star Chamber, +drove numbers of moderate Protestants out of the Church into +Presbyterianism, and created an intense feeling of hostility to the +government throughout the country. Charles further increased +the popular fears on the subject of religion by his welcome given to +Panzani, the pope’s agent, in 1634, who endeavoured unsuccessfully +to reconcile the two churches, and afterwards to George +Conn, papal agent at the court of Henrietta Maria, while the +favour shown by the king to these was contrasted with the severe +sentences passed upon the Puritans.</p> + +<p>The same imprudent neglect of the national sentiment was +pursued in Scotland. Charles had already made powerful +enemies there by a declaration announcing the arbitrary revocation +of former church estates to the crown. On the 18th of June +1633 he was crowned at Edinburgh with full Anglican ceremonial, +which lost him the hearts of numbers of his Scottish subjects and +aroused hostility to his government in parliament. After his +return to England he gave further offence by ordering the use +of the surplice, by his appointment of Archbishop Spotiswood +as chancellor of Scotland, and by introducing other bishops into +the privy council. In 1636 the new <i>Book of Canons</i> was issued +by the king’s authority, ordering the communion table to be +placed at the east end, enjoining confession, and declaring +excommunicate any who should presume to attack the new +prayer-book. The latter was ordered to be used on the 18th of +October 1636, but it did not arrive in Scotland till May 1637. +It was intensely disliked both as “popish” and as English. +A riot followed its first use in St Giles’ cathedral on the 23rd of +July, and Charles’s order to enforce it on the 10th of September +was met by fresh disturbances and by the establishment of +the “Tables,” national committees which now became the real +though informal government of Scotland. In 1638 the national +covenant was drawn up, binding those that signed it to defend +their religion to the death, and was taken by large numbers +with enthusiasm all over the country. Charles now drew back, +promised to enforce the canons and prayer-book only in a “fair +and legal way,” and sent the marquis of Hamilton as a mediator. +The latter, however, a weak and incapable man, desirous of +popularity with all parties, and unfaithful to the king’s interests, +yielded everything, without obtaining the return of Charles’s +subjects to their allegiance. The assembly met at Glasgow on +the 21st of November, and in spite of Hamilton’s opposition +immediately proceeded to judge the bishops. On the 28th +Hamilton dissolved it, but it continued to sit, deposed the bishops +and re-established Presbyterianism. The rebellion had now +begun, and an appeal to arms alone could decide the quarrel +between Charles and his subjects. On the 28th of May 1639 +he arrived at Berwick with a small and ill-trained force, thus +beginning what is known as the first Bishops’ War; but being +confronted by the Scottish army at Duns Law, he was compelled +to sign the treaty of Berwick on the 18th of June, which provided +for the disbandment of both armies and the restitution to the +king of the royal castles, referring all questions to a general +assembly and a parliament. When the assembly met it abolished +episcopacy, but Charles, who on the 3rd of August had returned +to Whitehall, refused his consent to this and to other measures +proposed by the Scottish parliament. His extreme financial +necessities, and the prospect of renewed hostilities with the Scots, +now moved Charles, at the instigation of Strafford, who in +September had left Ireland to become the king’s chief adviser, +to turn again to parliament for assistance as the last resource, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span> +and on the 13th of April 1640 the Short Parliament assembled. +But on its discussing grievances before granting supplies and +finally refusing subsidies till peace was made with the Scots, it +was dissolved on the 5th of May. Charles returned once more +to measures of repression, and on the 10th imprisoned some of +the London aldermen who refused to lend money. He prepared +for war, scraping together what money he could and obtaining +a grant through Strafford from Ireland. His position, however, +was hopeless; his forces were totally undisciplined, and the +Scots were supported by the parliamentary opposition in England. +On the 20th of August the Scots crossed the Tweed, beginning +the so-called second Bishops’ War, defeated the king’s army +at Newburn on the 28th, and subsequently occupied Newcastle +and Durham. Charles at this juncture, on the 24th of September, +summoned a great council of the peers; and on the 21st of +October a cessation of arms was agreed to by the treaty of Ripon, +the Scots receiving £850 a day for the maintenance of the army, +and further negotiations being transferred to London. On the +3rd of November the king summoned the Long Parliament.</p> + +<p>Such was the final issue of Charles’s attempt to govern without +parliaments—Scotland in triumphant rebellion, Ireland only +waiting for a signal to rise, and in England the parliament revived +with almost irresistible strength, in spite of the king, by the force +of circumstances alone. At this great crisis, which would indeed +have taxed the resolution and resource of the most cool-headed +and sagacious statesman, Charles failed signally. Two alternative +courses were open to him, either of which still offered good +chances of success. He might have taken his stand on the ancient +and undoubted prerogative of the crown, resisted all encroachments +on the executive by the parliament by legal and constitutional +means, which were probably ample, and in case of +necessity have appealed to the loyalty of the nation to support +him in arms; or he might have waived his rights, and, acknowledging +the mistakes of his past administration, have united +with the parliament and created once more that union of interests +and sentiment of the monarchy with the nation which had made +England so powerful. Charles, however, pretended to do both +simultaneously or by turns, and therefore accomplished neither. +The illegally imprisoned members of the last parliament, now +smarting with the sense of their wrongs, were set free to stimulate +the violence of the opposition to the king in the new assembly. +Of Charles’s double statecraft, however, the series of incidents +which terminated the career of the great Strafford form the most +terrible example. Strafford had come to London in November, +having been assured by Charles that he “should not suffer in his +person, honour or fortune,” but was impeached and thrown into +the Tower almost immediately. Charles took no steps to hinder +the progress of the proceedings against him, but entered into +schemes for saving him by bringing up an army to London, and +this step exasperated Strafford’s enemies and added new zeal to +the prosecution. On the 23rd of April, after the passing of the +attainder by the Commons, he repeated to Strafford his former +assurances of protection. On the 1st of May he appealed to +the Lords to spare his life and be satisfied with rendering him +incapable of holding office. On the 2nd he made an attempt +to seize the Tower by force. On the 10th, yielding to the +queen’s fears and to the mob surging round his palace, he signed +his death-warrant. “If my own person only were in danger,” he +declared to the council, “I would gladly venture it to save my +Lord Strafford’s life; but seeing my wife, children, all my +kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way unto it.” +On the 11th he sent to the peers a petition for Strafford’s life, +the force of which was completely annulled by the strange postscript: +“If he must die, it were a charity to reprieve him until +Saturday.” This tragic surrender of his great and devoted +servant left an indelible stain upon the king’s character, and he +lived to repent it bitterly. One of his last admonitions to the +prince of Wales was “never to give way to the punishment +of any for their faithful service to the crown.” It was regarded +by Charles as the cause of his own subsequent misfortunes, +and on the scaffold the remembrance of it disturbed his own last +moments. The surrender of Strafford was followed by another +stupendous concession by Charles, the surrender of his right +to dissolve the parliament without its own consent, and the parliament +immediately proceeded, with Charles’s consent, to sweep +away the star-chamber, high commission and other extra-legal +courts, and all extra-parliamentary taxation. Charles, however, +did not remain long or consistently in the yielding mood. In +June 1641 he engaged in a second army plot for bringing up the +forces to London, and on the 10th of August he set out for +Scotland in order to obtain the Scottish army against the +parliament in England; this plan was obviously doomed to +failure and was interrupted by another appeal to force, the so-called +Incident, at which Charles was suspected (in all probability +unjustly) of having connived, consisting in an attempt +to kidnap and murder Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark, with whom +he was negotiating. Charles had also apparently been intriguing +with Irish Roman Catholic lords for military help in return +for concessions, and he was suspected of complicity in the Irish +rebellion which now broke out. He left Scotland more discredited +than ever, having by his concessions made, to use +Hyde’s words, “a perfect deed of gift of that kingdom,” and +without gaining any advantage.</p> + +<p>Charles returned to London on the 25th of November 1641 and +was immediately confronted by the Grand Remonstrance +(passed on the 22nd), in which, after reciting the chief points of the +king’s misgovernment, the parliament demanded the appointment +of acceptable ministers and the constitution of an assembly +of divines to settle the religious question. On the 2nd of January +1642 Charles gave office to the opposition members Colepeper +and Falkland, and at the same time Hyde left the opposition +party to serve the king. Charles promised to take no serious +step without their advice. Nevertheless, entirely without their +knowledge, through the influence of the queen whose impeachment +was intended, Charles on the 4th made the rash and fatal +attempt to seize with an armed force the five members of the +Commons, Pym, Hampden, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, whom, +together with Mandeville (afterwards earl of Manchester) in the +Lords, he had impeached of high treason. No English sovereign +ever had (or has since that time) penetrated into the House of +Commons. So complete and flagrant a violation of parliamentary +liberties, and an appeal so crude and glaring to brute force, could +only be justified by complete success; but the court plans had +been betrayed, and were known to the offending members, who, +by order of the House, had taken refuge in the city before the +king’s arrival with the soldiers. Charles, on entering the House, +found “the birds flown,” and returned baffled, having thrown +away the last chance of a peaceful settlement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lenthall, +William</a></span>). The next day Charles was equally unsuccessful in +obtaining their surrender in the city. “The king had the worst +day in London yesterday,” wrote a spectator of the scene, “that +ever he had, the people crying ‘privilege of parliament’ by +thousands and prayed God to turn the heart of the king, shutting +up their shops and standing at their doors with swords and halberds.”<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +On the 10th, amidst general manifestations of hostility, +Charles left Whitehall to prepare for war, destined never to return +till he was brought back by his victorious enemies to die.</p> + +<p>Several months followed spent in manoeuvres to obtain the +control of the forces and in a paper war of controversy. On the +23rd of April Charles was refused entry into Hull, and on the +2nd of June the parliament sent to him the “Nineteen Propositions,” +claiming the whole sovereignty and government for the +parliament, including the choice of the ministers, the judges, and +the control of the army, and the execution of the laws against the +Roman Catholics. The military events of the war are described +in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>. On the 22nd of August the +king set up his standard at Nottingham, and on the 23rd of +October he fought the indecisive battle of Edgehill, occupying +Oxford and advancing as far as Brentford. It seemed possible +that the war might immediately be ended by Charles penetrating +to the heart of the enemy’s position and occupying London, but +he drew back on the 13th of November before the parliamentary +force at Turnham Green, and avoided a decisive contest.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span> </p> + +<p>Next year (1643) another campaign, for surrounding instead of +penetrating into London, was projected. Newcastle and Hopton +were to advance from the north and west, seize the north and +south banks of the river below the city, destroy its commerce, +and combine with Charles at Oxford. The royalist force, however, +in spite of victories at Adwalton Moor (June 30th) and Roundway +Down (July 13th), did not succeed in combining with Charles, +Newcastle in the north being kept back by the Eastern Association +and the presence of the enemy at Hull, and Hopton in the +west being detained by their successful holding out at Plymouth. +Being too weak to attempt anything alone against London, +Charles marched to besiege Gloucester, Essex following him and +relieving the place. Subsequently the rival forces fought the +indecisive first battle of Newbury, and Charles failed in preventing +the return of Essex to London. Meanwhile on the 1st of +February the parliament had submitted proposals to Charles +at Oxford, but the negotiations came to nothing, and Charles’s +unwise attempt at the same time to stir up a rising in his favour +in the city, known as Waller’s Plot, injured his cause considerably. +He once more turned for help to Ireland, where the cessation of +the campaign against the rebels was agreed upon on the 15th of +September 1643, and several English regiments became thereby +available for employment by the king in England. Charles also +accepted the proposal for bringing over 2000 Irish. On the 22nd +of January 1644 the king opened the rival parliament at Oxford.</p> + +<p>The campaign of 1644 began far less favourably for Charles +than the two last, principally owing to the alliance now made +between the Scots and the parliament, the parliament taking the +Solemn League and Covenant on the 25th of September 1643, +and the Scottish army crossing the border on the 19th of January +1644. No attempt was this year made against London, and +Rupert was sent to Newcastle’s succour in the north, where the +great disaster of Marston Moor on the 2nd of July ruined Charles’s +last chances in that quarter. Meanwhile Charles himself had +defeated Waller at Cropredy Bridge on the 29th of June, and he +subsequently followed Essex to the west, compelling the surrender +of Essex’s infantry at Lostwithiel on the 2nd of September. +With an ill-timed leniency he allowed the men to go free after +giving up their stores and arms, and on his return towards +Oxford he was confronted again by Essex’s army at Newbury, +combined now with that of Waller and of Manchester. Charles +owed his escape here from complete annihilation only to +Manchester’s unwillingness to inflict a total defeat, and he was +allowed to get away with his artillery to Oxford and to revictual +Donnington Castle and Basing House.</p> + +<p>The negotiations carried on at Uxbridge during January and +February 1645 failed to secure a settlement, and on the 14th of +June the crushing defeat of the king’s forces by the new model +army at Naseby practically ended the civil war. Charles, however, +refused to make peace on Rupert’s advice, and considered +it a point of honour “neither to abandon God’s cause, injure my +successors, nor forsake my friends.” His chief hope was to join +Montrose in Scotland, but his march north was prevented by the +parliamentary forces, and on the 24th of September he witnessed +from the walls of Chester the rout of his followers at Rowton +Heath. He now entered into a series of intrigues, mutually +destructive, which, becoming known to the different parties, +exasperated all and diminished still further the king’s credit. +One proposal was the levy of a foreign force to reduce the kingdom; +another, the supply through the marquis of Ormonde of 10,000 +Irish. Correspondence relating to these schemes, fatally compromising +as they were if Charles hoped ever to rule England +again, was discovered by his enemies, including the Glamorgan +treaty, which went much further than the instructions to +Ormonde, but of which the full responsibility has never been +really traced to Charles, who on the 29th of January 1646 disavowed +his agent’s proceedings. He simultaneously treated with +the parliament, and promised toleration to the Roman Catholics +if they and the pope would aid in the restoration of the monarchy +and the church. Nor was this all. The parliamentary forces had +been closing round Oxford. On the 27th of April the king left +the city, and on the 5th of May gave himself up to the Scottish +army at Newark, arriving on the 13th with them at Newcastle. +On the 13th of July the parliament sent to Charles the +“Newcastle Propositions,” which included the extreme demands +of Charles’s acceptance of the Covenants, the abolition of episcopacy +and establishment of Presbyterianism, severer laws against the +Roman Catholics and parliamentary control of the forces, with +the withdrawal of the Irish Cessation, and a long list of royalists +to be exempted from pardon. Charles returned no definite answer +for several months. He imagined that he might now find support +in Scottish royalism, encouraged by Montrose’s series of brilliant +victories, but these hopes were destroyed by the latter’s defeat at +Philiphaugh on the 3rd of September. The Scots insisted on the +Covenant and on the permanent establishment of Presbyterianism, +while Charles would only consent to a temporary maintenance +for three years. Accordingly the Scots, in return for the payment +of part of their army arrears by the parliament, marched home on +the 30th of January 1647, leaving Charles behind, who under the +care of the parliamentary commissioners was conducted to +Holmby House. Thence on the 12th of May he sent his answer +to the Newcastle Propositions, offering the militia to the parliament +for ten years and the establishment of Presbyterianism for +three, while a final settlement on religion was to be reached +through an assembly of twenty divines at Westminster. But in +the midst of the negotiation with the parliament Charles’s person +was seized, on the 3rd of June 1647, by Cornet Joyce under instructions +of the army, which soon afterwards occupied London and +overpowered the parliament, placing Charles at Hampton Court.</p> + +<p>If Charles could have remained firm to either one or the other +faction, and have made concessions either to Presbyterianism +or on the subject of the militia, he might even now have prevailed. +But he had learned nothing by experience, and continued +at this juncture his characteristic policy of intrigue and double-dealing, +“playing his game,” to use his own words, negotiating +with both parties at once, not with the object or wish to arrive +at a settlement with either, but to augment their disputes, gain +time and profit ultimately by their divisions. The “Heads of the +Proposals,” submitted to Charles by the army on the 28th of +July 1647, were terms conceived on a basis far broader and more +statesmanlike than the Newcastle Propositions, and such as +Charles might well have accepted. The proposals on religion +anticipated the Toleration Act of 1689. There was no mention +of episcopacy, and its existence was thereby indirectly admitted, +but complete religious freedom for all Protestant denominations +was provided, and the power of the church to inflict civil penalties +abolished, while it was also suggested that dangers from Roman +Catholics and Jesuits might be avoided by means other than +enforcing attendance at church. The parliament was to dissolve +itself and be succeeded by biennial assemblies elected on a reformed +franchise, not to be dissolved without their own consent +before 120 days, and not to sit more than 240 days in the two +years. A council of state was to conduct the foreign policy +of the state and conclude peace and war subject to the approval +of parliament, and to control the militia for ten years, the commanders +being appointed by parliament, as also the officers of +state for ten years. No peer created since May the 21st, 1642, +was to sit in parliament without consent of both Houses, and +the judicial decisions of the House of Lords were to be ratified +by the Commons. Only five persons were excepted from amnesty, +but royalists were not to hold office for five years and +not to sit in the Commons till the end of the second biennial +parliament. Proposals for a series of reforms were also added. +Charles, however, was at the same time negotiating with Lauderdale +for an invasion of England by the Scots, and imagined he +could win over Cromwell and Fairfax by “proffers of advantage +to themselves.” The precious opportunity was therefore allowed +to slip by. On the 9th of September he rejected the proposals +of the parliament for the establishment of Presbyterianism. +His hopes of gaining advantages by playing upon the differences +of his opponents proved a complete failure. Fresh terms were +drawn up by the army and parliament together on the 10th of +November, but before these could be presented, Charles, on the +11th, had escaped to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span> +Thence on the 16th he sent a message offering Presbyterianism +for three years and the militia for his lifetime to the parliament, +but insisting on the maintenance of episcopacy. On the 28th +of December he refused his assent to the Four Bills, which demanded +the militia for parliament for twenty years and practically +for ever, annulled the honours recently granted by the +king and his declarations against the Houses, and gave to parliament +the right to adjourn to any place it wished. On the 3rd +of January 1648 the Commons agreed to a resolution to address +the king no further, in which they were joined by the Lords on +the 15th.</p> + +<p>Charles had meanwhile taken a further fatal step which +brought about his total destruction. On the 26th of December +1647 he had signed at Carisbrooke with the Scottish commissioners +the secret treaty called the “Engagement,” whereby +the Scots undertook to invade England on his behalf and restore +him to the throne on condition of the establishment of Presbyterianism +for three years and the suppression of the sectarians. +In consequence the second civil war broke out and the Scots +invaded England under Hamilton. The royalist risings in +England were soon suppressed, and Cromwell gained an easy +and decisive victory over the Scots at Preston. Charles was +now left alone to face his enemies, with the whole tale of his +intrigues and deceptions unmasked and exposed. The last +intrigue with the Scots was the most unpardonable in the eyes +of his contemporaries, no less wicked and monstrous than his +design to conquer England by the Irish soldiers; “a more +prodigious treason,” said Cromwell, “than any that had been +perfected before; because the former quarrel was that Englishmen +might rule over one another; this to vassalize us to a +foreign nation.” Cromwell, who up to this point had shown +himself foremost in supporting the negotiations with the king, +now spoke of the treaty of Newport, which he found the parliament +in the act of negotiating on his return from Scotland, as +“this ruining hypocritical agreement.” Charles had engaged +in these negotiations only to gain time and find opportunity to +escape. “The great concession I made this day,” he wrote on +the 7th of October, “was made merely in order to my escape.” +At the beginning he had stipulated that no concession from him +should be valid unless an agreement were reached upon every +point. He had now consented to most of the demands of the +parliament, including the repudiation of the Irish Cessation, the +surrender of the delinquents and the cession of the militia for +twenty years, and of the offices of state to parliament, but +remained firm in his refusal to abolish episcopacy, consenting +only to Presbyterianism for three years. Charles’s devotion to +the church is undoubted. In April 1646, before his flight from +Oxford, inspired perhaps by superstitious fears as to the origin +of his misfortunes, he had delivered to Sheldon, afterwards +archbishop of Canterbury, a written vow (now in the library of +St Paul’s cathedral) to restore all church lands held by the +crown on his restoration to the throne; and almost his last +injunction to the prince of Wales was that of fidelity to the +national church. His present firmness, however, in its support +was caused probably less by his devotion to it than by his desire +to secure the failure of the whole treaty, and his attempts to +escape naturally weakened the chances of success. Cromwell +now supported the petitions of the army against the treaty. On +the 16th of November the council of officers demanded the trial +of the king, “the capital and grand author of our troubles,” +and on the 27th of November the parliamentary commissioners +returned from Newport without having secured Charles’s +consent. Charles was removed to Hurst Castle on the 1st of +December, where he remained till the 19th, thence being taken +to Windsor, where he arrived on the 23rd. On the 6th “Pride’s +Purge” had removed from the Commons all those who might +show any favour to the king. On the 25th a last attempt by the +council of officers to come to terms with him was repulsed. On +the 1st of January the remnant of the Commons resolved that +Charles was guilty of treason by “levying war against the +parliament and kingdom of England”; on the 4th they declared +their own power to make laws without the lords or the sovereign, +and on the 6th established a “high court of justice” to try the +king. On the 19th Charles was brought to St James’s Palace, +and on the next day his trial began in Westminster Hall, without +the assistance of any of the judges, who all refused to take part +in the proceedings. He laughed aloud at hearing himself called +a traitor, and immediately demanded by what authority he was +tried. He had been in treaty with the parliament in the Isle of +Wight and taken thence by force; he saw no lords present. +He was told by Bradshaw, the president of the court, that he +was tried by the authority of the people of England, who had +elected him king; Charles making the obvious reply that he was +king by inheritance and not by election, that England had been +for more than 1000 years an hereditary kingdom, and Bradshaw +cutting short the discussion by adjourning the court. On the +22nd Charles repeated his reasoning, adding, “It is not my case +alone; it is the freedom and liberty of the people of England, +and do you pretend what you will, I stand more for their liberties, +for if power without law may make laws ... I do not know +what subject he is in England that can be sure of his life or +anything that he calls his own.” On the 23rd he again refused to +plead. The court was adjourned, and there were several signs +that the army in their prosecution of the king had not the nation +at their back. While the soldiers had shouted “Justice! +justice!” as the king passed through their ranks, the civilian +spectators from the end of the hall had cried “God save the +king!” There was considerable opposition and reluctance to +proceed among the members of the court. On the 26th, however, +the court decided unanimously upon his execution, and on the +27th Charles was brought into court for the last time to hear +his sentence. His request to be heard before the Lords and +Commons was rejected, and his attempts to answer the charges +of the president were silenced. Sentence was pronounced, and +the king was removed by the soldiers, uttering his last broken +protest: “I am not suffered to speak. Expect what justice +other people will have.”</p> + +<p>In these last hours Charles, who was probably weary of life, +showed a remarkable dignity and self-possession, and a firm +resignation supported by religious faith and by the absolute +conviction of his own innocence, which, says Burnet, “amazed +all people and that so much the more because it was not natural +to him. It was imputed to a very extraordinary measure of +supernatural assistance....; it was owing to something +within himself that he went through so many indignities with +so much true greatness without disorder or any sort of affectation.” +Nothing in his life became Charles like the leaving it. +“He nothing common did or mean Upon that memorable scene.” +On the morning of the 29th of January he said his last sad +farewell to his younger children, Elizabeth and Henry, duke +of Gloucester. On the 30th at ten o’clock he walked across +from St James’s to Whitehall, calling on his guard “in a +pleasant manner” to walk apace, and at two he stepped upon +the scaffold from a window, probably the middle one, of the +Banqueting House (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate VI., fig. 75). He +was separated from the people by large ranks of soldiers, +and his last speech only reached Juxon and those with him +on the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty +and freedom of the people as much as any; “but I must tell +you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government. + ... It is not their having a share in the government; +that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a +sovereign are clean different things.” These, together with his +declaration that he died a member of the Church of England, +and the mysterious “Remember,” spoken to Juxon, were +Charles’s last words. “It much discontents the citizens,” +wrote a spectator; “ye manner of his deportment was very +resolutely with some smiling countenances, intimating his +willingness to be out of his troubles.”<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> “The blow I saw given,” +wrote another, Philip Henry, “and can truly say with a sad +heart, at the instant whereof, I remember well, there was such +a grone by the Thousands then present as I never heard before +and desire I may never hear again. There was according to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span> +order one Troop immediately marching fromwards Charing-Cross +to Westminster and another fromwards Westminster to Charing-Cross, +purposely to masker” (<i>i.e.</i> to overpower) “the people +and to disperse and scatter them, so that I had much adoe +amongst the rest to escape home without hurt.”<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>Amidst such scenes of violence was at last effected the destruction +of Charles. “It is lawful,” wrote Milton, “and hath been +held so through all ages for any one who have the power to call +to account a Tyrant or wicked King and after due conviction to +depose and put him to death.”<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> But here (it might well be +contended) there had been no “due conviction.” The execution +had been the act of the king’s personal enemies, of “only some +fifty or sixty governing Englishmen with Oliver Cromwell in the +midst of them” an act technically illegal, morally unjustifiable +because the supposed crimes of Charles had been condoned by +the later negotiations with him, and indefensible on the ground of +public expediency, for the king’s death proved a far greater +obstacle to the re-establishment of settled government than his +life could have been. The result was an extraordinary revulsion +of feeling in favour of Charles and the monarchy, in which the +incidents of his misgovernment were completely forgotten. He +soon became in the popular veneration a martyr and a saint. +His fate was compared with the Crucifixion, and his trials and +sufferings to those of the Saviour. Handkerchiefs dipped in his +blood wrought “miracles,” and the <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, published +on the day of his funeral, presented to the public a touching +if not a genuine portrait of the unfortunate sovereign. At the +Restoration the anniversary of his death was ordered to be kept +as a day of fasting and humiliation, and the service appointed +for use on the occasion was only removed from the prayer-book +in 1859. The same conception of Charles as a martyr for religion +appeals still to many, and has been stimulated by modern +writers. “Had Charles been willing to abandon the church and +give up episcopacy,” says Bishop Creighton, “he might have +saved his throne and his life. But on this point Charles stood +firm, for this he died and by dying saved it for the future.”<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a> +Gladstone, Keble, Newman write in the same strain. “It was +for the Church,” says Gladstone, “that Charles shed his blood +upon the scaffold.”<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> “I rest,” says Newman, “on the scenes +of past years, from the Upper Room in Acts to the Court of +Carisbrooke and Uxbridge.” The injustice and violence of the +king’s death, however, the pathetic dignity of his last days, and +the many noble traits in his character, cannot blind us to the +real causes of his downfall and destruction, and a sober judgment +cannot allow that Charles was really a martyr either for the +church or for the popular liberties.</p> + +<p>The constitutional struggle between the crown and parliament +had not been initiated by Charles I. It was in full existence in +the reign of James I., and distinct traces appear towards the +latter part of that of Elizabeth. Charles, therefore, in some +degree inherited a situation for which he was not responsible, +nor can he be justly blamed, according to the ideas of kingship +which then prevailed, for defending the prerogatives of the +crown as precious and sacred personal possessions which it was +his duty to hand down intact to his successors. Neither will +his persistence in refusing to yield up the control of the executive +to the parliament or the army, or his zeal in defending the +national church, be altogether censured. In the event the parliament +proved quite incapable of governing, an army uncontrolled +by the sovereign was shown to constitute a more grievous +tyranny than Charles’s most arbitrary rule, and the downfall +of the church seen to make room only for a sectarian despotism +as intolerable as the Laudian. The natural inference might be +that both conceptions of government had much to support +them, that they were bound sooner or later to come into collision, +and that the actual individuals in the drama, including the king +himself, were rather the victims of the greatness of events than +real actors in the scene, still less the controllers of their own +and the national destiny. A closer insight, however, shows that +biographical more than abstract historical elements determined +the actual course and issue of the Rebellion. The great constitutional +and religious points of dispute between the king and +parliament, though doubtless involving principles vital to the +national interests, would not alone have sufficed to destroy +Charles. Monarchy was too much venerated, was too deeply +rooted in the national life, to be hastily and easily extirpated; +the perils of removing the foundation of all government, law +and order were too obvious not to be shunned at almost all costs. +Still less can the crowning tragedy of the king’s death find its +real explanation or justification in these disputes and antagonisms. +The real cause was the complete discredit into which +Charles had brought himself and the monarchy. The ordinary +routine of daily life and of business cannot continue without +some degree of mutual confidence between the individuals +brought into contact, far less could relations be maintained by +subjects with a king endowed with the enormous powers then +attached to the kingship, and with whom agreements, promises, +negotiations were merely subterfuges and prevarications. We +have seen the series of unhappy falsehoods and deceptions +which constituted Charles’s statecraft, beginning with the +fraud concerning the concessions to the Roman Catholics at his +marriage, the evasions with which he met the Petition of Right, +the abandonment of Strafford, the simultaneous negotiation +with, and betrayal of, all parties. Strafford’s reported words +on hearing of his desertion by Charles, “Put not your trust in +princes,” re-echo through the whole of Charles’s reign. It was +the degradation and dishonour of the kingship, and the personal +loss of credit which Charles suffered through these transactions—which +never appear to have caused him a moment’s regret or +uneasiness, but the fatal consequences of which were seen only +too clearly by men like Hyde and Falkland—that were the real +causes of the rebellion and of the king’s execution. The constitutional +and religious grievances were the outward and +visible sign of the corroding suspicions which slowly consumed +the national loyalty. In themselves there was nothing incapable +of settlement either through the spirit of union which existed +between Elizabeth and her subjects, or by the principle of +compromise which formed the basis of the constitutional settlement +in 1688. The bond of union between his people and +himself Charles had, however, early broken, and compromise +is only possible between parties both of whom can acknowledge +to some extent the force of the other’s position, which can trust +one another, and which are sincere in their endeavour to reach +agreement. Thus on Charles himself chiefly falls the responsibility +for the catastrophe.</p> + +<p>His character and motives fill a large place in English history, +but they have never been fully understood and possibly were +largely due to physical causes. His weakness as a child was so +extreme that his life was despaired of. He outgrew physical +defects, and as a young man excelled in horsemanship and in +the sports of the times, but always retained an impediment of +speech. At the time of his accession his reserve and reticence +were especially noticed. Buckingham was the only person who +ever enjoyed his friendship, and after his death Charles placed +entire confidence in no man. This isolation was the cause of an +ignorance of men and of the world, and of an incapacity to +appreciate the ideas, principles and motives of others, while it +prepared at the same time a fertile soil for receiving those +exalted conceptions of kingship, of divine right and prerogative, +which came into vogue at this period, together with those +exaggerated ideas of his own personal supremacy and importance +to which minds not quite normal are always especially inclined. +His character was marked by a weakness which shirked and +postponed the settlement of difficulties, by a meanness and +ingratitude even when dealing with his most devoted followers, +by an obstinacy which only feigned compliance and by an untruthfulness +which differed widely from his son’s unblushing deceit, +which found always some reservation or excuse, but which while +more scrupulous was also more dangerous and insidious because +employed continually as a principle of conduct. Yet Charles, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span> +spite of his failings, had many fine qualities. Clarendon, who was +fully conscious of them, who does not venture to call him a good +king, and allows that “his kingly virtues had some mixture and +alloy that hindered them from shining in full lustre,” declares +that “he was if ever any, the most worthy of the title of an +Honest Man, so great a lover of justice that no temptation could +dispose him to a wrongful action except that it was disguised to +him that he believed it just,” “the worthiest of gentlemen, the +best master, the best friend, the best husband, the best father +and the best Christian that the age in which he lived produced.” +With all its deplorable mistakes and failings Charles I.’s reign +belongs to a sphere infinitely superior to that of his unscrupulous, +corrupt, selfish but more successful son. His private life was without +a blemish. Immediately on his accession he had suppressed +the disorder which had existed in the household of James I., +and let it be known that whoever had business with him +“must never approach him by backstairs or private doors.”<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +He maintained a strict sobriety in food and dress. He had a +fine artistic sense, and Milton reprehends him for having made +Shakespeare “the closest companion of his solitudes.” “Monsieur +le Prince de Galles,” wrote Rubens in 1625, “est le prince +le plus amateur de la peinture qui soit au monde.” He succeeded +in bringing together during twenty years an unrivalled collection, +of which a great part was dispersed at his death. He showed +a noble insensibility to flattery. He was deeply and sincerely +religious. He wished to do right, and was conscious of the purity +of his motives. Those who came into contact with him, even +the most bitter of his opponents, were impressed with his goodness. +The great tragedy of his life, to be read in his well-known, +dignified, but weak and unhappy features, and to be followed +in his inexplicable and mysterious choice of baneful instruments, +such as Rupert, Laud, Hamilton, Glamorgan, Henrietta Maria—all +in their several ways working out his destruction—seems +to have been inspired by a fateful insanity or infirmity of mind or +will, recalling the great Greek dramas in which the poets depicted +frenzied mortals rushing into their own destruction, impelled +by the unseen and superior powers.</p> + +<p>The king’s body, after being embalmed, was buried by the +few followers who remained with him to the last, hastily and +without any funeral service, which was forbidden by the authorities, +in the tomb of Henry VIII., in St George’s Chapel, Windsor, +where his coffin was identified and opened in 1813. An “account +of what appeared” was published by Sir Henry Halford, and +a bone abstracted on the occasion was replaced in the vault by +the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) in 1888. Charles I. +left, besides three children who died in infancy, Charles (afterwards +Charles II.); James (afterwards James II.); Henry, duke +of Gloucester (1639-1660); Mary (1631-1660), who married +William of Orange; Elizabeth (1635-1650); and Henrietta, +duchess of Orleans (1644-1670).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The leading authority for the life and reign of +Charles I. is the <i>History of England</i> (1883) and <i>History of the Great +Civil War</i> (1893), by S.R. Gardiner, with the references there given. +Among recent works may be mentioned <i>Memoirs of the Martyr +King</i>, by A. Fea (1905); <i>Life of Charles I, 1600-1625</i>, by E.B. +Chancellor (1886); <i>The Visits of Charles I. to Newcastle</i>, by C.S. +Terry (1898); <i>Charles I.</i>, by Sir J. Skelton, valuable for its illustrations +(1898); <i>The Manner of the Coronation of King Charles I.</i>, +ed. by C. Wordsworth (Henry Bradshaw Soc., 1892); <i>The Picture +Gallery of Charles I.</i>, by C. Phillips (1896). See also <i>Calendars of +State Papers</i>, <i>Irish</i> and <i>Domestic Series</i>; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. Series</i>, +esp. <i>MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin, F.J. Savile Foljambe, Lord Montagu +of Beaulieu, Duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, Marquis of Ormonde, +Earl Cowper (Coke MSS.), Earl of Lonsdale</i> (note-books of parliaments +of 1626 and 1628), <i>Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, +Duke of Portland</i>, 11th Rep. app. pt. vi., <i>Duke of Hamilton</i>, pt. i., +<i>Salvetti Correspondence</i>, 10th Rep. pt. vi., <i>Lord Braye</i>; <i>Add. MSS.</i> +Brit. Mus., 33,596 fols. 21-32 (keys to ciphers), 34,171, 35,297; +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, ser. vi., vii., viii., ix. indexes; <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> +ii. 687 (“Charles and Glamorgan” by S.R. Gardiner), vii. 176; +<i>Cornhill Mag.</i> vol. 75, January 1897, “Execution of Charles,” by +C.H. Firth.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11 Rep. app. Pt. iv. 21.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Lord Montagu of Beaulieu</i>, 141.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 7th ser., viii. 326.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Letters and Diaries of P. Henry</i> (1882), 12.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Lectures on Archbishop Laud</i> (1895), p. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Remarks on the Royal Supremacy</i> (1850), p. 57.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Salvetti’s Corresp. in <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. app. pt. i. p. 6.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1630-1685), king of Great Britain and Ireland, +second son of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born +on the 29th of May 1630 at St James’s Palace, and was brought +up under the care successively of the countess of Dorset, William +Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, and the marquess of Hertford. +He accompanied the king during the campaigns of the Civil War, +and sat in the parliament at Oxford, but on the 4th of March 1645 +he was sent by Charles I. to the west, accompanied by Hyde and +others who formed his council. Owing, however, to the mutual +jealousies and misconduct of Goring and Grenville, and the +prince’s own disregard and contempt of the council, his presence +was in no way advantageous, and could not prevent the final +overthrow of the king’s forces in 1646. He retired (17th of +February) to Pendennis Castle at Falmouth, and on the approach +of Fairfax (2nd of March) to Scilly, where he remained with +Hyde till the 16th of April. Thence he fled to Jersey, and +finally refusing all the overtures from the parliament, and in +opposition to the counsels of Hyde, who desired the prince to +remain on English territory, he repaired to the queen at Paris, +where he remained for two years. He is described at this time +by Mme de Motteville as “well-made, with a swarthy complexion +agreeing well with his fine black eyes, a large ugly mouth, a +graceful and dignified carriage and a fine figure”; and according +to the description circulated later for his capture after the battle +of Worcester, he was over six feet tall. He received instruction +in mathematics from Hobbes, and was early initiated into all +the vices of the age by Buckingham and Percy. In July 1648 +the prince joined the royalist fleet and blockaded the Thames +with a fleet of eleven ships, returning to Holland, where he +received the news of the final royalist defeats and afterwards of +the execution of his father. On the 14th of January 1649 he +had forwarded to the council a signed <i>carte blanche</i>, granting any +conditions provided his father’s life were spared. He immediately +assumed the title of king, and was proclaimed in Scotland +(5th of February) and in some parts of Ireland. On the 17th of +September, after a visit to his mother at St Germain, Charles +went to Jersey and issued a declaration proclaiming his rights; +but, owing to the arrival of the fleet at Portsmouth, he was +obliged, on the 13th of February 1650, to return again to Breda. +The projected invasion of Ireland was delayed through want of +funds till it was too late; Hyde’s mission to Spain, in the midst +of Cromwell’s’ successes, brought no assistance, and Charles now +turned to Scotland for aid. Employing the same unscrupulous +and treacherous methods which had proved so fatal to his father, +he simultaneously supported and encouraged the expedition of +Montrose and the royalists, and negotiated with the covenanters. +On the 1st of May he signed the first draft of a treaty at Breda +with the latter, in which he accepted the Solemn League and +Covenant, conceded the control of public and church affairs to +the parliament and the kirk, and undertook to establish Presbyterianism +in the three kingdoms. He also signed privately a +paper repudiating Ormonde and the loyal Irish, and recalling +the commissions granted to them. In acting thus he did not +scruple to desert his own royalist followers, and to repudiate +and abandon the great and noble Montrose, whose heroic efforts +he was apparently merely using in order to extort better terms +from the covenanters, and who, having been captured on the 4th +of May, was executed on the 21st in spite of some attempts by +Charles to procure for him an indemnity.</p> + +<p>Thus perjured and disgraced the young king embarked for +Scotland on the 2nd of June; on the 11th when off Heligoland +he signed the treaty, and on the 23rd, on his arrival at Speymouth, +before landing, he swore to both the covenants. He proceeded +to Falkland near Perth and passed through Aberdeen, where +he saw the mutilated arm of Montrose suspended over the +city gate. He was compelled to dismiss all his followers except +Buckingham, and to submit to interminable sermons, which +generally contained violent invectives against his parents and +himself. To Argyll he promised the payment of £40,000 at his +restoration, doubtless the sum owing as arrears of the Scottish +army unpaid when Charles I. was surrendered to the English +at Newcastle, and entered into negotiations for marrying his +daughter. In August he was forced to sign a further declaration, +confessing his own wickedness in dealing with the Irish, his father’s +blood-guiltiness, his mother’s idolatry, and his abhorrence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span> +of prelacy, besides ratifying his allegiance to the covenants +and to Presbyterianism. At the same time he declared himself +secretly to King, dean of Tuam, “a true child of the Church of +England,” “a true Cavalier,” and avowed that “what concerns +Ireland is in no ways binding”; while to the Roman Catholics +in England he promised concessions and expressed his goodwill +towards their church to Pope Innocent X. His attempt, called +“The Start,” on the 4th of October 1650, to escape from the +faction at Perth and to join Huntly and the royalists in the +north failed, and he was overtaken and compelled to return. +On the 1st of January 1651 he was crowned at Scone, when he +was forced to repeat his oaths to both the covenants.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Cromwell had advanced and had defeated the +Presbyterians at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, subsequently +occupying Edinburgh. This defeat was not wholly +unwelcome to Charles in the circumstances; in the following +summer, during Cromwell’s advance to the north, he shook off +the Presbyterian influence, and on the 31st of July 1651 marched +south into England with an army of about 10,000 commanded +by David Leslie. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, joined +by the earl of Derby in Lancashire, evaded the troops of Lambert +and Harrison in Cheshire, marched through Shropshire, meeting +with a rebuff at Shrewsbury, and entered Worcester with a +small, tired and dispirited force of only 16,000 men (22nd of +August). Here the decisive battle, which ruined his hopes, and +in which Charles distinguished himself by conspicuous courage +and fortitude, was fought on the 3rd of September. After leading +an unsuccessful cavalry charge against the enemy he fled, about +6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, accompanied by Buckingham, Derby, Wilmot, Lauderdale +and others, towards Kidderminster, taking refuge at Whiteladies, +about 25 m. from Worcester, where he separated himself +from all his followers except Wilmot, concealing himself in the +famous oak during the 6th of September, moving subsequently +to Boscobel, to Moseley and Bentley Hall, and thence, disguised +as Miss Lane’s attendant, to Abbots Leigh near Bristol, to Trent +in Somersetshire, and finally to the George Inn at Brighton, +having been recognized during the forty-one days of his wanderings +by about fifty persons, none of whom, in spite of the reward +of £1000 offered for his capture, or of the death penalty threatened +for aiding his concealment, had betrayed him.</p> + +<p>He set sail from Shoreham on the 15th of October 1651, and +landed at Fécamp in Normandy the next day. He resided +at Paris at St Germain till June 1654, in inactivity, unable to +make any further effort, and living with difficulty on a grant +from Louis XIV. of 600 livres a month. Various missions to +foreign powers met with failure; he was excluded from Holland +by the treaty made with England in April 1654, and he anticipated +his expulsion from France, owing to the new relations of +friendship established with Cromwell, by quitting the country +in July. He visited his sister, the princess of Orange, at Spa, and +went to Aix-la-Chapelle, thence finally proceeding in November +to Cologne, where he was hospitably received. The conclusion +of Cromwell’s treaty with France in October 1655, and the +war between England and Spain, gave hope of aid from the +latter power. In April 1656 Charles went to Bruges, and on the +7th of February 1658 to Brussels, where he signed a treaty with +Don John of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by +which he received an allowance in place of his French pension +and undertook to assemble all his subjects in France in aid of +the Spanish against the French. This plan, however, came to +nothing; projected risings in England were betrayed, and by +the capture of Dunkirk in June 1658, after the battle of the +Dunes, by the French and Cromwell’s Ironsides, the Spanish +cause in Flanders was ruined.</p> + +<p>As long as Cromwell lived there appeared little hope of the +restoration of the monarchy, and Charles and Hyde had been +aware of the plots for his assassination, which had aroused no +disapproval. By the protector’s death on the 3rd of September +1658 the scene was wholly changed, and amidst the consequent +confusion of factions the cry for the restoration of the monarchy +grew daily in strength. The premature royalist rising, however, +in August 1659 was defeated, and Charles, who had awaited +the result on the coast of Brittany, proceeded to Fuenterrabia +on the Spanish frontier, where Mazarin and Luis de Haro were +negotiating the treaty of the Pyrenees, to induce both powers to +support his cause; but the failure of the attempt in England +ensured the rejection of his request, and he returned to +Brussels in December, visiting his mother at Paris on the way. +Events had meanwhile developed fast in favour of a restoration. +Charles, by Hyde’s advice, had not interfered in the movement, +and had avoided inconvenient concessions to the various factions +by referring all to a “free parliament.” He left Brussels for +Breda, and issued in April 1660, together with the letters to the +council, the officers of the army and the houses of parliament +and the city, the declaration of an amnesty for all except those +specially excluded afterwards by parliament, which referred to +parliament the settlement of estates and promised a liberty to +tender consciences in matters of religion not contrary to the +peace of the kingdom.</p> + +<p>On the 8th of May Charles II. was proclaimed king in Westminster +Hall and elsewhere in London. On the 24th he sailed +from the Hague, landing on the 26th at Dover, where he was met +by Monk, whom he saluted as father, and by the mayor, from +whom he accepted a “very rich bible,” “the thing that he +loved above all things in the world.” He reached London on +the 29th, his thirtieth birthday, arriving with the procession, +amidst general rejoicings and “through a lane of happy faces,” +at seven in the evening at Whitehall, where the houses of +parliament awaited his coming, to offer in the name of the +nation their congratulations and allegiance.</p> + +<p>No event in the history of England had been attended with +more lively and general rejoicing than Charles’s restoration, and +none was destined to cause greater subsequent disappointment +and disillusion. Indolent, sensual and dissipated by nature, +Charles’s vices had greatly increased during his exile abroad, +and were now, with the great turn of fortune which gave him +full opportunity to indulge them, to surpass all the bounds of +decency and control. A long residence till the age of thirty +abroad, together with his French blood, had made him politically +more of a foreigner than an Englishman, and he returned to +England ignorant of the English constitution, a Roman Catholic +and a secret adversary of the national religion, and untouched +by the sentiment of England’s greatness or of patriotism. Pure +selfishness was the basis of his policy both in domestic and +foreign affairs. Abroad the great national interests were eagerly +sacrificed for the sake of a pension, and at home his personal +ease and pleasure alone decided every measure, and the fate of +every minister and subject. During his exile he had surrounded +himself with young men of the same spirit as himself, such as +Buckingham and Bennet, who, without having any claim to +statesmanship, inattentive to business, neglectful of the national +interests and national prejudices, became Charles’s chief advisers. +With them, as with their master, public office was only desirable +as a means of procuring enjoyment, for which an absolute +monarchy provided the most favourable conditions. Such +persons were now, accordingly, destined to supplant the older +and responsible ministers of the type of Clarendon and Ormonde, +men of high character and patriotism, who followed definite lines +of policy, while at the same time the younger men of ability and +standing were shut out from office.</p> + +<p>The first period of Charles II.’s reign (1660-1667) was that of +the administration of Lord Clarendon, the principal author of the +Restoration settlement. The king was granted the large revenue +of £1,300,000. The naval and military forces were disbanded, +but Charles managed to retain under the name of guards three +regiments, which remained the nucleus of a standing army. The +settlement of estates on a legal basis provided ill for a large +number of the king’s adherents who had impoverished themselves +in his cause. The king’s honour was directly involved in their +compensation and, except for the gratification of a few individuals, +was tarnished by his neglect to afford them relief. Charles used +his influence to carry through parliament the act of indemnity, +and the execution of some of the regicides was a measure not more +severe than was to be expected in the times and circumstances; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span> +but that of Sir Henry Vane, who was not a regicide and whose life +Charles had promised the parliament to spare in case of his condemnation, +was brought about by Charles’s personal insistence +in revenge for the victim’s high bearing during his trial, and was +an act of gross cruelty and perfidy. Charles was in favour of +religious toleration, and a declaration issued by him in October +1660 aroused great hopes; but he made little effort to conciliate +the Presbyterians or to effect a settlement through the Savoy +conference, and his real object was to gain power over all the +factions and to free his co-religionists, the Roman Catholics, in +favour of whom he issued his first declaration of indulgence (26th +of December 1662), the bill to give effect to it being opposed by +Clarendon and defeated in the Lords, and being replied to by the +passing of further acts against religious liberty. Meanwhile the +plot of Venner and of the Fifth Monarchy men had been suppressed +in January 1661, and the king was crowned on the 23rd of April. +The convention parliament had been dissolved on the 29th of +December 1660, and Charles’s first parliament, the Long Parliament +of the Restoration, which met on the 8th of May 1661 and +continued till January 1679, declared the command of the forces +inherent in the crown, repudiated the taking up of arms against +the king, and repealed in 1664 the Triennial Act, adding only a +provision that there should not be intermission of parliaments for +more than three years. In Ireland the church was re-established, +and a new settlement of land introduced by the Act of Settlement +1661 and the Act of Explanation 1665. The island was +excluded from the benefit of the Navigation Laws, and in 1666 the +importation of cattle and horses into England was forbidden. In +Scotland episcopacy was set up, the covenant to which Charles +had taken so many solemn oaths burnt by the common hangman, +and Argyll brought to the scaffold, while the kingdom was given +over to the savage and corrupt administration of Lauderdale. +On the 21st of May 1662, in pursuance of the pro-French and anti-Spanish +policy, Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter +of John IV. of Portugal, by which alliance England obtained +Tangier and Bombay. She brought him no children, and her +attractions for Charles were inferior to those of his mistress, Lady +Castlemaine, whom she was compelled to receive as a lady of her +bedchamber. In February 1665 the ill-omened war with Holland +was declared, during the progress of which it became apparent +how greatly the condition of the national services and the state +of administration had deteriorated since the Commonwealth, +and to what extent England was isolated and abandoned abroad, +Michael de Ruyter, on the 13th of June 1667, carrying out his +celebrated attack on Chatham and burning several warships. +The disgrace was unprecedented. Charles did not show himself +and it was reported that he had abdicated, but to allay the popular +panic it was given out “that he was very cheerful that night at +supper with his mistresses.” The treaty of Breda with Holland +(21st of July 1667) removed the danger, but not the ignominy, +and Charles showed the real baseness of his character when he +joined in the popular outcry against Clarendon, the upright and +devoted adherent of his father and himself during twenty-five +years of misfortune, and drove him into poverty and exile in his +old age, recalling ominously Charles I.’s betrayal of Strafford.</p> + +<p>To Clarendon now succeeded the ministry of Buckingham +and Arlington, who with Lauderdale, Ashley (afterwards Lord +Shaftesbury) and Clifford, constituted the so-called Cabal ministry +in 1672. With these advisers Charles entered into those schemes +so antagonistic to the national interests which have disgraced +his reign. His plan was to render himself independent of parliament +and of the nation by binding himself to France and the +French policy of aggrandizement, and receiving a French pension +with the secret intention as well of introducing the Roman +Catholic religion again into England. In 1661 under Clarendon’s +rule, the evil precedent had been admitted of receiving money +from France, in 1662 Dunkirk had been sold to Louis, and in +February 1667 during the Dutch war a secret alliance had been +made with Louis, Charles promising him a free hand in the +Netherlands and Louis undertaking to support Charles’s designs +“in or out of the kingdom.” In January 1668 Sir W. Temple +had made with Sweden and Holland the Triple Alliance against +the encroachments and aggrandizement of France, but this +national policy was soon upset by the king’s own secret plans. +In 1668 the conversion of his brother James to Romanism became +known to Charles. Already in 1662 the king had sent Sir Richard +Bellings to Rome to arrange the terms of England’s conversion, +and now in 1668 he was in correspondence with Oliva, the general +of the Jesuits in Rome, through James de la Cloche, the eldest +of his natural sons, of whom he had become the father when +scarcely sixteen during his residence at Jersey. On the 25th of +January 1669, at a secret meeting between the two royal brothers, +with Arlington, Clifford and Arundell of Wardour, it was determined +to announce to Louis XIV. the projected conversion of +Charles and the realm, and subsequent negotiations terminated +in the two secret treaties of Dover. The first, signed only, among +the ministers, by Arlington and Clifford, the rest not being +initiated, on the 20th of May 1670, provided for the return of +England to Rome and the joint attack of France and +England upon Holland, England’s ally, together with Charles’s +support of the Bourbon claims to the throne of Spain, while +Charles received a pension of £200,000 a year. In the second, +signed by Arlington, Buckingham, Lauderdale and Ashley on the +31st of December 1670, nothing was said about the conversion, and +the pension provided for that purpose was added to the military +subsidy, neither of these treaties being communicated to parliament +or to the nation. An immediate gain to Charles was the +acquisition of another mistress in the person of Louise de +Kéroualle, the so-called “Madam Carwell,” who had accompanied +the duchess of Orleans, the king’s sister, to Dover, at the time of +the negotiations, and who joined Charles’s seraglio, being created +duchess of Portsmouth, and acting as the agent of the French +alliance throughout the reign.</p> + +<p>On the 24th of October 1670, at the very time that these +treaties were in progress, Charles opened parliament and obtained +a vote of £800,000 on the plea of supporting the Triple Alliance. +Parliament was prorogued in April 1671, not assembling again +till February 1673, and on the 2nd of January 1672 was announced +the “stop of the exchequer,” or national bankruptcy, one of +the most blameworthy and unscrupulous acts of the reign, by +which the payments from the exchequer ceased, and large +numbers of persons who had lent to the government were thus +ruined. On the reassembling of parliament on the 4th of +February 1673 a strong opposition was shown to the Cabal +ministry which had been constituted at the end of 1672. The +Dutch War, declared on the 17th of March 1672, though the commercial +and naval jealousies of Holland had certainly not disappeared +in England, was unpopular because of the alliance with +France and the attack upon Protestantism, while the king’s +second declaration of indulgence (15th of March 1672) aroused +still further antagonism, was declared illegal by the parliament, +and was followed up by the Test Act, which obliged James and +Clifford to resign their offices. In February 1674 the war with +Holland was closed by the treaty of London or of Westminster, +though Charles still gave Louis a free hand in his aggressive +policy towards the Netherlands, and the Cabal was driven +from office. Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) now became +chief minister; but, though in reality a strong supporter of the +national policy, he could not hope to keep his place without +acquiescence in the king’s schemes. In November 1675 Charles +again prorogued parliament, and did not summon it again till +February 1677, when it was almost immediately prorogued. +On the 17th of February 1676, with Danby’s knowledge, Charles +concluded a further treaty with Louis by which he undertook to +subordinate entirely his foreign policy to that of France, and +received an annual pension of £100,000. On the other hand, +Danby succeeded in effecting the marriage (4th of November +1677) between William of Orange and the princess Mary, which +proved the most important political event in the whole reign. +Louis revenged himself by intriguing with the Opposition and +by turning his streams of gold in that direction, and a further +treaty with France for the annual payment to Charles of £300,000 +and the dismissal of his parliament, concluded on the 17th of +May 1678, was not executed. Louis made peace with Holland +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span> +at Nijmwegen on the 10th of August, and punished Danby by +disclosing his secret negotiations, thus causing the minister’s +fall and impeachment. To save Danby Charles now prorogued +the parliament on the 30th of December, dissolving it on the 24th +of January 1679.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the “Popish Plot,” the creation of a band of +impostors encouraged by Shaftesbury and the most violent +and unscrupulous of the extreme Protestant party in order +to exclude James from the throne, had thrown the whole +country into a panic. Charles’s conduct in this conjuncture +was highly characteristic and was marked by his usual cynical +selfishness. He carefully refrained from incurring suspicion +and unpopularity by opposing the general outcry, and though +he saw through the imposture from the beginning he made no +attempt to moderate the popular frenzy or to save the life of any +of the victims, his co-religionists, not even intervening in the +case of Lord Stafford, and allowing Titus Oates to be lodged +at Whitehall with a pension. His policy was to take advantage +of the violence of the faction, to “give them line enough,” +to use his own words, to encourage it rather than repress it, +with the expectation of procuring finally a strong royalist reaction. +In his resistance to the great movement for the exclusion +of James from the succession, Charles was aided by moderate +men such as Halifax, who desired only a restriction of James’s +powers, and still more by the violence of the extreme exclusionists +themselves, who headed by Shaftesbury brought about their +own downfall and that of their cause by their support of the +legitimacy and claims of Charles’s natural son, the duke of +Monmouth. In 1679 Charles denied, in council, his supposed +marriage with Lucy Walter, Monmouth’s mother, his declarations +being published in 1680 to refute the legend of the black box +which was supposed to contain the contract of marriage, and +told Burnet he would rather see him hanged than legitimize him. +He deprived him of his general’s commission in consequence +of his quasi-royal progresses about the country, and in December +on Monmouth’s return to England he was forbidden to appear at +court. In February 1679 the king had consented to order James +to go abroad, and even approved of the attempt of the primate +and the bishop of Winchester to convert him to Protestantism. +To weaken the opposition to his government Charles accepted +Sir W Temple’s new scheme of governing by a council which included +the leaders of the Opposition, and which might have become +a rival to the parliament, but this was an immediate failure. +In May 1679 he prorogued the new parliament which had +attainted Danby, and in July dissolved it, while in October he +prorogued another parliament of the same mind till January and +finally till October 1680, having resolved “to wait till this violence +should wear off.” He even made overtures to Shaftesbury in +November 1679, but the latter insisted on the departure of both +the queen and James. All attempts at compromise failed, and +on the assembling of the parliament in October 1680 the Exclusion +Bill passed the Commons, being, however, thrown out in the Lords +through the influence of Halifax. Charles dissolved the parliament +in January 1681, declaring that he would never give his +consent to the Exclusion Bill, and summoned another at Oxford, +which met there on the 21st of March 1681, Shaftesbury’s faction +arriving accompanied by armed bands. Charles expressed his +willingness to consent to the handing over of the administration +to the control of a Protestant, in the case of a Roman Catholic +sovereign, but the Opposition insisted on Charles’s nomination +of Monmouth as his successor, and the parliament was accordingly +once more (28th of March) dissolved by Charles, while a royal +proclamation ordered to be read in all the churches proclaimed +the ill-deeds of the parliament and the king’s affection for the +Protestant religion.</p> + +<p>Charles’s tenacity and clever tact were now rewarded. A +great popular reaction ensued in favour of the monarchy, and +a large number of loyal addresses were sent in, most of them +condemning the Exclusion Bill. Shaftesbury was imprisoned, +and though the Middlesex jury threw out his indictment and +he was liberated, he never recovered his power, and in October +1682 left England for ever. The Exclusion Bill and the limitation +of James’s powers were no more heard of, and full liberty was +granted to the king to pursue the retrograde and arbitrary policy +to which his disposition naturally inclined. In Scotland James +set up a tyrannical administration of the worst type. The royal +enmity towards William of Orange was increased by a visit of +the latter to England in July. No more parliaments were called, +and Charles subsisted on his permanent revenue and his French +pensions. He continued the policy of double-dealing and +treachery, deceiving his ministers as at the treaty of Dover, +by pretending to support Holland and Spain while he was +secretly engaged to Louis to betray them. On the 22nd of March +1681 he entered into a compact with Louis whereby he undertook +to desert his allies and offer no resistance to French aggressions. +In August he joined with Spain and Holland in a manifesto +against France, while secretly for a million livres he engaged +himself to Louis, and in 1682 he proposed himself as arbitrator +with the intention of treacherously handing over Luxemburg +to France, an offer which was rejected owing to Spanish suspicions +of collusion. In the event, Charles’s duplicity enabled Louis to +seize Strassburg in 1681 and Luxemburg in 1684. The government +at home was carried on principally by Rochester, Sunderland +and Godolphin, while Guilford was lord chancellor and +Jeffreys lord chief justice. The laws against the Nonconformists +were strictly enforced. In order to obtain servile parliaments and +also obsequious juries, who with the co-operation of judges of the +stamp of Jeffreys could be depended upon to carry out the wishes +of the court, the borough charters were confiscated, the charter +of the city of London being forfeited on the 12th of June 1683.</p> + +<p>The popularity of Charles, now greatly increased, was raised +to national enthusiasm by the discovery of the Rye House plot +in 1683, said to be a scheme to assassinate Charles and James +at an isolated house on the high road near Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire +as they returned from Newmarket to London, among +those implicated being Algernon Sidney, Lord Russell and +Monmouth, the two former paying the death penalty and +Monmouth being finally banished to the Hague. The administration +became more and more despotic, and Tangier was abandoned +in order to reduce expenses and to increase the forces at home +for overawing opposition. The first preliminary steps were now +taken for the reintroduction of the Roman Catholic religion. +Danby and those confined on account of participation in the +popish plot were liberated, and Titus Oates thrown into prison. +A scheme was announced for withdrawing the control of the army +in Ireland from Rochester, the lord-lieutenant, and placing it in +the king’s own hands, and the commission to which the king had +delegated ecclesiastical patronage was revoked. In May 1684 +the office of lord high admiral, in spite of the Test Act, was again +given to James, who had now returned from Scotland. To all +appearances the same policy afterwards pursued so recklessly +and disastrously by James was now cautiously initiated by +Charles, who, however, not being inspired by the same religious +zeal as his brother, and not desiring “to go on his travels again,” +would probably have drawn back prudently before his throne +was endangered. The developments of this movement were, +however, now interrupted by the death of Charles after a short +illness on the 6th of February 1685. He was buried on the 17th +in Henry VII.’s chapel in Westminster Abbey with funeral +ceremonies criticized by contemporaries as mean and wanting +in respect, but the scantiness of which was probably owing to +the fact that he had died a Roman Catholic.</p> + +<p>On his death-bed Charles had at length declared himself an +adherent of that religion and had received the last rites according +to the Romanist usage. There appears to be no trustworthy +record of his formal conversion, assigned to various times and +various agencies. As a youth, says Clarendon, “the ill-bred +familiarity of the Scotch divines had given him a distaste” for +Presbyterianism, which he indeed declared “no religion for +gentlemen,” and the mean figure which the fallen national +church made in exile repelled him at the same time that he was +attracted by the “genteel part of the Catholic religion.” With +Charles religion was not the serious matter it was with James, +and was largely regarded from the political aspect and from that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span> +of ease and personal convenience. Presbyterianism constituted +a dangerous encroachment on the royal prerogative; the national +church and the cavalier party were indeed the natural supporters +of the authority of the crown, but on the other hand they refused +to countenance the dependence upon France; Roman Catholicism +at that moment was the obvious medium of governing +without parliaments, of French pensions and of reigning without +trouble, and was naturally the faith of Charles’s choice. Of the +two papers in defence of the Roman Catholic religion in Charles’s +own hand, published by James, Halifax says “though neither +his temper nor education made him very fit to be an author, +yet in this case ... he might write it all himself and yet not +one word of it his own....”</p> + +<p>Of his amours and mistresses the same shrewd observer of +human character, who was also well acquainted with the king, +declares “that his inclinations to love were the effects of health +and a good constitution with as little mixture of the <i>seraphic</i> +part as ever man had.... I am apt to think his stayed as much +as any man’s ever did in the <i>lower</i> region.” His health was the +one subject to which he gave unremitting attention, and his fine +constitution and devotion to all kinds of sport and physical +exercise kept off the effects of uncontrolled debauchery for +thirty years. In later years the society of his mistresses seems +to have been chiefly acceptable as a means to avoid business +and petitioners, and in the case of the duchess of Portsmouth +was the price paid for ease and the continuance of the French +pensions. His ministers he never scrupled to sacrifice to his ease. +The love of ease exercised an entire sovereignty in his thoughts. +“The motive of his giving bounties was rather to make men +less uneasy to him than more easy to themselves.” He would +rob his own treasury and take bribes to press a measure through +the council. He had a natural affability, but too general to be +much valued, and he was fickle and deceitful. Neither gratitude +nor revenge moved him, and good or ill services left little impression +on his mind. Halifax, however, concludes by desiring +to moderate the roughness of his picture by emphasizing the +excellence of his intellect and memory and his mechanical talent, +by deprecating a too censorious judgment and by dwelling upon +the disadvantages of his bringing up, the difficulties and temptations +of his position, and on the fact that his vices were those +common to human frailty. His capacity for king-craft, knowledge +of the world, and easy address enabled him to surmount +difficulties and dangers which would have proved fatal to his +father or to his brother. “It was a common saying that he +could send away a person better pleased at receiving nothing +than those in the good king his father’s time that had requests +granted them,”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and his good-humoured tact and familiarity +compensated for and concealed his ingratitude and perfidy and +preserved his popularity. He had good taste in art and literature, +was fond of chemistry and science, and the Royal Society was +founded in his reign. According to Evelyn he was “débonnaire +and easy of access, naturally kind-hearted and possessed an +excellent temper,” virtues which covered a multitude of sins.</p> + +<p>These small traits of amiability, however, which pleased his +contemporaries, cannot disguise for us the broad lines of Charles’s +career and character. How far the extraordinary corruption +of private morals which has gained for the restoration period +so unenviable a notoriety was owing to the king’s own example +of flagrant debauchery, how far to the natural reaction from an +artificial Puritanism, is uncertain, but it is incontestable that +Charles’s cynical selfishness was the chief cause of the degradation +of public life which marks his reign, and of the disgraceful and +unscrupulous betrayal of the national interests which raised +France to a threatening predominance and imperilled the very +existence of Britain for generations. The reign of his predecessor +Charles I., and even of that of his successor James II., with +their mistaken principles and ideals, have a saving dignity +wholly wanting in that of Charles II., and the administration +of Cromwell, in spite of the popularity of the restoration, was +soon regretted. “A lazy Prince,” writes Pepys, “no Council, +no money, no reputation at home or abroad. It is strange +how ... everybody do nowadays reflect upon Oliver and +commend him, what brave things he did and made all the +neighbour princes fear him; while here a prince, come in with +all the love and prayers and good liking of his people ... hath +lost all so soon....”</p> + +<p>Charles II. had no children by his queen. By his numerous +mistresses he had a large illegitimate progeny. By Barbara +Villiers, Mrs Palmer, afterwards countess of Castlemaine and +duchess of Cleveland, mistress <i>en titre</i> till she was superseded by +the duchess of Portsmouth, he had Charles Fitzroy, duke of +Southampton and Cleveland, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Grafton, +George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, Anne, countess of +Sussex, Charlotte, countess of Lichfield, and Barbara, a nun; +by Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, Charles Lennox, +duke of Richmond; by Lucy Walter, James, duke of Monmouth +and Buccleuch, and a daughter; by Nell Gwyn, Charles Beauclerk, +duke of St Albans, and James Beauclerk; by Catherine +Peg, Charles Fitz Charles, earl of Plymouth; by Lady Shannon, +Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth; by Mary Davis, Mary Tudor, +countess of Derwentwater.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—See the article in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biog.</i> by A.W. +Ward (1887), with authorities there given; <i>Charles II.</i>, by O. Airy +(1904); <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, by H.C. Foxcroft, and esp. Halifax’s +<i>Character of Charles II.</i> printed in the appendix (1898); <i>The Essex +Papers</i> (Camden Soc., 1890); <i>Despatches of W. Perwich</i> (Royal +Hist. Soc. Pubtns., 1903); <i>History of England, of the Civil War</i> and +<i>of the Commonwealth</i>, by S.R. Gardiner; <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, by A. +Lang, vol. iii. (1904); Macaulay’s <i>Hist, of England</i>, vol. i.; <i>Notes +which passed at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and +the Earl of Clarendon</i> (Roxburghe Club, 1896); <i>A French Ambassador +at the Court of Charles II.</i>, by J.J. Jusserand (1902); <i>The Story of +Nell Gwyn and the Sayings of Charles II.</i>, by P. Cunningham, ed. +by H.B. Wheatley (1892); for his adventures and period of exile +see <i>Memoiren der Herzogin Sophie</i>, ed. by A. Köcher (1879); “Briefe +der Elisabeth Stuart,” by A. Wendland (<i>Litterarischer Verein +in Stuttgart</i>, No. 228); Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Mlle de +Montpensier and Mme de Motteville; <i>The King in Exile</i>, by E. +Scott (1905); Scottish History Pubtns. vols. 17 (<i>Charles II. in Scotland</i>, +by S.R. Gardiner, 1894) and 18 (<i>Scotland and the Commonwealth, +1651-1653</i>, ed. by C.H. Firth, 1895); <i>Charles II. in the +Channel Islands</i>, by S.E. Hoskins (1854) i <i>Boscobel</i>, by T. Blount, +&c., ed. by C.G. Thomas (1894); <i>The Flight of the King</i> (1897) and +<i>After Worcester Fight</i> (1904), by A. Fea; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, (January +1894); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> xix. (1904) 363; <i>Revue historique</i>, xxviii. +and xxix.; <i>Art Journal</i> (1889), p. 178 (“Boscobel and Whiteladies,” +by J. Penderel-Brodhurst); <i>England under Charles II.</i>, by W.F. +Taylor (1889), a collection of passages from contemporary writers; +and R. Crawfurd, <i>The Last Days of Charles II.</i> (1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Mem. of Thomas, earl of Ailesbury</i>, p. 95.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> and <span class="bold">II</span>., kings of France. By the French, Charles +the Great, Roman emperor and king of the Franks, is reckoned the +first of the series of French kings named Charles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>). +Similarly the emperor Charles II. the Bald (<i>q.v.</i>) is +reckoned as Charles II. of France. In some enumerations the +emperor Charles III. the Fat (<i>q.v.</i>) is reckoned as Charles II. of +France, Charlemagne not being included in the list, and Charles +the Bald being styled Charles I.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> the Simple (879-929), king of France, was a +posthumous son of Louis the Stammerer and of his second wife +Adelaide. On the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887 he was +excluded from the throne by his youth; but during the reign of +Odo, who had succeeded Charles, he succeeded in gaining the +recognition of a certain number of notables and in securing his +coronation at Reims on the 28th of January 893. He now +obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced Odo to cede +part of Neustria. In 898, by the death of his rival (Jan. 1), he +obtained possession of the whole kingdom. His most important +act was the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Normans in +911. Some of them were baptized; the territory which was +afterwards known as the duchy of Normandy was ceded to them; +but the story of the marriage of their chief Rollo with a sister of +the king, related by the chronicler Dudo of Saint Quentin, is +very doubtful. The same year Charles, on the invitation of the +barons, took possession of the kingdom of Lotharingia. In 920 +the barons, jealous of the growth of the royal authority and +discontented with the favour shown by the king to his counsellor +Hagano, rebelled, and in 922 elected Robert, brother of King +Odo, in place of Charles. Robert was killed in the battle of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span> +Soissons, but the victory remained with his party, who elected +Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king. In his extremity Charles +trusted himself to Herbert, count of Vermandois, who deceived +him, and threw him into confinement at Château-Thierry and +afterwards at Péronne. In the latter town he died on the 7th +of October 929. In 907 he had married Frederona, sister of +Bovo, bishop of Chalons. After her death he married Eadgyfu +(Odgiva), daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the English, who +was the mother of Louis IV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Eckel, <i>Charles le Simple</i> (Paris, 1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1294-1328), king of France, called <span class="sc">The Fair</span>, +was the third and youngest son of Philip IV. and Jeanne of +Navarre. In 1316 he was created count of La Marche, and +succeeded his brother Philip V. as king of France and Navarre +early in 1322. He followed the policy of his predecessors in +enforcing the royal authority over the nobles, but the machinery +of a centralized government strong enough to hold nobility +in check increased the royal expenditure, to meet which Charles +had recourse to doubtful financial expedients. At the beginning +of his reign he ordered a recast of the coinage, with serious +results to commerce; civil officials were deprived of offices, +which had been conferred free, but were now put up to auction; +duties were imposed on exported merchandise and on goods +brought into Paris; the practice of exacting heavy fines was +encouraged by making the salaries of the magistrates dependent +on them; and on the pretext of a crusade to free Armenia from +the Turks, Charles obtained from the pope a tithe levied on the +clergy, the proceeds of which he kept for his own use; he also +confiscated the property of the Lombard bankers who had been +invited to France by his father at a time of financial crisis. The +history of the assemblies summoned by Charles IV. is obscure, +but in 1326, on the outbreak of war with England, an assembly +of prelates and barons met at Meaux. Commissioners were +afterwards despatched to the provinces to state the position of +affairs and to receive complaints. The king justified his failure +to summon the estates on the ground of the expense incurred +by provincial deputies. The external politics of his reign were +not marked by any striking events. He maintained excellent +relations with Pope John XXII., who made overtures to him, +indirectly, offering his support in case of his candidature for the +imperial crown. Charles tried to form a party in Italy in support +of the pope against the emperor Louis IV. of Bavaria, but +failed. A treaty with the English which secured the district +of Agenais for France was followed by a feudal war in Guienne. +Isabella, Charles’s sister and the wife of Edward II., was sent +to France to negotiate, and with her brother’s help arranged the +final conspiracy against her husband. Charles’s first wife was +Blanche, daughter of Otto IV., count of Burgundy, and of +Matilda (Mahaut), countess of Artois, to whom he was married +in 1307. In May 1314, by order of King Philip IV., she was +arrested and imprisoned in the Château-Gaillard with her sister-in-law +Marguerite, daughter of Robert II., duke of Burgundy, +and wife of Louis Hutin, on the charge of adultery with two +gentlemen of the royal household, Philippe and Gautier d’Aunai. +Jeanne, sister of Marguerite and wife of Philip the Tall, was +also arrested for not having denounced the culprits, and imprisoned +at Dourdan. The two knights were put to the torture +and executed, and their goods confiscated. It is impossible +to say how far the charges were true. Tradition has involved +and obscured the story, which is the origin of the legend of the +<i>tour de Nesle</i> made famous by the drama of A. Dumas the elder. +Marguerite died shortly in prison; Jeanne was declared innocent +by the parlement and returned to her husband. Blanche was +still in prison when Charles became king. He induced Pope +John XXII. to declare the marriage null, on the ground that +Blanche’s mother had been his godmother. Blanche died in +1326, still in confinement, though at the last in the abbey of +Maubuisson.</p> + +<p>In 1322, freed from his first marriage, Charles married his +cousin Mary of Luxemburg, daughter of the emperor Henry VII., +and upon her death, two years later, Jeanne, daughter of Louis, +count of Evreux. Charles IV. died at Vincennes on the 1st of +February 1328. He left no issue by his first two wives to succeed +him, and daughters only by Jeanne of Evreux. He was the last +of the direct line of Capetians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. d’Herbomey, “Notes et documents pour servir à l’histoire +des rois fils de Philippe le Bel,” in <i>Bibl. de l’École des Chartes</i> (lix. +pp. 479 seq. and 689 seq.); de Bréquigny, “Mémoire sur les +différends entre la France et l’Angleterre sous le règne de Charles +le Bel,” in <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions</i> (xli. pp. 641-692); +H. Lot, “Projets de crusade sous Charles le Bel et sous Philippe de +Valois” (<i>Bibl. de l’École des Chartes</i>, xx. pp. 503-509); “Chronique +parisienne anonyme de 1316 à 1339 ...” ed. Hellot in <i>Mém. de +la soc. de l’hist. de Paris</i> (xi., 1884, pp. 1-207).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1337-1380), king of France, called <span class="sc">The Wise</span>, +was born at the château of Vincennes on the 21st of January +1337, the son of John II. and Bonne of Luxemburg. In 1349 +he became dauphin of the Viennois by purchase from Humbert +II., and in 1355 he was created duke of Normandy. At the battle +of Poitiers (1356) his father ordered him to leave the field when +the battle turned against the French, and he was thus saved +from the imprisonment that overtook his father. After arranging +for the government of Normandy he proceeded to Paris, where +he took the title of lieutenant of the kingdom. During the years +of John II.’s imprisonment in England Charles was virtually +king of France. He summoned the states-general of northern +France (Langue d’oïl) to Paris in October 1356 to obtain men and +money to carry on the war. But under the leadership of Étienne +Marcel, provost of the Parisian merchants and president of the +third estate, and Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, president of the +clergy, a partisan of Charles of Navarre, the states refused any +“aid” except on conditions which Charles declined to accept. +They demanded the dismissal of a number of the royal ministers; +the establishment of a commission elected from the three estates +to regulate the dauphin’s administration, and of another board +to act as council of war; also the release of Charles the Bad, +king of Navarre, who had been imprisoned by King John. The +estates of Languedoc, summoned to Toulouse, also made protests +against misgovernment, but they agreed to raise a war-levy on +terms to which the dauphin acceded. Charles sought the +alliance of his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., to whom he did +homage at Metz as dauphin of the Viennois, and he was also made +imperial vicar of Dauphiné, thus acknowledging the imperial +jurisdiction. But he gained small material advantage from +these proceedings. The states-general were again convoked +in February 1357. Their demands were more moderate than +in the preceding year, but they nominated members to replace +certain obnoxious persons on the royal council, demanded the +right to assemble without the royal summons, and certain +administrative reforms. In return they promised to raise and +finance an army of 30,000 men, but the money—a tithe levied +on the annual revenues of the clergy and nobility—voted for +this object was not to pass through the dauphin’s hands. Charles +appeared to consent, but the agreement was annulled by letters +from King John, announcing at the same time the conclusion +of a two years’ truce, and the reformers failed to secure their +ends. Charles had escaped from their power by leaving Paris, +but he returned for a new meeting of the estates in the autumn +of 1357.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Charles of Navarre had been released by his partisans, +and allying himself with Marcel had become a popular +hero in Paris. The dauphin was obliged to receive him and to +undergo an apparent reconciliation. In Paris Étienne Marcel +was supreme. He forced his way into the dauphin’s palace +(February 1358), and Charles’s servant, Jean de Conflans, +marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of +Normandy, were murdered before his eyes. Charles was powerless +openly to resent these outrages, but he obtained from the +provincial assemblies the money refused him by the states-general, +and deferred his vengeance until the dissensions of his +enemies should offer him an opportunity. Charles of Navarre, +now in league with the English and master of lower Normandy +and of the approaches to Paris, returned to the immediate +neighbourhood of the city, and Marcel found himself driven to +avowed co-operation with the dauphin’s enemies, the English +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span> +and the Navarrese. Charles had been compelled in March to +take the title of regent to prevent the possibility of further intervention +from King John. In defiance of a recent ordinance +prohibiting provincial assemblies, he presided over the estates +of Picardy and Artois, and then over those of Champagne. +The states-general of 1358 were summoned to Compiègne instead +of Paris, and granted a large aid. The condition of northern +France was rendered more desperate by the outbreak (May-June +1358) of the peasant revolt known as the Jacquerie, which +was repressed with a barbarity far exceeding the excesses of the +rebels. Within the walls of Paris Jean Maillart had formed a +royalist party; Marcel was assassinated (31st July 1358), and +the dauphin entered Paris in the following month. A reaction +in Charles’s favour had set in, and from the estates of 1359 he +regained the authority he had lost. It was with their full concurrence +that he restored their honours to the officials who had +been dismissed by the estates of 1356 and 1357. They supported +him in repudiating the treaty of London (1359), which King John +had signed in anxiety for his personal freedom, and voted money +unconditionally for the continuation of the war. From this time +the estates were only once convoked by Charles, who contented +himself thenceforward by appeals to the assembly of notables +or to the provincial bodies. Charles of Navarre was now at open +war with the regent; Edward III. landed at Calais in October; +and a great part of the country was exposed to double depredations +from the English and the Navarrese troops. In the scarcity +of money Charles had recourse to the debasement of the coinage, +which suffered no less than twenty-two variations in the two years +before the treaty of Brétigny. This disastrous financial expedient +was made good later, the coinage being established on a firm +basis during the last sixteen years of Charles’s reign in accordance +with the principles of Nicolas Oresme. On the conclusion of +peace King John was restored to France, but, being unable to +raise his ransom, he returned in 1364 to England, where he died +in April, leaving the crown to Charles, who was crowned at +Reims on the 19th of May.</p> + +<p>The new king found an able servant in Bertrand du Guesclin, +who won a victory over the Navarrese troops at Cocherel and +took prisoner their best general, Jean de Grailli, captal of Buch. +The establishment of Charles’s brother, Philip the Bold, in the +duchy of Burgundy, though it constituted in the event a serious +menace to the monarchy, put an end to the king of Navarre’s +ambitions in that direction. A treaty of peace between the two +kings was signed in 1365, by which Charles of Navarre gave up +Mantes, Meulan and the county of Longueville in exchange for +Montpellier. Negotiations were renewed in 1370 when Charles +of Navarre did homage for his French possessions, though he +was then considering an offensive and defensive alliance with +Edward III. Du Guesclin undertook to free France from the +depredations of the “free companies,” mercenary soldiers put +out of employment by the cessation of the war. An attempt +to send them on a crusade against the Turks failed, and Du +Guesclin led them to Spain to put Henry of Trastamara on the +throne of Castile. By the marriage of his brother Philip the +Bold with Margaret of Flanders, Charles detached the Flemings +from the English alliance, and as soon as he had restored +something like order in the internal affairs of the kingdom he +provoked a quarrel with the English. The text of the treaty of +Brétigny presented technical difficulties of which Charles was +not slow to avail himself. The English power in Guienne was +weakened by the disastrous Spanish expedition of the Black +Prince, whom Charles summoned before the parlement of Paris +in January 1369 to answer the charges preferred against him +by his subjects, thus expressly repudiating the English supremacy +in Guienne. War was renewed in May after a meeting of +the states-general. Between 1371 and 1373 Poitou and Saintonge +were reconquered by Du Guesclin, and soon the English +had to abandon all their territory north of the Garonne. John +IV. of Brittany (Jean de Montfort) had won his duchy with +English help by the defeat of Charles of Blois, the French +nominee, at Auray in 1364. His sympathies remained English, +but he was now (1373) obliged to take refuge in England, and +later in Flanders, while the English only retained a footing in +two or three coast towns. Charles’s generals avoided pitched +battles, and contented themselves with defensive and guerrilla +tactics, with the result that in 1380 only Bayonne, Bordeaux, +Brest and Calais were still in English hands.</p> + +<p>Charles had in 1378 obtained proof of Charles of Navarre’s +treasonable designs. He seized the Norman towns held by the +Navarrese, while Henry of Trastamara invaded Navarre, and +imposed conditions of peace which rendered his lifelong enemy +at last powerless. A premature attempt to amalgamate the +duchy of Brittany with the French crown failed. Charles summoned +the duke to Paris in 1378, and on his non-appearance +committed one of his rare errors of policy by confiscating his +duchy. But the Bretons rose to defend their independence, and +recalled their duke. The matter was still unsettled when Charles +died at Vincennes on the 16th of September 1380. His health, +always delicate, had been further weakened, according to +popular report, by a slow poison prepared for him by the king +of Navarre. His wife, Jeanne of Bourbon, died in 1378, and +the succession devolved on their elder son Charles, a boy of +twelve. Their younger son was Louis, duke of Orleans.</p> + +<p>Personally Charles was no soldier. He owed the signal successes +of his reign partly to his skilful choice of advisers and +administrators, to his chancellors Jean and Guillaume de Dormans +and Pierre d’Orgemont, to Hugues Aubriot, provost of +Paris, Bureau de la Riviere and others; partly to a singular +coolness and subtlety in the exercise of a not over-scrupulous +diplomacy, which made him a dangerous enemy. He had learnt +prudence and self-restraint in the troubled times of the regency, +and did not lose his moderation in success. He modelled his +private life on that of his predecessor Saint Louis, but was no +fanatic in religion, for he refused his support to the violent +methods of the Inquisition in southern France, and allowed the +Jews to return to the country, at the same time confirming their +privileges. His support of the schismatic pope Clement VII. +at Avignon was doubtless due to political considerations, as +favouring the independence of the Gallican church. Charles V. +was a student of astrology, medicine, law and philosophy, and +collected a large and valuable library at the Louvre. He +gathered round him a group of distinguished writers and thinkers, +among whom were Raoul de Presles, Philippe de Mézières, +Nicolas Oresme and others. The ideas of these men were applied +by him to the practical work of administration, though he confined +himself chiefly to the consolidation and improvement of +existing institutions. The power of the nobility was lessened +by restrictions which, without prohibiting private wars, made +them practically impossible. The feudal fortresses were regularly +inspected by the central authority, and the nobles themselves +became in many cases paid officers of the king. Charles +established a merchant marine and a formidable navy, which +under Jean de Vienne threatened the English coast between +1377 and 1380. The states-general were silenced and the royal +prerogative increased; the royal domains were extended, and +the wealth of the crown was augmented; additions were made +to the revenue by the sale of municipal charters and patents; +and taxation became heavier, since Charles set no limits to the +gratification of his tastes either in the collection of jewels and +precious objects, of books, or of his love of building, examples +of which are the renovation of the Louvre and the erection of +the palace of Saint Paul in Paris.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the chronicles of Froissart, and of Pierre d’Orgemont (<i>Grandes +Chroniques de Saint Denis</i>, Paris, vol. vi, 1838); Christine de Pisan, +<i>Le Livre des fais et bonnes moeurs du sage roy Charles V</i>, written in +1404, ed. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. ii. (1836); L. Delisle, <i>Mandements +et actes divers de Charles V</i> (1886); letters of Charles V. from +the English archives in Champollion-Figeac, <i>Lettres de rois et de +reines</i>, ii. pp. 167 seq.; the anonymous <i>Songe du vergier</i> or <i>Somnium +viridarii</i>, written in 1376 and giving the political ideas of Charles V. +and his advisers; “Relation de la mort de Charles V” in Haureau, +<i>Notices et extraits</i>, xxxi. pp. 278-284; Ch. Benoist, <i>La Politique du roi +Charles V</i> (1874); S. Luce, <i>La France pendant la guerre de cent ans</i>; +G. Clément Simon, <i>La Rupture du traité de Brétigny</i> (1898); A. Vuitry, +<i>Êtudes sur le régime financier de la France</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1883); and +R. Delachenal, <i>Histoire de Charles V</i> (Paris, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span> </p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VI.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1368-1422), king of France, son of Charles V. +and Jeanne of Bourbon, was born in Paris on the 3rd of December +1368. He received the appanage of Dauphiné at his birth, and +was thus the first of the princes of France to bear the title of +dauphin from infancy. Charles V. had entrusted his education +to Philippe de Mézières, and had fixed his majority at fourteen. +He succeeded to the throne in 1380, at the age of twelve, and +the royal authority was divided between his paternal uncles, +Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke of Berry, Philip the Bold, duke +of Burgundy, and his mother’s brother, Louis II., duke of Bourbon. +In accordance with an ordinance of the late king the duke of +Anjou became regent, while the guardianship of the young king, +together with the control of Paris and Normandy, passed to the +dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon, who were to be assisted by +certain of the councillors of Charles V. The duke of Berry, +excluded by this arrangement, was compensated by the government +of Languedoc and Guienne. Anjou held the regency for +a few months only, until the king’s coronation in November 1380. +He enriched himself from the estate of Charles V. and by excessive +exactions, before he set out in 1382 for Italy to effect the +conquest of Naples. Considerable discontent existed in the south +of France at the time of the death of Charles V., and when the +duke of Anjou re-imposed certain taxes which the late king had +remitted at the end of his reign, there were revolts at Puy and +Montpellier. Paris, Rouen, the cities of Flanders, with Amiens, +Orleans, Reims and other French towns, also rose (1382) in revolt +against their masters. The <i>Maillotins</i>, as the Parisian insurgents +were named from the weapon they used, gained the upper +hand in Paris, and were able temporarily to make terms, but +the commune of Rouen was abolished, and the <i>Tuchins</i>, as +the marauders in Languedoc were called, were pitilessly hunted +down. Charles VI. marched to the help of the count of Flanders +against the insurgents headed by Philip van Artevelde, and +gained a complete victory at Roosebeke (November 27th, 1382). +Strengthened by this success the king, on his return to Paris +in the following January, exacted vengeance on the citizens by +fines, executions and the suppression of the privileges of the city. +The help sent by the English to the Flemish cities resulted +in a second Flemish campaign. In 1385 Jean de Vienne made +an unsuccessful descent on the Scottish coast, and Charles +equipped a fleet at Sluys for the invasion of England, but +a series of delays ended in the destruction of the ships by the +English.</p> + +<p>In 1385 Charles VI. married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen II., +duke of Bavaria, her name being gallicized as Isabeau. Three +years later, with the help of his brother, Louis of Orleans, duke +of Touraine, he threw off the tutelage of his uncles, whom he +replaced by Bureau de la Rivière and others among his father’s +counsellors, nicknamed by the royal princes the <i>marmousets</i> +because of their humble origin. Two years later he deprived +the duke of Berry of the government of Languedoc. The opening +years of Charles VI.’s effective rule promised well, but excess in +gaiety of all kinds undermined his constitution, and in 1392 he +had an attack of madness at Le Mans, when on his way to +Brittany to force from John V. the surrender of his cousin +Pierre de Craon, who had tried to assassinate the constable +Olivier de Clisson in the streets of Paris. Other attacks followed, +and it became evident that Charles was unable permanently to +sustain the royal authority. Clisson, Bureau de la Rivière, +Jean de Mercier, and the other <i>marmousets</i> were driven from +office, and the royal dukes regained their power. The rivalries +between the most powerful of these—the duke of Burgundy, +who during the king’s attacks of madness practically ruled the +country, and the duke of Orleans—were a constant menace to +peace. In 1306 peace with England seemed assured by the +marriage of Richard II. with Charles VI.’s daughter Isabella, +but the Lancastrian revolution of 1399 destroyed the diplomatic +advantages gained by this union. In France the country was +disturbed by the papal schism. At an assembly of the clergy +held in Paris in 1398 it was resolved to refuse to recognize the +authority of Benedict XIII., who succeeded Clement VII. as +schismatic pope at Avignon. The question became a party +one; Benedict was supported by Louis of Orleans, while Philip +the Bold and the university of Paris opposed him. Obedience +to Benedict’s authority was resumed in 1403, only to be withdrawn +again in 1408, when the king declared himself the guardian +and protector of the French church, which was indeed for a +time self-governing. Edicts further extending the royal power +in ecclesiastical affairs were even issued in 1418, after the schism +was at an end.</p> + +<p>The king’s intelligence became yearly feebler, and in 1404 +the death of Philip the Bold aggravated the position of affairs. +The new duke, John the Fearless, did not immediately replace his +father in general affairs, and the influence of the duke of Orleans +increased. Queen Isabeau, who had generally supported the +Burgundian party, was now practically separated from her +husband, whose madness had become pronounced. She was +replaced by a young Burgundian lady, Odette de Champdivers, +called by her contemporaries <i>la petite reine</i>, who rescued the king +from the state of neglect into which he had fallen. Isabeau of +Bavaria was freely accused of intrigue with the duke of Orleans. +She was from time to time regent of France, and as her policy +was directed by personal considerations and by her love of +splendour she further added to the general distress. The relations +between John the Fearless and the duke of Orleans became more +embittered, and on the 23rd of November 1407 Orleans was +murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of his rival. +The young duke Charles of Orleans married the daughter of the +Gascon count Bernard VII. of Armagnac, and presently formed +alliances with the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, and +others who formed the party known as the Armagnacs (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armagnac</a></span>), against the Burgundians who had gained the upper +hand in the royal council. In 1411 John the Fearless contracted +an alliance with Henry IV. of England, and civil war began in +the autumn, but in 1412 the Armagnacs in their turn sought +English aid, and, by promising the sovereignty of Aquitaine +to the English king, gave John the opportunity of posing as +defender of France. In Paris the Burgundians were hand +in hand with the corporation of the butchers, who were the +leaders of the Parisian populace. The malcontents, who took +their name from one of their number, Caboche, penetrated into +the palace of the dauphin Louis, and demanded the surrender +of the unpopular members of his household. A royal ordinance, +promising reforms in administration, was promulgated on the +27th of May 1413, and some of the royal advisers were executed. +The king and the dauphin, powerless in the hands of Duke +John and the Parisians, appealed secretly to the Armagnac +princes for deliverance. They entered Paris in September; the +ordinance extracted by the Cabochiens was rescinded; and +numbers of the insurgents were banished the city.</p> + +<p>In the next year Henry V. of England, after concluding an +alliance with Burgundy, resumed the pretensions of Edward III. +to the crown of France, and in 1415 followed the disastrous +battle of Agincourt. The two elder sons of Charles VI., Louis, +duke of Guienne, and John, duke of Touraine, died in 1415 and +1417, and Charles, count of Ponthieu, became heir apparent. +Paris was governed by Bernard of Armagnac, constable of +France, who expelled all suspected of Burgundian sympathies +and treated Paris like a conquered city. Queen Isabeau was +imprisoned at Tours, but escaped to Burgundy. The capture +of Paris by the Burgundians on the 20th of May 1418 was +followed by a series of horrible massacres of the Armagnacs; +and in July Duke John and Isabeau, who assumed the title +of regent, entered Paris. Meanwhile Henry V. had completed +the conquest of Normandy. The murder of John the Fearless in +1419 under the eyes of the dauphin Charles threw the Burgundians +definitely into the arms of the English, and his successor +Philip the Good, in concert with Queen Isabeau, concluded +(1420) the treaty of Troyes with Henry V., who became master +of France. Charles VI. had long been of no account in the +government, and the state of neglect in which he existed at +Senlis induced Henry V. to undertake the re-organization of +his household. He came to Paris in September 1422, and died +on the 21st of October.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> </p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities for the reign of Charles VI. are:—<i>Chronica +Caroli VI.</i>, written by a monk of Saint Denis, commissioned officially +to write the history of his time, edited by C. Bellaguet with a French +translation (6 vols., 1839-1852); Jean Juvenal des Ursins, <i>Chronique</i>, +printed by D. Godefroy in <i>Histoire de Charles VI</i> (1653), chiefly an +abridgment of the monk of St Denis’s narrative; a fragment of the +<i>Grandes Chroniques de Saint Denis</i> covering the years 1381 to 1383 +(ed. J. Pichon 1864); correspondence of Charles VI. printed by +Champollion-Figeac in <i>Lettres de rois</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Choix de pièces +inédites rel. au règne de Charles VI</i> (2 vols., 1863-1864), edited by +L. Douët d’Arcq for the Société de l’Histoire de France; J. Froissart, +<i>Chroniques</i>; Enguerrand de Monstrelet, <i>Chroniques</i>, covering the +first half of the 15th century (Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1809); <i>Chronique +des quatre premiers Valois</i>, by an unknown author, ed. S. Luce (1862). +See also E. Lavisse, <i>Hist, de France</i>, iv. 267 seq.; E. Petit, +“Séjours de Charles VI,” <i>Bull. du com. des travaux hist.</i> (1893); +Vallet de Viriville, “Isabeau de Bavière,” <i>Revue française</i> (1858-1859); +M. Thibaut, <i>Isabeau de Bavière</i> (1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VII.<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1403-1461), king of France, fifth son of +Charles VI. and Isabeau of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the +22nd of February 1403. The count of Ponthieu, as he was +called in his boyhood, was betrothed in 1413 to Mary of Anjou, +daughter of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of Sicily, and +spent the next two years at the Angevin court. He received +the duchy of Touraine in 1416, and in the next year the death +of his brother John made him dauphin of France. He became +lieutenant-general of the kingdom in 1417, and made active +efforts to combat the complaisance of his mother. He assumed +the title of regent in December 1418, but his authority in northern +France was paralysed in 1419 by the murder of John the Fearless, +duke of Burgundy, in his presence at Montereau. Although the +deed was not apparently premeditated, as the English and +Burgundians declared, it ruined Charles’s cause for the time. +He was disinherited by the treaty of Troyes in 1420, and at the +time of his father’s death in 1422 had retired to Mehun-sur-Yèvre, +near Bourges, which had been the nominal seat of government +since 1418. He was recognized as king in Touraine, Berry and +Poitou, in Languedoc and other provinces of southern France; +but the English power in the north was presently increased by +the provinces of Champagne and Maine, as the result of the +victories of Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424). The Armagnac +administrators who had been driven out of Paris by the duke +of Bedford gathered round the young king, nicknamed the +“king of Bourges,” but he was weak in body and mind, and was +under the domination of Jean Louvet and Tanguy du Chastel, +the instigators of the murder of John the Fearless, and other +discredited partisans. The power of these favourites was shaken +by the influence of the queen’s mother, Yolande of Aragon, +duchess of Anjou. She sought the alliance of John V., duke of +Brittany, who, however, vacillated throughout his life between +the English and French alliance, concerned chiefly to maintain +the independence of his duchy. His brother, Arthur of Brittany, +earl of Richmond (comte de Richemont), was reconciled with the +king, and became constable in 1425, with the avowed intention +of making peace between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy. +Richemont caused the assassination of Charles’s favourites +Pierre de Giac and Le Camus de Beaulieu, and imposed one of +his own choosing, Georges de la Trémoille, an adventurer who +rapidly usurped the constable’s power. For five years (1427-1432) +a private war between these two exhausted the Armagnac +forces, and central France returned to anarchy.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Bedford had established settled government +throughout the north of France, and in 1428 he advanced to +the siege of Orleans. For the movement which was to lead to +the deliverance of France from the English invaders, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joan +of Arc</a></span>. The siege of Orleans was raised by her efforts on the +8th of May 1429, and two months later Charles VII. was crowned +at Reims. Charles’s intimate counsellors, La Trémoille and +Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, saw their profits +menaced by the triumphs of Joan of Arc, and accordingly the +court put every difficulty in the way of her military career, and +received the news of her capture before Compiègne (1430) with +indifference. No measures were taken for her deliverance or her +ransom, and Normandy and the Isle of France remained in +English hands. Fifteen years of anarchy and civil war intervened +before peace was restored. Bands of armed men fighting for +their own hand traversed the country, and in the ten years +between 1434 and 1444 the provinces were terrorized by these +<i>écorcheurs</i>, who, with the decline of discipline in the English army, +were also recruited from the ranks of the invaders. The duke of +Bedford died in 1435, and in the same year Philip the Good of +Burgundy concluded a treaty with Charles VII. at Arras, after +fruitless negotiations for an English treaty. From this time +Charles’s policy was strengthened. La Trémoille had been +assassinated in 1433 by the constable’s orders, with the connivance +of Yolande of Aragon. For his former favourites were +substituted energetic advisers, his brother-in-law Charles of +Anjou, Dunois (the famous bastard of Orleans), Pierre de Brézé, +Richemont and others. Richemont entered Paris on the 13th +of April 1436, and in the next five years the finance of the +country was re-established on a settled basis. Charles himself +commanded the troops who captured Pontoise in 1441, and in +the next year he made a successful expedition in the south.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the princes of the blood and the great nobles +resented the ascendancy of councillors and soldiers drawn from +the smaller nobility and the <i>bourgeoisie</i>. They made a formidable +league against the crown in 1440 which included Charles I., +duke of Bourbon, John II., duke of Alençon, John IV. of +Armagnac, and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The revolt +broke out in Poitou in 1440 and was known as the <i>Praguerie</i>. +Charles VII. repressed the rising, and showed great skill with +the rebel nobles, finally buying them over individually by considerable +concessions. In 1444 a truce was concluded with +England at Tours, and Charles proceeded to organize a regular +army. The central authority was gradually made effective, and +a definite system of payment, by removing the original cause of +brigandage, and the establishment of a strict discipline learnt +perhaps from the English troops, gradually stamped out the most +serious of the many evils under which the country had suffered. +Pierre Bessonneau, and the brothers Gaspard and Jean Bureau +created a considerable force of artillery. Domestic troubles in +their own country weakened the English in France. The conquest +of Normandy was completed by the battle of Formigny +(15th of April 1450). Guienne was conquered in 1451 by Duncis, +but not subdued, and another expedition was necessary in 1453, +when Talbot was defeated and slain at Castillon. Meanwhile +in 1450 Charles VII. had resolved on the rehabilitation of Joan +of Arc, thus rendering a tardy recognition of her services. This +was granted in 1456 by the Holy See. The only foothold retained +by the English on French ground was Calais. In its earlier +stages the deliverance of France from the English had been the +work of the people themselves. The change which made Charles +take an active part in public affairs is said to have been largely +due to the influence of Agnes Sorel, who became his mistress in +1444 and died in 1450. She was the first to play a public and +political rôle as mistress of a king of France, and may be said to +have established a tradition. Pierre de Brézé, who had had a +large share in the repression of the Praguerie, obtained through +her a dominating influence over the king, and he inspired the +monarch himself and the whole administration with new vigour. +Charles and René of Anjou retired from court, and the greater +part of the members of the king’s council were drawn from the +bourgeois classes. The most famous of all these was Jacques +Coeur (<i>q.v.</i>). It was by the zeal of these councillors that Charles +obtained the surname of “The Well-Served.”</p> + +<p>Charles VII. continued his father’s general policy in church +matters. He desired to lessen the power of the Holy See in +France and to preserve as far as possible the liberties of the +Gallican church. With the council of Constance (1414-1418) +the great schism was practically healed. Charles, while careful +to protest against its renewal, supported the anti-papal contentions +of the French members of the council of Basel (1431-1449), +and in 1438 he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction at +Bourges, by which the patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was +removed from the Holy See, while certain interventions of the +royal power were admitted. Bishops and abbots were to be +elected, in accordance with ancient custom, by their clergy. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span> +After the English had evacuated French territory Charles still +had to cope with feudal revolt, and with the hostility of the +dauphin, who was in open revolt in 1446, and for the next ten +years ruled like an independent sovereign in Dauphiné. He took +refuge in 1457 with Charles’s most formidable enemy, Philip +of Burgundy. Charles VII. nevertheless found means to prevent +Philip from attaining his ambitions in Lorraine and in Germany. +But the dauphin succeeded in embarrassing his father’s policy +at home and abroad, and had his own party in the court itself. +Charles VII. died at Mehun-sur-Yévre on the 22nd of July 1461. +He believed that he was poisoned by his son, who cannot, however, +be accused of anything more than an eager expectation +of his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The history of the reign of Charles VII. has been +written by two modern historians,—Vallet de Viriville, <i>Histoire de +Charles VII ... et de son époque</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1862-1865), and +G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, <i>Hist, de Charles VII</i> (Paris, 6 vols., +1881-1891). There is abundant contemporary material. The +herald, Jacques le Bouvier or Berry (b. 1386), whose <i>Chronicques du +feu roi Charles VII</i> was first printed in 1528 as the work of Alain +Chartier, was an eye-witness of many of the events he described. +His <i>Recouvrement de Normandie</i>, with other material on the same +subject, was edited for the “Rolls” series (<i>Chronicles and Memorials</i>) +by Joseph Stevenson in 1863. The <i>Histoire de Charles VII</i> by Jean +Chartier, historiographer-royal from 1437, was included in the +<i>Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis</i>, and was first printed under +Chartier’s name by Denis Godefroy, together with other contemporary +narratives, in 1661. It was re-edited by Vallet de Viriville (Paris, +3 vols., 1858-1859). With these must be considered the Burgundian +chroniclers Enguerrand de Monstrelet, whose chronicle (ed. L. Douët +d’Arcq; Paris, 6 vols., 1857-1862) covers the years 1400-1444, and +Georges Chastellain, the existing fragments of whose chronicle are +published in his <i>Œuvres</i> (ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove; Brussels, +8 vols., 1863-1866). For a detailed bibliography and an account +of printed and MS. documents see du Fresne de Beaucourt, already +cited, also A. Molinier, <i>Manuel de bibliographie historique</i>, iv. +240-306.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VIII.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1470-1498), king of France, was the only son +of Louis XI. During the whole of his childhood Charles lived far +from his father at the château of Amboise, which was throughout +his life his favourite residence. On the death of Louis XI in 1483 +Charles, a lad of thirteen, was of age, but was absolutely incapable +of governing. Until 1492 he abandoned the government to his +sister Anne of Beaujeu. In 1491 he married Anne, duchess of +Brittany, who was already betrothed to Maximilian of Austria. +Urged by his favourite, Étienne de Vesc, he then, at the age of +twenty-two, threw off the yoke of the Beaujeus, and at the same +time discarded their wise and able policy. But he was a thoroughly +worthless man with a weak and ill-balanced intellect. He had a +romantic imagination and conceived vast projects. He proposed +at first to claim the rights of the house of Anjou, to which Louis +XI. had succeeded, on the kingdom of Naples, and to use this as a +stepping-stone to the capture of Constantinople from the Turks +and his own coronation as emperor of the East. He sacrificed +everything to this adventurous policy, signed disastrous treaties +to keep his hands free, and set out for Italy in 1494. The ceremonial +side of the expedition being in his eyes the most important, +he allowed himself to be intoxicated by his easy triumph and +duped by the Italians. On the 12th of May 1495 he entered +Naples in great pomp, clothed in the imperial insignia. A general +coalition was, however, formed against him, and he was forced +to return precipitately to France. It cannot be denied that he +showed bravery at the battle of Fornovo (the 5th of July 1495). +He was preparing a fresh expedition to Italy, when he died on the +8th of April 1498, from the results of an accident, at the château +of Amboise.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Histoire de Charles VIII, roy de France</i>, by G. de Jaligny, +André de la Vigne, &c., edited by Godefroy (Paris, 1684); De +Cherrier, <i>Histoire de Charles VIII</i> (Paris, 1868); H. Fr. Delaborde, +<i>Expédition de Charles VIII en Italie</i> (Paris, 1888). For a complete +bibliography see H. Hauser, <i>Les Sources de l’histoire de France, +1494-1610</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1906); and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, +vol. v. part i., by H. Lemonnier (Paris, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IX.<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1550-1574), king of France, was the third son +of Henry II. and Catherine de’ Medici. At first he bore the title of +duke of Orleans. He became king in 1560 by the death of his +brother Francis II., but as he was only ten years old the power +was in the hands of the queen-mother, Catherine. Charles seems +to have been a youth of good parts, lively and agreeable, but he +had a weak, passionate and fantastic nature. His education had +spoiled him. He was left to his whims—even the strangest—and +to his taste for violent exercises; and the excesses to which he +gave himself up ruined his health. Proclaimed of age on the 17th +of August 1563, he continued to be absorbed in his fantasies and +his hunting, and submitted docilely to the authority of his mother. +In 1570 he was married to Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of +Maximilian II. It was about this time that he dreamed of making +a figure in the world. The successes of his brother, the duke of +Anjou, at Jarnac and Moncontour had already caused him some +jealousy. When Coligny came to court, he received him very +warmly, and seemed at first to accept the idea of an intervention +in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. For the upshot of this +adventure see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St Bartholomew, Massacre of</a></span>. +Charles was in these circumstances no hypocrite, but weak, +hesitating and ill-balanced. Moreover, the terrible events in +which he had played a part transformed his character. He +became melancholy, severe and taciturn. “It is feared,” said the +Venetian ambassador, “that he may become cruel.” Undermined +by fever, at the age of twenty he had the appearance of an +old man, and night and day he was haunted with nightmares. +He died on the 30th of May 1574. By his mistress, Marie +Touchet, he had one son, Charles, duke of Angoulême. Charles +IX. had a sincere love of letters, himself practised poetry, was the +patron of Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiad, and granted +privileges to the first academy founded by Antoine de Baïf +(afterwards the Académie du Palais). He left a work on hunting, +<i>Traité de la chasse royale</i>, which was published in 1625, and +reprinted in 1859.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The principal sources are the contemporary +memoirs and chronicles of T.A. d’Aubigné, Brantôme, Castelnau, +Haton, la Place, Montluc, la Noue, l’Estoile, Ste Foy, de Thou, +Tavannes, &c.; the published correspondence of Catherine de’ +Medici, Marguerite de Valois, and the Venetian ambassadors; +and Calendars of State Papers, &c. See also Abel Desjardins, +<i>Charles IX, deux années de règne</i> (Paris, 1873); de la Ferrière, <i>Le +XVIe siècle et les Valois</i> (Paris, 1879); H. Mariéjol, <i>La Réforme et la +Ligue</i> (Paris, 1904), in vol. v. of the <i>Histoire de France</i>, by E. Lavisse, +which contains a bibliography for the reign.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES X.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1757-1836), king of France from 1824 to 1830, +was the fourth child of the dauphin, son of Louis XV. and of +Marie Josephe of Saxony, and consequently brother of Louis XVI. +He was known before his accession as Charles Philippe, count of +Artois. At the age of sixteen he married Marie Thérèse of +Savoy, sister-in-law of his brother, the count of Provence (Louis +XVIII.). His youth was passed in scandalous dissipation, which +drew upon himself and his coterie the detestation of the people of +Paris. Although lacking military tastes, he joined the French +army at the siege of Gibraltar in 1772, merely for distraction. +In a few years he had incurred a debt of 56 million francs, a burden +assumed by the impoverished state. Prior to the Revolution he +took only a minor part in politics, but when it broke out he soon +became, with the queen, the chief of the reactionary party at +court. In July 1789 he left France, became leader of the <i>émigrés</i>, +and visited several of the courts of Europe in the interest of the +royalist cause. After the execution of Louis XVI. he received +from his brother, the count of Provence, the title of lieutenant-general +of the realm, and, on the death of Louis XVII., that of +“Monsieur.” In 1795 he attempted to aid the royalist rising of +La Vendée, landing at the island of Yeu. But he refused to +advance farther and to put himself resolutely at the head of his +party, although warmly acclaimed by it, and courage failing him, +he returned to England, settling first in London, then in Holyrood +Palace at Edinburgh and afterwards at Hartwell. There he +remained until 1813, returning to France in February 1814, +and entering Paris in April, in the track of the Allies.</p> + +<p>During the reign of his brother, Louis XVIII., he was the +leader of the ultra-royalists, the party of extreme reaction. On +succeeding to the throne in September 1824 the dignity of his +address and his affable condescension won him a passing popularity. +But his coronation at Reims, with all the gorgeous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span> +ceremonial of the old régime, proclaimed his intention of ruling, +as the Most Christian King, by divine right. His first acts, +indeed, allayed the worst alarms of the Liberals; but it was soon +apparent that the weight of the crown would be consistently +thrown into the scale of the reactionary forces. The <i>émigrés</i> were +awarded a milliard as compensation for their confiscated lands; +and Gallicans and Liberals alike were offended by measures +which threw increased power into the hands of the Jesuits and +Ultramontanes. In a few months there were disquieting signs of +the growing unpopularity of the king. The royal princesses were +insulted in the streets; and on the 29th of April 1825 Charles, +when reviewing the National Guard, was met with cries from +the ranks of “Down with the ministers!” His reply was, next +day, a decree disbanding the citizen army.</p> + +<p>It was not till 1829, when the result of the elections had proved +the futility of Villèle’s policy of repression, that Charles consented +unwillingly to try a policy of compromise. It was, however, too +late. Villèle’s successor was the vicomte de Martignac, who took +Decazes for his model; and in the speech from the throne Charles +declared that the happiness of France depended on “the sincere +union of the royal authority with the liberties consecrated by the +charter.” But Charles had none of the patience and commonsense +which had enabled Louis XVIII. to play with decency the +part of a constitutional king. “I would rather hew wood,” he +exclaimed, “than be a king under the conditions of the king +of England”; and when the Liberal opposition obstructed all +the measures proposed by a ministry not selected from the +parliamentary majority, he lost patience. “I told you,” +he said, “that there was no coming to terms with these men.” +Martignac was dismissed; and Prince Jules de Polignac, the +very incarnation of clericalism and reaction, was called to the +helm of state.</p> + +<p>The inevitable result was obvious to all the world. “There +is no such thing as political experience,” wrote Wellington, +certainly no friend of Liberalism; “with the warning of James II. +before him, Charles X. was setting up a government by priests, +through priests, for priests.” A formidable agitation sprang +up in France, which only served to make the king more obstinate. +In opening the session of 1830 he declared that he would “find +the power” to overcome the obstacles placed in his path by +“culpable manoeuvres.” The reply of the chambers was a +protest against “the unjust distrust of the sentiment and reason +of France”; whereupon they were first prorogued, and on the +16th of May dissolved. The result of the new elections was +what might have been foreseen: a large increase in the Opposition; +and Charles, on the advice of his ministers, determined +on a virtual suspension of the constitution. On the 25th of +July were issued the famous “four ordinances” which were the +immediate cause of the revolution that followed.</p> + +<p>With singular fatuity Charles had taken no precautions in view +of a violent outbreak. Marshal Marmont, who commanded the +scattered troops in Paris, had received no orders, beyond a jesting +command from the duke of Angoulême to place them under arms +“as some windows might be broken.” At the beginning of the +revolution Charles was at St Cloud, whence on the news of the +fighting he withdrew first to Versailles and then to Rambouillet. +So little did he understand the seriousness of the situation that, +when the laconic message “All is over!” was brought to him, +he believed that the insurrection had been suppressed. On +realizing the truth he hastily abdicated in favour of his grandson, +the duke of Bordeaux (comte de Chambord), and appointed +Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom +(July 30th). But, on the news of Louis Philippe’s acceptance +of the crown, he gave up the contest and began a dignified +retreat to the sea-coast, followed by his suite, and surrounded +by the infantry, cavalry and artillery of the guard. Beyond +sending a corps of observation to follow his movements, the new +government did nothing to arrest his escape. At Maintenon +Charles took leave of the bulk of his troops, and proceeding with +an escort of some 1200 men to Cherbourg, took ship there for +England on the 16th of August. For a time he returned to Holyrood +Palace at Edinburgh, which was again placed at his disposal. +He died at Goritz, whither he had gone for his health, +on the 6th of November 1836.</p> + +<p>The best that can be said of Charles X. is that, if he did not +know how to rule, he knew how to cease to rule. The dignity +of his exit was more worthy of the ancient splendour of the royal +house of France than the theatrical humility of Louis Philippe’s +entrance. But Charles was an impossible monarch for the 19th +century, or perhaps for any other century. He was a typical +Bourbon, unable either to learn or to forget; and the closing +years of his life he spent in religious austerities, intended to +expiate, not his failure to grasp a great opportunity, but the +comparatively venial excesses of his youth.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Achille de Vaulabelle, <i>Chute de l’empire: histoire des deux +restaurations</i> (Paris, 1847-1857); Louis de Vielcastel, <i>Hist. de la +restauration</i> (Paris, 1860-1878); Alphonse de Lamartine, <i>Hist. de la +restauration</i> (Paris, 1851-1852); Louis Blanc, <i>Hist. de dix ans, +1830-1840</i> (5 vols., 1842-1844); G.I. de Montbel, <i>Derniére Époque +de l’hist. de Charles X</i> (5th ed., Paris, 1840); Théodore Anne, +<i>Mémoires, souvenirs, et anecdotes sur l’interieur du palais de Charles X +et les évènements de 1815 à 1830</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1831); ib., <i>Journal +de Saint-Cloud a Cherbourg</i>; Védrenne, <i>Vie de Charles X</i> (3 vols., +Paris, 1879); Petit, <i>Charles X</i> (Paris, 1886); Villeneuve, <i>Charles X +et Louis XIX en exil. Mémoires inédits</i> (Paris, 1889); Imbert de +Saint-Amand, <i>La Cour de Charles X</i> (Paris, 1892).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This, at any rate, represents the general verdict of history. +It is interesting, however, to note that so liberal-minded and shrewd +a critic of men as King Leopold I. of the Belgians formed a different +estimate. In a letter of the 18th of November 1836 addressed to +Princess (afterwards Queen) Victoria he writes:—“History will +state that Louis XVIII. was a most liberal monarch, reigning with +great mildness and justice to his end, but that his brother, from his +despotic and harsh disposition, upset all the other had done, and lost +the throne. Louis XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled +by no principle, very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man, +a kind friend, an honourable master, sincere in his opinions, and +inclined to do everything that is right. That teaches us what we +ought to believe in history as it is compiled according to ostensible +events and results known to the generality of people.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1288-1342), king of Hungary, the son of Charles +Martell of Naples, and Clemencia, daughter of the emperor +Rudolph, was known as Charles Robert previously to being +enthroned king of Hungary in 1309. He claimed the Hungarian +crown, as the grandson of Stephen V., under the banner of the +pope, and in August 1300 proceeded from Naples to Dalmatia +to make good his claim. He was crowned at Esztergom after +the death of the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1301), but was forced +the same year to surrender the crown to Wenceslaus II. of +Bohemia (1289-1306). His failure only made Pope Boniface +VIII. still more zealous on his behalf, and at the diet of Pressburg +(1304) his Magyar adherents induced him to attempt to recover +the crown of St Stephen from the Czechs. But in the meantime +(1305) Wenceslaus transferred his rights to Duke Otto of Bavaria, +who in his turn was taken prisoner by the Hungarian rebels. +Charles’s prospects now improved, and he was enthroned at Buda +on the 15th of June 1309, though his installation was not regarded +as valid till he was crowned with the sacred crown (which +was at last recovered from the robber-barons) at Székesfehérvár +on the 27th of August 1310. For the next three years Charles +had to contend with rebellion after rebellion, and it was only +after his great victory over all the elements of rapine and disorder +at Rozgony (June 15, 1312) that he was really master in his +own land. His foreign policy aimed at the aggrandizement of +his family, but his plans were prudent as well as ambitious, and +Hungary benefited by them greatly. His most successful +achievement was the union with Poland for mutual defence +against the Habsburgs and the Czechs. This was accomplished +by the convention of Trencsén (1335), confirmed the same year +at the brilliant congress of Visegrád, where all the princes of +central Europe met to compose their differences and were +splendidly entertained during the months of October and +November. The immediate result of the congress was a combined +attack by the Magyars and Poles upon the emperor Louis and +his ally Albert of Austria, which resulted in favour of Charles +in 1337. Charles’s desire to unite the kingdoms of Hungary +and Naples under the eldest son Louis was frustrated by Venice +and the pope, from fear lest Hungary might become the dominant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span> +Adriatic power. He was, however, more than compensated for +this disappointment by his compact (1339) with his ally and +brother-in-law, Casimir of Poland, whereby it was agreed that +Louis should succeed to the Polish throne on the death of the +childless Casimir. For an account of the numerous important +reforms effected by Charles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>. A statesman +of the first rank, he not only raised Hungary once more to +the rank of a great power, but enriched and civilized her. In +character he was pious, courtly and valiant, popular alike with +the nobility and the middle classes, whose increasing welfare +he did so much to promote, and much beloved by the clergy. +His court was famous throughout Europe as a school of chivalry.</p> + +<p>Charles was married thrice. His first wife was Maria, daughter +of Duke Casimir of Teschen, whom he wedded in 1306. On her +death in 1318 he married Beatrice, daughter of the emperor +Henry VII. On her decease two years later he gave his hand +to Elizabeth, daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland. +Five sons were the fruit of these marriages, of whom three, +Louis, Andrew and Stephen, survived him. He died on the 16th +of July 1342, and was laid beside the high altar at Székesfehérvár, +the ancient burial-place of the Arpads.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Béla Kerékgyartó, <i>The Hungarian Royal Court under the +House of Anjou</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, 1881); <i>Rationes Collectorum +Pontif. in Hungaria</i> (Budapest, 1887); <i>Diplomas of the Angevin +Period</i>, edited by Imre Nagy (Hung. and Lat.), vols. i.-iii. (Budapest, +1878, &c.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1226-1285), king of Naples and Sicily and +count of Anjou, was the seventh child of Louis VIII. of France +and Blanche of Castile. Louis died a few months after Charles’s +birth and was succeeded by his son Louis IX. (St Louis), and on +the death in 1232 of the third son John, count of Anjou and +Maine, those fiefs were conferred on Charles. In 1246 he married +Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Raymond Bérenger V., the +last count of Provence, and after defeating James I. of Aragon +and other rivals with the help of his brother the French king, +he took possession of his new county. In 1248 he accompanied +Louis in the crusade to Egypt, but on the defeat of the Crusaders +he was taken prisoner with his brother. Shortly afterwards +he was ransomed, and returned to Provence in 1250. During +his absence several towns had asserted their independence; but +he succeeded in subduing them without much difficulty and +gradually suppressed their communal liberties. Charles’s +ambition aimed at wider fields, and when Margaret, countess of +Flanders, asked help of the French court against the German +king William of Holland, by whom she had been defeated, he +gladly accepted her offer of the county of Hainaut in exchange +for his assistance (1253); this arrangement was, however, +rescinded by Louis of France, who returned from captivity in +1254, and Charles gave up Hainaut for an immense sum of +money. He extended his influence by the subjugation of Marseilles +in 1257, then one of the most important maritime cities +of the world, and two years later several communes of Piedmont +recognized Charles’s suzerainty. In 1262 Pope Urban IV. +determined to destroy the power of the Hohenstaufen in Italy, +and offered the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, in consideration +of a yearly tribute, to Charles of Anjou, in opposition to Manfred, +the bastard son of the late emperor Frederick II. The next year +Charles succeeded in getting himself elected senator of Rome, +which gave him an advantage in dealing with the pope. After +long negotiations he accepted the Sicilian and Neapolitan +crowns, and in 1264 he sent a first expedition of Provençals to +Italy; he also collected a large army and navy in Provence +and France with the help of King Louis, and by an alliance with +the cities of Lombardy was able to send part of his force overland. +Pope Clement IV. confirmed the Sicilian agreement on conditions +even more favourable to Charles, who sailed in 1265, and conferred +on the expedition all the privileges of a crusade. After +narrowly escaping capture by Manfred’s fleet he reached Rome +safely, where he was crowned king of the Two Sicilies. The land +army arrived soon afterwards, and on the 26th of February 1266 +Charles encountered Manfred at Benevento, where after a hard-fought +battle Manfred was defeated and killed, and the whole +kingdom was soon in Charles’s possession. Then Conradin, +Frederick’s grandson and last legitimate descendant of the +Hohenstaufen, came into Italy, where he found many partisans +among the Ghibellines of Lombardy and Tuscany, and among +Manfred’s former adherents in the south. He gathered a large +army consisting partly of Germans and Saracens, but was totally +defeated by Charles at Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268); +taken prisoner, he was tried as a rebel and executed at Naples. +Charles, in a spirit of the most vindictive cruelty, had large +numbers of Conradin’s barons put to death and their estates +confiscated, and the whole population of several towns massacred.</p> + +<p>He was now one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe, +for besides ruling over Provence and Anjou and the kingdom +of the Two Sicilies, he was imperial vicar of Tuscany, lord of +many cities of Lombardy and Piedmont, and as the pope’s +favourite practically arbiter of the papal states, especially during +the interregnum between the death of Clement IV. (1268) and +the election of Gregory X. (1272). But his ambition was by no +means satisfied, and he even aspired to the crown of the East +Roman empire. In 1272 he took part with Louis IX. in a +crusade to north Africa, where the French king died of fever, +and Charles, after defeating the soldan of Tunis, returned to +Sicily. The election of Rudolph of Habsburg as German king +after a long interregnum, and that of Nicholas III. to the Holy +See (1277), diminished Charles’s power, for the new pope set +himself to compose the difference between Guelphs and Ghibellines +in the Italian cities, but at his death Charles secured the +election of his henchman Martin IV. (1281), who recommenced +persecuting the Ghibellines, excommunicated the Greek emperor, +Michael Palaeologus, proclaimed a crusade against the Greeks, +filled every appointment in the papal states with Charles’s +vassals, and reappointed the Angevin king senator of Rome. +But the cruelty of the French rulers of Sicily drove the people +of the island to despair, and a Neapolitan nobleman, Giovanni da +Procida, organized the rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vespers, Sicilian</a></span>), in which the French in Sicily were all +massacred or expelled (1282). Charles determined to subjugate +the island and sailed with his fleet for Messina. The city held +out until Peter III. of Aragon, whose wife Constance was a +daughter of Manfred, arrived in Sicily, and a Sicilian-Catalan +fleet under the Calabrese admiral, Ruggiero di Lauria, completely +destroyed that of Charles. “If thou art determined, O God, +to destroy me,” the unhappy Angevin exclaimed, “let my fall +be gradual!” He was forced to abandon all attempts at +reconquest, but proposed to decide the question by single +combat between himself and Peter, to take place at Bordeaux +under English protection. The Aragonese accepted, but fearing +treachery, as the French army was in the neighbourhood, he +failed to appear on the appointed day. In the meanwhile +Ruggiero di Lauria appeared before Naples and destroyed +another Angevin fleet commanded by Charles’s son, who was +taken prisoner (May 1284). Charles came to Naples with a new +fleet from Provence, and was preparing to invade Sicily again, +when he contracted a fever and died at Foggia on the 7th of +January 1285. He was undoubtedly an extremely able soldier +and a skilful statesman, and much of his legislation shows a +real political sense; but his inordinate ambition, his oppressive +methods of government and taxation, and his cruelty created +enemies on all sides, and led to the collapse of the edifice of +dominion which he had raised.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1250-1309), king of Naples and Sicily, son of +Charles I., had been captured by Ruggiero di Lauria in the naval +battle at Naples in 1284, and when his father died he was still a +prisoner in the hands of Peter of Aragon. In 1288 King Edward I. +of England had mediated to make peace, and Charles was +liberated on the understanding that he was to retain Naples +alone, Sicily being left to the Aragonese; Charles was also to +induce his cousin Charles of Valois to renounce for twenty +thousand pounds of silver the kingdom of Aragon which had +been given to him by Pope Martin IV. to punish Peter for having +invaded Sicily, but which the Valois had never effectively +occupied. The Angevin king was thereupon set free, leaving +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span> +three of his sons and sixty Provençal nobles as hostages, promising +to pay 30,000 marks and to return a prisoner if the conditions +were not fulfilled within three years. He went to Rieti, where +the new pope Nicholas IV. immediately absolved him from all +the conditions he had sworn to observe, crowned him king of +the Two Sicilies (1289), and excommunicated Alphonso, while +Charles of Valois, in alliance with Castile, prepared to take +possession of Aragon. Alphonso III, the Aragonese king, being +hard pressed, had to promise to withdraw the troops he had +sent to help his brother James in Sicily, to renounce all rights +over the island, and pay a tribute to the Holy See. But Alphonso +died childless in 1291 before the treaty could be carried out, and +James took possession of Aragon, leaving the government of +Sicily to the third brother Frederick. The new pope Boniface +VIII., elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King +Charles, mediated between the latter and James, and a most +dishonourable treaty was signed: James was to marry Charles’s +daughter Bianca and was promised the investiture by the pope +of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to leave the Angevin a free +hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the Sicilians resisted. An +attempt was made to bribe Frederick into consenting to this +arrangement, but being backed up by his people he refused, and +was afterwards crowned king of Sicily. The war was fought with +great fury on land and sea, but Charles, although aided by the +pope, by Charles of Valois, and by James II. of Aragon, was +unable to conquer the island, and his son the prince of Taranto +was taken prisoner at the battle of La Falconara in 1299. Peace +was at last made in 1302 at Caltabellotta, Charles II. giving up +all rights to Sicily and agreeing to the marriage of his daughter +Leonora to King Frederick; the treaty was ratified by the +pope in 1303. Charles spent his last years quietly in Naples, +which city he improved and embellished. He died in August +1309, and was succeeded by his son Robert.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—A. de Saint-Priest, <i>Histoire de la conquête de +Naples par Charles d’Anjou</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1847-1849), is still of use +for the documents from the archives of Barcelona, but it needs to +be collated with more recent works; S. de Sismondi, in vol. ii. of +his <i>Histoire des republiques italiennes</i> (Brussels, 1838), gives a good +general sketch of the reigns of Charles I. and II., but is occasionally +inaccurate as to details; the best authority on the early life of +Charles I. is R. Sternfeld, <i>Karl von Anjou als Graf von Provence +</i> (Berlin, 1888); Charles’s connexion with north Italy is dealt with in +Merkel’s <i>La Dominazione di Carlo d’Angio in Piemonte e in Lombardia +</i> (Turin, 1891), while the R. Deputazione di Storia Patria Toscana +has recently published a <i>Codice diplomatico delle relazioni di Carlo +d’Angio con la Toscana</i>; the contents of the Angevin archives at +Naples have been published by Durrien, <i>Archives angevines de Naples</i> +(Toulouse, 1866-1867). M. Amari’s <i>La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano</i> +(8th ed., Florence, 1876) is a valuable history, but the author is too +bitterly prejudiced against the French to be quite impartial; his +work should be compared with L. Cadier’s <i>Essai sur l’administration +du royaume de Sicile sous Charles I et Charles II d’Anjou</i> (Paris, +1891, <i>Bibl. des écoles françaises d’Athenes et de Rome,</i> fasc. 59), which +contains many documents, and tends somewhat to rehabilitate the +Angevin rule.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1332-1387), called <span class="sc">The Bad</span>, king of Navarre +and count of Evreux, was a son of Jeanne II., queen of Navarre, +by her marriage with Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343). Having +become king of Navarre on Jeanne’s death in 1349, he suppressed +a rising at Pampeluna with much cruelty, and by this and +similar actions thoroughly earned his surname of “The Bad.” In +1352 he married Jeanne (d. 1393), a daughter of John II., king of +France, a union which made his relationship to the French crown +still more complicated. Through his mother he was a grandson of +Louis X. and through his father a great-grandson of Philip III., +having thus a better claim to the throne of France than Edward +III. of England; and, moreover, he held lands under the suzerainty +of the French king, whose son-in-law he now became. Charles +was a man of great ability, possessing popular manners and considerable +eloquence, but he was singularly unscrupulous, a quality +which was revealed during the years in which he played an important +part in the internal affairs of France. Trouble soon arose +between King John and his son-in-law. The promised dowry had +not been paid, and the county of Angoulême, which had formerly +belonged to Jeanne of Navarre, was now in the possession of the +French king’s favourite, the constable Charles la Cerda. In +January 1354 the constable was assassinated by order of Charles, +and preparations for war were begun. The king of Navarre, who +defended this deed, had, however, many friends in France and was +in communication with Edward III.; and consequently John was +forced to make a treaty at Mantes and to compensate him for the +loss of Angoulême by a large grant of lands, chiefly in Normandy. +This peace did not last long, and in 1355 John was compelled to +confirm the treaty of Mantes. Returning to Normandy, Charles +was partly responsible for some unrest in the duchy, and in April +1356 he was treacherously seized by the French king at Rouen, +remaining in captivity until November 1357, when John, after +his defeat at Poitiers, was a prisoner in England. Charles was +regarded with much favour in France, and the states-general +demanded his release, which, however, was effected by a surprise. +Owing to his popularity he was considered by Étienne Marcel +and his party as a suitable rival to the dauphin, afterwards King +Charles V., and on entering Paris he was well received and +delivered an eloquent harangue to the Parisians. Subsequently +peace was made with the dauphin, who promised to restore to +Charles his confiscated estates. This peace was not enduring, and +as his lands were not given back Charles had some ground for +complaint. War again broke out, quickly followed by a new +treaty, after which the king of Navarre took part in suppressing +the peasant rising known as the <i>Jacquerie</i>. Answering the entreaties +of Marcel he returned to Paris on June 1358, and became +captain-general of the city, which was soon besieged by the +dauphin. This position, however, did not prevent him from +negotiating both with the dauphin and with the English; terms +were soon arranged with the former, and Charles, having lost +much of his popularity, left Paris just before the murder of +Marcel in July 1358. He continued his alternate policy of war +and peace, meanwhile adding if possible by his depredations to +the misery of France, until the conclusion of the treaty of +Brétigny in May 1360 deprived him of the alliance of the English, +and compelled him to make peace with King John in the following +October. A new cause of trouble arose when the duchy of +Burgundy was left without a ruler in November 1361, and was +claimed by Charles; but, lacking both allies and money, he was +unable to prevent the French king from seizing Burgundy, while +he himself returned to Navarre.</p> + +<p>In his own kingdom Charles took some steps to reform the +financial and judicial administration and so to increase his +revenue; but he was soon occupied once more with foreign +entanglements, and in July 1362, in alliance with Peter the Cruel, +king of Castile, he invaded Aragon, deserting his new ally soon +afterwards for Peter IV., king of Aragon. Meanwhile the war +with the dauphin had been renewed. Still hankering after +Burgundy, Charles saw his French estates again seized; but after +some desultory warfare, chiefly in Normandy, peace was made +in March 1365, and he returned to his work of interference in the +politics of the Spanish kingdoms. In turn he made treaties with +the kings of Castile and Aragon, who were at war with each +other; promising to assist Peter the Cruel to regain his throne, +from which he had been driven in 1366 by his half-brother Henry +of Trastamara, and then assuring Henry and his ally Peter of +Aragon that he would aid them to retain Castile. He continued +this treacherous policy when Edward the Black Prince advanced +to succour Peter the Cruel; then signed a treaty with Edward +of England, and then in 1371 allied himself with Charles V. of +France. His next important move was to offer his assistance to +Richard II. of England for an attack upon France. About this +time serious charges were brought against him. Accused of +attempting to poison the king of France and other prominent +persons, and of other crimes, his French estates were seized by +order of Charles V., and soon afterwards Navarre was invaded by +the Castilians. Won over by the surrender of Cherbourg in July +1378, the English under John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, came +to his aid; but a heavy price had to be paid for the neutrality +of the king of Castile. After the death of Charles V. in 1380, the +king of Navarre did not interfere in the internal affairs of France, +although he endeavoured vainly again to obtain aid from Richard +II., and to regain Cherbourg. His lands in France were handed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span> +over to his eldest son Charles, who governed them with the consent +of the new king Charles VI. Charles died on the 1st of January +1387, and many stories are current regarding the manner of his +death. Froissart relates that he was burned to death through his +bedclothes catching fire; Secousse says that he died in peace +with many signs of contrition; another story says he died of +leprosy; and a popular legend tells how he expired by a divine +judgment through the burning of the clothes steeped in sulphur +and spirits in which he had been wrapped as a cure for a loathsome +disease caused by his debauchery. He had three sons and +four daughters, and was succeeded by his eldest son Charles; one +of his daughters, Jeanne, became the wife of Henry IV. of +England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jean Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud +(Paris, 1869-1897); D.F. Secousse, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire +de Charles II, roi de Navarre</i> (Paris, 1755-1768); E. Meyer, <i>Charles +II, roi de Navarre et la Normandie au XIVe siècle</i> (Paris, 1898); +F.T. Perrens, <i>Étienne Marcel</i> (Paris, 1874); R. Delachenal, <i>Premières +negotiations de Charles le Mauvais avec les Anglais</i> (Paris, 1900); +and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1361-1425), called <span class="sc">The Noble</span>, king of Navarre +and count of Evreux, was the eldest son of Charles II. the Bad, +king of Navarre, by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of John +II., king of France, and was married in 1375 to Leonora (d. 1415), +daughter of Henry II., king of Castile. Having passed much of +his early life in France, he became king of Navarre on the death of +Charles II. in January 1387, and his reign was a period of peace +and order, thus contrasting sharply with the long and calamitous +reign of his father. In 1393 he regained Cherbourg, which had +been handed over by Charles II. to Richard II. of England, and +in 1403 he came to an arrangement with the representatives of +Charles VI. of France concerning the extensive lands which he +claimed in that country. Cherbourg was given to the French +king; certain exchanges of land were made; and in the following +year Charles III. surrendered the county of Evreux, and was +created duke of Nemours and made a peer of France. After this +his only interference in the internal affairs of France was when he +sought to make peace between the rival factions in that country. +Charles sought to improve the condition of Navarre by making +canals and rendering the rivers navigable, and in other ways. +He died at Olite on the 8th of September 1425 and was buried at +Pampeluna. After the death of his two sons in 1402 the king +decreed that his kingdom should pass to his daughter Blanche +(d. 1441), who took for her second husband John, afterwards +John II., king of Aragon; and the cortes of Navarre swore to +recognize Charles (<i>q.v.</i>), prince of Viana, her son by this marriage, +as king after his mother’s death.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Karl Eitel Zephyrin Ludwig</span>; in Rum. +<span class="sc">Carol</span>), king of Rumania (1839-  ), second son of Prince Karl +Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was born on the 20th of +April 1839. He was educated at Dresden (1850-1856), and +passed through his university course at Bonn. Entering the +Prussian army in 1857, he won considerable distinction in the +Danish war of 1864, and received instruction in strategy from +General von Moltke. He afterwards travelled in France, Italy, +Spain and Algeria. He was a captain in the 2nd regiment of +Prussian Dragoon Guards when he was elected <i>hospodar</i> or +prince of Rumania on the 20th of April 1866, after the compulsory +abdication of Prince Alexander John Cuza. Regarded at first +with distrust by Turkey, Russia and Austria, he succeeded in +gaining general recognition in six months; but he had to contend +for ten years with fierce party struggles between the +Conservatives and the Liberals.</p> + +<p>During this period, however, Charles displayed great tact in +his dealings with both parties, and kept his country in the path +of administrative and economic reform, organizing the army, +developing the railways, and establishing commercial relations +with foreign powers. The sympathy of Rumania with France +in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the consequent interruption +of certain commercial undertakings, led to a hostile +movement against Prince Charles, which, being fostered by +Russia, made him resolve to abdicate; and it was with difficulty +that he was persuaded to remain. In the Russo-Turkish War +of 1877-78 he joined the Russians before Plevna (<i>q.v.</i>), and +being placed in command of the combined Russian and +Rumanian forces, forced Osman Pasha to surrender. As a consequence +of the prince’s vigorous action the independence of +Rumania, which had been proclaimed in May 1877, was confirmed +by various treaties in 1878, and recognized by Great +Britain, France and Germany in 1880. On the 26th of March +1881 he was proclaimed king of Rumania, and, with his consort, +was crowned on the 22nd of May following. From that time he +pursued a successful career in home and foreign policy, and +greatly improved the financial and military position of his +country; while his appreciation of the fine arts was shown by +his formation of an important collection of paintings of all +schools in his palaces at Sinaïa and Bucharest. For a detailed +account of his reign, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>. On the 1st of November +1869 he married Princess Elizabeth (<i>q.v.</i>), a daughter of Prince +Hermann of Wied, widely known under her literary name of +“Carmen Sylva.” As the only child of the marriage, a daughter, +died in 1874, the succession was finally settled upon the king’s +nephew, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who +was created prince of Rumania on the 18th of March 1889, +and married, on the 10th of January 1893, Princess Marie, +daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg, their children being +Prince Carol (b. 1893) and Princess Elizabeth (b. 1894).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The official life of King Charles, mainly his own composition, +<i>Aus dem Leben Konig Karls von Rumänien</i> (Stuttgart, 1894-1900, +4 vols.), deals mainly with political history. See for an account of +his domestic life, M. Kremnitz, <i>König Karl von Rumänien. Ein +Lebensbild</i> (Breslau, 1903).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1661-1700), king of Spain, known among +Spanish kings as “The Desired” and “The Bewitched,” was the +son of Philip IV. by his second marriage with Maria, daughter +of the emperor Ferdinand III., his niece. He was born on the +11th of November 1661, and was the only surviving son of his +father’s two marriages—a child of old age and disease, in +whom the constant intermarriages of the Habsburgs had developed +the family type to deformity. His birth was greeted +with joy by the Spaniards, who feared the dispute as to the +succession which must have ensued if Philip IV. left no male +issue. The boy was so feeble that till the age of five or six he +was fed only from the breast of a nurse. For years afterwards +it was not thought safe to allow him to walk. That he might not +be overtaxed he was left entirely uneducated, and his indolence +was indulged to such an extent that he was not even expected +to be clean. When his brother, the younger Don John of Austria, +a natural son of Philip IV., obtained power by exiling the queen +mother from court he insisted that at least the king’s hair should +be combed. Charles made the malicious remark that nothing +was safe from Don John—not even vermin. The king was then +fifteen, and, according to Spanish law, of age. But he never +became a man in body or mind. The personages who ruled in +his name arranged a marriage for him with Maria Louisa of +Orleans. The French princess, a lively young woman of no +sense, died in the stifling atmosphere of the Spanish court, and +from the attendance of Spanish doctors. Again his advisers +arranged a marriage with Maria Ana of Neuburg. The Bavarian +wife stood the strain and survived him. Both marriages were +merely political—the first a victory for the French, and the +second for the Austrian party. France and Austria were alike +preparing for the day when the Spanish succession would have +to be fought for. The king was a mere puppet in the hands of +each alternately. By natural instinct he hated the French, but +there was no room in his nearly imbecile mind for more than +childish superstition, insane pride of birth, and an interest in +court etiquette. The only touch of manhood was a taste for +shooting which he occasionally indulged in the preserves of the +Escorial. In his later days he suffered much pain, and was driven +wild by the conflict between his wish to transmit his inheritance +to “the illustrious house of Austria,” his own kin, and the belief +instilled into him by the partisans of the French claimant that +only the power of Louis XIV. could avert the dismemberment +of the empire. A silly fanatic made the discovery that the king +was bewitched, and his confessor Froilan Diaz supported the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span> +belief. The king was exorcised, and the exorcists of the kingdom +were called upon to put stringent questions to the devils +they cast out. The Inquisition interfered, and the dying king +was driven mad among them. Very near his end he had the +lugubrious curiosity to cause the coffins of his embalmed ancestors +to be opened at the Escorial. The sight of the body of +his first wife, at whom he also insisted on looking, provoked a +passion of tears and despair. Under severe pressure from the +cardinal archbishop of Toledo, Portocarrero, he finally made a +will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., +and died on the 1st of November 1700, after a lifetime of senile +decay.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best picture of Charles II. is to be found in <i>Les Mémoires de la +tour d’Espagne</i> of the Marquis de Villars (London, 1861), and the +<i>Letters</i> of the Marquise de Villars (Paris, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1716-1788), king of Spain, born on the 20th +January 1716, was the first son of the second marriage of Philip +V. with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma. It was his good fortune +to be sent to rule as duke of Parma by right of his mother at the +age of sixteen, and thus came under more intelligent influence +than he could have found in Spain. In 1734 he made himself +master of Naples and Sicily by arms. Charles had, however, no +military tastes, seldom wore uniform, and could with difficulty +be persuaded to witness a review. The peremptory action of +the British admiral commanding in the Mediterranean at the +approach of the War of the Austrian Succession, who forced +him to promise to observe neutrality under a threat to bombard +Naples, made a deep impression on his mind. It gave him a +feeling of hostility to England which in after-times influenced +his policy.</p> + +<p>As king of the Two Sicilies Charles began there the work +of internal reform which he afterwards continued in Spain. +Foreign ministers who dealt with him agreed that he had no great +natural ability, but he was honestly desirous to do his duty as +king, and he showed good judgment in his choice of ministers. +The chief minister in Naples, Tanucci, had a considerable influence +over him. On the death of his half-brother Ferdinand VI. +he became king of Spain, and resigned the Two Sicilies to his +third son Ferdinand. As king of Spain his foreign policy was +disastrous. His strong family feeling and his detestation of +England, which was unchecked after the death of his wife, Maria +Amelia, daughter of Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, led him +into the Family Compact with France. Spain was entangled in +the close of the Seven Years’ War, to her great loss. In 1770 he +almost ran into another war over the barren Falkland Islands. +In 1779 he was, somewhat reluctantly, led to join France and +the American insurgents against England, though he well knew +that the independence of the English colonies must have a +ruinous influence on his own American dominions. For his army +he did practically nothing, and for his fleet very little except +build fine ships without taking measures to train officers and +men.</p> + +<p>But his internal government was on the whole beneficial to the +country. He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give +up emptying their slops out of the windows, and when they +objected he said they were like children who cried when their +faces were washed. In 1766 his attempt to force the Madrileños +to adopt the French dress led to a riot during which he did not +display much personal courage. For a long time after it he +remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands +of his minister Aranda. All his reforms were not of this formal +kind. Charles was a thorough despot of the benevolent order, +and had been deeply offended by the real or suspected share of +the Jesuits in the riot of 1766. He therefore consented to the +expulsion of the order, and was then the main advocate for its +suppression. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and the recollection +of some disputes with the pope he had had when king of Naples, +turned him towards a general policy of restriction of the overgrown +power of the church. The number of the idle clergy, and +more particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the +Inquisition, though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the +meantime much antiquated legislation which tended to restrict +trade and industry was abolished; roads, canals and drainage +works were carried out. Many of his paternal ventures led to +little more than waste of money, or the creation of hotbeds of +jobbery. Yet on the whole the country prospered. The result +was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised +did at least work steadily at his task of government. His +example was not without effect on some at least of the nobles. +In his domestic life King Charles was regular, and was a considerate +master, though he had a somewhat caustic tongue +and took a rather cynical view of mankind. He was passionately +fond of hunting. During his later years he had some trouble +with his eldest son and his daughter-in-law. If Charles had lived +to see the beginning of the French Revolution he would probably +have been frightened into reaction. As he died on the 14th of +December 1788 he left the reputation of a philanthropic and +“philosophic” king. In spite of his hostility to the Jesuits, his +dislike of friars in general, and his jealousy of the Inquisition, +he was a very sincere Roman Catholic, and showed much zeal in +endeavouring to persuade the pope to proclaim the Immaculate +Conception as a dogma necessary to salvation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Reign of Charles III.</i>, by M. Danvila y Collado (6 vols.), +in the <i>Historia General de España de la Real Academia de la Historia +</i> (Madrid, 1892, &c.); and F. Rousseau, <i>Règne de Charles III +d’Espagne</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1748-1819), king of Spain, second son of Charles +III. and his wife Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born at Portici +on the 11th of November 1748, while his father was king of the +Two Sicilies. The elder brother was set aside as imbecile and +epileptic. Charles had inherited a great frame and immense +physical strength from the Saxon line of his mother. When +young he was fond of wrestling with the strongest countrymen +he could find. In character he was not malignant, but he was +intellectually torpid, and of a credulity which almost passes +belief. His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, his first cousin, a +thoroughly coarse and vicious woman, ruled him completely, +though he was capable of obstinacy at times. During his father’s +lifetime he was led by her into court intrigues which aimed +at driving the king’s favourite minister, Floridablanca, from +office, and replacing him by Aranda, the chief of the “Aragonese” +party. After he succeeded to the throne in 1788 his one serious +occupation was hunting. Affairs were left to be directed by his +wife and her lover Godoy (<i>q.v.</i>). For Godoy the king had an +unaffected liking, and the lifelong favour he showed him is almost +pathetic. When terrified by the French Revolution he turned +to the Inquisition to help him against the party which would have +carried the reforming policy of Charles III. much further. But +he was too slothful to have more than a passive part in the +direction of his own government. He simply obeyed the impulse +given him by the queen and Godoy. If he ever knew his wife’s +real character he thought it more consistent with his dignity +to shut his eyes. For he had a profound belief in his divine right +and the sanctity of his person. If he understood that his kingdom +was treated as a mere dependence by France, he also thought +it due to his “face” to make believe that he was a powerful +monarch. Royalty never wore a more silly aspect than in the +person of Charles IV., and it is highly credible that he never +knew what his wife was, or what was the position of his kingdom. +When he was told that his son Ferdinand was appealing to the +emperor Napoleon against Godoy, he took the side of the favourite. +When the populace rose at Aranjuez in 1808 he abdicated to save +the minister. He took refuge in France, and when he and +Ferdinand were both prisoners of Napoleon’s, he was with +difficulty restrained from assaulting his son. Then he abdicated +in favour of Napoleon, handing over his people like a herd of +cattle. He accepted a pension from the French emperor and +spent the rest of his life between his wife and Godoy. He died +at Rome on the 20th of January 1819, probably without having +once suspected that he had done anything unbecoming a king +by divine right and a gentleman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV.</i>, by General Gomez de +Arteche (3 vols.), in the <i>Historia General de España de la Real +Academia de la Historia</i> (Madrid, 1892, &c.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> </p> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IX.<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1550-1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest +son of Gustavus Vasa and Margareto Lejonhufrud. By his +father’s will he got, by way of appanage, the duchy of Södermanland, +which included the provinces of Neriké and Vermland; +but he did not come into actual possession of them till after the +fall of Eric XIV. (1569). In 1568 he was the real leader of the +rebellion against Eric, but took no part in the designs of his +brother John against the unhappy king after his deposition. +Indeed, Charles’s relations with John III. were always more or +less strained. He had no sympathy with John’s high-church +tendencies on the one hand, and he sturdily resisted all the king’s +endeavours to restrict his authority as duke of Södermanland +(Sudermania) on the other. The nobility and the majority of +the <i>Riksdag</i> supported John, however, in his endeavours to unify +the realm, and Charles had consequently (1587) to resign his +pretensions to autonomy within his duchy; but, fanatical +Calvinist as he was, on the religious question he was immovable. +The matter came to a crisis on the death of John III. (1592). +The heir to the throne was John’s eldest son, Sigismund, already +king of Poland and a devoted Catholic. The fear lest Sigismund +might re-catholicize the land alarmed the Protestant majority +in Sweden, and Charles came forward as their champion, and also +as the defender of the Vasa dynasty against foreign interference. +It was due entirely to him that Sigismund was forced to confirm +the resolutions of the council of Upsala, thereby recognizing +the fact that Sweden was essentially a Protestant state (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In the ensuing years Charles’s task was +extraordinarily difficult. He had steadily to oppose Sigismund’s +reactionary tendencies; he had also to curb the nobility, which +he did with cruel rigour. Necessity compelled him to work +rather with the people than the gentry; hence it was that the +<i>Riksdag</i> assumed under his government a power and an importance +which it had never possessed before. In 1595 the +<i>Riksdag</i> of Söderköping elected Charles regent, and his attempt +to force Klas Flemming, governor of Finland, to submit to his +authority, rather than to that of the king, provoked a civil war. +Technically Charles was, without doubt, guilty of high treason, +and the considerable minority of all classes which adhered to +Sigismund on his landing in Sweden in 1598 indisputably behaved +like loyal subjects. But Sigismund was both an alien and a +heretic to the majority of the Swedish nation, and his formal +deposition by the <i>Riksdag</i> in 1599 was, in effect, a natural vindication +and legitimation of Charles’s position. Finally, the diet of +Linköping (Feb. 24, 1600) declared that Sigismund and his +posterity had forfeited the Swedish throne, and, passing over +duke John, the second son of John III., a youth of ten, recognized +duke Charles as their sovereign under the title of Charles IX.</p> + +<p>Charles’s short reign was an uninterrupted warfare. The hostility +of Poland and the break up of Russia involved him in two +overseas contests for the possession of Livonia and Ingria, +while his pretensions to Lapland brought upon him a war with +Denmark in the last year of his reign. In all these struggles +he was more or less unsuccessful, owing partly to the fact that +he had to do with superior generals (<i>e.g.</i> Chodkiewicz and +Christian IV.) and partly to sheer ill-luck. Compared with his +foreign policy, the domestic policy of Charles IX. was comparatively +unimportant. It aimed at confirming and supplementing +what had already been done during his regency. Not +till the 6th of March 1604, after Duke John had formally +renounced his rights to the throne, did Charles IX. begin to style +himself king. The first deed in which the title appears is dated +the 20th of March 1604; but he was not crowned till the 15th of +March 1607. Four and a half years later Charles IX. died at +Nyköping (Oct. 30, 1611). As a ruler he is the link between +his great father and his still greater son. He consolidated the +work of Gustavus Vasa, the creation of a great Protestant state: +he prepared the way for the erection of the Protestant empire +of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have been excusably +indulgent to the father of their greatest ruler. Indisputably +Charles was cruel, ungenerous and vindictive; yet he seems, +at all hazards, strenuously to have endeavoured to do his duty +during a period of political and religious transition, and, despite +his violence and brutality, possessed many of the qualities of a +wise and courageous statesman. By his first wife Marie, daughter +of the elector palatine Louis VI., he had six children, of whom +only one daughter, Catherine, survived; by his second wife, +Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, +he had five children, including Gustavus Adolphus and Charles +Philip, duke of Finland.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i>, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1878); Robert Nisbet +Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905), caps. 5-7.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES X.<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Gustavus</span>] (1622-1660), king of +Sweden, son of John Casimir, count palatine of Zweibrücken, +and Catherine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, was born at Nyköping +Castle on the 8th of November 1622. He learnt the art of +war under the great Lennart Torstensson, being present at the +second battle of Breitenfeld and at Jankowitz. From 1646 +to 1648 he frequented the Swedish court. It was supposed that +he would marry the queen regnant, Christina, but her unsurmountable +objection to wedlock put an end to these anticipations, +and to compensate her cousin for a broken half-promise she +declared him (1649) her successor, despite the opposition of the +senate headed by the venerable Axel Oxenstjerna. In 1648 he +was appointed generalissimo of the Swedish forces in Germany. +The conclusion of the treaties of Westphalia prevented him from +winning the military laurels he so ardently desired, but as the +Swedish plenipotentiary at the executive congress of Nuremberg, +he had unrivalled opportunities of learning diplomacy, in which +science he speedily became a past-master. As the recognized +heir to the throne, his position on his return to Sweden was not +without danger, for the growing discontent with the queen +turned the eyes of thousands to him as a possible deliverer. +He therefore withdrew to the isle of Öland till the abdication of +Christina (June 5, 1654) called him to the throne.</p> + +<p>The beginning of his reign was devoted to the healing of +domestic discords, and the rallying of all the forces of the nation +round his standard for a new policy of conquest. He contracted +a political marriage (Oct. 24, 1654) with Hedwig Leonora, the +daughter of Frederick III., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by way of +securing a future ally against Denmark. The two great pressing +national questions, war and the restitution of the alienated crown +lands, were duly considered at the <i>Riksdag</i> which assembled +at Stockholm in March 1655. The war question was decided in +three days by a secret committee presided over by the king, who +easily persuaded the delegates that a war with Poland was +necessary and might prove very advantageous; but the consideration +of the question of the subsidies due to the crown +for military purposes was postponed to the following <i>Riksdag</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). On the 10th of July Charles quitted +Sweden to engage in his Polish adventure. By the time war was +declared he had at his disposal 50,000 men and 50 warships. +Hostilities had already begun with the occupation of Dünaburg +(Dvinsk) in Polish Livonia by the Swedes (July 1, 1655), and +the Polish army encamped among the marshes of the Netze +concluded a convention (July 25) whereby the palatinates of +Posen and Kalisz placed themselves under the protection of the +Swedish king. Thereupon the Swedes entered Warsaw without +opposition and occupied the whole of Great Poland. The Polish +king, John Casimir, fled to Silesia. Meanwhile Charles pressed +on towards Cracow, which was captured after a two months’ +siege. The fall of Cracow extinguished the last hope of the +boldest Pole; but before the end of the year an extraordinary +reaction began in Poland itself. On the 18th of October the +Swedes invested the fortress-monastery of Czenstochowa, but +the place was heroically defended; and after a seventy days’ +siege the besiegers were compelled to retire with great loss.</p> + +<p>This astounding success elicited an outburst of popular +enthusiasm which gave the war a national and religious character. +The tactlessness of Charles, the rapacity of his generals, the +barbarity of his mercenaries, his refusal to legalize his position +by summoning the Polish diet, his negotiations for the partition +of the very state he affected to befriend, awoke the long slumbering +public spirit of the country. In the beginning of 1656 John +Casimir returned from exile and the Polish army was reorganized +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span> +and increased. By this time Charles had discovered that it +was easier to defeat the Poles than to conquer Poland. His +chief object, the conquest of Prussia, was still unaccomplished, +and a new foe arose in the elector of Brandenburg, alarmed by +the ambition of the Swedish king. Charles forced the elector, +indeed, at the point of the sword to become his ally and +vassal (treaty of Königsberg, Jan. 17, 1656); but the Polish +national rising now imperatively demanded his presence in the +south. For weeks he scoured the interminable snow-covered +plains of Poland in pursuit of the Polish guerillas, penetrating +as far south as Jaroslau in Galicia, by which time he had lost +two-thirds of his 15,000 men with no apparent result. His +retreat from Jaroslau to Warsaw, with the fragments of his host, +amidst three converging armies, in a marshy forest region, +intersected in every direction by well-guarded rivers, was one +of his most brilliant achievements. But his necessities were +overwhelming. On the 21st of June Warsaw was retaken by +the Poles, and four days later Charles was obliged to purchase +the assistance of Frederick William by the treaty of Marienburg. +On July 18-20 the combined Swedes and Brandenburgers, +18,000 strong, after a three days’ battle, defeated John Casimir’s +army of 100,000 at Warsaw and reoccupied the Polish capital; +but this brilliant feat of arms was altogether useless, and when +the suspicious attitude of Frederick William compelled the +Swedish king at last to open negotiations with the Poles, they +refused the terms offered, the war was resumed, and Charles +concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with the elector +of Brandenburg (treaty of Labiau, Nov. 20) whereby it was +agreed that Frederick William and his heirs should henceforth +possess the full sovereignty of East Prussia.</p> + +<p>This was an essential modification of Charles’s Baltic policy; +but the alliance of the elector had now become indispensable +on almost any terms. So serious, indeed, were the difficulties +of Charles X. in Poland that it was with extreme satisfaction +that he received the tidings of the Danish declaration of war +(June 1, 1657). The hostile action of Denmark enabled him +honourably to emerge from the inglorious Polish imbroglio, and +he was certain of the zealous support of his own people. He had +learnt from Torstensson that Denmark was most vulnerable +if attacked from the south, and, imitating the strategy of his +master, he fell upon her with a velocity which paralysed resistance. +At the end of June 1657, at the head of 8000 seasoned +veterans, he broke up from Bromberg in Prussia and reached +the borders of Holstein on the 18th of July. The Danish army +at once dispersed and the duchy of Bremen was recovered by +the Swedes, who in the early autumn swarmed over Jutland and +firmly established themselves in the duchies. But the fortress +of Fredriksodde (Fredericia) held Charles’s little army at bay +from mid-August to mid-October, while the fleet of Denmark, +after a stubborn two days’ battle, compelled the Swedish fleet +to abandon its projected attack on the Danish islands. The +position of the Swedish king had now become critical. In July +an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Denmark +and Poland. Still more ominously, the elector of Brandenburg, +perceiving Sweden to be in difficulties, joined the league +against her and compelled Charles to accept the proffered +mediation of Cromwell and Mazarin. The negotiations foundered, +however, upon the refusal of Sweden to refer the points in +dispute to a general peace-congress, and Charles was still further +encouraged by the capture of Fredriksodde (Oct. 23-24), +whereupon he began to make preparations for conveying his +troops over to Fünen in transport vessels. But soon another +and cheaper expedient presented itself. In the middle of +December 1657 began the great frost which was to be so fatal +to Denmark. In a few weeks the cold had grown so intense that +even the freezing of an arm of the sea with so rapid a current as +the Little Belt became a conceivable possibility; and henceforth +meteorological observations formed an essential part of +the strategy of the Swedes. On the 28th of January 1658, +Charles X. arrived at Haderslev (Hadersleben) in South Jutland, +when it was estimated that in a couple of days the ice of the +Little Belt would be firm enough to bear even the passage of a +mail-clad host. The cold during the night of the 29th of January +was most severe; and early in the morning of the 30th the +Swedish king gave the order to start, the horsemen dismounting +where the ice was weakest, and cautiously leading their horses +as far apart as possible, when they swung into their saddles +again, closed their ranks and made a dash for the shore. The +Danish troops lining the opposite coast were quickly overpowered, +and the whole of Fünen was won with the loss of only +two companies of cavalry, which disappeared under the ice +while fighting with the Danish left wing. Pursuing his irresistible +march, Charles X., with his eyes fixed steadily on Copenhagen, +resolved to cross the frozen Great Belt also. After some hesitation, +he accepted the advice of his chief engineer officer Eric +Dahlberg, who acted as pioneer throughout and chose the more +circuitous route from Svendborg, by the islands of Langeland, +Laaland and Falster, in preference to the direct route from +Nyborg to Korsör, which would have been across a broad, +almost uninterrupted expanse of ice. Yet this second adventure +was not embarked upon without much anxious consideration. +A council of war, which met at two o’clock in the morning to +consider the practicability of Dahlberg’s proposal, at once +dismissed it as criminally hazardous. Even the king wavered +for an instant; but, Dahlberg persisting in his opinion, Charles +overruled the objections of the commanders. On the night of +the 5th of February the transit began, the cavalry leading the +way through the snow-covered ice, which quickly thawed +beneath the horses’ hoofs so that the infantry which followed +after had to wade through half an ell of sludge, fearing every +moment lest the rotting ice should break beneath their feet. +At three o’clock in the afternoon, Dahlberg leading the way, +the army reached Grimsted in Laaland without losing a man +On the 8th of February Charles reached Falster. On the 11th +he stood safely on the soil of Sjaelland (Zealand). Not without +reason did the medal struck to commemorate “the glorious +transit of the Baltic Sea” bear the haughty inscription: <i>Natura +hoc debuit uni.</i> An exploit unique in history had been achieved. +The crushing effect of this unheard-of achievement on the +Danish government found expression in the treaties of Taastrup +(Feb. 18) and Roskilde (Feb. 26, 1658), whereby Denmark +sacrificed nearly half her territory to save the rest (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But even this was not enough for the +conqueror. Military ambition and greed of conquest moved +Charles X. to what, divested of all its pomp and circumstance, +was an outrageous act of political brigandage. At a council held +at Gottorp (July 7), Charles X. resolved to wipe from the map +of Europe an inconvenient rival, and without any warning, in +defiance of all international equity, let loose his veterans upon +Denmark a second time. For the details of this second struggle, +with the concomitant diplomatic intervention of the western +powers, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>. Only +after great hesitation would Charles X. consent to reopen +negotiations with Denmark direct, at the same time proposing +to exercise pressure upon the enemy by a simultaneous winter +campaign in Norway. Such an enterprise necessitated fresh +subsidies from his already impoverished people, and obliged +him in December 1659 to cross over to Sweden to meet the +estates, whom he had summoned to Gothenburg. The lower +estates murmured at the imposition of fresh burdens; and +Charles had need of all his adroitness to persuade them that his +demands were reasonable and necessary. At the very beginning +of the <i>Riksdag</i>, in January 1660, it was noticed that the king +was ill; but he spared himself as little in the council-chamber +as in the battle-field, till death suddenly overtook him on the +night of the 13th of February 1660, in his thirty-eighth year. +The abrupt cessation of such an inexhaustible fount of enterprise +and energy was a distinct loss to Sweden; and signs are not +wanting that, in his latter years, Charles had begun to feel the +need and value of repose. Had he lived long enough to overcome +his martial ardour, and develop and organize the empire he +helped to create, Sweden might perhaps have remained a great +power to this day. Even so she owes her natural frontiers in +the Scandinavian peninsula to Charles X.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881); +Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af +Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885); E. Haumant, <i>La Guerre du +nord et la paix d’Oliva</i> (Paris, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia +</i>(Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, <i>The Diplomatic Relations +between Cromwell and Charles X.</i> (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XI.<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of +Charles X., and Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born +in the palace at Stockholm, on the 24th of November 1655. +His father, who died when the child was in his fourth year, +left the care of his education to the regents whom he had appointed. +So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when, +at the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority, +he was ignorant of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost +illiterate. Yet those nearest to him had great hopes of him. +He was known to be truthful, upright and God-fearing; if he +had neglected his studies it was to devote himself to manly +sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his favourite pastime, +bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most splendid +courage. It was the general disaster produced by the speculative +policy of his former guardians which first called forth his sterling +qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With +indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the +difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle +with sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal +anarchy, the young king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced, +ill-served, snatching at every expedient, worked day +and night in his newly-formed camp in Scania (Skåne) to arm +the nation for its mortal struggle. The victory of Fyllebro +(Aug. 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief +S.G. Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam +of good luck, and on the 4th of December, on the tableland +of Helgonabäck, near Lund, the young Swedish monarch defeated +Christian V. of Denmark, who also commanded his army in +person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were practically +annihilated. The battle of Lund was, relatively to the number +engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. +More than half the combatants (8357, of whom 3000 were +Swedes) actually perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish +commanders showed remarkable ability, but the chief glory +of the day indisputably belongs to Charles XI. This great victory +restored to the Swedes their self-confidence and prestige. In +the following year, Charles with 9000 men routed 12,000 Danes +near Malmõ (July 15, 1678). This proved to be the last pitched +battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to attack +their once more invincible enemy in the open field. In 1679 Louis +XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, +who bitterly resented “the insufferable tutelage” of the French +king, was forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least +left his empire practically intact. Charles devoted the rest of his +life to the gigantic task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a +<i>reduktion</i>, or recovery of alienated crown lands, a process which +involved the examination of every title deed in the kingdom, +and resulted in the complete readjustment of the finances. +But vast as it was, the <i>reduktion</i> represents only a tithe of Charles +XI.’s immense activity. The constructive part of his administration +was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial. Here, +too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance, +commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial +procedure, church government, education, even art and science—everything, +in short—emerged recast from his shaping hand. +Charles XI. died on the 5th of April 1697, in his forty-first year. +By his beloved consort Ulrica Leonora of Denmark, from the +shock of whose death in July 1693 he never recovered, he had +seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son Charles, +and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and +Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the +Swedish throne. After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus +Charles XI. was, perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden. +His modest, homespun figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by +the brilliant and colossal shapes of his heroic father and his +meteoric son; yet in reality Charles XI. is far worthier of +admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII. He was in +an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden +in ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations +of a new order of things which, in its essential features, +has endured to the present day.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881); +Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af +Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885); +Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905); +O. Sjõgren, <i>Karl den Elfte och Svenska Folket</i> (Stockholm, 1897); +S. Jacobsen, <i>Den nordiske Kriegs Krönicke, 1675-1679</i> (Copenhagen, 1897); +J.A. de Mesmes d’Avaux, <i>Négociations du comte d’Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698</i> +(Utrecht, 1882, &c.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XII.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1682-1718), king of Sweden, the only surviving +son of Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III. +of Denmark, was born on the 17th of June 1682. He was carefully +educated by excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his +parents. His natural parts were excellent; and a strong bias +in the direction of abstract thought, and mathematics in particular, +was noticeable at an early date. His memory was astonishing. +He could translate Latin into Swedish or German, or Swedish +or German into Latin at sight. Charles XI. personally supervised +his son’s physical training. He was taught to ride before he was +four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only +eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew +older his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops, +inspecting studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the +lad was gradually initiated into all the <i>minutiae</i> of administration. +The influence of Charles XI. over his son was, indeed, far greater +than is commonly supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles +XII.’s character which is otherwise inexplicable, for instance +his precocious reserve and taciturnity, his dislike of everything +French, and his inordinate contempt for purely diplomatic +methods. On the whole, his early training was admirable; but +the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of gradually +gaining experience under his guardians. At the <i>Riksdag</i> assembled +at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of the +regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate +acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared +that he could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and +would take over the government of the realm “in God’s name.” +The subsequent coronation was marked by portentous novelties, +the most significant of which was the king’s omission to take +the usual coronation oath, which omission was interpreted to +mean that he considered himself under no obligation to his +subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however, +still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict +principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to countenance +torture as an instrument of judicial investigation, on the +ground that “confessions so extorted give no sure criteria for +forming a judgment,” showed him to be more humane as well +as more enlightened than the majority of his council, which had +defended the contrary opinion. His intense application to affairs +is noted by the English minister, John Robinson (1650-1723), +who informed his court that there was every prospect of a happy +reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did +not injure his health by too much work.</p> + +<p>The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold +Patkul, which resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War +(1699), abruptly put an end to Charles XII.’s political apprenticeship, +and forced into his hand the sword he was never again to +relinquish. The young king resolved to attack the nearest +of his three enemies—Denmark—first. The timidity of the +Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlõve, and the daring of Charles, +who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the +passage of the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous +<i>flinterend</i>, hitherto reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the +Swedish king to effect a landing at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand), +a few miles north of Copenhagen (Aug. 4, 1700). He now +hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty years before, +had vainly attempted—the destruction of the Danish-Norwegian +monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once prudential +considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war +was terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span> +Frederick IV. conceded full sovereignty to Charles’s ally and +kinsman the duke of Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity +of 200,000 rix-dollars and solemnly engaging to commit no +hostilities against Sweden in future. From Sjaelland Charles +now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th of October +he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving Riga, +but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn +northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13th +of November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared +the effect on untried troops of a week’s march through a wasted +land, along boggy roads guarded by no fewer than three formidable +passes which a little engineering skill could easily have +made impregnable. Fortunately, the two first passes were +unoccupied; and the third, Pyhäjoggi, was captured by Charles, +who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight. +On the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a +village about 9 m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach +to the beleaguered fortress, and early on the following morning +it advanced in battle array. The attack on the Russian fortified +camp began at two o’clock in the afternoon, in the midst of a +violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the whole position was in +the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was annihilated. +The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost Charles +less than 2000 men.</p> + +<p>After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His +best advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-stricken +Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them +and live at their expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering +discontent caused by the reforms of Peter the Great, and so +disable Russia for some time to come. But Charles’s determination +promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus prevailed +over every other consideration. It is easy from the vantage-point +of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting +the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the +18th century his decision was natural enough. The real question +was, which of the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles +had many reasons to think the civilized and martial Saxons far +more formidable than the imbecile Muscovites. Charles also +rightly felt that he could never trust the treacherous Augustus +to remain quiet, even if he made peace with him. To leave +such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of Russia +would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view +Charles’s whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long +and so loudly—the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the +Polish throne—takes quite another complexion: it was a policy +not of overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.</p> + +<p>First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July +1701), subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and +converting it into a Swedish governor-generalship. In January +1702 Charles established himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and, +after issuing a proclamation declaring that “the elector of +Saxony” had forfeited the Polish crown, set out for Warsaw, +which he reached on the 14th of May. The cardinal-primate +was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for the +purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted +Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the +combined Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later, +captured the fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous +audacity. Thus, within four months of the opening of the +campaign, the Polish capital and the coronation city were both +in the possession of the Swedes. After Klissow, Augustus made +every effort to put an end to the war, but Charles would not even +consider his offers. By this time, too, he had conceived a passion +for the perils and adventures of warfare. His character was +hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous +expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views. +Such commands as “ravage, singe, and burn all about, and +reduce the whole district to a wilderness!” “sweat contributions +well out of them!” “rather let the innocent suffer than +the guilty escape!” became painfully frequent in the mouth +of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being +naturally cruel.</p> + +<p>The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles’s victory +at Pultusk (April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied +him eight months but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of +July 1704, with the assistance of a bribing fund, Charles’s +ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard Horn, succeeded +in forcing through the election of Charles’s candidate to the +Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned +however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the +Saxons had again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn +of 1705 to the spring of 1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing +the Russian auxiliary army under Ogilvie through the forests +of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he recrossed the Vistula +and established himself in Saxony, where his presence in the +heart of Europe, at the very crisis of the war of the Spanish +Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies, +in particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought +the Swedes. Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague +to the castle of Altranstädt near Leipzig, where Charles had +fixed his headquarters, “to endeavour to penetrate the designs” +of the king of Sweden. He soon convinced himself that western +Europe had nothing to fear from Charles, and that no bribes +were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany to +Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was +forced to sign the peace of Altranstädt, whereby he resigned the +Polish throne and renounced every anti-Swedish alliance. +Charles’s departure from Saxony was delayed for twelve months +by a quarrel with the emperor. The court of Vienna had treated +the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity, in direct +contravention of the treaty of Osnabrück, of which Sweden was +one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and +complete restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared +for war. But the allies interfered in Charles’s favour, lest he +might be tempted to aid France, and induced the emperor to +satisfy all the Swedish king’s demands, the maritime Powers +at the same time agreeing to guarantee the provisions of the +peace of Altranstädt.</p> + +<p>Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious +arms against the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he +evacuated Saxony at the head of the largest host he ever commanded, +consisting of 24,000 horse and 20,000 foot. Delayed +during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy arrival of +reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707 +that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year’s Day +1708 he crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous +condition. On the 4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the +Russian army, 6 m. long, which barred his progress on the Wabis, +near Holowczyn, and compelled it to retreat. The victory of +Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last pitched battle won +by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper. The +Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder +running short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured +bullocks. The Russians slowly retired before the invader, +burning and destroying everything in his path. On the 20th of +December it was plain to Charles himself that Moscow was +inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was intolerable to him, +so he determined to march southwards instead of northwards +as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those of the +hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had +100,000 horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal. +Short of falling back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable +in the circumstances, but it was rendered abortive by Peter’s +destruction of Mazepa’s capital Baturin, so that when Mazepa +joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of November 1708, it was as a +ruined man with little more than 1300 personal attendants (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mazepa-Koledinsky</a></span>). A still more serious blow was the +destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to +Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of +loaded wagons, was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at +Lyesna after a two days’ battle against fourfold odds (October). +The very elements now began to fight against the perishing but +still unconquered host. The winter of 1708 was the severest +that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of November +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span> +firewood would not ignite in the open air, and the soldiers +warmed themselves over big bonfires of straw. By the time the +army reached the little Ukrainian fortress of Hadjacz in January +1709, wine and spirits froze into solid masses of ice; birds on +the wing fell dead; saliva congealed on its passage from the +mouth to the ground. “Nevertheless,” says an eye-witness, +“though earth, sea and sky were against us, the king’s orders +had to be obeyed and the daily march made.”</p> + +<p>Never had Charles XII. seemed so superhuman as during +these awful days. It is not too much to say that his imperturbable +equanimity, his serene <i>bonhomie</i> kept the host together. +The frost broke at the end of February 1709, and then the spring +floods put an end to all active operations till May, when Charles +began the siege of the fortress of Poltava, which he wished to +make a base for subsequent operations while awaiting reinforcements +from Sweden and Poland. On the 7th of June a bullet +wound put Charles <i>hors de combat</i>, whereupon Peter threw the +greater part of his forces over the river Vorskla, which separated +the two armies (June 19-25). On the 26th of June Charles held +a council of war, at which it was resolved to attack the Russians +in their entrenchments on the following day. The Swedes +joyfully accepted the chances of battle and, advancing with +irresistible <i>élan</i>, were, at first, successful on both wings. +Then one or two tactical blunders were committed; and the tsar, +taking courage, enveloped the little band in a vast semicircle +bristling with the most modern guns, which fired five times to +the Swedes’ once, and swept away the guards before they +could draw their swords. The Swedish infantry was well nigh +annihilated, while the 14,000 cavalry, exhausted and demoralized, +surrendered two days later at Perevolochna on Dnieper. Charles +himself with 1500 horsemen took refuge in Turkish territory.</p> + +<p>For the first time in his life Charles was now obliged to have +recourse to diplomacy; and his pen proved almost as formidable +as his sword. He procured the dismissal of four Russo-phil +grand-viziers in succession, and between 1710 and 1712 induced +the Porte to declare war against the tsar three times. But after +November 1712 the Porte had no more money to spare; and, +the tsar making a show of submission, the sultan began to regard +Charles as a troublesome guest. On the 1st of February 1713 +he was attacked by the Turks in his camp at Bender, and made +prisoner after a contest which reads more like an extravagant +episode from some heroic folk-tale than an incident of sober +18th-century history. Charles lingered on in Turkey fifteen +months longer, in the hope of obtaining a cavalry escort +sufficiently strong to enable him to restore his credit in Poland. +Disappointed of this last hope, and moved by the despairing +appeals of his sister Ulrica and the senate to return to Sweden +while there was still a Sweden to return to, he quitted Demotika +on the 20th of September 1714, and attended by a single squire +arrived unexpectedly at midnight, on the 11th of November, +at Stralsund, which, excepting Wismar, was now all that remained +to him on German soil.</p> + +<p>For the diplomatic events of these critical years see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: +<i>History</i>. Here it need only be said that Sweden, during the +course of the Great Northern War, had innumerable opportunities +of obtaining an honourable and even advantageous peace, but +they all foundered oh the dogged refusal of Charles to consent +to the smallest concession to his despoilers. Even now he would +listen to no offers of compromise, and after defending Stralsund +with desperate courage till it was a mere rubbish heap, returned +to Sweden after an absence of 14 years. Here he collected +another army of 20,000 men, with which he so strongly entrenched +himself on the Scanian coast in 1716 that his combined enemies +shrank from attacking him, whereupon he assumed the offensive +by attacking Norway in 1717, and again in 1718, in order to +conquer sufficient territory to enable him to extort better terms +from his enemies. It was during this second adventure that he +met his death. On the 11th of December, when the Swedish +approaches had come within 280 paces of the fortress of Fredriksten, +which the Swedes were closely besieging, Charles looked +over the parapet of the foremost trench, and was shot through +the head by a bullet from the fortress.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Charles XII., <i>Die eigenhändigen Briefe König Karls XII.</i> +(Berlin, 1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under +Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert +Nisbet Bain, <i>Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire</i> +(London and Oxford, 1895); <i>Bidrag til den Store Nordishe Krigs +Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1899-1900); G. Syveton, <i>Louis XIV et +Charles XII</i> (Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, <i>Historia ablegationis +D. Krmann ad regem Sueciae Carolum XII.</i> (Budapest, 1894); +Oscar II., <i>Några bidrag till Sveriges Krigshistoria åren 1711-1713</i> +(Stockholm, 1892); Martin Weibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm, +1881).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XIII.<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway, +the second son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and +Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, was born at Stockholm +on the 7th of October 1748. In 1772 he co-operated in the +revolutionary plans of his brother Gustavus III. (<i>q.v.</i>). On the +outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788 he served with +distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the battles of +Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the +latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the +unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral +Liljehorn. On the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke +of Sudermania, acted as regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real +ruler of the country was the narrow-minded and vindictive +Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (<i>q.v.</i>), whose mischievous influence +over him was supreme. These four years were perhaps the most +miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of lead +succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be +briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and +ruthless despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November +1796), the duke became a mere cipher in politics till the 13th of +March 1809, when those who had dethroned Gustavus IV. +appointed him regent, and finally elected him king. But by this +time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles +XIV.</a></span>) took over the government as soon as he landed in Sweden +(1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of +Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth +Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), but their only child, +Carl Adolf, duke of Vermland, died in infancy (1798). Charles +XIII., who for eight years had been king only in title, died on +the 5th of February 1818.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i> vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884); <i>Drottning Hedwig +Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar</i> (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet +Bain, <i>Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1895); +<i>ib. Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XIV.<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1763-1844), king of Sweden and Norway, +born at Pau on the 26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri +Bernadotte (1711-1780), procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean +(1725-1809). The family name was originally Deu Pouey, +but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning of the 17th +century. Bernadotte’s christian names were Jean Baptiste; +he added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French +army on the 3rd of September 1780, and first saw service in +Corsica. On the outbreak of the Revolution his eminent military +qualities brought him speedy promotion. In 1794 we find him +as brigadier attached to the army of the Sambre et Meuse, and +after Jourdan’s victory at Fleurus he was appointed a general +of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he contributed, +more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the French +army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles. +In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte’s +army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the +Tagliamento, and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, +but was compelled to quit his post owing to the disturbances +caused by his hoisting the tricolor over the embassy. On the +16th of August 1798 he married Désirée Clary (1777-1860), +the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph Bonaparte’s +wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September +he was war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability. +About this time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he +declined to help Napoleon in the preparations for the <i>coup d’état</i> +of November 1799, he accepted employment from the Consulate, +and from April 1800 till the 18th of August 1801 commanded +the army in La Vendée. On the introduction of the empire he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span> +was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and, from +June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the +recently-occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte +with an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great +movement which resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm. +He was rewarded for his services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) +by the principality of Ponte Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the +campaign against Prussia, the same year, was severely reproached +by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the +battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand. In 1808, +as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the +expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan +came to nought because of the want of transports and the +defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, +Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the battle of Wagram, +on which occasion, on his own initiative he issued an order of +the day, attributing the victory principally to the valour of his +Saxons, which Napoleon at once disavowed.</p> + +<p>Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris, +where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence +of the Netherlands against the English. In 1810 he was about +to enter upon his new post of governor of Rome when he was, +unexpectedly, elected successor to the Swedish throne, partly +because a large part of the Swedish army, in view of future +complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier, +and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden, +owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners +during the late war with Denmark. The matter was decided +by one of the Swedish couriers, Baron Karl Otto Mörner, +who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to +the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated +Mörner’s offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an +absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Mörner that he +would not refuse the honour if he were duly elected. Although +the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner’s effrontery, at once +placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature +of Bernadotte gradually gained favour there, and, on the 21st +of August 1810, he was elected crown-prince.</p> + +<p>On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry +into Stockholm, and on the 5th he received the homage of the +estates and was adopted by Charles XIII. under the name of +Charles John. The new crown-prince was very soon the most +popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity +of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state placed +the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs, +entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the +acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous +ways (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and made him a very tricky ally +during the struggle with Napoleon in 1813. Great Britain and +Prussia very properly insisted that Charles John’s first duty +was to them, the former power rigorously protesting against +the expenditure of her subsidies on the nefarious Norwegian +adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. After +the defeats of Lützen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-prince +who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference +of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign +which began after the expiration of the truce of Pläswitz. +Though undoubtedly sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just +displeasure of the allies, Charles John, as commander-in-chief +of the northern army, successfully defended the approaches to +Berlin against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September; +but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all +hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events +which led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Norway</a></span>: <i>History</i>. As unional king, Charles XIV. +(who succeeded to that title in 1818 on the death of Charles XIII.) +was popular in both countries. Though his ultra-conservative +views were detested, and as far as possible opposed (especially +after 1823), his dynasty was never in serious danger, and Swedes +and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch with a European +reputation. It is true that the <i>Riksdag</i> of 1840 meditated +compelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his jubilee +was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at +Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of +uninterrupted peace, and the great material development of the +two kingdoms during the first half of the 19th century was +largely due to his energy and foresight.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E. Sars, <i>Norges politiske historia</i> (Christiania, 1899); +Yngvar Nielsen, <i>Carl Johan som han virkelig var</i> (Christiania, 1897); +Johan Almén, <i>Ätten Bernadotte</i> (Stockholm, 1893); +C. Schefer, <i>Bernadotte roi</i> (Paris, 1899); G.R. Lagerhjelm, +<i>Napoleon och Carl Johan under Kriget i Tyskland, 1813</i> +(Stockholm, 1891).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XV.<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway, +eldest son of Oscar I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine +Beauharnais of Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826. +On the 19th of June 1850 he married Louisa, daughter of Prince +Frederick of the Netherlands. He became regent on the 25th +of September 1857, and king on the death of his father (8th of +July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles’s brusque and downright +manners had led many to regard his future accession with some +apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of +Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense +of the word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and +far-reaching reforms. Sweden’s existing communal law (1862), +ecclesiastical law (1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted +appropriately enough under the direction of a king whose motto +was: “Build up the land upon the laws!” Charles XV. also +materially assisted De Geer (<i>q.v.</i>) to carry through his memorable +reform of the constitution in 1863. Charles was a warm advocate +of “Scandinavianism” and the political solidarity of the three +northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII., +it is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on +the eve of the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were +perhaps misleading and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the +unpreparedness of the Swedish army and the difficulties of the +situation, Charles was forced to observe a strict neutrality. +He died at Malmö on the 18th of September 1872. Charles XV. +was highly gifted in many directions. He attained to some +eminence as a painter, and his <i>Digte</i> show him to have been +a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina +Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of Denmark.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg, <i>Carl XV., som enskild man, konung +och konstnär</i> (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, <i>Det norske og +svenske Kongehus fra 1818</i> (Christiania, 1883).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (c. 1319-1364), duke of Brittany, known as +<span class="sc">Charles of Blois</span> and <span class="sc">Charles of Châtillon</span>, was the son of +Guy of Châtillon, count of Blois (d. 1342), and of Marguerite of +Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In 1337 he married Jeanne +of Penthièvre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of Brittany, count of +Penthièvre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the succession +of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of +Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-l’Amaury, +and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed +the succession. Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI., +captured John of Montfort, who was supported by King Edward III. +at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of Flanders at Hennebont, +and took Quimper and Guérande (1344). But next year his +partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was +himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was +not liberated until 1356, when he continued the war against the +young John of Montfort, and perished in the battle of Auray, on +the 29th of September 1364. Charles bore a high reputation for +piety, and was believed to have performed miracles. The +Roman Church has canonized him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Siméon Luce, <i>Histoire de Bertrand du Gueselin el de son +époque</i> (Paris, 1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> called <span class="sc">The Bold</span> (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy, +son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was +born at Dijon on the 10th of November 1433. In his father’s +lifetime he bore the title of count of Charolais. He was brought +up under the direction of the seigneur d’Auxy, and early showed +great application to study and also to warlike exercises. Although +he was on familiar terms with the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), +when the latter was a refugee at the court of Burgundy, he could +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span> +not but view with chagrin the repurchase by the king of France +of the towns on the Somme, which had been temporarily ceded +to Philip the Good by the treaty of Arras; and when his father’s +failing health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of +government (which Philip abandoned to him completely by an +act of the 12th of April 1465), he entered upon his lifelong +struggle against Louis XI., and became one of the principal +leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant bravery +at the battle of Montlhéry (16th of July 1465), where he was +wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the +king from re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive +victory. He succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the +treaty of Conflans (1466), by which the king restored to him +the towns on the Somme, and promised him the hand of his infant +daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry. In the meanwhile +the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of Ponthieu. +The revolt of Liége and Dinant intervened to divert his attention +from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles +took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and +succeeded in treating at the same time with the Liégeois. After +the death of Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Liégeois +renewed hostilities, but Charles defeated them at St Trond, and +made a victorious entry into Liége, which he dismantled and +deprived of some of its privileges.</p> + +<p>Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and +anxious to settle various questions relating to the execution of +the treaty of Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles +and placed himself in his hands at Péronne. In the course of the +negotiations the duke was informed of a fresh revolt of the +Liégeois secretly fomented by Louis. After deliberating for four +days how to deal with his adversary, who had thus maladroitly +placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect +the parole he had given and to treat with Louis (October 1468), +at the same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt. +The town was carried by assault and the inhabitants were +massacred, Louis not having the courage to intervene on behalf +of his ancient allies. At the expiry of the one year’s truce which +followed the treaty of Péronne, the king accused Charles of +treason, cited him to appear before the parlement, and seized +some of the towns on the Somme (1471). The duke retaliated by +invading France with a large army, taking possession of Nesle +and massacring its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an +attack on Beauvais, and had to content himself with ravaging +the country as far as Rouen, eventually retiring without having +attained any useful result.</p> + +<p>Other matters, moreover, engaged his attention. Relinquishing, +if not the stately magnificence, at least the gay and +wasteful profusion which had characterized the court of Burgundy +under the preceding duke, he had bent all his efforts +towards the development of his military and political power. +Since the beginning of his reign he had employed himself in +reorganizing his army and the administration of his territories. +While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he had endeavoured +to establish a system of rigid discipline among his +troops, which he had strengthened by taking into his pay +foreign mercenaries, particularly Englishmen and Italians, and by +developing his artillery. Furthermore, he had lost no opportunity +of extending his power. In 1469 the archduke of Austria, +Sigismund, had sold him the county of Ferrette, and the landgraviate +of Alsace and some other towns, reserving to himself the +right to repurchase. In 1472-1473 Charles bought the reversion +of the duchy of Gelderland from its old duke, Arnold, whom +he had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content +with being “the grand duke of the West,” he conceived the +project of forming a kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself +as independent sovereign, and even persuaded the emperor +Frederick to assent to crown him king at Trier. The ceremony, +however, did not take place owing to the emperor’s precipitate +flight by night (September 1473), occasioned by his displeasure +at the duke’s attitude. In the following year Charles involved +himself in a series of difficulties and struggles which ultimately +brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively +with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his +possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss, +who supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against +the tyranny of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who +was condemned and executed by the rebels in May 1474); and +finally, with René of Lorraine, with whom he disputed the +succession of Lorraine, the possession of which had united the +two principal portions of Charles’s territories—Flanders and the +duchy and county of Burgundy. All these enemies, incited +and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in joining +forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first +rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop +of Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months +(July 1474-June 1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the +Rhine, but was compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial +army to raise the siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded +his brother-in-law, Edward IV. of England, to undertake +against Louis was stopped by the treaty of Picquigny (29th of +August 1475). He was more successful in Lorraine, where he +seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he marched +against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson +in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was +attacked before Granson by the confederate army and suffered +a shamful defeat, being compelled to fly with a handful of +attendants, and leaving his artillery and an immense booty +in the hands of the allies (February 1476). He succeeded in +raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he attacked +Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted +by the cavalry of René of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the +6th of October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by +René. Making a last effort, Charles formed a new army and +arrived in the depth of winter before the walls of Nancy. Having +lost many of his troops through the severe cold, it was with only +a few thousand men that he met the joint forces of the Lorrainers +and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of the town (6th of +January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his mutilated +body being discovered some days afterwards.</p> + +<p>Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last representative +of the feudal spirit—a man who possessed no other +quality than a blind bravery—and accordingly has often been +contrasted with his rival Louis XI. as representing modern +politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide knowledge and +culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals; and +although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he +had the secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never +refused him their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice +married—to Catherine (d, 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of +France, by whom he had one daughter, Mary, afterwards the +wife of the Emperor Maximilian I.; to Isabella (d. 1465), daughter +of Charles I., duke of Bourbon; and to Margaret of York, sister +of Edward IV. of England, whom he married in 1468.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold +are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of +the latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of +the <i>Mémoires</i> of Philippe de Comines, and of the <i>Mémoires</i> and other +writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources +de l’histoire de France,</i> tome iv. (1904), and the compendious bibliography +in U. Chevalier’s <i>Répertoire des sources historiques,</i> part iii. +(1904). <i>Charles the Bold,</i> by J.F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a good English +biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam’s <i>Charles +the Bold</i> (1908). For a general sketch of the relations between France +and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France,</i> tome iv. +(1902).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Po.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> called <span class="sc">The Good</span> (le Bon), or <span class="sc">The Dane</span> (c. 1084-1127), +count of Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV., +king of Denmark, by Adela, daughter of Robert the Frisian, +count of Flanders, was born about 1084. After the assassination +of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in Flanders, taking +with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother and +grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great +services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII., +counts of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle +in 1119, and, having no issue, left by will the succession to +his countship to Charles the Dane. Charles did not secure his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span> +heritage without a civil war, but he was speedily victorious and +made his position secure by treating his opponents with great +clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the welfare +of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of +Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He +well deserved the surname of <i>Le Bon</i>, by which he is known to +posterity. He refused the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on +the death of Baldwin, and declined to be nominated as a +candidate for the imperial crown in succession to the emperor +Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St Donat at +Bruges on the 2nd of March 1127.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Perneel, <i>Histoire du règne de Charles le Bon, précedé d’un +résumé de l’histoire de Flandres</i> (Brussels, 1830).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a +younger son of the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently +a member of the Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the +duchy of Burgundy owing to the opposition of his brother, King +Lothair, he went to the court of his maternal uncle, the emperor +Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977 received from the emperor +Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His authority in Lorraine +was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle with Lothair, +and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort to secure +the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful +candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes +and had captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously +seized by Adalberon, bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh. +Imprisoned with his wife and children at Orleans, Charles did +not long survive his humiliation. His eldest son Otto, duke of +Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (d. 1431), duke of Lorraine, called <span class="sc">The Bold</span>, +is sometimes referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I., +he succeeded his father in 1390; but he neglected his duchy +and passed his life in warfare. He died on the 25th of January +1431, leaving two daughters, one of whom, Isabella (d. 1453), +married René I. of Anjou (1409-1450), king of Naples, who +succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> or <span class="bold">II.</span> (1543-1608), called <span class="sc">The Great</span>, duke of +Lorraine, was a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a +descendant of René of Anjou. He was only an infant when he +became duke, and was brought up at the court of Henry II. of +France, marrying Henry’s daughter Claude in 1559. He took +part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the +League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises, +although he was a possible candidate for the French crown in +1589. The duke, who was an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died +at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608. He had three sons: Henry +(d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in turn dukes of +Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and Strassburg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="bold">III.</span> (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a +son of Duke Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604. +He became duke on the abdication of his father in 1624, and +obtained the duchy of Bar through his marriage with his cousin +Nicole (d. 1657), daughter of Duke Henry. Mixing in the tortuous +politics of his time, he was in continual conflict with the crown +of France, and spent much of his time in assisting her enemies +and in losing and regaining his duchies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lorraine</a></span>). He lived +an adventurous life, and in the intervals between his several +struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II. at +Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in +England; and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia +in 1648 entered the service of Spain. He died on the 18th of +September 1675, leaving by his second wife, Beatrix de Cusance +(d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count of Vaudemont (1642-1723).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="bold">IV.</span> (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew +of Duke Charles IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in +1664 received a colonelcy in the emperor’s army. In the same +year he fought with distinction at the battle of St Gotthard, in +which he captured a standard from the Turks. He was a candidate +for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In 1670 the +emperor made him general of horse, and during the following +years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks +and subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was +wounded. In the same year he was again a candidate for the +Polish crown, but was unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to +be associated with him in his greatest feat of arms, being elected. +In 1675, on the death of Charles IV., he rode with a cavalry corps +into the duchy of Lorraine, then occupied by the French, and +secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops to himself; a little +after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of the imperial +army on the Rhine, and was made a field marshal. The chief +success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg, +after a long and arduous siege. The war continued without +decisive result for some time, and the fate of the duchy, which +was still occupied by the French, was the subject of endless +diplomacy. At the general peace Charles had to accept the hard +conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he never entered into +effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he married the +widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for +nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish +invasion of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose +their will on Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the +head of a weak imperial army the duke offered the best resistance +he could to the advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had +to fall back, contesting every position, and the Turks finally +invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683). At this critical moment +other powers came to the assistance of Austria, reinforcements +poured into Charles’s camp, and John Sobieski, king of Poland, +brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over +80,000 men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning +of the 12th of September they moved forward to the attack. +By nightfall the Turks were in complete disorder, Vienna was +relieved, and the danger was at an end. Soon the victors took +the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom of Hungary. +The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles +continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen +(Buda) resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of +1685 Neuhaüsel was taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now +reinforced by German auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen. +All attempts to relieve the place were repulsed, and Ofen was +stormed on the 2nd of September. In the following campaign +the Austrians won a decisive victory on the famous battle-ground +of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took the field +on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of +his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign, +but Charles in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly +at Wels on the 18th of April 1690.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-1729), at the peace of +Ryswick in 1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had +been dispossessed by France, and was the father of Francis +Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who became the husband of Maria +Theresa (<i>q.v.</i>), and of Charles (Karl Alexander), a distinguished +Austrian commander in the wars with Frederick the Great. +The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to Stanislaus Leczynski, +the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis receiving instead +the grand-duchy of Tuscany.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Louis de Bourbon</span>] (1799-1883), +duke of Parma, succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess +of Lucca, as duke of Lucca in 1824. He introduced economy +into the administration, increased the schools, and in 1832 as +a reaction against the bigotry of the priests and monks with +which his mother had surrounded him, he became a Protestant. +He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the +Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected +of being a Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities +soon made him the laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned +to the Catholic Church and made Thomas Ward, an English +groom, his prime minister, a man not without ability and tact. +Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal ideas, and in 1847 +declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by Pius IX. +The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised +them by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the +duke, in spite of the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions. +A few weeks later he retired to Modena, selling his life-interest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span> +in the duchy to Tuscany. On the 17th of October Maria Louisa +of Austria, duchess of Parma, died, and Charles Louis succeeded +to her throne by the terms of the Florence treaty, assuming the +style of Charles II. His administration of Parma was characterized +by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased taxation, +and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with +Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there +were riots in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his +readiness to throw in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and +Leopold of Tuscany, repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised +a constitution. Then he again changed his mind, abdicated in +April, and left Parma in the hands of a provisional government, +whereupon the people voted for union with Piedmont. After +the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August 1848) +the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II. +issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the +provisional government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again +in 1849, Parma was evacuated, but reoccupied by General +d’Aspre in April.</p> + +<p>In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was +succeeded by his son <span class="sc">Charles III.</span> (1823-1854), who, protected +by Austrian troops, placed Parma under martial law, inflicted +heavy penalties on the members of the late provisional government, +closed the university, and instituted a regular policy of +persecution. A violent ruler, a drunkard and a libertine, he was +assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death his +widow Maria Louisa, sister of the comte de Chambord, became +regent, during the minority of his son Robert. The duchess +introduced some sort of order into the administration, seemed +inclined to rule more mildly and dismissed some of her husband’s +more obnoxious ministers, but the riots of the Mazzinians in +July 1854 were repressed with ruthless severity, and the rest +of her reign was characterized by political trials, executions +and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists replied with +assassinations.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Massei, <i>Storia civile di Lucca</i>, vol. ii. (Lucca, 1878); +Anon., <i>Y Borboni di Parma ... del 1847 al 1859</i> (Parma, 1860); +N. Bianchi, <i>Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia</i> (Turin, 1865, &c.); +C. Tivaroni, <i>L’Italia sotto il dominio austriaco</i>, ii. 96-101, +i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and <i>L’Italia degli Italiani</i>, i. 126-143 (Turin, +1895) by the same; S. Lottici and G. Sitti, <i>Bibliografia generale per +la storia parmense</i> (Parma, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl Ludwig</span>] (1771-1847), archduke of Austria +and duke of Teschen, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was +born at Florence (his father being then grand-duke of Tuscany) +on the 5th of September 1771. His youth was spent in Tuscany, +at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his +career of military service in the war of the French Revolution. +He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the campaign of +1793 distinguished himself at the action of Aldenhoven and the +battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became <i>Statthalter</i> in +Belgium and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, +which promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. +In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high +commands, and he was present at Fleurus. In 1795 he served +on the Rhine, and in the following year was entrusted with the +chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct +of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked +him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At +first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally +marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau; falling +upon Jourdan he beat him in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg, +and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then +turned upon Moreau’s army, which he defeated and forced out +of Germany. For this campaign, one of the most brilliant in +modern history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>. In 1797 +he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte +in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched +Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he +was once more opposed to Jourdan, whom he defeated in the +battles of Osterach and Stokach, following up his success by +invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna in the (first) +battle of Zürich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove +the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however, +forced him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to +undertake the task of checking Moreau’s advance on Vienna. +The result of the battle of Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed +the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice +of Steyer. His popularity was now such that the diet of +Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his +honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but +Charles refused both distinctions.</p> + +<p>In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles +commanded what was intended to be the main army, in Italy, +but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations, +and the defeats sustained on the Danube neutralized the success +obtained by the archduke over Masséna in the desperately fought +battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace began his active +work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field +in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field +marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War, +and supported by the prestige of being the only general who +had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated +a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete +methods of the 18th century, the chief characteristics of the +new order being the adoption of the “nation in arms” principle +and of the French war organization and tactics. The new army +was surprised in the process of transition by the war of 1809, in +which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved a far +more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now +heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic +Campaigns</a></span>) it succumbed only after a desperate struggle. +Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg, +Landshut and Eckmühl; but, after the evacuation of +Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of Aspern-Essling +(<i>q.v.</i>) and soon afterwards fought the still more desperate battle +of Wagram (<i>q.v.</i>), at the close of which the Austrians were defeated +but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss +of over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign +the archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent +the rest of his life in retirement, except a short time in 1815, +when he was governor of Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the +duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke Charles married, in 1815, +Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1829). He had four +sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (<i>q.v.</i>) became one +of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters, +the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna +on the 30th of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected +to his memory in Vienna, 1860.</p> + +<p>The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his +strategical works, he displayed in practice only when the situation +seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced +him in favour of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same +time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive +strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether +in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or +in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to +that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only excepted. The +campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained +defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical +superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the +condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks’ +inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable +criticism. As a military writer, his position in the +evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines +had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless they cannot +but be considered as antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the +importance of “strategic points” are the chief features of his +system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be +gathered from the prescription that “this principle is <i>never</i> to +be departed from.” Again and again he repeats the advice that +nothing should be hazarded unless one’s army is <i>completely</i> secure, +a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in +1796. “Strategic points,” he says (not the defeat of the enemy’s +army), “decide the fate of one’s own country, and must +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span> +constantly remain the general’s main solicitude”—a maxim which +was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. +The editor of the archduke’s work is able to make but a feeble +defence against Clausewitz’s reproach that Charles attached +more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In +his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve +in battle is designed to “cover a retreat.” The baneful influence +of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance +of Königgrätz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a “strategic point,” +which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian +armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign +of 1859, and in the “almost unintelligible” battle of +Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of +the archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in +military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, +along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made +him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the +archduke William in the <i>Ausgewahlte Schriften weiland Sr. K. +Hoheit Erzh. Carl v. Österreich</i> (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and +Leipzig), which includes the <i>Grundsatze der Kriegskunst für die +Generale</i> (1806), <i>Grundsatze der Strategie erlautert durch die Darstellung +des Feldzugs 1796</i> (1814), <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799</i> (1819)—the +two latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and +papers “on the higher art of war,” “on practical training in the +field,” &c. See, besides the histories of the period, C. von +B(inder)-K(rieglstein), <i>Geist und Stoff im Kriege</i> (Vienna, 1895); Caemmerer, +<i>Development of Strategical Science</i> (English transl.), ch. iv.; M. Edler +v. Angeli, <i>Erzherzog Carl v. Österr.</i> (Vienna and Leipzig, 1896); +Duller, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i> (Vienna, 1845); Schneidawind, <i>Karl, +Erzherzog v. Österr. und die österr. Armee</i> (Vienna, 1840); <i>Das Buch +vom Erzh. Carl</i> (1848); Thielen, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i> (1858); +Wolf, <i>Erzh. Carl</i> (1860); H. von Zeissberg, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i> +(Vienna, 1895); M. von Angeli, <i>Erzh. Karl als Feldherr und Organisator</i> +(Vienna, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1525-1574), cardinal of Lorraine, French statesman, +was the second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise, +and brother of Francis, duke of Guise. He was archbishop of +Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547. At first he was called the +cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death of his uncle John, +cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style of cardinal of +Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he was, +like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples. +He had, said Brantôme, “a soul exceeding smirched,” and, he +adds, “by nature he was exceeding craven.” Together with +his brother, Duke Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-powerful +during the reigns of Henry II. and Francis II.; in +1558 and 1559 he was one of the negotiators of the treaty of +Cateau-Cambrésis; he fought and pitilessly persecuted the +reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke the +crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived +him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the +Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was +commissioned to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1562 he went to the +council of Trent, where he at first defended the rights of the +Gallican Church against the pretensions of the pope; but after +the assassination of his brother, he approached the court of +Rome, and on his return to France he endeavoured, but without +success, to obtain the promulgation of the decrees of the council +(1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up arms, he held +for some time the first place in the king’s council, but Catherine +de’ Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he had +to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by +negotiating at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry +of Navarre with Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th +of December 1574, at the beginning of the reign of Henry III. +An orator of talent, he left several harangues or sermons, among +them being <i>Oraison prononcée au Colloque de Poissy</i> (Paris, 1562) +and <i>Oratio habita in Concil. Trident.</i> (<i>Concil. Trident. Orationes</i>, +Louvain, 1567).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliothèque +Nationale, Paris. See also René de Bouillé, <i>Histoire des ducs de +Guise</i> (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, <i>Les Guises et leur époque</i> (Paris, +1877); Guillemin, <i>Le Cardinal de Lorraine</i> (1847).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl Alexander</span>] (1712-1780), prince of Lorraine, +was the youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and +grandson of Charles V., duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous +general. He was born at Lunéville on the 12th of December +1712, and educated for a military career. After his elder brother +Francis, the duke, had exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany and +married Maria Theresa, Charles became an Austrian officer, +and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738 against the +Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austrian Succession, War of the</a></span>), the queen made her +brother-in-law a field marshal, though he was not yet thirty +years old, and in 1742 Charles encountered Frederick the Great +for the first time at the battle of Chotusitz (May 17th). The +victory of the Prussians on that field was far from decisive, and +Charles drew off his forces in good order. His conduct of the +successful campaign of 1743 against the French and Bavarians +heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744, +Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them +jointly governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very +soon the war broke out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the +Austrian army on the Rhine, won great renown by his brilliant +crossing of the Rhine. Once more a Lorraine prince at the head +of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and drove the French +before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the Silesian +war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and the +French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to +Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field +marshal Traun, he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close +of his victorious campaign he received the news that his wife, +to whom he was deeply attached, had died in childbirth on the +16th of December 1744 at Brussels. He took the field again in +1745 in Silesia, but this time without the advice of Traun, and +he was twice severely defeated by Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg +and at Soor. Subsequently, as commander-in-chief in the Low +Countries he received, at Roucoux, a heavy defeat at the hands +of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian Netherlands +during the peace of 1749-1756 was marked by many reforms, +and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless +activity on their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven +Years’ War (<i>q.v.</i>), Maria Theresa called Charles again to the +supreme command in the field. The campaign of 1757 opened +with Frederick’s great victory of Prague, and Prince Charles was +shut up with his army in that fortress. In the victory of the +relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part. Nevertheless +the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a +defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him, +and great enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory, +which seemed to be the final blow to Frederick. But soon afterwards +the king of Prussia routed the French at Rossbach, and, +swiftly returning to Silesia, he inflicted on Charles the complete +and crushing defeat of Leuthen (December 5, 1757). A mere +remnant of the Austrian army reassembled after the pursuit, +and Charles was relieved of his command. He received, however, +from the hands of the empress the grand cross, of the newly +founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince +Charles acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned +to Brussels, where, during the remainder of his life, he continued +to govern in the same liberal spirit as before. The affection of +the people for the prince was displayed during his dangerous +illness in 1765, and in 1775 the estates of Brabant erected a +statue in his honour at Brussels. He died on the 4th of July +1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried with his Lorraine +ancestors at Nancy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1270-1325), count of Valois, of Maine, and of +Anjou, third son of Philip III., king of France, surnamed the +Bold, and of Isabella of Aragon, was born on the 12th of March +1270. By his father’s will he inherited the four lordships of +Crépy, La Ferté-Milon, Pierrefonds and Béthisy, which together +formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin IV., having +excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that +kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place +his son on this throne, and died on the return of the expedition. +In 1290 Charles married Margaret, daughter of Charles II., +king of Naples, and renounced his pretensions to Aragon. In +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span> +1294, at the beginning of the hostilities against England, he +invaded Guienne and took La Réole and Saint-Sever. During +the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Béthune and Dam, +received the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King +Philip IV., the Fair, to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, on the +18th of August 1304. Asked by Boniface VIII. for his aid +against the Ghibellines, he crossed the Alps in June 1301, entered +Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame, king of Sicily, to +reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of Aragon, but +was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife +Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay, a granddaughter of +Baldwin II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried +to assert his rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished +to get him elected emperor; but Clement V. quashed his candidature +in favour of Henry of Luxemburg, afterwards the +emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles headed the party +of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed the +ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV., +the Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at +Perray (Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His +second wife had died in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married +a third wife, Mahaut de Châtillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip, +his eldest son, ascended the French throne in 1328, and from +him sprang the royal house of Valois.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Joseph Petit, <i>Charles de Valois</i> (Paris, 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called +Charles IV. king of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards +John II., king of Aragon, by his marriage with Blanche, daughter +and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre. Both his grandfather +Charles and his mother, who ruled over Navarre from 1425 +to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose right +had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche +died in 1441 her husband John seized the government to the +exclusion of his son. The ill-feeling between father and son +was increased when in 1447 John took for his second wife Joanna +Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who soon bore him a son, +afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who regarded her +stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in +the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452 +Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated +and taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the +kingly title until after his father’s death, the prince, again +unsuccessful in an appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with +Alphonso V., king of Aragon, Naples and Sicily. In 1458 +Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon, while Charles +was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined these +proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned +to Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess, +he was then thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans +rose in his favour. This insurrection soon became general and +John was obliged to yield. He released his son, and recognized +him as perpetual governor of Catalonia, and heir to the kingdom. +Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of September 1461, the +prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion that he had +been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and +amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated +the <i>Ethics</i> of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at +Saragossa in 1509, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, +<i>Crónica de los reyes de Navarra</i>, an edition which, edited by +J. Yangues y Miranda, was published at Pampeluna in 1843.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, <i>Anales del reyno de Navarra</i>, +tome iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M.J. Quintana, <i>Vidas de españoles +célebres</i> (Paris, 1827); and G. Desdevises du Dézert, <i>Carlos d’Aragon</i> +(Paris, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, ELIZABETH<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1828-1896), English author, was +born at Tavistock on the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of +John Rundle, M.P. Some of her youthful poems won the praise +of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript. In 1851 she married +Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written to order +for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, <i>The +Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family</i>, was published in 1862, +and was translated into most of the European languages, into +Arabic, and into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all +some fifty books, the majority of a semi-religious character. +She took an active part in the work of various charitable institutions, +and among her friends and correspondents were Dean +Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley, Jowett and Pusey. +She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1746-1823), +French mathematician and physicist, was born at Beaugency, +Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746. After spending some +years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he turned to scientific +pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by his skilful and +elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was the +first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac’s +law of the dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account +is sometimes known by his name. In 1785 he was elected to +the Academy of Sciences, and subsequently he became professor +of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He died in +Paris on the 7th of April 1823. His published papers are chiefly +concerned with mathematical topics.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, THOMAS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1755-1814), Welsh Nonconformist +divine, was born of humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish +of Llanfihangel Abercywyn, near St Clears, Carmarthenshire, +on the 14th of October 1755. He was educated for the Anglican +ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at Jesus College, +Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the +evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon +in 1778 on the title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and +Sparkford, Somerset; and took priest’s orders in 1780. He +afterwards added to his charge at Sparkford, Lovington, South +Barrow and North Barrow, and in September 1782 was presented +to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev. John +Hughes, Coln St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though +the contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his +curacies in June 1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on +August 20th) Sarah Jones of Bala, the orphan of a flourishing +shopkeeper. He had early fallen under the influence of the +great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of seventeen +had been “converted” by a sermon of Daniel Rowland’s. This +was enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh +clergy, and being denied the privilege of preaching for nothing +at two churches, he helped his old Oxford friend John Mayor, +now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire, from October until January +11th, 1784. On the 25th of January he took charge of Llan yn +Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to continue +there more than three months. Three influential people, among +them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners +against him, and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His +preaching, his catechizing of the children after evensong, and +his connexion with the Bala Methodists—his wife’s step-father +being a Methodist preacher—gave great offence. After a fortnight +more at Shawbury, he wrote to John Newton and another +clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of England +denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services. +His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late. +By September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his +rector at Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying +him on a tour in Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching +at the Bont Uchel Association; so that he joined the Methodists +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calvinistic Methodists</a></span>) in 1784.</p> + +<p>Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced +leisure to gather the poor children of Bala into his house for instruction, +and so thickly did they come that he had to adjourn +with them to the chapel. This was the origin of the Welsh +Circulating Schools, which he developed on the lines adopted by +Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of Llanddowror. First +one man was trained for the work by himself, then he was sent +to a district for six months, where, (for £8 a year) he taught gratis +the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and +Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses +were met by collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist +Societies, and as the funds increased masters were multiplied, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span> +until in 1786 Charles had seven masters to whom he paid £10 per +annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789, fifteen; in 1794, twenty. +By this time the salary had been increased to £12; in 1801 it was +£14. He had learnt of Raikes’s Sunday Schools before he left +the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on +foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same, +he gave six days’ tuition for every one given by them, and many +people not only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but +thought the children forgot in the six days what they learnt on +the one. But Sunday Schools were first adopted by Charles to +meet the case of young people in service who could not attend +during the week, and even in that form much opposition was +shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form of +Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1787. Wilberforce, +Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were +among the philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798 +the Sunday School Society (established 1785) extended its +operations to Wales, making him its agent, and Sunday Schools +grew rapidly in number and favour. A powerful revival broke +out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his account of it in letters +to correspondents, sent without his knowledge to magazines, +kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh bibles +was Charles’s greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and +Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for +the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when +the stock became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was +brought out by the Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies +of the 10,000 issued; the Sunday School Society got 3000 testaments +printed, and most of them passed into his hands in 1801.</p> + +<p>In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and +much fear for his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester, +died, leaving him director and one of three trustees over his +chapel at Boughton; and this added much to his anxiety. The +Welsh causes at Manchester and London, too, gave him much +uneasiness, and burdened him with great responsibilities at this +juncture. In November 1802 he went to London, and on the 7th +of December he sat at a committee meeting of the Religious +Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph +Tarn—a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society +committees—introduced the subject of a regular supply of +bibles for Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the +committee, and so forcibly did he impress them, that it was there +and then decided to move in the matter of a general dispersion +of the bible. When he visited London a year later, his friends +were ready to discuss the name of a new Society, and the sole object +of which should be to supply bibles. Charles returned to Wales +on the 30th of January 1804, and the British and Foreign Bible +Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March the 7th. +The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on the +6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807—both being +edited by Charles.</p> + +<p>Between 1805 and 1811 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in +four volumes, which still remains the standard work of its kind in +Welsh. Three editions of his Welsh catechism were published +for the use of his schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English +catechism for the use of schools in Lady Huntingdon’s Connexion +was drawn up by him in 1797; his shorter catechism in Welsh +appeared in 1799, and passed through several editions, in Welsh +and English, before 1807, when his <i>Instructor</i> (still the Connexional +catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December 1801 six +numbers of a Welsh magazine called <i>Trysorfa Ysprydol</i> +(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and +himself; in March 1809 the first number of the second volume +appeared, and the twelfth and last in November 1813.</p> + +<p>The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr +David Bogue, the Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to +Ireland in August 1807, to report on the state of Protestant +religion in the country. Their report is still extant, and among +the movements initiated as a result of their visit was the Circulating +School system. In 1810, owing to the growth of Methodism +and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in the +movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence +was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From +1811 to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing +auxiliary Bible Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some +friends in Edinburgh to establish charity schools in the Highlands, +and the Gaelic School Society (1811) was his idea. His last +work was a corrected edition of the Welsh Bible issued in small +pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher he was in great request, +though possessing but few of the qualities of the popular preacher. +All his work received very small remuneration; the family was +maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs Charles—a +keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of +October 1814. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed +as one of the makers of modern Wales.</p> +<div class="author">(D. E. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES ALBERT<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Carlo Alberto</span>] (1798-1849), king of +Sardinia (Piedmont), son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano +and Princess Albertine of Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of +October 1798, a few days before the French occupied Piedmont +and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel to take refuge +in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano adhered +to the French Republican régime, they soon fell under suspicion +and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and +his widow married a Count de Montléart and for some years led +a wandering existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son +and giving him mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of +J.J. Rousseau, now under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King +Charles Emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother Victor +Emmanuel I.; the latter’s only son being dead, his brother +Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him Charles Albert. +On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court returned +to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for +Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him +from it in favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he +regarded him as an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary +upbringing. Charles Albert was summoned to Turin, +given tutors to instruct him in legitimist principles, and on the +1st of October 1817 married the archduchess Maria Theresa of +Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820, gave birth to Victor +Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.</p> + +<p>The Piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary, +and had made a clean sweep of all French institutions. +But there were strong Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian +tendencies among the younger nobles and army officers, and the +Carbonari and other revolutionary societies had made much +progress.</p> + +<p>Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable +manners had endeared him to all, and who had many friends +among the Liberals and Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary +movement was set on foot, and vague plans of combined risings +all over Italy and a war with Austria were talked of. Charles +Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never actually became +a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after the +outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading +conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre +di Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a +military rising was ready and that they counted on his help +(2nd March 1821). He induced them to delay the outbreak +and informed the king, requesting him, however, not to punish +anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria mutinied, +and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents, +the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at +once abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter, +pressed by the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers, +granted the constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who +was now king, of the occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then +at Modena, repudiated the regent’s acts, accepted Austrian +military assistance, with which the rising was easily quelled, +and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The young prince found +himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while the Liberals +looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the Conservatives he +was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of Verona +(1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to induce +Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert’s rights of succession. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span> +But the king was piqued by Austria’s interference, and as both +the grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported +him, Charles Albert’s claims were respected. France having +decided to intervene in the Spanish revolution on the side of +autocracy, Charles Albert asked permission to join the duc +d’Angoulême’s expedition. The king granted it and the young +prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such gallantry +at the storming of the Trocadero (1st of September 1823) that +the French soldiers proclaimed him the “first Grenadier of +France.” But it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking +binding himself, as soon as he ascended the throne, to place +himself under the tutelage of a council composed of the higher +clergy and the knights of the Annunziata, and to maintain the +existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, <i>Cesare Alfieri</i>, xi. 77, +Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin and forgiven.</p> + +<p>On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 1831) Charles +Albert succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army, +with an empty treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval +laws. His first task was to set his house in order; he reorganized +the finances, created the army, and started Piedmont on a path +which if not liberalism was at least progress. “He was,” wrote +his reactionary minister, Count della Margherita, “hostile to +Austria from the depths of his soul and full of illusions as to the +possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on her.... As +for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them, and +was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim.” +In 1833 a conspiracy of the <i>Giovane Italia</i> Society, organized by +Mazzini, was discovered, and a number of its members punished +with ruthless severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who +appeared to be a Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all +Italy were turned on him as the heaven-born leader who was to +rescue the country from the foreigner. This to some extent +reconciled the king to the Liberal movement, for it accorded +with his religious views. “I confess,” he wrote to the marquis of +Villamarina, in 1847, “that a war of national independence +which should have for its object the defence of the pope would +be the greatest happiness that could befall me.” On the 30th of +October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when +risings broke out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further +liberties were demanded, he was at last induced to grant the +constitution (8th February).</p> + +<p>When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians +reached Turin (19th of March) public opinion demanded that the +Piedmontese should succour their struggling brothers; and +after some hesitation the king declared war. But much time +had been wasted and many precious opportunities lost. With +an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000 men from +other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after defeating +the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito +on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded, +more time was wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the +Austrian general, having received reinforcements, drove the +centre of the extended Italian line back across the Mincio (23rd +of July), and in the two days’ fighting at Custozza (24th and 25th +of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to retreat, and to +ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles Albert was +badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans, +and although he declared himself ready to die defending the +city the municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation; +the mob, urged on by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration +against him at the Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in +the night with difficulty and returned to Piedmont with his +defeated <span class="correction" title="amended from armp">army</span>. The French Republic offered to intervene in +the spring of 1848, but Charles Albert did not desire foreign aid, +the more so as in this case it would have had to be paid for by +the cession of Nice and Savoy. The revolutionary movement +throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles Albert felt +that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the +Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last +chance. On the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice +and took the field again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave +the chief command to the Polish general Chrzanowski. General +Ramorino commanding the Lombard division proved unable +to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino (20th of April), +and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and defeated +at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd. The Piedmontese fought +with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain. +After the battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded +the occupation by Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the +heir to the throne as a hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to +be the obstacle to better conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in +favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. That same night he +departed alone and made his way to Oporto, where he retired +into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.</p> + +<p>Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of +a hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an +almost morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberalism, +he was a confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble +qualities: he was brave to the verge of foolhardiness, devoted +to his country, and ready to risk his crown to free Italy from +the foreigner. To him the people of Italy owe a great debt, for +if he failed in his object he at least materialized the idea of the +Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the charges which the +Republicans and demagogues brought against him were monstrously +unjust.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Besides the general works on modern Italy, see +the Marquis Costa de Beauregard’s interesting volumes <i>La Jeunesse +du roi Charles Albert</i> (Paris, 1899) and <i>Novare et Oporto</i> (1890), based +on the king’s letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful +equerry, though the author’s views are those of an old-fashioned +Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi’s +<i>Il Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto</i> (Bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating +essay; Domenico Perrero, <i>Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia</i> (Turin, 1889); +L. Cappelletti, <i>Storia di Carlo Alberto</i> (Rome, 1891); Nicomede +Bianchi, <i>Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia</i> (8 vols., Turin, +1865, &c.), a most important work of a general character, and the +same author’s <i>Scritti e lettere di Carlo Alberto</i> (Rome, 1879) and his +<i>Storia della monarchia piemontese</i> (Turin, 1877); Count S. della +Margherita, <i>Memorandum storico-politico</i> (Turin, 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES AUGUSTUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl August</span>] (1757-1828), grand-duke +of Saxe-Weimar, son of Constantine, duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, +and Anna Amalia of Brunswick, was born on the 3rd +of September 1757. His father died when he was only nine +months old, and the boy was brought up under the regency and +supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but masterful +temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Görz, +a German nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more +humane element was introduced into his training when, in 1771, +Wieland was appointed his tutor. In 1774 the poet Karl Ludwig +von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor to the young Prince +Constantine; and in the same year the two princes set out, +with Count Görz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel +introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning +of a momentous friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned +to Weimar, and the same year came of age and married Princess +Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.</p> + +<p>One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon +Goethe to Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the +privy council. “People of discernment,” he said, “congratulate +me on possessing this man. His intellect, his genius is known. +It makes no difference if the world is offended because I have +made Dr Goethe a member of my most important <i>collegium</i> +without his having passed through the stages of minor official +professor and councillor of state.” To the undiscerning, the +beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent. +With Goethe the “storm and stress” spirit descended upon +Weimar, and the stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in +a riot of youthful exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker, +but also a good sportsman; and the revels of the court were +alternated with break-neck rides across country, ending in nights +spent round the camp fire under the stars. Karl August, however, +had more serious tastes. He was interested in literature, in art, +in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery, praised his judgment +in painting; biologists found in him an expert in anatomy. Nor +did he neglect the government of his little state. His reforms +were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span> +“enlightened despots” of the 18th century; for from the first +he had realized that the powers of the prince to play “earthly +providence” were strictly limited. His aim, then, was to +educate his people to work out their own political and social +salvation, the object of education being in his view, as he explained +later to the dismay of Metternich and his school, to help +men to “independence of judgment.” To this end Herder was +summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and +it is little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the +university of Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar +became the intellectual centre of Germany.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the +character of Karl August gave him an influence out of all proportion +to his position as a sovereign prince. He had early faced +the problem presented by the decay of the Empire, and began +to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of the emperor +Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of Germany +into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the +arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment +of the league of princes (<i>Furstenbund</i>) in 1785, by which, +under the leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph’s intrigues +were frustrated. He was, however, under no illusion as to the +power of Austria, and he wisely refused the offer of the Hungarian +crown, made to him in 1787 by Prussia at the instance +of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark that he had no +desire to be another “Winter King.” In 1788 Karl August took +service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command +of a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the +cannonade of Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz +and the battles of Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern +(October 28-30). After this, dissatisfied with the attitude of the +powers, he resigned; but rejoined on the accession of his friend +King Frederick William III. to the Prussian throne. The +disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the 14th of +October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and +Karl August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was +forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time +till after the Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought +under the French flag in all Napoleon’s wars. In 1813, however, +he joined the Grand Alliance, and at the beginning of 1814 took +the command of a corps of 30,000 men operating in the Netherlands.</p> + +<p>At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person, +and protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers +in confining their debates to the “rights of the princes” to the +exclusion of the “rights of the people.” His services in the war +of liberation were rewarded with an extension of territory and +the title of grand-duke; but his liberal attitude had already +made him suspect, and his subsequent action brought him still +further into antagonism to the reactionary powers. He was +the first of the German princes to grant a liberal constitution to +his state under Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation (May 5, +1816); and his concession of full liberty to the press made +Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation against +the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously +“der grosse Bursche” for his patronage of the “revolutionary” +<i>Burschenschaften</i>; and the celebrated “festival” held at the +Wartburg by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest +of political demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath +of the great powers. Karl August, against his better judgment, +was compelled to yield to the remonstrances of Prussia, Austria +and Russia; the liberty of the press was again restricted in the +grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good understanding between +the grand-duke and his people, the régime of the Carlsbad +Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other +German states.</p> + +<p>Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his contemporaries +of the most various types his personality made a great +impression. Karl von Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed +the coadjutorship of Mainz to the duke’s friendship, said that +he had never met a prince “with so much understanding, +character, frankness and true-heartedness”; the Milanese, when +he visited their city, called him the “uomo principe”; and +Goethe himself said of him “he had the gift of discriminating +intellects and characters and setting each one in his place. He +was inspired by the noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and +with his whole soul desired only what was best. There was in +him something of the divine. He would gladly have wrought +the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was greater than +his surroundings,... Everywhere he himself saw and judged, +and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself.” +He left two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was +succeeded, and Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1792-1862), a +distinguished soldier, who, after the congress of Vienna, became +colonel of a regiment in the service of the king of the Netherlands, +distinguished himself as commander of the Dutch troops in the +Belgian campaign of 1830, and from 1847 to 1850 held the command +of the forces in the Dutch East Indies. Bernhard’s son, +William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar +(1823-1902), entered the British army, served with +much distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the +1st Life Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted +a morganatic marriage with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox +(d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of Richmond and Gordon, +who in Germany received the title of countess of Dornburg, but +was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal +decree in 1866. Karl August’s only daughter, Caroline, married +Frederick Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, +and was the mother of Helene (1814-1858), wife of +Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of King Louis Philippe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Karl August’s correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols. +at Weimar in 1863. See the biography by von Wegele in the <i>Allgem. +deutsche Biographie.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES EDWARD<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Edward Louis Philip +Casimir Stuart</span>] (1720-1788), English prince, called the +“Young Pretender” and also the “Young Chevalier,” was +born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson +of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the “Old +Pretender,” by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth +prince of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites +during his father’s lifetime. The young prince was educated at +his father’s miniature court in Rome, with James Murray, +Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for his governor, and under various +tutors, amongst whom were the learned Chevalier Ramsay, +Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abbé Légoux. He quickly became +conversant with the English, French and Italian languages, +but all his extant letters written in English appear singularly +ill-spelt and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria, +afterwards duke of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don +Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples, passed through +Rome. He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the +boy of thirteen, having been appointed general of artillery by +Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the successful +siege of Gaeta.</p> + +<p>The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were +eagerly reported by the English ambassador at Florence and +by the spy, John Walton, at Rome, was now introduced by his +father and the pope to the highest Italian society, which he +fascinated by the frankness of his manner and the grace and +dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son +on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as +a prince and man of the world might be completed. The distinction +with which he was received on his journey, the royal +honours paid to him in Venice, and the jealous interference of +the English ambassador in regard to his reception by the grand-duke +of Tuscany, show how great was the respect in which the +exiled house was held at this period by foreign Catholic powers, +as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to its fortunes. +The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in his +attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea +of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind +from abroad was one which it was left for Charles Edward to +endeavour to realize. Of all the European nations France was +the one on which Jacobite hopes mainly rested, and the warm +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span> +sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had succeeded Fleury +as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted in a +definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed simultaneously +with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was +secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron +under Admiral Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France. +Transports containing 7000 troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe, +accompanied by the young prince, were in readiness to set sail +for England. A severe storm effected, however, a complete +disaster without any actual engagement taking place.</p> + +<p>The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a +crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France +for over a year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had +at Rome already made the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of +John Murray of Broughton; at Paris he had seen many supporters +of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in every European +court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue; and +he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and +other actual work connected with the promotion of his own and +his father’s interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends, +on the 13th of July 1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on +board the small brig “La Doutelle,” which was accompanied +by a French man-of-war, the “Elisabeth,” laden with arms and +ammunition. The latter fell in with an English man-of-war, the +“Lion,” and had to return to France; Charles escaped during +the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of August off +Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however, but +a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again +and arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of +Inverness-shire.</p> + +<p>The Macdonalds of Clanranald and Kinloch Moidart, along +with other chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from +the rashness of an unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the +enthusiasm and charm of his manner, and Charles landed on +Scottish soil in the company of the “Seven Men of Moidart” +who had come with him from France. Everywhere, however, +he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence +he wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of +Cameron of Lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion. +With secrecy and speed communications were entered into with +the known leaders of the Highland clans, and on the 19th of +August, in the valley of Glenfinnan, the standard of James III. +and VIII. was raised in the midst of a motley but increasing +crowd. On the same day Sir John Cope at the head of 1500 men +left Edinburgh in search of Charles; but, fearing an attack in +the Pass of Corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to +Inverness, and Charles thus had the undefended south country +before him. In the beginning of September he entered Perth, +having gained numerous accessions to his forces on his march. +Crossing the Forth unopposed at the Fords of Frew and passing +through Stirling and Linlithgow, he arrived within a few miles +of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th of September a +body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of Colonel Gardiner +in what was known as the “Canter of Coltbrig.” His success +was still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the +city, a few of Cameron’s Highlanders having on the following +morning, by a happy ruse, forced their way through the Canon-gate. +On the 18th he publicly proclaimed James VIII. of Scotland +at the Market Cross and occupied Holyrood.</p> + +<p>Cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea +to Dunbar. On the 20th Charles met and defeated him at +Prestonpans, and returned to prosecute the siege of Edinburgh +Castle, which, however, he raised on General Guest’s threatening +to lay the city in ruins. In the beginning of November Charles +left Edinburgh, never to return. He was at the head of at least +6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the +desertion of Highlanders, whose traditions had led them to +consider war merely as a raid and an immediate return with +plunder. Having passed through Kelso, on the 9th of November +he laid siege to Carlisle, which capitulated in a week. Manchester +received the prince with a warm welcome and with 150 recruits +under Francis Towneley. On the 4th of December he had reached +Derby and was within ten days’ march of London, where the +inhabitants were terror-struck and a commercial panic immediately +ensued. Two armies under English leadership were now +in the field against him, one under Marshal Wade, whom he +had evaded by entering England by the west, and the other +under William, duke of Cumberland, who had returned from the +continent. London was not to be supposed helpless in such an +emergency; Manchester, Glasgow and Dumfries, rid of his +presence, had risen against him, and Charles paused. There was +division among his advisers and desertion among his men, and +on the 6th of December he reluctantly was forced to begin his +retreat northward. Closely pursued by Cumberland, he marched +by way of Carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest +Stirling Castle. At Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, he +defeated General Hawley, who had marched from Edinburgh +to intercept his retreat. A fortnight later, however, Charles +raised the siege of Stirling, and after a weary though successful +march rested his troops at Inverness. Having taken Forts +George and Augustus, and after varying success against the +supporters of the government in the north, he at last prepared +to face the duke of Cumberland, who had passed the early spring +at Aberdeen. On the 8th of April the duke marched thence to +meet Charles, whose little army, exhausted with a futile night +march, half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely +worsted at Culloden on the 16th of April 1746.</p> + +<p>This decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of Charles Edward +and the house of Stuart. Accompanied by the faithful Ned +Burke and a few other followers, Charles at last gained the wild +western coast. Hunted hither and thither, he wandered on foot +or cruised restlessly in open boats among the many barren isles of +the Scottish shore, enduring the greatest hardships with marvellous +courage and cheerfulness. Charles, upon whose head a reward +£30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five +months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the +government. Disguised in female attire and aided by a passport +obtained by the devoted Flora Macdonald, he passed through +Skye and parted from his gallant conductress at Portree. Towards +the end of July he took refuge in the cave of Coiraghoth +in the Braes of Glenmoriston, and in August he joined Lochiel +and Cluny Macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding until +the news was brought that two French ships were in waiting +for him at the place of his first arrival in Scotland—Lochnanuagh. +He embarked with speed and sailed for France, reaching the +little port of Roscoff, near Morlaix, on the 29th of September +1746. He was warmly welcomed by Louis XV., and ere long +he was again vigorously intriguing in Paris, and even in Madrid. +So far as political assistance was concerned, his efforts proved +fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and idol of +the people of Paris. So enraged was he with his brother +Henry’s acceptance of a cardinal’s hat in July 1747, that he +deliberately broke off communication with his father in Rome +(who had approved the step), nor did he ever see him again. +The enmity of the British government to Charles Edward made +peace with France an impossibility so long as she continued to +harbour the young prince. A condition of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, +concluded in October 1748, was that every member +of the house of Stuart should be expelled the French dominions. +Charles had forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an +indignant protest against its injustice, and a declaration that he +would not be bound by its provisions. But his indignation and +persistent refusal to comply with the request that he should +voluntarily leave France had to be met at last with force: he +was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at Vincennes, and on +the 17th of December conducted to the French border. He +lingered at Avignon; but the French, compelled to hard +measures by the English, refused to be satisfied; and Pope +Benedict XIV., alarmed by the threat of a bombardment of +Civita Vecchia, advised the prince to withdraw. Charles quietly +disappeared; for years Europe watched for him in vain. It is +now established, almost with certainty, that he returned to +the neighbourhood of Paris; and it is supposed that his residence +was known to the French ministers, who, however, firmly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span> +proclaimed their ignorance. In 1750, and again, it is thought, +in 1754, he was in London, hatching futile plots and risking his +safety for his hopeless cause, and even abjuring the Roman +Catholic faith in order to further his political interests.</p> + +<p>During the next ten years of his life Charles Edward’s illicit +connexion with Miss Clementina Walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom +he had first met at Bannockburn House while conducting the +siege of Stirling, his imperious fretful temper, his drunken habits +and debauched life, could no longer be concealed. He wandered +over Europe in disguise, alienating the friends and crushing the +hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning to Rome at the +death of his father, he was treated by Pope Clement XIII. with +coldness, and his title as heir to the British throne was openly +repudiated by all the great Catholic powers. It was probably +through the influence of the French court, still intriguing against +England, that the marriage between Charles (now self-styled +count of Albany) and Princess Louise of Stolberg was arranged +in 1772. The union proved childless and unhappy, and in 1780 +the countess fled for refuge from her husband’s drunken violence +to a convent in Florence, where Charles had been residing since +1774. Later, the countess of Albany (<i>q.v.</i>) threw herself on the +protection of her brother-in-law Henry, Cardinal York, at Rome, +and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was +finally brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices +of King Gustavus III. of Sweden. Charles, lonely, ill, and +evidently near death, now summoned to Florence his natural +daughter, Charlotte Stuart, the child of Clementina Walkinshaw, +born at Liége in October 1753 and hitherto neglected by the +prince. Charlotte Stuart, who was declared legitimate and +created duchess of Albany, tended her father for the remaining +years of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two +Stuart brothers, so that in 1785 Charles returned to Rome, where +he died in the old Palazzo Muti on the 30th of January 1788. +He was buried in his brother’s cathedral church at Frascati, but +in 1807 his remains were removed to the <i>Grotte Vaticane</i> of +St Peter’s. His daughter Charlotte survived her father less than +two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in November 1789, at +the early age of thirty-six.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A.C. Ewald, <i>Life and Times of Charles Stuart, the Young +Pretender</i> (2 vols., 1875); C.S. Terry, <i>Life of the Young Pretender, +</i> and <i>The Rising of 1745; with Bibliography of Jacobite History 1689—1788</i> +(Scott. Hist. fr. Contemp. Writers, iii.) (1900); Earl Stanhope, +<i>History of England</i> (1836) and <i>Decline of the Last Stuarts</i> (1854); +Bishop R. Forbes, <i>The Lyon in Mourning</i> (1895-1896); Andrew +Lang, <i>Pickle, the Spy</i> (1897), and <i>Prince Charles Edward</i> (1900); +R. Chambers, <i>History of the Rebellion in Scotland,</i> &c. &c.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. M. V.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES EMMANUEL I.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Carlo Emanuele</span>] (1562-1630), +duke of Savoy, succeeded his father, Emmanuel Philibert, +in 1580. He continued the latter’s policy of profiting by the +rivalry of France and Spain in order to round off and extend +his dominions. His three chief objects were the conquest of +Geneva, of Saluzzo and of Monferrato. Saluzzo he succeeded +in wresting from France in 1588. He intervened in the French +religious wars, and also fought with Bern and other Swiss +cantons, and on the murder of Henry III. of France in 1580 he +aspired to the French throne on the strength of the claims of his +wife Catherine, sister of Henry of Navarre, afterwards King +Henry IV. In 1590 he sent an expedition to Provence in the +interests of the Catholic League, and followed it himself later, +but the peace of 1593, by which Henry of Navarre was recognized +as king of France, put an end to his ambitions. In the war +between France and Spain Charles sided with the latter, with +varying success. Finally, by the peace of Lyons (1601), he gave +up all territories beyond the Rhone, but his possession of Saluzzo +was confirmed. He now meditated a further enterprise against +Geneva; but his attempt to capture the city by treachery and +with the help of Spain (the famous <i>escalade</i>) in 1602 failed completely. +The next few years were filled with negotiations and +intrigues with Spain and France which did not lead to any +particular result, but on the death in 1612 of Duke Francesco +Gonzaga of Mantua, who was lord of Monferrato, Charles Emmanuel +made a successful <i>coup de main</i> on that district. This +arrayed the Venetians, Tuscany, the Empire and Spain against +him, and he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. The +Spaniards invaded the duchy from Lombardy, and although the +duke was defeated several times he fought bravely, gained some +successes, and the terms of the peace of 1618 left him more or +less in the <i>status quo ante.</i> We next find Charles Emmanuel +aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without success. +In 1628 he was in alliance with Spain in the war against France; +the French invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by +Spain, was overrun by their armies. The duke fought desperately, +but was taken ill at Savigliano and died in 1630. He was +succeeded by his son Victor Amedeo I., while his third son +Tommaso founded the line of Savoy-Carignano from which the +present royal house of Italy is descended. Charles Emmanuel +achieved a great reputation as a statesman and warrior, and +increased the prestige of Savoy, but he was too shifty and ingenious, +and his schemes ended in disaster.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Ricotti, <i>Storia della monarchia piemontese</i>, vols. iii. and iv. +(Florence, 1865); T. Raulich, <i>Storia di Carlo Emanuele I.</i> (Milan, +1896-1902); G. Curti, <i>Carlo Emanuele I. secondo; più recenti studii</i> +(Milan, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLES MARTEL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>c.</i> 688-741), Frankish ruler, was a +natural son of Pippin II., mayor of the palace, and Chalpaïda. +Charles was baptized by St Rigobert, bishop of Reims. At the +death of his father in 714, Pippin’s widow Plectrude claimed the +government in Austrasia and Neustria in the name of her grandchildren, +and had Charles thrown into prison. But the Neustrians +threw off the Austrasian yoke and entered into an offensive +alliance with the Frisians and Saxons. In the general anarchy +Charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the Neustrians at +Amblève, south of Liége, in 716, and at Vincy, near Cambrai, in +717, and forced them to come to terms. In Austrasia he wrested +the power from Plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the +palace, thus prejudicing the interests of his nephews. According +to the Frankish custom he proclaimed a king in Austrasia in the +person of the young Clotaire IV., but in reality Charles was the +sole master—the entry in the annals for the year 717 being +“Carolus regnare coepit.” Once in possession of Austrasia, +Charles sought to extend his dominion over Neustria also. In +719 he defeated Ragenfrid, the Neustrian mayor of the palace, +at Soissons, and forced him to retreat to Angers. Ragenfrid +died in 731, and from that time Charles had no competitor in +the western kingdom. He obliged the inhabitants of Burgundy +to submit, and disposed of the Burgundian bishoprics and countships +to his <i>leudes</i>. In Aquitaine Duke Odo (Eudes) exercised +independent authority, but in 719 Charles forced him to recognize +the suzerainty of northern France, at least nominally. After +the alliance between Charles and Odo on the field of Poitiers, +the mayor of the palace left Aquitaine to Odo’s son Hunald, +who paid homage to him. Besides establishing a certain unity +in Gaul, Charles saved it from a very great peril. In 711 the +Arabs had conquered Spain. In 720 they crossed the Pyrenees, +seized Narbonensis, a dependency of the kingdom of the Visigoths, +and advanced on Gaul. By his able policy Odo succeeded +in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali, Abdur +Rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the +attack, reached Poitiers, and advanced on Tours, the holy town +of Gaul. In October 732—just 100 years after the death of +Mahomet—Charles gained a brilliant victory over Abdur +Rahman, who was called back to Africa by the revolts of the +Berbers and had to give up the struggle. This was the last of +the great Arab invasions of Europe. After his victory Charles +took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest Narbonensis from +the Mussulmans. Although he was not successful in his attempt +to recover Narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of Agde, +Béziers and Maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at +Nîmes. He subdued also the Germanic tribes; annexed Frisia, +where Christianity was beginning to make progress; put an end +to the duchy of Alemannia; intervened in the internal affairs +of the dukes of Bavaria; made expeditions into Saxony; and +in 738 compelled some of the Saxon tribes to pay him tribute. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span> +He also gave St Boniface a safe conduct for his missions in +Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria.</p> + +<p>During the government of Charles Martel important changes +appear to have been made in the internal administration. Under +him began the great assemblies of nobles known as the <i>champs +de Mars</i>. To attach his <i>leudes</i> Charles had to give them church +lands as <i>precarium</i>, and this had a very great influence in the +development of the feudal system. It was from the <i>precarium</i>, +or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal fief originated. Vassalage, +too, acquired a greater consistency at this period, and its +rules began to crystallize. Under Charles occurred the first +attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the Franks. +Pope Gregory III., menaced by the Lombards, invoked the aid +of Charles (739), sent him a deputation with the keys of the +Holy Sepulchre and the chains of St Peter, and offered to break +with the emperor and Constantinople, and to give Charles the +Roman consulate (<i>ut a partibus imperatoris recederet et Romanum +consulatum Carolo sanciret</i>). This proposal, though unsuccessful, +was the starting-point of a new papal policy. Since the death of +Theuderich IV. in 737 there had been no king of the Franks. +In 741 Charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as +though he were himself master of the realm. To the elder, +Carloman, he gave Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia, with +suzerainty over Bavaria; the younger, Pippin, received Neustria, +Burgundy and Provence. Shortly after this division of the +kingdom Charles died at Quierzy on the 22nd of October 741, +and was buried at St Denis. The characters of Charles Martel +and his grandson Charlemagne offer many striking points of +resemblance. Both were men of courage and activity, and the +two men are often confused in the <i>chansons de geste</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Breysig, <i>Jahrbücher d. fränk. Reichs, 714—741; die Zeit +Karl Martells</i> (Leipzig, 1869); A.A. Beugnot, “Sur la spoliation des +biens du clergé attribuée à Charles Martel,” in the <i>Mém. de l’Acad. +des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853); Ulysse Chevalier, +<i>Bio-bibliographie</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Or “The Hammer.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Coles county, +Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 45 m. W. +of Terre Haute, Indiana. Pop. (1900) 5488; (1910) 5884. It +is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and +the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by interurban +electric lines. It is the seat of the Eastern Illinois state normal +school (opened in 1899). The city is situated in an important +broom-corn raising district, and has broom factories, a tile +factory and planing mills. The water-works are owned and +operated by the municipality. Charleston was settled about +1835, was incorporated in 1839, and was reincorporated in 1865. +One of the Lincoln-Douglas debates was held here in 1858.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the largest city of South Carolina, U.S.A., +the county-seat of Charleston county, a port of entry, and an +important South Atlantic seaport, on a narrow peninsula +formed by the Cooper river on the E. and the Ashley on the W. +and S.W., and within sight of the ocean about 7 m. distant. +Pop. (1890) 54,955; (1900) 55,807, of whom 31,522 were of negro +descent and 2592 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 58,833. +It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern railways, +the Clyde Steamship Line to New York, Boston and Jacksonville, +the Baltimore & Carolina Steamship Co. to Baltimore and +Georgetown, and a branch of the North German Lloyd Steamship +Co., which brings immigrants from Europe direct to the Southern +states; there are freight boat lines to ports in the West Indies, +Central America and other foreign countries.</p> + +<p>The city extends over 3.76 sq. m. of surface, nowhere rising +more than 8 or 10 ft. above the rivers, and has about 9 m. of +water front. In the middle of the harbour, on a small island +near its entrance, is the famous Fort Sumter; a little to the +north-east, on Sullivan’s Island, is the scarcely less historic +Fort Moultrie, as well as extensive modern fortifications; on +James Island, opposite, is Fort Johnson, now the United States +Quarantine Station, and farther up, on the other islands, are +Fort Ripley and Castle Pinckney (now the United States buoy +station). Viewed from any of these forts, Charleston’s spires +and public buildings seem to rise out of the sea. The streets +are shaded with the live oak and the linden, and are ornamented +with the palmetto; and the quaint specimens of colonial architecture, +numerous pillared porticoes, spacious verandas—both +upper and lower—and flower gardens made beautiful with +magnolias, palmettoes, azaleas, jessamines, camelias and roses, +give the city a peculiarly picturesque character.</p> + +<p>King Street, running north and south through the middle +of the peninsula, and Market Street, crossing it about 1 m. from +its lower end, are lined with stores, shops or stalls; on Broad +Street are many of the office buildings and banks; the wholesale +houses are for the most part on Meeting Street, the first thoroughfare +east of King; nearly all of the wharves are on the east side; +the finest residences are at the lower end of the peninsula on +East Battery and South Battery, on Meeting Street below +Broad, on Legare Street, on Broad Street and on Rutledge +Avenue to the west of King. At the south-east corner of Broad +and Meeting streets is Saint Michael’s (built in 1752-1761), +the oldest church edifice in the city, and a fine specimen of colonial +ecclesiastical architecture; in its tower is an excellent chime +of eight bells. Beneath the vestry room lie the remains of +Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and in the churchyard are the +graves of John Rutledge, James Louis Petigru (1789-1863), and +Robert Young Hayne. At the intersection of the same streets +are also the massive United States post office building (Italian +Renaissance in style), with walls of granite; the county court +house, the city hall and Washington Square—in which stand a +statue of William Pitt (one arm of which was broken off by a +cannon shot during the British bombardment in 1780), and a +monument to the memory of Henry Timrod (1829-1867), the +poet. At the foot of Broad Street is the Colonial Exchange +in which the South Carolina convention organized a new government +during the War of Independence; and at the foot of +Market Street is the large modern custom house of white marble, +built in the Roman-Corinthian style. Saint Philip’s church, +with admirable architectural proportions, has a steeple nearly +200 ft. in height, from which a beacon light shines for the guidance +of mariners far out at sea. In the west cemetery of this church +are the tombs of John C. Calhoun, and of Robert James Turnbull +(1775-1833), who was prominent locally as a nullifier and under +the name of “Brutus” wrote ably on behalf of nullification, +free trade and state’s rights. The French Protestant Church, +though small, is an attractive specimen of Gothic architecture; +and the Unitarian, which is in the Perpendicular style and is +modelled after the chapel of Edward VI. in Westminster, has +a beautiful fan-tracery ceiling.</p> + +<p>Of the few small city squares, gardens or parks, the White +Point Garden at the lower end of the peninsula is most frequented; +it is shaded with beautiful live oaks, is adorned with palmettoes +and commands a fine view of the harbour. About 1½ m. north +of this on Meeting Street is Marion Square, with a tall graceful +monument to the memory of John C. Calhoun on the south +side, and the South Carolina Military Academy along the north +border. The largest park in Charleston is Hampton Park, +named in honour of General Wade Hampton. It is situated in +the north-west part of the city and is beautifully laid out. The +Isle of Palms, to the north of Sullivan’s Island, has a large +pavilion and a wide sandy beach with a fine surf for bathing, +and is the most popular resort for visitors. The Magnolia +Gardens are about 8 m. up the Ashley. Twenty-two miles +beyond is the town of Summerville (pop. in 1900, 2420), a +health resort in the pine lands, with one of the largest tea farms +in the country. Magnolia Cemetery, the principal burial-place, +is a short distance north of the city limits; in it are the graves +of William Washington (1732-1810) and Hugh Swinton Legaré. +Charleston was the home of the Pinckneys, the Rutledges, the +Gadsdens, the Laurenses, and, in a later generation, of W.G. +Simms. A trace of the early social organization of the brilliant +colonial town remains in the St Cecilia Society, first formed in +1737 as an amateur concert society.</p> + +<p>Charleston has an excellent system of public schools. Foremost +among the educational institutions is the college of Charleston, +chartered in 1785 and again in 1791, and opened in 1790; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span> +it is supported by the city and by funds of its own, ranks high +within the state, and has a large and well-equipped museum of +natural history, probably founded as early as 1777 and transferred +to the college in 1850. Here, too, are the Medical College of +the state of South Carolina, which includes a department of +pharmacy; the South Carolina Military Academy (opened in +1843), which is a branch of the University of South Carolina; +the Porter Military Academy (Protestant Episcopal), the +Confederate home school for young women, the Charleston +University School, and the Avery Normal Institute (Congregationalist) +for coloured students. In the Charleston library +(about 25,000 volumes), founded in 1748, are important collections +of rare books and manuscripts; the rooms of the South +Carolina Historical Society are in the same building. The +Charleston <i>News and Courier</i>, published first as the <i>Courier</i> in +1803 and combined with the <i>Daily News</i> (1865) in 1873, is one of +the most influential newspapers in the South. The charitable +institutions of the city include the Roper hospital, the Charleston +Orphan Asylum (founded in 1792), the William Euston +home for the aged, and a home for the widows of Confederate +soldiers.</p> + +<p>In 1878 the United States government began the construction +of jetties to remove the bar at the entrance to Charleston harbour, +which was otherwise deep and spacious and well protected, and +by means of these jetties the bar has been so far removed as to +admit vessels drawing about 30 ft. of water. The result has been +not only the promotion of the city’s commerce, but the removal +of the United States naval station and navy yard from Port +Royal to what was formerly Chicora Park on the left bank of the +Cooper river, a short distance above the city limits. The city’s +commerce consists largely in the export of cotton,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> rice, fertilizers, +fruits, lumber and naval stores; the value of its exports, +$10,794,000 in 1897, decreased to $2,196,596 in 1907 ($3,164,089 +in 1908), while that of the import trade ($1,255,483 in 1897) +increased to $3,840,585 in 1907 ($3,323,844 in 1908). The +principal industries are the preparation of fertilizers—largely +from the extensive beds of phosphate rock along the banks of +the Ashley river and from cotton-seed meal—cotton compressing, +rice cleaning, canning oysters, fruits and vegetables, and the +manufacture of cotton bagging, of lumber, of cooperage goods, +clothing and carriages and wagons. Between 1880 and 1890 +the industrial development of the city was very rapid, the +manufactures in 1890 showing an increase of 229.6% over those +of 1880; the increase between 1890 and 1900 was only 6.2%. +In 1900 the total value of the city’s manufactures, 16.3% +(in value) of the product of the entire state, was $9,562,387, the +value of the fertilizer product alone, much the most important, +being $3,697,090.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The first English settlement in South Carolina, +established at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley +river in 1670, was named Charles Town in honour of Charles II. +The location proving undesirable, a new Charles Town on the +site of the present city was begun about 1672, and the seat of +government was removed to it in 1680. The name Charles Town +became Charlestown about 1719 and Charleston in 1783. Among +the early settlers were English Churchmen, New England +Congregationalists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Dutch and +German Lutherans, Huguenots (especially in 1680-1688) from +France and Switzerland, and a few Quakers; later the French +element of the population was augmented by settlers from +Acadia (1755) and from San Domingo (1793). Although it +soon became the largest and the wealthiest settlement south of +Philadelphia, Charleston did not receive a charter until 1783, +and did not have even a township government. Local ordinances +were passed by the provincial legislature and enforced +partly by provincial officials and partly by the church wardens. +It was, however, the political and social centre of the province, +being not only the headquarters of the governor, council and +colonial officials, but also the only place at which courts of +justice were held until the complaints of the Up Country people +led to the establishment of circuit courts in 1772. After the +American War of Independence it continued to be the capital +of South Carolina until 1790. The charter of 1783, though +frequently amended and altered, is still in force. By an act of +the state legislature passed in 1837 the terms “mayor” and +“alderman” superseded the older terms “intendant” and +“wardens.” The city was the heart of the nullification movement +of 1832-1833; and in St Andrew’s Hall, in Broad Street, +on the 20th of December 1860, a convention called by the state +legislature passed an ordinance of secession from the Union.</p> + +<p>Charleston has several times been attacked by naval forces +and has suffered from many storms. Hurricane and epidemic +together devastated the town both in 1699 and in 1854; the +older and more thickly settled part of the town was burnt in +1740, and a hurricane did great damage in 1752. In 1706, +during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined fleet of +Spanish and French under Captain Le Feboure was repulsed +by the forces of Governor Nathaniel Johnson (d. 1713) and +Colonel William Rhett (1666-1721). During the War of Independence +Charleston withstood the attack of Sir Peter Parker +and Sir Henry Clinton in 1776, and that of General Augustus +Prevost in 1779, but shortly afterwards became the objective +of a more formidable attack by Sir Henry Clinton, the +commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In the +later years of the contest the British turned their attention to +the reduction of the colonies in the south, and the prominent +point and best base of operations in that section was the city +of Charleston, which was occupied in the latter part of 1779 +by an American force under General Benjamin Lincoln. In +December of that year Sir Henry Clinton embarked from New +York with 8000 British troops and proceeded to invest Charleston +by land. He entrenched himself west of the city between the +Cooper and Ashley rivers, which bound it north and south, and +thus hemmed Lincoln in a <i>cul-de-sac</i>. The latter made the mistake +of attempting to defend the city with an inferior force. +Delays had occurred in the British operations and Clinton was +not prepared to summon the Americans to surrender until the +10th of April 1780. Lincoln refused, and Clinton advanced his +trenches to the third parallel, rendering his enemy’s works +untenable. On the 12th of May Lincoln capitulated. About +2000 American Continentals were made prisoners, and an equal +number of militia and armed citizens. This success was regarded +by the British as an offset against the loss of Burgoyne’s army +in 1777, and Charleston at once became the base of active +operations in the Carolinas, which Clinton left Cornwallis to +conduct. Thenceforward Charleston was under military rule +until evacuated by the British on the 14th of December 1782.</p> + +<p>The bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter (garrisoned +by Federal troops) by the South Carolinians, on the 12th and +13th of April 1861, marked the actual beginning of the American +Civil War. From 1862 onwards Charleston was more or less +under siege by the Federal naval and military forces until 1865. +The Confederates repulsed a naval attack made by the Federals +under Admiral S.F. Du Pont in April 1863, and a land attack +under General Q.A. Gillmore in June of the same year. They +were compelled to evacuate the city on the 17th of February +1865, after having burned a considerable amount of cotton and +other supplies to prevent them from falling into the hands of the +enemy. After the Civil War the wealth and the population +steadily increased, in spite of the destruction wrought by the +earthquake of 31st August 1886 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earthquake</a></span>). In that +catastrophe 27 persons were killed, many more were injured +and died subsequently, 90% of the buildings were injured, and +property to the value of more than $5,000,000 was destroyed. +The South Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition, held +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span> +here from the 1st of December 1901 to the 1st of June 1902, +called the attention of investors to the resources of the city and +state, but was not successful financially, and Congress appropriated +$160,000 to make good the deficit.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Much information concerning Charleston may be obtained in A.S. +Salley’s <i>A Guide and Historical Sketch of Charleston</i> (Charleston, 1903), +and in Mrs St Julien Ravenel’s <i>Charleston; The Place and the People</i> +(New York, 1906). The best history of Charleston is William A. +Courtenay’s <i>Charleston, S.C.: The Centennial of Incorporation</i> +(Charleston, 1884). There is also a good sketch by Yates Snowden in +L.P. Powell’s <i>Historic Towns of the Southern States</i> (New York, 1900). +For the earthquake see the account by Carl McKinley in the <i>Charleston +Year-Book</i> for 1886. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Carolina</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> At an early date cotton became an important article in Charleston’s +commerce; some was shipped so early as 1747. At the +outbreak of the Civil War Charleston was one of the three most +important cotton-shipping ports in the United States, being exceeded +in importance only by New Orleans and New York.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The special census of 1905 dealt only with the factory product, +that of 1905 ($6,007,094) showing an increase of 5.1% over that of +1900 ($5,713,315). In 1905 the (factory) fertilizer product of +Charleston was $1,291,859, which represented more than 35% of +the (factory) fertilizer product of the whole state.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> the capital of West Virginia, U.S.A., and the +county-seat of Kanawha county, situated near the centre of the +state, on the N. bank of the Kanawha river, at the mouth of +the Elk river, about 200 m. E. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and about +130 m. S.W. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 6742; (1900) 11,099, +of whom 1787 were negroes, and 353 were foreign-born; (1910 +census) 22,996. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the +Toledo & Ohio Central, the Coal & Coke, and the Kanawha & +West Virginia (39 m. to Blakeley) railways, and by several river +transportation lines on the Kanawha river (navigable throughout +the year by means of movable locks) connecting with Ohio and +Mississippi river ports. The city is attractively built on high +level land, above the river; in addition to a fine customs house, +court house and high school, it contains the West Virginia state +capitol, erected in 1880. The libraries include the state law +library, with 14,000 volumes in 1908, and the library of the +state Department of Archives and History, with about 11,000 +volumes. Charleston is in the midst of a region rich in bituminous +coal, the shipment of which by river and rail constitutes +one of its principal industries. Oil wells in the vicinity also +furnish an important product for export, and there are iron and +salt mines near. An ample supply of natural gas is utilized by +its manufacturing establishments; and among its manufactures +are axes, lumber, foundry and machine shop products, furniture, +boilers, woollen goods, glass and chemical fire-engines. The value +of the city’s factory products increased from $1,261,815 in 1900 +to $2,728,074 in 1905, or 116.2%, a greater rate of increase +than that of any other city (with 8000 or more inhabitants) +in the state during this period. The first permanent white +settlement at Charleston was made soon after the close of the +War of Independence; it was one of the places through which +the streams of immigrants entered the Ohio Valley, and it +became of considerable importance as a centre of transfer and +shipment, but it was not until the development of the coal-mining +region that it became industrially important. Charleston +was incorporated in 1794, and was chartered as a city in 1870. +Since the latter year it has been the seat of government of West +Virginia, with the exception of the decade 1875-1885, when +Wheeling was the capital.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTOWN,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly a separate city of Middlesex +county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., but since 1874 a part of the city +of Boston, with which it had long before been in many respects +practically one. It is situated on a small peninsula on Boston +harbour, between the mouths of the Mystic and Charles rivers; +the first bridge across the Charles, built in 1786, connected +Charlestown and Boston. A United States navy yard (1800), +occupying about 87 acres, and the Massachusetts state prison +(1805) are here; the old burying-ground contains the grave of +John Harvard and that of Thomas Beecher, the first American +member of the famous Beecher family; and there is a soldiers’ +and sailors’ monument (1872), designed by Martin Milmore. +Charlestown was founded in 1628 or 1629, being the oldest part +of Boston, and soon rose into importance; it was organized +as a township in 1630, and was chartered as a city in 1847. +Within its limits was fought, on the 17th of June 1775, the battle +of Bunker Hill (<i>q.v.</i>), when Charlestown was almost completely +destroyed by the British. The Bunker Hill Monument commemorates +the battle; and the navy yard at Moulton’s Point +was the landing-place of the attacking British troops. Little +was done toward the rebuilding of Charlestown until 1783. +The original territory of the township was very large, and from +parts of it were formed Woburn (1642), Malden (1649), Stoneham +(1725), and Somerville (1842); other parts were annexed to +Cambridge, to Medford and to Arlington. S.F.B. Morse, the +inventor of the electric telegraph, was born here; and Charlestown +was the birthplace and home of Nathaniel Gorham (1738-1796), +a member of the Continental Congress in 1782-1783 and +1785-1787, and its president in 1786; and was the home of +Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), a well-known civil engineer; of +Samuel Dexter (1761-1816), an eminent lawyer, secretary of +war and for a short time secretary of the treasury in the cabinet +of President John Adams; and of Oliver Holden (1765-1831), a +composer of hymn-tunes, including “Coronation.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Frothingham, <i>History of Charlestown</i> (Boston, 1845), +covering 1629-1775; J.F. Hunnewell, <i>A Century of Town Life ... +1775-1887</i> (Boston, 1888); and Timothy T. Sawyer, <i>Old Charlestown</i> +(1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1792-1845), French designer +and painter, more especially of military subjects, was +born in Paris on the 20th of December 1792. He was the son of a +dragoon in the Republican army, whose death in the ranks left +the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances. Madame +Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme +Napoleonist, managed to give her boy a moderate education at +the Lycée Napoléon, and was repaid by his lifelong affection. +His first employment was in a Parisian mairie, where he had to +register recruits: he served in the National Guard in 1814, +fought bravely at the Barrière de Clichy, and, being thus unacceptable +to the Bourbon party, was dismissed from the mairie +in 1816. He then, having from a very early age had a propensity +for drawing, entered the atelier of the distinguished painter +Baron Gros, and soon began issuing the first of those lithographed +designs which eventually brought him renown. His “Grenadier +de Waterloo,” 1817, with the motto “La Garde meurt et ne se +rend pas” (a famous phrase frequently attributed to Cambronne, +but which he never uttered, and which cannot, perhaps, be traced +farther than to this lithograph by Charlet), was particularly +popular. It was only towards 1822, however, that he began to +be successful in a professional sense. Lithographs (about 2000 +altogether), water-colours, sepia-drawings, numerous oil sketches, +and a few etchings followed one another rapidly; there were +also three exhibited oil pictures, the first of which was especially +admired—“Episode in the Campaign of Russia” (1836), the +“Passage of the Rhine by Moreau” (1837), “Wounded Soldiers +Halting in a Ravine” (1843). Besides the military subjects in +which he peculiarly delighted, and which found an energetic +response in the popular heart, and kept alive a feeling of regret +for the recent past of the French nation and discontent with +the present,—a feeling which increased upon the artist himself +towards the close of his career,—Charlet designed many subjects +of town life and peasant life, the ways of children, &c., with much +wit and whim in the descriptive mottoes. One of the most +famous sets is the “Vie civile, politique, et militaire du Caporal +Valentin,” 50 lithographs, dating from 1838 to 1842. In 1838 +his health began to fail owing to an affection of the chest. He +died in Paris on the 30th of October 1845. Charlet was an uncommonly +tall man, with an expressive face, bantering and good +natured; his character corresponded, full of boyish fun and +high spirits, with manly independence, and a vein of religious +feeling, and he was a hearty favourite among his intimates, one +of whom was the painter Géricault. Charlet married in 1824, and +two sons survived him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Charlet was published in 1856 by a military friend, De la +Combe.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVILLE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France, in the +department of Ardennes, 151 m. N.E. of Paris on the Eastern +railway. Pop. (1906) 19,693. Charleville is situated within +a bend of the Meuse on its left bank, opposite Mézières, with +which it is united by a suspension bridge. The town was founded +in 1606 by Charles III. (Gonzaga), duke of Nevers, afterwards +duke of Mantua, and is laid out on a uniform plan. Its central +and most interesting portion is the Place Ducale, a large square +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span> +surrounded by old houses with high-pitched roofs, the porches +being arranged so as to form a continuous arcade; in the centre +there is a fountain surmounted by a statue of the duke Charles. +A handsome church in the Romanesque style and the other public +buildings date from the 19th century. An old mill, standing on +the bank of the river, dates from the early years of the +town’s existence. On the right bank of the Meuse is Mont +Olympe, with the ruins of a fortress dismantled under Louis XIV. +Charleville, which shares with Mézières the administrative +institutions of the department of Ardennes, has tribunals of first +instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of +trade-arbitrators and lycées and training colleges for both sexes. +Its chief industries are metal-founding and the manufacture of +nails, anvils, tools and other iron goods, and brush-making; +leather-working and sugar-refining, and the making of bricks and +clay pipes are also carried on.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1682-1761), +French Jesuit traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin on +the 29th of October 1682. At the age of sixteen he entered the +Society of Jesus; and at the age of twenty-three was sent to +Canada, where he remained for four years as professor at Quebec. +He then returned and became professor of belles lettres at home, +and travelled on the errands of his society in various countries. +In 1720-1722, under orders from the regent, he visited America +for the second time, and went along the Great Lakes and down +the Mississippi. In later years (1733-1755) he was one of the +directors of the <i>Journal de Trévoux</i>. He died at La Flèche on +the 1st of February 1761. His works, enumerated in the <i>Bibliographie +des Prèrs de la Compagnie de Jesus</i> (by Carlos Sommervogel), +fall into two groups. The first contains his <i>Histoire de +l’établissement, du progrès et de la décadence du Christianisme +dans l’empire du Japon</i> (Rouen, 1715; English trans. <i>History +of the Church of Japan</i>, 1715), and his <i>Histoire et description +générale du Japon</i> (1736), a compilation chiefly from Kämpfer. +The second group includes his historical work on America: +<i>Histoire de l’Isle Espagnole ou de Saint Domingue</i> (1730), based +on manuscript memoirs of P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers and original +sources; <i>Histoire de Paraguay</i> (1756); <i>Vie de la Mère Marie +de l’Incarnation, institutrice et première supérieure des Urselines +de la Nouvelle-France</i> (1724); <i>Histoire et description générale +de la Nouvelle-France</i> (1744; in English 1769; tr. J.G. +Shea, 1866-1872), a work of capital importance for Canadian +history.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVOIX,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Charlevoix +county, Michigan, U.S.A., 16 m. E.S.E. of Petoskey, on Lake +Michigan and Pine Lake, which are connected by Pine river and +Round Lake. Pop. (1890) 1496; (1900) 2079; (1904) 2395; +(1910) 2420. It is on the main line of the Père Marquette +railway, and during the summer season is served by lake steamers. +The village is best known as a summer resort; it is built on bluffs +and on a series of terraces rising from Round and Pine lakes and +affording extensive views; and there are a number of attractive +summer residences. Charlevoix is an important hardwood +lumber port, and the principal industries are the manufacture +of lumber and of cement; fishing (especially for lake trout and +white fish); the raising of sugar beets; and the manufacture +of rustic and fancy wood-work. Charlevoix was settled about +1866, and was incorporated as a village in 1879.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTE,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Mecklenburg +county, North Carolina, U.S.A., situated on Sugar Creek, in +the south-west part of the state, about 175 m. south-west of +Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 11,557; (1900) 18,091, of whom 7151 +were negroes; (1910 census) 34,014. It is served by the +Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways. Among the +public buildings are a fine city hall, court-house, Federal and +Young Men’s Christian Association buildings, and a Carnegie +library; several hospitals: St Peter’s (Episcopal) for whites, +Good Samaritan (Episcopal) for negroes, Mercy General (Roman +Catholic) and a Presbyterian. The city is the seat of Elizabeth +College and Conservatory of Music (1897), a non-sectarian +institution for women, of the Presbyterian College for women, +and of Biddle University (Presbyterian) for negroes, established +in 1867. There is a United States assay office, established as a +branch mint in 1837, during the days of North Carolina’s great +importance as a gold producing state, and closed from 1861 to +1869. The city has large cotton, clothing, and knitting mills, +and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, tools, machinery, fertilizers +and furniture. The total value of its factory products was +$4,849,630 in 1905. There are large electric power plants in +and near the city. Printing and publishing are of some importance: +Charlotte is the publication headquarters of the +African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; and several textile +trade journals and two medical periodicals are published here. +The water-works are owned by the municipality. Charlotte +was settled about 1750 and was incorporated in 1768. Here +in May 1775 was adopted the “Mecklenburg Declaration of +Independence” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North Carolina</a></span>), and in honour of its +signers there is a monument in front of the court-house. Charlotte +was occupied in September 1780 by Cornwallis, who left it after +learning of the battle of King’s Mountain, and subsequently +it became the principal base and rendezvous of General Greene.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTENBURG,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom +of Prussia, on the Spree, lying immediately west of Berlin, +of which it forms practically the entire western suburb. The +earlier name of the town was Lietzenburg. Pop. (1890) 76,859; +(1900) 189,290; (1905) 237,231. It is governed by a council +of 94 members. The central part of the town is connected with +Berlin by a magnificent avenue, the Charlottenburger Chaussee, +which runs from the Brandenburger Tor through the whole +length of the Tiergarten. Although retaining its own municipal +government, Charlottenburg, together with the adjacent suburban +towns of Schoneberg and Rixdorf, was included in 1900 in the +police district of the capital. The Schloss, built in 1696 for +the electress Sophie Charlotte, queen of the elector Frederick, +afterwards King Frederick I., after whom the town was named, +contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. In the +grounds stands a granite mausoleum, the work of Karl Friedrich +Schinkel, with beautiful white marble recumbent statues of +Frederick William III. and his queen Louise by Christian +Daniel Rauch, and also those of the emperor William I. and +the empress Augusta by Erdmann Encke. It was in the Schloss +that the emperor Frederick III. took over the reins of government +in 1888, and here he resided for nearly the whole of his +three months’ reign. The town contains an equestrian statue +of Frederick. Of public buildings, the famous technical academy +and the Kaiser Wilhelm memorial church are referred to in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berlin</a></span>. In Charlottenburg is the Physikalisch-technische +Reichsanstalt, a state institution for the carrying out of scientific +experiments and measurements, and for testing instruments of +precision, materials, &c. It was established in 1886 with money +provided by Ernst Werner Siemens. In addition to the famous +royal porcelain manufactory, Charlottenburg has many flourishing +industries, notably iron-works grouped along the banks of +the Spree. Its main thoroughfares are laid out on a spacious +plan, while there are many quiet streets containing pretty villas. +See F. Schultz, <i>Chronik von Charlottenburg</i> (Charlottenburg, 1888).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTESVILLE,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Albemarle +county, Virginia, U.S.A., picturesquely situated on the Rivanna +river, 96 m. (by rail) N.W. of Richmond in the beautiful Piedmont +region. Pop. (1890) 5591; (1900) 6449 (2613 being negroes); +(1910) 6765. The city is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the +Southern railways, and is best known as the seat of the University +of Virginia (<i>q.v.</i>), which was founded by Thomas Jefferson. Here +are also the Rawlings Institute for girls, founded as the Albemarle +Female Institute in 1857, and a University school. Monticello, +Jefferson’s home, is still standing about 2 m. south-east of the +city on a fine hill, called Little Mountain until Jefferson Italianised +the name. The south pavilion of the present house is the +original brick building, one and a half storeys high, first occupied +by Jefferson in 1770. He was buried near the house, which was +sold by his daughter some years after his death. George Rogers +Clark was born near Monticello. Charlottesville is a trade +centre for the surrounding country; among its manufactures +are woollen goods, overalls, agricultural implements and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span> +cigars and tobacco. The city owns its water-supply system +and owns and operates its gas plant; an electric plant, privately +owned, lights the streets and many houses. The site of the city +was a part of the Castle Hill estate of Thomas Walker (1715-1794), +an intimate friend of George Washington. The act +establishing the town of Charlottesville was passed by the +Assembly of Virginia in November 1762, when the name Charlottesville +(in honour of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III.) first +appeared. In 1779-1780 about 4000 of Burgoyne’s troops, +surrendered under the “Convention” of Saratoga, were +quartered here; in October 1780 part of them were sent to +Lancaster, Pa., and later the rest were sent north. In June +1781 Tarleton raided Charlottesville and the vicinity, nearly +captured Thomas Jefferson, and destroyed the public records +and some arms and ammunition. In 1888 Charlottesville was +chartered as a city administratively independent of the county.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTETOWN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a city of Canada, the capital of Prince +Edward Island, situated in Queen’s county, on Hillsborough +river. Pop. (1901) 12,080. It has a good harbour, and the +river is navigable by large vessels for several miles. The export +trade of the island centres here, and the city has regular communication +by steamer with the chief American and Canadian ports. +Besides the government buildings and the court-house, it +contains numerous churches, the Prince of Wales College, +supported by the province, the Roman Catholic college of St +Dunstan’s and a normal school; among its manufactures are +woollen goods, lumber, canned goods, and foundry products. +The head office and workshops of the Prince Edward Island +railway are situated here. The town was founded in 1750 by the +French under the name of Port la Joie, but under British rule +changed its name in honour of the queen of George III.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARM<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the Lat. <i>carmen</i>, a song), an +incantation, verses sung with supposed magical results, hence +anything possessing powers of bringing good luck or averting +evil, particularly articles worn with that purpose, such as an +amulet. It is thus used of small trinkets attached to bracelets +or chains. The word is also used, figuratively, of fascinating +qualities of feature, voice or character.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DÉSIRÉ<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1828-  ), French +traveller and archaeologist, was born in Fleurie (Rhône), on the +2nd of May 1828. He studied at the Lycée Charlemagne, in +1850 became a teacher in New Orleans, Louisiana, and there +became acquainted with John Lloyd Stephens’s books of travel +in Yucatan. He travelled in Mexico, under a commission from +the French ministry of education, in 1857-1861; in Madagascar +in 1863; in South America, particularly Chile and Argentina, in +1875; and in Java and Australia in 1878. In 1880-1883 he +again visited the ruined cities of Mexico. Pierre Lorillard of +New York contributed to defray the expense of this expedition, +and Charnay named a great ruined city near the Guatemalan +boundary line Ville Lorillard in his honour. Charnay went to +Yucatan in 1886. The more important of his publications are +<i>Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage</i> (1863), being his +personal report on the expedition of 1857-61, of which the +official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc’s <i>Cités et ruines +americaines: Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal +</i> (1863), vol. 19 of <i>Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les +Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i> (1885; English translation, +<i>The Ancient Cities of the New World,</i> 1887, by Mmes. Gonino +and Conant); a romance, <i>Une Princesse indienne avant la +conquête</i> (1888); <i>À travers les forêts vierges</i> (1890); and <i>Manuscrit +Ramirez: Histoire de I’origine des Indiens qui habitent la +Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions</i> (1903). He translated +Cortez’s letters into French, under the title <i>Lettres de Fernand +Cortes à Charles-quint sur la découverte et la conquête du Mexique</i> +(1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and considered +the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because +of observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration, +Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNEL HOUSE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>carnarium</i>), a place for depositing +the bones which might be thrown up in digging graves. +Sometimes, as at Gloucester, Hythe and Ripon, it was a portion +of the crypt; sometimes, as at Old St Paul’s and Worcester +(both now destroyed), it was a separate building in the churchyard; +sometimes chantry chapels were attached to these buildings. +Viollet-le-Duc has given two very curious examples of +such <i>ossuaires</i> (as the French call them)—one from Fleurance +(Gers), the other from Faouët (Finistère).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCK, JOB<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (d. 1693), English founder of Calcutta, +went out to India in 1655 or 1656, apparently not in the East +India Company’s service, but soon joined it. He was stationed +at Cossimbazar, and subsequently at Patna. In 1685 he became +chief agent at Hugli. Being besieged there by the Mogul viceroy +of Bengal, he put the company’s goods and servants on board +his light vessels and dropped down the river 27 m. to the village +of Sutanati, a place well chosen for the purpose of defence, which +occupied the site of what is now Calcutta. It was only, however, +at the third attempt that Charnock finally settled down at this +spot, and the selection of the future capital of India was entirely +due to his stubborn resolution. He was a silent morose man, not +popular among his contemporaries, but “always a faithfull Man +to the Company.” He is said to have married a Hindu widow.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCK<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Chernock</span>), <span class="bold">ROBERT</span> (c.1663-1696), English +conspirator, belonged to a Warwickshire family, and was educated +at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming a fellow of his +college and a Roman Catholic priest. When in 1687 the dispute +arose between James II. and the fellows of Magdalen over the +election of a president Charnock favoured the first royal nominee, +Anthony Farmer, and also the succeeding one, Samuel Parker, +bishop of Oxford. Almost alone among the fellows he was not +driven out in November 1687, and he became dean and then +vice-president of the college under the new regime, but was +expelled in October 1688. Residing at the court of the Stuarts +in France, or conspiring in England, Charnock and Sir George +Barclay appear to have arranged the details of the unsuccessful +attempt to kill William III. near Turnham Green in February +1696, Barclay escaped, but Charnock was arrested, was tried +and found guilty, and was hanged on the 18th of March 1696.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCKITE,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a series of foliated igneous rocks of wide +distribution and great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar +and Africa. The name was given by Dr T.H. Holland from the +fact that the tombstone of Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, +is made of a block of this rock. The charnockite series includes +rocks of many different types, some being acid and rich in quartz +and microcline, others basic and full of pyroxene and olivine, while +there are also intermediate varieties corresponding mineralogically +to norites, quartz-norites and diorites. A special +feature, recurring in many members of the group, is the presence +of strongly pleochroic, reddish or green hypersthene. Many of +the minerals of these rocks are “schillerized,” as they contain +minute platy or rod-shaped enclosures, disposed parallel to +certain crystallographic planes or axes. The reflection of light +from the surfaces of these enclosures gives the minerals often +a peculiar appearance, <i>e.g.</i> the quartz is blue and opalescent, the +felspar has a milky shimmer like moonshine, the hypersthene has +a bronzy metalloidal gleam. Very often the different rock types +occur in close association as one set forms bands alternating with +another set, or veins traversing it, and where one facies appears the +others also usually are found. The term charnockite consequently +is not the name of a rock, but of an assemblage of rock +types, connected in their origin because arising by differentiation +of the same parent magma. The banded structure which these +rocks commonly present in the field is only in a small measure due +to crushing, but is to a large extent original, and has been produced +by fluxion in a viscous crystallizing intrusive magma, together +with differentiation or segregation of the mass into bands of different +chemical and mineralogical composition. There have also +been, of course, earth movements acting on the solid rock at a +later time and injection of dikes both parallel to and across the +primary foliation. In fact, the history of the structures of the +charnockite series is the history of the most primitive gneisses +in all parts of the world, for which we cannot pretend to have +as yet any thoroughly satisfactory explanations to offer. A +striking fact is the very wide distribution of rocks of this group +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span> +in the southern hemisphere; but they also, or rocks very similar +to them, occur in Norway, France, Germany, Scotland and +North America, though in these countries they have been mostly +described as pyroxene granulites, pyroxene gneisses, anorthosites, +&c. They are usually regarded as being of Archean age (pre-Cambrian), +and in most cases this can be definitely proved, +though not in all. It is astonishing to find that in spite of their +great age their minerals are often in excellent preservation. In +India they form the Nilgiri Hills, the Shevaroys and part of the +Western Ghats, extending southward to Cape Comorin and reappearing +in Ceylon. Although they are certainly for the most +part igneous gneisses (or orthogneisses), rocks occur along with +them, such as marbles, scapolite limestones, and corundum rocks, +which were probably of sedimentary origin.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARNWOOD FOREST,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> an upland tract in the N.-W. of +Leicestershire, England. It is undulating, rocky, picturesque, +and in great part barren, though there are some extensive tracts +of woodland; its elevation is generally 600 ft. and upwards, the +area exceeding this height being about 6100 acres. The loftiest +point, Bardon Hill, is 912 ft. On its western flank lies a coalfield, +with Coalville and other mining towns, and granite and hone-stones +are worked.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHAROLLES,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire, situated +at the confluence of the Semence and the Arconce, 39 m. W.N.W. +of Mâcon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3228. It has +a sub-prefecture, tribunals of primary instance and commerce, +and a communal college. There are stone quarries in the vicinity; +the town manufactures pottery, and is the centre for trade in the +famous breed of Charolais cattle and in agricultural products. +The ruins of the castle of the counts of Charolais occupy the +summit of a hill in the immediate vicinity of the town. Charolles +was the capital of Charolais, an old division of France, which +from the early 14th century gave the title of count to its possessors. +In 1327 the countship passed by marriage to the house of +Armagnac, and in 1390 it was sold to Philip of Burgundy. After +the death of Charles the Bold, who in his youth had borne the +title of count of Charolais, it was seized by Louis XI. of France, +but in 1493 it was ceded by Charles VIII. to Maximilian of +Austria, the representative of the Burgundian family. Ultimately +passing to the Spanish kings, it became for a considerable +period an object of dispute between France and Spain, until at +length in 1684 it was assigned to the great Condé, a creditor of +the king of Spain. It was united to the French crown in 1771.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARON,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and Nyx +(Night). It was his duty to ferry over the Styx (or Acheron) +those souls of the deceased who had duly received the rites of +burial, in payment for which service he received an obol, which +was placed in the mouth of the corpse. It was only exceptionally +that he carried living passengers (<i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 295 ff). As +ferryman of the dead he is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod, +and in this character is probably of Egyptian origin. He is +represented as a morose and grisly old man in a black sailor’s +cape. By the Etruscans he was also supposed to be a kind of +executioner of the powers of the nether world, who, armed with +an enormous hammer, was associated with Mars in the slaughter +of battle. Finally he came to be regarded as the image of death +and the world below. As such he survives in the Charos or +Charontas of the modern Greeks—a black bird which darts down +upon its prey, or a winged horseman who fastens his victims to +the saddle and bears them away to the realms of the dead.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.A. Ambrosch, <i>De Charonte Etrusco</i> (1837), a learned and +exhaustive monograph; B. Schmidt, <i>Volksleben der Neugriechen +</i> (1871), i. 222-251; O. Waser, <i>Charon, Charun, Charos, mythologisch-archaologische +Monographie</i> (1898); S. Rocco, “Sull’ origine del +Mito di Caronte,” in <i>Rivista di storia antica,</i> ii. (1897), who considers +Charon to be an old name for the sun-god Helios embarking during +the night for the East.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARONDAS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a celebrated lawgiver of Catina in Sicily. +His date is uncertain. Some make him a pupil of Pythagoras +(c. 580-504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but all that can be said is that he was earlier +than Anaxilaus of Rhegium (494-476), since his laws were in +use amongst the Rhegians until they were abolished by that +tyrant. His laws, originally written in verse, were adopted by +the other Chalcidic colonies in Sicily and Italy. According to +Aristotle there was nothing special about these laws, except +that Charondas introduced actions for perjury; but he speaks +highly of the precision with which they were drawn up (<i>Politics, +</i> ii. 12). The story that Charondas killed himself because he +entered the public assembly wearing a sword, which was a +violation of his own law, is also told of Diocles and Zaleucus +(Diod. Sic. xii. 11-19). The fragments of laws attributed to him +by Stobaeus and Diodorus are of late (neo-Pythagorean) origin.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bentley, <i>On Phalaris</i>, which (according to B. Niese <i>s.v.</i> in +Pauly, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>) contains what is even now the best account +of Charondas; A. Holm, <i>Geschichte Siciliens</i>, i.; F.D. Gerlach, +<i>Zaleukos, Charondas, und Pythagoras</i> (1858); also art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1620-1702), French archaeologist +and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 15th of +February 1620. He was intended for the bar, but was employed +by Colbert, who had determined on the foundation of a French +East India Company, to draw up an explanatory account of the +project for Louis XIV. Charpentier regarded as absurd the use +of Latin in monumental inscriptions, and to him was entrusted +the task of supplying the paintings of Lebrun in the Versailles +Gallery with appropriate legends. His verses were so indifferent +that they had to be replaced by others, the work of Racine and +Boileau, both enemies of his. Charpentier in his <i>Excellence de la +langue française</i> (1683) had anticipated Perrault in the famous +academical dispute concerning the relative merit of the ancients +and moderns. He is credited with a share in the production of +the magnificent series of medals that commemorate the principal +events of the age of Louis XIV. Charpentier, who was +long in receipt of a pension of 1200 livres from Colbert, was +erudite and ingenious, but he was always heavy and commonplace. +His other works include a <i>Vie de Socrate</i> (1650), a translation +of the <i>Cyropaedia</i> of Xenophon (1658), and the <i>Traité de +la peinture parlante</i> (1684).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1740-1805), +Swiss author, was Dutch by birth, her maiden name being +van Tuyll van Seeroskerken van Zuylen. She married in 1771 +her brother’s tutor, M. de Charrière, and settled with him at +Colombier, near Lausanne. She made her name by the publication +of her <i>Lettres neuchâteloises</i> (Amsterdam, 1784), offering a +simple and attractive picture of French manners. This, with +<i>Caliste, ou lettres écrites de Lausanne</i> (2 vols. Geneva, 1785-1788), +was analysed and highly praised by Sainte-Beuve in his <i>Portraits +de femmes</i> and in vol. in of his <i>Portraits littéraires.</i> She wrote +a number of other novels, and some political tracts; but is +perhaps best remembered by her liaison with Benjamin Constant +between 1787 and 1796.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her letters to Constant were printed in the <i>Revue suisse</i> (April +1844), her <i>Lettres-Mémoires</i> by E.H. Gaullieur in the same review +in 1857, and all the available material is utilized in a monograph +on her and her work by P. Godet, <i>Madame de Charrière et ses amis</i> +(2 vols., Geneva, 1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARRON, PIERRE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1541-1603), French philosopher, born +in Paris, was one of the twenty-five children of a bookseller. +After studying law he practised at Paris as an advocate, but, +having met with no great success, entered the church, and soon +gained the highest popularity as a preacher, rising to the dignity +of canon, and being appointed preacher in ordinary to Marguerite, +wife of Henry IV. of Navarre. About 1588, he determined to +fulfil a vow which he had once made to enter a cloister; but +being rejected by the Carthusians and the Celestines, he held +himself absolved, and continued to follow his old profession. +He delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year +passed to Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with +Montaigne. At the death of Montaigne, in 1592, Charron was +requested in his will to bear the Montaigne arms.</p> + +<p>In 1594 Charron published (at first anonymously, afterwards +under the name of “Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy +Faith,” and also, in 1594, in his own name) <i>Les Trois Verités</i>, in +which by methodical and orthodox arguments, he seeks to prove +that there is a God and a true religion, that the true religion is +the Christian, and that the true church is the Roman Catholic. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span> +The last book (which is three-fourths of the whole work) is +chiefly an answer to the famous Protestant work entitled <i>Le +Traité de l’Église</i> by Du Plessis Mornay; and in the second +edition (1595) there is an elaborate reply to an attack made on +the third <i>Vérité</i> by a Protestant writer. <i>Les Trois Vérités</i> ran +through several editions, and obtained for its author the favour +of the bishop of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and +theological canon. It also led to his being chosen deputy to the +general assembly of the clergy, of which body he became chief +secretary. It was followed in 1600 by <i>Discours chrestiens</i>, a +book of sermons, similar in tone, half of which treat of the +Eucharist. In 1601 Charron published at Bordeaux his third +and most remarkable work—the famous <i>De la sagesse</i>, a complete +popular system of moral philosophy. Usually, and so far +correctly, it is coupled with the Essays of Montaigne, to which +the author is under very extensive obligations. There is, however, +distinct individuality in the book. It is specially interesting +from the time when it appeared, and the man by whom it was +written. Conspicuous as a champion of orthodoxy against +atheists, Jews and Protestants—without resigning this position, +and still upholding practical orthodoxy—Charron suddenly +stood forth as the representative of the most complete intellectual +scepticism. The <i>De la sagesse</i>, which represented a considerable +advance on the standpoint of the <i>Trois Vérités</i>, brought upon its +author the most violent attacks, the chief being by the Jesuit +François Garasse (1585-1631), who described him as a “brutal +atheist.” It received, however, the warm support of Henry IV. +and of the president Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622). A second +edition was soon called for. In 1603, notwithstanding much +opposition, it began to appear; but only a few pages had been +printed when Charron died suddenly in the street of apoplexy. +His death was regarded as a judgment for his impiety.</p> + +<p>Charron’s psychology is sensationalist. With sense all our +knowledge commences, and into sense all may be resolved. +The soul, located in the ventricles of the brain, is affected by the +temperament of the individual; the dry temperament produces +acute intelligence; the moist, memory; the hot, imagination. +Dividing the intelligent soul into these three faculties, he shows—after +the manner which Francis Bacon subsequently adopted—what +branches of science correspond with each. With regard +to the nature of the soul he merely quotes opinions. The +belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs, +but the most feebly supported by reason. As to man’s power +of attaining truth his scepticism is decided; and he plainly +declares that none of our faculties enable us to distinguish +truth from error. In comparing man with the lower animals, +Charron insists that there are no breaks in nature. The latter +have reason; nay, they have virtue; and, though inferior in +some respects, in others they are superior. The estimate formed +of man is not, indeed, flattering. His most essential qualities +are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, presumption. Upon this +view of human nature and the human lot Charron founds his +moral system. Equally sceptical with Montaigne, and decidedly +more cynical, he is distinguished by a deeper and sterner tone. +Man comes into the world to endure; let him endure then, and +that in silence. Our compassion should be like that of +God, who succours the suffering without sharing in their pain. +Avoid vulgar errors; cherish universal sympathy. Let no passion +or attachment become too powerful for restraint. Follow +the customs and laws which surround you. Morality has no +connexion with religion. Reason is the ultimate criterion.</p> + +<p>Special interest attaches to Charron’s treatment of religion. +He insists on the diversities in religions; he dwells also on what +would indicate a common origin. All grow from small beginnings +and increase by a sort of popular contagion; all teach that God +is to be appeased by prayers, presents, vows, but especially, and +most irrationally, by human suffering. Each is said by its +devotees to have been given by inspiration. In fact, however, +a man is a Christian, Jew, or Mahommedan, before he knows he +is a man. One religion is built upon another. But while he +openly declares religion to be “strange to common sense,” +the practical result at which Charron arrives is that one is not +to sit in judgment on his faith, but to be “simple and obedient,” +and to allow himself to be led by public authority. This is one +rule of wisdom with regard to religion; and another equally +important is to avoid superstition, which he boldly defines as +the belief that God is like a hard judge who, eager to find fault, +narrowly examines our slightest act, that He is revengeful and +hard to appease, and that therefore He must be flattered and +importuned, and won over by pain and sacrifice. True piety, +which is the first of duties, is, on the other hand, the knowledge +of God and of one’s self, the latter knowledge being necessary +to the former. It is the abasing of man, the exalting of God,—the +belief that what He sends is all good, and that all the bad is +from ourselves. It leads to spiritual worship; for external +ceremony is merely for our advantage, not for His glory. Charron +is thus the founder of modern secularism. His political views +are neither original nor independent. He pours much hackneyed +scorn on the common herd, declares the sovereign to be the +source of law, and asserts that popular freedom is dangerous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A summary and defence of the <i>Sagesse</i>, written shortly before his +death, appeared in 1606. In 1604 his friend Michel de la Rochemaillet +prefixed to an edition of the <i>Sagesse</i> a Life, which depicts +Charron as a most amiable man of purest character. His complete +works, with this Life, were published in 1635. An excellent +abridgment of the <i>Sagesse</i> is given in Tennemann’s <i>Philosophie</i>, +vol. ix.; an edition with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820.</p> + +<p>See Liebscher, <i>Charron u. sein Werk, De la sagesse</i> (Leipzig, 1890); +H.T. Buckle, <i>Introd. to History of Civilization in England</i>, vol. ii. 19; +Abbé Lezat, <i>De la prédication sous Henri IV.</i> c. vi.; J.M. Robertson, +<i>Short History of Free Thought</i> (London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 19; J. +Owen, <i>Skeptics of the French Renaissance</i> (1893); Lecky, <i>Rationalism +in Europe</i> (1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARRUA,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, wild and +warlike, formerly ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil. +They were dark and heavily built, fought on horses and used +the bolas or weighted lasso. They were always at war with +the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by them in +1516. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern +Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHART<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>carta, charta,</i> a map). A chart is a marine +map intended specially for the use of seamen (for history, see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Map</a></span>), though the word is also used loosely for other varieties +of graphical representation. The marine or nautical chart is +constructed for the purpose of ascertaining the position of a +ship with reference to the land, of finding the direction in which +she has to steer, the distance to sail or steam, and the hidden +dangers to avoid. The surface of the sea on charts is studded +with numerous small figures. These are known as the <i>soundings</i>, +indicating in fathoms or in feet (as shown upon the title of the +chart), at low water of ordinary spring tides, the least depth of +water through which the ship may be sailing. Charts show the +nature of the unseen bottom of the sea—with the irregularities +in its character in the shape of hidden rocks or sand-banks, and +give information of the greatest importance to the mariner. +No matter how well the land maybe surveyed or finely delineated, +unless the soundings are shown a chart is of little use.</p> + +<p>The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued +by the hydrographic office. This department of the admiralty +was established under Earl Spencer by an order in council in +1795, consisting of the hydrographer, one assistant and a +draughtsman. The first hydrographer was Alexander Dalrymple, +a gentleman in the East India Company’s civil service. From +this small beginning arose the important department which is +now the main source of the supply of hydrographical information +to the whole of the maritime world. The charts prepared by the +officers and draughtsmen of the hydrographic office, and published +by order of the lords commissioners of the admiralty, are +compiled chiefly from the labours of British naval officers employed +in the surveying service; and also from valuable contributions +received from time to time from officers of the royal +navy and mercantile marine. In addition to the work of British +sailors, the labours of other nations have been collected and +utilized. Charts of the coasts of Europe have naturally been +taken from the surveys made by the various nations, and in +charts of other quarters of the world considerable assistance has +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span> +been received from the labours of French, Spanish, Dutch and +American surveyors. Important work is done by the Hydrographic +Office of the American navy, and the U.S. Coast and +Geodetic Survey. The admiralty charts are published with +the view of meeting the wants of the sailor in all parts of the +world. They may be classed under five heads, viz. ocean, general, +and coast charts, harbour plans and physical charts; for +instance, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, approaches to +Plymouth, Plymouth Sound and wind and current charts. The +harbour plans and coast sheets are constructed on the simple +principles of plane trigonometry by the surveying officers. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surveying</a></span>: <i>Nautical</i>.) That important feature, the depth of +the sea, is obtained by the ordinary sounding line or wire; all +soundings are reduced to low water of ordinary spring tides. +The times and heights of the tides, with the direction and velocity +of the tidal streams, are also ascertained. These MS. charts +are forwarded to the admiralty, and form the foundation of the +hydrography of the world. The ocean and general charts are +compiled and drawn at the hydrographic office, and as originals, +existing charts, latest surveys and maps, have to be consulted, +their compilation requires considerable experience and is a painstaking +work, for the compiler has to decide what to omit, what +to insert, and to arrange the necessary names in such a manner +that while full information is given, the features of the coast are +not interfered with. As a very slight error in the position of a +light or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might lead to grave disaster, +every symbol on the admiralty chart has been delineated with +great care and consideration, and no pains are spared in the +effort to lay before the public the labours of the nautical surveyors +and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world; +reducing their various styles into a comprehensive system +furnishing the intelligent seaman with an intelligible guide, +which common industry will soon enable him to appreciate and +take full advantage of.</p> + +<p>As certain abbreviations are used in the charts, attention is +called to the “signs and abbreviations adopted in the charts +published by the admiralty.” Certain parts of the world are still +unsurveyed, or not surveyed in sufficient detail for the requirements +that steamships now demand. Charts of these localities +are therefore drawn in a light hair-line and unfinished manner, so +that the experienced seaman sees at a glance that less trust is to +be reposed upon charts drawn in this manner. The charts given +to the public are only correct up to the time of their actual +publication. They have to be kept up to date. Recent publications +by foreign governments, newly reported dangers, changes +in character or position of lights and buoys, are as soon as +practicable inserted on the charts and due notice given of +such insertions in the admiralty “Notices to Mariners.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The charts are supplemented by the <i>Admiralty Pilots</i>, or books +of sailing directions, with tide tables, and lists of lighthouses, light +vessels, &c., for the coasts to which a ship may be bound. The +physical charts are the continuation of the work so ably begun by +Maury of the United States and FitzRoy of the British navy, +and give the sailor a good general idea of the world’s ocean winds +and currents at the different periods of the year; the probable +tracks and seasons of the tropical revolving or cyclonic storms; the +coastal winds; the extent or months of the rainy seasons; localities +and times where ice may be fallen in with; and, lastly, the direction +and force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. </p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTER<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Lat. <i>charta, carta,</i> from Gr. <span class="grk" title="chartês">χάρτης</span>, originally for +<i>papyrus</i>, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and +from this material to the document, in O. Eng. <i>boc</i>, book), a +written instrument, contract or convention by which cessions +of sales of property or of rights and privileges are confirmed and +held, and which may be produced by the grantees in proof of +lawful possession. The use of the word for any written document +is obsolete in England, but is preserved in France, <i>e.g.</i> the +École des Chartes at Paris. In feudal times charters of privileges +were granted, not only by the crown, but by mesne lords both +lay and ecclesiastical, as well to communities, such as boroughs, +gilds and religious foundations, as to individuals. In modern +usage grants by charter have become all but obsolete, though in +England this form is still used in the incorporation by the crown +of such societies as the British Academy.</p> + +<p>The grant of the Great Charter by King John in 1215 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magna Carta</a></span>), which guaranteed the preservation of English +liberties, led to a special association of the word with +constitutional privileges, and so in modern times it has been +applied to constitutions granted by sovereigns to their subjects, in +contradistinction to those based on “the will of the people.” +Such was the Charter (<i>Charte</i>) granted by Louis XVIII. to +France in 1814. In Portugal the constitution granted by Dom +Pedro in 1826 was called by the French party the “Charter,” +while that devised by the Cortes in 1821 was known as the +“Constitution.” Magna Carta also suggested to the English +radicals in 1838 the name “People’s Charter,” which they gave +to their published programme of reforms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chartism</a></span>). This +association of the idea of liberty with the word charter led to its +figurative use in the sense of freedom or licence. This is, +however, rare; the most common use being in the phrase “chartered +libertine” (Shakespeare, <i>Henry V.</i> Act i. Sc. 1) from the +derivative verb “to charter,” <i>e.g.</i> to grant a charter. The common +colloquialism “to charter,” in the sense of to take, or hire, is +derived from the special use of “to charter” as to hire (a ship) +by charter-party.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTERED COMPANIES.<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> A chartered company is a +trading corporation enjoying certain rights and privileges, and +bound by certain obligations under a special charter granted to +it by the sovereign authority of the state, such charter defining +and limiting those rights, privileges and obligations, and the +localities in which they are to be exercised. Such companies +existed in early times, but have undergone changes and +modifications in accordance with the developments which have taken +place in the economic history of the states where they have +existed. In Great Britain the first trading charters were granted, +not to English companies, which were then non-existent, but +to branches of the Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>), and it was not till +1597 that England was finally relieved from the presence of a +foreign chartered company. In that year Queen Elizabeth closed +the steel-yard where Teutons had been established for 700 years.</p> + +<p>The origin of all English trading companies is to be sought +in the Merchants of the Staple. They lingered on into the 18th +century, but only as a name, for their business was solely to +export English products which, as English manufactures grew, +were wanted at home. Of all early English chartered companies, +the “Merchant Adventurers” conducted its operations the most +widely. Itself a development of very early trading gilds, at the +height of its prosperity it employed as many as 50,000 persons in +the Netherlands, and the enormous influence it was able to +exercise undoubtedly saved Antwerp from the institution of the +Inquisition within its walls in the time of Charles V. In the reign +of Elizabeth British trade with the Netherlands reached in one +year 12,000,000 ducats, and in that of James I. the company’s +yearly commerce with Germany and the Netherlands was as much +as £1,000,000. Hamburg afterwards was its principal depot, and +it became known as the “Hamburg Company.” In the “Merchant +Adventurers’” enterprises is to be seen the germ of the +trading companies which had so remarkable a development in the +16th and 17th centuries. These old regulated trade gilds passed +gradually into joint-stock associations, which were capable of far +greater extension, both as to the number of members and amount +of stock, each member being only accountable for the amount of +his own stock, and being able to transfer it at will to any other +person.</p> + +<p>It was in the age of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts that +the chartered company, in the modern sense of the term, had +its rise. The discovery of the New World, and the opening out +of fresh trading routes to the Indies, gave an extraordinary +impulse to shipping, commerce and industrial enterprise throughout +western Europe. The English, French and Dutch governments +were ready to assist trade by the granting of charters to +trading associations. It is to the “Russia Company,” which +received its first charter in 1554, that Great Britain owed its +first intercourse with an empire then almost unknown. The +first recorded instance of a purely chartered company annexing +territory is to be found in the action of this company in setting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span> +up a cross at Spitzbergen in 1613 with King James’s arms upon it. +Among other associations trading to the continent of Europe, +receiving charters at this time, were the Turkey Company +(Levant Co.) and the Eastland Company. Both the Russia +and Turkey Companies had an important effect upon British +relations with those empires. They maintained British influence +in those countries, and even paid the expenses of the embassies +which were sent out by the English government to their courts. +The Russia Company carried on a large trade with Persia through +Russian territory; but from various causes their business +gradually declined, though the Turkey Company existed in +name until 1825.</p> + +<p>The chartered companies which were formed during this period +for trade with the Indies and the New World have had a more +wide-reaching influence in history. The extraordinary career +of the East India Company (<i>q.v.</i>) is dealt with elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Charters were given to companies trading to Guinea, Morocco, +Guiana and the Canaries, but none of these enjoyed a very long +or prosperous existence, principally owing to the difficulties +caused by foreign competition. It is when we turn to North +America that the importance of the chartered company, as a +colonizing rather than a trading agency, is seen in its full +development. The “Hudson’s Bay Company,” which still exists as a +commercial concern, is dealt with under its own heading, but +most of the thirteen British North American colonies were in +their inception chartered companies very much in the modern +acceptation of the term. The history of these companies will +be found under the heading of the different colonies of which +they were the origin. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind +that two classes of charters are to be found in force among the +early American colonies: (1) Those granted to trading associations, +which were often useful when the colony was first founded, +but which formed a serious obstacle to its progress when the +country had become settled and was looking forward to +commercial expansion; the existence of these charters then often +led to serious conflicts between the grantees of the charter and +the colonies; ultimately elective assemblies everywhere +superseded control of trading companies. (2) The second class of +charters were those granted to the settlers themselves, to protect +them against the oppressions of the crown and the provincial +governors. These were highly prized by the colonists.</p> + +<p>In France and Holland, no less than in England, the institution +of chartered companies became a settled principle of the +governments of those countries during the whole of the period in +question. In France from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 of such +companies came into existence, but after 1770, when the great +<i>Compagnie des Indes orientales</i> went into liquidation, they were +almost abandoned, and finally perished in the general sweeping +away of privileges which followed on the outbreak of the Revolution.</p> + +<p>If we inquire into the economic ideas which induced the +granting of charters to these earlier companies and animated +their promoters, we shall find that they were entirely consistent +with the general principles of government at the time and what +were then held to be sound commercial views. Under the old +régime everything was a matter of monopoly and privilege, and +to this state of things the constitution of the old companies +corresponded, the sovereign rights accorded to them being also +quite in accordance with the views of the time. It would have +been thought impossible then that private individuals could +have found the funds or maintained the magnitude of such +enterprises. It was only this necessity which induced statesmen +like Colbert to countenance them, and Montesquieu took the +same view (<i>Esprit des lois</i>, t. xx. c. 10). John de Witt’s view +was that such companies were not useful for colonization properly +so called, because they want quick returns to pay their dividends. +So, even in France and Holland, opinion was by no means +settled as to their utility. In England historic protests were +made against such monopolies, but the chartered companies +were less exclusive in England than in either France or Holland, +the governors of provinces almost always allowing strangers to +trade on receiving some pecuniary inducement. French commercial +companies were more privileged, exclusive and artificial +than those in Holland and England. Those of Holland may be +said to have been national enterprises. French companies +rested more than did their rivals on false principles; they were +more fettered by the royal power, and had less initiative of their +own, and therefore had less chance of surviving. As an example +of the kind of rules which prevented the growth of the French +companies, it may be pointed out that no Protestants were +allowed to take part in them. State subventions, rather than +commerce or colonization, were often their object; but that has +been a characteristic of French colonial enterprise at all times.</p> + +<p>Such companies, however, under the old commercial system +could hardly have come into existence without exclusive privileges. +Their existence might have been prolonged had the +whole people in time been allowed the chance of participating +in them.</p> + +<p>To sum up the causes of failure of the old chartered companies, +they are to be attributed to (1) bad administration; (2) want +of capital and credit; (3) bad economic organization; (4) +distribution of dividends made prematurely or fictitiously. +But those survived the longest which extended the most widely +their privileges to outsiders. According to contemporary protests, +they had a most injurious effect on the commerce of the +countries where they had their rise. They were monopolies, +and therefore, of course, obnoxious; and it is undoubted that +the colonies they founded only became prosperous when they +had escaped from their yoke.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that they contributed +in no small degree to the commercial progress of their +own states. They gave colonies to the mother country, and an +impulse to the development of its fleet. In the case of England +and Holland, the enterprise of the companies saved them from +suffering from the monopolies of Spain and Portugal, and the wars +of the English, and those of the Dutch in the Indies with Spain +and Portugal, were paid for by the companies. They furnished +the mother country with luxuries which, by the 18th century, +had become necessaries. They offered a career for the younger +sons of good families, and sometimes greatly assisted large and +useful enterprises.</p> + +<p>During the last twenty years of the 19th century there was a +great revival of the system of chartered companies in Great +Britain. It is a feature of the general growth of interest in +colonial expansion and commercial development which has +made itself felt almost universally among European nations. +Great Britain, however, alone has succeeded in establishing +such companies as have materially contributed to the growth +of her empire. These companies succeed or fail for reasons +different from those which affected the chartered companies +of former days, though there are points in common. Apart +from causes inherent in the particular case of each company, +which necessitates their being examined separately, recent +experience leads us to lay down certain general principles +regarding them. The modern companies are not like those of +the 16th and 17th centuries. They are not privileged in the +sense that those companies were. They are not monopolists; +they have only a limited sovereignty, always being subject to +the control of the home government. It is true that they have +certain advantages given them, for without these advantages +no capital would risk itself in the lands where they carry on their +operations. They often have very heavy corresponding obligations, +as will be seen in the case of one (the East Africa) where +the obligations were too onerous for the company to discharge, +though they were inseparable from its position. The charters +of modern companies differ in two points strongly from those of +the old: they contain clauses prohibiting any monopoly of +trade, and they generally confer some special political rights +directly under the control of the secretary of state. The political +freedom of the old companies was much greater. In these +charters state control has been made a distinguishing feature. +It is to be exercised in almost all directions in which the companies +may come into contact with matters political. Of course, it is +inevitable in all disputes of the companies with foreign powers, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span> +and is extended over all decrees of the company regarding the +administration of its territories, the taxation of natives, and +mining regulations. In all cases of dispute between the companies +and the natives the secretary of state is <i>ex officio</i> the +judge, and to the secretary of state (in the case of the South +Africa Company) the accounts of administration have to be +submitted for his approbation. It is deserving of notice that the +British character of the company is insisted upon in each case +in the charter which calls it into life. The crown always retains +complete control over the company by reserving to itself the +power of revoking the charter in case of the neglect of its stipulations. +Special clauses were inserted in the charters of the British +East Africa and South Africa Companies enabling the government +to forfeit their charters if they did not promote the objects +alleged as reasons for demanding a charter. This bound them +still more strongly; and in the case of the South Africa Company +the duration of the charter was fixed at twenty-five years.</p> + +<p>The chartered company of these days is therefore very strongly +fixed within limits imposed by law on its political action. As a +whole, however, very remarkable results have been achieved. +This may be attributed in no small degree to the personality of +the men who have had the supreme direction at home and abroad, +and who have, by their social position and personal qualities, +acquired the confidence of the public. With the exception of the +Royal Niger Company, it would be incorrect to say that they +have been financially successful, but in the domain of government +generally it may be said that they have added vast territories to +the British empire (in Africa about 1,700,000 sq. m.), and in these +territories they have acted as a civilizing force. They have made +roads, opened facilities for trade, enforced peace, and laid at all +events the foundation of settled administration. It is not too +much to say that they have often acted unselfishly for the benefit +of the mother country and even humanity. We may instance the +anti-slavery and anti-alcohol campaigns which have been carried +on, the latter certainly being against the immediate pecuniary +interests of the companies themselves. It must, of course, be +recognized that to a certain extent this has been done under the +influence of the home government. The occupation of Uganda +certainly, and of the Nigerian territory and Rhodesia probably, +will prove to have been rather for the benefit of posterity +than of the companies which effected it. In the two cases where +the companies have been bought out by the state, they +have had no compensation for much that they have expended. +In fact, it would have been impossible to take into account +actual expenditure day by day, and the cost of wars. To use the +expression of Sir William Mackinnon, the shareholders have +been compelled in some cases to “take out their dividends in +philanthropy.”</p> + +<p>The existence of such companies to-day is justified in certain +political and economic conditions only. It may be highly desirable +for the government to occupy certain territories, but political +exigencies at home will not permit it to incur the expenditure, or +international relations may make such an undertaking inexpedient +at the time. In such a case the formation of a chartered +company may be the best way out of the difficulty. But it has +been demonstrated again and again that, directly, the company’s +interests begin to clash with those of foreign powers, the home +government must assume a protectorate over its territories in +order to simplify the situation and save perhaps disastrous +collisions. So long as the political relations of such a company +are with savages or semi-savages, it may be left free to act, but +directly it becomes involved with a civilized power the state has +(if it wishes to retain the territory) to acquire by purchase the +political rights of the company, and it is obviously much easier to +induce a popular assembly to grant money for the purpose of +maintaining rights already existing than to acquire new ones. +With the strict system of government supervision enforced by +modern charters it is not easy for the state to be involved against +its will in foreign complications. Economically such companies +are also justifiable up to a certain point. When there is no other +means of entering into commercial relations with remote and +savage races save by enterprise of such magnitude that private +individuals could not incur the risk involved, then a company +may be well entrusted with special privileges for the purpose, as +an inventor is accorded a certain protection by law by means of a +patent which enables him to bring out his invention at a profit if +there is anything in it. But such privileges should not be continued +longer than is necessary for the purpose of reasonably +recompensing the adventurers. A successful company, even +when it has lost monopoly or privileges, has, by its command of +capital and general resources, established so strong a position that +private individuals or new companies can rarely compete with it +successfully. That this is so is clearly shown in the case of the +Hudson’s Bay Company as at present constituted. In colonizing +new lands these companies often act successfully. They have +proved more potent than the direct action of governments. +This may be seen in Africa, where France and England have of +late acquired vast areas, but have developed them with very +different results, acting from the opposite principles of private +and state promotion of colonization. Apart from national +characteristics, the individual has far more to gain under the +British system of private enterprise. A strong point in favour of +some of the British companies has been that their undertakings +have been practically extensions of existing British colonies +rather than entirely isolated ventures. But a chartered company +can never be anything but a transition stage of colonization; +sooner or later the state must take the lead. A company may act +beneficially so long as a country is undeveloped, but as soon as it +becomes even semi-civilized its conflicts with private interests +become so frequent and serious that its authority has to make +way for that of the central government.</p> + +<p>The companies which have been formed in France during +recent years do not yet afford material for profitable study, for +they have been subject to so much vexatious interference from +home owing to lack of a fixed system of control sanctioned by +government, that they have not been able, like the British, to +develop along their own lines.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borneo</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brit. East Africa</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>; &c. +The following works deal with the subject of chartered companies +generally: Bonnassieux, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce</i> (Paris, +1892); Chailly-Bert, <i>Les Compagnies de colonisation sous l’ancien +régime</i> (Paris, 1898); Cawston and Keane, <i>The Early Chartered +Companies</i> (London, 1896); W. Cunningham, <i>A History of British +Industry and Commerce</i> (Cambridge, 1890, 1892); Egerton, <i>A Short +History of British Colonial Policy</i> (London, 1897); J. Scott Keltie, +<i>The Partition of Africa</i> (London, 1895); Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>De la +colonisation chez les peuples modernes</i> (Paris, 1898); <i>Les Nouvelles +Sociétés anglo-saxonnes</i> (Paris, 1897); MacDonald, <i>Select Charters +illustrative of American History, 1606-1775</i> (New York, 1899); +B.P. Poore, <i>Federal and State Constitutions,</i> &c (Washington, +1877; a more complete collection of American colonial charters); +H.L. Osgood, <i>American Colonies in the 17th Cent.</i> (1904-7); +Carton de Wiart, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies coloniales anglaises au 19me +siècle</i> (Paris, 1899). Also see articles “Compagnies de Charte,” +“Colonies,” “Privilege,” in <i>Nouveau Dictionnaire d’économie politique +</i> (Paris, 1892); and article “Companies, Chartered,” in <i>Encyclopaedia +of the Laws of England,</i> edited by A. Wood Renton (London, +1907-1909).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. B. Du.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTERHOUSE.<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> This name is an English corruption of +the French <i>maison chartreuse</i>, a religious house of the Carthusian +order. As such it occurs not uncommonly in England, in various +places (<i>e.g.</i> Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton) +where the Carthusians were established. It is most familiar, +however, in its application to the Charterhouse, London. On +a site near the old city wall, west of the modern thoroughfare +of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in 1371 by +Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its +dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands. +In 1558, while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied +by Queen Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation, +and James I. held court here on his first entrance into London. +The Charterhouse was then in the hands of Thomas Howard, +earl of Suffolk, but in May 1611 it came into those of Thomas +Sutton (1532-1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He acquired a +fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had +leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to +London, he carried on a commercial career. In the year of his +death, which took place on the 12th of December 1611, he +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span> +endowed a hospital on the site of the Charterhouse, calling it the +hospital of King James; and in his will he bequeathed moneys +to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and school. The will +was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the foundation was +finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners +(“gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have borne +arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, +or servants in household to the King or Queen’s Majesty”), and +to educate forty boys. The school developed beyond the original +intentions of its founder, and now ranks among the most eminent +public schools in England. In 1872 it was removed, during the +headmastership (1863-1897) of the Rev. William Haig-Brown +(d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in Surrey, which were +opened on the 18th of June in that year. The number of foundation +scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not now +distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate +house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving +the former title of the scholars. The land on which the old +school buildings stood in London was sold for new buildings +to accommodate the Merchant Taylors’ school, but the pensioners +still occupy their picturesque home, themselves picturesque +figures in the black gowns designed for them under the foundation. +The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a panelled +chapel, in which is the founder’s tomb, a fine dining-hall, +governors’ room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old +library, and the beautiful great staircase.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTER-PARTY<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (Lat. <i>charta partita</i>, a legal paper or +instrument, “divided,” <i>i.e.</i> written in duplicate so that each +party retains half), a written, or partly written and partly +printed, contract between merchant and shipowner, by which +a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of goods on a specified +voyage, or for a definite period. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affreightment</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTERS TOWERS,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a mining town of Devonport county, +Queensland, Australia, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and +820 m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of an important +gold-field, the reefs of which improve at the lower +depths, the deepest shaft on the field being 2558 ft. below the +surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An abundant +water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m. +distant. The population of the town in 1901 was 5523; but +within a 5 m. radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became +a municipality in 1877.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTIER, ALAIN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (c. 1392-c. 1430), French poet and political +writer, was born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged +to a family marked by considerable ability. His eldest brother +Guillaume became bishop of Paris; and Thomas became notary +to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St Denis, whose history +of Charles VII. is printed in vol. iii. of <i>Les Grands Chroniques de +Saint-Denis</i> (1477), was not, as is sometimes stated, also a +brother of the poet Alain studied, as his elder brother had done, +at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the <i>Livre des +quatre dames</i>, written after the battle of Agincourt. This was +followed by the <i>Débat du réveille-matin</i>, <i>La Belle Dame sans +merci</i>, and others. None of these poems show any very patriotic +feeling, though Chartier’s prose is evidence that he was not +indifferent to the misfortunes of his country. He followed the +fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., acting in the +triple capacity of clerk, notary and financial secretary. In 1422 +he wrote the famous <i>Quadrilogue-invectif</i>. The interlocutors +in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of the +state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the +sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to +his country by maintaining that the cause of France, though +desperate to all appearance, was not yet lost if the contending +factions could lay aside their differences in the face of the common +enemy. In 1424 Chartier was sent on an embassy to Germany, +and three years later he accompanied to Scotland the mission +sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of Scotland, then +not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. +In 1429 he wrote the <i>Livre d’espérance</i>, which contains a fierce +attack on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a +diatribe on the courtiers of Charles VII. entitled <i>Le Curial</i>, +translated into English (<i>Here foloweth the copy of a lettre +whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to his brother</i>) by Caxton +about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed about 1430. +A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says, however, +that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in the +city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for +Alain described himself as a <i>simple clerc</i> and certainly died long +before 1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret +of Scotland on <i>la précieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis +tant de bons mots et vertueuses paroles</i> is mythical, for Margaret +did not come to France till 1436, after the poet’s death; but the +story, first told by Guillaume Bouchet in his <i>Annales d’Aquitaine</i> +(1524), is interesting, if only as a proof of the high degree of +estimation in which the ugliest man of his day was held. Jean +de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has recorded +how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required +daily to learn by heart passages of his <i>Bréviaire des nobles</i>. +John Lydgate studied him affectionately. His <i>Belle Dame sans +merci</i> was translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about +1640, with an introduction of his own; and Clément Marot and +Octavien de Saint-Gelais, writing fifty years after his death, +find many fair words for the old poet, their master and predecessor.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mancel, <i>Alain Chartier, étude bibliographique et littéraire</i>, 8vo +(Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay’s <i>Étude sur Alain Chartier</i> (1876), with +considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by +A. Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville, +“Essais critiques sur les historiens originaux du règne de Charles +VIII,” in the <i>Bibl. de l’École des Chartes</i> (July-August 1857).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTISM,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name given to a movement for political +reform in England, from the so-called “People’s Charter” or +“National Charter,” the document in which in 1838 the scheme +of reforms was embodied. The movement itself may be traced +to the latter years of the 18th century. Checked for a while by +the reaction due to the excesses of the French Revolution, it +received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that followed +the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the introduction +of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed, +not only against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against +the political movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the +spokesman in the House of Commons, which demanded manhood +suffrage, the ballot, annual parliaments, the abolition of +the property qualification for members of parliament and their +payment. The movement was checked for a while by the +Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though +the middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and +political grievances of the labouring population remained unredressed. +Two separate movements now developed: one +socialistic, associated with the name of Robert Owen; the other +radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of the “masses” as the +first step to the amelioration of their condition. The latter was +represented in the Working Men’s Association, by which in 1838 +the “People’s Charter” was drawn up. It embodied exactly +the same programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned +above, with the addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.</p> + +<p>In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the +principal leader of which was Feargus O’Connor, whose irresponsible +and erratic oratory produced a vast effect. Monster +meetings were held, at which seditious language was occasionally +used, and slight collisions with the military took place. Petitions +of enormous size, signed in great part with fictitious names, were +presented to parliament; and a great many newspapers were +started, of which the <i>Northern Star</i>, conducted by Feargus +O’Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a +Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack +on Newport, Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders, +John Frost and two others, were seized, were found guilty of high +treason, and were condemned to death. The sentence, however, +was changed to one of transportation, and Frost spent over +fourteen years in Van Diemen’s Land. In 1854 he was pardoned, +and from 1856 until his death on the 29th of July 1877 he lived +in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was still further +organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the National +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span> +Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the +head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have numbered +40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made +towards a coalition with the more moderate radicals, but these +failed; and a land scheme was started by O’Connor, which +prospered for a few years. In 1844 the uncompromising spirit +of some of the leaders was well illustrated by their hostile attitude +towards the Anti-Corn-Law League. O’Connor, especially, +entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in +which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season +of great suffering among the working classes, and under the +influence of the revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the +Chartist movement was discovered and the prevalent discontent +became known. Early in March disturbances occurred in +Glasgow which required the intervention of the military, while +in the manufacturing districts all over the west of Scotland the +operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main movement +succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and +in Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was +a real and widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort +to decided measures.</p> + +<p>The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was +London. An enormous gathering of half a million was announced +for the 10th of April on Kennington Common, from which they +were to march to the Houses of Parliament to present a petition +signed by nearly six million names, in order by this imposing +display of numbers to secure the enactment of the six points. +Probably some of the more violent members of the party thought +to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their own +hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm, +and the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to +prevent a rising. The procession was forbidden. The military +were called out under the command of the duke of Wellington, +and by him concealed near the bridges and other points where the +procession might attempt to force its way. Even the Bank of +England and other public buildings were put in a state of defence, +and special constables, to the number, it is said, of 170,000, were +enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the emperor +of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both sides +the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant affair. +Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on Kennington +Common, and their leaders, Feargus O’Connor and +Ernest Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving +the authorities by conducting the procession to the Houses of +Parliament. The monster petition was duly presented, and +scrutinized, with the result that the number of signatures was +found to have been grossly exaggerated, and that the most +unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to. Thereafter +the movement specially called Chartism soon died out. +It became merged, so far as its political programme is concerned, +with the advancing radicalism of the general democratic +movement.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTRES,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a city of north-western France, capital of the +department of Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway +to Le Mans. Pop. (1906) 19,433. Chartres is built on the +left bank of the Eure, on a hill crowned by its famous cathedral, +the spires of which are a landmark in the surrounding country. +To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain of Beauce, “the +granary of France,” of which the town is the commercial centre. +The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches, +is crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is +fringed in places by remains of the old fortifications, of which +the Porte Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers, +is the most complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the +old town contrast with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle +it and divide it from the suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant +park, lies to the north-west, and squares and open spaces are +numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: +<i>Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>), +one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in the +11th century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church +destroyed by fire. In 1194 another conflagration laid waste +the new building then hardly completed; but clergy and people +set zealously to work, and the main part of the present structure +was finished by 1240. Though there have been numerous minor +additions and alterations since that time, the general character +of the cathedral is unimpaired. The upper woodwork was consumed +by fire in 1836, but the rest of the building was saved. +The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained glass of the 13th +century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are all unique +from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned for +the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That +to the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 13th +century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than +that of the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till +the 16th century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its +choir measures 150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is +121 ft. The abbey church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 13th +century, contains, besides some fine stained glass, twelve representations +of the apostles in enamel, executed about 1547 by +Léonard Limosin. Of the other churches of Chartres the chief +are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and St Martin-au-Val +(12th century). The hôtel de ville, a building of the 17th +century, containing a museum and library, an older hôtel de +ville of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance +houses, are of interest. There is a statue of General F.S. +Marceau-Desgraviers (b. 1769), a native of the town.</p> + +<p>The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes, +and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber +of commerce, training colleges, a lycée for boys, a communal +college for girls, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its trade +is carried on chiefly on market-days, when the peasants of the +Beauce bring their crops and live-stock to be sold and make +their purchases. The game-pies and other delicacies of Chartres +are well known, and the industries also include flour-milling, +brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture, dyeing, +and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites, +hosiery, &c.</p> + +<p>Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and +by the Romans was called <i>Autricum</i>, from the river <i>Autura</i> +(Eure), and afterwards <i>civitas Carnutum</i>. It was burnt by the +Normans in 858, and unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. +In 1417 it fell into the hands of the English, from whom it was +recovered in 1432. It was attacked unsuccessfully by the +Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by Henry IV., who +was crowned there three years afterwards. In the Franco-German +War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October 1870, +and continued during the rest of the campaign an important +centre of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief +town of the district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship +which was held by the counts of Blois and Champagne and afterwards +by the house of Châtillon, a member of which in 1286 sold +it to the crown. It was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by +Francis I. After the time of Louis XIV. the title of duke of +Chartres was hereditary in the family of Orleans.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M.T. Bulteau, <i>Monographie de la cathédrale de Chartres</i> (1887); +A. Pierval, <i>Chartres, sa cathédrale, ses monuments</i> (1896); H.J.L.J. +Massé, <i>Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTREUSE,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a liqueur, so called from having been made +at the famous Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at +Grenoble (see below). In consequence of the Associations Law, +the Chartreux monks left France in 1904, and now continue the +manufacture of this liqueur in Spain. There are two main varieties +of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The green contains +about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are other +differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the +flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are +jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced +by means of a distillation process.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> the mother house of the very +severe order of Carthusian monks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthusians</a></span>). It is +situated in the French department of the Isère, about 12½ m. +N. of Grenoble, at a height of 3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart +of a group of limestone mountains, and not far from the source +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span> +of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement here was founded +by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the small +village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St +Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was +built between 1132 and 1137, but the actual buildings date only +from about 1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The +convent stands in a very picturesque position in a large meadow, +sloping to the S.W., and watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers +Mort. On the north, fine forests extend to the Col de la Ruchère, +and on the west rise well-wooded heights, while on the east +tower white limestone ridges, culminating in the Grand Som +(6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the early Carthusian +monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from 1160 to +1181, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian +house at Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of +Lincoln, and before his death in 1200 had built the angel choir +and other portions of the wonderful cathedral there.</p> + +<p>The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du +Pont, a village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built +by the monks—it is connected by steam tramways with Voiron +(for Grenoble) and St Béron (for Chambéry). Among the other +routes may be mentioned those from Grenoble by Le Sappey, or +by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chambéry by the Col de +Couz and the village of Les Échelles. St Laurent is about 5½ m. +from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and +soon reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from <i>forata via</i>, +as about 1510 the road was first pierced hence towards the +convent. Here are iron forges, and here was formerly the chief +centre of the manufacture of the famed Chartreuse liqueur. +Beyond, the road enters the “Désert” and passes through most +delightful scenery. Some way farther the Guiers Mort is crossed +by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older bridge of Parant +being still visible higher up the stream. Here begins the splendid +carriage road, constructed by M.E. Viaud between 1854 and +1856. It soon passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette +or Aiguillette, beyond which formerly women were not allowed +to penetrate. After passing through four tunnels the road bends +north (leaving the Guiers Mort which flows past St Pierre de +Chartreuse), and the valley soon opens to form the upland hollow +in which are the buildings of the convent. These are not very +striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the cross-surmounted +turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief features. But +the situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were +formerly lodged in the old infirmary, close to the main gate, +which is now a hôtel. Within the conventual buildings are four +halls formerly used for the reception of the priors of the various +branch houses in France, Italy, Burgundy and Germany. The +very plain and unadorned chapel dates from the 15th century, +but the cloisters, around which cluster the thirty-six small houses +for the fully professed monks, are of later date. The library contained +before the Revolution a very fine collection of books and +MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.</p> + +<p>The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in +1816, but then they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings +and the forests around, though both one and the other were due +to the industry of their predecessors. They were again expelled +in 1904, and are dispersed in various houses in England, at +Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain). It is at the last-named +spot that the various pharmaceutical preparations are +now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold only +since about 1840)—the <i>Elixir</i>, the <i>Boule d’acier</i> (a mineral paste +or salve), and the celebrated <i>liqueur</i>. The magnificent revenues +derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the +monks to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the +neighbouring villages, which owe to this source their churches, +schools, hospitals, &c., &c., built and maintained at the expense +of the monks.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>La Grande Chartreuse par un Chartreux</i> (Grenoble, 1898); +H. Ferrand, <i>Guide à la Grande Chartreuse</i> (1889); and <i>Les Montagnes +de la Chartreuse</i> (1899)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHARWOMAN,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> one who is hired to do occasional household +work. “Char” or “chare,” which forms the first part of the +word, is common, in many forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning +a “turn,” and, in this original sense, is seen in “ajar,” properly +“on char,” of a door “on the turn” in the act of closing. It is +thus applied to a “turn of work,” an odd job, and is so used, in +the form “chore,” in America, and in dialects of the south-west +of England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1808-1873), American statesman +and jurist, was born in Cornish township, New Hampshire, +on the 13th of January 1808. His father died in 1817, and the +son passed several years (1820-1824) in Ohio with his uncle, +Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost pioneer of the +Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop of +Ohio (1819-1831), and after 1835 bishop of Illinois. He graduated +at Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under +William Wirt, attorney-general of the United States, in +Washington, D.C., was admitted to the bar in 1829, and removed +to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he soon gained a position of +prominence at the bar, and published an annotated edition, +which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At a time +when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by +Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by +James G. Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the +anti-slavery movement, and became recognized as the leader of +the political reformers as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionists. +To the cause he freely gave his services as a lawyer, and was +particularly conspicuous as counsel for fugitive slaves seized +in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the Fugitive Slave Law +of 1793—indeed, he came to be known as the “attorney-general +of fugitive slaves.” His argument (1847) in the famous Van +Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted +particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the +kind the judgment was against him. In brief he contended that +slavery was “local, not national,” that it could exist only by +virtue of positive State Law, that the Federal government was +not empowered by the Constitution to create slavery anywhere, +and that “when a slave leaves the jurisdiction of a state he +ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and +leaves behind him the law which made him a slave.” In 1841 he +abandoned the Whig party, with which he had previously been +affiliated, and for seven years was the undisputed leader of the +Liberty party in Ohio; he was remarkably skilful in drafting +platforms and addresses, and it was he who prepared the national +Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty address of 1845. +Realizing in time that a third party movement could not succeed, +he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the +Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats +of New York to form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous +Free-Soil platform, and it was largely through his influence that +Van Buren was nominated for the presidency. His object, however, +was not to establish a permanent new party organization, +but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern Democrats to force +them to adopt a policy opposed to the further extension of +slavery.</p> + +<p>In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the +result of a coalition between the Democrats and a small group +of Free-Soilers in the state legislature; and for some years +thereafter, except in 1852, when he rejoined the Free-Soilers, +he classed himself as an Independent Democrat, though he +was out of harmony with the leaders of the Democratic party. +During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was pre-eminently +the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one spoke +more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850 +and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska +legislation, and the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having +convinced him of the futility of trying to influence the Democrats, +he assumed the leadership in the North-west of the movement +to form a new party to oppose the extension of slavery. The +“Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the +People of the United States,” written by Chase and Giddings, +and published in the New York <i>Times</i> of the 24th of January +1854, may be regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican +party creed. He was the first Republican governor of Ohio, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span> +serving from 1855 to 1859. Although, with the exception of +Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in the country, +and had done more against slavery than any other Republican, +he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in 1860, +partly because his views on the question of protection were not +orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because +the old line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the +Democrats in the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncompromising +and conspicuous anti-slavery record, too, was against +him from the point of view of “availability.” As secretary +of the treasury in President Lincoln’s cabinet in 1861-1864, +during the first three years of the Civil War, he rendered services +of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed two great +changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a +national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper +currency. The former was Chase’s own particular measure. +He suggested the idea, worked out all of the important principles +and many of the details, and induced Congress to accept them. +The success of that system alone warrants his being placed in +the first rank of American financiers. It not only secured an +immediate market for government bonds, but it also provided +a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic, +is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest +financial blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes, +although he did not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push +his opposition to the point of resigning.</p> + +<p>Perhaps Chase’s chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable +desire for supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and +also temperamental differences from the president, which led +him to retire from the cabinet in June 1864. A few months +later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed chief justice of the +United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney, a position +which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most important +decisions were <i>Texas v. White</i> (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in +which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an “indestructible +union composed of indestructible states,” <i>Veazie +Bank</i> v. <i>Fenno</i> (8 Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part +of the banking legislation of the Civil War which imposed a +tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and <i>Hepburn</i> v. <i>Griswold</i> (8 +Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain parts of the legal +tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal tender +decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges, +1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared +a very able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he +gradually drifted back toward his old Democratic position, and +made an unsuccessful effort to secure the nomination of the +Democratic party for the presidency in 1872. He died in New +York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of the ablest +political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be +placed in the front rank of American statesmen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The standard biography is A.B. Hart’s <i>Salmon Portland Chase</i> +in the “American Statesmen Series” (1899). Less philosophical, +but containing a greater wealth of detail, is J.W. Shuckers’ <i>Life and +Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase</i> (New York, 1874). R.B. +Warden’s <i>Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon +Portland Chase</i> (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase’s +private life.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASE, SAMUEL<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in +Somerset county, Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was +admitted to the bar at Annapolis in 1761, and for more than +twenty years was a member of the Maryland legislature. He +took an active part in the resistance to the Stamp Act, and from +1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the Continental +Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was +sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side +of the revolting colonies, and after his return did much to +persuade Maryland to advocate a formal separation of the +thirteen colonies from Great Britain, he himself being one of +those who signed the Declaration of Independence on the 2nd +of August 1776. In this year he was also a member of the +convention which framed the first constitution for the state of +Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which +ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there +vigorously opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an +ardent Federalist, he became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland +general court, which position he resigned in 1796 for that of an +associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. +His radical Federalism, however, led him to continue active in +politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity, on the +bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His overbearing +conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for +treason, and of James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious +libel in 1800, drove the lawyers for the defence from the court, +and evoked the wrath of the Republicans, who were stirred to +action by a political harangue on the evil tendencies of democracy +which he delivered as a charge to a grand jury at Baltimore in +1803. The House of Representatives adopted a resolution of +impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804 +the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph, +Joseph H. Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-1824), +laid their articles of impeachment before the Senate. +The trial, with frequent interruptions and delays, lasted from +the 2nd of January to the 1st of March 1805. Judge Chase was +defended by the ablest lawyers in the country, including Luther +Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825), Philip Barton Key +(1757-1815), Charles Lee (1758-1815), and Joseph Hopkinson +(1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his +conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of +a Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making +“highly indecent, extra-judicial” reflections upon the national +administration, probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes. +On only three articles was there a majority against Judge Chase, +the largest, on article viii., being four short of the necessary +two-thirds to convict. “The case,” says Henry Adams, “proved +impeachment to be an impracticable thing for partisan purposes, +and it decided the permanence of those lines of constitutional +development which were a reflection of the common law.” +Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it +until his death on the 19th of June 1811.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Trial of Samuel Chase</i> (2 vols., Washington, 1805), reported +by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in <i>The American +Law Review</i>, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1899); and Henry Adams’s +<i>History of the United States</i>, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1849-  ), American painter, +was born at Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849. +He was a pupil of B.F. Hays at Indianapolis, of J.O. Eaton in +New York, and subsequently of A. Wagner and Piloty in Munich. +In New York he established a school of his own, after teaching +with success for some years at the Art Students’ League. A +worker in all mediums—oils, water-colour, pastel and etching—painting +with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life, +he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering +some of the most important men and women of his time. Mr +Chase won many honours at home and abroad, became a member +of the National Academy of Design, New York, and for ten years +was president of the Society of American Artists. Among his +important canvases are “Ready for the Ride” (Union League +Club, N.Y.), “The Apprentice,” “Court Jester,” and portraits +of the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and +of Peter Cooper.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASE.<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1) (Fr. <i>chasse</i>, from Lat. <i>captare</i>, frequentative +of <i>capere</i>, to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or +sport (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hunting</a></span>). The word is used of the pursuit of anything, +and also of the thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of +a ship. A transferred meaning is that of park land reserved +for the breeding and hunting of wild animals, in which sense it +appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock Chase. +It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (<i>q.v.</i>). (2) (Fr. <i>châsse</i>, +Lat. <i>capsa</i>, a box, cf. <i>caisse</i>, and “chest”), an enclosure, such +as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove +cut to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the +“forme.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASING,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Enchasing</span>, the art of producing figures and +ornamental patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic +surfaces by means of steel tools or punches. It is practised +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span> +extensively for the ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith +work, electro-plate and similar objects, being employed to +produce bold flutings and bosses, and in another manner utilized +for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work can be produced +by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in the +watch-cases chased by G.M. Moser, R.A. (1704-1783). The +chaser first outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament, +after which, if the work involves bold or high embossments, +these are blocked out by a process termed “snarling.” The +snarling iron is a long iron tool turned up at the end, and made so +that when securely fastened in a vise the upturned end can reach +and press against any portion of the interior of the vase or other +object to be chased. The part to be raised being held firmly +against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman +gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow, +which causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive +stroke, and thus throw up the surface of the metal held against +the tool. When the blocking out from the interior is finished, +or when no such embossing is required, the object to be chased +is filled with molten pitch, which is allowed to harden. It is +then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and a multitude +of small punches of different outline the whole details of the +pattern, lined, smooth or “matt,” are worked out. Embossing +and stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long +since taken the place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper +kinds of plated works. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embossing</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1798-1873), +French critic and man of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure +et Loir) on the 8th of October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques +Michel Chasles (1754-1826), was a member of the Convention, +and was one of those who voted the death of Louis XVI. He +brought up his son according to the principles of Rousseau’s +<i>Émile</i>, and the boy, after a régime of outdoor life, followed by +some years’ classical study, was apprenticed to a printer, so that +he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master +was involved in one of the plots of 1815, and Philarète suffered +two months’ imprisonment. On his release he was sent to +London, where he worked for the printer Valpy on editions of +classical authors. He wrote articles for the English reviews, +and on his return to France did much to popularize the study +of English authors. He was also one of the earliest to draw +attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature. +He contributed to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, until he had a +violent quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with François Buloz, +who won his case. He became librarian of the Bibliothèque +Mazarine, and from 1841 was professor of comparative literature +at the Collège de France. During his active life he produced +some fifty volumes of literary history and criticism, and of +social history, much of which is extremely valuable. He died +at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, Émile Chasles +(b. 1827), was a philologist of some reputation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Among his best critical works is <i>Dix-huitième Siècle en Angleterre</i> +... (1846), one of a series of 20 vols. of <i>Études de littérature comparée</i> +(1846-1875), which he called later <i>Trente ans de critique</i>. An +account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his <i>Maison de mon père</i>. +His <i>Mémoires</i> (1876-1877) did not fulfil the expectations based on his +brilliant talk.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (from the Fr., in full <i>chasse-café</i>, or “coffee-chaser”), +a draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSÉ<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (Fr. for “chased”), a gliding step in dancing, so +called since one foot is brought up behind or chases the other. +The <i>chassé croisé</i> is a double variety of the step.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1754-1833), +French general and military engineer, was born at St +Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of August 1754, of a noble +family, and entered the French engineers in 1774. He was still +a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution, becoming captain +in 1791. His ability as a military engineer was recognized in +the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he won +distinction in various actions and was promoted successively +<i>chef de bataillon</i> and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the +siege of Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He +there conducted the first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the +positions and lines of advance of the army of Bonaparte. He +was promoted general of brigade before the close of the campaign, +and was subsequently employed in fortifying the new Rhine +frontier of France. His work as chief of engineers in the army +of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and after the battle +of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon took +the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again +selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of +1801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences +of northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous +Quadrilateral. His <i>chef-d’oeuvre</i> was the great fortress of Alessandria +on the Tanaro. In 1805 he remained in Italy with +Masséna, but at the end of 1806 Napoleon, then engaged in the +Polish campaign, called him to the <i>Grande Armée</i>, with which +he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the sieges of +Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic domination +in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses, +in particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again +served in Italy. In 1810 Napoleon made him a councillor of +state. His last campaign was that of 1812 in Russia. He +retired from active service soon afterwards, though in 1814 he +was occasionally engaged in the inspection and construction +of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France and +a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred +Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber +of peers against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics +he belonged to the constitutional party. The king created him +a marquis. Chasseloup’s later years were employed chiefly in +putting in order his manuscripts, a task which he had to abandon +owing to the failure of his sight. His only published work was +<i>Correspondence d’un général français, &c. sur divers sujets</i> (Paris, +1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 1811, under the title <i>Correspondance +de deux générals, &c., essais sur quelques parties d’artillerie +et de fortification</i>). The most important of his papers are +in manuscript in the Depôt of Fortifications, Paris.</p> + +<p>As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of advanced +views, of the old bastioned system. He followed in many +respects the engineer Bousmard, whose work was published in +1797 and who fell, as a Prussian officer, in the defence of Danzig +in 1807 against Chasseloup’s own attack. His front was applied +to Alessandria, as has been stated, and contains many elaborations +of the bastion trace, with, in particular, masked flanks in +the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the bastions. The +bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The +ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier +after the example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard’s, his +own ravelin was a large and powerful work pushed out beyond +the glacis.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSEPOT,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> officially “fusil modèle 1866,” a military breech-loading +rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-German +War of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor, +Antoine Alphonse Chassepot (1833-1905), who, from 1857 onwards, +had constructed various experimental forms of breech-loader, +and it became the French service weapon in 1866. In +the following year it made its first appearance on the battle-field +at Mentana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted severe losses +upon Garibaldi’s troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very +greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was +closed by a bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and +amongst the technical features of interest were the method of +obturation, which was similar in principle to the de Bange +obturator for heavy guns (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>), and the retention +of the paper cartridge. The principal details of the chassepot +are:—weight of rifle, 9 ℔ 5 oz.; length with bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.; +calibre, .433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386 grains; weight of +charge (black powder), 86.4 grains; muzzle velocity, 1328 f.s.; +sighted to 1312 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in +1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles +of the older model remaining in store were converted to take the +same ammunition (fusil modèle 1866/74).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1819-1856), French painter, +was born in the Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span> +at Rome, subsequently falling under the influence of Paul +Delaroche. He was a well-known painter of portraits and historical +pieces, his “Tepidarium at Pompeii” (1853) being now +in the Louvre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASSIS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Fr. <i>châssis</i>, a frame, from the Late. Lat. <i>capsum</i>, an +enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived +the word “sash”; also the movable traversing frame of a gun, +and more particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of +the wheels, frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage +part rests.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1540-1563), +French poet, was born in Dauphiné, a scion of the house of +Bayard. His name is inseparably connected with Mary, queen +of Scots. From the service of the Constable Montmorency, +Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal +Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in +escort of Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal’s train, +but left for Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of +recommendation to Mary from his old protector, Montmorency, +and the <i>Regrets</i> addressed to the ex-queen of France by Pierre +Ronsard, his master in the art of song. He undertook to transmit +to the poet the service of plate with which Mary rewarded +him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said to +have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between +them; she lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his +person and conversation. The young man hid himself under her +bed, where he was discovered by her maids of honour. Mary +pardoned the offence, and the old familiar terms between them +were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as again to violate her +privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized, sentenced +and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and +consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master’s +noble <i>Hymne de la mort</i>, and turning at the instant of doom +towards the palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress +the famous farewell—“Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me +tues et que je ne puis cesser d’aimer.” This at least is the version +of the <i>Mémoires</i> of Brantôme, who is, however, notoriously +untrustworthy. But for his madness of love, it is possible that +Chastelard would have left no shadow or shred of himself behind. +As it is, his life and death are of interest as illustrating the wild +days in which his lot was cast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler, +was a native of Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from +the fact that his ancestors were burgraves or châtelains of the +town; his parents, who belonged to illustrious Flemish families, +were probably the Jean Chastellain and his wife Marie de Masmines +mentioned in the town records in 1425 and 1432. A copy +of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states that he died on +the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he states +that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect +the details of events in that year, and since he was “<i>écolier</i>” at +Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 1415 +than 1405. He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and +probably elsewhere, winning the surname of <i>L’adventureux</i>. In +1434 he received a gift from Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, +for his military services, but on the conclusion of the peace of +Arras in the next year he abandoned soldiering for diplomacy. +The next ten years were spent in France, where he was connected +with Georges de la Trémoille, and afterwards entered the household +of Pierre de Brézé, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by +whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy, +in an attempt to establish better relations between Charles VII. +and the duke. During these years Chastellain had ample opportunity +of obtaining an intimate knowledge of French affairs, but +on the further breach between the two princes, Chastellain left +the French service to enter Philip’s household. He was at first +pantler, then carver, titles which are misleading as to the nature +of his services, which were those of a diplomatist; and in 1457 +he became a member of the ducal council. He was continually +employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing apparently +to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the +counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a considerable +pension, on condition that the recipient should put in +writing “<i>choses nouvelles et morales</i>,” and a chronicle of notable +events. That is to say, he was appointed Burgundian historiographer +with a recommendation to write also on other subjects +not strictly within the scope of a chronicler. From this time +he worked hard at his <i>Chronique</i>, with occasional interruptions +in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or to visit the Burgundian +court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards, by +his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and +redundant style may be fairly traced in some passages of the +<i>Chronique</i>. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his +house as a patron of literature, and showed special favour to +Chastellain, who, after being constituted <i>indiciaire</i> or chronicler +of the order of the Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of +the order on the 2nd of May 1473. He died at Valenciennes +on the 13th of February (according to the treasury accounts), +or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph) 1475. He +left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred +and twenty livres for a copy of the <i>Chronique</i> intended for +Charles V.’s sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-third +of the whole work, which extended from 1410 to 1474, is +known to be in existence, but MSS. carried by the Habsburgs +to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be discovered.</p> + +<p>Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great +reputation by his poems and occasional pieces now little considered. +The unfinished state of his <i>Chronique</i> at the time of +his death, coupled with political considerations, may possibly +account for the fact that it remained unprinted during the +century that followed his death, and his historical work was only +disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and Brussels by the +painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain was +constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in +negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and +thus had personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt +with in his history. A partisan element in writing of French +affairs was inevitable in a Burgundian chronicle. This defect +appears most strongly in his treatment of Joan of Arc; and the +attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been dictated by the +dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in Burgundy, of +whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was not, +however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart +had been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception +of the radical injustice of the English cause in France; and +except in isolated instances where Burgundian interests were at +stake, he did full justice to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among +his most sympathetic portraits are those of his friend Pierre de +Brézé and of Jacques Cœur. His French style, based partly +on his Latin reading, has, together with its undeniable vigour +and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and rhetorical +quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere +annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his +own conclusions, in accordance with his political experience. +The most interesting feature of his work is the skill with which +he pictures the leading figures of his time. His “characters” +are the fruit of acute and experienced observation, and abound +in satirical traits, although the 42nd chapter of his second book, +devoted expressly to portraiture, is headed “<i>Comment Georges +escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des princes de son temps.</i>”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The known extant fragments of Chastellain’s <i>Chroniques</i> with +his other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the +Brussels Academy in 1863-1866 (8 vols., Brussels) as <i>Œuvres de +Georges Chastellain</i>. This edition includes all that had been already +published by Buchon in his <i>Collection de chroniques</i> and <i>Choix de +chroniques</i> (material subsequently incorporated in the <i>Panthéon +littéraire</i>), and portions printed by Renard in his <i>Trésor national</i>, +vol. i. and by Quicherat in the <i>Procès de la Pucelle</i> vol. iv. Kervyn +de Lettenhove’s text includes the portions of the chronicle covering +the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December +1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463, +and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes +of minor pieces of considerable interest, especially <i>Le Temple de +Boccace</i>, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the <i>Déprécation</i> for +Pierre Brézé, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor +works the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous, +notably in the case of the <i>Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalain</i>, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span> +is the work of Lefèbvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece. +In the allegorical <i>Oultré d’amour</i> it has been thought a real romance +between Brézé and a lady of the royal house is concealed.</p> + +<p>See A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l’histoire de France</i>; as well as +notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the <i>Œuvres</i> and in the +<i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>; and an article (three parts) by +Vallet de Viriville in the <i>Journal des savants</i> (1867).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:327px; height:494px" src="images/img959.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Braun’s <i>Liturgische Gewandung</i>, +by permission of the publisher, B. Herder.</span><br /><br /> +<span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Comparative shape and size of +Chasubles as now in use in various countries.<br /><br /> +a, b, German. c, Roman. d, Spanish.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CHASUBLE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chasuble</i>, Ger. <i>Kasel</i>, Span. <i>casulla</i>; Late +Lat. <i>casula</i>, a little house, hut, from <i>casa</i>), a liturgical vestment +of the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by +bishops and priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming +with the alb (<i>q.v.</i>) the most essential part of the eucharistic +vestments. Since it is only used at the Mass, or rarely for +functions intimately connected with the sacrament of the altar, +it may be regarded as the Mass vestment <i>par excellence</i>. The +chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal vestment, and +at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite, the +bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back +(<i>planeta plicata</i>), with the words, “Take the sacerdotal robe, +the symbol of love,” &c.; at the end of the ordination Mass the +vestment is unrolled. +The chasuble or +<i>planeta</i> (as it is called +in the Roman missal), +according to the prevailing +model in the +Roman Catholic +Church, is a scapular-like +cloak, with a hole +in the middle for the +head, falling down +over breast and back, +and leaving the arms +uncovered at the sides. +Its shape and size, +however, differ considerably +in various +countries (see fig. 1), +while some churches—<i>e.g.</i> +those of certain +monastic orders—have +retained or reverted +to the earlier +“Gothic” forms to +be described later. +According to the decisions +of the Congregation +of Rites +chasubles must not +be of linen, cotton or +woollen stuffs, but of silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen +and cotton) and silk is allowed if the silk completely cover the +other material on the outer side; spun glass thread, as a substitute +for gold or silver thread, is also forbidden, owing to the +possible danger to the priest’s health through broken fragments +falling into the chalice.</p> + +<p>The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the <span class="grk" title="phelonion">φελόνιον</span>, &c.) +in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman <i>paenula</i> or +<i>planeta</i>, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the Graeco-Roman +world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>). Though early used in the +celebration of the liturgy it had for several centuries no specifically +liturgical character, the first clear instances of its ritual +use being in a letter of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the +next in the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of Toledo (633). +Much later than this, however, it was still an article of everyday +clerical dress, and as such was prescribed by the German council +convened by Carloman and presided over by St Boniface in 742. +Amalarius of Metz, in his <i>De ecclesiasticis officiis</i> (ii. 19), tells us +in 816 that the <i>casula</i> is the <i>generale indumentum sacrorum +ducum</i> and “is proper generally to all the clergy.” It was not +until the 11th century, when the cope (<i>q.v.</i>) had become established +as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be +reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating +this process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting correspondence +between Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and John +of Avranches, archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a +bishop wearing a chasuble at the consecration of a church, +Lanfranc maintaining as an established principle that the +vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th century, +with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the chasuble +became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating priest; +though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier +general use of the chasuble survive in the <i>planeta plicata</i> worn +by deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other +penitential seasons.</p> + +<p>At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other +vestments by the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however, +survived in the Lutheran churches; and though in those of +Germany it is no longer worn, it still forms part of the liturgical +costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical churches. In the +Church of England, though it was prescribed alternatively with +the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it was ultimately +discarded, with the other “Mass vestments,” the cope +being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion +in cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however, +during the last fifty years been widely revived in connexion with +the reactionary movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation +doctrine of the eucharist. The difficult question of its legality +is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Form.</i>—The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which +fell in loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4). Its obvious +inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however, +caused its gradual modification. The object of the change was +primarily to leave the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful +performance of the manual acts, and to this end a process of +cutting away at the sides of the vestment began, which continued +until the tent-shaped chasuble of the 12th century had developed +in the 16th into the scapular-like vestment at present in use. +This process was, moreover, hastened by the substitution of +costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the simple +stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed; +for, as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be +made smaller. For the extremely exiguous proportions of some +chasubles actually in use, which have been robbed of all the +beauty of form they ever possessed, less respectable motives +have sometimes been responsible, viz. the desire of their makers +to save on the materials. The most beautiful form of the chasuble +is undoubtedly the “Gothic” (see the figure of Bishop Johannes +of Lübeck in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>), which is the form most +affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the +English Church before the Reformation.</p> + +<p><i>Decoration.</i>—Though <i>planetae</i> decorated with narrow orphreys +are occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries, +these vestments were until the 10th century generally quite +plain, and even at the close of this century, when the custom of +decorating the chasuble with orphreys had become common, +there was no definite rule as to their disposition; sometimes +they were merely embroidered borders to the neck-opening or +hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less often a +forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the +shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery +became ever more and more elaborate, and with this tendency +the orphreys were broadened to allow of their being decorated +with figures. About the middle of the 13th century, the cross +with horizontal arms begins to appear on the back of the vestment, +and by the 15th this had become the most usual form, +though the forked cross also survived—<i>e.g.</i> in England, where +it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the +Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed +both on the back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-armed +cross, on the other hand, is placed only on the back, the +front being decorated with a vertical strip extending to the +lower hem (fig. 1, <i>b, d</i>). Sometimes the back of the chasuble has +no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and in this case the front, +besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal orphrey just below +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span> +the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter is the type +used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in +certain dioceses in South Germany and Switzerland, and of +late years in the Roman Catholic churches in England, <i>e.g.</i> +Westminster cathedral (see Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:413px" src="images/img960a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:289px; height:412px" src="images/img960b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Chasuble of Pope Calixtus +III. (15th century) preserved at +Valencia.</td> + +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—Chasuble of Pope +Pius V. (late 15th +century) at S. Maria +Maggiore at Rome.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f90">From a photograph by +Father J.L. Braun in <i>Die +liturg Gewandung</i>, by permission +of the publisher, +B. Herder.</td> + +<td class="tcl f90">From a photograph by +Father J.L. Braun in <i>Die +liturg Gewandung</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:589px; height:390px" src="images/img960c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—Chasuble dedicated by +Stephen of Hungary (997-1038) +and his wife Gisela, used +as the Hungarian +Coronation +Robe.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(From Braun, +<i>Die liturg. +Gewandung</i>.)</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:322px; height:480px" src="images/img960d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:470px" src="images/img960e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop +Bourne of Westminster.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—Modern English Chasuble, used at St Paul’s Church, +Knightsbridge, London.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:746px; height:1122px" src="images/img960f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.—Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early +16th century, the Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious +imitation of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, <i>Gesch. der +liturg. Gewänder</i>, ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated +is proper to archbishops. Father Braun, however, makes it +quite clear that this was not the case, and gives proof that this +decoration was not even originally conceived as a cross at all, +citing early instances of its having been worn by laymen and +even by non-Christians (p. 210). It was not until the 13th century +that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated, +and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century +onward by the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it +the figure of the crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion. +This, however, did not represent any definite rule; and the +orphreys of chasubles were decorated with a great variety of +pictorial subjects, scriptural or drawn from the stories of the +saints, while the rest of the vestment was either left plain or, if +embroidered, most usually decorated with arabesque patterns +of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true to its +ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern +Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conventional +arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with +the arms of the archbishop and his see.</p> + +<p><i>The Eastern Church.</i>—The original equivalent of the chasuble +is the phelonion (<span class="grk" title="phelonion, phelonês, phainolion">φελόνιον, φελόνης, φαινόλιον</span>, from <i>paenula</i>). +It is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell +chasuble; but, instead of being cut away at the sides, it is +for convenience’ sake either gathered up or cut short in front. +In the Armenian, Syrian, Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-shaped. +There is some difference of opinion as to the derivation +of the vestment in the latter case; the Five Bishops (Report to +Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope, from the <i>birrus</i>, +while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope, to be a +modification of the <i>paenula</i>.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The phelonion (Arm. <i>shurtshar</i>, +Syr. <i>phaina</i>, Chald. <i>maaphra</i> or <i>phaina</i>, Copt, <i>burnos, felonion, +kuklion</i>) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian, +Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by +the lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic +vestment as in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions +besides the liturgy, <i>e.g.</i> marriages, processions, &c.</p> + +<p>Until the 11th century the phelonion is always pictured as a +perfectly plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose +of decorating the patriarchal phelonion with a number of +crosses, whence its name of <span class="grk" title="polystaurion">πολυσταύριον</span>. By the 14th century +the use of these polystauria had been extended to metropolitans +and later still to all bishops. The purple or black phelonion, +however, remained plain in all cases. The Greeks and Greek +Melchite metropolitans now wear the <i>sakkos</i> instead of the +phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and +Italo-Greek churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion +in the case of all bishops (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatic</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Braun, S.J., <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i> (Freiburg im +Breisgau, 1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the +following note:—“That the Syrian <i>phaina</i> was formerly a closed +mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the +evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the +Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in <i>Die liturgische +Gewandung</i>). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians are +derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite; so that in this case also +there can be no doubt that the <i>shurtshar</i> was originally closed. The +Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian. Moreover, it would +be further necessary to prove that the <i>birrus</i>, in contradistinction to +the <i>paenula</i>, was always open in front; whereas, <i>per contra</i>, the +<i>paenula</i>, both as worn by soldiers and in ordinary life, was, like the +modern Arab <i>burnus</i>, often slit up the front to the neck. For the +rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian <i>phaina</i> was still quite closed in +the 13th century, and was only provided with a slit since that time, +the same is very probable in the case of the Armenian chasuble. +The absence of the hood might also be taken as additional proof of +the derivation of the <i>phaina</i> from the <i>paenula</i>, but I should not lay +particular stress upon it. The question is settled by the above-mentioned +miniatures.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>castellum</i>, fortress, through O. Fr. +<i>chastel, chasteau</i>), the French word for castle (<i>q.v.</i>). The development +of the medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries, +into houses arranged rather for residence than defence led to a +corresponding widening of the meaning of the term <i>château</i>, +which came to be applied to any seigniorial residence and so +generally to all houses, especially country houses, of any pretensions +(cf. the Ger. <i>Schloss</i>). The French distinguish the +fortified castle from the residential mansion by describing the +former as the <i>château fort</i>, the latter as the <i>château de plaisance</i>. +The development of the one into the other is admirably illustrated +by surviving buildings in France, especially in the <i>châteaux</i> +scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in perfect +preservation, is a fine type of the <i>château fort</i>, with its 10th-century +keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois +(1500-1540), Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux (1515-1560), +Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the +<i>château de plaisance</i> of the transition period, all retaining in +greater or less degree some of the architectural characteristics +of the medieval castle. Some description of these is given under +their several headings. In English the word <i>château</i> is often +used to translate foreign words (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Schloss</i>) meaning country +house or mansion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the Loire châteaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, <i>Old Touraine</i> +(1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1768-1848), +French author, youngest son of René Auguste de Chateaubriand, +comte de Combourg,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was born at St Malo on the 4th of +September 1768. He was a brilliant representative of the reaction +against the ideas of the French Revolution, and the most conspicuous +figure in French literature during the First Empire. His +naturally poetical temperament was fostered in childhood by +picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his morose father, +the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his ancient family, +the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered Breton +district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the neighbouring +ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a passionate-hearted +girl, divided between her devotion to him and to religion. +François received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean +Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes +he proceeded to the College of Dinan, and passed some years in +desultory study in preparation for the priesthood. He finally +decided, after a year’s holiday at the family château of Combourg, +that he had no vocation for the Church, and was on the point of +proceeding to try his fortune in India when he received (1786) a +commission in the army. After a short visit to Paris he joined +his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the following year was +presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure in order +to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris (1787-1789) +he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He +met la Harpe, Évariste Parny, “Pindare” Lebrun, Nicolas +Chamfort, Pierre Louis Ginguené, and others, of whom he has +left portraits in his memoirs.</p> + +<p>Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its +first stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover, +his regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the +party of reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased +no one. These causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced +him to take part in a romantic scheme for the discovery of the +North-West Passage, in pursuance of which he departed for +America in the spring of 1791. The passage was not found or +even attempted, but the adventurer returned enriched with the—to +him—more important discovery of his own powers and +vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation +of nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span> +derived from the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the +western continent. That he actually lived among the Indians, +however, is shown by Bedier to be doubtful, and the same critic +has exposed the untrustworthiness of the autobiographical +details of his American trip. His knowledge of America was +mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.</p> + +<p>The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June +1791 recalled him to France. In 1792 he married Mlle Céleste +Buisson de Lavigne, a girl of seventeen, who brought him a +small fortune. This enabled him to join the ranks of the emigrants, +a course practically imposed on him by his birth and +his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke of +Brunswick’s invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he +was left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His +brother succeeded in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent +him to Jersey. The captain of the boat in which he travelled +left him on the beach in Guernsey. He was once more rescued +from death, this time by some fishermen. After spending some +time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant uncle, +the comte de Bédée, he made his way to London. In England +he lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaintance +with English literature and a practical acquaintance with +poverty. His own account of this period has been exposed +by A. le Braz, <i>Au pays d’exil de Chateaubriand</i> (1909), and by +E. Dick, <i>Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France</i> (1908), i. From +his English exile dates the <i>Natchez</i> (first printed in his <i>Œuvres +complètes</i>, 1826-1831), a prose epic designed to portray the +life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes originally +designed for this work, <i>Atala</i> and <i>René</i>, are among his most +famous productions. Chateaubriand’s first publication, however, +was the <i>Essai historique, politique et moral sur les révolutions ...</i> +(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but +took care not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a +mediator between royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-thinker +in religion, and a philosopher imbued with the spirit of +Rousseau. A great change in his views was, however, at hand, +induced, according to his own statement, by a letter from his +sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief his views +had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release from +the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished +on the scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, Lucile and +Julie, and his wife had been imprisoned at Rennes. Mme de +Farcy did not long survive her imprisonment.</p> + +<p>Chateaubriand’s thoughts turned to religion, and on his +return to France in 1800 the <i>Génie du christianisme</i> was already +in an advanced state. Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile +with Chateaubriand in London, and he now introduced him to +the society of Mme de Staël, Mme Récamier, Benjamin Constant, +Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand’s favourite +resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined +to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the +preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being +written at her house at Savigny. <i>Atala, ou les amours de deux +sauvages dans le désert</i>, used as an episode in the <i>Génie du christianisme</i>, +appeared separately in 1801 and immediately made his +reputation. Exquisite style, impassioned eloquence and glowing +descriptions of nature gained indulgence for the incongruity +between the rudeness of the personages and the refinement of +the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending of prudery with +sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece is a more +emphatic and highly coloured <i>Paul et Virginie</i>; it has been +justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and +Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the +author resumed his <i>Génie du christianisme, ou beautés de la +religion chrétienne</i>, which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of +Napoleon’s re-establishment of the Catholic religion in France, +for which it thus seemed almost to have prepared the way. No +coincidence could have been more opportune, and Chateaubriand +came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in +the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in +mind the admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the +public would care very little for his erudition and very much +for his eloquence. It is consequently an inefficient production +from the point of view of serious argument. The considerations +derived from natural theology are but commonplaces +rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels +between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters, +are at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages, +however, where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic +liturgy and its accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance, +are splendid instances of the effect produced by the accumulation +and judicious distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass, +and treated with the utmost refinement of detail. The work is +a masterpiece of literary art, and its influence in French literature +was immense. The <i>Éloa</i> of Alfred de Vigny, the <i>Harmonies</i> of +Lamartine and even the <i>Légende des siècles</i> of Victor Hugo may +be said to have been inspired by the <i>Génie du christianisme</i>. +Its immediate effect was very considerable. It admirably subserved +the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803 +appointed the writer <i>attaché</i> to the French legation at Rome, +whither he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.</p> + +<p>When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his +recall he was transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais. +The murder of the duke of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took +place before he took up this appointment. Chateaubriand, who +was in Paris at the time, showed his courage and independence +by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he gave great +offence to Napoleon by an article in the <i>Mercure de France</i> (4th +of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken +to refer to the emperor. The <i>Mercure</i>, of which he had become +proprietor, was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year +amalgamated with the <i>Décade</i>. Chateaubriand states in his +<i>Mémoires</i> that his life was threatened, but it is more than +possible that he exaggerated the danger. Before this, in 1806, +he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as he subsequently +acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest +of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz +and Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the +place and the meeting apparently suggested the romantic tale of +<i>Le Dernier Abencérage</i>, which, for political reasons, remained +unprinted until the publication of the <i>Œuvres complètes</i> (1826-1831). +The journey also produced <i>L’Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem</i> +... (3 vols., 1811), a record of travel distinguished by the +writer’s habitual picturesqueness; and inspired his prose epic, +<i>Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion chrétienne</i> (2 vols., 1809). +This work may be regarded as the argument of the <i>Génie du +christianisme</i> thrown into an objective form. As in the <i>Epicurean</i> +of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast +between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose +partly from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity, +and partly because the heathen are the most interesting characters +after all. <i>René</i> had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the +<i>Génie du christianisme</i>, and was published separately at Leipzig +without its author’s consent in the same year. It was perhaps +Chateaubriand’s most characteristic production. The connecting +link in European literature between <i>Werther</i> and <i>Childe +Harold</i>, it paints the misery of a morbid and dissatisfied soul. +The representation is mainly from the life. Chateaubriand betrayed +amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile in the +Amélie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his +own early surroundings. With <i>Les Natchez</i> his career as an imaginative +writer is closed. In 1831 he published his <i>Études ou +discours historiques</i> ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the +Roman Empire.</p> + +<p>As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his +antagonists when in opposition and to his friends when in office. +His poetical receptivity and impressionableness rendered him +no doubt honestly inconsistent with himself; his vanity and +ambition, too morbidly acute to be restrained by the ties of party +allegiance, made him dangerous and untrustworthy as a political +associate. He was forbidden to deliver the address he had prepared +(1811) for his reception to the Academy on M.J. Chénier +on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it. +From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span> +the Vallée-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay. +His pamphlet <i>De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la nécessité de se +rattier à nos princes légitimes</i>, published on the 31st of March +1814, the day of the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as +opportune in the moment of its appearance as the <i>Génie du +christianisme</i>, and produced a hardly less signal effect. Louis +XVIII. declared that it had been worth a hundred thousand +men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior, accompanied +him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time +associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction. +Political bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly +drifted into liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in +September 1816 for his pamphlet <i>De la monarchie selon la charte</i>. +He had to sell his library and his house of the Vallée-aux-loups.</p> + +<p>After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand +obtained the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was transferred +to London (1822), and he also acted as French plenipotentiary +at the Congress of Verona (1822). He here made +himself mainly responsible for the iniquitous invasion of Spain—an +expedition undertaken, as he himself admits, with the idea +of restoring French prestige by a military parade. He next received +the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by his +desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the +interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective +pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome +in 1827, under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at +Prince Polignac’s accession to office. On the downfall of the +elder branch of the Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably +fruitless protest from the tribune in defence of the principle of +legitimacy. During the first half of Louis Philippe’s reign he was +still politically active with his pen, and published a <i>Mémoire sur +la captivité de madame la duchesse de Berry</i> (1833) and other +pamphlets in which he made himself the champion of the exiled +dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect +of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he relapsed +into an attitude of complete discouragement. His <i>Congrès +de Vérone</i> (1838), <i>Vie de Rancé</i> (1844), and his translation of +Milton, <i>Le Paradis perdu de Milton</i> (1836), belong to the writings +of these later days. He died on the 4th of July 1848, wholly +exhausted and thoroughly discontented with himself and the +world, but affectionately tended by his old friend Madame +Récamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years +of his life he had been engaged on his <i>Mémoires</i>, and his chief +distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Récamier, at +whose house he met the European celebrities. He was buried +in the Grand Bé, an islet in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his +death his memory was revived, and at the same time exposed +to much adverse criticism, by the publication, with sundry +mutilations as has been suspected, of his celebrated <i>Mémoires +d’outre-tombe</i> (12 vols., 1849-1850). These memoirs undoubtedly +reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of his +professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attachment, +except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Récamier. Though +the book must be read with the greatest caution, especially in +regard to persons with whom Chateaubriand came into collision, +it is perhaps now the most read of all his works.</p> + +<p>Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a +great poet. Something of affectation or unreality commonly +interferes with the enjoyment of his finest works. The <i>Génie +du christianisme</i> is a brilliant piece of special pleading; <i>Atala</i> +is marred by its unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human +nature, <i>René</i> by the perversion of sentiment which solicits sympathy +for a contemptible character. Chateaubriand is chiefly +significant as marking the transition from the old classical to the +modern romantic school. The fertility of ideas, vehemence of +expression and luxury of natural description, which he shares +with the romanticists, are controlled by a discipline learnt in the +school of their predecessors. His palette, always brilliant, is +never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an artist. He is +also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings. Perhaps, +however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is the +peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a +note of Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a +familiar object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with “the light +that never was on sea or land.” This incommunicable gift +supplies an element of sincerity to Chateaubriand’s writings +which goes far to redeem the artificial effect of his calculated +sophistry and set declamation. It is also fortunate for his fame +that so large a part of his writings should directly or indirectly +refer to himself, for on this theme he always writes well. Egotism +was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity and the loftiness +of his intellectual carriage his character presents little to +admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of genuine +poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of +man and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with +absorption in self and general sterility of heart.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The <i>Œuvres complétes</i> of Chateaubriand were +printed in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in +many later editions, notably in 1858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an +introductory study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for +Chateaubriand’s biography is the <i>Mémoires d’outre-tombe</i> (1849-1850), +of which there is an English translation, <i>The Memoirs of ... +Chateaubriand</i> (6 vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the +admirable edition (4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Biré. This work +should be supplemented by the <i>Souvenirs et correspondances tirés des +papiers de Mme Récamier</i> (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant). +See also Comte de Marcellus, <i>Chateaubriand et son temps</i> (1859); +the same editor’s <i>Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondance intime de +Chateaubriand</i> (1858); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Chateaubriand et son +groupe littéraire sous l’empire</i> (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed., +3 vols., 1872); other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case +a somewhat prejudiced critic, in the <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vols. +i. and ii.; <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vols. i., ii. and x.; <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>, +vol. iii.; <i>Premiers Lundis</i>, vol. iii.; A. Vinet, <i>Études sur la litt. +française au XIXe siècle</i> (1849); M. de Lescure, <i>Chateaubriand</i> +(1892) in the <i>Grands écrivains français</i>; Émile Faguet, <i>Études +littéraires sur le XIXe siècle</i> (1887); and <i>Essai d’une bio-bibliographie +de Chateaubriand et de sa famille</i> (Vannes, 1896), by René Kerviler. +Joseph Bedier, in <i>Études critiques</i> (1903), deals with the American +writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was edited by +Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Staël appeared +in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (Oct. 1903).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler, +<i>Essai d’une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille</i> (Vannes, +1895).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Her <i>Œuvres</i> were edited in 1879, with a memoir, by Anatole +France.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUBRIANT,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town of western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Loire-Inférieure, on the +left bank of the Chère, 40 m. N.N.E. of Nantes by rail. +Pop. (1906) 5969. Châteaubriant takes its name from a castle +founded in the 11th century by Brient, count of Penthièvre, +remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four towers, +still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first half +of the 16th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as +the residence of Françoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of +this the most beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right +angles to the main building, and connecting it with a graceful +pavilion. It is occupied by a small museum and some of the +public offices. There is also an interesting Romanesque church +dedicated to St Jean de Béré. Châteaubriant is the seat of a +subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance. It is an important +centre on the Ouest-État railway, and has trade in agricultural +products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural implements +and preserved angelica are carried on. In 1551 Henry II. signed +an edict against the reformed religion at Châteaubriant.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUDUN,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town of north central France, capital of +an arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m. +S.S.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands +on an eminence near the left bank of the Loire. The streets, +which are straight and regular, radiate from a central square, +a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after +fires in 1723 and 1870. The château, the most remarkable +building in the town, was built in great part by Jean, count of +Dunois, and his descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and +rebuilt in the 12th and 15th centuries, it consists of a principal +wing with a fine staircase of the 16th century, and, at right angles, +a smaller wing adjoined by a chapel. To the left of the courtyard +thus formed rises a lofty keep of the 12th century. The fine +apartments and huge kitchens of the château are in keeping with +its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine dates from +the 12th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it belonged +are occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the +hospital. The medieval churches of St Valérien and St Jean +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span> +and the ruined chapel of Notre-Dame du Champdé, of which the +façade in the Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the +cemetery, are other notable buildings. The public institutions +include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. +Flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing, and the manufacture +of blankets, silver jewelry, nails and machinery are the +prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain, wool and hemp. +Châteaudun (<i>Castrodunum</i>), which dates from the Gallo-Roman +period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship of +Dunois.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-GONTIER,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a town of western France, capital of +an arrondissement in the department of Mayenne, on the +Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by road. Pop. (1906) 6871. +Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the castle, dates +from the 11th century. Château-Gontier is the seat of a subprefect +and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college +for boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-spinning, +the manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an +agricultural market. There are chalybeate springs close to the +town. Château-Gontier owes its origin and its name to a castle +erected in the first half of the 11th century by Gunther, the +steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a farm belonging +to the monks of St Aubin d’Angers. On the extinction of the +family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XI. to Philippe de +Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the +League. In 1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> the name popularly given to +<span class="sc">Renée de Rieux</span>, daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de +Châteauneuf, who was descended from one of the greatest +families of Brittany. The dates both of her birth and death +are not known. She was maid of honour to the queen-mother +Catherine de’ Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the duke +of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke +from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with +Elizabeth of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Châteauneuf +for Marie of Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find +a husband for Renee de Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her +an influence which the queen-mother feared, and matches were +in turn suggested with the voivode of Transylvania, the earl of +Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris, and with the count +of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately, on the +ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen, +Louise of Lorraine-Vaudémont, Renée was banished from the +court. She married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she +stabbed in a fit of jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her +husband being Philip Altoviti, who in 1586 was killed in a duel +by the Grand Prior Henry of Angoulême, who was himself +mortally wounded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, FRANÇOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1637-1716), French admiral, was the fourth son +of the third marquis of Château-Renault. The family was of +Breton origin, but had been long settled near Blois. He entered +the army in 1658, but in 1661 was transferred to the navy, which +Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high level of strength. After +a short apprenticeship he was made captain in 1666. His early +services were mostly performed in cruises against the Barbary +pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named <i>chef d’escadre</i>, and he was +promoted <i>lieutenant général des armées navales</i> in 1687. During +the wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but +he had been wounded in action with the pirates, and had been +on a cruise to the West Indies. When war broke out between +England and France after the revolution of 1688, he was in +command at Brest, and was chosen to carry the troops and +stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in Ireland. +Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington, +<i>q.v.</i>), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay, +he executed his mission with success. Château-Renault commanded +a squadron under Tourville at the battle of Beachy +Head in 1690. He was with Tourville in the attack of the +Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named grand cross of the +order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in constant +service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the +financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings +for fighting at sea during the rest of the war.</p> + +<p>On the death of Tourville in 1701 he was named to the vacant +post of vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of +the Spanish Succession he was named for the difficult task of +protecting the Spanish ships which were to bring the treasure +from America. It was a duty of extreme delicacy, for the +Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner, and the French +king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to one of +his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to +resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With +the utmost difficulty Château-Renault was able to bring the +galleons as far as Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt +that a powerful English and Dutch armament was on the Spanish +coast, and had to recognize that the Spanish officers would not +consent to make for a French harbour or for Passages, which they +thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen French and three +Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve galleons, had +anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles, +some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of +the Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing +of the treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town, +and the local militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he +would probably be attacked, Château-Renault strove to protect +his fleet by means of a boom. The order to land the treasure +was delayed, and until it came from Madrid nothing could be +done, since according to law it should have been landed at Cadiz, +which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the +order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the +Gallician militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very +large part, if not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen +and the farmers whose carts had been commandeered for the +service. But the bulk of the merchandise was on board of the +galleons when the allied fleet appeared outside of the bay on the +22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his colleagues +resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops +which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and +had been beaten off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the +sea side, and on the land side there were none. There was +therefore nothing to offer a serious resistance to the allies when +they landed soldiers. The fleet of twenty-four sail was steered +at the boom and broke through it, while the troops turned the +forts and had no difficulty in scattering the Gallician militia. +In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the French and +Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty +gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done +to the French and Spanish governments was great.</p> + +<p>Château-Renault suffered no loss of his master’s favour by his +failure to save the treasure. The king considered him free from +blame, and must indeed have known that the admiral had been +trusted with too many secrets to make it safe to inflict a public +rebuke. The Spanish government declined to give him the rank +of grandee which was to have been the reward for bringing home +the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was made a marshal of France, +and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of Brittany. The +fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service performed +by Château-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he +inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 1716 +he died in Paris. He married in 1684 Marie-Anne-Renée de la +Porte, daughter and heiress of the count of Crozon. His eldest +son was killed at the battle of Malaga 1704, and another, also +a naval officer, was killed by accident in 1708. A third son, +who too was a naval officer, succeeded him in the title.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Château-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-Maison. +There is a French as well as an English account of the part +played by him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy +still continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XIV. +see Léon Guerin, <i>Histoire maritime de la France</i> (1863), vols. iii., iv.; +and his <i>Les Marins illustres</i> (1861). Also the naval history by +Charles Bouzel de la Roncière.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> +<span class="sc">Duchesse de</span> (1717-1744), mistress of Louis XV. of France, +was the fourth daughter of Louis, marquis de Nesle, a descendant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span> +of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the death of her husband, +the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the attention of Louis +XV.; and by the aid of the duc de Richelieu, who, dominated +by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the state, +she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress +in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king, +dragging him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance +with Frederick II. of Prussia, in 1744. Her political rôle, however, +has been exaggerated. Her triumph after the passing disgrace +provoked by the king’s illness at Metz did not last long, for she +died on the 8th of December 1744.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La Duchesse de Châteauroux et ses sœurs</i> +(Paris, 1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUROUX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the +department of Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the +Indre, 88 m. S. of Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway. +Pop. (1906) 21,048. The old town, close to the river, forms a +nucleus round which a newer and more extensive quarter, +bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the suburbs of St +Christophe and Déols (<i>q.v.</i>) lie on the right bank of the Indre. +The principal buildings of Châteauroux are the handsome +modern church of St André, in the Gothic style, and the Château +Raoul, of the 14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms +part of the prefecture. The hôtel de ville contains a library and +a museum which possesses a collection of paintings of the +Flemish school and some interesting souvenirs of Napoleon I. +A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1773-1844) stands in one +of the principal squares. Châteauroux is the seat of a prefect +and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and +of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank +of France, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, a college for girls +and training colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for +military clothing and other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory, +occupy large numbers of the inhabitants. Wool-spinning, +iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture of agricultural +implements are also carried on. Trade is in wool, iron, +grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle from +which Châteauroux takes its name was founded about the +middle of the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Déols, and +during the middle ages was the seat of a seigniory, which was +raised to the rank of countship in 1497, and in 1616, when it +was held by Henry II., prince of Condé, to that of duchy. In +1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis XV. in +1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of +Châteauroux.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-THIERRY,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital +of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E. +of Paris on the Eastern railway to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872. +Château-Thierry is built on rising ground on the right bank of +the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the suburb +of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the +memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 1621; +his house is still preserved in the street that bears his name. +On the top of a hill are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have +been built by Charles Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV., +and is plainly the origin of the name of the town. The chief relic +is a gateway flanked by massive round towers, known as the +Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th century and the church +of St Crépin of the same period are of some interest. The town +is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and +a communal college. The distinctive industry is the manufacture +of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in the +white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and agricultural +products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried +in the vicinity. Château-Thierry was formerly the capital of the +district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from +Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421, +by Charles V. in 1544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1591. During +the wars of the Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the campaign +of 1814 it suffered severely. On the 12th of February +of the latter year the Russo-Prussian forces were beaten by +Napoleon in the neighbourhood.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHÂTELAIN<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>castellanus</i>, from <i>castellum</i>, a castle), +in France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan, +<i>i.e.</i> the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal +system, however, the title gained in France a special significance +which it never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction +of which the castle became the centre. The <i>châtelain</i> was +originally, in Carolingian times, an official of the count; with +the development of feudalism the office became a fief, and so +ultimately hereditary. In this as in other respects the +châtelain was the equivalent of the viscount (<i>q.v.</i>) sometimes +the two titles were combined, but more usually in those provinces +where there were châtelains there were no viscounts, and vice +versa. The title châtelain continued also to be applied to the +inferior officer, or <i>concierge châtelain</i>, who was merely a castellan +in the English sense. The power and status of châtelains +necessarily varied greatly at different periods and places. +Usually their rank in the feudal hierarchy was equivalent to +that of the simple <i>sire</i> (<i>dominus</i>), between the baron and the +<i>chevalier</i>; but occasionally they were great nobles with an +extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low Countries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgrave</a></span>). +This variation was most marked in the cities, where in the struggle +for power that of the châtelain depended on the success with +which he could assert himself against his feudal superior, lay or +ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the +rising power of the communes. The <i>châtellenie</i> (<i>castellania</i>), or +jurisdiction of the châtelain, as a territorial division for certain +judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance +of the title and office of the châtelain in France, and continued +till the Revolution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Achille Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions françaises</i> (Paris, +1892); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.</i> “Castellanus.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CHATELAINE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Fr. <i>châtelaine</i>, the feminine form of <i>châtelain</i>, +a keeper of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom +of a châtelaine to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her +girdle, the word is now applied to the collection of short chains, +often worn by ladies, to which are attached various small +articles of domestic and toilet use, as keys, penknife, needlecase, +scissors, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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