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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8
+       "Chariot" to "Chatelaine"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2010 [EBook #33427]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CHARLES ALBERT: "... made a savage demonstration against
+      him at the Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in the night with
+      difficulty and returned to Piedmont with his defeated army." 'army
+      amended from armp'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME V, SLICE VIII
+
+           Chariot to Chatelaine
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CHARIOT                            CHARLES MARTEL
+  CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER       CHARLESTON (Illinois, U.S.A)
+  CHARITON                           CHARLESTON (South Carolina, U.S.A.)
+  CHARITY AND CHARITIES              CHARLESTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.)
+  CHARIVARI                          CHARLESTOWN
+  CHARKHARI                          CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT
+  CHARLATAN                          CHARLEVILLE
+  CHARLEMAGNE                        CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE
+  CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND           CHARLEVOIX
+  CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD        CHARLOTTE
+  CHARLEROI (town in Belgium)        CHARLOTTENBURG
+  CHARLEROI (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)   CHARLOTTESVILLE
+  CHARLES                            CHARLOTTETOWN
+  CHARLES II. (Roman emperor)        CHARM
+  CHARLES III. (Roman emperor)       CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DÉSIRÉ
+  CHARLES IV. (Roman emperor)        CHARNEL HOUSE
+  CHARLES V. (Roman emperor)         CHARNOCK, JOB
+  CHARLES VI. (Roman emperor)        CHARNOCK, ROBERT
+  CHARLES VII. (Roman emperor)       CHARNOCKITE
+  CHARLES I. (king of Great Britain) CHARNWOOD FOREST
+  CHARLES II. (king of G. Britain)   CHAROLLES
+  CHARLES I. and II. (of France)     CHARON
+  CHARLES III. (king of France)      CHARONDAS
+  CHARLES IV. (king of France)       CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS
+  CHARLES V. (king of France)        CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE
+  CHARLES VI. (king of France)       CHARRON, PIERRE
+  CHARLES VII. (king of France)      CHARRUA
+  CHARLES VIII. (king of France)     CHART
+  CHARLES IX. (king of France)       CHARTER
+  CHARLES X. (king of France)        CHARTERED COMPANIES
+  CHARLES I. (king of Hungary)       CHARTERHOUSE
+  CHARLES I. (king of Naples)        CHARTER-PARTY
+  CHARLES II. (king of Naples)       CHARTERS TOWERS
+  CHARLES II. (king of Navarre)      CHARTIER, ALAIN
+  CHARLES III. (king of Navarre)     CHARTISM
+  CHARLES (king of Rumania)          CHARTRES
+  CHARLES II. (king of Spain)        CHARTREUSE
+  CHARLES III. (king of Spain)       CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE
+  CHARLES IV. (king of Spain)        CHARWOMAN
+  CHARLES IX. (king of Sweden)       CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND
+  CHARLES X. (king of Sweden)        CHASE, SAMUEL
+  CHARLES XI. (king of Sweden)       CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT
+  CHARLES XII. (king of Sweden)      CHASE
+  CHARLES XIII. (king of Sweden)     CHASING
+  CHARLES XIV. (king of Sweden)      CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE
+  CHARLES XV. (king of Sweden)       CHASSE
+  CHARLES (duke of Brittany)         CHASSÉ
+  CHARLES (duke of Burgundy)         CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS
+  CHARLES (count of Flanders)        CHASSEPOT
+  CHARLES I. (duke of Lorraine)      CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE
+  CHARLES II. (duke of Lorraine)     CHASSIS
+  CHARLES III. or II. (duke of Lrn.) CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE
+  CHARLES IV. or III. (duke of Lrn.) CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES
+  CHARLES V. or IV. (duke of Lor.)   CHASUBLE
+  CHARLES II. (duke of Parma)        CHÂTEAU
+  CHARLES (archduke of Austria)      CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ
+  CHARLES (cardinal of Lorraine)     CHÂTEAUBRIANT
+  CHARLES (prince of Lorraine)       CHÂTEAUDUN
+  CHARLES (count of Valois)          CHÂTEAU-GONTIER
+  CHARLES (prince of Viana)          CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE
+  CHARLES, ELIZABETH                 CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, DE ROUSSELET
+  CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR   CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE
+  CHARLES, THOMAS                    CHÂTEAUROUX
+  CHARLES ALBERT                     CHÂTEAU-THIERRY
+  CHARLES AUGUSTUS                   CHÂTELAIN
+  CHARLES EDWARD                     CHATELAINE
+  CHARLES EMMANUEL I.
+
+
+
+
+CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from _char_, a car), in
+antiquity, a conveyance (Gr. [Greek: arma], Lat. _currus_) used in
+battle, for the chase, in public processions and in games. The Greek
+chariot had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two horses; if a
+third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were added, they were
+attached on each side of the main pair by a single trace fastened to the
+front of the chariot, as may be seen on two prize vases in the British
+Museum from the Panathenaic games at Athens. On the monuments there is
+no other sign of traces, from the want of which wheeling round must have
+been difficult. Immediately on the axle ([Greek: axôn], _axis_), without
+springs of any kind, rested the basket or body ([Greek: diphros]) of the
+chariot, which consisted of a floor to stand on, and a semicircular
+guard round the front about half the height of the driver. It was
+entirely open at the back, so that the combatant might readily leap to
+the ground and up again as was necessary. There was no seat, and
+generally only room for the combatant and his charioteer to stand in.
+The pole ([Greek: rumos], _temo_) was probably attached to the middle of
+the axle, though it appears to spring from the front of the basket; at
+the end of the pole was the yoke ([Greek: zygon], _jugum_), which
+consisted of two small saddles fitting the necks of the horses, and
+fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides this the harness of
+each horse consisted of a bridle and a pair of reins, mostly the same as
+in use now, made of leather and ornamented with studs of ivory or metal.
+The reins were passed through rings attached to the collar bands or
+yoke, and were long enough to be tied round the waist of the charioteer
+in case of his having to defend himself. The wheels and body of the
+chariot were usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or
+iron; the wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or
+iron. This description applies generally to the chariots of all the
+nations of antiquity; the differences consisted chiefly in the
+mountings. The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the
+bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with quivers
+full of arrows, while those of the Greeks, whose characteristic weapon
+was the spear, were plain except as regards mere decoration. Among the
+Persians, again, and more remarkably among the ancient Britons, there
+was a class of chariot having the wheels mounted with sharp,
+sickle-shaped blades, which cut to pieces whatever came in their way.
+This was probably an invention of the Persians; Cyrus the younger
+employed these chariots in large numbers. Among the Greeks and Romans,
+on the other hand, the chariot had passed out of use in war before
+historical times, and was retained only for races in the public games,
+or for processions, without undergoing any alteration apparently, its
+form continuing to correspond with the description of Homer, though it
+was lighter in build, having to carry only the charioteer. On two
+Panathenaic prize vases in the British Museum are figures of racing
+_bigae_, in which, contrary to the description given above, the driver
+is seated with his feet resting on a board hanging down in front close
+to the legs of his horses. The _biga_ itself consists of a seat resting
+on the axle, with a rail at each side to protect the driver from the
+wheels. The chariot was unsuited to the uneven soil of Greece and Italy,
+and it is not improbable that these nations had brought it with them as
+part of their original habits from their former seats in the East. In
+the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art there are numerous
+representations of chariots, from which it may be seen with what
+richness they were sometimes ornamented. The "iron" chariots in use
+among the Jews appear to have been chariots strengthened or plated with
+metal, and no doubt were of the form above described, which prevailed
+generally among the other ancient nations. (See also CARRIAGE.)
+
+  The chief authorities are J.C. Ginzrot, _Die Wagen and Fahrwerke der
+  Griechen und Römer_ (1817); C.F. Grashof, _Über das Fuhrwerk bei Homer
+  und Hesiod_ (1846); W. Leaf in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, v.; E.
+  Buchholz, _Die homerischen Realien_ (1871-1885); W. Helbig, _Das
+  homerische Epos aus den Denkmälern erläutert_ (1884), and the article
+  "Currus" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquités_.
+
+
+
+
+CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER, Latin grammarian, flourished about the
+middle of the 4th century A.D. He was probably an African by birth,
+summoned to Constantinople to take the place of Euanthius, a learned
+commentator on Terence. The _Ars Grammatica_ of Charisius, in five
+books, addressed to his son (not a Roman, as the preface shows), has
+come down to us in a mutilated condition, the beginning of the first,
+part of the fourth, and the greater part of the fifth book having been
+lost. The work, which is merely a compilation, is valuable as containing
+excerpts from the earlier writers on grammar, who are in many cases
+mentioned by name--Q. Remmius Palaemon, C. Julius Romanus, Cominianus.
+
+  The best edition is by H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, i. (1857); see
+  also article by G. Götz in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie_, iii. 2
+  (1899); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans.), §
+  419, I. 2; Fröhde, in _Jahr. f. Philol._, 18 Suppl. (1892), 567-672.
+
+
+
+
+CHARITON, of Aphrodisias in Caria, the author of a Greek romance
+entitled _The Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoë_, probably flourished in
+the 4th century A.D. The action of the story, which is to a certain
+extent historical, takes place during the time of the Peloponnesian War.
+Opinions differ as to the merits of the romance, which is an imitation
+of Xenophon of Ephesus and Heliodorus.
+
+  Editions by J.P. D'Orville (1783), G.A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher
+  (1859); there is an (anonymous) English translation (1764); see also
+  E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARITY AND CHARITIES. The word "charity," or love, represents the
+principle of the good life. It stands for a mood or habit of mind and an
+endeavour. From it, as a habit of mind, springs the social and personal
+endeavour which in the widest sense we may call charity. The two
+correspond. Where the habit of mind has not been gained, the endeavour
+fluctuates and is relatively purposeless. In so far as it has been
+gained, the endeavour is founded on an intelligent scrutiny of social
+conditions and guided by a definite purpose. In the one case it is
+realized that some social theory must be found by us, if our action is
+to be right and consistent; in the other case no need of such a theory
+is felt. This article is based on the assumption that there are
+principles in charity or charitable work, and that these can be
+ascertained by a study of the development of social conditions, and
+their relation to prevalent social aims and religious or philosophic
+conceptions. It is assumed also that the charity of the religious life,
+if rightly understood, cannot be inconsistent with that of the social
+life.
+
+  Perhaps some closer definition of charity is necessary. The words that
+  signify goodwill towards the community and its members are primarily
+  words expressive of the affections of family life in the relations
+  existing between parents, and between parent and child. As will be
+  seen, the analogies underlying such phrases as "God the Father,"
+  "children of God," "brethren," have played a great part in the
+  development of charitable thought in pre-Christian as well as in
+  Christian days. The germ, if we may say so, of the words [Greek:
+  philia, agapê], _amor_, love; _amicitia_, friendship, is the sexual or
+  the parental relation. With the realization of the larger life in man
+  the meaning of the word expands. _Caritas_, or charity, strikes
+  another note--high price, and thus dearness. It is charity, indeed,
+  expressed in mercantile metaphor; and it would seem that it was
+  associated in thought with the word [Greek: charis], which has also a
+  commercial meaning, but signifies as well favour, gratitude, grace,
+  kindness. Partly thus, perhaps, it assumed and suggested a nobler
+  conception; and sometimes, as, for instance, in English ecclesiastical
+  documents, it was spelt _charitas_. [Greek: Agapê], which in the
+  Authorized Version of the Bible is translated charity, was used by St
+  Paul as a translation of the Hebrew word _hesed_, which in the Old
+  Testament is in the same version translated "mercy"--as in Hosea vi.
+  6, "I desired mercy, and not sacrifice." This word represents the
+  charity of kindness and goodness, as distinguished from almsgiving.
+  Almsgiving, _sedaqah_, is translated by the word [Greek: eleêmosunê]
+  in the Septuagint, and in the Authorized Version by the word
+  "righteousness." It represents the deed or the gift which is due--done
+  or made, not spontaneously, but under a sense of religious obligation.
+  In the earlier Christian period the word almsgiving has this meaning,
+  and was in that sense applied to a wide range of actions and
+  contracts, from a gift to a beggar at a church door to a grant and a
+  tenure of land. It also, in the word almoner, represented the
+  fulfilment of the religious obligation with the aid of an agent or
+  delegate. The words charity or love (_caritas_ or [Greek: agapê]), on
+  the other hand, without losing the tone with which the thought of
+  parental or family love inspires them, assume a higher meaning. In
+  religious thought they imply an ideal life, as represented by such
+  expressions as "love (_agape_) of God." This on the one side; and on
+  the other an ideal social relation, in such words as "love of man."
+  Thus in the word "charity" religious and social associations meet; and
+  thus regarded the word means a disciplined and habitual mood in which
+  the mind is considerate of the welfare of others individually and
+  generally, and devises what is for their real good, and in which the
+  intelligence and the will strive to fulfil the mind's purpose. Charity
+  thus has no necessary relation to relief or alms. To give a lecture,
+  or to nurse a sick man who is not in want or "poor," may be equally a
+  deed of charity; though in fact charity concerns itself largely with
+  the classes usually called "the poor," and with problems of distress
+  and relief. Relief, however, is not an essential part of charity or
+  charitable work. It is one of many means at its disposal. If the world
+  were so poor that no one could make a gift, or so wealthy that no one
+  needed it, charity--the charity of life and of deeds--would remain.
+
+The history of charity is a history of many social and religious
+theories, influences and endeavours, that have left their mark alike
+upon the popular and the cultivated thought of the present day. The
+inconsistencies of charitable effort and argument may thus in part be
+accounted for. To understand the problem of charity we have therefore
+(1) to consider the stages of charitable thought--the primitive, pagan,
+Greek and Roman, Jewish and Christian elements, that make up the modern
+consciousness in regard to charity, and also the growth of the habit of
+"charity" as representing a gradually educated social instinct. (2) We
+have also to consider in their relation to charity the results of recent
+investigations of the conditions of social life. (3) At each stage we
+have to note the corresponding stage of practical administration in
+public relief and private effort--for the division between public or
+"poor-law" relief and charity which prevails in England is,
+comparatively speaking, a novelty, and, generally speaking, the work of
+charity can hardly be appreciated or understood if it be considered
+without reference to public relief. (4) As to the present day, we have
+to consider practical suggestions in regard to such subjects as charity
+and economic thought, charity organization, friendly visiting and
+almonership, co-operation with the poor-law, charity and thrift,
+parochial management, hospitals and medical relief, exceptional distress
+and the "unemployed," the utilization of endowments and their
+supervision, and their adaptation to new needs and emergencies. (5) We
+have also throughout to consider charitable help in relation to classes
+of dependants, who appear early in the history of the question--widows
+and orphans, the sick and the aged, vagrants and wayfarers.
+
+First in the series come the charities of the family and of hospitality;
+then the wider charities of religion, the charities of the community,
+and of individual donors and of mutual help. These gradually assumed
+importance in communities which consisted originally of self-supporting
+classes, within which widows and orphans, for instance, would be rather
+provided for, in accordance with recognized class obligations, than
+relieved. Then come habitual almsgiving, the charitable endowment, and
+the modern charitable institution and association. But throughout the
+test of progress or decadence appears to be the condition of the family.
+The family is the source, the home and the hearthstone of charity. It
+has been created but slowly, and there is naturally a constant tendency
+to break away from its obligations and to ignore and depreciate its
+utility. Yet the family, as we now have it, is itself the outcome of
+infinite thought working through social instinct, and has at each stage
+of its development indicated a general advance. To it, therefore,
+constant reference must be made.
+
+
+PART I.--PRIMITIVE CHARITY
+
+The study of early communities has brought to light the history of the
+development of the family. "Marriage in its lowest phases is by no means
+a matter of affection or companionship"; and only very slowly has the
+position of both parents been recognized as implying different but
+correlative responsibilities towards their child. Only very slowly,
+also, has the morality necessary to the making of the family been won.
+Charity at earlier stages is hardly recognized as a virtue, nor
+infanticide as an evil. Hospitality--the beginning of a larger social
+life--is non-existent. The self-support of the community is secured by
+marriage, and when relations fail marriage becomes a provision against
+poverty. Then by the tribal system is created another safeguard against
+want. But apart also from these methods of maintenance, at a very early
+stage there is charitable relief. The festivals of the solstices and
+equinoxes, and of the seasons, are the occasions for sacrifice and
+relief; and, as Christmas customs prove, the instinct to give help or
+alms at such festival periods still remains. Charity is concerned
+primarily with certain elemental forces of social life: the relation
+between these primitive instincts and impulses that still influence
+charity should not, therefore, be overlooked. The basis of social life
+is also the basis of charitable thought and action.
+
+  The savage is the civilized man in the rough. "The lowest races have,"
+  Lord Avebury writes, "no institution of marriage." Many have no word
+  for "dear" or "beloved." The child belongs to the tribe rather than to
+  the parent. In these circumstances a problem of charity such as the
+  following may arise:--"Am I to starve, while my sister has children
+  whom she can sell?" a question asked of Burton by a negro. From the
+  point of view of the tribe, an able-bodied man would be more valuable
+  than dependent children, and the relationship of the larger family of
+  brothers and sisters would be a truer claim to help than that of
+  mother and child. Subsequently the child is recognized as related, not
+  to the father, but to the mother, and there is "a kind of bond which
+  lasts for life between mother and child, although the father is a
+  stranger to it." Slowly only is the relative position of both parents,
+  with different but correlative responsibilities, recognized. The first
+  two steps of charity have then been made: the social value of the bond
+  between the mother, and then between the father, and the child has
+  been recognized. Until this point is reached the morality necessary to
+  the making of the family is wanting, and for a long time afterwards it
+  is hardly won. The virtue of chastity--the condition precedent to the
+  higher family life--is unrecognized. Indeed, the set of such religious
+  thought as there may be is against it. Abstract conceptions, even in
+  the nobler races, are lacking. The religion of life is vaguely
+  struggling with its animality, and that which it at last learns to
+  rule it at first worships. In these circumstances there is little
+  charity for the child and little for the stranger. "There is," Dr
+  Schweinfurth wrote in his _Heart of Africa_, "an utter want of
+  wholesome intercourse between race and race. For any member of a tribe
+  that speaks one dialect to cross the borders of a tribe that speaks
+  another is to make a venture at the hazard of his life." The religious
+  obligations that fostered and sanctified family life among the Greeks
+  and Romans and Jews are unknown. Much later in development comes
+  charity for the child, with the abhorrence of infanticide--against
+  which the Jewish-Christian charity of 2000 years ago uttered its most
+  vigorous protests. If the child belonged primarily to the tribe or
+  state, its maintenance or destruction was a common concern. This
+  motive influenced the Greeks, who are historically nearer the earlier
+  forms of social life than ourselves. For the common good they exposed
+  the deformed child; but also "where there were too many, for in our
+  state population has a limit," as Aristotle says, "the babe or unborn
+  child was destroyed." And so, to lighten their own responsibilities,
+  parents were wont to do in the slow years of the degradation of the
+  Roman empire, though the interest of the state then required a
+  contrary policy. The transition to our present feeling of
+  responsibility for child-life has been very gradual and uncertain,
+  through the middle ages and even till the 18th century. Strictly it
+  may be said that all penitentiaries and other similar institutions are
+  concrete protests on behalf of a better family life. The movement for
+  the care of children in the 18th century naturally and instinctively
+  allied itself with the penitentiary movement. The want of regard for
+  child-life, when the rearing of children becomes a source of economic
+  pressure, suggests why in earlier stages of civilization all that
+  charitable apparatus which we now think necessary for the assistance
+  of children is wanting, even if the need, so far as it does arise, is
+  not adequately met by the recognized obligations of the clan-family or
+  brotherhood.
+
+  In the case of barbarous races charity and self-support may be
+  considered from some other points of view. Self-support is secured in
+  two ways--by marriage and by slavery. "For a man or woman to be
+  unmarried after the age of thirty is unheard of" (T.H. Lewin, _Wild
+  Races of South-East India_). On the other hand, if any one is without
+  a father, mother or other relative, and destitute of the necessaries
+  of life, he may sell himself and become a slave. Thus slavery becomes
+  a provision for poverty when relations fail. The clan-family may serve
+  the same purpose. David Livingstone describes the formation of the
+  clan-family among the Bakuena. "Each man, by virtue of paternity, is
+  chief of his own children. They build huts round his.... Near the
+  centre of each circle of huts is a spot called a 'kotla,' with a
+  fireplace; here they work, eat, &c. A poor man attaches himself to the
+  'kotla' of a rich one, and is considered a child of the latter." Thus
+  the clan-family is also a poor-relief association.
+
+  Studies in folklore bring to light many relations between the charity
+  of the old world and that of our own day.
+
+
+  The early community.
+
+In regard to the charity of the early community, we may take the 8th
+century B.C. as the point of departure. The _Odyssey_ (about 800 B.C.)
+and Hesiod (about 700 B.C.) are roughly parallel with Amos (816-775),
+and represent two streams of thought that meet in the early Christian
+period. The period covered by the _Odyssey_ seems to merge into that of
+Hesiod. We take the former first, dealing with the clan-family and the
+phratry, which are together the self-maintaining unit of society, with
+the general relief of the poor, with hospitality, and with vagrancy. In
+Hesiod we find the customary law of charity in the earlier community
+definitely stated, and also indications of the normal methods of
+neighbourly help which were in force in country districts. First of the
+family and brotherhood, or phratry. The family (_Od_. viii. 582)
+included alike the wife's father and the daughter's husband. It was thus
+a clanlike family. Out of this was developed the phratry or brotherhood,
+in which were included alike noble families, peasants and craftsmen,
+united by a common worship and responsibilities and a common customary
+law (_themis_). Zeus, the god of social life, was worshipped by the
+phratry. He was the father of the law (_themis_). He was god of host and
+guest. Society was thus based on law, the brotherhood and the family.
+The irresponsible man, the man worthy of no respect or consideration,
+was one who belonged to no brotherhood, was subject to no customary law,
+and had no hearth or family. The phratry was, and became afterwards
+still more, "a natural gild." Outside the self-sustaining phratry was
+the stranger, including the wayfarer and the vagrant; and partly merged
+in these classes was the beggar, the recognized recipient of the alms of
+the community. To change one's abode and to travel was assumed to be a
+cause of reproach (_Il_. ix. 648). The "land-louper" was naturally
+suspected. On the other hand, a stranger's first thought in a new
+country was whether the inhabitants were wild or social ([Greek:
+dikaioi]), hospitable and God-fearing (_Od_. xiii. 201). Hospitality
+thus became the first public charity; Zeus sent all strangers and
+beggars, and it was against all law ([Greek: themis]) to slight them.
+Out of this feeling--a kind of glorified almsgiving--grew up the system
+of hospitality in Greek states and also in the Roman world. The host
+greeted the stranger (or the suppliant). An oath of friendship was taken
+by the stranger, who was then received with the greeting, Welcome
+([Greek: chaire]), and water was provided for ablution, and food and
+shelter. In the larger house there was a guests' table. In the hut he
+shared the peasant's meal. The custom bound alike the rich and the poor.
+On parting presents were given, usually food for the onward journey,
+sometimes costly gifts. The obligation was mutual, that the host should
+give hospitality, and that the guest should not abuse it. From early
+times tallies were exchanged between them as evidence of this formal
+relationship, which each could claim again of the other by the
+production of the token. And further, the relationship on either side
+became hereditary. Thus individuals and families and tribes remained
+linked in friendship and in the interchange of hospitalities.
+
+Under the same patronage of Zeus and the same laws of hospitality were
+vagrants and beggars. The vagrant and loafer are sketched in the
+_Odyssey_--the vagrant who lies glibly that he may get entertainment,
+and the loafer who prefers begging to work on a farm. These and the
+winter idlers, whom Hesiod pictures--a group known to modern
+life--prefer at that season to spend their time in the warmth of the
+village smithy, or at a house of common resort ([Greek: leschê])--a
+common lodging-house, we might say--where they would pass the night.
+Apparently, as in modern times, the vagrants had organized their own
+system of entertainment, and, supported by the public, were a class for
+whom it was worth while to cater. The local or public beggars formed a
+still more definite class. Their begging was a recognized means of
+maintenance; it was a part of the method of poor relief. Thus of
+Penelope it was said that, if Odysseus' tale were true, she would give
+him better clothes, and then he might beg his bread throughout the
+country-side. Feasts, too, and almsgiving were nearly allied, and feasts
+have always been one resource for the relief of the poor. Thus naturally
+the beggars frequented feasts, and were apparently a recognized and yet
+inevitable nuisance. They wore, as part of their dress, scrips or
+wallets in which they carried away the food they received, as later
+Roman clients carried away portions of food in baskets (_sportula_) from
+their patron's dinner. Odysseus, when he dresses up as a beggar, puts on
+a wallet as part of his costume. Thus we find a system of voluntary
+relief in force based on a recognition of the duty of almsgiving as
+complete and peremptory as that which we shall notice later among the
+Jews and the early Christians. We are concerned with country districts,
+and not with towns, and, as social conditions that are similar produce
+similar methods of administration, so we find here a general plan of
+relief similar to that which was in vogue in Scotland till the Scottish
+Poor Law Act of 1845.
+
+In Hesiod the fundamental conceptions of charity are more clearly
+expressed. He has, if not his ten, at least his four commandments, for
+disobedience to which Zeus will punish the offender. They are: Thou
+shalt do no evil to suppliant or guest; thou shalt not dishonour any
+woman of the family; thou shalt not sin against the orphan; thou shalt
+not be unkind to aged parents.
+
+  The laws of social life are thus duty to one's guest and duty to one's
+  family; and chastity has its true place in that relation, as the later
+  Greeks, who so often quote Hesiod (cf. the so-called _Economics_ of
+  Aristotle), fully realized. Also the family charities due to the
+  orphan, whose lot is deplored in the _Iliad_ (xxii. 490), and to the
+  aged are now clearly enunciated. But there is also in Hesiod the duty
+  to one's neighbour, not according to the "perfection" of "Cristes
+  lore," but according to a law of honourable reciprocity in act and
+  intent. "Love him who loves thee, and cleave to him who cleaveth to
+  thee: to him who would have given, give; to him who would not have
+  given, give not." The groundwork of Hesiod's charity outside the
+  family is neighbourly help (such as formed no small part of old
+  Scottish charity in the country districts); and he put his argument
+  thus: Competition, which is a kind of strife, "lies in the roots of
+  the world and in men." It is good, and rouses the idle "handless" man
+  to work. On one side are social duty ([Greek: dikê]) and work, done
+  briskly at the right season of the year, which brings a full barn. On
+  the other side are unthrift and hunger, and relief with the disgrace
+  of begging; and the relief, when the family can do no more, must come
+  from neighbours, to whose house the beggar has to go with his wife and
+  children to ask for victual. Once they may be helped, or twice, and
+  then they will be refused. It is better, Hesiod tells his brother, to
+  work and so pay off his debts and avoid hunger (see _Erga_, 391, &c.,
+  and elsewhere). Here indeed is a problem of to-day as it appeared to
+  an early Greek. The alternatives before the idler--so far as his own
+  community is concerned--are labour with neighbourly help to a limited
+  extent, or hunger.
+
+  Hesiod was a farmer in Boeotia. Some 530 years afterwards a pupil of
+  Aristotle thus describes the district and its community of farmers.
+  "They are," he says, "well to do, but simple in their way of life.
+  They practise justice, good faith, and hospitality. To needy townsmen
+  and vagabonds they give freely of their substance; for meanness and
+  covetousness are unknown to them." The charitable method of Homeric
+  and Hesiodic days still continued.
+
+
+PART II.--CHARITY AMONG THE GREEKS
+
+  The Greek state.
+
+Society in a Greek state was divided into two parts, citizens and
+slaves. The citizens required leisure for education, war and government.
+The slaves were their ministers and servants to enable them to secure
+this leisure. We have therefore to consider, on the one hand, the
+position of the family and the clan-family, and the maintenance of the
+citizen from public funds and by public and private charities; and on
+the other hand the condition of the slaves, and the relation between
+slavery and charity.
+
+The slaves formed the larger part of the population. The census of
+Attica, made between 317 and 307 B.C., gives their numbers at 400,000
+out of a population of about 500,000; and even if this be considered
+excessive, the proportion of slaves to citizens would certainly be very
+large. The citizens with their wives and children formed some 12% of the
+community. Thus, apart from the resident aliens, returned in the census
+at 10,000, and their wives and children, we have two divisions of
+society: the citizens, with their own organization of relief and
+charities; and the slaves, permanently maintained by reason of their
+dependence on individual members of the civic class. Thus, there is no
+poverty but that of the poor citizens. Poverty is limited to them. The
+slaves--that is to say, the bulk of the labouring population--are
+provided for.
+
+From times relatively near to Hesiod's we may trace the growth and
+influence of the clan-family as the centre of customary charity within
+the community, the gradual increase of a class of poor either outside
+the clan-family or eventually independent of it, and the development of
+a new organization of relief introduced by the state to meet newer
+demands. We picture the early state as a group of families, each of
+which tends to form in time a separate group or clan. At each expansion
+from the family to the clan the members of the clan retain rights and
+have to fulfil duties which are the same as, or similar to, those which
+prevailed in the family. Thus, in Attica the clan-families (_genos_) and
+the brotherhoods (_phratria_) were "the only basis of legal rights and
+obligations over and above the natural family." The clan-family was "a
+natural guild," consisting of rich and poor members--the well-born or
+noble and the craftsman alike. Originally it would seem that the land
+was divided among the families of the clan by lot and was inalienable.
+Thus with the family was combined the means of supporting the family. On
+the other hand, every youth was registered in his phratry, and the
+phratry remained till the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.) a political,
+and even after that time a social, organization of importance.
+
+First, as to the family--the mother and wife, and the father. Already
+before the age of Plato and Xenophon (450-350 B.C.) we find that the
+family has suffered a slow decline. The wife, according to later Greek
+usage, was married as a child, hardly educated, and confined to the
+house, except at some festival or funeral. But with the decline came
+criticism and a nobler conception of family life. "First, then, come
+laws regarding the wife," writes the author of the so-called _Economics_
+of Aristotle, and the law, "thou shalt do no wrong; for, if we do no
+wrong, we shall not be wronged." This is the "common law," as the
+Pythagoreans say, "and it implies that we must not wrong the wife in the
+least, but treat her with the reverence due to a suppliant, or one taken
+from the altar." The sanctity of marriage is thus placed among the
+"commandments" of Hesiod, beside the duty towards the stranger and the
+orphan. These and other references to the Pythagoreans suggest that
+they, possibly in common with other mystics, preached the higher
+religion of marriage and social life, and thus inspired a deeper social
+feeling, which eventually allied itself with the Christian movement.
+
+Next, as to parents and children: the son was under an obligation to
+support his father, subject, after Solon's time, to the condition that
+he had taught him a trade; and after Solon's time the father had no
+claim for support from an illegitimate son. "The possession of
+children," it was said (Arist. _Econ._), "is not by nature for the
+public good only, but also for private advantage. For what the strong
+may gain by their toil for the weak, the weak in their old age receive
+from the strong... Thus is the nature of each, the man and the woman,
+prearranged by the Divine Being for a life in common." Honour to parents
+is "the first and greatest and oldest of all debts" (Plato, _Laws_,
+717). The child has to care for the parent in his old age. "Nemesis, the
+minister of justice ([Greek: dikê]), is appointed to watch over all
+these things." And "if a man fail to adorn the sepulchre of his dead
+parents, the magistrates take note of it and inquire" (Xen. _Mem._ ii.
+14). The heightened conception of marriage implies a fuller
+interpretation of the mutual relations of parent and child as well; both
+become sacred.
+
+Then as to orphans. Before Solon's time (594 B.C.) the property of any
+member of the clan-family who died without children went to the clan;
+and after his time, when citizens were permitted to leave their property
+by will, the property of an intestate fell to the clan. This arrangement
+carried with it corresponding duties. Through the clan-family provision
+was made for orphans. Any member of the clan had the legal right to
+claim an orphan member in marriage; and, if the nearest agnate did not
+marry her, he had to give her a dowry proportionate to the amount of his
+own property. Later, there is evidence of a growing sense of
+responsibility in regard to orphans. Hippodamus (about 443 B.C.), in his
+scheme of the perfected state (Arist. _Pol._ 1268), suggested that there
+should be public magistrates to deal with the affairs of orphans (and
+strangers); and Plato, his contemporary, writes of the duty of the state
+and of the guardian towards them very fully. Orphans, he proposes
+(_Laws_, 927), should be placed under the care of public guardians. "Men
+should have a fear of the loneliness of orphans ... and of the souls of
+the departed, who by nature take a special care of their own
+children.... A man should love the unfortunate orphan (boy or girl) of
+whom he is guardian as if he were his own child; he should be as careful
+and diligent in the management of the orphan's property as of his
+own--or even more careful still."
+
+To relieve the poverty of citizens and to preserve the citizen-hood were
+objects of public policy and of charity. In Crete and Sparta the
+citizens were wholly supported out of the public resources. In Attica
+the system was different. The citizens were aided in various ways, in
+which, as often happens, legal or official and voluntary or private
+methods worked on parallel lines. The means were (1) legal enactment for
+release of debts; (2) emigration; (3) the supply of corn; (4) poor
+relief for the infirm, and relief for the children of those fallen in
+war; (5) emoluments; (6) voluntary public service, separate gifts and
+liberality; (7) loan societies.
+
+  (1) In 594 B.C. the labouring class in Attica were overwhelmed with
+  debts and mortgages, and their persons pledged as security. Only by a
+  sharp reform was it possible to preserve them from slavery. This Solon
+  effected. He annulled their obligations, abolished the pledge of the
+  person, and gave the labourers the franchise (but see under SOLON).
+  Besides the laws above mentioned, he gave power to the Areopagus to
+  inquire from what sources each man obtained the necessaries of life,
+  and to punish those who did not work. His action and that of his
+  successor, Peisistratus (560 B.C.), suggest that the class of poor
+  ([Greek: aporoi]) was increasing, and that by the efforts of these two
+  men the social decline of the people was avoided or at least
+  postponed. Peisistratus lent the poor money that they might maintain
+  themselves in husbandry. He wished, it is said (Arist. _Ath. Pol._
+  xvi.), to enable them to earn a moderate living, that they might be
+  occupied with their own affairs, instead of spending their time in the
+  city or neglecting their work in order to visit it. As rent for their
+  land they paid a tenth of the produce.
+
+  (2) Akin to this policy was that of emigration. Athenians, selected in
+  some instances from the two lowest political classes, emigrated,
+  though still retaining their rights of citizenship. In 570-565 B.C.
+  Salamis was annexed and divided into lots and settled, and later
+  Pericles settled more than 2750 citizens in the Chersonese and
+  elsewhere--practically a considerable section of the whole body of
+  citizens. "By this means," says Plutarch, "he relieved the state of
+  numerous idle agitators and assisted the necessitous." In other states
+  this expedient was frequently adopted.
+
+  (3) A third method was the supply of corn at reduced rates--a method
+  similar to that adopted, as we shall see, at Rome, Constantinople and
+  elsewhere. The maintenance of the mass of the people depended on the
+  corn fleets. There were public granaries, where large stores were laid
+  up at the public expense. A portion of all cargoes of corn was
+  retained at Athens and in other ways importation was promoted.
+  Exportation was forbidden. Public donations and distributions of corn
+  were frequent, and in times of scarcity rich citizens made large
+  contributions with that object. The distributions were made to adult
+  citizens of eighteen years of age and upwards whose names were on the
+  registers.
+
+  (4) In addition to this there was a system of public relief for those
+  who were unable to earn a livelihood on account of bodily defects and
+  infirmities. The qualification was a property test. The property of
+  the applicant had to be shown to be of a value of not more than three
+  minae (say £12). Socrates, it may be noted, adopts the same method of
+  estimating his comparative poverty (Xen. _Econ._ 2. 6), saying that
+  his goods would realize about five minae (or about twenty guineas).
+  The senate examined the case, and the ecclesia awarded the bounty,
+  which amounted to 1 or 2 obols a day, rather more than 1½d. or
+  3d.--out-door relief, as we might say, amounting at most to about 1s.
+  9d. a week. There was also a fund for the maintenance of the children
+  of those who had fallen in war, up to the age of eighteen.
+
+  (5) But the main source of support was the receipt of emoluments for
+  various public services. This was not relief, though it produced in
+  the course of time the effect of relief. It was rather the Athenian
+  method of supporting a governing class of citizens.
+
+  The inner political history of Athens is the history of the extension
+  of the franchise to the lower classes of citizens, with the privileges
+  of holding office and receiving emoluments. In early times, either by
+  Solon (q.v.) or previously, the citizens were classified on the basis
+  of property. The rich retained the franchise and the right of holding
+  office; the middle classes obtained the franchise; the fourth or
+  lowest class gained neither. By the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.)
+  the clan-family and the phratry were set aside for the _deme_ or
+  parish, a geographical division superseding the social. Finally, about
+  478 B.C., when all had acquired the franchise, the right to hold
+  office also was obtained by the third class. These changes coincided
+  with a period of economic progress. The rate of interest was high,
+  usually 12%; and in trading and bottomry the returns were much higher.
+  A small capital at this interest soon produced comparative wealth; and
+  simultaneously prices were falling. Then came the reaction. "After the
+  Peloponnesian war" (432-404 B.C.), writes Professor Jebb, "the wealth
+  of the country ceased to grow, as population had ceased to grow about
+  50 years sooner. The rich went on accumulating: the poor, having no
+  means of enriching themselves by enterprise, were for the most part
+  occupied in watching for some chance of snatching a larger share of
+  the stationary total." Thus the poorer classes in a time of prosperity
+  had won the power which they were able to turn to their own account
+  afterwards. A period of economic pressure followed, coupled with a
+  decline in the population; no return to the land was feasible, nor was
+  emigration; the people had become town-folk inadaptable to new uses;
+  decreasing vitality and energy were marked by a new temper, the
+  "pauper" temper, unsettled, idle and grasping, and political power was
+  utilized to obtain relief. The relief was forthcoming, but it was of
+  no avail to stop the general decline. The state, it might almost be
+  said, in giving scope to the assertion of the spirit of dependence,
+  had ruined the self-regarding energy on which both family and state
+  alike depended. The emoluments were diverse. The number of citizens
+  was not large; the functions in which citizens could take part were
+  numerous; and when payment was forthcoming the poorer citizens pressed
+  in to exercise their rights (cf. Arist. _Pol._ 1293 a). All Athenian
+  citizens could attend the public assembly or _ecclesia_. Probably the
+  attendance at it varied from a few hundred to 5000 persons. In 395
+  B.C. the payment for attendance was fixed at 3 obols, or little more
+  than 4½d. a day--for the system of payment had probably been
+  introduced a few years before (but see ECCLESIA and refs.). A juror or
+  _dicast_ would receive the same sum for attendance, and the courts or
+  juries often consisted of 500 persons. If the estimate (Böckh, _Public
+  Economy of Athens_, Eng. trans. pp. 109, 117) holds good that in the
+  age of Demosthenes (384-323 B.C.) the member of a poor family of four
+  free persons could live (including rent) on about 3.3d. or between 2
+  and 3 obols a day, the pay of the citizen attending the assembly or
+  the court would at least cover the expenses of subsistence. On the
+  other hand, it would be less than the pay of a day labourer, which was
+  probably about 4 obols or 6d. a day. In any case many citizens--they
+  numbered in all about 20,000--in return for their participation in
+  political duties would receive considerable pecuniary assistance.
+  Attending a great public festival also, the citizen would receive 2
+  obols or 3d. a day during the festival days; and there were besides
+  frequent public sacrifices, with the meal or feast which accompanied
+  them. But besides this there were confiscations of private property,
+  which produced a surplus revenue divisible among the poorer citizens.
+  (Some hold that there were confiscations in other Greek states, but
+  not in Athens.) In these circumstances it is not to be wondered that
+  men like Isocrates should regret that the influence of the Areopagus,
+  the old court of morals and justice in Athens, had disappeared, for it
+  "maintained a sort of censorial police over the lives and habits of
+  the citizens; and it professed to enforce a tutelary and paternal
+  discipline, beyond that which the strict letter of the law could mark
+  out, over the indolent, the prodigal, the undutiful, and the deserters
+  of old rite and custom."
+
+  (6) In addition to public emoluments and relief there was much private
+  liberality and charity. Many expensive public services were undertaken
+  honorarily by the citizens under a kind of civic compulsion. Thus in a
+  trial about 425 B.C. (Lysias, _Or._ 19. 57) a citizen submitted
+  evidence that his father expended more than £2000 during his life in
+  paying the expenses of choruses at festivals, fitting out seven
+  triremes for the navy, and meeting levies of income tax to meet
+  emergencies. Besides this he had helped poor citizens by portioning
+  their daughters and sisters, had ransomed some, and paid the funeral
+  expenses of others (cf. for other instances Plutarch's _Cimon_,
+  Theophrastus, _Eth._, and Xen. _Econ._).
+
+  (7) There were also mutual help societies ([Greek: eranoi]). Those for
+  relief would appear to have been loan societies (cf. Theoph. _Eth._),
+  one of whose members would beat up contributions to help a friend, who
+  would afterwards repay the advance.
+
+  The criticisms of Aristotle (384-321 B.C.) suggest the direction to
+  which he looked for reform. He (_Pol._ 1320 a) passes a very
+  unfavourable judgment on the distribution of public money to the
+  poorer citizens. The demagogues (he does not speak of Athens
+  particularly) distributed the surplus revenues to the poor, who
+  received them all at the same time; and then they were in want again.
+  It was only, he argued, like pouring water through a sieve. It were
+  better to see to it that the greater number were not so entirely
+  destitute, for the depravity of a democratic government was due to
+  this. The problem was to contrive how plenty ([Greek: euporia], not
+  poverty, [Greek: aporia]) should become permanent. His proposals are
+  adequate aid and voluntary charity. Public relief should, he urges, be
+  given in large amounts so as to help people to acquire small farms or
+  start in business, and the well-to-do ([Greek: euporoi]) should in the
+  meantime subscribe to pay the poor for their attendance at the public
+  assemblies. (This proves, indeed, how the payments had become poor
+  relief.) He mentions also how the Carthaginian notables divided the
+  destitute amongst them and gave them the means of setting to work, and
+  the Tarentines ([Greek: koina poiountes]) shared their property with
+  the poor. (The Rhodians also may be mentioned (Strabo xiv. c. 652),
+  amongst whom the well-to-do undertook the relief of the poor
+  voluntarily.) The later word for charitable distribution was a sharing
+  ([Greek: koinonia], Ep. Rom. xv. 26), which would seem to indicate
+  that after Aristotle's time popular thought had turned in that
+  direction. But the chief service rendered by Aristotle--a service
+  which covered indeed the whole ground of social progress--was to show
+  that unless the purpose of civil and social life was carefully
+  considered and clearly realized by those who desired to improve its
+  conditions, no change for the better could result from individual or
+  associated action.
+
+Two forms of charity have still to be mentioned: charity to the stranger
+and to the sick. It will be convenient to consider both in relation to
+the whole classical period.
+
+With the growth of towns the administration of hospitality was
+elaborated.
+
+
+    The stranger.
+
+  (1) There was hospitality between members of families bound by the
+  rites of host and guest. The guest received as a right only shelter
+  and fire. Usually he dined with the host the first day, and if
+  afterwards he was fed provisions were supplied to him. There were
+  large guest-chambers ([Greek: xenon]) or small guest-houses,
+  completely isolated on the right or left of the principal house; and
+  here the guest was lodged. (2) There were also, e.g. at Hierapolis
+  (Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Phrygia_, ii. 97), brotherhoods of hospitality
+  ([Greek: xenoi tekmêreioi], bearers of the sign), which made
+  hospitality a duty, and had a common chest and Apollo as their
+  tutelary god. (3) There were inns or resting-places ([Greek:
+  katagogia]) for strangers at temples (Thuc. iii. 68; Plato, _Laws_,
+  953 A) and places of resort ([Greek: lesche]) at or near the temples
+  for the entertainment of strangers--for instance, at a temple of
+  Asclepius at Epidaurus (Pausanias ii. 174); and Pausanias argues that
+  they were common throughout the country. Probably also at the temples
+  hospitable provision was made for strangers. The evidence at present
+  is not perhaps sufficiently complete, but, so far as it goes, it tends
+  to the conclusion that in pre-Christian times hospitality was provided
+  to passers-by and strangers in the temple buildings, as later it was
+  furnished in the monasteries and churches. (4) There were also in
+  towns houses for strangers ([Greek: xenon]) provided at the public
+  cost. This was so at Megara; and in Crete strangers had a place at the
+  public meals and a dormitory. Xenophon suggested that it would be
+  profitable for the Athenian state to establish inns for traders
+  ([Greek: katagogia dêmusia]) at Athens. Thus, apart from the official
+  hospitality of the proxenus or "consul," who had charge of the affairs
+  of foreigners, and the hospitality which was shown to persons of
+  distinction by states or private individuals, there was in Greece a
+  large provision for strangers, wayfarers and vagrants based on the
+  charitable sentiment of hospitality. Among the Romans similar customs
+  of private and public hospitality prevailed; and throughout the empire
+  the older system was altered, probably very slowly. In Christian times
+  (cf. Ramsay above) Pagan temples were (about A.D. 408) utilized for
+  other purposes, including that of hospitality to strangers.
+
+
+  The sick.
+
+Round the temples, at first probably village temples, the organization
+of medical relief grew up. Primitive medicine is connected with dreams,
+worship, and liturgical "pollution," punishment and penitence, and an
+experimental practice. Finally, systematic observation and science (with
+no knowledge of chemistry and little of physiology) assert themselves,
+and a secular administration is created by the side of the older
+religious organization.
+
+  Sickness among primitive races is conceived to be a material substance
+  to be extracted, or an evil spirit to be driven away by incantation.
+  Religion and medicine are thus at the beginning almost one and the
+  same thing. In Anatolia, in the groups of villages (cf. Ramsay as
+  above, i. 101) under the theocratic government of a central [Greek:
+  ieron] or temple, the god Men Karou was the physician and saviour
+  ([Greek: soter] and [Greek: sozon]) of his people. Priests, prophets
+  and physicians were his ministers. He punished wrong-doing by diseases
+  which he taught the penitent to cure. So elsewhere pollution, physical
+  or moral, was chastened by disease and loss of property or children,
+  and further ills were avoided by sacrifice and expiation and public
+  warning. In the temple and out of this phase of thought grew up
+  schools of medicine, in whose practice dreams and religious ritual
+  retained a place. The newer gods, Asclepius and Apollo, succeeded the
+  older local divinities; and the "sons" of Asclepius became a
+  profession, and the temple with its adjacent buildings a kind of
+  hospital. There were many temples of Asclepius in Greece and
+  elsewhere, placed generally in high and salubrious positions. After
+  ablution the patient offered sacrifices, repeating himself the words
+  of the hymn that was chanted. Then, when night came on, he slept in
+  the temple. In the early dawn he was to dream "the heavenly dream"
+  which would suggest his cure; but if he did not dream, relations and
+  others--officials at the temple--might dream for him. At dawn the
+  priests or sons of Asclepius came into the temple and visited the
+  sick, so that, in a kind of drama, where reality and appearance seemed
+  to meet, the patients believed that they saw the god himself. The next
+  morning the prescription and treatment were settled. At hand in the
+  inn or guest-chambers of the temple the patient could remain, sleeping
+  again in the temple, if necessary, and carrying out the required
+  regimen. In the temple were votive tablets of cases, popular and
+  awe-inspiring, and records and prescriptions, which later found their
+  way into the medical works of Galen and others. At the temple of
+  Asclepius at Epidaurus was an inn ([Greek: katagogion]) with four
+  courts and colonnades, and in all 160 rooms. (Cf. Pausanias ii. 171;
+  and _Report, Archaeol. in Greece_, R.C. Bosanquet, 1899, 1900.)
+
+At three centres more particularly, Rhodes, Cnidos and Cos, were the
+medical schools of the Asclepiads. If one may judge from an inscription
+at Athens, priests of Asclepius attended the poor gratuitously. And
+years afterwards, in the 11th century, when there was a revival of
+medicine, we find (Daremberg, _La Médecine: histoire et doctrines_) at
+Salerno the Christian priest as doctor, a simple and less palatable
+pharmacy for the poor than for the rich, and gratuitous medical relief.
+
+Besides the temple schools and hospitals there was a secular
+organization of medical aid and relief. States appointed trained medical
+men as physicians, and provided for them medical establishments ([Greek:
+iatreia], "large houses with large doors full of light") for the
+reception of the sick, and for operations there were provided beds,
+instruments, medicines, &c. At these places also pupils were taught. A
+lower degree of medical establishment was to be found at the barbers'
+shops. Out-patients were seen at the _iatreia_. They were also visited
+at home. There were doctors' assistants and slave doctors. The latter,
+apparently, attended only slaves (Plato, _Laws_, 720); they do "a great
+service to the master of the house, who in this manner is relieved of
+the care of his slaves." It was a precept of Hippocrates that if a
+physician came to a town where there were sick poor, he should make it
+his first duty to attend to them; and the state physician attended
+gratuitously any one who applied to him. There were also travelling
+physicians going rounds to heal children and the poor. These methods
+continued, probably all of them, to Christian times.
+
+It has been argued that medical practice was introduced into Italy by
+the Greeks. But the evidence seems to show that there was a quite
+independent Latin tradition and school of medicine (René Brian,
+"Médecine dans le Latium et à Rome," _Rev. Archéol._, 1885). In Rome
+there were consulting-rooms and dispensaries, and houses in which the
+sick were received. Hospitals are mentioned by Roman writers in the 1st
+century A.D. There were infirmaries--detached buildings--for sick
+slaves; and in Rome, as at Athens, there were slaves skilled in
+medicine. In Rome also for each _regio_ there was a chief physician who
+attended to the poorer people.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+Slavery was so large a factor in pre-Christian and early Christian
+society that a word should be said on its relation to charity.
+Indirectly it was a cause of poverty and social degradation. Thus in the
+case of Athens, with the achievement of maritime supremacy the number of
+slaves increased greatly. Manual arts were despised as unbecoming to a
+citizen, and the slaves carried on the larger part of the agricultural
+and industrial work of the community; and for a time--until after the
+Peloponnesian War (404 B.C.)--slavery was an economic success. But by
+degrees the slave, it would seem, dispossessed the citizen and rendered
+him unfit for competition. The position of the free artisan thus became
+akin to that of the slave (Arist. _Pol._ 1260 a, &c.), and slavery
+became the industrial method of the country. Though Greeks, Romans, Jews
+and Christians spent money in ransoming individual slaves and also
+enfranchised many, no general abolition of slavery was possible. At
+last through economic changes the new status of _coloni_, who paid as
+rent part of the produce of the land they tilled, superseded the status
+of slavery (cf. above; the system turned to account by Peisistratus).
+But this result was only achieved much later, when a new society was
+being created, when the slaves from the slave prisons (_ergastula_) of
+Italy joined its invaders, and the slave-owner or master, as one may
+suppose, unable any longer to work the gangs, let them become _coloni_.
+
+In Greece the feeling towards the slave became constantly more humane.
+Real slavery, Aristotle said, was a cast of mind, not a condition of
+life. The slave was not to be ordered about, but to be commanded and
+persuaded like a child. The master was under the strongest obligation to
+promote his welfare. In Rome, on the other hand, slavery continued to
+the end a massive, brutal, industrial force--a standing danger to the
+state. But alike in Greece and Rome the influence of slavery on the
+family was pernicious. The pompous array of domestic slaves, the
+transfer of motherly duties to slave nurses, the loss of that homely
+education which for most people comes only from the practical details of
+life--all this in later Greece and Italy, and far into Christian times,
+prevented that permanent invigoration and reform of family life which
+Jewish and Christian influences might otherwise have produced.
+
+
+PART III.--CHARITY IN ROMAN TIMES
+
+The words that suggest most clearly the Roman attitude towards what we
+call charity are _liberalitas_, _beneficentia_ and _pietas_. The two
+former are almost synonymous (Cicero, _De Offic._ i. 7, 14). Liberality
+lays stress on the mood--that of the _liber_, the freeborn, and so in a
+sense the independent and superior; beneficence on the deed and its
+purpose (Seneca, _De Benef._ vi. 10). The conditions laid down by
+Cicero, following Panaetius the Stoic (185-112 B.C.) are three: not to
+do harm to him whom one would benefit, not to exceed one's means, and to
+have regard to merit. The character of the person whom we would benefit
+should be considered, his feelings towards us, the interest of the
+community, our social relations in life, and services rendered in the
+past. The utility of the deed or gift graded according to social
+relationship and estimated largely from the point of view of ultimate
+advantage to the doer or donor seems to predominate in the general
+thought of the book, though (cf. Aristotle, _Eth._ viii. 3) the idea
+culminates in the completeness of friendship where "all things are in
+common." _Pietas_ has the religious note which the other words lack,
+loving dutifulness to gods and home and country. Not "piety" only but
+"pity" derive from it: thus it comes near to our "charity." Both books,
+the _De Officiis_ and the _De Beneficiis_, represent a Roman and Stoical
+revision of the problem of charity and, as in Stoicism generally, there
+seems to be a half-conscious attempt to feel the way to a new social
+standpoint from this side.
+
+
+  Roman times.
+
+As from the point of view of charity the well-being of the community
+depends upon the vigour of the deep-laid elemental life within it, so in
+passing to Roman times we consider the family first. The Roman family
+was unique in its completeness, and by some of its conditions the world
+has long been bound. The father alone had independent authority (_sui
+juris_), and so long as he lived all who were under his power--his wife,
+his sons, and their wives and children, and his unmarried
+daughters--could not acquire any property of their own. Failing father
+or husband, the unmarried daughters were placed under the guardianship
+of the nearest male members of the family. Thus the family, in the
+narrower sense in which we commonly use the word, as meaning descendants
+of a common father or grandfather, was, as it were, a single point of
+growth in a larger organism, the _gens_, which consisted of all those
+who shared a common ancestry.
+
+  The wife, though in law the property of her husband, held a position
+  of honour and influence higher than that of the Greek wife, at least
+  in historic times. She seems to come nearer to the ideal of Xenophon:
+  "the good wife should be the mistress of everything within the house."
+  "A house of his own and the blessing of children appeared to the Roman
+  citizen as the end and essence of life" (Mommsen, _Hist. Rome_). The
+  obligation of the father to the sons was strongly felt. The family,
+  past, present and future, was conceived as one and indivisible. Each
+  succeeding generation had a right to the care of its predecessor in
+  mind, body and estate. The training of the sons was distinctly a home
+  and not a school training. Brought up by the father and constantly at
+  his side, they learnt spontaneously the habits and traditions of the
+  family. The home was their school. By their father they were
+  introduced into public life, and though still remaining under his
+  power during his lifetime, they became citizens, and their relation to
+  the state was direct. The nation was a nation of yeomen. Only
+  agriculture and warfare were considered honourable employments. The
+  father and sons worked outdoors on the farm, employing little or no
+  slave labour; the wife and daughters indoors at spinning and weaving.
+  The drudgery of the household was done by domestic slaves. The father
+  was the working head of a toiling household. Their chief gods were the
+  same as those of early Greece--Zeus-Diovis and Hestia-Vesta, the
+  goddess of the hearth and home. Out of this solid, compact family
+  Roman society was built, and so long as the family was strong
+  attachment to the service of the state was intense. The _res publica_,
+  the common weal, the phrase and the thought, meet one at every turn;
+  and never were citizens more patient and tenacious combatants on their
+  country's behalf. The men were soldiers in an unpaid militia and were
+  constantly engaged in wars with the rivals of Rome, leaving home and
+  family for their campaigns and returning to them in the winter. With a
+  hardness and closeness inconsistent with--indeed, opposed to--the
+  charitable spirit, they combined the strength of character and sense
+  of justice without which charity becomes sentimental and unsocial. In
+  the development of the family, and thus, indirectly, in the
+  development of charity, they stand for settled obligation and
+  unrelenting duty.
+
+Under the protection of the head of the family "in dependent freedom"
+lived the clients. They were in a middle position between the freemen
+and the slaves. The relation between patron and client lasted for
+several generations; and there were many clients. Their number increased
+as state after state was conquered, and they formed the _plebs_, in Rome
+the _plebs urbana_, the lower orders of the city.
+
+In relation to our subject the important factors are the family, the
+_plebs_ and slavery.
+
+Two processes were at work from an early date, before the first agrarian
+law (486 B.C.): the impoverishment of the _plebs_ and the increase of
+slavery. The former led to the _annona civica_, or the free supply of
+corn to the citizens, and to the _sportula_ or the organized food-supply
+for poor clients, and ultimately to the _alimentarii pueri_, the
+maintenance of children of citizens by voluntary and imperial bounty.
+The latter (slavery) was the standing witness that, as self-support was
+undermined, the task of relief became hopeless, and the impoverished
+citizen, as the generations passed, became in turn dependant, beggar,
+pauper and slave.
+
+The great patrician families--"an oligarchy of warriors and
+slaveholders"--did not themselves engage in trade, but, entering on
+large speculations, employed as their agents their clients, _libertini_
+or freedmen, and, later, their slaves. The constant wars, for which the
+soldiers of a local militia were eventually retained in permanent
+service, broke up the yeomanry and very greatly reduced their number.
+Whole families of citizens became impoverished, and their lands were in
+consequence sold to the large patrician families, members of which had
+acquired lucrative posts, or prospered in their speculations, and
+assumed possession of the larger part of the land, the _ager publicus_,
+acquired by the state through conquest. The city had always been the
+centre of the patrician families, the patron of the trading _libertini_
+and other dependants. To it now flocked as well the _metoeci_, the
+resident aliens from the conquered states, and the poorer citizens,
+landless and unable for social reasons to turn to trade. There was thus
+in Rome a growing multitude of aliens, dispossessed yeomen and dependent
+clients. Simultaneously slavery increased very largely after the second
+Punic War (202 B.C.). Every conquest brought slaves into the market, for
+whom ready purchasers were found. The slaves took the place of the
+freemen upon the old family estates, and the free country people became
+extinct. Husbandry gave place to shepherding. The estates were thrown
+into large domains (_latifundia_), managed by bailiffs and worked by
+slaves, often fettered or bound by chains, lodged in cells in houses of
+labour (_ergastula_), and sometimes cared for when ill in infirmaries
+(_valetudinaria_). In Crete and Sparta the slaves toiled that the mass
+of citizens might have means and leisure. In Rome the slave class was
+organized for private and not for common ends. In Athens the citizens
+were paid for their services; at Rome no offices were paid. Thus the
+citizen at Rome was, one might almost say, forced into a dependence on
+the public corn, for as the large properties swallowed up the smaller,
+and the slave dispossessed the citizen, a population grew up unfit for
+rural toil, disinclined to live by methods that pride considered sordid,
+unstable and pleasure-loving, and yet a serious political factor, as
+dependent on the rich for their enjoyments as they were on their patrons
+or the prefect of the corn in the city for their food.
+
+  It is estimated, from extremely difficult and uncertain data, that the
+  population of Rome in the time of Augustus was about 1,200,000 or
+  1,500,000. At that time the_ plebs urbana_ numbered 320,000. If this
+  be multiplied by three, to give a low average of dependants, wives and
+  children, this section of the population would number 960,000. The
+  remainder of the 1,500,000, 540,000, would consist of (a) slaves, and
+  (b) those, the comparatively few, who would be members of the great
+  clan-families (_gentes_). Proportionately to Attica this seems to
+  allow too small a population of slaves. But however this be, we may
+  picture the population of Rome as consisting chiefly of a few
+  patrician families ministered to by a very large number of slaves, and
+  a populace of needy citizens, in whose ranks it was profitable for an
+  outsider to find a place in order that he might participate in the
+  advantages of state maintenance.
+
+
+  The annona civica.
+
+In Rome the clan-family became the dominant political factor. As in
+England and elsewhere in the middle ages, and even in later times, the
+family, in these circumstances, assumes an influence which is out of
+harmony with the common good. The social advantage of the family lies in
+its self-maintenance, its home charities, and its moral and educational
+force, but if its separate interests are made supreme, it becomes
+uncharitable and unsocial. In Rome this was the line of development. The
+stronger clan-families crushed the weaker, and became the "oligarchy of
+warriors and slaveholders." In the same spirit they possessed themselves
+of the _ager publicus_. The land obtained by the Romans by right of
+conquest was public. It belonged to the state, and to a yeoman state it
+was the most valuable acquisition. At first part of it was sold and part
+was distributed to citizens without property and destitute (cf.
+Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_). At a very early date, however, the patrician
+families acquired possession of much of it and held it at a low rental,
+and thus the natural outlet for a conquering farmer race was monopolized
+by one class, the richer clan-families. This injustice was in part
+remedied by the establishment of colonies, in which the emigrant
+citizens received sufficient portions of land. But these colonies were
+comparatively few, and after each conquest the rich families made large
+purchases, while the smaller proprietors, whose services as soldiers
+were constantly required, were unable to attend to their lands or to
+retain possession of them. To prevent this (367 B.C.) the Licinian law
+was passed, by which ownership in land was limited to 500 _jugera_,
+about 312 acres. This law was ignored, however, and more than two
+centuries later the evil, the double evil of the dispossession of the
+citizen farmer and of slavery, reached a crisis. The slave war broke out
+(134 B.C.) and (133 B.C.) Tiberius Gracchus made his attempt to re-endow
+the Roman citizens with the lands which they had acquired by conquest.
+He undertook what was essentially a charitable or philanthropic
+movement, which was set on foot too late. He had passed through Tuscany,
+and seen with resentment and pity the deserted country where the foreign
+slaves and barbarians were now the only shepherds and cultivators. He
+had been brought up under the influence of Greek Stoical thought, with
+which, almost in spite of itself, there was always associated an element
+of pity. The problem which he desired to solve, though larger in scale,
+was essentially the same as that with which Solon and Peisistratus had
+dealt successfully. At bottom the issue lay between private property,
+considered as the basis of family life for the great bulk of the
+community, with personal independence, and pauperism, with the _annona_
+or slavery. In 133 B.C. Tiberius Gracchus became tribune. To expand
+society on the lines of private property, he proposed the enforcement of
+"the Licinian Rogations"; the rich were to give up all beyond their
+rightful 312 acres, and the remainder was to be distributed amongst the
+poor. The measure was carried by the use of arbitrary powers, and
+followed by the death of Tiberius at the hands of the patricians, the
+dominant clan-families. In 132 B.C. Caius Gracchus took up his brother's
+quarrel, and adopting, it would seem, a large scheme of political and
+social reform, proposed measures for emigration and for relief. The
+former failed; the latter apparently were acceptable to all parties, and
+continued in force long after C. Gracchus had been slain (121 B.C.).
+Already, at times, there had been sales of corn at cheap prices. Now, by
+the _lex frumentaria_ he gave the citizens--those who had the Roman
+franchise--the right to purchase corn every month from the public stores
+at rather more than half-price, 6-1/3 _asses_ or about 3.3d. the peck.
+This, the fatal alternative, was accepted, and henceforth there was no
+possibility of a reversion to better social conditions.
+
+The provisioning of Rome was, like that of Athens, a public service.
+There were public granaries (267 B.C.), and there was a quaestor to
+supervise the transit of the corn from Sicily and, later, from Spain and
+Africa, and an elaborate administration for collecting and conveying it.
+The _lex frumentaria_ of Caius was followed by the _lex Octavia_,
+restricting the monthly sale to citizens settled in Rome, and to 5
+_modii_ (1¼ bushels). According to Polybius, the amount required for the
+maintenance of a slave was 5 _modii_ a month, and of a soldier 4. Hence
+the allowance, if continued at this rate, was practically a maintenance.
+The _lex Clodia_ (58 B.C.) made the corn gratuitous to the _plebs
+urbana_.
+
+  Julius Caesar (5 B.C.) found the number of recipients to be 320,000,
+  and reduced them to 150,000. In Augustus's time they rose to 200,000.
+  There seems, however, to be some confusion as to the numbers. From the
+  _Ancyranum Monumentum_ it appears that the _plebs urbana_ who received
+  Augustus's dole of 60 _denarii_ (37s. 6d.) in his eighth consulship
+  numbered 320,000. And (Suet. _Caes._ 41) it seems likely that in
+  Caesar's time the lists of the recipients were settled by lot;
+  further, probably only those whose property was worth less than
+  400,000 _sesterces_ (£3541) were placed on the lists. It is probable,
+  therefore, that 320,000 represents a maximum, reduced for purposes of
+  administration to a smaller number (a) by a property test, and (b) by
+  some kind of scrutiny. The names of those certified to receive the
+  corn were exposed on bronze tablets. They were then called _aerarii_.
+  They had tickets (_tesserae_) for purposes of identification, and they
+  received the corn or bread in the time of the republic at the temple
+  of Ceres, and afterwards at steps in the several (14) regions or wards
+  of Rome. Hence the bread was called _panis gradilis_. In the middle of
+  the 2nd century there were state bakeries, and wheaten loaves were
+  baked for the people perhaps two or three times a week. In Aurelian's
+  time (A.D. 270) the flour was of the best, and the weight of the loaf
+  (one _uncia_) was doubled. To the gifts of bread were added pork, oil
+  and possibly wine; clothes also--white tunics with long sleeves--were
+  distributed. In the period after Constantine (cf. _Theod. Code_, xiv.
+  15) three classes received the bread--the palace people (_palatini_),
+  soldiers (_militares_), and the populace (_populares_). No
+  distribution was permitted except at the steps. Each class had its own
+  steps in the several wards. The bread at one step could not be
+  transferred to another step. Each class had its own supply. There were
+  arrangements for the exchange of stale loaves. Against
+  misappropriation there were (law of Valentinian and Valens) severe
+  penalties. If a public prosecutor (_actor_), a collector of the
+  revenue (_procurator_), or the slave of a senator obtained bread with
+  the cognizance of the clerk, or by bribery, the slave, if his master
+  was not a party to the offence, had to serve in the state bakehouse in
+  chains. If the master were involved, his house was confiscated. If
+  others who had not the right obtained the bread, they and their
+  property were placed at the service of the bakery (_pistrini exercitio
+  subjugari_). If they were poor (_pauperes_) they were enslaved, and
+  the delinquent client was to be put to death.
+
+The right to relief was dependent on the right of citizenship. Hence it
+became hereditary and passed from father to son. It was thus in the
+nature of a continuous endowed charity, like the well-known family
+charity of Smith, for instance, in which a large property was left to
+the testator's descendants, of whom it was said that as a result no
+Smith of that family could fail to be poor. But the _annona civica_ was
+an endowed charity, affecting not a single family, but the whole
+population. Later, when Constantinople was founded, the right to relief
+was attached to new houses as a premium on building operations. Thus it
+belonged not to persons only, but also to houses, and became a species
+of "immovable" property, passing to the purchaser of the house or
+property, as would the adscript slaves. The bread followed the house
+(_aedes sequantur annonae_). If, on the transfer of a house, bread
+claims were lost owing to the absence of claimants, they were
+transferred to the treasury (_fisci viribus vindicentur_). But the
+savage law of Valentinian, referred to above, shows to what lengths such
+a system was pushed. Early in its history the _annona civica_ attracted
+many to Rome in the hope of living there without working. For the 400
+years since the _lex Clodia_ was enacted constant injury had been done
+by it, and now (A.D. 364) people had to be kept off the civic bounty as
+if they were birds of prey, and the very poor man (_pauperrimus_), who
+had no civic title to the food, if he obtained it by fraud, was
+enslaved. Thus, in spite of the abundant state relief, there had grown
+up a class of the very poor, the Gentiles of the state, who were outside
+the sphere of its ministrations. The _annona civica_ was introduced not
+only into Constantinople, but also into Alexandria, with baleful
+results, and into Antioch. When Constantinople was founded the
+corn-ships of Africa sailed there instead of to Rome. On charitable
+relief, as we shall see, the _annona_ has had a long-continued and fatal
+influence.
+
+  1. If the government considers itself responsible for provisioning the
+  people it must fix the price of necessaries, and to meet distress or
+  popular clamour it will lower the price. It becomes thus a large
+  relief society for the supply of corn. In a time of distress, when the
+  corn laws were a matter of moment in England, a similar system was
+  adopted in the well-known Speenhamland scale (1795), by which a larger
+  or lesser allowance was given to a family according to its size and
+  the prevailing price of corn. A maintenance was thus provided for the
+  able-bodied and their families, at least in part, without any
+  equivalent in labour; though in England labour was demanded of the
+  applicant, and work was done more or less perfunctorily. In amount the
+  Roman dole seems to have been equivalent to the allowance provided for
+  a slave, but the citizen received it without having to do any labour
+  task. He received it as a statutory right. There could hardly be a
+  more effective method for degrading his manhood and denaturalizing his
+  family. He was also a voter, and the alms appealed to his weakness and
+  indolence; and the fear of displeasing him and losing his vote kept
+  him, socially, master of the situation, to his own ruin. If in England
+  now relief were given to able-bodied persons who retained their votes,
+  this evil would also attach to it.
+
+  2. The system obliged the hard-working to maintain the idlers, while
+  it continually increased their number. The needy teacher in Juvenal,
+  instead of a fee, is put off with a _tessera_, to which, not being a
+  citizen, he has no right. "The foreign reapers," it was said, "filled
+  Rome's belly and left Rome free for the stage and the circus." The
+  freeman had become a slave--"stupid and drowsy, to whom days of ease
+  had become habitual, the games, the circus, the theatre, dice,
+  eating-houses and brothels." Here are all the marks of a degraded
+  pauperism.
+
+  3. The system led the way to an ever more extensive slavery. The man
+  who could not live on his dole and other scrapings had the alternative
+  of becoming a slave. "Better have a good master than live so
+  distressfully"; and "If I were free I should live at my own risk; now
+  I live at yours," are the expressions suggestive of the natural
+  temptations of slavery in these conditions. The escaped slaves
+  returned to "their manger." The _annona_ did not prevent destitution.
+  It was a half-way house to slavery.
+
+  4. The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce
+  generally, was ruinous. The largest corn-market, Rome, was withdrawn
+  from the trade--the market to which all the necessaries of life would
+  naturally have gravitated; and the supply of corn was placed in the
+  hands of producers at a few centres where it could be grown most
+  cheaply--Sicily, Spain and Africa. The Italian farmer had to turn his
+  attention to other produce--the cultivation of the olive and the vine,
+  and cattle and pig rearing. The greater the extension of the system
+  the more impossible was the regeneration of Rome. The Roman citizen
+  might well say that he was out of work, for, so far as the land was
+  concerned, the means of obtaining a living were placed out of his
+  reach. While not yet unfitted for the country by life in the town, he
+  at least could not "return to the land."
+
+  5. The method was the outcome of distress and political hopelessness.
+  Yet the rich also adopted it in distributing their private largess.
+  Cicero (_De Off._ ii. 16) writes as though he recognized its evil; but
+  though he expresses his disapprobation of the popular shows upon which
+  the _aediles_ spent large sums, he argues that something must be done
+  "if the people demand it, and if good men, though they do not wish it,
+  assent to it." Thus in a guarded manner he approves a distribution of
+  food--a free breakfast in the streets of Rome. One bad result of the
+  _annona_ was that it encouraged a special and ruinous form of
+  charitable munificence.
+
+
+  The sportula.
+
+The _sportula_ was a form of charity corresponding to the _annona
+civica_. Charity and poor relief run on parallel lines, and when the one
+is administered without discrimination, little discrimination will
+usually be exercised in the other. It was the charity of the patron of
+the chiefs of the clan-families to their clients. Between them it was
+natural that a relation, partly hospitable, partly charitable, should
+grow up. The clients who attended the patron at his house were invited
+to dine at his table. The patron, as Juvenal describes him, dined
+luxuriously and in solitary grandeur, while the guests put up with what
+they could get; or, as was usual under the empire, instead of the dinner
+(_coena recta_) a present of food was given at the outer vestibule of
+the house to clients who brought with them baskets (_sportula_) to carry
+off their food, or even charcoal stoves to keep it warm. There was
+endless trickery. The patron (or almoner who acted for him) tried to
+identify the applicant, fearing lest he might get the dole under a false
+name; and at each mansion was kept a list of persons, male and female,
+entitled to receive the allowance. "The pilferer grabs the dole"
+(_sportulam furunculus captat_) was a proverb. The _sportula_ was a
+charity sufficiently important for state regulation. Nero (A.D. 54)
+reduced it to a payment in money (100 _quadrantes_, about 1s.). Domitian
+(A.D. 81) restored the custom of giving food. Subsequently both
+practices--gifts in money and in food--appear to have been continued.
+
+In these conditions the Roman family steadily decayed. Its "old
+discipline" was neglected; and Tacitus (A.D. 75), in his dialogue on
+Oratory, wrote (c. xxviii.) what might be called its epitaph. Of the
+general decline the laws of Caesar and Augustus to encourage marriage
+and to reward the parents of large families are sufficient evidence.
+
+The destruction of the working-class family must have been finally
+achieved by the imperial control of the _collegia_.
+
+
+    The collegia.
+
+  In old Rome there were corporations of craftsmen for common worship,
+  and for the maintenance of the traditions of the craft. These
+  corporations were ruined by slave labour, and becoming secret
+  societies, in the time of Augustus were suppressed. Subsequently they
+  were reorganized, and gave scope for much friendliness. They often
+  existed in connexion with some great house, whose chief was their
+  patron and whose household gods they worshipped. The gilds of the
+  poor, or rather of the lower orders (_collegia tenuiorum_), consisted
+  of artisans and others, and slaves also, who paid monthly
+  contributions to a common fund to meet the expenses of worship, common
+  meals, and funerals. They were not in Italy, it would seem (J.P.
+  Waltzing, _Études histor. sur les corporations professionnelles chez
+  les Romains_, i. 145, 300), though they may have been in Asia Minor
+  and elsewhere, societies for mutual help generally. They were chiefly
+  funeral benefit societies. Under Severus (A.D. 192) the _collegia_
+  were extended and more closely organized as industrial bodies. They
+  were protected and controlled, as in England in the 15th century the
+  municipalities affected the cause of the craft gilds and ended by
+  controlling them. Industrial disorder was thus prevented; the
+  government were able to provide the supplies required in Rome and the
+  large cities with less risk and uncertainty; and the workmen employed
+  in trade, especially the carrying trade, became almost slaves. In the
+  2nd century, and until the invasions, there were three groups of
+  _collegia_: (1) those engaged in various state manufactures; (2) those
+  engaged in the provision trade; and (3) the free trades, which
+  gradually lapsed into a kind of slavery. If the members of these gilds
+  fled they were brought back by force. Parents had to keep to the trade
+  to which they belonged; their children had to succeed them in it. A
+  slave caste indeed had been formed of the once free workmen.
+
+
+  Pueri alimentarii.
+
+As a charitable protest against the destruction of children, in the
+midst of a broken family life, and increasing dependence and poverty, a
+special institution was founded (to use the Scottish word) for the
+"alimentation" of the children of citizens, at first by voluntary
+charity and afterwards by imperial bounty.
+
+  Nerva and Trajan adopted the plan. Pliny (_Ep._ vii. 18) refers to it.
+  There was a desire to give more lasting and certain help than an
+  allotment of food to parents. A list of children, whose names were on
+  the relief tables at Rome, was accordingly drawn up, and a special
+  service for their maintenance established. Two instances are recorded
+  in inscriptions--one at Veleia, one at Beneventum. The emperor lent
+  money for the purpose at a low percentage--2½ or 5% as against the
+  usual 10 or 12. At Veleia his loan amounted to 1,044,000
+  _sesterces_--about £8156, and 51 of the local landed proprietors
+  mortgaged land, valued at 13 or 14 million _sesterces_, as security
+  for the debt. The interest on the emperor's money at 5% was paid into
+  the municipal treasury, and out of it the children were relieved. The
+  figures seem small; at Veleia 300 children were assisted, of whom 36
+  were girls. The annual interest at 5% amounted to nearly £408, which
+  divided among 300 gives about 27s. a head. The figures suggest that
+  the money served as a charitable supplementation of the citizens'
+  relief in direct aid of the children. Apparently the scheme was widely
+  adopted. Curators of high position were the patrons; procurators acted
+  as inspectors over large areas; and _quaestores alimentarii_ undertook
+  the local management. Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138), and Marcus Aurelius
+  (A.D. 160), and subsequently Severus (A.D. 192) established these
+  bursaries for children in the names of their wives. In the 3rd century
+  the system fell into disorder. There were large arrears of payments,
+  and in the military anarchy that ensued it came to an end. It is of
+  special interest, as indicating a new feeling of responsibility
+  towards children akin to the humane Stoicism of the Antonines, and an
+  attempt to found, apart from temples or _collegia_, what was in the
+  nature of a public endowed charity.
+
+
+PART IV.--JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN CHARITY
+
+With Christianity two elements came into fusion, the Jewish and the
+Greco-Roman. To trace this fusion and its results it is necessary to
+describe the Jewish system of charity, and to compare it with that of
+the early Christian church, to note the theory of love or friendship in
+Aristotle as representing Greek thought, and of charity in St Paul as
+representing Christian thought, and to mark the Roman influences which
+moulded the administration of Ambrose and Gregory and Western
+Christianity generally.
+
+
+  Hebrew charity.
+
+In the early history of the Hebrews we find the family, clan-family and
+tribe. With the Exodus (probably about 1390 B.C.) comes the law of Moses
+(cf. Kittel, _Hist. of the Hebrews_, Eng. trans. i. 244), the central
+and permanent element of Jewish thought. We may compare it to the
+"commandments" of Hesiod. There is the recognition of the family and its
+obligations: "Honour thy father and mother"; and honour included help
+and support. There is also the law essential to family unity: "Thou
+shalt not commit adultery"; and as to property there is imposed the
+regulation of desire: "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house."
+Maimonides (A.D. 1135), true to the old conception of the family (x.
+16), calls the support of adult children, "after one is exempt from
+supporting them," and the support of a father or mother by a child,
+"great acts of charity; since kindred are entitled to the first
+consideration." To relief of the stranger the Decalogue makes no
+reference, but in the Hebraic laws it is constantly pressed; and the
+Levitical law (xix. 18) goes further. It first applies a new standard to
+social life: "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." This thought is
+the outcome of a deep ethical fervour--the element which the Jews
+brought into the work of charity. In Judges and Joshua, the "Homeric"
+books of the Old Testament, the Hebrews appear as a passionately fierce
+and cruel people. Subsequently against their oppression of the poor the
+prophets protested with a vehemence as great as the evil was intense;
+and their denunciations remained part of the national literature, a
+standing argument that life without charity is nothing worth. Thus
+schooled and afterwards tutored into discipline by the tribulation of
+the exile (587 B.C.), they turned their fierceness into a zeal, which,
+as their literature shows, was as fervent in ethics as it was in
+religion and ceremonial. In the services at the synagogues, which
+supplemented and afterwards took the place of the Temple, the
+Commandments were constantly repeated and the Law and the Prophets read;
+and as the Jews of the Dispersion increased in number, and especially
+after the destruction of Jerusalem, the synagogues became centres of
+social and charitable co-operation. Thus rightly would a Jewish rabbi
+say, "On three things the world is stayed: on the Thorah (or the law),
+and on worship, and on the bestowal of kindness." Also there was on the
+charitable side an indefinite power of expansion. Rigid in its
+ceremonial, there it was free. Within the nation, as the Prophets, and
+after the exile, as the Psalms show, there was the hope of a universal
+religion, and with it of a universally recognized charity. St Paul
+accentuated the prohibitive side of the law and protested against it;
+but, even while he was so doing, stimulated by the Jewish discipline, he
+was moving unfettered towards new conceptions of charity and
+life--charity as the central word of the Christian life, and life as a
+participation in a higher existence--the "body of Christ."
+
+To mark the line of development, we could compare--1. The family among
+the Jews and in the early Christian church; 2. The sources of relief and
+the tithe, the treatment of the poor and their aid, and the assistance
+of special classes of poor; 3. The care of strangers; and, lastly, we
+would consider the theory of almsgiving, friendship or love, and
+charity.
+
+1. As elsewhere, property is the basis of the family. Wife and children
+are the property of the father. But the wife is held in high respect. In
+the post-exilian period the virtuous wife is represented as laborious as
+a Roman matron, a "lady bountiful" to the poor, and to her husband wife
+and friend alike. Monogamy without concubinage is now the rule--is taken
+for granted as right. There is no "exposure of children." The slaves are
+kindly treated, as servants rather than slaves--though in Roman times
+and afterwards the Jews were great slave-traders. The household is not
+allowed to eat the bread of idleness. "Six days," it was said, "_must_
+[not _mayest_] thou work." "Labour, if poor; but find work, if rich."
+"Whoever does not teach his son business or work, teaches him robbery."
+In Job xxxi., a chapter which has been called "an inventory of late Old
+Testament morality," we find the family life developed side by side with
+the life of charity. In turn are mentioned the relief of the widow, the
+fatherless and the stranger--the classification of dependents in the
+Christian church; and the whole chapter is a justification of the homely
+charities of a good family. "The Jewish religion, more especially in the
+old and orthodox form, is essentially a family religion" (C.G.
+Montefiore, _Religion of Ancient Hebrews_).
+
+In the early documents of the Church the fifth commandment is made the
+basis of family life (cf. Eph. vi. 1; _Apost. Const._ ii. 32, iv. 11--if
+we take the first six books of the _Apost. Const._ as a composite
+production before A.D. 300, representing Judaeo-Christian or Eastern
+church thought). But two points are prominent. Duties are insisted on as
+reciprocal (cf. especially St Paul's Epistles), as, e.g. between husband
+and wife, parent and child, master and servant. Charity is mutual; the
+family is a circle of reciprocal duties and charities. This implies a
+principle of the greatest importance in relation to the social utility
+of charity. Further reference will be made to it later. Next the "thou
+shalt love thy neighbour" is translated from its position as one among
+many sayings to the chief place as a rule of life. In the _Didache_ or
+_Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (Jewish-Christian, c. 90-120 A.D.) the
+first commandment in "the way of life" is adapted from St Matthew's
+Gospel thus: "First, thou shalt love God who made thee; secondly, thy
+neighbour as thyself; and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have
+done to thee, neither do thou to another." A principle is thus applied
+which touches all social relations in which the "self" can be made the
+standard of judgment. Of this also later. To touch on other points of
+comparison: the earlier documents seem to ring with a reiterated cry for
+a purer family life (cf. the second, the negative, group of commandments
+in the _Didache_, and the judgment of the apocalyptic writings, such as
+the Revelations of Peter, &c.); and, sharing the Jewish feeling, the
+riper conscience of the Christian community formulates and accepts the
+injunction to preserve infant life at every stage. It advocates, indeed,
+the Jewish purity of family life with a missionary fervour, and it makes
+of it a condition of church membership. The Jewish rule of labour is
+enforced (_Ap. Const._ ii. 63). If a stranger settle (_Didache_, xii. 3)
+among the brotherhood, "let him work and eat." And the father
+(_Constit._ iv. 11) is to teach the children "such trades as are
+agreeable and suitable to their need." And the charities to the widow,
+the fatherless, are organized on Jewish lines.
+
+2. The sources of relief among the Jews were the three gifts of corn:
+(1) the corners of the field (cf. Lev. xix. &c.), amounting to a
+sixtieth part of it; (2) the gleanings, a definite minimum dropped in
+the process of reaping (Maimonides, _Laws of the Hebrews relating to the
+Poor_, iv. 1); (3) corn overlooked and left behind. So it was with the
+grapes and with all crops that were harvested, as opposed, e.g. to
+figs, that were gathered from time to time. These gifts were divisible
+three times in the day, so as to suit the convenience of the poor (Maim.
+ii. 17), and the poor had a right to them. They are indeed a poor-rate
+paid in kind such as in early times would naturally spring up among an
+agricultural people. Another gift "out of the seed of the earth," is the
+tithe. In the post-exilian period the septenniad was in force. Each year
+a fiftieth part of the produce (Maim. vi. 2, and Deut. xviii. 4) was
+given to the priest (the class which in the Jewish state was supported
+by the community). Of the remainder one-tenth went to the Levite, and
+one-tenth in three years of the septennium was retained for pilgrimage
+to Jerusalem, in two given to the poor. In the seventh year "all things
+were in common." Supplementing these gifts were alms to all who asked;
+"and he who gave less than a tenth of his means was a man of evil eye"
+(Maim. vii. 5). All were to give alms, even the poor themselves who were
+in receipt of relief. Refusal might be punished with stripes at the hand
+of the Sanhedrim. At the Temple alms for distribution to the worthy poor
+were placed by worshippers in the cell of silence; and it is said that
+in Palestine at meal times the table was open to all comers. As the
+synagogues extended, and possibly after the fall of Jerusalem (A.D. 70),
+the collections of alms was further systematized. There were two
+collections. In each city alms of the box or chest (_kupha_) were
+collected for the poor of the city on each Sabbath eve (later, monthly
+or thrice a year), and distributed in money or food for seven days. Two
+collected, three distributed. Three others gathered and distributed
+daily alms of the basket (_tamchui_). These were for strangers and
+wayfarers--casual relief "for the poor of the whole world." In the
+Jewish synagogue community from early times the president (_parnass_)
+and treasurer were elected annually with seven heads of the congregation
+(see Abraham's _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 54), and sometimes
+special officers for the care of the poor. A staff of almoners was thus
+forthcoming. In addition to these collections were the _pruta_ given to
+the poor before prayers (Maim. x. 15), and moneys gathered to help
+particular cases (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 322) by circular letter. There
+were also gifts at marriages and funerals; and fines imposed for breach
+of the communal ordinances were reserved for the poor. The distinctive
+feature of the Jewish charity was the belief that "the poor would not
+cease out of the land," and that therefore on charitable grounds a
+permanent provision should be made for them--a poor-rate, in fact,
+subject to stripes and distraint, if necessary (Maim. vii. 10; and
+generally cf. articles on "Alms" and "Charity" in the _Jewish
+Encyclopaedia_).
+
+  If we compare this with the early church we find the following sources
+  of relief: (1) The Eucharistic offerings, some consumed at the time,
+  some carried home, some reserved for the absent (see Hatch, _Early
+  Church_, p. 40). The ministration, like the Eucharist, was connected
+  with the love feast, and was at first daily (Acts ii. 42, vi. 1, and
+  the _Didache_). (2) Freewill offerings and first-fruits and voluntary
+  tithes (_Ap. Con._ ii. 25) brought to the bishop and used for the
+  poor--orphans, widows, the afflicted and strangers in distress, and
+  for the clergy, deaconesses, &c. (3) Collections in churches on
+  Sundays and week-days, alms-boxes and gifts to the poor by worshippers
+  as they entered church; also collections for special purposes (cf. for
+  Christians at Jerusalem). Apart from "the corners," &c., the sources
+  of relief in the Christian and Jewish churches are the same. The
+  separate Jewish tithe for the poor, which (Maim. vi. II, 13) might be
+  used in part by the donor as personal charity, disappears. A voluntary
+  tithe remains, in part used for the poor. We do not hear of stripes
+  and distraint, but in both bodies there is a penitential system and
+  excommunication (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 52), and in both a settlement
+  of disputes within the body (Clem. _Hov_. iii. 67). In both, too,
+  there is the abundant alms provided in the belief of the permanence of
+  poverty and the duty of giving to all who ask. As to administration in
+  the early church (Acts vi. 3), we find seven deacons, the number of
+  the local Jewish council; and later there were in Rome seven
+  ecclesiastical relief districts, each in charge of a deacon. The
+  deacon acted as the minister of the bishop (_Ep._ Clem, to Jam. xii.),
+  reporting to him and giving as he dictated (_Ap. Con._ ii. 30, 31). He
+  at first combined disciplinary powers with charitable. The presbyters
+  also (Polycarp, _Ad Phil._ 6, A.D. 69-155), forming (Hatch, p. 69) a
+  kind of bishop's council, visited the sick, &c. The bishop was
+  president and treasurer. The bishop was thus the trustee of the poor.
+  By reason of the churches' care of orphans, responsibilities of
+  trusteeship also devolved on him. The temples were in pagan times
+  depositories of money. Probably the churches were also.
+
+3. Great stress is laid by the Jews on the duty of gentleness to the
+poor (Maim. x. 5). The woman was to have first attention (Maim. vi. 13).
+If the applicant was hungry he was to be fed, and then examined to learn
+whether he was a deceiver (Maim. vii. 6). Assistance was to be given
+according to the want--clothes, household things, a wife or a
+husband--and according to the poor man's station in life. For widows and
+orphans the "gleanings" were left. Both are the recognized objects of
+charity (Maim. x. 16,17). "The poor and the orphan were to be employed
+in domestic affairs in preference to servants." The dower was a constant
+form of help. The ransoming of slaves took precedence of relief to the
+poor. The highest degree of alms-deed (Maim. x. 7) was "to yield support
+to him who is cast down, either by means of gifts, or by loan, or by
+commerce, or by procuring for him traffic with others. Thus his hand
+becometh strengthened, exempt from the necessity of soliciting succour
+from any created being."
+
+If we compare the Christian methods we find but slight difference. The
+absoluteness of "Give to him that asketh" is in the _Didache_ checked by
+the "Woe to him that receives: for if any receives having need, he shall
+be guiltless, but he that has no need shall give account, ... and coming
+into distress ... he shall not come out thence till he hath paid the
+last farthing." It is the duty of the bishop to know who is most worthy
+of assistance (_Ap. Con._ ii. 3, 4); and "if any one is in want by
+gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve assistance, or
+to be esteemed a member of the church." The widow assumes the position
+not only of a recipient of alms, but a church worker. Some were a
+private charge, some were maintained by the church. The recognized
+"widow" was maintained: she was to be sixty years of age (cf. 1 Tim, v.
+9 and _Ap. Con._ iii. 1), and was sometimes tempted to become a
+bedes-woman and gossipy pauper, if one may judge from the texts.
+Remarriage was not approved. Orphans were provided for by members of the
+churches. The virgins formed another class, as, contrary to the earlier
+feeling, marriage came to be held a state of lesser sanctity. They too
+seem to have been also, in part at least, church workers. Thus round the
+churches grew up new groups of recognized dependents; but the older
+theory of charity was broad and practical--akin to that of Maimonides.
+"Love all your brethren, performing to orphans the part of parents, to
+widows that of husbands, affording them sustenance with all kindliness,
+arranging marriages for those who are in their prime, and for those who
+are without a profession the means of necessary support through
+employment: giving work to the artificer and alms to the incapable"
+(_Ep._ Clem, to James viii.).
+
+4. The Jews in pre-Christian and Talmudic times supported the stranger
+or wayfarer by the distribution of food (_tamchui_); the strangers were
+lodged in private houses, and there were inns provided at which no money
+was taken (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 314). Subsequently, besides these
+methods, special societies were formed "for the entertainment of the
+resident poor and of strangers." There were commendatory letters also.
+These conditions prevailed in the Christian church also. The
+_Xenodocheion_, coming by direct succession alike from Jewish and Greek
+precedents, was the first form of Christian hospital both for strangers
+and for members of the Christian churches. In the Christian community
+the endowment charity comes into existence in the 4th century, among the
+Jews not till the 13th. The charities of the synagogue without separate
+societies sufficed.
+
+
+  Greek, Jewish and Christian thought.
+
+We may now compare the conceptions of Jews and Christians on charity
+with those of the Greeks. There are two chief exponents of the diverse
+views--Aristotle and St Paul; for to simplify the issues we refer to
+them only. Thoughts such as Aristotle's, recast by the Stoic Panaetius
+(185-112 B.C.), and used by Cicero in his _De Officiis_, became in the
+hands of St Ambrose arguments for the direction of the clergy in the
+founding of the medieval church; and in the 13th century Aristotle
+reasserts his influence through such leaders of medieval thought as St
+Thomas Aquinas. St Paul's chapters on charity, not fully appreciated
+and understood, one is inclined to think, have perhaps more than any
+other words prevented an absolute lapse into the materialism of
+almsgiving. After him we think of St Francis, the greatest of a group of
+men who, seeking reality in life, revived charity; but to the theory of
+charity it might almost be said that since Aristotle and St Paul nothing
+has been added until we come to the economic and moral issues which Dr
+Chalmers explained and illustrated.
+
+The problem turns on the conception (1) of purpose, (2) of the self, and
+(3) of charity, love or friendship as an active force in social life. To
+the Greek, or at least to Greek philosophic thought, purpose was the
+measure of goodness. To have no purpose was, so far as the particular
+act was concerned, to be simply irrational; and the less definite the
+purpose the more irrational the act. This conception of purpose was the
+touchstone of family and social life, and of the civic life also. In no
+sphere could goodness be irrational. To say that it was without purpose
+was to say that it was without reality. So far as the actor was
+concerned, the main purpose of right action was the good of the soul
+([Greek: psyche]); and by the soul was meant the better self, "the
+ruling part" acting in harmony with every faculty and function of the
+man. With faculties constantly trained and developed, a higher life was
+gradually developed in the soul. We are thus, it might be said, what we
+become. The gates of the higher life are within us. The issue is whether
+we will open them and pass in.
+
+Consistent with this is the social purpose. Love or friendship is not
+conceived by Aristotle except in relation to social life. Society is
+based on an interchange of services. This interchange in one series of
+acts we call justice; in another friendship or love. A man cannot be
+just unless he has acquired a certain character or habit of mind; and
+hence no just man will act without knowledge, previous deliberation and
+definite purpose. So also will a friend fulfil these conditions in his
+acts of love or friendship. In the love existing between good men there
+is continuance and equality of service; but in the case of benefactor
+and benefited, in deeds of charity, in fact, there is no such equality.
+The satisfaction is on one side but often not on the other. (The dilemma
+is one that is pressed, though not satisfactorily, in Cicero and
+Seneca.) The reason for this will be found, Aristotle suggests, in the
+feeling of satisfaction which men experience in action. We realize
+ourselves in our deeds--throw ourselves into them, as people say; and
+this is happiness. What we make we like: it is part of us. On the other
+hand, in the person benefited there may be no corresponding action, and
+in so far as there is not, there is no exchange of service or the
+contentment that arises from it. The "self" of the recipient is not
+drawn out. On the contrary, he may be made worse, and feel the
+uneasiness and discontent that result from this. In truth, to complete
+Aristotle's argument, the good deed on one side, as it represents the
+best self of the benefactor, should on the other side draw out the best
+self of the person benefited. And where there is not ultimately this
+result, there is not effective friendship or charity, and consequently
+there is no personal or social satisfaction. The point may be pushed
+somewhat further. In recent developments of charitable work the term
+"friendly visitor" is applied to persons who endeavour to help families
+in distress on the lines of associated charity. It represents the work
+of charity in one definite light. So far as the relation is mutual, it
+cannot at the outset be said to exist. The charitable friend wishes to
+befriend another; but at first there may be no reciprocal feeling of
+friendship on the other's part--indeed, such a feeling may never be
+created. The effort to reciprocate kindness by becoming what the friend
+desires may be too painful to make. Or the two may be on different
+planes, one not really befriending, but giving without intelligence, the
+other not really endeavouring to change his nature, but receiving help
+solely with a view to immediate advantage. The would-be befriender may
+begin "despairing of no man," expecting nothing in return; but if, in
+fact, there is never any kind of return, the friendship actually fails
+of its purpose, and the "friend's" satisfaction is lost, except in that
+he may "have loved much." In any case, according to this theory
+friendship, love and charity represent the mood from which spring social
+acts, the value of which will depend on the knowledge, deliberation and
+purpose with which they are done, and accordingly as they acquire value
+on this account will they give lasting satisfaction to both parties.
+
+St Paul's position is different. He seems at first sight to ignore the
+state and social life. He lays stress on motive force rather than on
+purpose. He speaks as an outsider to the state, though technically a
+citizen. His mind assumes towards it the external Judaic position, as
+though he belonged to a society of settlers ([Greek: paroikoi]). Also,
+as he expects the millennium, social life and its needs are not
+uppermost in his thoughts. He considers charity in relation to a
+community of fellow-believers--drawn together in congregations. His
+theory springs from this social base, though it over-arches life itself.
+He is intent on creating a spiritual association. He conceives of the
+spirit ([Greek: pneuma]) as "an immaterial personality." It transcends
+the soul ([Greek: psychê]), and is the Christ life, the ideal and
+spiritual life. Christians participate in it, and they thus become part
+of "the body of Christ," which exists by virtue of love--love akin to
+the ideal life, [Greek: agapê]. The word represents the love that is
+instinct with reverence, and not love [Greek: philia] which may have in
+it some quality of passion. This love is the life of "the body of
+Christ." Therefore no act done without it is a living act--but, on the
+contrary, must be dead--an act in which no part of the ideal life is
+blended. On the individual act or the purpose no stress is laid. It is
+assumed that love, because it is of this intense and exalted type, will
+find the true purpose in the particular act. And, when the expectation
+of the millennium passed away, the theory of this ideal charity remained
+as a motive force available for whatever new conditions, spiritual or
+social, might arise. Nevertheless, no sooner does this charity touch
+social conditions, than the necessity asserts itself of submitting to
+the limitations which knowledge, deliberation and purpose impose. This
+view had been depreciated or ignored by Christians, who have been
+content to rely upon the strength of their motives, or perhaps have not
+realized what the Greeks understood, that society was a natural organism
+(Arist. _Pol._ 1253A), which develops, fails or prospers in accordance
+with definite laws. Hence endless failure in spite of some success. For
+love, whether we idealize it as [Greek: agapê] or consider it a social
+instinct as [Greek: philia], cannot be love at all unless it quickens
+the intelligence as much as it animates the will. It cannot, except by
+some confusion of thought, be held to justify the indulgence of emotion
+irrespective of moral and social results. Yet, though this fatal error
+may have dominated thought for a long time, it is hardly possible to
+attribute it to St Paul's theory of charity when the very practical
+nature of Judaism and early Christianity is considered. In his view the
+misunderstanding could not arise. And to create a world or "body" of men
+and women linked together by love, even though it be outside the normal
+life of the community, was to create a new form of religious
+organization, and to achieve for it (so far as it was achieved) what,
+_mutatis mutandis_, Aristotle held to be the indispensable condition of
+social life, friendship ([Greek: philia]), "the greatest good of
+states," for "Socrates and all the world declare," he wrote, that "the
+unity of the state" is "created by friendship" (Arist. _Pol._ ii. 1262
+b).
+
+  It should, however, be considered to what extent charity in the
+  Christian church was devoid of social purpose, (1) The Jewish
+  conceptions of charity passed, one might almost say, in their
+  completeness into the Christian church. Prayer, the petition and the
+  purging of the mind, fasting, the humiliation of the body, and alms,
+  as part of the same discipline, the submissive renunciation of
+  possessions--all these formed part of the discipline that was to
+  create the religious mood. Alms henceforth become a definite part of
+  the religious discipline and service. Humility and poverty hereafter
+  appear as yoked virtues, and many problems of charity are raised in
+  regard to them. The non-Christian no less than the Christian world
+  appreciated more and more the need of self-discipline ([Greek:
+  askêsis]); and it seems as though in the first two centuries A.D.
+  those who may have thought of reinvigorating society searched for the
+  remedy rather in the preaching and practice of temperance than in the
+  application of ideas that were the outcome of the observation of
+  social or economic conditions. Having no object of this kind as its
+  mark, almsgiving took the place of charity, and, as Christianity
+  triumphed, the family life, instead of reviving, continued to decay,
+  while the virtues of the discipline of the body, considered apart from
+  social life, became an end in themselves, and it was desired rather to
+  annihilate instinct than to control it. Possibly this was a necessary
+  phase in a movement of progress, but however that be, charity, as St
+  Paul understood it, had in it no part. (2) But the evil went farther.
+  Jewish religious philosophy is not elaborated as a consistent whole by
+  any one writer. It is rather a miscellany of maxims; and again and
+  again, as in much religious thought, side issues assume the principal
+  place. The direct effect of the charitable act, or almsgiving, is
+  ignored. Many thoughts and motives are blended. The Jews spoke of the
+  poor as the means of the rich man's salvation. St Chrysostom
+  emphasizes this: "If there were no poor, the greater part of your sins
+  would not be removed: they are the healers of your wounds" (_Hom._
+  xiv., Timothy, &c., St Cyprian on works and alms). Alms are the
+  medicine of sin. And the same thought is worked into the penitential
+  system. Augustine speaks of "penance such as fasting, almsgiving and
+  prayer for breaches of the Decalogue" (Reichel, _Manual of Canon Law_,
+  p. 23); and many other references might be cited. "Pecuniary penances
+  (Ib. 154), in so far as they were relaxations of, or substitutes for,
+  bodily penances, were permitted because of the greater good thereby
+  accruing to others" (and in this case they were--A.D. 1284--legally
+  enforceable under English statute law). The penitential system takes
+  for granted that the almsgiving is good for others and puts a premium
+  on it, even though in fact it were done, not with any definite object,
+  but really for the good of the penitent. Thus almsgiving becomes
+  detached from charity on the one side and from social good on the
+  other. Still further is it vulgarized by another confusion of thought.
+  It is considered that the alms are paid to the credit of the giver,
+  and are realized as such by him in the after-world; or even that by
+  alms present prosperity may be obtained, or at least evil accident
+  avoided. Thus motives were blended, as indeed they now are, with the
+  result that the gift assumed a greater importance than the charity, by
+  which alone the gift should have been sanctified, and its actual
+  effect was habitually overlooked or treated as only partially
+  relevant.
+
+  (3) The Christian maxim of "loving ([Greek: agapê]) one's neighbour as
+  one's self" sets a standard of charity. Its relations are idealized
+  according as the "self" is understood; and thus the good self becomes
+  the measure of charity. In this sense, the nobler the self the
+  completer the charity; and the charity of the best men, men who love
+  and understand their neighbours best, having regard to their chief
+  good, is the best, the most effectual charity. Further, if in what we
+  consider "best" we give but a lesser place to social purpose or even
+  allow it no place at all, our "self" will have no sufficient social
+  aim and our charity little or no social result. For this "self,"
+  however, religion has substituted not St Paul's conception of the
+  spirit ([Greek: pneuma]), but a soul, conceived as endowed with a
+  substantial nature, able to enjoy and suffer quasi-material rewards
+  and punishments in the after-life; and in so far as the safeguard of
+  this soul by good deeds or almsgiving has become a paramount object,
+  the purpose of charitable action has been translated from the actual
+  world to another sphere. Thus, as we have seen, the aid of the poor
+  has been considered not an object in itself, but as a means by which
+  the almsgiver effects his own ulterior purpose and "makes God his
+  debtor." The problem thus handled raises the question of reward and
+  also of punishment. Properly, from the point of view of charity, both
+  are excluded. We may indeed act from a complexity of motives and
+  expect a complexity of rewards, and undoubtedly a good act does
+  refresh the "self," and may as a result, though not as a reward, win
+  approval. But in reality reward, if the word be used at all, is
+  according to purpose; and the only reward of a deed lies in the
+  fulfilment of its purpose. In the theory of almsgiving which we are
+  discussing, however, act and reward are on different planes. The
+  reward is on that of a future life; the act related to a distressed
+  person here and now. The interest in the act on the doer's part lies
+  in its post-mortal consequences to himself, and not either wholly or
+  chiefly in the act itself. Nor, as the interest ends with the act--the
+  giving--can the intelligence be quickened by it. The questions "How?
+  by whom? with what object? on what plan? with what result?" receive no
+  detailed consideration at all. Two general results follow. In so far
+  as it is thus practised, almsgiving is out of sympathy with social
+  progress. It is indeed alien to it. Next also the self-contained,
+  self-sustained poverty that will have no relief and does without it,
+  is outside the range of its thought and understanding. On the other
+  hand, this almsgiving is equally incapable of influencing the weak and
+  the vicious; and those who are suffering from illness or trouble it
+  has not the width of vision to understand nor the moral energy to
+  support so that they shall not fall out of the ranks of the
+  self-supporting. It believes that "the poor" will not cease out of the
+  land. And indeed, however great might be the economic progress of the
+  people, it is not likely that the poor will cease, if the alms given
+  in this spirit be large enough in amount to affect social conditions
+  seriously one way or the other. When we measure the effects of
+  charity, this inheritance of divided thought and inconsistent counsels
+  must be given its full weight.
+
+
+  The organization of the parish and endowed charities.
+
+The sub-apostolic church was a congregation, like a synagogue, the
+centre of a system of voluntary and personal relief, connected with the
+congregational meals (or [Greek: agapai]) and the Eucharist, and under
+the supervision of no single officer or bishop. Out of this was
+developed a system of relief controlled by a bishop, who was assisted
+chiefly by deacons or presbyters, while the [Greek: agapai], consisting
+of offerings laid before the altar, still remained. Subsequently the
+meal was separated from the sacrament, and became a dole of food, or
+poor people's meal--e.g. in St Augustine's time in western Africa--and
+it was not allowed to be served in churches (A.D. 391). As religious
+asceticism became dominant, the sacrament was taken fasting; it appeared
+unseemly that men and women should meet together for such purposes, and
+the [Greek: agapai] fell out of repute. Simultaneously it would seem
+that the parish [Greek: paroikia] became from a congregational
+settlement a geographical area.
+
+The organization of relief at Rome illustrates both a type of
+administration and a transition. St Gregory's reforms (A.D. 590) largely
+developed it. The first factor in the transition was the church fund of
+the second period of Christianity, about A.D. 150 to after 208
+(Tertullian, _Apol_. 39). It served as a friendly fund, was supported by
+voluntary gifts, and was used to succour and to bury the poor, to help
+destitute and orphaned children, old household slaves and those who
+suffered for the faith. This fund is quite different from the _collegia
+tenuiorum_ or _funeratica_ of the Romans, which were societies to which
+the members paid stipulated sums at stated periods, for funeral benefits
+or for common meals (J.P. Waltzing, _Corporations professionnelles chez
+les Romains_, i. 313). It represents the charitable centre round which
+the parochial system developed. That system was adopted probably about
+the middle of the 3rd century, but in Rome the diaconate probably
+remained centralized. At the end of the 4th century Pope Anastasius had
+founded deaconries in Rome, and endowed them largely "to meet the
+frequent demands of the diaconate." Gregory two hundred years later
+reorganized the system. He divided the fourteen old "regions" into seven
+ecclesiastical districts and thirty "titles" (or parishes). The parishes
+were under the charge of sixty-six priests; the districts were
+eleemosynary divisions. Each was placed under the charge of a deacon,
+not (Greg. _Ep_. xi. and xxviii.) under the priests (_presbyteri
+titularii_). Over the deacons was an archdeacon. It was the duty of the
+deacons to care for the poor, widows, orphans, wards, and old people of
+their several districts. They inquired in regard to those who were
+relieved, and drew up under the guidance of the bishop the register of
+poor (_matricula_). Only these received regular relief. In each district
+was an hospital or office for alms, of which the deacon had charge,
+assisted by a steward (or _oeconomus_). Here food was given and meals
+were taken, the sick and poor were maintained, and orphan or foundling
+children lodged. The churches of Rome and of other large towns possessed
+considerable estates, "the patrimony of the patron saints," and to Rome
+belonged estates in Sicily which had not been ravaged by the invaders,
+and they continued to pay to it their tenth of corn, as they had done
+since Sicily was conquered. Four times a year (Milman, _Lat. Christ_,
+ii. 117) the shares of the (1) clergy and papal officers, (2) churches
+and monasteries, and (3) "hospitals, deaconries and ecclesiastical wards
+for the poor," were calculated in money and distributed; and the first
+day in every month St Gregory distributed to the poor in kind corn,
+wine, cheese, vegetables, bacon, meal, fish and oil. The sick and infirm
+were superintended by persons appointed to inspect every street. Before
+the pope sat down to his own meal a portion was separated and sent out
+to the hungry at his door. The Roman _plebs_ had thus become the poor of
+Christ (_pauperes Christi_), and under that title were being fed by
+_civica annona_ and _sportula_ as their ancestors had been; and the
+deaconries had superseded the "regions" and the "steps" from which the
+corn had been distributed. The _hospitium_ was now part of a common
+organization of relief, and the sick were visited according to Jewish
+and early Christian precedent. How far kindly Romans visited the sick of
+their day we do not know. Alms and the _annona_ were now, it would seem,
+administered concurrently; and there was a system of poor relief
+independent of the churches and their alms (unless these, organized, as
+in Scottish towns, on the ancient ecclesiastical lines, were paid wholly
+or in part to a central diaconate fund). Much had changed, but in much
+Roman thought still prevailed.
+
+On lines similar to these the organization of poor relief in the middle
+ages was developed. In the provinces in the later empire the senate or
+_ordo decurionum_ were responsible for the public provisioning of the
+towns (Fustel de Coulanges, _La Gaule romaine_, p. 251), and no doubt
+the care of the poor would thus in some measure devolve on them in times
+of scarcity or distress. On the religious side, on the other hand, the
+churches would probably be constant centres of almsgiving and relief;
+and then, further, when the Roman municipal system had decayed, each
+citizen (as in Charlemagne's time, 742-814) was required to support his
+own dependants--a step suggestive of much after-history.
+
+  The change in sentiment and method could hardly be more strongly
+  marked than by a comparison of "the _Teaching_" with St Ambrose's
+  (334-397) "Duties of the Clergy" (_De Officiis Ministrorum_). For the
+  old instinctive obedience to a command there is now an endeavour to
+  find a reasoned basis for charitable action. Pauperism is recognized.
+  "Never was the greed of beggars greater than it is now.... They want
+  to empty the purses of the poor, to deprive them of the means of
+  support. Not content with a little, they ask for more.... With lies
+  about their lives they ask for further sums of money." "A method in
+  giving is necessary." But in the suggestions made there is little
+  consistency. Liberality is urged as a means of gaining the love of the
+  people; a new and a false issue is thus raised. The relief is neither
+  to be "too freely given to those who are unsuitable, nor too sparingly
+  bestowed upon the needy." Everywhere there is a doctrine of the mean
+  reflected through Cicero's _De Officiis_, the doctrine insufficiently
+  stated, as though it were a mean of quantity, and not that rightly
+  tempered mean which is the harmony of opposing moods. The poor are not
+  to be sent away empty. Those rejected by the church are not to be left
+  to the "outer darkness" of an earlier Christianity. They must be
+  supplied if they are in want. The methodic giver is "hard towards
+  none, but is free towards all." Consequently none are refused, and no
+  account is taken of the regeneration that may spring up in a man from
+  the effort towards self-help which refusal may originate. Thus after
+  all it appears that method means no more than this--to give sometimes
+  more, sometimes less, to all needy people. In the small congregational
+  church of early Christianity, each member of which was admitted on the
+  conditions of strictest discipline, the common alms of the faithful
+  could hardly have done much harm within the body, even though outside
+  they created and kept alive a horde of vagrant alms-seekers and
+  pretenders. Now in this department at least the church had become the
+  state, and discipline and a close knowledge of one's fellow-Christians
+  no longer safeguarded the alms. From Cicero is borrowed the thought of
+  "active help," which "is often grander and more noble," but the
+  thought is not worked out. From the social side the problem is not
+  understood or even stated, and hence no principle of charity or of
+  charitable administration is brought to light in the investigation.
+  Still there are rudiments of the economics of charity in the praise of
+  Joseph, who made the people _buy_ the corn, for otherwise "they would
+  have given up cultivating the soil; for he who has the use of what is
+  another's often neglects his own." Perhaps, as St Augustine inspired
+  the theology of the middle ages, we may say that St Ambrose, in the
+  mingled motives, indefiniteness, and kindliness of this book, stands
+  for the charity of the middle ages, except in so far as the movement
+  which culminated in the brotherhood of St Francis awakened the
+  intelligence of the world to wider issues.
+
+In Constantinople the pauperism seems to have been extreme. The corn
+supplies of Africa were diverted there in great part when it became the
+capital of the empire. This must have left to Rome a larger scope for
+the development of the civic-religious administration of relief. St
+Chrysostom's sermons give no impression of the rise of any new
+administrative force, alike sagacious and dominant. The appeal to give
+alms is constant, but the positive counsel on charitable work is _nil_.
+The people had the _annona civica_, and imperial gifts, corn, allowances
+(_salaria_) from the treasury granted for the poor and needy, and an
+annual gift of 50 gold pounds (rather more than £1400) for funerals.
+Besides these there were many institutions, and the begging and the
+almsgiving at the church doors. "The land could not support the lazy and
+valiant beggars." There were public works provided for them; if they
+refused to work on them they were to be driven away. The sick might
+visit the capital, but must be registered and sent back (A.D. 382); the
+sturdy beggar was condemned to slavery. So little did alms effect. And
+in the East monasticism seems to have produced no firmness of purpose
+such as led to the organization of the church and of charitable relief
+under St Gregory.
+
+Another movement of the Byzantine period was the establishment of the
+endowed charity. The Jewish synagogue long served as a place for the
+reception of strangers--a religious [Greek: xenodocheion]. Probably the
+strangers referred to in "the _Teaching_" were so entertained. The table
+of the bishop and a room in his house served as the guest-chamber, for
+which afterwards a separate building was instituted. In the East the
+Jewish charitable inn first appears, and there took place the earliest
+extension of institutions. There was probably a demand for an
+elaboration of institutions as social changes made themselves felt in
+the churches. We have seen this in the case of the [Greek: agapê].
+Similar changes would affect other branches of charitable work. The
+hospital (_hospitalium_, [Greek: xenodocheion]) is defined as a "house
+of God in which strangers who lack hospitality are received" (Suicerus,
+_Thesaur._), a home separated from the church; and round the church, out
+of the primitive [Greek: xenodocheion] of early Christian times and the
+entertainment of strangers at the houses of members of the community,
+would grow up other similar charities. In A.D. 321 licence was given by
+Constantine to leave property to the Church. The churches were thus
+placed in the same position as pagan temples, and though subsequently
+Valentinian (A.D. 379) withdrew the permission on account of the
+shameless legacy-hunting of the clergy, in that period much must have
+been done to endow church and charitable institutions. In the same
+period grew to its height the passion for monasticism. This affected the
+parish and the endowed charity alike. Under its influence the deacon as
+an almoner tends to disappear, except where, as in Rome, there is an
+elaborate system of relief. Nor does it seem that deaconesses, widows,
+and virgins continued to occupy their old position as church workers and
+alms-receivers. Naturally when marriage was considered "in itself an
+evil, perhaps to be tolerated, but still degrading to human nature," and
+(A.D. 385) the marriage of the clergy was prohibited, men, except those
+in charge of parishes, and women would join regular monastic bodies; the
+deacon, as almoner, would disappear, and the "widows" and virgins would
+become nuns. Thus there would grow up a large body of men and women
+living segregated in institutions, and forming a leisured class able to
+superintend institutional charities. And now two new officers appear,
+the _eleemosynarius_ or almoner and the _oeconomus_ or steward (already
+an assistant treasurer to the bishop), who superintend and distribute
+the alms and manage the property of the institution. (In the first six
+books of the _Apost. Constit._, A.D. 300, these officers are not
+mentioned.) In these circumstances the _hospitium_ or hospital ([Greek:
+xenon], [Greek: katagôgion]) assumes a new character. It becomes in St
+Basil's hands (A.D. 330-379) a resort not only for those who "visit it
+from time to time as they pass by, but also for those who need some
+treatment in illness." And round St Basil at Caesarea there springs up a
+colony of institutions. Four kinds principally are mentioned in the
+Theodosian code: (i) the guest-houses ([Greek: xenodocheia]); (2) the
+poor-houses ([Greek: ptôcheia]), where the poor (_mendici_) were housed
+and maintained (the [Greek: ptôcheion] was a general term also applied
+to all houses for the poor, the aged, orphans and sick); (3) there were
+orphanages ([Greek: orphanotropheia]) for orphans and wards; and (4)
+there were houses for infant children ([Greek: brephotropheia]). Thus a
+large number of endowed charities had grown up. This new movement it is
+necessary to consider in connexion with the law relating to religious
+property and bequests, in its bearing on the rule of the monasteries,
+and in its effect on the family.
+
+  The sacred property (_res sacra_) of Roman law consisted of things
+  dedicated to the gods by the pontiff with the approval of the civil
+  authority, in turn, the people, the senate and the emperor. Things so
+  consecrated were inalienable. Apart from this in the empire, the
+  municipalities as they grew up were considered "juristic persons" who
+  were entitled to receive and hold property. In a similar position were
+  authorized _collegia_, amongst which were the mutual aid societies
+  referred to above. Christians associated in these societies would
+  leave legacies to them. Thus (W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of
+  Phrygia_, I. i. 119) an inscription mentions a bequest (possibly by a
+  Christian) to the council ([Greek: synhedrion]) of the presidents of
+  the dyers in purple for a ceremonial, on the condition that, if the
+  ceremony be neglected, the legacy shall become the property of the
+  gild for the care of nurslings; and in the same way a bequest is left
+  in Rome (Orelli 4420) for a memorial sacrifice, on the condition that,
+  if it be not performed, double the cost be paid to the treasury of the
+  corn-supply (_fisco stationis annonae_). No unauthorized _collegia_
+  could receive a legacy. "The law recognized no freedom of
+  association." Nor could any private individual create a foundation
+  with separate property of its own. Property could only be left to an
+  authorized juristic person, being a municipality or a _collegium_. But
+  as the problem of poverty was considered from a broader standpoint,
+  there was a desire to deal with it in a more permanent manner than by
+  the _annona civica_. The _pueri alimentarii_ (see above) were
+  considered to hold their property as part of the _fiscus_ or property
+  of the state. Pliny (_Ep._ vii. 18), seeking a method of endowment,
+  transferred property in land to the steward of public property, and
+  then took it back again subject to a permanent charge for the aid of
+  children of freemen. By the law of Constantine and subsequent laws no
+  such devices were necessary. Widows or deaconesses, or virgins
+  dedicated to God, or nuns (A.D. 455), could leave bequests to a church
+  or memorial church (_martyrum_), or to a priest or a monk, or to the
+  poor in any shape or form, in writing or without it. Later (A.D. 475)
+  donations of every kind, "to the person of any martyr, or apostle, or
+  prophet, or the holy angels," for building an oratory were made valid,
+  even if the building were promised only and not begun; and the same
+  rule applied to infirmaries ([Greek: nosokomoeia]) and poor-houses
+  ([Greek: ptôcheia])--the bishop or steward being competent to appear
+  as plaintiff in such cases. Later, again (A.D. 528), contributions of
+  50 solidi (say about £19, 10s.) to a church, hostel ([Greek:
+  xenodocheion]), &c., were made legal, though not registered; while
+  larger sums, if registered, were also legalized. So (A.D. 529)
+  property might be given for "churches, hostels, poor-houses, infant
+  and orphan homes, and homes for the aged, or any such community"
+  (_consortium_), even though not registered, and such property was free
+  from taxation. The next year (530) it was enacted that prescription
+  even for 100 years did not alienate church and charitable property.
+  The broadest interpretation was allowed. If by will a share of an
+  estate was left "to Christ our Lord," the church of the city or other
+  locality might receive it as heir; "let these, the law says, belong to
+  the holy churches, so that they may become the alimony of the poor."
+  It was sufficient to leave property to the poor (_Corpus Juris
+  Civilis_, ed. Krueger, 1877, ii. 25). The bequest was legal. It went
+  to the legal representative of the poor--the church. Charitable
+  property was thus church property. The word "alms" covered both. It
+  was given to pious uses, and as a kind of public institution "shared
+  that corporate capacity which belonged to all ecclesiastical
+  institutions by virtue of a general rule of law." On a _pia causa_ it
+  was not necessary to confer a juristic personality. Other laws
+  preserved or regulated alienation (A.D. 477, A.D. 530), and checked
+  negligence or fraud in management. The clergy had thus become the
+  owners of large properties, with the _coloni_ and slaves upon the
+  estates and the allowances of civic corn (_annona civica_); and (A.D.
+  357) it was stipulated that whatever they acquired by thrift or
+  trading should be used for the service of the poor and needy, though
+  what they acquired from the labour of their slaves in the labour
+  houses (_ergastula_) or inns (_tabernae_) might be considered a profit
+  of religion (_religionis lucrum_).
+
+Thus grew up the system of endowed charities, which with certain
+modifications continued throughout the middle ages, and, though it
+assumed different forms in connexion with gilds and municipalities, in
+England it still retains, partially at least, its relation to the
+church. It remained the system of institutional relief parallel to the
+more personal almsgiving of the parish.
+
+Monasticism, in acting on men of strong character, endowed them with a
+double strength of will, and to men like St Gregory it seemed to give
+back with administrative power the relentless firmness of the Roman. In
+the East it produced the turbulent soldiery of the church, in the West
+its missionaries; and each mission-monastery was a centre of relief. But
+whatever the services monasticism rendered, it can hardly be said to
+have furthered true charity from the social standpoint, though out of
+regard to some of its institutional work we may to a certain degree
+qualify this judgment. The movement was almost of necessity in large
+measure anti-parochial, and thus out of sympathy with the charities of
+the parish, where personal relations with the poor at their homes count
+for most.
+
+  The good and evil of it may be weighed. Monasticism working through St
+  Augustine helped the world to realize the mood of love as the real or
+  eternal life. Of the natural life of the world and its
+  responsibilities, through which that mood would have borne its
+  completest fruit, it took but little heed, except in so far as, by
+  creating a class possessed of leisure, it created able scholars,
+  lawyers and administrators, and disciplined the will of strong men.
+  It had no power to stay the social evils of the day. Unlike the
+  friars, at their best the monks were a class apart, not a class mixed
+  up with the people. So were their charities. The belief in poverty as
+  a fixed condition--irretrievable and ever to be alleviated without any
+  regard to science or observation, subjected charity to a perpetual
+  stagnation. Charity requires belief in growth, in the sharing of life,
+  in the utility and nobility of what is done here and now for the
+  hereafter of this present world. Monasticism had no thought of this.
+  It was based on a belief in the evil of matter; and from that root
+  could spring no social charity. Economic difficulties also fostered
+  monasticism. Gold was appreciated in value, and necessaries were
+  expensive, and the cost of maintaining a family was great. It was an
+  economy to force a son or a brother into the church. The population
+  was decreasing; and in spite of church feeling Marjorian (A.D. 461)
+  had to forbid women from taking the veil before forty, and to require
+  the remarriage of widows, subject to a large forfeit of property
+  (Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, ii. 420). Monasticism was
+  inconsistent with the social good. As to the family--like the moderns
+  who depreciate thrift and are careless of the life of the family, the
+  monks, believing that marriage was a lower form of morality, if not
+  indeed, as would at times appear, hardly moral at all, could feel but
+  little enthusiasm for what is socially a chief source of health to the
+  community and a well-spring of spontaneous charitable feeling. By the
+  sacerdotal-monastic movement the moralizing force of Christianity was
+  denaturalized. Among the secular clergy the falsity of the position as
+  between men and women revealed itself in relations which being
+  unhallowed and unrecognized became also degrading. But worse than all,
+  it pushed charity from its pivot. For this no monasteries or
+  institutions, no domination of religious belief, could atone. The
+  church that with so fine an intensity of purpose had fostered chastity
+  and marriage was betraying its trust. It was out of touch with the
+  primal unit of social life, the child-school of dawning habits and the
+  loving economy of the home. It produced no treatise on economy in the
+  older Greek sense of the word. The home and its associations no longer
+  retained their pre-eminence. In the extreme advocacy of the celibate
+  state, the honourable development of the married life and its duties
+  were depreciated and sometimes, one would think, quite forgotten.
+
+We may ask, then, What were the results of charity at the close of the
+period which ends with St Gregory and the founding of the medieval
+church?--for if the charity is reflected in the social good the results
+should be manifest. Economic and social conditions were adverse. With
+lessened trade the middle class was decaying (Dill, _Roman Society in
+the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. 204) and a selfish
+aristocracy rising up. Municipal responsibility had been taxed to
+extinction. The public service was corrupt. The rich evaded taxation,
+the poor were oppressed by it. There were laws upon laws, endeavours to
+underpin the framework of a decaying society. Society was bankrupt of
+skill--and the skill of a generation has a close bearing on its
+charitable administration. While hospitals increased, medicine was
+unprogressive. There were miserable years of famine and pestilence, and
+constant wars. The care of the poorer classes, and ultimately of the
+people, was the charge of the church. The church strengthened the
+feeling of kindness for those in want, widows, orphans and the sick. It
+lessened the degradation of the "actresses," and, co-operating with
+Stoic opinion, abolished the slaughter of the gladiatorial shows. It
+created a popular "dogmatic system and moral discipline," which paganism
+failed to do; but it produced no prophet of charity, such as enlarged
+the moral imagination of the Jews. It ransomed slaves, as did paganism
+also, but it did not abolish slavery. Large economic causes produced
+that great reform. The serf attached to the soil took the place of the
+slave. The almsgiving of the church by degrees took the place of
+_annona_ and _sportula_, and it may have created pauperism. But
+dependence on almsgiving was at least an advance on dependence founded
+on a civic and hereditary right to relief. As the _colonus_ stood higher
+than the slave, so did the pauper, socially at any rate, free to support
+himself, exceed the _colonus_. Bad economic conditions and traditions,
+and a bad system of almsgiving, might enthral him. But the way, at
+least, was open; and thus it became possible that charity, working in
+alliance with good economic traditions, should in the end accomplish the
+self-support of society, the independence of the whole people.
+
+
+PART V.--MEDIEVAL CHARITY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
+
+It remains to trace the history of thought and administration in
+relation to (1) the development of charitable responsibility in the
+parish, and the use of tithe and church property for poor relief; and
+(2) the revision of the theory of charity, with which are associated the
+names of St Augustine (354-430), St Benedict (480-542), St Bernard
+(1091-1153), St Francis (1182-1226), and St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).
+(3) There follows, in reference chiefly to England, a sketch of the
+dependence of the poor under feudalism, the charities of the parish, the
+monastery and the hospital--the medieval system of endowed charity; the
+rise of gild and municipal charities; the decadence at the close of the
+15th century, and the statutory endeavours to cope with economic
+difficulties which, in the 16th century, led to the establishment of
+statutory serfdom and the poor-laws. New elements affect the problem of
+charity in the 17th and 18th centuries; but it is not too much to say
+that almost all these headings represent phases of thought or
+institutions which in later forms are interwoven with the charitable
+thought and endeavours of the present day.
+
+
+  The parish and charitable relief.
+
+Naturally, two methods of relief have usually been prominent: relief
+administered locally, chiefly to residents in their own homes, and
+relief administered in an institution. At the time of Charlemagne
+(742-814) the system of relief was parochial, consisting principally of
+assistance at the home. After that time, except probably in England, the
+institutional method appears to have predominated, and the monastery or
+hospital in one form or another gradually encroached on the parish.
+
+  The system of parochial charity was the outcome, apparently, of three
+  conditions: the position and influence of the bishop, the eleemosynary
+  nature of the church funds, and the need of some responsible
+  organization of relief. It resulted in what might almost be called an
+  ecclesiastical poor-law. The affairs of a local church or congregation
+  were superintended by a bishop. To deal with the outlying districts he
+  detached priests for religious work and, as in Rome and (774)
+  Strassburg, deacons also for the administration of relief. Originally
+  all the income of the church or congregation was paid into one fund
+  only, of which the bishop had charge, and this fund was available
+  primarily for charitable purposes. Church property was the patrimony
+  of the poor. In the 4th century (IV. Council of Carthage, 398) the
+  names of the clergy were entered on a list (_matricula_ or _canon_),
+  as were also the names of the poor, and both received from the church
+  their daily portion (cf. Ratzinger, _Geschichte der kirchlichen
+  Armenpflege_, p. 117). There were no expenses for building. Before the
+  reign of Constantine (306) very few churches were built (Ratzinger, p.
+  120). Thus the early church as has been said, was chiefly a charitable
+  society. By degrees the property of the church was very largely
+  increased by gifts and bequests, and in the West before St Gregory's
+  time the division of it for four separate purposes--the support of the
+  bishop, of the clergy, and of the poor, and for church
+  buildings--still further promoted decentralization. Apart from any
+  special gifts, there was thus created a separate fund for almsgiving,
+  supervised by the bishop, consisting of a fourth of the church
+  property, the oblations (mostly used for the poor), and the tithe,
+  which at first was used for the poor solely. The organization of the
+  church was gradually extended. The church once established in the
+  chief city of a district would become in turn the mother church of
+  other neighbourhoods, and the bishop or priest of the mother church
+  would come to exercise supervision over them and their parishes.
+
+  In France, which may serve as a good illustration, in the 4th century
+  (Ratzinger, p. 181) the civic organization was utilized for a further
+  change. The Roman provinces were divided into large areas,
+  _civitales_, and these were adopted by the church as bishop's parishes
+  or, as we should call them, dioceses; and the chief city became the
+  cathedral city. The bishop thus became responsible in Charlemagne's
+  time both for his own parish--that of the mother church--and for the
+  supervision of the parishes in the _civitas_, and so for the sick and
+  needy of the diocese generally. He had to take charge of the poor in
+  his own parish personally, keep the list of the poor, and houses for
+  the homeless. The other parishes were at first, or in some measure,
+  supported from his funds, but they acquired by degrees tithe and
+  property of their own and were endowed by Charlemagne, who gave one or
+  more manses or lots of land (cf. Fustel de Coulanges, _Hist, des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_, p. 360) for the support
+  of each parish priest. The priests were required to relieve their own
+  poor so that they should not stray into other cities (II. Counc.
+  Tours, 567), and to provide food and lodging for strangers. The method
+  was indeed elaborated and became, like the Jewish, that contradiction
+  in terms--a compulsory system of charitable relief. The payment of
+  tithe was enforced by Charlemagne, and it became a legal due (Counc.
+  Frankfort, 794; Arelat. 794). At the same time two other conditions
+  were enforced. Each person (_unusquisque fidelium nostrorum_ or _omnes
+  cives_) was to keep his own family, i.e. all dependent on him--all,
+  that is, upon his freehold estate (_allodium_), and no one was to
+  presume to give relief to able-bodied beggars unless they were set to
+  work (Charlem. _Capit_. v. 10). Thus we find here the germ of a
+  poor-law system. As in the times of the _annona civica_, slavery,
+  feudalism, or statutory serfdom, the burthen of the maintenance of the
+  poor fell only in part on charity. Only those who could not be
+  maintained as members of some "family" were properly entitled to
+  relief, and in these circumstances the officially recognized clients
+  of the church consisted of the gradually decreasing number of free
+  poor and those who were tenants of church lands.
+
+  Since 817 there has been no universally binding decision of the church
+  respecting the care of the poor (Ratzinger, p. 236). So long ago did
+  laicization begin in charity. In the wars and confusion of the 9th and
+  10th centuries the poorer freemen lapsed still further into slavery,
+  or became _coloni_ or bond servants; and later they passed under the
+  feudal rule. Thus the church's duty to relieve them became the
+  masters' obligation to maintain them. Simultaneously the activity of
+  the clergy, regular and secular alike, dwindled. They were exhorted to
+  increase their alms. The revenues and property of "the poor" were
+  largely turned to private or partly ecclesiastical purposes, or
+  secularized. Legacies went wholly to the clergy, but only the tithe of
+  the produce of their own lands was used for relief; and of the general
+  tithe, only a third or fourth part was so applied. Eventually to a
+  large extent, but more elsewhere than in England (Ratzinger, pp. 246,
+  269), the tithe itself was appropriated by nobles or even by the
+  monasteries; and thus during and after the 10th century a new
+  organization of charity was created on non-parochial methods of
+  relief. Alms, with prayer and fasting, had always been connected with
+  penance. But the character of the penitential system had altered. By
+  the 7th century private penance had superseded the public and
+  congregational penance of the earlier church (_Dict. Christian
+  Antiquities_, art. "Penitence"). To the penalties of exclusion from
+  the sacraments or from the services of the church or from its
+  communion was coupled, with other penitential discipline, an elaborate
+  penitential system, in which about the 7th century the redemption of
+  sin by the "sacrifice" of property, payments of money fines, &c., was
+  introduced. (Cf. for instance Conc. Elberti:--Labbeus i. 969 (A.D.
+  305), with Conc. Berghamstedense, Wilkins, Conc. p. 60 (A.D. 696), and
+  the Penitential (p. 115) and Canons (A.D. 960), p. 236.) The same sin
+  committed by an overseer (_praepositus paganus_) was compensated by a
+  fine of 100 _solidi_; in the case of a _colonus_ by a fine of 50. So
+  amongst the ways of penitence were entered in the above-mentioned
+  Canons, to erect a church, and if means allowed, add to it land ... to
+  repair the public roads ... "to distribute," to help poor widows,
+  orphans and strangers, redeem slaves, fast, &c.--a combination of
+  "good deeds" which suggests a line of thought such as ultimately found
+  expression in the definition of charities in the Charitable Uses Act
+  of Queen Elizabeth. The confessor, too, was "_spiritualis medicus_,"
+  and much that from the point of view of counsel would now be the work
+  of charity would in his hands be dealt with in that capacity. For
+  lesser sins (cf. Bede (673-735), _Hom._ 34, quoted by Ratzinger) the
+  penalty was prayer, fasting and alms; for the greater sins--murder,
+  adultery and idolatry--to give up all. Thus while half-converted
+  barbarians were kept in moral subjection by material penances, the
+  church was enriched by their gifts; and these tended to support the
+  monastic and institutional methods which were in favour, and to which,
+  on the revival of religious earnestness in the 11th century, the world
+  looked for the reform of social life.
+
+
+  Medieval revision of the theory of charity.
+
+To understand medieval charity it is necessary to return to St
+Augustine. According to him, the motive of man in his legitimate effort
+to assert himself in life was love or desire (_amor_ or _cupido_). "All
+impulses were only evolutions of this typical characteristic" (Harnack,
+_History of Dogma_ (trans.), v. iii.); and this was so alike in the
+spiritual and the sensuous life. Happiness thus depended on desire; and
+desire in turn depended on the regulation of the will; but the will was
+regulated only by grace. God was the _spiritualis substantia_; and
+freedom was the identity of the will with the omnipotent unchanging
+nature. This highest Being was "holiness working on the will in the form
+of omnipotent love." This love was grace--"grace imparting itself in
+love." Love (_caritas_--charity) is identified with justice; and the
+will, the goodwill, is love. The identity of the will with the will of
+God was attained by communion with Him. The after-life consummated by
+sight this communion, which was here reached only by faith. Such a
+method of thought was entirely introspective, and it turned the mind
+"wholly to hope, asceticism and the contemplation of God in worship."
+"Where St Augustine indulges in the exposition of practical piety he has
+no theory at all of Christ's work." To charity on that side he added
+nothing. In the 11th century there was a revival of piety, which had
+amongst its objects the restoration of discipline in the monasteries and
+a monastic training for the secular clergy. To this Augustinian thought
+led the way. "Christianity was asceticism and the city of God" (Harnack
+vi. 6). A new religious feeling took possession of the general mind, a
+regard and adoration of the actual, the historic Christ. Of this St
+Bernard was the expositor. "Beside the sacramental Christ the image of
+the historical took its place,--majesty in humility, innocence in penal
+suffering, life in death." The spiritual and the sensuous were
+intermingled. Dogmatic formulae fell into the background. The picture of
+the historic Christ led to the realization of the Christ according to
+the spirit ([Greek: kata pneuma]). Thus St Bernard carried forward
+Augustinian thought; and the historic Christ became the "sinless man,
+approved by suffering, to whom the divine grace, by which He lives, has
+lent such power that His image takes shape in other men and incites them
+to corresponding humility and love."
+
+Humility and poverty represented the conditions under which alone this
+spirit could be realized; and the poverty must be spiritual, and
+therefore self-imposed ("wilful," as it was afterwards called). This led
+to practical results. Poverty was not a social state, but a spiritual;
+and consequently the poor generally were not the _pauperes Christi_, but
+those who, like the monks, had taken vows of poverty. From these
+premisses followed later the doctrine that gifts to the church were not
+gifts to the poor, as once they had been, but to the religious bodies.
+The church was not the church of the poor, but of the poor in spirit.
+But the immediate effect was the belief for a time, apparently almost
+universal, that the salvation of society would come from the monastic
+orders. By their aid, backed by the general opinion, the secular clergy
+were brought back to celibacy and the monasteries newly disciplined. But
+charity could not thus regain its touch of life and become the means of
+raising the standard of social duty.
+
+Next, one amongst many who were stirred by a kindred inspiration, St
+Francis turned back to actual life and gave a new reality to religious
+idealism. For him the poor were once again the _pauperes Christi_. To
+follow Christ was to adopt the life of "evangelical poverty," and this
+was to live among the poor the life of a poor man. The follower was to
+work with his hands (as the poor clergy of the early church had done and
+the clergy of the early English church were exhorted to do); he was to
+receive no money; he was to earn the actual necessaries of life, though
+what he could not earn he might beg. To ask for this was a right, so
+long as he was bringing a better life into the world. All in excess of
+this he gave to the poor. He would possess no property, buildings or
+endowments, nor was his order to do so. The fulness of his life was in
+the complete realization of it now, without the cares of property and
+without any fear of the future. Having a definite aim and mission, he
+was ready to accept the want that might come upon him, and his life was
+a discipline to enable him to suffer it if it came. To him humility was
+the soul making itself fit to love; and poverty was humility expanded
+from a mood to a life, a life not guarded by seclusion, but spent
+amongst those who were actually poor. The object of life was to console
+the poor--those outside all monasteries and institutions--the poor as
+they lived and worked. The movement was practically a lay movement, and
+its force consisted in its simplicity and directness. Book learning was
+disparaged: life was to be the teacher. The brothers thus became
+observant and practical, and afterwards indeed learned, and their
+learning had the same characteristics. Their power lay in their
+practical sagacity, in their treatment of life, outside the cloister and
+the hospital, at first hand. They knew the people because they settled
+amongst them, living just as they did. This was their method of charity.
+
+The inspiration that drew St Francis to this method was the
+contemplation of the life of Christ. But it was more than this. The
+Christ was to him, as to St Bernard, an ideal, whose nature passed into
+that of the contemplating and adoring beholder, so that, as he said,
+"having lost its individuality, of itself the creature could no longer
+act." He had no impulse but the Christ impulse. He was changed. His
+identity was merged in that of Christ. And with this came the conception
+of a gracious and finely ordered charity, moving like the natural world
+in a constant harmonious development towards a definite end. The
+mysticism was intense, but it was practical because it was intense. In
+that lay the strength of the movement of the true Franciscans, and in
+those orders that, whether called heretical or not, followed
+them--Lollards and others. Religion thus became a personal and original
+possession. It became individual. It was inspired by a social endeavour,
+and for the world at large it made of charity a new thing.
+
+St Thomas Aquinas took up St Bernard's position. Renunciation of
+property, voluntary poverty, was in his view also a necessary means of
+reaching the perfect life; and the feeling that was akin to this
+renunciation and prompted it was charity. "All perfection of the
+Christian life was to be attained according to charity," and charity
+united us to God.
+
+  In the system elaborated by St Thomas Aquinas two lines of thought are
+  wrought into a kind of harmony. The one stands for Aristotle and
+  nature, the other for Christian tradition and theology. We have thus a
+  duplicate theory of thought and action throughout, both rational and
+  theologic virtues, and a duplicate beatitude or state of happiness
+  correspondent to each. On the one hand it is argued that the good act
+  is an act which, in relation to its object, wholly serves its purpose;
+  and thus the measure of goodness (_Prima Secundae Summae Theolog. Q._
+  xviii. 2) is the proportion between action and effect. On the other
+  hand, the act has to satisfy the twofold law, human reason and eternal
+  reason. From the point of view of the former the cardinal factor is
+  desire, which, made proportionate to an end, is love (_amor_); and,
+  seeking the good of others, it loses its quality of concupiscence and
+  becomes friendly love (_amor amicitiae_). But this rational love
+  (_amor_) and charity (_caritas_), the theologic virtue, may meet. All
+  virtue or goodness is a degree of love (_amor_), if by virtue we mean
+  the cardinal virtues and refer to the rule of reason only. But there
+  are also theologic virtues, which are on one side "essential," on the
+  other side participative. As wood ignited participates in the natural
+  fire, so does the individual in these virtues (II. II.^ae lxii. l).
+  Charity is a kind of friendship towards God. It is received _per
+  infusionem spiritus sancti_, and is the chief and root of the
+  theologic virtues of faith and hope, and on it the rational virtues
+  depend. They are not degrees of charity as they are of (_amor_) love,
+  but charity gives purpose, order and quality to them all. In this
+  sense the word is applied to the rational virtues--as, for instance,
+  beneficence. The counterpart of charity in social life is pity
+  (_misericordia_), the compassion that moves us to supply another's
+  want (_summa religionis Christianae in misericordia consistit quantum
+  ad exteriora opera_). It is, however, an emotion, not a virtue, and
+  must be regulated like any other emotion (... _passio est et non
+  virtus. Hic autem motus potest esse secundum rationem regulatus_, II.
+  II.^ae xxx. 3). Thus we pass to alms, which are the instrument of
+  pity--an act of charity done through the intervention of pity. The act
+  is not done in order to purchase spiritual good by a corporal means,
+  but to merit a spiritual good (_per effectum caritatis_) through being
+  in a state of charity; and from that point of view its effect is
+  tested by the recipient being moved to pray for his benefactor. The
+  claim of others on our beneficence is relative, according to
+  consanguinity and other bonds (II. II.^ae xxxi. 3), subject to the
+  condition that the common good of many is a holier obligation
+  (_divinius_) than that of one. Obedience and obligation to parents may
+  be crossed by other obligations, as, for instance, duty to the church.
+  To give alms is a command. Alms should consist of the
+  superfluous--that is, of all that the individual possesses after he
+  has reserved what is necessary. What is necessary the donor should fix
+  in due relation to the claims of his family and dependants, his
+  position in life (_dignitas_), and the sustenance of his body. On the
+  other hand, his gift should meet the actual necessities of the
+  recipient and no more. More than this will lead to excess on the
+  recipient's part (_ut inde luxurietur_) or to want of spirit and
+  apathy (_ut aliis remissio et refrigerium sit_), though allowance must
+  be made for different requirements in different conditions of life. It
+  were better to distribute alms to many persons than to give more than
+  is necessary to one. In individual cases there remains the further
+  question of correction--the removing of some evil or sin from another;
+  and this, too, is an act of charity.
+
+  It will be seen that though St Thomas bases his argument on a
+  duplicate theory of thought, action and happiness, part natural, part
+  theologic, and states fully the conditions of good action, he does not
+  bring the two into unison. Logically the argument should follow that
+  alms that fail in social benefit (produce _remissionem et
+  refrigerium_, for instance) fail also in spiritual good, for the two
+  cannot be inconsistent. But in regard to the former he does not press
+  the importance of purpose, and, in spite of his Aristotle, he misses
+  the point on which Aristotle, as a close observer of social
+  conditions, insists, that gifts without purpose and reciprocity foster
+  the dependence they are designed to meet. The proverb of the "pierced
+  cask" is as applicable to ecclesiastical as to political almsgiving,
+  as has often been proved by the event. The distribution of all
+  "superfluous" income in the form of alms would have the effect of a
+  huge endowment, and would stereotype "the poor" as a permanent and
+  unprogressive class. The proposal suggests that St Thomas contemplated
+  the adoption of a method of relief which would be like a voluntary
+  poor-law; and it is noteworthy that his phrase "necessary relief"
+  forms the defining words of the Elizabethan poor-law, while he also
+  lays stress on the importance of "correction," which, on the decline
+  and disappearance of the penitential system, assumed at the
+  Reformation a prominent position in administration in relation not
+  only to "sin," but also to offences against society, such as idleness,
+  &c.
+
+On this foundation was built up the classification of acts of charity,
+which in one shape or another has a long social tradition, and which St
+Thomas quotes in an elaborated form--the seven spiritual acts
+(_consule_, _carpe_, _doce_, _solare_, _remitte_, _fer_, _ora_),
+counsel, sustain, teach, console, save, pardon, pray; and the seven
+corporal (_vestio_, _poto_, _cibo_, _redimo_, _tego_, _colligo_,
+_condo_) I clothe, I give drink to, I feed, I free from prison, I
+shelter, I assist in sickness, I bury (II. II.^ae xxxii. 2). These in
+subsequent thought became "good works," and availed for the after-life,
+bringing with them definite boons. Thus charity was linked to the system
+of indulgences. The bias of the act of charity is made to favour the
+actor. Primarily the benefit reverts to him. He becomes conscious of an
+ultimate reward accruing to himself. The simplicity of the deed, the
+spontaneity from which, as in a well-practised art, its freshness
+springs and its good effects result, is falsified at the outset. The
+thought that should be wholly concerned in the fulfilment of a definite
+purpose is diverted from it. The deed itself, apart from the outcome of
+the deed, is highly considered. An extreme inducement is placed on
+giving, counselling, and the like, but none on the personal or social
+utility of the gift or counsel. Yet the value of these lies in their
+end. No policy or science of charity can grow out of such a system. It
+can produce innumerable isolated acts, which may or may not be
+beneficent, but it cannot enkindle the "ordered charity." This charity
+is, strictly speaking, by its very nature alike intellectual and
+emotional. Otherwise it would inevitably fail of its purpose, for though
+emotion might stimulate it, intelligence would not guide it.
+
+There are, then, these three lines of thought. That of St Bernard, who
+invigorated the monastic movement, and helped to make the monastery or
+hospital the centre of charitable relief. That of St Francis, who,
+passing by regular and secular clergy alike, revived and reinvigorated
+the conception of charity and gave it once more the reality of a social
+force, knowing that it would find a freer scope and larger usefulness in
+the life of the people than in the religious aristocracy of monasteries.
+And that of St Thomas Aquinas, who, analysing the problem of charity and
+almsgiving, and associating it with definite groups of works, led to its
+taking, in the common thought, certain stereotyped forms, so that its
+social aim and purpose were ignored and its power for good was
+neutralized.
+
+
+  Charity and social conditions in England.
+
+We have now to turn to the conditions of social life in which these
+thoughts fermented and took practical shape. The population of England
+from the Conquest to the 14th century is estimated at between 1½ and 2½
+millions. London, it is believed, had a population of about 40,000.
+Other towns were small. Two or three of the larger had 4000 or 5000
+inhabitants. The only substantial building in a village, apart perhaps
+from the manor-house, was the church, used for many secular as well as
+religious purposes. In the towns the mud or wood-paved huts sheltered a
+people who, accepting a common poverty, traded in little more than the
+necessaries of life (Green, _Town Life in the 15th Century_, i. 13). The
+population was stationary. Famine and pestilence were of frequent
+occurrence (Creighton, _Epidemics in Britain_, p. 19), and for the
+careless there was waste at harvest-time and want in winter. Hunger was
+the drill-sergeant of society. Owing to the hardship and penury of life
+infant mortality was probably very great (Blashill, _Sutton in
+Holdernesse_, p. 123). The 15th century was, however, "the golden age of
+the labourer." Our problem is to ascertain what was the service of
+charity to this people till the end of that century. In order to
+estimate this we have to apply tests similar to those we applied before
+to Greece and Rome and the pre-medieval church.
+
+  _The Family._--Largely Germanic in its origin, we may perhaps set down
+  as elemental in the English race what Tacitus said of the Germans.
+  They had the home virtues. They had a high regard for chastity, and
+  respected and enforced the family tie. The wife was honoured. The men
+  were poor, but when the actual pressure of their work--fighting--was
+  removed, idle. They were born gamblers. Much toil fell upon the wife;
+  but slavery was rather a form of tenure than a Roman bondage. As
+  elsewhere, there was in England "the joint family or household"
+  (Pollock and Maitland, _English Law before Edward I._ i. 31). Each
+  member of the community was, or should be, under some lord; for the
+  lordless man was, like the wanderer in Homer, who belonged to no
+  phratry, suspected and dangerous, and his kinsfolk might be required
+  to find a lord for him. There was personal servitude, but it was not
+  of one complexion; there were grades amongst the unfree, and the
+  general advance to freedom was continuous. By the 9th century the
+  larger amount of the slavery was bondage by tenure. In the reign of
+  Edward I., though "the larger half of the rural population was
+  unfree," yet the serf, notwithstanding the fact that he was his lord's
+  chattel, was free against all save his lord. A century later (1381)
+  villenage--that is payment for tenancy by service, instead of by
+  quit-rent--was practically extinguished. So steady was the progress
+  towards the freedom and self-maintenance of the individual and his
+  family.
+
+  _The Manor._--In social importance, next to the family, comes the
+  manor, the organization of which affected charity greatly on one side.
+  It was "an economic unit," the estate of a lord on which there were
+  associated the lord with his demesne, tenants free of service, and
+  villeins and others, tenants by service. All had the use of land, even
+  the serf. The estate was regulated by a manor court, consisting of the
+  lord of the manor or his representative, and the free tenants, and
+  entrusted with wide quasi-domestic jurisdiction. The value of the
+  estate depended on the labour available for its cultivation, and the
+  cultivators were the unfree tenants. Hence the lord, through the
+  manor-court, required an indemnity or fine if a child, for instance,
+  left the manor; and similarly, if a villein died, his widow might have
+  to remarry or pay a fine. Thus the lord reacquired a servant and the
+  widow and her family were maintained. The courts, too, fixed prices,
+  and thus in local and limited conditions of supply and demand were
+  able to equalize them in a measure and neutralize some of the effects
+  of scarcity. In this way, till the reign of Edward I., and, where the
+  manor courts remained active, till much later, a self-supporting
+  social organization made any systematic public or charitable relief
+  unnecessary.
+
+  _The Parish and the Tithe._--The conversion of England in the 7th
+  century was effected by bishops, accompanied by itinerant priests, who
+  made use of conventual houses as the centres of their work. The
+  parochial system was not firmly established till the 10th century
+  (970). Then, by a law of Edgar, a man who had a church on his own land
+  was allowed to pay a third of his tithe to his own church, instead of
+  giving the whole of it to the minister or conventual church. Theodore,
+  archbishop of Canterbury (667), had introduced the Carolingian system
+  into England; and, accordingly, the parish priest was required to
+  provide for strangers and to keep a room in his house for them. Of the
+  tithe, a third and not a fourth was to go to the poor with any
+  surplus; and in order to have larger means of helping them, the
+  priests were urged to work themselves, according to the ancient canons
+  of the church (cf. Labbeus, IV. Conc. Carthag. A.D. 398). The
+  importance of the tithe to the poor is shown by acts of Richard II.
+  and Henry IV., by which it was enacted that, if parochial tithes were
+  appropriated to a monastery, a portion of them should be assigned to
+  the poor of the parish. At a very early date (1287) quasi-compulsory
+  charges in the nature of a rate were imposed on parishioners for
+  various church purposes (Pollock and Maitland, i. 604), though in the
+  14th and 15th centuries a compulsory church rate was seldom made.
+  Collections were made by paid collectors, especially for Hock-tide
+  (q.v.) money--gathered for church purposes (Brand's _Antiquities_,
+  p. 112). But there must have been many varieties in practice. In
+  Somersetshire the churchwardens' accounts (1349 to 1560) show that the
+  parish contributed nothing to the relief of the poor, and it seems
+  probable that the personal charities of the parishioners, and the
+  charities of the gild fellowships and of the parsonage house sufficed
+  (Bishop Hobhouse, _Churchwardens' Accounts, 1349-1560_, Somerset
+  Record Society). Many parishes possessed land, houses and cattle, and
+  received gifts and legacies of all kinds. The proceeds of this
+  property, if given for the use of the parish generally, might, if
+  necessary, be available for the relief of the poor, but, if given
+  definitely for their use, would provide doles, or stock cattle or
+  "poor's" lands, &c. (Cf. Augustus Jessopp, _Before the Great Pillage_,
+  p. 40; and many instances in the reports of the Charity Commissioners,
+  1818-1835.) Of the endowments for parish doles very many may have
+  disappeared in the break-up of the 16th century. There were also
+  "Parish Ales," the proceeds of which would be used for parish purposes
+  or for relief. Further, all the greater festivals were days of
+  feasting and the distribution of food; at funerals also there were
+  often large distributions, and also at marriages. The faithful
+  generally, subject to penance, were required to relieve the poor and
+  the stranger. In the larger part of England the parish and the vill
+  were usually coterminous. In the north a parish contained several
+  vills. There were thus side by side the charitable relief system of
+  the parish, which at an early date became a rating area, and the
+  self-supporting system of the manor.
+
+  _The Monasteries._--As Christianity spread monasteries spread, and
+  each monastery was a centre of relief. Sometimes they were
+  established, like St Albans (796), for a hundred Benedictine monks and
+  for the entertainment of strangers; or sometimes without any such
+  special purpose, like the abbey of Croyland (reorganized 946), which,
+  becoming exceeding rich from its _diversorium pauperum_, or almonry,
+  "relieved the whole country round so that prodigious numbers resorted
+  to it." At Glastonbury, for instance (1537), £140 16s. 8d. was given
+  away in doles. But documents seem to prove (Denton, _England in
+  Fifteenth Century_, p. 245) that the relief generally given by
+  monasteries was much less than is usually supposed.
+
+  The general system may be described (cf. Rule, _St Dunst. Cant.
+  Archp._ p. 42, Dugdale; J.B. Clark, _The Observances_, Augustinian
+  Priory, Barnwell; Abbot Gasquet, _English Monastic Life_). The almonry
+  was usually near the church of the monastery. An almoner was in
+  charge. He was to be prudent and discreet in the distribution of his
+  doles (_portiones_) and to relieve travellers, palmers, chaplains and
+  mendicants (_mendicantes_, apparently the beggars recognized as living
+  by begging, such as we have noted under other social conditions), and
+  the leprous more liberally than others. The old and infirm, lame and
+  blind who were confined to their beds he was to visit and relieve
+  suitably (_in competenti annona_). The importunity of the poor he was
+  to put up with, and to meet their need as far as he could. In the
+  almonry there were usually rooms for the sick. The sick outside the
+  precincts were relieved at the almoner's discretion. Continuous relief
+  might be given after consultation with the superior. All the remnants
+  of meals and the old clothes of the monks were given to the almoner
+  for distribution, and at Christmas he had a store of stockings and
+  other articles to give away as presents to widows, orphans and poor
+  clerks. He also provided the Maundy gifts and selected the poor for
+  the washing of feet. He was thus a local visitor and alms distributor,
+  not merely at the gate of the monastery but in the neighbourhood, and
+  had also at his disposal "indoor" relief for the sick. Separate from
+  the rest the house there was also a dormitory and rooms and the
+  kitchen for strangers. A _hospitularius_ attended to their needs and
+  novices waited on them. Guests who were laymen might stay on, working
+  in return for board and lodging (Smith's _Dict. Christian Antiq._,
+  "Benedictine").
+
+  The monasteries often established hospitals; they served also as
+  schools for the gentry and for the poor; and they were pioneers of
+  agriculture. In the 12th century, in which many monastic orders were
+  constituted, there were many lavish endowments. In the 14th century
+  their usefulness had begun to wane. At the end of that century the
+  larger estates were generally held in entail, with the result that
+  younger sons were put into religious houses. This worldliness had its
+  natural consequences. In the 15th century, owing to mismanagement,
+  waste, and subsequently to the decline of rural prosperity, their
+  resources were greatly crippled. In their relation to charity one or
+  two points may be noted: (1) Of the small population of England the
+  professed monks and nuns with the parish priests (Rogers, _Hist.
+  Agric. and Prices_, i. 58) numbered at least 30,000 or 40,000. This
+  number of celibates was a standing protest against the moral
+  sufficiency of the family life. On the other hand, amongst them were
+  the brothers and sisters who visited the poor and nursed the sick in
+  hospitals; and many who now succumb physically or mentally to the
+  pressure of life, and are cared for in institutions, may then have
+  found maintenance and a retreat in the monasteries. (2) Bound together
+  by no common controlling organization, the monasteries were but so
+  many miscellaneous centres of relief, chiefly casual relief. They were
+  mostly "magnificent hostelries." (3) They stood outside the parish,
+  and they weakened its organization and hampered its development.
+
+  _The Hospitals._--The revival of piety in the 11th century led to a
+  large increase in the number of hospitals and hospital orders. To show
+  how far they covered the field in England two instances may be quoted.
+  At Canterbury (Creighton, _Epidemics_, p. 87) there were four for
+  different purposes, two endowed by Lanfranc (1084), one for poor,
+  infirm, lame and blind men and women, and one outside the town for
+  lepers. These hospitals were put under the charge of a priory, and
+  endowed out of tithes payable to the secular clergy. Later (Henry
+  II.), a hospital for leprous sisters was established, and afterwards a
+  hospital for leprous monks and poor relations of the monks of St
+  Augustine's. In a less populous parish, Luton (Cobbe, _Luton Church_),
+  there were a hospital for the poor, an almshouse, and two hospitals,
+  one for the sick and one for the leprous. The word "leper," it is
+  evident, was used very loosely, and was applied to many diseases other
+  than leprosy. There were hospitals for the infirm and the leprous; the
+  disease was not considered contagious. The hospital in its modern
+  sense was but slowly created. Thus St Bartholomew's in London was
+  founded (1123) for a master, brethren and sisters, and for the
+  entertainment of poor diseased persons till they got well; of
+  distressed women big with child till they were able to go abroad; and
+  for the maintenance, until the age of seven, of all such children
+  whose mothers died in the house. St Thomas's (rebuilt 1228) had a
+  master and brethren and three lay sisters, and 40 beds for poor,
+  infirm and impotent people, who had also victual and firing. There
+  were hospitals for many special purposes--as for the blind, for
+  instance. There were also many hospital orders in England and on the
+  continent. They sprang up beside the monastic orders, and for a time
+  were very popular: brothers and sisters of the Holy Ghost (1198),
+  sisters of St Elizabeth (1207-1231), Beguines and Beghards (see
+  BEGUINES), knights of St John and others.
+
+  _The Mendicant Orders._--The Franciscans tended the sick and poor in
+  the slums of the towns with great devotion--indeed, the whole movement
+  tells of a splendid self-abandonment and an intensity of effort in the
+  early spring of its enthusiasm, and with the aid of reform councils
+  and reformations it lengthened out its usefulness for two centuries.
+
+
+  Medieval endowed charities.
+
+As in the pre-medieval church, the system of relief is that of
+charitable endowments--a marked contrast to the modern method of
+voluntary associations or rate-supported institutions.
+
+  (1) _The Church as Legatee._--The church building among the Teutonic
+  races was not held by the bishop as part of what was originally the
+  charitable property of the church. It was assigned to the patron saint
+  of the church by the donor, who retained the right of administration,
+  of which his own patronage or right of presentation is a relic.
+  Subsequently, with the study of Roman law, the conception of the
+  church as a _persona ficta_ prevailed; and till the larger growth of
+  the gilds and corporations it was the only general legatee for
+  charitable gifts. As these arise a large number of charitable trusts
+  are created and held by lay corporations; and "alms" include gifts for
+  social as well as religious or eleemosynary purposes. (2) _Freedom
+  from Taxation and Service._--Gifts to the church for charitable or
+  other purposes were made in free, pure and perpetual alms ("_ad
+  tenendum in puram et perpetuam eleemosynam sine omni temporali
+  servicio et consuetudine_"). Land held under this _frankalmoigne_ was
+  given "in perpetual alms," therefore the donor could not retract it;
+  in free alms, therefore he could exact no services in regard to it;
+  and in pure alms as being free from secular jurisdiction (cf. Pollock
+  and Maitland). (3) _Alienation and Mortmain._--To prevent alienation
+  of property to religious houses, with the consequent loss of service
+  to the superior or chief lords, a licence from the chief lord was
+  required to legalize the alienation (Magna Carta, and Edw. I., _De
+  viris religiosis_). Other statutes (Edw. I. and Rich. II.) enacted
+  that this licence should be issued out of chancery after
+  investigation; and the principle was applied to civil corporations.
+  The necessity of this licence was one lay check on injurious
+  alienation. (4) _Irresponsible Administration._--Until after the 13th
+  century, when the lay courts had asserted their right to settle
+  disputes as to lands held in alms, the administration of charity was
+  from the lay point of view entirely irresponsible. It was outside the
+  secular jurisdiction; and civilly the professed clergy, who were the
+  administrators, were "dead." They could not sue or be sued except
+  through their sovereign--their chief, the abbot. They formed a large
+  body of non-civic inhabitants free from the pressure and the
+  responsibilities of civil life. (5) _Control_.--Apart from the control
+  of the abbot, prior, master or other head, the bishop was visitor, or,
+  as we should say, inspector; and abuses might be remedied by the visit
+  of the bishop or his ordinary. The bishop's ordinary (2 Henry V. i. 1)
+  was the recognized visitor of all hospitals apart from the founder.
+  The founder and his family retained a right of intervention. Sometimes
+  thus an institution was reorganized, or even dissolved, the property
+  reverting to the founder (Dugdale, _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vi. 2.
+  715). (6) _Cy-près._--Charities were, especially after Henry V.'s
+  reign, appropriated to other uses, either because their original
+  purpose failed or because some new object had become important. Thus,
+  for instance, a college or hospital for lepers (1363) is
+  re-established by the founder's family with a master and priest, _quod
+  nulli leprosi reperiebantur_; and a similar hospital founded in Henry
+  I.'s time near Oxford has decayed, and is given by Edward III. to
+  Oriel College, Oxford, to maintain a chaplain and poor brethren. Thus,
+  apart from alienation pure and simple, the principle of adaptation to
+  new uses was put in force at an early date, and supplied many
+  precedents to Wolsey, Edward VI. and the post-Reformation bishops. The
+  system of endowments was indeed far more adaptable than it would at
+  first sight seem to have been. (7) _The Sources of Income._--The
+  hospitals were chiefly supported by rents or the produce of land; or,
+  if attached to monasteries, out of the tithe of their monastic lands
+  or other sources of revenue, or out of the appropriated tithes of the
+  secular clergy; or they might be in part maintained by collections
+  made, for instance, by a commissioner duly authorized by a formal
+  attested document, in which were recounted the indulgences by popes,
+  archbishops and bishops to those who became its benefactors (Cobbe, p.
+  75); or, in the case of leper hospitals, by a leper with a "clapdish,"
+  who begged in the markets; or by a proctor, in the case of more
+  important institutions in towns, who "came with his box one day in
+  every month to the churches and other religious houses, at times of
+  service, and there received the voluntary gifts of the congregation";
+  or they might receive inmates on payment, and thus apparently a
+  frequent abuse, decayed servants of the court and others, were "farmed
+  out." (8) _Mode of Admission._--The admission was usually, no doubt,
+  regulated by the prior or master. At York, at the hospital of St
+  Nicholas for the leprous, the conditions of admission were: promise or
+  vow of continence, participation in prayer, the abandonment of all
+  business, the inmate's property at death to go to the house. This may
+  serve as an example. The master was usually one of the regular clergy.
+  (9) _Decline of the Hospitals._--It is said that, in addition to 645
+  monasteries and 90 "colleges" and many chantries, Henry VIII.
+  suppressed 110 hospitals (Speed's _Chronicle_, p. 778). The numbers
+  seem small. In the economic decline at the end of the 15th and
+  beginning of the 16th centuries many hospitals may have lapsed.
+
+
+  Gild and municipal charities.
+
+In the 15th century the towns grew in importance. First the wool trade
+and then the cloth trade flourished, and the English developed a large
+shipping trade. The towns grew up like "little principalities"; and for
+the advancement of trade, gilds, consisting alike of masters and
+workmen, were formed, which endeavoured to regulate and then to
+monopolize the market. By degrees the corporations of the towns were
+worked in their interests, and the whole commercial system became
+restrictive and inadaptable. Meanwhile the towns attracted newcomers;
+freedom from feudal obligations was gained with comparative ease; and a
+new _plebs_ was congregating, a population of inhabitants not qualified
+as burghers or gild members, women, sons living with their fathers,
+menial servants and apprentices. There was thus an increasing
+restriction imposed on trade, coupled with a growing _plebs_. Naturally,
+then, lay charities sprang up for members of gilds, and for burghers and
+for the commonalty. Men left estates to their gilds to maintain decayed
+members in hospitals, almshouses or otherwise, to educate their
+children, portion their daughters, and to assist their widows. The
+middle-class trader was thus in great measure insured against the risks
+of life. The gilds were one sign of the new temper and wants of burghers
+freed from feudalism. Another sign was a new standard of manners. Rules
+and saws, Hesiodic in their tone, became popular--in regard, for
+instance, to such a question as "how to enable a man to live on his
+means, and to keep himself and those belonging to him." The boroughs
+established other charities also, hospitals and almshouses for the
+people, a movement which, like that of the gilds, began very early--in
+Italy as early as the 9th century. They sometimes gave outdoor relief
+also to registered poor (Green i. 41), and they had in large towns
+courts of orphans presided over by the mayor and aldermen, thus taking
+over a duty that previously had been one of conspicuous importance in
+the church. As early as 1257 in Westphalian towns there was a
+rough-and-ready system of Easter relief of the poor; and in Frankfort in
+1437 there was a town council of almoners with a systematic programme of
+relief (Ratzinger, p. 352). Thus at the close of the middle ages the
+towns were gradually assuming what had been charitable functions of the
+church.
+
+
+  Statutory wage control.
+
+While a new freedom was being attained by the labourer in the country
+and the burgher in the town, the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient
+supply of labour for agriculture must have been constant, especially at
+every visitation of plague and famine. In accordance with a general
+policy of state regulation which was to control and supervise industry,
+agriculture and poor relief and to repress vagrancy by gaols and houses
+of correction, the state stepped in as arbiter and organizer. By
+Statutes of Labourers beginning in 1351 (25 Edw. III. 135), it aimed at
+enforcing a settled wage and restraining migration. From 1351 it
+endeavoured to suppress mendicity, and in part to systematize it in the
+interest of infirm and aged mendicants. Each series of enactments is the
+natural complement of the other. In the main their signification, from
+the point of view of charity, lies in the fact that they represent a
+persistent endeavour to prevent social unsettlement and in part the
+distress which unsettlement causes, and which vagrancy in some measure
+indicates, by keeping the people within the ranks of recognized
+dependence, the settled industry of the crafts and of agriculture, or
+forcing them back into it by fear of the gaol or the stocks. The extreme
+point of this policy was reached when by the laws of Edward VI. and
+Elizabeth the "rogue, vagabond or sturdy beggar" was branded with an R
+on the shoulder and handed over as a bondman for a period to any one who
+would take him. On the other hand, it was desired that relief should be
+a means of preventing migration. In any time of general pressure there
+is a desire to organize mendicity, to prevent the wandering of beggars,
+to create a kind of settled poor, distinguished from the rest as infirm
+and not able-bodied, and to keep these at least at home sufficiently
+supported by local and parochial relief; and this, in its simpler form
+all the world over, has in the past been by response to public begging.
+The argument may be summed up thus: We cannot have begging, which
+implies that the beggar is cared for by no one, belongs to no one, and
+therefore throws himself on the world at large. Therefore, if he is
+able-bodied he must be punished as unsocial, for it is his fault that he
+belongs to no one; or we must make him some one's dependant, and so keep
+him; or if he is infirm, and therefore of no service to any one--if no
+one will keep him--we must organize his mendicity, for such mendicity is
+justified. If he cannot dig for the man to whom he does or should
+belong, he must beg. Then out of the failure to organize mendicity--for
+relief of itself is no remedy, least of all casual relief--a poor-law
+springs up, which, afterwards associated with the provision of
+employment, will, it is hoped, make relief in some measure remedial by
+increasing its quantity by means of compulsory levies. This argument,
+which combined statutory wage control and statutory poor relief, seems
+to have been firmly bedded in the English legislative mind for more than
+two centuries, from 1351 till after 1600; and until 1834 these two
+series of laws effectually reduced the English labourer to a new
+industrial dependence. To people imbued with ideas of feudalism the way
+of escape from villenage seemed to be not independence, but a new
+reversion to it.
+
+
+  The decadence.
+
+Many elements produced the social and economic catastrophe of the 16th
+century, for the condition into which the country fell can hardly be
+considered less than a catastrophe. With the growing independence of the
+people there was created after the 13th century an unsettled
+"masterless" class, a residue of failure resulting from social changes,
+which was large and important enough to call for legislation. In the
+15th century, "the golden age of the English labourer," the towns
+increased and flourished. Both town and country did well. At the end of
+the century came the decadence. The measure of the strain, when perhaps
+it had reached its lowest level, is indicated by the following
+comparison: "The cost of a peasant's family of four in the early part of
+the 14th century was £3:4:9; after 1540 it was £8" (Rogers, _Hist, of
+Agric. and Prices_, iv. 756).
+
+  The cause of this has now been fairly investigated. The value of land
+  in the 13th century generally depended chiefly on "the head of labour"
+  retained upon it. Its fertility depended on mainoeuvre (manure). To
+  keep labour upon it was therefore the aim of the lord or owner. The
+  enclosing of lands for sheep began early, and in the time of Edward
+  III., in the great days of the woolstaple, must have been extensive.
+  So long as the demand for the exportation of wool, and then for its
+  consumption at home in the cloth trade, continued, the towns
+  prospered, and the enclosures did not become a grievance. Even before
+  the reign of Henry VII., with the decay of trade, the towns decayed,
+  and their population in some cases diminished extraordinarily. This
+  reacted on the country, where the great families had already become
+  impoverished, and were hardly able to support their retainers. In
+  Henry VIII.'s time the lands of the religious houses were confiscated.
+  Worked on old lines, the custom of tillage remained in force on them.
+  Accordingly, when these estates fell into private hands they were
+  transferred subject to the condition that they should be tilled as
+  heretofore. The condition was evaded by the new owners, and the
+  disbandment of farm labourers went on apace. In England and Wales
+  these changes, it is said, affected a third of the country, more than
+  12,000,000 acres, if the estimates be correct, or rather a third of
+  the best land in the kingdom. With towns decaying, the effect of this
+  must have been terrible. What were really "latifundia" were created,
+  "great landes," "enclosures of a mile or two or thereabouts ...
+  destroying thereby not only the farms and cottages within the same
+  circuits, but also the towns and villages adjoining." A herdsman and
+  his wife took the place of eighteen to twenty-four farm hands. The
+  people thus set wandering could only join the wanderers from the
+  decaying towns. At the same time the economic difficulty was
+  aggravated by a new patrician or commercial greed; and once more the
+  land question--the absorption of property into a few hands instead of
+  its free exchange--led to lasting social demoralization. A few years
+  after the alienation of the monasteries the coinage (1543) was
+  debased. By this means prices were arbitrarily raised, and wages were
+  increased nominally; but nevertheless the price of necessaries was "so
+  enhanced" that neither "the poor labourers can live with their wages
+  that is limited by your grace's laws, nor the artificers can make,
+  much less sell, their wares at any reasonable price" (Lamond, _The
+  Commonweal of this Realm of England_, p. xlvii). No social
+  reformation, such as the charitable instincts of Wycliffe, More,
+  Hales, Latimer and other men suggested, was attempted, or at least
+  persistently carried out. In towns the organization of labour had
+  become restrictive, exclusive and inadaptable, or, judged from the
+  moral standpoint, uncharitable. There had been a time of plenty and
+  extravagance, of which in high quarters the famous "field of the cloth
+  of gold" was typical; and probably, in accordance with the frequently
+  observed law of social economics, as the advance in wages and their
+  purchasing power in the earlier part of the 15th century had not been
+  accompanied by a simultaneous advance in self-discipline and
+  intelligent expenditure, it resulted in part in lessened competence
+  and industrial ability on the part of the workmen, and thus in the end
+  produced pauperism.
+
+The poverty of the country was very great in the reigns of Edward VI.
+and Elizabeth. Adversity then taught the people new manners, and
+households became more simple and thrifty. In the reign of James I.,
+with enforced economy and thrift, a "slow but substantial improvement in
+agriculture" took place, and a new growth of commercial enterprise. The
+vigour of the municipalities had abated, so that in Henry VIII.'s time
+they had become the very humble servants of the government; and the
+government, on the other hand, had become strongly centralized--in
+itself a sign of the general withdrawal of self-sustaining activity in
+all administration, in the administration of charitable relief no less
+than in other departments. A system of endowed charities had been built
+up, supported chiefly by rents from landed property. These now had
+disappeared, and thus the means of relief, which Edward VI. and Queen
+Elizabeth might have utilized at a time of general distress, had been
+dissipated by the acts of their predecessors. The civil independence of
+the monasteries and religious houses might have been justified,
+possibly, when they were engaged in missionary work and were instilling
+into the people the precepts of a higher moral law than that which was
+in force around them. But afterwards, as the ability and intelligence of
+the community increased, their privileges became more and more
+antagonistic to charity, and tended to create a non-social and even
+anti-social ecclesiastical democracy actuated by aims and interests in
+which the general good of the people had little or no place. There was a
+growing alienation between religious tradition and secular opinion, as
+Lollardism slowly permeated the thought of the people and led the way to
+the Reformation. While this alienation existed no national system of
+charity, civic and yet religious, could be created. But worse than all,
+the ideal of charity had been degraded. A self-regarding system of
+relief had superseded charity, and it was productive of nothing but
+alms, large or small, isolated and unmethodic, given with a wrong bias,
+and thus almost inevitably with evil results. Out of this could spring
+no vigorous co-operative charity. Charity--not relief--indeed seemed to
+have left the world. The larger issues were overlooked. Then the
+property of the hospitals and the gilds was wantonly confiscated, though
+the poor had already lost that share in the revenues of the church to
+which at one time they were admitted to have a just claim. A new
+beginning had to be made. The obligations of charity had to be revived.
+A new organization of charitable relief had to be created, and that with
+an empty exchequer and after a vast waste of charitable resources. There
+were signs of a new congregational and parochial energy, yet the task
+could not be entrusted to the religious bodies, divided and disunited as
+they were. In their stead it could be imposed only on some authority
+which represented the general community, such as municipalities; and in
+spite of the centralization of the government there seemed some hope of
+creating a system of relief in connexion with them. They were tried,
+and, very naturally, failed. In the poverty of the time it seemed that
+the poor could be relieved only by a compulsory rate, and the
+administration of statutory relief naturally devolved on the central
+government--the only vigorous administrative body left in the country.
+The government might indeed have adopted the alternative of letting the
+industrial difficulties of the country work themselves out, but they had
+inherited a policy of minute legislative control, and they continued it.
+Revising previous statutes, they enacted the Poor Law, which still
+remains on the statute book. It could be no remedy for social offences
+against charity and the community. But in part at least it was
+successful. It helped to conceal the failure to find a remedy.
+
+
+PART VI.--AFTER THE REFORMATION
+
+  The Reformation theory of charity.
+
+During the Reformation, which extended, it should be understood, from
+the middle of the 14th century to the reign of James I., the groundwork
+of the theory of charity was being recast. The old system and the narrow
+theory on which it had come to depend were discredited. The recoil is
+startling. To a very large extent charitable administration had been in
+the hands of men and women who, as an indispensable condition to their
+participation in it, took the vows of obedience, chastity and "wilful"
+poverty. Now this was all entirely set aside. It was felt (see _Homilies
+on Faith and Good Works, &c._, A.D. 1547) that socially and morally the
+method had been a failure. The vow of obedience, it was argued, led to a
+general disregard of the duties of civic and family life. Those who
+bound themselves by it were outside the state and did not serve it. In
+regard to chastity the _Homily_ states the common opinion: "How the
+profession of chastity was kept, it is more honesty to pass over in
+silence and let the world judge of what is well known." As to wilful
+poverty, the regulars, it is urged, were not poor, but rich, for they
+were in possession of much wealth. Their property, it is true, was held
+_in communi_, and not personally, but nevertheless it was practically
+theirs, and they used it for their personal enjoyment; and "for all
+their riches they might never help father nor mother, nor others that
+were indeed very needy and poor, without the license of their father
+abbot" or other head. This was the negative position. The positive was
+found in the doctrine of justification--the central point in the
+discussions of the time, a plant from the garden of St Augustine.
+Justification was the personal conviction of a lively (or living) faith,
+and was defined as "a true trust and confidence of the mercy of God
+through our Lord Jesus Christ, and a stedfast hope of all good things to
+be received at His hands." Without this justification there could be no
+good works. They were the signs of a lively faith and grew out of it.
+Apart from it, what seemed to be "good works" were of the nature of sin,
+phantom acts productive of nothing, "birds that were lost, unreal." So
+were the works of pagans and heretics. The relation of almsgiving to
+religion was thus entirely altered. The personal reward here or
+hereafter to the actor was eliminated. The deed was good only in the
+same sense in which the doer was good; it had in itself no merit. This
+was a great gain, quite apart from any question as to the sufficiency or
+insufficiency of the Protestant scheme of salvation. The deed, it was
+realized, was only the outcome of the doer, the expression of himself,
+what he was as a whole, neither better nor worse. Logically this led to
+the discipline of the intelligence and the emotions, and undoubtedly
+"justification" to very many was only consistent with such discipline
+and implied it. Thus under a new guise the old position of charity
+reasserted itself. But there were other differences.
+
+  The relation of charity to prayer, fasting, almsgiving and penance was
+  altsred. The prayerful contemplation of the Christ was preserved in
+  the mysticism of Protestantism; but it was dissociated from the
+  "historic Christ," from the fervent idealization of whom St Francis
+  drew his inspiration and his active charitable impulse. The tradition
+  did not die out, however. It remained with many, notably with George
+  Herbert, of whom it made, not unlike St Francis, a poet as well as a
+  practical parish priest; but the absence of it indicated in much
+  post-Reformation endeavour a want, if not of devotion, yet of
+  intensity of feeling which may in part account for the fact that
+  sectarianism in relief has since proved itself stronger than charity,
+  instead of yielding to charity as its superior and its organizer.
+  Fasting was parted from prayer and almsgiving. It was "a thing not of
+  its own proper nature good as the love of father or mother or
+  neighbour, but according to its end." Almsgiving also as a "work"
+  disappeared and with it a whole series of inducements that from the
+  standpoint of the pecuniary and material supply of relief had long
+  been active. It was no wonder that the preachers advocated it in vain,
+  and reproached their hearers with their diminished bounty to the poor;
+  the old personal incentive had gone, and could only gradually be
+  superseded by the spontaneous activity of personal religion very
+  slowly wedding itself to true views of social duty and purpose.
+  Penance, once so closely related to almsgiving, passed out of sight.
+  Charity, the love of God and our neighbour, had two offices, it was
+  said, "to cherish good and harmless men" and "to correct and punish
+  vice without regard to persons." Correction as a means of discipline
+  takes the place of penance, and it becomes judicial, regulating and
+  controlling church membership by the authority of the church, a
+  congregation, minister or elder; or dealing with laziness or ill-doing
+  through the municipality or state, in connexion with what now first
+  appear, not prisons, but houses of correction.
+
+The religious life was to be democratic--not in religious bodies, but in
+the whole people; and in a new sense--in relation to family and social
+life--it was to be moral. That was the significance of the Reformation
+for charity.
+
+
+  The organization of municipal relief.
+
+Consistently with this movement of religious activity towards a complete
+fulfilment of the duties of civic life, the older classical social
+theory, fostered by the Renaissance, assumed a new influence--the great
+conception of the state as a community bound together by charity and
+friendship, "We be not born to ourselves," it was said, "but partly to
+the use of our country, of our parents, of our kinsfolk, and partly of
+our friends and neighbours; and therefore all good virtues are grafted
+on us naturally, whose effects be to do good to others, when it showeth
+forth the image of God in man, whose property is ever to do good to
+others" (Lamond, p. 14). Economic theory also changed. Instead of the
+medieval opinion of the "theologian or social preacher," that "trade
+could only be defended on the ground that honestly conducted it made no
+profit" (Green, ii. 71), we have a recognition of the advantages
+resulting from exchange, and individual interests, it is argued, are not
+necessarily inconsistent with those of the state, but are, on the
+contrary, a source of solid good to the whole community.
+
+  Municipal laws for the suppression of the mendicity of the able-bodied
+  and the organization of relief on behalf of the infirm were common in
+  England and on the continent (Colmar, 1362; Nuremberg, 1478;
+  Strassburg, 1523; London, 1514). Vives (Ehrle, _Beitrage zur
+  Geschichte und Reform der Armenpflege_, p. 26), a Spaniard, who had
+  been at the court of Henry VIII., in a book translated into several
+  languages and widely read, seems to have summed up the thought of the
+  time in regard to the management of the poor. He divided them into
+  three classes: those in hospitals and poor-houses, the public homeless
+  beggars and the poor at home. He would have a census taken of the
+  number of each class in the town, and information obtained as to the
+  causes of their distress. Then he would establish a central
+  organization of relief under the magistrates. Work was to be supplied
+  for all, while begging was strictly forbidden. Non-settled poor who
+  were able-bodied were to be sent to their homes. Able-bodied settled
+  poor who knew no craft were to be put on some public work--the
+  undeserving being set to hard labour. For others work was to be found,
+  or they were to be assisted to become self-supporting. The hospitals
+  provided with medical advice and necessaries were to be classified to
+  meet the needs of the sick, the blind and lunatics. The poor living at
+  home were to work with a view to their self-support. What they earned,
+  if insufficient, might be supplemented. If a citizen found a case of
+  distress he was not to help it, but to send it for inquiry to the
+  magistrate. Children were to be taught. Private relief was to be
+  obtained from the rich. The funds of endowed charities were to be the
+  chief source of income; if more was wanted, bequests and church
+  collections would suffice. The scheme was put in force in Yprès in
+  1524. The Sorbonne approved it, and similar plans were adopted in
+  Paris and elsewhere. It is in outline the scheme of London municipal
+  charity promoted by Edward VI., by which the poor were classified, St
+  Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals appropriated for the sick,
+  Christ's hospital for the children of the poor, and Bridewell for the
+  correction of the able-bodied. Less the institutional arrangements and
+  plus the compulsory rate, the methods are those of the Poor Relief Act
+  of Queen Elizabeth of 1601. At first the attempt had been made to
+  introduce state relief in reliance on voluntary alms (1 Mary 13, 5
+  Eliz. 3, 1562-1563), subject to the right of assessment if alms were
+  refused. But the position was anomalous. Charity is voluntary, and
+  spontaneously meets the demands of distress. Such demands have always
+  a tendency to increase with the supply. Hence the very limitations of
+  charitable finance are in the nature of a safeguard. At most economic
+  trouble can only be assuaged by relief, and it can only be met or
+  prevented by economic and social reforms. If a compulsory rate be not
+  enforced, as in Scotland and formerly in some parishes in England, a
+  voluntary rate may be made in supplementation of the local charities.
+  In Scotland, where the compulsory clauses of the Poor Relief Act of
+  James I. were not put in force, the country weathered the storm
+  without them, and the compulsory rate, which was extended throughout
+  the country by the Poor Act of 1844, came in very slowly in the 18th
+  and 19th centuries. In France (1566) a similar act was passed and set
+  aside. If a compulsory rate be enforced, it is inevitable that the
+  resources of charity, unless kept apart from the poor-law and
+  administered on different lines from it, will diminish, and at the
+  same time, as has happened often in the case of endowed charities, the
+  interest in charitable administration will lapse, while the charges
+  for poor-law relief, drawn without much scruple from the taxation of
+  the community, will mount to millions either to meet increasing
+  demands or to provide more elaborate institutional accommodation. The
+  principle once adopted, it was enacted (1572-1573) that the aged and
+  infirm should be cared for by the overseers of the poor, a new
+  authority; and in 1601 the duplicate acts were passed, that for the
+  relief of the poor (43 Eliz. 2), and that for the furtherance and
+  protection of endowed charities. Thus the poor were brought into the
+  dependence of a legally recognized class, endowed with a claim for
+  relief, on the fulfilment of which, after a time, they could without
+  difficulty insist if they were so minded. The civic authority had
+  indeed taken over the alms of the parish, and an _eleemosyna civica_
+  had taken the place of the _annona civica_. It was a similar system
+  under a different name.
+
+
+  Poor Relief Acts and statutory serfdom.
+
+A phrase of Robert Cecil's (1st earl of Salisbury) indicates the minute
+domestic character of the Elizabethan legislation (D'Ewes, 674). The
+question (1601) was the repeal of a statute of tillage. Cecil says: "If
+in Edward I.'s time a law was made for the maintenance of the fry of
+fish, and in Henry VII.'s for the preservation of the eggs of wild fowl,
+shall we now throw away a law of more consequence and import? If we
+debar tillage, we give scope to the depopulating. And then, if the poor
+being thrust out of their houses go to dwell with others, straight we
+catch them with the statute of inmates; if they wander abroad, they are
+within the danger of the statute of the poor to be whipt. So by this
+undo this statute, and you endanger many thousands." A strong central
+government, a local authority appointed directly by the government, and
+a network of legislation controlled the whole movement of economic life.
+On this reliance was placed to meet economic difficulties. The local
+authorities were the justices of the peace; and they had to carry out
+the statutes for this purpose, to assess the wages of artisans and
+labourers, and to enforce the payment of the wages they had fixed; to
+ensure that suitable provision was made for the relief of the poor at
+the expense of rates which they also fixed; and to suppress vagabondage.
+Since 23 Edw. III. there had been labour statutes, and in 1563 a new
+statute was passed, an "Act containing divers orders for Artificers,
+Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and Apprentices" (5 Eliz. c. 4). It
+recognized and upheld a social classification. On the one hand there was
+the gentleman or owner of property to which the act was not to apply;
+and on the other the artisan and labouring class. This class in turn was
+subdivided, and the justices were to assess their wages annually
+according to "the plenty and scarcity of the time and other
+circumstances." Persons between the ages of twelve and sixty, who were
+not apprentices or engaged in certain specified employments, were
+compelled to serve in husbandry by the year "with any person that
+keepeth husbandry." The length of the day's work and the conditions of
+apprenticeship were fixed. The assessed rate of wages was enforceable by
+fine and imprisonment, and refusal to be apprenticed by imprisonment.
+Thus there was created a life control over labour with an industrial
+settlement and a wage fixed by the justices annually. There are
+differences of opinion in regard to the extent to which this act was
+enforced; and the evidence on the point is comparatively scanty. It was
+enforced throughout the century in which it was passed, and it probably
+continued in force generally until the Restoration, while subsequently
+it was put in operation to meet special emergencies, such as times of
+distress when some settlement of wages seemed desirable (cf. Rogers, v.
+611; Hewins, _English Trade and Finance_, p. 82; Cunningham, _Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times_, i. 168). It was not
+repealed till 1814.
+
+From 1585 to 1622 there was, it is said, a slight increase in labourers'
+wages, which fluctuated from 5s. 3/8d. to 5s. 8 ¼d. a week, with a
+declining standard of comfort and at times great distress. Then there
+was a marked increase of wage till 1662 and "a very marked improvement;
+the rate of increase being very nearly double that of the earlier
+periods," and reaching 9s., "as the highest weekly rate for the whole
+period." Then from 1662 to 1702 there was "a slight improvement"
+(Hewins, p. 89). It would seem indeed that the stir of the times between
+1622 and 1662 may have caused a great demand for labour. But with the
+Restoration, when the assessment system was falling into desuetude, came
+the Poor Relief Act of 1662 (13 & 14 Car. II. cap. 62), which brought in
+the law of settlement, and a settlement for relief of a very strict
+nature was added to the industrial settlement of the Artificers and
+Labourers Act. Thus, if the influence of that act, which had so long
+controlled labour, was waning, its place was now taken by an act which,
+though it had nothing to do with the assessment of wage, yet so settled
+the labourer within the bounds of his parish that he had practically to
+rely, if not upon a wage fixed by the justices, yet upon a customary
+wage limited and restricted as a result of the law of settlement. And
+the assessment by the justices, in so far as it may have continued,
+would therefore be of little or no consequence. Settlement also, like
+the Artificers and Labourers Act, would prevent the country labourer
+from passing to the towns, or the townsmen passing to other towns. At
+least they would do so at the risk of forfeiting their right to relief
+if they lost their settlement without acquiring a new one. Hence the
+industrial control, though under another name and other conditions,
+remained in force to a large extent in practice.
+
+By the Artificers and Labourers Act then, in conjunction with other
+measures, the labouring classes were finally committed to a new bondage,
+when they had freed themselves from the serfdom of feudalism, and when
+the control exercised over them by the gild and municipality was
+relaxed. The statute was so enforced that to earn a year's livelihood
+would have taken a labourer not 52 weeks, but sometimes two years, or 58
+weeks, or 80 weeks, or 72 weeks; sometimes, however, less--48 or 35. It
+followed that on such a system the country could only with the utmost
+good fortune free itself from the economic difficulties of the century,
+and that the need of a poor-law was felt the more as these difficulties
+persisted. A voluntary or a municipal system could not suffice, even as
+a palliative, while such statutes as these were in force to render
+labour immobile and unprogressive. Also, while wages were fixed by
+statute or order, whether chiefly in the interest of the employers or
+not, obviously any shortage on the wages had to be made good by the
+community. The community, by fixing the wages to be earned in a
+livelihood, made itself responsible for their sufficiency. And it is
+suggestive to find that in the year in which the Artificers and
+Labourers Act (1563) was passed, the act for the enforcement of
+assessments of poor-rate (5 Eliz. cap. 3) was also enacted. The Law of
+Settlement, to which we have referred, passed in the reign of Charles
+II., was due, it is said, to a migration of labourers southward from
+counties where less favourable statutory wages prevailed; but it was, in
+fact, only a corollary of the Artificers and Labourers Act of 1563 and
+the Poor Relief Act of 1601. These laws, it may be said, were the means
+of making the English labourer, until the poor-law reform of 1834, a
+settled but landless serf, supported by a fixed wage and a state bounty.
+By the poor-law it was possible to continue this state of things till,
+in consequence of an absolute economic breakdown, there was no
+alternative but reform.
+
+The philanthropic nature of the poor-law is indicated by its
+antecedents: once enacted, its bounties became a right; its philanthropy
+disappeared in a quasi-legal claim. Its object was to relieve the poor
+by home industries, apprentice children, and provide necessary relief to
+the poor unable to work. The act was commonly interpreted so as to
+include the whole of that indefinite class, the "poor"; by a better and
+more rigid interpretation it was, at least in the 19th century, held to
+apply only to the "destitute," that is, to those who required "necessary
+relief"--according to the actual wording of the statute. The economic
+fallacy of home industries founded on rate-supplied capital early
+declared itself, and the method could only have continued as long as it
+did because it formed part of a general system of industrial control.
+When in the 18th century workhouses were established, the same
+industrial fallacy, as records show, repeated itself under new
+conditions. Within the parish it resulted in the farmer paying the
+labourer as small a wage as possible, and leaving the parish to provide
+whatever he might require in addition during his working life and in his
+old age. Thus, indeed, a gigantic experiment in civic employment was
+made for at least two centuries on a vast scale throughout the
+country--and failed. As was natural, the lack of economic independence
+reacted on the morals of the people. With pauperism came want of energy,
+idleness and a disregard for chastity and the obligations of marriage.
+The law, it is true, recognized the mutual obligations of parents and
+grandparents, children and grandchildren; but in the general poverty
+which it was itself a means of perpetuating such obligations became
+practically obsolete, while at all times they are difficult to enforce.
+Still, the fact that they were recognized implies a great advance in
+charitable thought. The act, passed at first from year to year, was very
+slowly put in force. Even before it was passed the poor-rate first
+assessed under the act of 1563 was felt to be "a greater tax than some
+subsidies," and in the time of Charles II. it amounted to a third of the
+revenue of England and Wales (Rogers, v. 81).
+
+The service of villein and cottar was, as we have now seen, in part
+superseded by what we have called a statutory wage-control, founded on a
+basis of wage supplemented by relief, provided by a rate-supported
+poor-law. But it follows that with the decay of this system the poor-law
+itself should have disappeared, or should have taken some new and very
+limited form. Unfortunately, as in Roman times, state relief proved to
+be a popular and vigorous parasite that outlived the tree on which it
+was rooted: assessments of wage under the Statute of Labourers fell into
+disuse after the Restoration, it is said, and the statute was finally
+repealed in 1814, and sixty years later the act against illegal
+combinations of working men; but the serfdom of the poor-law, the
+_eleemosyna civica_, remained, to work the gravest evil to the labouring
+classes, and even after the reform of 1834 greatly impeded the recovery
+of their independence. Nevertheless, by a new law of state alms for the
+aged, or by statutory outdoor relief with, as some would wish, a
+regulated wage, it is now proposed to bring them once again under a
+thraldom similar to that from which they have so slowly emancipated
+themselves.
+
+
+  The endowed charities.
+
+The policy adopted by Queen Elizabeth for the relief of the poor (1601)
+included a scheme for the reorganization of voluntary charity as well as
+plans for the extension of rate-aided relief. During the century, as we
+have seen, endeavours had been made to create a system of voluntary
+charity. This it was proposed to safeguard and promote concurrently with
+the extension of the poor-rate. Accordingly, in the poor-law it was
+arranged that the overseers, the new civic authority, and the
+churchwardens, the old parochial and charitable authority, should act in
+conjunction, and, subject to magisterial approval, together "raise
+weekly or otherwise" the necessary means "by taxation of every
+inhabitant." The old charitable organization was based on endowment, and
+the churchwarden was responsible for the administration of many such
+endowments. What was not available from these and other sources was to
+be raised "by taxation." The object of the new act was to encourage
+charitable gifts.
+
+Towards the end of the 18th century, when the administration of poor
+relief fell into confusion, many charities were lost, or were in danger
+of being lost, and many were mismanaged. In 1786 and 1788 a committee of
+the House of Commons reported on the subject. In 1818, chiefly through
+the instrumentality of Lord Brougham, a commission of inquiry on
+educational charities was appointed, and in 1819 another commission to
+investigate (with some exceptions) all the charities for the poor in
+England and Wales. These and subsequent commissions continued their
+inquiries till 1835, when a select committee of the House of Commons
+made a strong report, advocating the establishment of a permanent and
+independent board, to inquire, to compel the production of accounts, to
+secure the safe custody of charity property, to adapt it to new uses on
+cy-près lines, &c. A commission followed in 1849, and eventually in 1853
+the first Charitable Trusts Act was passed, under which "The Charity
+Commissioners of England and Wales" were appointed.
+
+  The following are details of importance:--(1) _Definition._--The
+  definition of the act of 1601 (Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz. 4) still
+  holds good. It enumerates as charitable objects all that was once
+  called "alms": (a) "The relief of aged, impotent and poor people"--the
+  normal poor; "the maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers and
+  mariners"--the poor chiefly by reason of war, sometime a class of
+  privileged mendicants; (b) education, "schools of learning, free
+  schools and scholars in universities"; and then (c) a group of objects
+  which include general civic and religious purposes, and the charities
+  of gilds and corporations; "the repair of bridges, ports, havens,
+  causeways, churches, sea-banks and highways; the education and
+  preferment of orphans; the relief, stock, or maintenance for houses of
+  correction; marriages of poor maids, supportation, aid, and help of
+  young tradesmen, handicraftsmen, and persons decayed"; and there
+  follows (d) "the relief or redemption of prisoners or captives"; and,
+  lastly, (e) "the aid and ease of any poor inhabitants concerning
+  payment of fifteens" (the property-tax of Tudor times), setting out of
+  soldiers, and other taxes. The definition might be illustrated by the
+  charitable bequests of the next 60, or indeed 225, years. It is a fair
+  summary of them. (2) _Charitable Gifts._--A public trust and a
+  charitable trust are, as this definition shows, synonymous. It is a
+  trust which relates to public charities, and is not held for the
+  benefit of private persons, e.g. relations, but for the common good,
+  and, subject to the instructions of the founder, by trustees
+  responsible to the community. Gifts for charitable purposes, other
+  than those affected by the law of mortmain, have always been viewed
+  with favour. "Where a charitable bequest is capable of two
+  constructions, one of which would make it void and the other would
+  make it effectual, the latter will be adopted by the court" (Tudor's
+  _Charitable Trusts_, ed. 1906, by Bristowe, Hunt and Burdett, p. 167).
+  Gifts to the poor, or widows, or orphans, indefinitely, or in a
+  particular parish, were valid under the act, or for any purpose or
+  institution for the aid of the "poor." Thus practically the act
+  covered the same field as the poor-law, though afterwards it was
+  decided that, "as a rule, persons receiving parochial relief were not
+  entitled to the benefit of a charity intended for the poor" (Tudor, p.
+  167). (3) _Religious Differences._--In the administration of charities
+  which are for the poor the broadest view is taken of religious
+  differences. (4) _Superstitious Uses._--The superstitious use is one
+  that has for its object the propagation of the rights of a religion
+  not tolerated by the law (Tudor, p. 4). Consequently, so far as
+  charities were held or left subject to such rights, they were illegal,
+  or became legal only as toleration was extended. Thus by degrees,
+  since the Toleration Act of 1688, all charities to dissenters have
+  become legal--that is, trusts for schools, places for religious
+  instruction, education and charitable purposes generally. But bequests
+  for masses for the soul of the donor, or for monastic orders, are
+  still void. (5) _Administration._--The duty of administering
+  charitable trusts falls upon trustees or corporations, and under the
+  term "eleemosynary corporations" are included endowed hospitals and
+  colleges. Under schemes of the Charity Commissioners, where charities
+  have been remodelled, besides trustees elected by corporations, there
+  are now usually appointed _ex-officio_ trustees who represent some
+  office or institution of importance in connexion with the charity. (6)
+  _Jurisdiction by Chancery and Charity Commission._--The Court of
+  Chancery has jurisdiction over charities, under the old principle that
+  "charities are trusts of a public nature, in regard to which no one is
+  entitled by an immediate and peculiar interest to prefer a complaint
+  for compelling the performance by the trustees of their obligations."
+  The court, accordingly, represents the crown as _parens patriae_. Now,
+  by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853, and subsequent acts, a charity
+  commission has been formed which is entrusted with large powers,
+  formerly enforced only by the Court of Chancery. (7) _Jurisdiction by
+  Visitor._--A further jurisdiction is by the "visitor," a right
+  inherent in the founder of any eleemosynary corporation, and his
+  heirs, or those whom he appoints, or in their default, the king. The
+  object of the visitor is "to prevent all perverting of the charity, or
+  to compose differences among members of the corporation." Formerly the
+  bishop's ordinary was the recognized visitor (2 Henry V. I, 1414) of
+  hospitals, apart from the founder. Subsequently his power was limited
+  (14 Eliz. c. 5, 1572) to hospitals for which the founders had
+  appointed no visitors. Then (1601) by the Charitable Uses Act
+  commissions were issued for inquiry by county juries. Now, apart from
+  the duty of visitors, inquiry is conducted by the charity
+  commissioners and the assistant commissioners. By subsequent acts (see
+  below) ecclesiastical and eleemosynary charities have been still
+  further separated and defined. (8) _Advice._--"Trustees, or other
+  persons concerned in the management of a charity, may apply to the
+  charity commissioners for their opinion, advice or direction; and any
+  person acting under such advice is indemnified, unless he has been
+  guilty of misrepresentation in obtaining it." (9) _Limitation of
+  Charity Commissioners' Powers_,--The commissioners cannot, however,
+  make any order with respect to any charity of which the gross annual
+  income amounts to £50 or upwards, except on the application (in
+  writing) of the trustees or a majority of them. Their powers are thus
+  very limited, except when put in motion by the trustees. If a parish
+  is divided they can apportion the charities if the gross income does
+  not exceed £20. (10) _General Powers of the Charity
+  Commission._--Subject to the limitation of £50, &c., the charity
+  commissioners have power (Charitable Trusts Act 1860) to make orders
+  for the appointment or removal of trustees, or of any officer, and for
+  the transfer, payment and vesting of any real or personal estate, or
+  "for the establishment of any scheme for the administration" of the
+  charity, (11) _Schemes and Remodelling of Charities._--Under this
+  power charities are remodelled, and small and miscellaneous charities
+  put into one fund and applied to new purposes. The cy-près doctrine is
+  applied, by which if a testator leaves directions that are only
+  indefinite, or if the objects for which a charity was founded are
+  obsolete, the charity is applied to some purpose, as far as possible,
+  in accordance with the charitable intention of the founder. This
+  doctrine probably received its widest application in the City of
+  London Parochial Charities Act of 1883. Under other acts doles have
+  been applied to education and to allotments. About 380 schemes are
+  issued in the course of a year. (12) _Objects adopted in remodelling
+  Charities._--In the remodelling of charities for the general benefit
+  of the poor some one or more of thirteen objects are usually included
+  in the scheme. These are subscriptions to a medical charity, to a
+  provident club or coal or clothing society, to a friendly society; for
+  nurses, for annuities, for outfit for service, &c.; for emigration;
+  for recreation grounds, clubs, reading-rooms, museums, lectures; for
+  temporary relief to a limited amount in each year; for clothes fuel,
+  tools, medical aid, food, &c., or in money "in cases of unexpected
+  loss or sudden destitution"; for pensions. (13) _Parochial
+  Charities._--By the Local Government Act of 1892, local ecclesiastical
+  charities, i.e. endowments for "any spiritual purpose that is a
+  legal purpose" (for spiritual persons, church and other buildings, for
+  spiritual uses, &c.), are separated from parochial charities, "the
+  benefits of which are, or the separate distribution of the benefits of
+  which is, confined to inhabitants of a single parish, or of a single
+  ancient ecclesiastical parish, or not more than five neighbouring
+  parishes." These charities, since the Local Government Act 1894, are
+  under the supervision of the parish councils, who appoint trustees for
+  their management in lieu of the former overseer or vestry trustees,
+  or, under certain conditions, "additional trustees." The accounts have
+  to be submitted to the parish meeting, and the names of the
+  beneficiaries of dole charities published. (14) _Official
+  Trustees._--There is also "an official trustee of charity lands," who
+  as "bare trustee" may hold the land or stock of the charity managed by
+  the trustees or administrators. In 1905 the stock transferred to the
+  official trustees amounted to £24,820,945. (15) _Audit_.--The charity
+  commissioners have no power of audit, but the trustees of every
+  charity have to prepare a statement of accounts annually, and transmit
+  it to the commission. The accounts have to be "certified under the
+  hand of one or more of the trustees and by the auditor of the
+  charity." (16) _Taxation_.--In the case of rents and profits of lands,
+  &c., belonging to hospitals or almshouses, or vested in trustees for
+  charitable purposes, allowances are made in diminution of income-tax
+  (56 Vict. 35 § 61). From the inhabited house duty any hospital charity
+  school, or house provided for the reception or relief of poor persons,
+  is exempted (House Tax Act 1808). Also there is an exemption from the
+  land-tax in regard to land rents, &c., in possession of hospitals
+  before 1693. (17) _The Digest._--A digest of endowed charities in
+  England and Wales was compiled in the years 1861 to 1876. A new digest
+  of reports and financial particulars has since been completed.
+
+  The income of endowed charities in 1876 was returned at £2,198,463. It
+  is now, no doubt, considerably larger than it was in 1876. Partial
+  returns show that at least a million a year is now available in
+  England and Wales for the assistance of the aged poor and for doles.
+  Between the poor-law, which, as it is at present administered, is a
+  permanent endowment provided from the rates for the support of a class
+  of permanent "poor," and endowed charities, which are funds available
+  for the poor of successive generations, there is no great difference.
+  But in their resources and administration the difference is marked.
+  Local endowed charities were constantly founded after Queen
+  Elizabeth's time till about 1830, and the poor-rate was at first
+  supplementary of the local charities. When corn and fuel were dear and
+  clothes very expensive, what now seem trivial endowments for food,
+  fuel, coal and clothes were important assets in the thrifty management
+  of a parish. But when the poor were recognized as a class of
+  dependants entitled by law to relief from the community, the rate
+  increased out of all proportion to the charities. A distinction then
+  made itself felt between the "parish" poor and the "second" poor, or
+  the poor who were not relieved from the rates, and relief from the
+  rates altogether overshadowed the charitable aid. Charitable
+  endowments were ignored, ill-administered, and often were lost. After
+  1834 the poor-law was brought under the control of the central
+  government. Poor relief was placed in the hands of boards of guardians
+  in unions of parishes. The method of co-operation between poor-law and
+  charity suggested by the acts of Queen Elizabeth was set aside, and,
+  as a responsible partner in the public work of relief, charity was
+  disestablished. In the parishes the endowed charities remained in
+  general a disorganized medley of separate trusts, jealously guarded by
+  incompetent administrators. To give unity to this mass of units, so
+  long as the principles of charity are misunderstood or ignored, has
+  proved an almost impossible and certainly an unpopular task. So far as
+  it has been achieved, it has been accomplished by the piecemeal
+  legislation of schemes cautiously elaborated to meet local prejudices.
+  Active reform has been resented, and politicians have often
+  accentuated this resentment. In 1894 a select committee was appointed
+  to inquire whether it was desirable to take measures to bring the
+  action of the Charity Commission more directly under the control of
+  parliament, but no serious grievances were substantiated. The
+  committees' reports are of interest, however, as an indication of the
+  initial difficulties of all charitable work, the general ignorance
+  that prevails in regard to the elementary conditions that govern it,
+  the common disregard of these principles, and the absence of any
+  accepted theory or constructive policy that should regulate its
+  development and its administration.
+
+
+  Charity in the parish after 1601.
+
+After the Poor-Law Act of 1601 the history of the voluntary parochial
+charities in a town parish is marked by their decreasing amount and
+utility, as poor-law relief and pauperism increased. The act, it would
+seem, was not adopted with much alacrity by the local authorities. From
+1625 to 1646 there were many years of plague and sickness, but in St
+Giles's, London, as late as 1649, the amount raised by the "collectors"
+(or overseers) was only £176. They disbursed this to "the visited poor"
+as "pensions." In 1665 an extra levy of £600 is mentioned. In the
+accounts of St Martin's-in-the-Fields, where, as in St Giles's, gifts
+were received, the change wrought by another half-century (1714) is
+apparent. The sources of charitable relief are similar to those in all
+the Protestant churches--English, Scottish or continental: church
+collections and offertories; correctional fines, such as composition for
+bastards and conviction money for swearers; and besides these, income
+from annuities and legacies, the parish estate, the royal bounty, and
+"petitions to persons of quality." In all £2041 was collected, but, so
+far as relief was concerned, the parish relied not on it, but on the
+poor-rate, which produced £3765. All this was collected and disbursed on
+their own authority by collectors, to orphans, "pensioners" or the
+"known or standing" poor, or to casual poor (£1818), including nurse
+children and bastards. The begging poor were numerous and the infant
+death-rate enormous, and each year three-fourths of those christened
+were "inhumanly suffered to die by the barbarity of nurses." The whole
+administration was uncharitable, injurious to the community and the
+family, and inhuman to the child. If one may judge from later accounts
+of other parishes even up to 1834, usually it remained the same,
+purposeless and unintelligent; and it can hardly be denied that,
+generally speaking, only since the middle of the 19th century has any
+serious attention been paid to the charitable side of parochial work.
+Parallel to the parochial movement of the poor-law in England, in France
+(about 1617) were established the _bureaux de bienfaisance_, at first
+entirely voluntary institutions, then recognized by the state, and
+during the Revolution made the central administration for relief in the
+communes.
+
+
+  Charitable movements after 1601.
+
+In the 17th century in England, as in France, opinion favoured the
+establishment of large hospitals or _maisons Dieu_ for the reception of
+the poor of different classes. In France throughout the century there
+was a continuous struggle with mendicancy, and the hospitals were used
+as places into which offenders were summarily driven. A new humanity
+was, however, beginning its protest. The pitiful condition of abandoned
+children attracted sympathy in both countries. St Vincent de Paul
+established homes for the _enfants trouvés_, followed in England by the
+establishment of the Foundling hospital (1739). In both countries the
+method was applied inconsiderately and pushed to excess, and it affected
+family life most injuriously. Grants from parliament supported the
+foundling movement in England, and homes were opened in many parts of
+the country. The demand soon became overwhelming; the mortality was
+enormous, and the cost so large that it outstripped all financial
+expedients. The lesson of the experiment is the same as that of the
+poor-law catastrophe before 1834; only, instead of the able-bodied poor
+of another age, infants were made the object of a compassionate but
+undiscerning philanthropy. With widespread relief there came widespread
+abandonment of duty and economic bankruptcy. Had the poor-rates instead
+of charitable relief been used in the same way, the moral injury would
+have been as great, but the annual draft from the rates would have
+concealed the moral and postponed the economic disaster. To amend the
+evil, changes were made by which the relation between child and mother
+was kept alive, and a personal application on her part was required; the
+character of the mother and her circumstances were investigated, and
+assistance was only given when it would be "the means of replacing the
+mother in the course of virtue and the way of an honest livelihood."
+General reforms were also made, especially through the instrumentality
+of Jonas Hanway, to check infant mortality, and metropolitan parishes
+were required to provide for their children outside London. A kindred
+movement led to the establishment of penitentiaries (1758), of lock
+hospitals and lying-in hospitals (1749-1752).
+
+In Queen Anne's reign there was a new educational movement, "the charity
+school"--"to teach poor children the alphabet and the principles of
+religion," followed by the Sunday-school movement (1780), and about the
+same time (1788) by "the school of industry"--to employ children and
+teach them to be industrious. In 1844 the Ragged School Union was
+established, and until the Education Act of 1870 continued its voluntary
+educational work. As an outcome of these movements, through the efforts
+of Miss Mary Carpenter and many others, in 1854-1855 industrial and
+reformatory schools were established, to prevent crime and reform child
+criminals. The orphanage movement, beginning in 1758, when the Orphan
+Working Home was established, has been continued to the present day on a
+vastly extended scale. In 1772 a society for the discharge of persons
+imprisoned for small debts was established, and in 1773 Howard began his
+prison reforms. This raised the standard of work in institutional
+charities generally. After the civil wars the old hospital foundations
+of St Bartholomew and St Thomas, municipalized by Edward VI., became
+endowed charities partly supported by voluntary contributions. The same
+fate befell Christ's Hospital, in connexion with which the voting
+system, the admission of candidates by the vote of the whole body of
+subscribers--that peculiarly English invention--first makes its
+appearance.
+
+A new interest in hospitals sprang up at the end of the 17th century. St
+Thomas's was rebuilt (1693) and St Bartholomew's (1739); Guy's was
+founded in 1724, and on the system of free "letters" obtainable in
+exchange for donations, voluntary hospitals and infirmaries were
+established in London (1733 and later) and in most of the large towns.
+Towards the end of the 18th century the dispensary movement was
+developed--a system of local dispensaries with fairly definite districts
+and home visiting, a substitute for attendance at a hospital, where
+"hospital fever" was dreaded, and an alternative to what was then a very
+ill-administered system of poor-law medical relief. After 1840 the
+provident dispensary was introduced, in order that the patients by small
+contributions in the time of health might provide for illness without
+having to meet large doctors' bills, and the doctor might receive some
+sufficient remuneration for his attendance on poor patients. This
+movement was largely extended after 1860. Three hospital funds for
+collecting contributions for hospitals and making them grants, a
+movement that originated in Birmingham in 1859, were established in
+London in 1873 and 1897.
+
+  Since 1868 the poor-law medical system of Great Britain has been
+  immensely improved and extended, while at the same time the number of
+  persons in receipt of free medical relief in most of the large towns
+  has greatly increased. The following figures refer to London: at
+  hospitals, 97 in number, in-patients (1904) during the year, 118,536;
+  out-patients and casualty cases, 1,858,800; patients at free,
+  part-pay, or provident dispensaries, about 280,000; orders issued for
+  attendance at poor-law dispensaries and at home, 114,158. The number
+  of beds in poor-law infirmaries (1904) was 16,976. There are in London
+  12 general hospitals with, 18 without, medical schools, and 67
+  special hospitals. Thus the population in receipt of public and
+  voluntary medical relief is very large, indeed altogether excessive.
+
+Each religious movement has brought with it its several charities. The
+Society of Friends, the Wesleyans, the Baptists have large charities.
+With the extension of the High Church movement there have been
+established many sisterhoods which support penitentiaries, convalescent
+homes and hospitals, schools, missions, &c.
+
+The magnitude of this accumulating provision of charitable relief is
+evident, though it cannot be summed up in any single total.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century anti-mendicity societies were
+established; and later, about 1869, in England and Scotland a movement
+began for the organization of charitable relief, in connexion with which
+there are now societies and committees in most of the larger towns in
+Great Britain, in the colonies, and in the United States of America.
+More recently the movement for the establishment of settlements in poor
+districts, initiated by Canon Barnett at Toynbee Hall--"to educate
+citizens in the knowledge of one another, and to provide them with
+teaching and recreation"--has spread to many towns in England and
+America.
+
+
+  Progress of thought in 18th and 19th centuries.
+
+These notes of charitable movements suggest an altogether new
+development of thought. On behalf of the charity school of Queen Anne's
+time were preached very formal sermons, which showed but little sympathy
+with child life. After the first half of the century a new humanism with
+which we connect the name of Rousseau, slowly superseded this formal
+beneficence. Rousseau made the world open its eyes and see nature in the
+child, the family and the community. He analysed social life, intent on
+explaining it and discovering on what its well-being depended; and he
+stimulated that desire to meet definite social needs which is apparent
+in the charities of the century. Little as it may appear to be so at
+first sight, it was a period of charitable reformation. Law revised the
+religious conception of charity, though he was himself so strangely
+devoid of social instinct that, like some of his successors, he linked
+the utmost earnestness in belief to that form of almsgiving which most
+effectually fosters beggardom. Howard introduced the era of inspection,
+the ardent apostle of a new social sagacity; and Bentham, no less
+sagacious, propounded opinions, plans and suggestions which, perhaps it
+may be said, in due course moulded the principles and methods of the
+poor-law of 1834. In the broader sense the turn of thought is religious,
+for while usually stress is laid on the religious scepticism of the
+century, the deeper, fervent, conscientious and evangelical charity in
+which Nonconformists, and especially "the Friends," took so large a
+part, is often forgotten. Sometimes, indeed, as often happens now, the
+feeling of charity passed into the merest sentimentality. This is
+evident, for instance, from so ill-considered a measure as Pitt's Bill
+for the relief of the poor. On the other hand, during the 18th century
+the poor-law was the object of constant criticism, though so long as the
+labour statutes and the old law of settlement were in force, and the
+relief of the labouring population as state "poor" prevailed, it was
+impossible to reform it. Indeed, the criticism itself was generally
+vitiated by a tacit acceptance of "the poor" as a class, a permanent and
+irrevocable charge on the funds of the community; and at the end of the
+18th century, when the labour statutes were abrogated, but the
+conditions under which poor relief was administered remained the same,
+serfdom in its later stage, the serfdom of the poor-law, asserted itself
+in its extremest form in times of dearth and difficulty during the
+Napoleonic War. In 1802-1803 it was calculated (Marshall's _Digest_)
+that 28% of the population were in receipt of permanent or occasional
+relief. Those in receipt of the former numbered 734,817, including
+children--so real had this serfdom of the poor become.
+
+In 1832 the expenditure on pauperism in England and Wales was
+£7,036,968. In the early years of the 19th century the mendicity
+societies, established in some of the larger towns, were a sign of the
+general discontent with existing methods of administration. The Society
+for Bettering the Condition of the Poor--representing a group of men
+such as Patrick Colquhoun, Sir I. Bernard, Dr Lettsom, Dr Haygarth,
+James Neald, Count Rumford and others--took a more positive line and
+issued many useful publications (1796). After 1833 the very atmosphere
+of thought seems changed. There was a general desire to be quit of the
+serfdom of pauperism. The Poor-law Amendment Act was passed in 1834, and
+since then male able-bodied pauperism has dwindled to a minimum. The bad
+years of 1860-1870 revived the problem in England and Scotland, and the
+old spirit of reform for a time prevailed. Improved administration
+working with economic progress effected still further reductions of
+pauperism, till on the 1st of January 1905 (exclusive of lunatics in
+county asylums and casual paupers) the mean number of paupers stood at
+764,589, or 22.6 per thousand of the population, instead of 41.8 per
+thousand as in 1859 (see POOR-LAW).
+
+Charity organization societies were formed after 1869, with the object
+of "improving the condition of the poor," or, in other words, to promote
+independence by an ordered and co-operative charity; and the Association
+for Befriending Young Servants, and workhouse aid committees, in order
+to prevent relapse into pauperism on the part of those who as children
+or young women received relief from the poor-law. The Local Government
+Board adopted a restricted out-door relief policy, and a new interest
+was felt in all the chief problems of local administration. The movement
+was general. The results of the Elberfeld system of municipal relief
+administered by unpaid almoners, each dealing with but one or two cases,
+influenced thought both in England and America. The experience gained by
+Mr Joseph Tuckerman of Boston of the utility of registering applications
+for relief, and the teaching of Miss Octavia Hill, led to the foundation
+of the system of friendly visiting and associated charity at Boston
+(1880) and elsewhere. Since that time the influence of Arnold Toynbee
+and the investigations of Charles Booth have led to a better
+appreciation of the conditions of labour; and to some extent, in London
+and elsewhere, the spirit of charity has assumed the form of a new
+devotion to the duties of citizenship. But perhaps, in regard to charity
+in Great Britain, the most important change has been the revival of the
+teaching of Dr Chalmers (1780-1847), who (1819) introduced a system of
+parochial charity at St John's, Glasgow, on independent lines,
+consistent with the best traditions of the Scottish church. In the
+development of the theory of charitable relief on the economic side this
+has been a main factor. His view, which he tested by experience, may be
+summed up as follows: Society is a growing, self-supporting organism. It
+has within it, as between family and family, neighbour and neighbour,
+master and employee, endless links of sympathy and self-support. Poverty
+is not an absolute, but a relative term. Naturally the members of one
+class help one another; the poor help the poor. There is thus a large
+invisible fund available and constantly used by those who, by their
+proximity to one another, know best how to help. The philanthropist is
+an alien to this life around him. Moved by a sense of contrast between
+his own lot, as he understands it, and the lot of those about him, whom
+he but little understands, he concludes that he should relieve them. But
+his gift, unless it be given in such a way as to promote this
+self-support, instead of weakening it, is really injurious. In the first
+place, by his interference he puts a check on the charitable resources
+of another class and lessens their social energy. What he gives they do
+not give, though they might do so. But next, he does more harm than
+this. He stimulates expectation, so that by a false arithmetic his gift
+of a few shillings seems to those who receive it and to those who hear
+of it a possible source of help in any difficulty. To them it represents
+a large command of means; and where one has received what, though it be
+little, is yet, relative to wage, a large sum to be acquired without
+labour, many will seek more, and with that object will waste their time
+and be put off their work, or even be tempted to lie and cheat. So
+social energy is diverted from its proper use. Alms thus given weakens
+social ties, diminishes the natural relief funds of mutual help, and
+beggars a neighbour instead of benefiting him. By this argument a clear
+and well-defined purpose is placed before charity. Charity becomes a
+science based on social principles and observation. Not to give alms,
+but to keep alive the saving health of the family, becomes its problem:
+relief becomes altogether subordinate to this, and institutions or
+societies are serviceable or the reverse according as they serve or fail
+to serve this purpose. Not poverty, but distress is the plea for help;
+not almsgiving, but charity the means. To charity is given a definite
+social aim, and a desire to use consistently with this aim every method
+that increasing knowledge and trained ability can devise.
+
+Under such influences as these, joined with better economic conditions,
+a great reform has been made. The poor-law, however, remains--the modern
+_eleemosyna civica_. It now, indeed, absorbs a proportionately lesser
+amount of the largely increased national income, but, excluding the
+maintenance of lunatics, it costs Great Britain more than twelve
+millions a year; and among the lower classes of the poor, directly or
+indirectly, it serves as a bounty on dependence and is a permanent
+obstacle to thrift and self-reliance. The number of those who are within
+the circle of its more immediate attraction is now perhaps, in different
+parts of the country or different districts in a town, not more than,
+say, 20% of the population. Upon that population the statistics of a day
+census would show a pauperism not of 2.63, the percentage of the mean
+day pauperism on the population in 1908, but of 13.15%; and the
+percentage would be much greater--twice as large, perhaps--if the total
+number of those who in some way received poor relief in the course of a
+year were taken into account. The English poor-law is thus among the
+lower classes, those most tempted to dependence--say some six or seven
+millions of the people--a very potent influence definitely antagonistic
+to the good development of family life, unless it be limited to very
+narrow proportions; as, for instance, to restricted indoor or
+institutional relief for the sick, for the aged and infirm, who in
+extreme old age require special care and nursing, and for the afflicted,
+for whom no sufficient charitable provision is procurable. As ample
+experience shows, only on these conditions can poor-law relief be
+justified from the point of view of charity and the common good. In
+marked contrast to this opinion is the English movement for Old Age
+pensions, which came to its first fruition in 1908--a huge charity
+started on the credit of the state, the extension of which might
+ultimately involve a cost comparable with that of the army or the navy.
+Schemes of the kind have been adopted in the Australasian colonies with
+limitations and safeguards; and they seem likely to develop into a new
+type of poor-relief organization for the aged and infirm (Report: Royal
+Commission on Old Age Pensions, Commonwealth of Australia, 1906). In
+England, partly to meet the demand for better state provision for the
+aged, the Local Government Board in 1900 urged the boards of guardians
+to give more adequate outdoor relief to aged deserving people, and laid
+no stress on the test of destitution, or, in other words, the limitation
+of relief to what was actually "necessary," the neglect of which has led
+to new difficulties. History has proved that demoralization results from
+the wholesale relief whether of the mass of the citizens, or of the
+able-bodied, or of the children, and the proposal to limit the endowment
+to the aged makes no substantial difference. The social results must be
+similar; but social forces work slowly, and usually only the
+unanswerable argument of financial bankruptcy suffices to convert a
+people habituated to dependence, though the inward decay of vitality and
+character may long before be manifest. Ultimately the distribution of
+pensions by way of out-door relief, corrupting a far more independent
+people, is calculated to work a far greater injury than the _annona
+civica_. Such an endowment of old age might indeed be justified as part
+of a system of regulated labour, which, as in earlier times, could not
+be enforced without some such extraneous help, but it could not be
+justified otherwise. It is naturally associated, therefore, with
+socialistic proposals for the regulation of wage.
+
+In the light of the principles of charity, which we have considered
+historically, we have now to turn to two questions: charity and
+economics, and charity and socialism.
+
+
+  The economics of charity.
+
+The object of charity is to render to our neighbour the services and
+duties of goodwill, friendship and love. To prevent distress charity
+has for its further object to preserve and develop the manhood and
+womanhood of individuals and their self-maintenance in and through the
+family; and any form of state intervention is approved or disapproved by
+the same standard. By self-maintenance is meant self-support throughout
+life in its ordinary contingencies--sickness, widowhood, old age, &c.
+Political economy we would define as the science of exchange and
+exchange value. Here it has to be considered in relation to the purposes
+of charity. By way of illustration we take, accordingly, three points:
+distribution and use, supplementation of wage, and the standard of
+well-being or comfort in relation to wage.
+
+  (1) _Distribution and Use._--Economy in the Greek sense begins at this
+  point--the administration and the use of means and resources.
+  Political economy generally ignores this part of the problem. Yet from
+  the point of view of charity it is cardinal to the whole issue. The
+  distribution of wage may or may not be largely influenced by trades
+  unions; but the variation of wage, as is generally the case, by the
+  increase or decrease of a few pence is of less importance than its
+  use. Comparing a careful and an unthrifty family, the difference in
+  use may amount to as much as a third on the total wage. Mere
+  abstention from alcohol may make, in a normal family, a difference of
+  6s. in a wage of 25s. On the other hand, membership of a friendly
+  society is at a time of sickness equivalent to the command of a large
+  sum of money, for the common stock of capital is by that means placed
+  at the disposal of each individual who has a share in it. Further,
+  even a small amount saved may place the holder in a position to get a
+  better market for his labour; he can wait when another man cannot.
+  Rent may be high, but by co-operation that too may be reduced. Other
+  points are obvious and need not be mentioned. It is evident that while
+  the amount of wage is important, still more important is its use. In
+  use it has a large expansive value. (2) _Supplementation of
+  Wage._--The exchange between skill and wage must be free if it is to
+  be valid. The less the skill the greater is the temptation to
+  philanthropists to supplement the lesser wage; and the more important
+  is non-supplementation, for the skilled can usually look after their
+  own interests in the market, while the less skilled, because their
+  labour is less marketable, have to make the greater effort to avoid
+  dependence. But the dole of endowed charities, outdoor relief, and any
+  constant giving, tend to reduce wage, and thus to deprive the
+  recipients of some part of the means of independence. The employer is
+  pressed by competition himself, and in return he presses for profit
+  through a reduced wage, if circumstances make it possible for the
+  workman to take it. And thus a few individuals may lower the wages of
+  a large class of poorly skilled or unskilled hands. In these
+  conditions unionism, even if it were likely to be advantageous, is not
+  feasible. Unionism can only create a coherent unit of workers where
+  there is a limited market and a definite saleable skill. Except for
+  the time, insufficient wage will not be remedied in the individual
+  case by supplementation in any form--doles, clothes, or other kinds of
+  relief; and in that case, too, the relief will probably produce
+  lessened energy after a short time, or in other words lessened ability
+  to live. An insufficient wage may be prevented by increasing the skill
+  of the worker, who will then have the advantage of a better series of
+  economic exchanges, but hardly otherwise. If the supplementation be
+  not immediate, but postponed, as in the case of old-age pensions, its
+  effect will be similar. To the extent of the prospective adventitious
+  gain the attraction to the friendly society and to mutual help and
+  saving will grow less. Necessity has been the inventor of these; and
+  where wage is small, a little that would otherwise be saved is quickly
+  spent if the necessity for saving it is removed. Only necessity
+  schools most men, especially the weak, to whom it makes most
+  difference ultimately, whether they are thrifty or whether or not they
+  save for the future in any way. (3) _The Standard of Well-being or
+  Comfort in Relation to Wage._--With an increase of income there has to
+  be an increase in the power to use income intelligently. Whatever is
+  not so used reacts on the family to its undoing. Constantly when the
+  wife can earn a few shillings a week, the husband will every week idle
+  for two or three days; so also if the husband finds that in a few days
+  he can earn enough to meet what he considers to be his requirements
+  for the week. In these circumstances the standard of well-being falls
+  below the standard of wage; the wage is in excess of the energy and
+  intelligence necessary to its economic use, and in these cases
+  ultimately pauperism often ensues. The family is demoralized. Thus,
+  with a view to the prevention of distress in good times, when there is
+  the less poverty there is the more need of charity, rightly
+  understood; for charity would strive to promote the right use of wage,
+  as the best means of preventing distress and preserving the economic
+  well-being of the family.
+
+
+  Charity and socialism.
+
+The theory of charity separates it entirely from socialism, as that word
+is commonly used. Strictly socialism means, in questions affecting the
+community, a dominant regard for the common or social good in so far as
+it is contrary to private or individual advantage. But even so the
+antithesis is misleading, for the two need not be inconsistent. On the
+contrary, the common good is really and ultimately only individual good
+(not advantage) harmonized to a common end. The issue, indeed, is that
+of old Greek days, and the conditions of a settlement of it are not
+substantially different. Using modern terms one may say that charity is
+"interventionist." It has sought to transform the world by the
+transformation of the will and the inward life in the individual and in
+society. It would intensify the spirit and feeling of membership in
+society and would aim at improving social conditions, as science makes
+clear what the lines of reform should be. So it has constantly
+intervened in all kinds of ways, and, in the 19th century for instance,
+it has initiated many movements afterwards taken up by public
+authorities--such as prison reform, industrial schools, child
+protection, housing, food reform, &c., and it has been a friendly ally
+in many reforms that affect industry very closely, as, for instance, in
+the introduction of the factory acts. But it has never aimed at
+recasting society itself on a new economic plan, as does socialism.
+Socialism indeed offers the people a new state of social security. It
+recognizes that the _annona civica_ and the old poor-law may have been
+bad, but it would meet the objection made against them by insisting on
+the gradual creation of a new industrial society in which wage would be
+regulated and all would be supported, some by wage in adult life, some
+by allowance in old age, and others by maintenance in childhood.
+Accordingly for it all schemes for the state maintenance of school
+children, old age pensions, or state provision for the unemployed are,
+like municipal trading, steps towards a final stage, in which none shall
+want because all shall be supported by society or be dependent on it
+industrially. To charity this position seems to exclude the ethical
+element in life and to treat the people primarily or chiefly as human
+animals. It seems also to exclude the motives for energy and endeavour
+that come from self-maintenance. Against it, on the other hand,
+socialism would urge, that only by close regulation and penalty will the
+lowest classes be improved, and that only the society that maintains
+them can control them. Charity from its experience doubts the
+possibility of such control without a fatal loss of initiative on the
+part of those controlled, and it believes both that there is constant
+improvement on the present conditions of society and that there will be
+constantly more as science grows and its conclusions are put in force.
+Thus charity and socialism, in the usual meaning of the word, imply
+ultimately two quite different theories of social life. The one would
+re-found society industrially, the other would develop it and allow it
+to develop.
+
+
+  The organization of charity.
+
+The springs of charity lie in sympathy and religion, and, one would now
+add, in science. To organize it is to give to it the "ordered nature" of
+an organic whole, to give it a definite social purpose, and to associate
+the members of the community for the fulfilment of that purpose. This in
+turn depends on the recognition of common principles, the adoption of a
+common method, self-discipline and training, and co-operation. In a mass
+of people there may be a large variation in motives coincident with much
+unity in action. Thus there may be acceptance of a common social purpose
+in charity, while in one the impulse is similar to that which moved St
+Francis or George Herbert, in another to that which moved Howard or Dr
+Chalmers, or a modern poor-law reformer like Sir G. Nicholls or E.
+Denison. Accepting, then, the principles of charity, we pass to the
+method in relation to assistance and relief. Details may vary, but on
+the following points there is general agreement among students and
+workers:--
+
+  (1) _The Committee or Conference._--There are usually two kinds of
+  local relief: the public or poor-law relief, and relief connected with
+  religious agencies. Besides, there is the relief of endowments,
+  societies and charitable persons. Therefore, as a condition precedent
+  to all organization, there must be some local centre of association
+  for information and common help. A town should be divided for this
+  purpose into manageable areas coincident with parishes or poor-law
+  divisions, or other districts. Subject to an acceptance of general
+  principles, those engaged in charity should be members of a local
+  conference or committee, or allied to it. The committee would thus be
+  the rallying-point of a large and somewhat loosely knit association
+  of friends and workers. (2) _Inquiry, Aid and Registration_.--The
+  object of inquiry is to ascertain the actual causes of distress or
+  dependence, and to carry on the work there must usually be a staff of
+  several honorary and one or two paid workers. Two methods may be
+  adopted: to inquire in regard to applications for help with a view to
+  forming some plan of material help or friendly aid, or both, which
+  will lead to the ultimate self-support of the family and its members,
+  and, under certain conditions, in the case of the aged or sick, to
+  their continuous or their sufficient help; or to ascertain the facts
+  partly at once, partly by degrees, and then to form and carry out some
+  plan of help, or continue to befriend the family in need of help, in
+  the hope of bringing them to conditions of self-support, leaving the
+  work of relief entirely to other agencies. The committee in neither
+  case should be a relief committee--itself a direct source of relief.
+  On the former method it has usually no relief fund, but it raises from
+  relations, employers, charities and charitable persons the relief
+  required, according to the plan of help agreed upon, unless, indeed,
+  it is better not to relieve the case, or to leave it to the poor-law.
+  The committee thus makes itself responsible for endeavouring to the
+  best of its ability to raise the necessary relief, and acts as trustee
+  for those who co-operate without it, in such a way as to keep intact
+  and to give play to all the natural obligations that lie within the
+  inner circles of a self-supporting community. On the latter method the
+  work of relief is left to general charity, or to private persons, or
+  to the poor-law; and the effort is made to help the family to
+  self-support by a friendly visitor. This procedure is that adopted by
+  the associated charities in Boston, Mass., and other similar societies
+  in America and elsewhere. It is akin also to that adopted in the
+  municipal system of relief in Elberfeld--which has become with many
+  variations in detail the standard method of poor relief in Germany.
+  The method of associated help, combined with personal work, represents
+  the usual practice of charity organization societies. _Mutatis
+  mutandis_, the plan can be adopted on the simplest scale in parochial
+  or other relief committees, subject to the safeguards of sufficient
+  training and settled method. The inquiry should cover the following
+  points: names and address, and ages of family, previous addresses,
+  past employment and wages, present income, rent and liabilities,
+  membership of friendly or other society, and savings, relations,
+  relief (if any) from any source. These points should be verified, and
+  reference should be made to the clergy, the poor-law authorities, and
+  others, to ascertain if they know the applicant. The result should be
+  to show how the applicant has been living, and what are the sources of
+  possible help, and also what is his character. The problem, however,
+  is not whether the person is "deserving" or "undeserving," but
+  whether, granted the facts, the distress can be stayed and
+  self-support attained. If the help can be given privately from within
+  the circle of the family, so much the better. Often it may be best to
+  advise, but not to interfere. In some cases but little help may be
+  necessary; in others again the friendly relation between applicant and
+  friend may last for months and even years. Usually in charitable work
+  the question of the kind of relief available--money, tickets, clothes,
+  &c.--governs the decision how the case should be assisted. But this is
+  quite wrong: the opposite is the true rule. The wants of the case,
+  rightly understood, should govern the decision as to what charity
+  should do and what it should provide. Cases are overwhelming in
+  number, as at the out-patient and casualty departments of a hospital,
+  where the admissions are made without inquiry, and subject practically
+  to no restrictions; but when there is inquiry, and each case is
+  seriously considered and aided with a view to self-support, the
+  numbers will seldom be overwhelming. On this plan appeal is made to
+  the strength of the applicant, and requires an effort on his part.
+  Indiscriminate relief, on the other hand, attracts the applicant by an
+  appeal to his weakness, and it requires of him no effort. Hence, apart
+  even from the differentiating effect of inquiry, one method makes
+  applicants, the other limits their number, although on the latter plan
+  much more strenuous endeavours be made to assist the lesser number of
+  claimants. For the routine work of the office an extremely simple
+  system of records with card index, &c., has been devised. In some
+  cities, particularly in the United States of America, there is a
+  central registration of cases, notified by individual charities,
+  poor-relief authorities and private persons. The system of charity
+  organization or associated charity, it will be seen, allows of the
+  utmost variety of treatment, according to the difficulties in each
+  instance and the remedies available, and the utmost scope for personal
+  work. (3) _Training._--If charitable work is an art, those who
+  undertake it must needs be trained both in practice and method and in
+  judgment. It requires, too, that self-discipline which blends
+  intelligence with emotion, and so endows emotion with strength and
+  purpose. In times of distress a reserve of trained workers is of the
+  utmost service. At all times they do more and produce, socially,
+  better results; but when there is general distress of any kind they do
+  not lose their heads like new recruits, but prevent at least some of
+  the mischief that comes of the panic which often takes possession of a
+  community, when distress is apprehended, and leads to the wildest
+  distribution of relief. Also trained workers make the most useful
+  poor-law guardians, trustees of charities, secretaries of charitable
+  societies and district visitors. All clergy and ministers and all
+  medical men who have to be engaged in the administration of medical
+  relief should learn the art of charity. Poor-law guardians are
+  usually elected on political or general grounds, and have no special
+  knowledge of good methods of charity; and trustees are seldom
+  appointed on the score of their qualifications on this head. To
+  provide the necessary education in charity there should be competent
+  helpers and teachers at charity organization committees and elsewhere,
+  and an alliance for this purpose should be formed between them and
+  professors and teachers of moral science and economics and the
+  "settlements." Those who study social problems in connexion with what
+  a doctor would call "cases" or "practice" see the limits and the
+  falsity of schemes that on paper seem logical enough. This puts a
+  check on the influence of scheme-building and that literary
+  sensationalism which makes capital out of social conditions. (4)
+  _Co-operation._--Organization in charity depends on extensive
+  co-operation, and ultimately on the acceptance of common views. This
+  comes but slowly. But with much tribulation the goal may be reached,
+  if in case after case the effort is made to provide friendly help
+  through charities and private persons,--unless, as may well be, it
+  should seem best not to interfere, but to leave the applicant to apply
+  to the administrators of public relief. Experience of what is right
+  and wrong in charity is thus gained on both sides. Many sources may
+  have to be utilized for aid of different kinds even in a single case,
+  and for the prevention of distress co-operation with members of
+  friendly societies and with co-operative and thrift agencies is
+  indispensable.
+
+
+  The poor law.
+
+Where there is accord between charity and the poor-law pauperism may be
+largely reduced. The poor-law in most countries has at its disposal
+certain institutional relief and out-door allowances, but it has no
+means of devising plans of help which may prevent application to the
+rates or "take" people "off the rates." Thus a widow in the first days
+of widowhood applies and receives an allowance according to the number
+of her children. Helped at the outset by charity on some definite plan,
+she may become self-supporting; and if her family be large one or two of
+her children may be placed in schools by the guardians, while she
+maintains the remaining children and herself. As far as possible there
+should be a division of labour between the poor-law and charity. Except
+where some plan such as that just mentioned is adopted, one or the other
+should take whole charge of the case relieved. There should be no
+supplementation of poor-law relief by charity. This will weaken the
+strength and dissipate the resources of charity without adding to the
+efficiency of the poor-law. Unless the guardians adopt a restrictive
+out-door relief policy, there is no scope for any useful division of
+labour between them and charity; for the many cases which, taken in
+time, charity might save from pauperism, they will draw into chronic
+dependence by their allowances a very much larger number. But if there
+is a restrictive out-door policy, so far as relief is necessary, charity
+may undertake to meet on its own lines distress which the poor-law would
+otherwise have met by allowances, and, subject to the assistance of
+urgent cases, poor-law relief may thus by degrees become institutional
+only. Then, in the main, natural social forces would come into play, and
+dependence on any form of _annona civica_ would cease.
+
+
+  Hospitals.
+
+Open-handed hospitality always creates mendicants. This is what the
+hospitals offer in the out-patient and casualty departments, and they
+have created a class of hospital mendicants. The cases are quickly dealt
+with, without inquiry and without regard to home conditions. The medical
+man in the hospital does not co-operate with any fellow-workers outside
+the hospital. Where his physic or advice ceases to operate his
+usefulness ceases. He regards no conditions of morality. In a large
+number of cases drink or vice is the cause of application, and the cure
+of the patient is dependent on moral conditions; but he returns home,
+drinks and may beat his wife, and then on another visit to the hospital
+he will again be physicked and so on. The man is not even referred to
+the poor-law infirmary for relief. Nor are conditions of home sanitation
+regarded. One cause of constant sickness is thus entirely overlooked,
+while drugs, otherwise unnecessary, are constantly given at the
+hospital. The hospitals are thus large isolated relief stations which
+are creating a new kind of pauperism. So far as the patients can
+pay--and many can do so--the general practitioners, to whom they would
+otherwise go, are deprived of their gains. Still worse is it when the
+hospital itself charges a fee in its out-patient department. The relief
+is then claimed even more absolutely as a right, and the general
+practitioners are still further injured. The doctors, as a medical
+staff, are not only medical men, but whether they recognize the fact or
+not, they are also almsgivers or almoners; what they give is relief. Yet
+few or none of them have ever been trained for that work, and
+consequently they do not realize how very advantageous, even for the
+cure of their own patients, would be a thorough treatment of each case
+both at the hospital and outside it. Nor can they understand how their
+methods at present protract sickness and promote habitual dependence.
+Were this side of their work studied by them in any way they would be
+the first, probably, to press upon the governors of their hospitals the
+necessity for a change. Unfortunately, at present the governors are
+themselves untrained, and to finance the hospital and to make it a good
+institution is their sole object. Hospitals, however, are, after all,
+only a part of the general administration of charity, though as they are
+now managed they have seldom any systematic connexion with that
+administration. Nor is there any co-ordination between the several
+hospitals and dispensaries. If one rightly refuses further treatment to
+certain applicants, they have only to wander to some other hospital,
+there to be admitted with little or no scrutiny. For usually
+out-patients and casualty patients are not even registered, nor can they
+be identified if they apply again. Practically they come and go at will.
+The definite limitation of cases, according to some standard of
+effectual work, association with general charity, trained almonership
+and inquiry, and a just regard for the interests of general
+practitioners, are stepping-stones to reform. In towns where medical
+charities are numerous a representative board would promote mutual help
+and organization.
+
+
+  Endowed charities.
+
+Like the poor-law, endowed charities may be permanent institutions
+established to meet what should be passing and decreasing needs (cf. the
+arguments in _The State and Charity_, by T. Mackay). Administered as
+they usually are in isolation--apart from the living voluntary charities
+of the generation, and consisting often of small trusts difficult to
+utilize satisfactorily, they tend to create a permanent demand which
+they meet by fixed quantities of relief. Also, as a rule, they make no
+systematic inquiries with a view to the verification of the statements
+of the applicants, for they have no staff for these purposes; nor have
+they the assistance of almoners or friendly visitors. Nor does the
+relief which they give form part of any plan of help in conjunction with
+other aid from without; nor is the administration subject to frequent
+inspection, as in the case of the poor-law. All these conditions have
+led to a want of progress in the actual administration of endowed
+charities, in regard to which it is often very difficult to prevent the
+exercise of an undue patronage. But there is no reason why these
+charities should not become a responsible part of the country's
+administration, aiding it to reduce outdoor pauperism. It was never
+intended that the poor-law should extinguish the endowed charities,
+still less, as statistics now prove, that where endowments abound the
+rate of pauperism should be considerably above the average of the rest
+of the country. This shows that these charities often foster pauperism
+instead of preventing it. As a step to reform, the publication of an
+annual register of endowed charities in England and Wales is greatly
+needed. The consolidating schemes of the charity commissioners have done
+much good; still more may be done in some counties by extending to the
+county the benefits of the charities of well-endowed towns, as has been
+accomplished by the extension of the eleemosynary endowments of the city
+of London to the metropolitan police area. Nor, again, until quite
+lately, and that as yet only in a few schemes, has the principle been
+adopted that pensions or other relief should be given only in
+supplementation of the relief of relations, former employers and
+friends, and not in substitution of it. This, coupled with good methods
+of inquiry and supervision, has proved very beneficial. Hitherto,
+however, to a large extent, endowed charities, it must be admitted, have
+tended to weaken the family and to pauperize.
+
+
+  Relief to children at school.
+
+In many places funds are raised for the relief of school children by the
+supply of meals during the winter and spring; and an act has now been
+passed in England (1906) enabling the cost to be put upon the rates.
+Usually a very large number of children are said to be underfed, but
+inquiry shows that such statements may be taken as altogether excessive.
+They are sometimes based on information drawn from the children at
+school; or sometimes on general deductions; they are seldom founded on
+any systematic and competent inquiry at the homes. When this has been
+made, the numbers dwindle to very small proportions. Teachers of
+experience have noted the effect of the meals in weakening the
+independence of the family. While they are forthcoming women sometimes
+give up cooking meals at home, use their money for other things, and
+tell the child he can get his meal at school. Great temptations are put
+before a parent to neglect her family, and very much distress is due to
+this. The meals--just at a time when, owing to the age of her children,
+the mother's care is most needed, and just in those families where the
+temptation is greatest, and where the family instinct should be
+strengthened--stimulate this neglect. Considered from the point of view
+of meeting by eleemosynary provision a normal economic demand for food,
+intervention can only have one result. The demand must continue to
+outstrip the supply, so long as there are resources available on the one
+side, and until on the other side the desire of the social class that is
+chiefly exposed to the temptations of dependence in relation to such
+relief has been satisfied. If the provision be made from the resources
+of local or general taxation the largeness of the fund available will
+allow practically of an unlimited expansion of the supply of food. If
+the provision be made from voluntary sources, in some measure limited
+therefore and less certain, this very fact will tend to circumscribe
+demand and limit the offer of relief. It is indeed the problem of
+poor-law relief in 1832 over again. The relief provided by local
+taxation practically unlimited will create a mass of constant claimants,
+with a kind of assumed right to aid based on the payment of rates; while
+voluntary relief, whatever its short-comings, will be less injurious
+because it is less amply endowed. In Paris the municipal subvention for
+meals rose from 545,900 francs in 1892 to 1,000,000 in 1904. Between
+1894 and 1904 there was an increase of 9% in the school population; and
+an increase of 28% in the municipal grant. In that period the
+contributions from the local school funds (_caisses des écoles_)
+decreased 36%; while the voluntary contributions otherwise received were
+insignificant; and the payments for meals increased 2%.
+
+The subject has been lately considered from a somewhat different
+standpoint (cf. the reports of the Scottish Royal Commission on Physical
+Education, 1903; of the Inter-departmental committees on Physical
+Deterioration, 1905, and on Medical Inspection and the Feeding of School
+Children, 1905; also the report of the special committee of the Charity
+Organization Society on "the assistance of school children," 1893).
+After careful investigations medical officers especially have drawn
+attention to the low physical condition of children in schools in the
+poorer parts of large English towns, their low stature, their physical
+defects, the improper food supplied to them at home, their
+uncleanliness, and their want of decent bringing-up, and sometimes their
+want of food. Other inquiries have shown that, as women more usually
+become breadwinners their children receive less attention, and the home
+and its duties are neglected, while in the lowest sections of the poorer
+classes social irresponsibility reaches its maximum. Cheap but often
+quite improper food is provided, and infant mortality, which is largely
+preventable, remains as high as ever, though adult life is longer. This
+with a marked decrease in the birth-rate in recent years, has, it may be
+said, opened out a new field for charitable effort and social work.
+Science is at each revision of the problem making its task more
+definite. Actually the mere demand for meals stands for less; the reform
+of home conditions for more. So it was hoped that instead of making
+school meals a charge on taxation, as parliament has done, it would be
+content to leave it a voluntary charge, while the medical inspection of
+elementary Schools will be made universal; representative relief
+committees formed for schools or groups of schools; the cases of want or
+distress among the school children dealt with individually in connexion
+with their families, and, where necessary, day schools established on
+the lines of day industrial schools.
+
+
+  Exceptional distress.
+
+At a time of exceptional distress the following suggestions founded on
+much English experience may be of service (cf. Report of special
+committee of the Charity Organization Society on the best means of
+dealing with exceptional distress, 1886). Usually at such a time
+proposals are made to establish special funds, and to provide employment
+to men and women out of work. But it is best, if possible and as long as
+possible, to rely on existing agencies, and to strengthen them. Round
+them there are usually workers more or less trained. A new fund usually
+draws to it new people, many of whom may not have had any special
+experience at all. If a new fund is inevitable, it is best that it
+should make its grants to existing agencies after consultation with
+them. In any case, a clear policy should be adopted, and people should
+keep their heads. The exaggeration of feeling at a time of apprehended
+or actual distress is sometimes extraordinary, and the unwise action
+which it prompts is often a cause of continuing pauperism afterwards.
+Where there is public or poor-law relief the following plan may be
+adopted:--In any large town there are usually different recognized
+poor-law, charitable or other areas. The local people already at work in
+these areas should be formed into local committees. In each case a quick
+inquiry should be made, and the relieving officer communicated with,
+some central facts verified, and the home visited. Roughly, cases may be
+divided into three classes: the irresponsible casual labouring class, a
+middle class of men with decent homes, who have made no provision for
+the future, and are not members of either friendly society or trades
+union; and a third class, who have made some provision. These usually
+are affected last of all; at all hazards they should be kept from
+receiving public relief, and should be helped, as far as possible,
+privately and personally. If there are public works, the second class
+might be referred to them; if there are not, probably some should be
+left to the poor-law, some assisted in the same way as members of class
+three. Much would turn upon the family and the home. The first class
+should be left to the poor-law. If there is no poor-law system at work
+they should be put on public works. Working men of independent position,
+not the creatures of any political club, but such as are respected
+members of a friendly society, or are otherwise well qualified for the
+task, should be called into consultation. The relief should be settled
+according to the requirements of each case, but if the pressure is
+great, at first at least it may be necessary to make grants according to
+some generally sufficient scale. There should be as constant a revision
+of cases as time permits. Great care should be taken to stop the relief
+as soon as possible, and to do nothing to make it the stepping-stone to
+permanent dependence.
+
+If employment be provided it should be work within the skill of all; it
+should be fairly remunerated, so that at least the scantiness of the pay
+may not be an excuse for neglect; and it should be paid for according to
+measured or piece work. The discipline should be strict, though due
+regard should be paid at first to those unaccustomed to digging or
+earthwork. In England and Wales the guardians have power to open labour
+yards. These, like charities which provide work, tend to attract and
+keep in employment a low class of labourer or workman, who finds it pays
+him to use the institution as a convenience. It is best, therefore, to
+avoid the opening of a labour yard if possible. If it is opened, the
+discipline should be very strict, and when there is laziness or
+insubordination, relief in the workhouse should at once be offered. The
+relief furnished to men employed in a labour yard, of which in England
+at least half has to be given ih kind, should, it has been said, be
+dealt out from day to day. This leads to the men giving up the work
+sooner than they otherwise would. They have less to spend.
+
+
+  Unemployment.
+
+In Great Britain a great change has taken place in regard to the
+provision of employment in connexion with the state. Since about 1890
+there has been a feeling that men in distress from want of employment
+should not be dealt with by the poor-law. A circular letter issued by
+the Local Government Board in 1886, and subsequently in 1895, coincided
+with this feeling. It was addressed to town councils and other local
+authorities, asking them to provide work (1) which will not involve the
+stigma of pauperism, (2) which all can perform whatever may have been
+their previous avocations, and (3) which does not compete with that of
+other labourers at present in employment. This circular led to the
+vestries and subsequently the borough councils in many districts
+becoming partially recognized relief authorities for the unemployed,
+concurrently with the poor-law. Much confusion resulted. The local
+authorities had seldom any suitable organization for the investigation
+of applications. It was difficult to supply work on the terms required;
+and the work was often ill-done and costly. Also it was found that the
+same set of people would apply year after year, unskilled labourers
+usually out of work part of the winter, or men habitually "unemployed."
+As on other occasions when public work was provided, very few of the
+applicants were found to be artisans, or members of trades unions or of
+friendly societies. In 1904 Mr Long, then president of the Local
+Government Board, proposed that local voluntary distress committees
+should be established in London consisting of poor-law guardians and
+town councillors and others, more or less supervised by a central
+committee and ultimately by the Local Government Board. This
+organization was set on foot and large sums were subscribed for its
+work. The report on the results of the movement was somewhat doubtful
+(Report, London Unemployed Fund, 1904-1905, p. 101, &c.), but in 1905
+the Unemployed Workmen's Act was passed, and in London and elsewhere
+distress committees like the voluntary committees of the previous year
+were established by statute. It was enacted that for establishment
+expenses, emigration and removal, labour exchanges, and the acquisition
+of land a halfpenny rate might be levied, but that the rate would not be
+available for the remuneration of men employed. For this purpose
+(1905-1906) a large charitable fund was raised. A training farm at
+Hollesley Bay was acquired, and it was hoped to train Londoners there to
+become fit for agricultural work. It is impossible to judge this
+experiment properly, on the evidence available up to 1908. But one or
+two points are important: (1) something very like the "right to labour"
+has been granted by the legislature; (2) this has been done apart from
+the conditions required by the poor-laws and orders of the Local
+Government Board on poor relief and without imposing disfranchisement on
+the men employed; (3) a labour rate has not been levied, but a rate has
+been levied in aid of the provision of employment; (4) if the line of
+development that the act suggests were to be followed (as the renewed
+Labour agitation in 1908-1909 made probable) it must tend to create a
+class of "unemployed," unskilled labourers of varying grades of industry
+who may become the dependent and state-supported proletariat of modern
+urban life. Thus, unless the administration be extremely rigorous, once
+more will a kind of serfdom be established, to be, as some would say,
+taken over hereafter by the socialist state.
+
+
+  Vagrancy.
+
+In some of the English colonies Homeric hospitality still prevails, but
+by degrees the station-house or some refuge is established in the towns
+as they grow more populous. Finally, some system of labour in exchange
+for relief is evolved. At first this is voluntary, afterwards it is
+officially recognized, and finally it may become part of the system of
+public relief. As bad years come, these changes are made step by step.
+In England the vagrant or wayfarer is tolerated and discouraged, but not
+kept employed. He should be under greater pressure to maintain himself,
+it is thought. The provision made for him in different parts of the
+country is far from uniform, and now, usually, at least in the larger
+towns, after he has had a bath and food, he is admitted to a separate
+room or cell in a casual ward. Before he leaves he has to do a task of
+work, and, subject to the discretion of the master, he is detained two
+nights. This plan has reduced vagrancy, and if it were universally
+adopted clean accommodation would everywhere be provided for the vagrant
+without the attractions of a common or "associated" ward; and probably
+vagrancy would diminish still further. It seems almost needless to say
+that, in these circumstances at any rate, casual alms should not be
+given to vagrants. They know much better how to provide for themselves
+than the almsgiver imagines, for vagrancy is in the main a mode of life
+not the result of any casual difficulty. Vagrancy and criminality are
+also nearly allied. The magistrate, therefore, rather than the
+almsgiver, should usually interfere; and, as a rule, where the
+magistrates are strict, vagrancy in a county diminishes. An
+inter-departmental committee (1906) taking generally this line, reported
+in favour of vagrants being placed entirely under police control, and it
+recommended a system of wayfarers' tickets for men on the roads who are
+not habitual vagrants, and the committal of men likely to become
+habitual vagrants to certified labour colonies for not less than six
+months. Still undoubtedly vagrancy has its economic side. In a bad year
+the number of tramps is increased by the addition of unskilled and
+irresponsible labourers, who are soonest discharged when work is slack.
+As a part-voluntary system under official recognition the German
+_Arbeiter-colonien_ are of interest. This in a measure has led to the
+introduction of labour homes in England, the justification of which
+should be that they recruit the energy of the men who find their way to
+them, and enable them to earn a living which they could not do
+otherwise. In a small percentage of cases their result may be achieved.
+Charitable refuges or philanthropic common lodging-houses, usually
+established in districts where this class already congregate, only
+aggravate the difficulty. They give additional attractions to a vagrant
+and casual life, and make it more endurable. They also make a
+comfortable avoidance of the responsibilities of family life
+comparatively easy, and in so far as they do this they are clearly
+injurious to the community.
+
+
+  American conditions and methods.
+
+The English colonists of the New England states and Pennsylvania
+introduced the disciplinary religious and relief system of Protestantism
+and the Elizabethan poor-law. To the former reference has already been
+made. With an appreciation of the fact that the cause of distress is not
+usually poverty, but weakness of character and want of judgment, and
+that relief is in itself no remedy, those who have inherited the old
+Puritan traditions have, in the light of toleration and a larger social
+experience, organized the method of friendly visiting, the object of
+which is illustrated by the motto, "Not alms, but a friend." To the
+friendship of charity is thus given a disciplinary force, capable of
+immense expansion and usefulness, if the friendship on the side of those
+who would help is sincere and guided by practical knowledge and
+sagacity, and if on the side of those in distress there is awakened a
+reciprocal regard and a willingness to change their way of life by
+degrees. Visiting by "districts" is set aside, for "friendliness" is not
+a quality easily diffused over a wide area. To be real it must be
+limited as time and ability allow. Consequently, a friendly visitor
+usually befriends but one or two, or in any case only a few, families.
+The friendly visitor is the outcome of the movement for "associated
+charities," but in America charity organization societies have also
+adopted the term, and to a certain extent the method. Between the two
+movements there is the closest affinity. The registration of applicants
+for relief is much more complete in American cities than in England,
+where the plan meets with comparatively little support. At the office of
+the associated charities in Boston there is a central and practically a
+complete register of all the applications made to the public authority
+for poor relief, to the associated charities, and to many other
+voluntary bodies.
+
+The Elizabethan poor-law system, with the machinery of overseers,
+poor-houses and out-door relief, is still maintained in New England, New
+York state and Pennsylvania, but with many modifications, especially in
+New York. A chief factor in these changes has been immigration. While
+the County or town remained the administrative area for local poor
+relief, the large number of immigrant and "unsettled" poor, and the
+business connected with their removal from the state, entailed the
+establishment of a secondary or state system of administration and aid,
+with special classes of institutions to which the counties or towns
+could send their poor, as, for instance, state reform schools, farms,
+almshouses, &c. For the oversight of these institutions, and often of
+prisons also and lunatic asylums, in many states there have been
+established state boards of "charity or corrections and charity." The
+members of these boards are selected by the state for a term of years,
+and give their services honorarily. There are state boards in
+Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota,
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Colorado, North Carolina and elsewhere. There
+is also a district board of charities in the district of Columbia. These
+boards publish most useful and detailed reports. Besides the state board
+there is sometimes also, as in New York, a State Charities Aid
+Association, whose members, in the counties in which they reside, have a
+legal right of entry to visit and inspect any public or charitable
+institution owned by the state, and any county and other poor-house. A
+large association of visitors accustomed to inspect and report on
+institutions has thus been created. Further, the counties and towns in
+New York state, for instance, and Massachusetts, and the almshouse
+districts in Pennsylvania, are under boards of supervision. Usually the
+overseers give out-door relief, and the pauperism of some areas is as
+high as that in some English unions, 3, 4 and 5%. On the whole
+population of the United States, however, and of individual states,
+consisting to a great extent of comparatively young and energetic
+immigrants, the pauperism is insignificant. In Massachusetts "it has
+been the general policy of the state to order the removal to the state
+almshouse of unsettled residents of the several cities and towns in need
+of temporary aid, thus avoiding some of the abuses incident to out-door
+relief." In New York state, in the city of New York, including Brooklyn,
+the distribution of out-door relief by the department of charities is
+forbidden, except for purposes of transportation and for the adult
+blind. Most counties in the state have an almshouse, and the county
+superintendents and overseers of the poor "furnish necessary relief to
+such of the county poor as may require only temporary assistance, or are
+so disabled that they cannot be safely removed to the almshouse." Public
+attention is in many cases being drawn to the inutility and injury of
+out-door relief.
+
+In some states and cities the system of subsidizing voluntary
+institutions is in full force, and it is in force also in many English
+colonies. At first sight it has the advantage of providing relief for
+public purposes without the creation of a new staff or establishment.
+There is thus an apparent economy. But the evils are many. Political
+partisanship and favour may influence the amount and disposition of the
+grants. The grants act as a bounty on the establishment and continuance
+of charitable institutions, homes for children, hospitals, &c., but not
+on the expansion of the voluntary charitable funds and efforts that
+should maintain them; and thus charitable homes exist in which charity
+in its truer sense may have little part, but in which the chief motive
+of the administration may be to support sectarian interests by public
+subsidies. Claimants for relief have little scruple in turning such
+institutions to their own account; and the institutions, being
+financially irresponsible, are not in these circumstances scrupulous on
+their side to prevent a misdirection of their bounties. "Parents unload
+their children upon the community more recklessly when they know that
+such children will be provided for in private orphan asylums and
+protectories, where the religious training that the parents prefer will
+be given them" (Amos G. Warner, in _International Congress: Charities
+and Correction_, 1893). Past history in New York city illustrates the
+same evil. The admission was entirely in the hands of the managers. They
+admitted; the city paid. In New York city the population between 1870
+and 1890 increased about 80%; the subsidies for prisoners and public
+paupers increased by 43%, but those for paupers in private institutions
+increased from $334,828 to $1,845,872, or about 461%. The total was at
+that time $3,794,972; in 1898 it was rather less, $3,132,786. The
+alternative to this system is either the establishment of state or
+municipal institutions, and possibly in special cases payments to
+voluntary homes for the maintenance of inmates admitted at the request
+of a state authority, as at certified and other homes in England, with
+grants made conditional on the work being conducted on specified lines,
+and subject to a certain increasing amount of voluntary financial
+support; or a close general and financial inspection of charitable
+institutions--the method of reform adopted in New York; or payment for
+only those inmates who are sent by public authorities and admitted on
+their request.
+
+The enormous extent to which children's aid societies have been
+increased in the United States, sometimes with the help of considerable
+public grants, suggests the greatest need for caution from the point of
+the preservation of the family as the central element of social strength
+in the community. The problem of charity in relation to medical relief
+in the large towns of the United States is similar to that of England;
+its difficulties are alike.
+
+  LITERATURE.--As good translations of the classics become accessible it
+  is easy for the general reader or student to combine a study of the
+  principles of charity in relation to the community with a study of
+  history. Thus, and in connexion with special investigations and the
+  conditions of practical charity, social economics may best be studied.
+  In N. Masterman, _Chalmers on Charity_ (1900); T. Mackay, _Methods of
+  Social Reform_ (1896); B. Bosanquet and others, _Some Aspects of the
+  Social Problem_ (1894); and C.S. Loch, _Methods of Social Advance_
+  (1904), this point of view is generally assumed. Special
+  investigations of importance may be found in the reports of medical
+  officers of health. See Report of Committee on Physical Deterioration
+  referred to above, and, for instance, Dr Newsholme's _Vital
+  Statistics_ and Charles Booth's _Labour and Life in London_. For the
+  history of charity there is no good single work. On details there are
+  many good articles in Daremberg's _Dictionary of Classical
+  Antiquities_, and similar works. _Modern Methods of Charity_, by C.H.
+  Henderson and others (1904), supplies much general information in
+  regard to poor relief and charity in different countries. Apart from
+  books and official documents mentioned in the text as indicating the
+  present state of charitable and public relief, or as aids to practical
+  work, the following may be of service. England:--_Annual Charities'
+  Register and Digest, with Introduction on "How to help Cases of
+  Distress"_; the _Charity Organization Review; Occasional Papers_ (3
+  vols.), published by the London Charity Organization Society
+  (1896-1906); _Reports of Proceedings of Conferences of Poor-Law
+  Guardians; The Strength of the People_, by Helen Bosanquet; _Homes of
+  the London Poor_ and _Our Common Land_, by Miss Octavia Hill; _The
+  Queen's Poor_, by M. Loane. United States of America:--_The
+  Proceedings of the International Conference on Charities and
+  Correction_ (1894), and the proceedings of the annual conferences;
+  _Friendly Visiting among the Poor_, by Mary E. Richmond (1899);
+  _American Charities_, by Amos G. Warner (1908); _The Practice of
+  Charity_, by E.T. Devine; _Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_,
+  by Dr J. Conrad, &c., vol. ii.; _Das Armenwesen in den Vereinigten
+  Staaten von America_, by Dr Francis G. Peabody (1897); the _Charities
+  Review_, published monthly by the New York Charity Organization
+  Society; the Papers and Reports of the Boston and Baltimore societies.
+  France:--_La Bibliographie charitable_, by Camille Granier (1891); _La
+  Charité avant et depuis 1789_, by P. Hubert Valleroux; Fascicules of
+  the _Conseil supérieur de l'assistance publique, Revue d'assistance_,
+  published by the _Société Internationale pour l'étude des questions
+  d'assistance_. Germany:--Reports and Proceedings of the _Deutsche
+  Vereine für Armenpflege und Wohltätigkeit; Die Armenpflege_, a
+  practical handbook, by Dr E. Münsterberg (1897).
+  Austria:--_Österreichs Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen, 1848-1898_, by Dr
+  Ernest Mischler (1899).     (C. S. L.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIVARI, a French term of uncertain origin, but probably onomatopoeic,
+for a mock serenade "rough music," made by beating on kettles,
+fire-irons, tea-trays or what not. The charivari was anciently in France
+a regular wedding custom, all bridal couples being thus serenaded. Later
+it was reserved for ill-assorted and unpopular marriages, for widows or
+widowers who remarried too soon, and generally as a mockery for all who
+were unpopular. At the beginning of the 17th century, wedding charivaris
+were forbidden by the Council of Tours under pain of excommunication,
+but the custom still lingers in rural districts. The French of Louisiana
+and Canada introduced the charivari into America, where it became known
+under the corrupted name of "shivaree."
+
+
+
+
+CHARKHARI, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of Central India.
+Area, 745 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 123,594; estimated revenue £33,000. It is
+surrounded on all sides by other states of Central India, except near
+Charkhari town, where it meets the United Provinces. It was founded by
+Bijai Bahadur (vikramaditya), a _sanad_ being granted him in 1804 and
+another in 1811. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the
+Bundela clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the
+independence of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. In 1857 Raja Ratan
+Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a _khilat_ and a
+perpetual _jagir_ of £1300 a year in recognition of his services during
+the Mutiny. The town of Charkhari (locally _Maharajnagar_) is 40 m. W.
+of Banda; pop. (1901) 11,718.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLATAN (Ital. _ciarlatano_, from _ciarlare_, to chatter), originally
+one who "patters" to a crowd to sell his wares, like a "cheap-jack" or
+"quack" doctor--"quack" being similarly derived from the noise made by a
+duck; so an impostor who pretends to have some special skill or
+knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814), Roman emperor, and king of
+the Franks, was the elder son of Pippin the Short, king of the Franks,
+and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of Charibert, count of Laon. The place
+of his birth is unknown and its date uncertain, although some
+authorities give it as the 2nd of April 742; doubts have been cast upon
+his legitimacy, and it is just possible that the marriage of Pippin and
+Bertha took place subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When
+Pippin was crowned king of the Franks at St Denis on the 28th of July
+754 by Pope Stephen II., Charles, and his brother Carloman were anointed
+by the pope as a sign of their kingly rank. The rough surroundings of
+the Frankish court were unfavourable to the acquisition of learning, and
+Charles grew up almost ignorant of letters, but hardy in body and
+skilled in the use of weapons.
+
+In 761 he accompanied his father on a campaign in Aquitaine, and in 763
+undertook the government of several counties. In 768 Pippin divided his
+dominions between his two sons, and on his death soon afterwards Charles
+became the ruler of the northern portion of the Frankish kingdom, and
+was crowned at Noyon on the 9th of October 768. Bad feeling had existed
+for some time between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles early in
+769 was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother
+refused to afford him any assistance. This rebellion, however, was
+easily crushed, its leader, the Aquitainian duke Hunold, was made
+prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the Frankish
+kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a temporary
+reconciliation between her sons, overcame the repugnance with which Pope
+Stephen III. regarded an alliance between Frank and Lombard, and brought
+about a marriage between Charles and a daughter of Desiderius, king of
+the Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a union, probably of an
+irregular nature, with a Frankish lady named Himiltrude, who had borne
+him a son Pippin, the "Hunchback." The peace with the Lombards, in which
+the Bavarians as allies of Desiderius joined, was, however, soon broken.
+Charles thereupon repudiated his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and
+married in 771 a princess of the Alamanni named Hildegarde. Carloman
+died in December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at Corbeny as
+sole king of the Franks. Carloman's widow Gerberga had fled to the
+protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her cause and requested the
+new pope, Adrian I., to recognize her two sons as the lawful Frankish
+kings. Adrian, between whom and the Lombards other causes of quarrel
+existed, refused to assent to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded
+the papal territories he appealed to the Frankish king for help.
+Charles, who was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign,
+expostulated with Desiderius; but when such mild measures proved useless
+he led his forces across the Alps in 773. Gerberga and her children were
+delivered up and disappear from history; the siege of Pavia was
+undertaken; and at Easter 774 the king left the seat of war and visited
+Rome, where he was received with great respect.
+
+During his stay in the city Charles renewed the donation which his
+father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This transaction has
+given rise to much discussion as to its trustworthiness and the extent
+of its operation. Our only authority, a passage in the _Liber
+Pontificalis_, describes the gift as including the whole of Italy and
+Corsica, except the lands north of the Po, Calabria and the city of
+Naples. The vast extent of this donation, which, moreover, included
+territories not owning Charles's authority, and the fact that the king
+did not execute, or apparently attempt to execute, its provisions, has
+caused many scholars to look upon the passage as a forgery; but the
+better opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a
+genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The area of the
+grant may have been enlarged by later interpolations; or it may have
+dealt with property rather than with sovereignty, and have only referred
+to estates claimed by the pope in the territories named; or it is
+possible that Charles may have actually intended to establish an
+extensive papal kingdom in Italy, but was released from his promise by
+Adrian when the pope saw no chance of its fulfilment. Another
+supposition is that the author of the _Liber Pontificalis_ gives the
+papal interpretation of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in
+ambiguous terms; and this view is supported by the history of the
+subsequent controversy between king and pope.
+
+Returning to the scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the
+capitulation of Pavia in June 774, and the capture of Desiderius, who
+was sent into a monastery. He now took the title "king of the Lombards,"
+to which he added the dignity of "Patrician of the Romans," which had
+been granted to his father. Adalgis, the son of Desiderius, who was
+residing at Constantinople, hoped the emperor Leo IV. would assist him
+in recovering his father's kingdom; but a coalition formed for this
+purpose was ineffectual, and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of
+Friuli, was easily crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was
+visited at Paderborn by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid
+against Abd-ar-Rahman, the caliph of Cordova, and promised some Spanish
+cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his
+influence Charles marched into Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna, but
+meeting with some checks decided to return. As the Frankish forces were
+defiling through the passes of the Pyrenees they were attacked by the
+Wascones (probably Basques), and the rear-guard of the army was almost
+annihilated. It was useless to attempt to avenge this disaster, which
+occurred on the 15th of August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly
+as he came; the incident has passed from the domain of history into that
+of legend and romance, being associated by tradition with the pass of
+Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland, or Roland, margrave of
+the Breton march, whose death gave rise to the _Chanson de Roland_ (see
+ROLAND, LEGEND OF).
+
+Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where Frankish
+counts were set over various districts, and where Hildebrand, duke of
+Spoleto, appears to have recognized his overlordship. In 780 he was
+again in the peninsula, and at Mantua issued an important _capitulary_
+which increased the authority of the Lombard bishops, relieved freemen
+who under stress of famine had sold themselves into servitude, and
+condemned abuses of the system of vassalage. At the same time commerce
+was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized tolls and by an
+improvement of the coinage; while the sale of arms to hostile peoples,
+and the trade in Christian slaves were forbidden. Proceeding to Rome,
+the king appears to have come to some arrangement with Adrian about the
+donation of 774. At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde,
+was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian, and his
+youngest son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine; but no mention was
+made at the time of his eldest son Charles, who was doubtless intended
+to be king of the Franks. In 783 the king, having lost his wife
+Hildegarde, married Fastrada, the daughter of a Frankish count named
+Radolf; and in the same year his mother Bertha died. The emperor
+Constantine VI. was at this time exhibiting some interest in Italian
+affairs, and Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so
+Charles sought to avert danger from this quarter by consenting in 781 to
+a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude. In 786 the
+entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of Arichis II., duke of
+Benevento, a son-in-law of Desiderius, called the king again into Italy.
+Arichis submitted without a struggle, though the basis of Frankish
+authority in his duchy was far from secure; but in conjunction with
+Adalgis he sought aid from Constantinople. His plans were ended by his
+death in 787, and although the empress Irene, the real ruler of the
+eastern empire, broke off the projected marriage between her son and
+Rothrude, she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis,
+whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit Charles
+had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrangement soon arose
+between king and pope over the claim of Charles to confirm the election
+to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and it was accentuated by Adrian's
+objection to the establishment by Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of
+Benevento, in succession to his father Arichis.
+
+These journeys and campaigns, however, were but interludes in the long
+and stubborn struggle between Charles and the Saxons, which began in 772
+and ended in 804 with the incorporation of Saxony in the Carolingian
+empire (see SAXONY). This contest, in which the king himself took a very
+active part, brought the Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe
+dwelling east of the Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A
+similar sequence of events took place in southern Germany. Tassilo III.,
+duke of the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a line of
+conduct inconsistent with his allegiance to Charles, was deposed in 788
+and his duchy placed under the rule of Gerold, a brother-in-law of
+Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system (see BAVARIA). Having
+thus taken upon himself the control of Bavaria, Charles felt himself
+responsible for protecting its eastern frontier, which had long been
+menaced by the Avars, a people inhabiting the region now known as
+Hungary. He accordingly ravaged their country in 791 at the head of an
+army containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors, which
+penetrated as far as the Raab; and he spent the following year in
+Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them, the conduct of
+which, however, he was compelled by further trouble in Saxony to entrust
+to his son king Pippin, and to Eric, margrave of Friuli. These deputies
+succeeded in 795 and 796 in taking possession of the vast treasures of
+the Avars, which were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to
+churches, courtiers and friends. A conspiracy against Charles, which his
+friend and biographer Einhard alleges was provoked by the cruelties of
+Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty in 792, and its
+leader, the king's illegitimate son Pippin, was confined in a monastery
+till his death in 811. Fastrada died in August 794, when Charles took
+for his fourth wife an Alamannian lady named Liutgarde.
+
+The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical affairs was
+shown at the synod of Frankfort, over which he presided in 794. It was
+on his initiative that this synod condemned the heresy of _adoptianism_
+and the worship of images, which had been restored in 787 by the second
+council of Nicaea; and at the same time that council was declared to
+have been superfluous. This policy caused a further breach with Pope
+Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor, Leo III.,
+in notifying his elevation to the king, sent him the keys of St Peter's
+grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles to send an envoy to
+receive his oath of fidelity. There is no doubt that Leo recognized
+Charles as sovereign of Rome. He was the first pope to date his acts
+according to the years of the Frankish monarchy, and a mosaic of the
+time in the Lateran palace represents St Peter bestowing the banners
+upon Charles as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued
+by the pope bears witness to the same idea. Leo soon had occasion to
+invoke the aid of his protector. In 799, after he had been attacked and
+maltreated in the streets of Rome during a procession, he escaped to the
+king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him back to Italy escorted by some
+of his most trusted servants. Taking the same journey himself shortly
+afterwards, the king reached Rome in 800 for the purpose (as he
+declared) of restoring discipline in the church. His authority was
+undisputed; and after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain
+charges made against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his
+leading opponents.
+
+The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding Christmas
+Day, when Charles on rising from prayer in St Peter's was crowned by Leo
+and proclaimed emperor and _augustus_ amid the acclamations of the
+crowd. This act can hardly have been unpremeditated, and some doubt has
+been cast upon the statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that
+he would not have entered the building had he known of the intention of
+Leo. He accepted the dignity at any rate without demur, and there seems
+little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining, this title had
+previously been discussed. His policy had been steadily leading up to
+this position, which was rather the emblem of the power he already held
+than an extension of the area of his authority. It is probable therefore
+that Charles either considered the coronation premature, as he was
+hoping to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that,
+from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope to crown
+the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the evidence tends to show
+that it was the time or manner of the act rather than the act itself
+which aroused his temporary displeasure. Contemporary accounts lay
+stress upon the fact that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople
+being under the rule of Irene, it seemed good to Leo and his counsellors
+and the "rest of the Christian people" to choose Charles, already ruler
+of Rome, to fill the vacant office. However doubtful such conjectures
+concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that immediately after
+his coronation Charles sought to establish friendly relations with
+Constantinople, and even suggested a marriage between himself and Irene,
+as he had again become a widower in 800. The deposition and death of the
+empress foiled this plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between
+the two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led to an
+arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor, Nicephorus I. The
+death of Nicephorus and the accession of Michael I. did not interfere
+with the relations, and in 812 an embassy from Constantinople arrived at
+Aix-la-Chapelle, when Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return
+agreed to cede Venice and Dalmatia to Michael.
+
+Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused the
+emperor to alter somewhat his manner of life. No longer leading his
+armies in person he entrusted the direction of campaigns in various
+parts of his empire to his sons and other lieutenants, and from his
+favourite residence at Aix watched their progress with a keen and
+sustained interest. In 802 he ordered that a new oath of fidelity to him
+as emperor should be taken by all his subjects over twelve years of age.
+In 804 he was visited by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with
+gifts. Before his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into
+communications with the caliph of Bagdad, Harun-al-Rashid, probably in
+order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received an
+embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the patriarch of
+Jerusalem sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre; and in 807 Harun not
+only sent further gifts, but appears to have confirmed the emperor's
+rights in Jerusalem, which, however, probably amounted to no more than
+an undefined protectorate over the Christians in that part of the world.
+While thus extending his influence even into Asia, there was scarcely
+any part of Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself felt.
+He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles, but he
+continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that country. In
+798 he had concluded an alliance with Alphonso II., king of the
+Asturias, and a series of campaigns mainly under the leadership of King
+Louis resulted in the establishment of the "Spanish march," a district
+between the Pyrenees and the Ebro stretching from Pampeluna to
+Barcelona, as a defence against the Saracens. In 799 the Balearic
+Islands had been handed over to Charles, and a long warfare was carried
+on both by sea and land between Frank and Saracen until 810, when peace
+was made between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy
+was equally the scene of continuous fighting. Grimoald of Benevento
+rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice and Dalmatia was
+disputed by the two empires; and Istria was brought into subjection.
+
+With England the emperor had already entered into relations, and at one
+time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles and a daughter of
+Offa, king of the Mercians. English exiles were welcomed at his court;
+he was mainly instrumental in restoring Eardwulf to the throne of
+Northumbria in 809; and Einhard includes the Scots within the sphere of
+his influence. In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves
+completely under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 805
+and 806 had met with some success, and about the same time the land of
+the Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western extremity of the continent
+the Breton nobles had done homage to Charles at Tours in 800. Thus the
+emperor's dominions now stretched from the Eider to the Ebro, and from
+the Atlantic to the Elbe, the Saale and the Raab, and they also included
+the greater part of Italy; while even beyond these bounds he exercised
+an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 806 Charles arranged a
+division of his territories among his three legitimate sons, but this
+arrangement came to nothing owing to the death of Pippin in 810, and of
+the younger Charles in the following year. Charles then named his
+remaining son Louis as his successor; and at his father's command Louis
+took the crown from the altar and placed it upon his own head. This
+ceremony took place at Aix on the 11th of September 813. In 808 the
+Frankish authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod
+(Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts and spoke
+boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To ward off these attacks
+Charles took a warm interest in the building of a fleet, which he
+reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had been killed, and his
+successor Hemming made peace with the emperor.
+
+In 811 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated the
+possibility of abdication. The bulk of his possessions were left to the
+twenty-one metropolitan churches of his dominions, and the remainder to
+his children, his servants and the poor. In his last years he passed
+most of his days at Aix, though he had sufficient energy to take the
+field for a short time during the Danish War. Early in 814 he was
+attacked by a fever which he sought to subdue by fasting; but pleurisy
+supervened, and after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of
+January 814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of St
+Mary at Aix. In the year 1000 his tomb was opened by the emperor Otto
+III., but the account that Otto found the body upright upon a throne
+with a golden crown on the head and holding a golden sceptre in the
+hands, is generally regarded as legendary. The tomb was again opened by
+the emperor Frederick I. in 1165, when the remains were removed from a
+marble sarcophagus and placed in a wooden coffin. Fifty years later they
+were transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid
+shrine, in which the relics are still exhibited once in every six years.
+The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may still be seen at
+Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in the imperial treasury
+at Vienna. In 1165 Charles was canonized by the antipope Paschal III. at
+the instance of the emperor Frederick I., and Louis XI. of France gave
+strict orders that the feast of the saint should be observed.
+
+The personal appearance of Charles is thus described by Einhard:--"Big
+and robust in frame, he was tall, but not excessively so, measuring
+about seven of his own feet in height. His eyes were large and lustrous,
+his nose rather long and his countenance bright and cheerful." He had a
+commanding presence, a clear but somewhat feeble voice, and in later
+life became rather corpulent. His health was uniformly good, owing
+perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to his love for
+hunting and swimming. He was an affectionate father, and loved to pass
+his time in the company of his children, to whose education he paid the
+closest attention. His sons were trained for war and the chase, and his
+daughters instructed in the spinning of wool and other feminine arts.
+His ideas of sexual morality were primitive. Many concubines are spoken
+of, he had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his
+daughters were very loose. He was a regular observer of religious rites,
+took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church, and
+was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and without. He
+reformed the Frankish liturgy, and brought singers from Rome to improve
+the services of the church. He had considerable knowledge of theology,
+took a prominent part in the theological controversies of the time, and
+was responsible for the addition of the clause _filioque_ to the Nicene
+Creed. The most attractive feature of his character, however, was his
+love of learning. In addition to his native tongue he could read Latin
+and understood Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard gives an
+account of his futile efforts to learn this art in later life. He loved
+the reading of histories and astronomy, and by questioning travellers
+gained some knowledge of distant parts of the earth. He attended
+lectures on grammar, and his favourite work was St Augustine's _De
+civitate Dei_. He caused Frankish sagas to be collected, began a grammar
+of his native tongue, and spent some of his last hours in correcting a
+text of the Vulgate. He delighted in the society of scholars--Alcuin,
+Angilbert, Paul the Lombard, Peter of Pisa and others, and in this
+company the trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known
+simply as David. Under his patronage Alcuin organized the school of the
+palace, where the royal children were taught in the company of others,
+and founded a school at Tours which became the model for many other
+establishments. Charles was unwearying in his efforts to improve the
+education of clergy and laity, and in 789 ordered that schools should be
+established in every diocese. The atmosphere of these schools was
+strictly ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were
+often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of Charles will
+not be doubted when one considers the rude condition of Frankish society
+half a century before. The main work of the Carolingian renaissance was
+to restore Latin to its position as a literary language, and to
+reintroduce a correct system of spelling and an improved handwriting.
+The manuscripts of the time are accurate and artistic, copies of
+valuable books were made and by careful collation the texts were
+purified.
+
+Charles was not a great warrior. His victories were won rather by the
+power of organization, which he possessed in a marked degree, and he was
+eager to seize ideas and prompt in their execution. He erected a stone
+bridge with wooden piers across the Rhine at Mainz, and began a canal
+between the Altmühl and the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the Danube,
+but this work was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite
+residence), Nijmwegen and Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary
+at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned with
+columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He loved the simple
+dress and manners of the Franks, and on two occasions only did he assume
+the more stately attire of a Roman noble. The administrative system of
+Charles in church and state was largely personal, and he brought to the
+work an untiring industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He
+admonished the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and
+work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations of
+church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries, was lavish in his
+gifts to ecclesiastical foundations, and chose bishops and abbots for
+administrative work. As the real founder of the ecclesiastical state, he
+must be held mainly responsible for the evils which resulted from the
+policy of the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the secular
+authority.
+
+In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed counts
+over districts smaller than the former duchies, and supervised their
+government by means of _missi dominici_, officials responsible to
+himself alone. Marches were formed on all the borders of the empire, and
+the exigencies of military service led to the growth of a system of
+land-tenure which contained the germ of feudalism. The assemblies of the
+people gradually changed their character under his rule. No longer did
+the nation come together to direct and govern, but the emperor summoned
+his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in commerce
+and agriculture, Charles issued various regulations for the organization
+of the one and the improvement of the other. He introduced a new system
+of weights and measures, which he ordered should be used throughout his
+kingdom, and took steps to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous
+lawgiver. Without abolishing the customary law of the German tribes,
+which is said to have been committed to writing by his orders, he added
+to it by means of _capitularies_, and thus introduced certain Christian
+principles and customs, and some degree of uniformity.
+
+The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell on western
+Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors was to restore it to
+its pristine position and influence, while many of the French rulers
+made its re-establishment the goal of their policy. Otto the Great to a
+considerable extent succeeded; Louis XIV. referred frequently to the
+empire of Charlemagne; and Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and
+predecessor. The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting. In spite
+of his own wonderful genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his
+lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism was
+present, and there was no real bond of union between the different races
+that acknowledged his authority. All the vigilance of the emperor could
+not restrain the dishonesty and the cupidity of his servants, and no
+sooner was the strong hand of their ruler removed than they began to
+acquire territorial power for themselves.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief authorities for the life and times of
+  Charlemagne are Einhard's _Vita Karoli Magni_, the _Annales
+  Laurissenses majores_, the _Annales Fuldenses_, and other annals,
+  which are published in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_.
+  _Scriptores_, Band i. and ii., edited by G.H. Pertz (Hanover and
+  Berlin, 1826-1892). For the capitularies see _Capitularia regum
+  Francorum_, edited by A. Boretius in the _Monumenta. Leges_. Many of
+  the songs of the period appear in the _Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_,
+  edited by E. Dümmler (Berlin, 1881-1884). The _Bibliotheca rerum
+  Germanicarum_, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffé (Berlin, 1864-1873),
+  contains some of the emperor's correspondence, and Hincmar's _De
+  ordine palatii_, edited by M. Prou (Paris, 1884), is also valuable.
+
+  The best modern authorities are S. Abel and B. Simson, _Jahrbücher des
+  fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen_ (Leipzig, 1883-1888); G.
+  Richter and H. Kohl, _Annalen des fränkischen Reichs im Zeitalter der
+  Karolinger_ (Halle, 1885-1887); E. Mühlbacher, _Deutsche Geschichte
+  unter den Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1886); H. Brosien, _Karl der
+  Grosse_ (Leipzig and Prague, 1885); J.I. Mombert, _History of Charles
+  the Great_ (London, 1888); M. Lipp, _Das fränkische Grenzsystem unter
+  Karl dem Grossen_ (Breslau, 1892); J. von Döllinger, _Das Kaiserthum
+  Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger_ (Munich, 1864); F. von Wyss,
+  _Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber_ (Zürich, 1869); Th. Sickel, _Lehre
+  von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger_ (Vienna, 1867); E. Dümmler in
+  the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band xv.; Th. Lindner, _Die
+  Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1893);
+  J.A. Ketterer, _Karl der Grosse und die Kirche_ (Munich and Leipzig,
+  1898); and J.B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles the Great and the
+  Restoration of Education in the 9th century_ (London, 1877).
+
+  The work of the monk of St Gall is found in the _Monumenta_, Band ii.;
+  an edition of the _Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi_, edited
+  by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition of the
+  _Kaiserchronik_, edited by E. Schröder (Hanover, 1892). See also P.
+  Clemen, _Die Porträtdarstellung Karls des Grossen_ (Aix-la-Chapelle,
+  1896).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+THE CHARLEMAGNE LEGENDS
+
+Innumerable legends soon gathered round the memory of the great emperor.
+He was represented as a warrior performing superhuman feats, as a ruler
+dispensing perfect justice, and even as a martyr suffering for the
+faith. It was confidently believed towards the close of the 10th century
+that he had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and, like many other great
+rulers, it was reported that he was only sleeping to awake in the hour
+of his country's need. We know from Einhard (_Vita Karoli_, cap. xxix.)
+that the Frankish heroic ballads were drawn up in writing by
+Charlemagne's order, and it may be accepted as certain that he was
+himself the subject of many such during his lifetime. The legendary
+element crept even into the Latin panegyrics produced by the court
+poets. Before the end of the 9th century a monk of St Gall drew up a
+chronicle _De gestis Karoli Magni_, which was based partly on oral
+tradition, received from an old soldier named Adalbert, who had served
+in Charlemagne's army. This recital contains various fabulous incidents.
+The author relates a conversation between Otkar the Frank (Ogier the
+Dane) and the Lombard king Desiderius (Didier) on the walls of Pavia in
+view of Charlemagne's advancing army. To Didier's repeated question "Is
+this the emperor?" Otkar continues to answer "Not yet," adding at last
+"When thou shalt see the fields bristling with an iron harvest, and the
+Po and the Ticino swollen with sea-floods, inundating the walls of the
+city with iron billows, then shall Karl be nigh at hand." This episode,
+which bears the marks of popular heroic poetry, may well be the
+substance of a lost Carolingian _cantilena_.[1]
+
+The legendary Charlemagne and his warriors were endowed with the great
+deeds of earlier kings and heroes of the Frankish kingdom, for the
+romancers were not troubled by considerations of chronology. National
+traditions extending over centuries were grouped round Charlemagne, his
+father Pippin, and his son Louis. The history of Charles Martel
+especially was absorbed in the Charlemagne legend. But if Charles's name
+was associated with the heroism of his predecessors he was credited with
+equal readiness with the weaknesses of his successors. In the earlier
+_chansons de geste_ he is invariably a majestic figure and represents
+within limitations the grandeur of the historic Charles. But in the
+histories of the wars with his vassals he is often little more than a
+tyrannical dotard, who is made to submit to gross insult. This picture
+of affairs is drawn from later times, and the sympathies of the poet are
+generally with the rebels against the monarchy. Historical tradition was
+already dim when the hypothetical and much discussed _cantilenae_, which
+may be taken to have formed the repository of the national legends from
+the 8th to the 10th century, were succeeded in the 11th and the early
+l2th centuries by the _chansons de geste_. The early poems of the cycle
+sometimes contain curious information on the Frankish methods in war, in
+council and in judicial procedure, which had no parallels in
+contemporary institutions. The account in the _Chanson de Roland_ of the
+trial of Ganelon after the battle of Roncesvalles must have been adopted
+almost intact from earlier poets, and provides a striking example of the
+value of the _chansons de geste_ to the historian of manners and
+customs. In general, however, the trouvère depicted the feeling and
+manners of his own time.
+
+Charlemagne's wars in Italy, Spain and Saxony formed part of the common
+epic material, and there are references to his wars against the Slavs;
+but especially he remained in the popular mind as the great champion of
+Christianity against the creed of Mahomet, and even his Norman and Saxon
+enemies became Saracens in current legend. He is the Christian emperor
+directly inspired by angels; his sword Joyeuse contained the point of
+the lance used in the Passion; his standard was Romaine, the banner of
+St Peter, which, as the oriflamme of Saint Denis, was later to be borne
+in battle before the kings of France; and in 1164 Charles was canonized
+at the desire of the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa by the anti-pope
+Pascal III. This gave him no real claim to saintship, but his festival
+was observed in some places until comparatively recent times.
+Charlemagne was endowed with the good and bad qualities of the epic
+king, and as in the case of Agamemnon and Arthur, his exploits paled
+beside those of his chief warriors. These were not originally known as
+the twelve peers[2] famous in later Carolingian romance. The twelve
+peers were in the first instance the companions in arms of Roland in the
+Teutonic sense.[3] The idea of the paladins forming an association
+corresponding to the Arthurian Round Table first appears in the romance
+of _Fierabras_. The lists of them are very various, but all include the
+names of Roland and Oliver. The chief heroes who fought Charlemagne's
+battles were Roland; Ganelon, afterwards the traitor; Turpin, the
+fighting archbishop of Reims; Duke Naimes of Bavaria, the wise
+counsellor who is always on the side of justice; Ogier the Dane, the
+hero of a whole series of romances; and Guillaume of Toulouse, the
+defender of Narbonne. Gradually most of the _chansons de geste_ were
+attached to the name of Charlemagne, whose poetical history falls into
+three cycles:--the _geste du roi_, relating his wars and the personal
+history of himself and his family; the southern cycle, of which
+Guillaume de Toulouse is the central figure; and the feudal epic,
+dealing with the revolts of the barons against the emperor, the rebels
+being invariably connected by the trouverès with the family of Doon de
+Mayence (q.v.).
+
+The earliest poems of the cycle are naturally the closest to historical
+truth. The central point of the _geste du roi_ is the 11th-century
+_Chanson de Roland_ (see ROLAND, LEGEND OF), one of the greatest of
+medieval poems. Strangely enough the defeat of Roncesvalles, which so
+deeply impressed the popular mind, has not a corresponding importance in
+real history. But it chanced to find as its exponent a poet whose genius
+established a model for his successors, and definitely fixed the type of
+later heroic poems. The other early _chansons_ to which reference is
+made in _Roland--Aspremont, Enfances Ogier, Guiteclin, Balan_, relating
+to Charlemagne's wars in Italy and Saxony--are not preserved in their
+original form, and only the first in an early recension. _Basin_ or
+_Carl el Élégast_ (preserved in Dutch and Icelandic), the _Voyage de
+Charlemagne à Jerusalem_ and _Le Couronnement Looys_ also belong to the
+heroic period. The purely fictitious and romantic tales added to the
+personal history of Charlemagne and his warriors in the 13th century are
+inferior in manner, and belong to the decadence of romance. The old
+tales, very much distorted in the 15th-century prose versions, were to
+undergo still further degradation in 18th-century compilations.
+
+According to _Berte aus grans piés_, in the 13th-century _remaniement_
+of the Brabantine trouvère Adenès li Rois, Charlemagne was the son of
+Pippin and of Berte, the daughter of Flore and Blanchefleur, king and
+queen of Hungary. The tale bears marks of high antiquity, and presents
+one of the few incidents in the French cycle which may be referred to a
+mythic origin. On the night of Berte's marriage a slave, Margiste, is
+substituted for her, and reigns in her place for nine years, at the
+expiration of which Blanchefleur exposes the deception; whereupon Berte
+is restored from her refuge in the forest to her rightful place as
+queen. _Mainet_ (12th century) and the kindred poems in German and
+Italian are perhaps based on the adventures of Charles Martel, who after
+his father's death had to flee to the Ardennes. They relate that, after
+the death of his parents, Charles was driven by the machinations of the
+two sons of Margiste to take refuge in Spain, where he accomplished his
+_enfances_ (youthful exploits) with the Mussulman king Galafre under the
+feigned name of Mainet. He delivered Rome from the besieging Saracens,
+and returned to France in triumph. But his wife Galienne, daughter of
+Galafre, whom he had converted to the Christian faith, died on her way
+to rejoin him. Charlemagne then made an expedition to Italy (_Enfances
+Ogier_ in the Venetian _Charlemagne_, and the first part of the
+_Chevalerie Ogier de Dannemarche_ by Raimbert of Paris, 12th century) to
+raise the siege of Rome, which was besieged by the Saracen emir
+Corsuble. He crossed the Alps under the guidance of a white hart,
+miraculously sent to assist the passage of the army. _Aspremont_ (12th
+century) describes a fictitious campaign against the Saracen King
+Agolant in Calabria, and is chiefly devoted to the _enfances_ of Roland.
+The wars of Charlemagne with his vassals are described in _Girart de
+Roussillon, Renaus de Montauban_, recounting the deeds of the four sons
+of Aymon, _Huon de Bordeaux_, and in the latter part of the _Chevalerie
+Ogier_, which belong properly to the cycle connected with Doon of
+Mayence.
+
+The account of the pilgrimage of Charlemagne and his twelve paladins to
+the Holy Sepulchre must in its first form have been earlier than the
+Crusades, as the patriarch asks the emperor to free Spain, not the Holy
+Land, from the Saracens. The legend probably originated in a desire to
+authenticate the relics in the abbey of Saint Denis, supposed to have
+been brought to Aix by Charlemagne, and is preserved in a 12th-century
+romance, _Le Voyage de Charlemagne à Jerusalem et à Constantinople_.[4]
+This journey forms the subject of a window in the cathedral of Chartres,
+and there was originally a similar one at Saint-Denis. On the way home
+Charles and his paladins visited the emperor Hugon at Constantinople,
+where they indulged in a series of _gabs_ which they were made to carry
+out. _Galien_, a favourite 15th-century romance, was attached to this
+episode, for Galien was the son of the amours of Oliver with Jacqueline,
+Hugon's daughter. The traditions of Charlemagne's fights with the
+Norsemen (Norois, Noreins) are preserved in _Aiquin_ (12th century),
+which describes the emperor's reconquest of Armorica from the "Saracen"
+king Aiquin, and a disaster at Cézembre as terrible in its way as those
+of Roncesvalles and Aliscans. _La destruction de Rome_ is a 13th-century
+version of the older _chanson_ of the emir Balan, who collected an army
+in Spain and sailed to Rome. The defenders were overpowered and the city
+destroyed before the advent of Charlemagne, who, however, avenged the
+disaster by a great battle in Spain. The romance of _Fierabras_ (13th
+century) was one of the most popular in the 15th century, and by later
+additions came to have pretensions to be a complete history of
+Charlemagne. The first part represents an episode in Spain three years
+before Roncesvalles, in which Oliver defeats the Saracen giant Fierabras
+in single combat, and converts him. The hero of the second part is Gui
+de Bourgogne, who recovers the relics of the Passion, lost in the siege
+of Rome. _Otinel_ (13th century) is also pure fiction. _L'Entrée en
+Espagne_, preserved in a 14th-century Italian compilation, relates the
+beginning of the Spanish War, the siege of Pampeluna, and the legendary
+combat of Roland with Ferragus. Charlemagne's march on Saragossa, and
+the capture of Huesca, Barcelona and Girone, gave rise to _La Prise de
+Pampelune_ (14th century, based on a lost _chanson_); and _Gui de
+Bourgogne_ (12th century) tells how the children of the barons, after
+appointing Guy as king of France, set out to find and rescue their
+fathers, who are represented as having been fighting in Spain for
+twenty-seven years. The _Chanson de Roland_ relates the historic defeat
+of Roncesvalles on the 15th of August 778, and forms the very crown of
+the whole Carolingian legend. The two 13th-century romances, _Gaidon_,
+by Herbert Leduc de Dammartin, and _Anséis de Carthage_, contain a
+purely fictitious account of the end of the war in Spain, and of the
+establishment of a Frankish kingdom under the rule of Anséis.
+Charlemagne was recalled from Spain by the news of the outbreak of the
+Saxons. The contest between Charlemagne and Widukind (_Guiteclin_)
+offered abundant epic material. Unfortunately the original _Guiteclin_
+is lost, but the legend is preserved in _Les Saisnes_ (c. 1300) of Jehan
+Bodel, which is largely occupied by the loves of Baudouin and Sibille,
+the wife of Guiteclin. The adventures of Blanchefleur, wife of
+Charlemagne, form a variation of the common tale of the innocent wife
+falsely accused, and are told in _Macaire_ and in the extant fragments
+of _La Reine Sibille_ (14th century). After the conquest of the Saracens
+and the Saxons, the defeat of the Northmen, and the suppression of the
+feudal revolts, the emperor abdicated in favour of his son Louis (_Le
+Couronnement Looys_, 12th century). Charles's harangue to his son is in
+the best tradition of epic romance. The memory of Roncesvalles haunts
+him on his death-bed, and at the moment of death he has a vision of
+Roland.
+
+The mythic element is practically lacking in the French legends, but in
+Germany some part of the Odin myth was associated with Charles's name.
+The constellation of the Great Bear, generally associated with Odin, is
+Karlswagen in German, and Charles's Wain in English. According to
+tradition in Hesse, he awaits resurrection, probably symbolic of the
+triumph of the sun over winter, within the Gudensberg (Hill of Odin).
+Bavarian tradition asserts that he is seated in the Untersberg in a
+chair, as in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle. His white beard goes on
+growing, and when it has thrice encircled the stone table before him the
+end of the world will come; or, according to another version, Charles
+will arise and after fighting a great battle on the plain of Wals will
+reign over a new Germany. There were medieval chroniclers who did not
+fear to assert that Charles rose from the dead to take part in the
+Crusades. In the MS. _Annales S. Stephani Frisingenses_ (15th century),
+which formerly belonged to the abbey of Weihenstephan, and is now at
+Munich, the childhood of Charlemagne is practically the same as that of
+many mythic heroes. This work, generally known as the chronicle of
+Weihenstephan, gives among other legends a curious history of the
+emperor's passion for a dead woman, caused by a charm given to Charles
+by a serpent to whom he had rendered justice. The charm was finally
+dropped into a well at Aix, which thenceforward became Charles's
+favourite residence. The story of Roland's birth from the union of
+Charles with his sister Gilles, also found in German and Scandinavian
+versions, has abundant parallels in mythology, and was probably
+transferred from mythology to Charlemagne.
+
+The Latin chronicle, wrongly ascribed to Turpin (Tilpinus), bishop of
+Reims from 753 to 800, was in reality later than the earlier poems of
+the French cycle, and the first properly authenticated mention of it is
+in 1165. Its primary object was to authenticate the relics of St James
+at Compostella. Alberic Trium Fontium, a monk of the Cistercian
+monastery of Trois Fontanes in the diocese of Châlons, embodied much
+poetical fiction in his chronicle (c. 1249). A large section of the
+_Chronique rimée_ (c. 1243) of Philippe Mousket is devoted to
+Charlemagne's exploits. At the beginning of the 14th century Girard of
+Amiens made a dull compilation known as _Charlemagne_ from the _chansons
+de gests_, authentic history and the pseudo-Turpin. _La Conqueste que
+fit le grand roi Charlemaigne es Espaignes_ (pr. 1486) is the same work
+as the prose compilation of _Fierabras_ (pr. 1478), and Caxton's _Lyf of
+Charles the Grete_ (1485).
+
+The Charlemagne legend was fully developed in Italy, where it was to
+have later a great poetic development at the hands of Boiardo, Ariosto
+and Tasso. There are two important Italian compilations, MS. XIII. of
+the library of St Mark, Venice (c. 1200), and the _Reali di Francia_ (c.
+1400) of a Florentine writer, Andrea da Barberino (b. 1370), edited by
+G. Vandelli (Bologna, 1892). The six books of this work are rivalled in
+importance by the ten branches of the Norse _Karlamagnus saga_, written
+under the reign of Haakon V. This forms a consecutive legendary history
+of Charles, and is apparently based on earlier versions of the French
+Charlemagne poems than those which we possess. It thus furnishes a guide
+to the older forms of stories, and moreover preserves the substance of
+others which have not survived in their French form. A popular
+abridgment, the _Keiser Karl Magnus Krönike_ (pr. Malmõ, 1534), drawn up
+in Danish, serves in some cases to complete the earlier work. The 2000
+lines of the German _Kaiserchronik_ on the history of Charlemagne belong
+to the first half of the 12th century, and were perhaps the work of
+Conrad, the poet of the _Ruolantes Liet_. The German poet known as the
+Stricker used the same sources as the author of the chronicle of
+Weihenstephan for his _Karl_ (c. 1230). The earliest important Spanish
+version was the _Chronica Hispaniae_ (c. 1284) of Rodrigo de Toledo.
+
+The French and Norman-French chansons circulated as freely in England as
+in France, and it was therefore not until the period of decadence that
+English versions were made. The English metrical romances of Charlemagne
+are:--_Rowlandes Song_ (15th century); _The Taill of Rauf Coilyear_ (c.
+1475, pr. by R. Lekpreuik, St Andrews, 1472), apparently original; _Sir
+Ferumbras_ (c. 1380) and the _Sowdone of Babylone_ (c. 1400) from an
+early version of _Fierabras_; a fragmentary _Roland and Vernagu_
+(Ferragus); two versions of _Otuel_ (Otinel); and a _Sege of Melayne_
+(c. 1390), forming a prologue to Otinel unknown in French.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most important works on the Charlemagne cycle of
+  romance are:--G. Paris, _Hist. poétique de Charlemagne_ (Paris, 1865;
+  reprint, with additional notes by Paris and P. Meyer, 1905); L.
+  Gautier, _Les Épopées françaises_ (Paris, 4 vols. new ed., 1878, 1892,
+  1880, 1882) and the supplementary _Bibliographie des chansons de
+  geste_ (1897). The third volume of the _Épopées françaises_ contains
+  an analysis and full particulars of the _chansons de geste_
+  immediately connected with the history of Charlemagne. See also G.
+  Rauschen, _Die Legende Karls des Grossen im 11ten und 12ten
+  Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1890); Kristoffer Nyrop, _Den oldfranske
+  Heldedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1883; Ital. trans. Turin, 1886); Pio
+  Rajna, _Le Origini dell' epopea francese_ (Florence, 1884); G.T.
+  Graesse, "Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters," in his
+  _Litterärgeschichte_ (Dresden, 1842); _Histoire littéraire de la
+  France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); H.L. Ward, _Catalogue of Romances in the
+  Dept. of MSS. in the British Museum_ (1883), vol. i. pp. 546-689; E.
+  Muntz, _La Légende de Charlemagne dans l'art du moyen âge_ (Paris,
+  1885); and for the German legend, vol. iii. of H.F. Massmann's edition
+  of the _Kaiserchronik_ (Quedlinburg, 1849-1854). _The English
+  Charlemagne Romances_ were edited (extra series) for the Early Eng.
+  Text Soc. by Sidney J. Herrtage, Emil Hausknecht, Octavia Richardson
+  and Sidney Lee (1879-1881), the romance of _Duke Huon of Bordeaux_
+  containing a general account of the cycle by Sidney Lee; the
+  _Karlamagnussaga_, by C.R. Unger (Christiania, 1860), see also G.
+  Paris in _Bibl. de l'École des Charles_ (1864-1865). For individual
+  _chansons_ see _Anséis de Carthage_, ed. J. Alton (Tubingen, 1892);
+  _Aiquin_, ed. F. Jouon des Longrais (Nantes, 1880); _Aspremont_, ed.
+  F. Guessard and L. Gautier (Paris, 1885); _Basin_, or _Charles et
+  Élégast_ or _Le Couronnement de Charles_, preserved only in foreign
+  versions (see Paris, _Hist. Poét._ pp. 315, seq.); _Berta de li gran
+  pié_, ed. A. Mussafia, in _Romania_ (vols. iii. and iv., 1874-1875);
+  _Berte aus grans piés_, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874);
+  _Charlemagne_, by Girard d'Amiens, detailed analysis in Paris, _Hist.
+  Poét._ (Appendix iv.); _Couronnement Looys_, ed. E. Langlois (Le Puy,
+  1888); _Désier_ (Desiderius or Didier), lost songs of the wars of
+  Lombardy, some fragments of which are preserved in _Ogier le Danois;
+  Destruction de Rome_, ed. G. Gröber in _Romania_(1873); A. Thomas,
+  _Nouvelles recherches sur "l'entrée de Spagne_," in _Bibl. des écoles
+  françaises de Rome_ (Paris, 1882); _Fierabras_, ed. A. Kröber and G.
+  Servois (Paris, 1860) in _Anciens poètes de la France_, and Provençal
+  text, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1829); _Galien_, ed. E. Stengel and K.
+  Pfeil (Marburg, 1890); _Gaydon_, ed. F. Guessard and S. Luce (_Anciens
+  poètes_ ... 1862); _Gui de Bourgogne_, ed. F. Guessard and H.
+  Michelant (same series, 1859); _Mainet_ (fragments only extant), ed.
+  G. Paris, in _Romania_ (1875); _Otinel_, ed Guessard and Michelant
+  _(Anciens poètes_, 1859), and _Sir Otuel_, ed. S.J. Herrtage
+  (_E.E.T.S._, 1880); _Prise de Pampelune_ (ed. A. Mussafia, Vienna,
+  1864); for the Carolingian romances relating to Roland, see ROLAND;
+  _Les Saisnes_, ed. F. Michel (1839); _The Sege of Melaine_,
+  introductory to Otinel, preserved in English only (ed. _E.E.T.S._,
+  1880); _Simon de Pouille_, analysis in _Épop. fr._ (iii. pp. 346 sq.);
+  _Voyage de C. à Jerusalem_, ed. E. Koschwitz (Heilbronn, 1879). For
+  the chronicle of the Pseudo-Turpin, see an edition by Castets (Paris,
+  1881) for the "Société des langues romanes," and the dissertation by
+  G. Paris, _De Pseudo-Turpino_ (Paris, 1865). The Spanish versions of
+  Carolingian legends are studied by Milà y Fontanals in _De la poesia
+  heroico-popular castellana_ (Barcelona, 1874).     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A remnant of the popular poetry contemporary with Charlemagne and
+    written in the vernacular has been thought to be discernible under
+    its Latin translation in the description of a siege during
+    Charlemagne's war against the Saracens, known as the "Fragment from
+    the Hague" (Pertz, _Script._ iii. pp. 708-710).
+
+  [2] The words _douze pairs_ were anglicized in a variety of forms
+    ranging from douzepers to dosepers. The word even occurred as a
+    singular in the metrical romance of _Octavian_:--"Ferst they sent out
+    a doseper." At the beginning of the 13th century there existed a
+    _cour des pairs_ which exercised judicial functions and dated
+    possibly from the 11th century, but their prerogatives at the
+    beginning of the 14th century appear to have been mainly ceremonial
+    and decorative. In 1257 the twelve peers were the chiefs of the great
+    feudal provinces, the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy and Aquitaine, the
+    counts of Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders, and six spiritual peers,
+    the archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Laon, Châlons-sur-Marne,
+    Beauvais, Langres and Noyon. (See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+    "Par.").
+
+  [3] See J. Flach, _Le Compagnonnage dans les chansons de geste_
+    (Paris, 1891).
+
+  [4] For clerical accounts of Charles's voyage to the Holy Land see
+    the _Chronicon_ (c. 968) of Benedict, a monk of St André, and
+    _Descriptio qualiter Karolus Magnus clavum et coronam Domini ...
+    detulerit_, by an 11th-century writer.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753-1838), French dramatic author, was born
+at Bourget (Seine) on the 30th of November 1753. Originally intended for
+the church, he turned first to being a lawyer's clerk and then a
+soldier. He served in the American War of Independence, and on returning
+to France (1783) began to employ his pen on economic subjects, and later
+in writing for the stage. He became the author of a large number of
+plays, poems and romances, among which may be mentioned the comedies _M.
+de Crac à Paris_ (1793), _Le Souper des Jacobins_ (1795)and _L'Agioteur_
+(1796) and _Observations de quelques patriotes sur la nécessité de
+conserver les monuments de la littérature et des arts_ (1794), an essay
+written in collaboration with M.M. Chardin and Renouard, which induced
+the Convention to protect books adorned with the coats of arms of their
+former owners and other treasures from destruction at the hands of the
+revolutionists. He died in Paris on the 6th of March 1838.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD, 1ST EARL OF (1728-1799), Irish statesman,
+son of the 3rd viscount Charlemont, was born in Dublin on the 18th of
+August 1728, and succeeded his father as 4th viscount in 1734. The title
+of Charlemont descended from Sir Toby Caulfeild (1565-1627) of
+Oxfordshire, England, who was given lands in Ireland, and created Baron
+Charlemont (the name of a fort on the Blackwater), for his services to
+King James I. in 1620, and the 1st viscount was the 5th baron (d. 1671),
+who was advanced by Charles II. Lord Charlemont is historically
+interesting for his political connexion with Flood and Grattan; he was
+a cultivated man with literary and artistic tastes, and both in Dublin
+and in London his amiable character gave him considerable social
+influence. For various early services in Ireland he was made an earl in
+1763, but he disregarded court favours and cordially joined Grattan in
+1780 in the assertion of Irish independence. He was president of the
+volunteer convention in Dublin in November 1783, having taken from the
+first a leading part in the embodiment of the volunteers; and he was a
+strong opponent of the proposals for the Union. He died on the 4th of
+August 1799; his eldest son, who succeeded him, being subsequently
+(1837) created an English baron.
+
+  His _Life_, by F. Hardy, appeared in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEROI (_Carolus Rex_), a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium.
+Pop. (1904) 26,528. It was founded in 1666 on the site of a village
+called Charnoy by the Spanish governor Roderigo and named after his
+sovereign Charles II. of Spain. Charleroi is the centre of the iron
+industry of Belgium. It is connected by a canal with Brussels, and from
+its position on the Sambre enjoys facilities of communication by water
+with France as well as Belgium. It was ceded soon after its foundation
+to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and Vauban fortified it.
+During the French occupation the town was considerably extended, and the
+fortifications were made so strong that Charleroi twice successfully
+resisted the strenuous attacks of William of Orange. In 1794 Charleroi
+again fell into the hands of the French, and on this occasion instead of
+fortifying they dismantled it. In 1816 Charleroi was refortified under
+Wellington's direction, and it was finally dismantled in 1859. Some
+portions of the old ramparts are left near the railway station. There is
+an archaeological museum with a miscellaneous collection of Roman and
+Frank antiquities.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEROI, a borough of Washington county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, near the S.W. corner of the state, about 20 m. S. of
+Pittsburgh. Pop. (1900) 5930, (1749 foreign-born); (1910) 9615. It is
+served by the Pennsylvania railway. The surrounding country has good
+farming land and large coal mines. In 1905 the borough ranked fifth
+among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of glass
+(plate-glass, lamp chimneys and bottles), its product (valued at
+$1,841,308) being 2.3% of that of the whole country. Charleroi was
+settled in 1890 and was incorporated in 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (Fr. _Charles_; Span. _Carlos_; Ital. _Carlo_; Ger. _Karl_;
+derived from O.H.G. _Charal_, latinized as _Carolus_, meaning originally
+"man": cf. Mod. Ger., _Kerl_, "fellow," A.S. _ceorl_, Mod. Eng.
+"churl"), a masculine proper name. It has been borne by many European
+princes, notices of the more important of whom are given below in the
+following order: (1) Roman emperors, (2) kings of England, (3) other
+kings in the alphabetical order of their states, (4) other reigning
+princes in the same order, (5) non-reigning princes. Those princes who
+are known by a name in addition to Charles (Charles Albert, &c.) will be
+found after the private individuals bearing Charles as a surname.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II.[1] called THE BALD (823-877), Roman emperor and king of the
+West Franks, was the son of the emperor Louis the Pious and of his
+second wife Judith and was born in 823. The attempts made by his father
+to assign him a kingdom, first Alamannia (829), then the country between
+the Meuse and the Pyrenees (839), at the expense of his half-brothers
+Lothair and Louis led to a rising on the part of these two (see LOUIS
+I., the Pious). The death of the emperor in 840 was the signal for the
+outbreak of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his
+brother Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the emperor
+Lothair, and the two allies conquered him in the bloody victory of
+Fontenoy-en-Puisaye (25 June 841). In the following year, the two
+brothers confirmed their alliance by the celebrated oaths of Strassburg,
+made by Charles in the Teutonic language spoken by the subjects of
+Louis, and by Louis in the Romance tongue of Charles's subjects. The war
+was brought to an end by the treaty of Verdun (August 843), which gave
+to Charles the Bald the kingdom of the western Franks, which practically
+corresponded with what is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Saône
+and the Rhone, with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the
+Ebro. The first years of his reign up to the death of Lothair I. (855)
+were comparatively peaceful, and during them was continued the system of
+"confraternal government" of the sons of Louis the Pious, who had
+various meetings with one another, at Coblenz (848), at Meersen (851),
+and at Attigny (854). In 858 Louis the German, summoned by the
+disaffected nobles, invaded the kingdom of Charles, who fled to
+Burgundy, and was only saved by the help of the bishops, and by the
+fidelity of the family of the Welfs, who were related to Judith. In 860
+he in his turn tried to seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of
+Provence, but met with a repulse. On the death of Lothair II. in 869 he
+tried to seize his dominions, but by the treaty of Mersen (870) was
+compelled to share them with Louis the German. Besides this, Charles had
+to struggle against the incessant rebellions in Aquitaine, against the
+Bretons, whose revolt was led by their chief Nomenoé and Erispoé, and
+who inflicted on the king the defeats of Ballon (845) and Juvardeil
+(851), and especially against the Normans, who devastated the country in
+the north of Gaul, the valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to
+the borders of Aquitaine. Charles was several times compelled to
+purchase their retreat at a heavy price. He has been accused of being
+incapable of resisting them, but we must take into account the
+unwillingness of the nobles, who continually refused to join the royal
+army; moreover, the Frankish army does not seem to have been
+sufficiently accustomed to war to make any headway against the pirates.
+At any rate, Charles led various expeditions against the invaders, and
+tried to put a barrier in their way by having fortified bridges built
+over all the rivers. In 875, after the death of the emperor Louis II.,
+Charles the Bald, supported by Pope John VIII., descended into Italy,
+receiving the royal crown at Pavia and the imperial crown at Rome (29th
+December). But Louis the German, who was also a candidate for the
+succession of Louis II., revenged himself for Charles's success by
+invading and devastating his dominions. Charles was recalled to Gaul,
+and after the death of Louis the German (28th August 876), in his turn
+made an attempt to seize his kingdom, but at Andernach met with a
+shameful defeat (8th October 876). In the meantime, John VIII., who was
+menaced by the Saracens, was continually urging him to come to Italy,
+and Charles, after having taken at Quierzy the necessary measures for
+safeguarding the government of his dominions in his absence, again
+crossed the Alps, but this expedition had been received with small
+enthusiasm by the nobles, and even by Boso, Charles's brother-in-law,
+who had been entrusted by him with the government of Lombardy, and they
+refused to come with their men to join the imperial army. At the same
+time Carlo man, son of Louis the German, entered northern Italy.
+Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his way back to Gaul, and
+died while crossing the pass of the Mont Cenis on the 5th or 6th of
+October 877. He was succeeded by his son Louis the Stammerer, the child
+of Ermentrude, daughter of a count of Orleans, whom he had married in
+842, and who had died in 869. In 870 he had married Richilde, who was
+descended from a noble family of Lorraine, but none of the children whom
+he had by her played a part of any importance. Charles seems to have
+been a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and
+conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against his
+unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors for preference from among
+the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens, who betrayed him,
+or of Hincmar of Reims. But his character and his reign have been judged
+very variously. The general tendency seems to have been to accept too
+easily the accounts of the chroniclers of the east Frankish kingdom,
+which are favourable to Louis the German, and to accuse Charles of
+cowardice and bad faith. He seems on the contrary not to have lacked
+activity or decision.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The most important authority for the history of
+  Charles's reign is represented by the _Annales Bertiniani_, which were
+  the work of Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, up to 861, then up to 882 of
+  the celebrated Hincmar, archbishop of Reims. This prince's charters
+  are to be found published in the collections of the _Académie des
+  Inscriptions_, by M.M. Prou. The most complete history of the reign
+  is found in E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ (3
+  vols., Leipzig, 1887-1888). See also J. Calmette, _La Diplomatie
+  carolingienne du traité de Verdun à la mort de Charles le Chauve_
+  (Paris, 1901), and F. Lot, "Une Année du règne de Charles le Chauve,"
+  in _Le Moyen-Âge_, (1902) pp. 393-438.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Charles I., Roman emperor, see CHARLEMAGNE; cf. under Charles
+    I. of France below.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III., THE FAT[1] (832-888), Roman emperor and king of the West
+Franks, was the youngest of the three sons of Louis the German, and
+received from his father the kingdom of Swabia (Alamannia). After the
+death of his two brothers in succession, Carloman (881) and Louis the
+Young (882), he inherited the whole of his father's dominions. In 880 he
+had helped his two cousins in the west Frankish realm, Louis III. and
+Carloman, in their struggle with the usurper Boso of Provence, but
+abandoned them during the campaign in order to be crowned emperor at
+Rome by Pope John VIII. (February 881). On his return he led an
+expedition against the Norsemen of Friesland, who were entrenched in
+their camp at Elsloo, but instead of engaging with them he preferred to
+make terms and paid them tribute. In 884 the death of Carloman brought
+into his possession the west Frankish realm, and in 885 he got rid of
+his rival Hugh of Alsace, an illegitimate son of Lothair II., taking him
+prisoner by treachery and putting out his eyes. However, in spite of his
+six expeditions into Italy, he did not succeed in pacifying the country,
+nor in delivering it from the Saracens. He was equally unfortunate in
+Gaul and in Germany against the Norsemen, who in 886-887 besieged Paris.
+The emperor appeared before the city with a large army (October 886),
+but contented himself by treating with them, buying the retreat of the
+invaders at the price of a heavy ransom, and his permission for them to
+ravage Burgundy without his interfering. On his return to Alamannia,
+however, the general discontent showed itself openly and a conspiracy
+was formed against him. He was first forced to dismiss his favourite,
+the chancellor Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. The dissolution of his
+marriage with the pious empress Richarde, in spite of her innocence as
+proved by the judicial examination, alienated his nobles still more from
+him. He was deposed by an assembly which met at Frankfort or at Tribur
+(November 887), and died in poverty at Neidingen on the Danube (18th
+January 888).
+
+  See E. Dümmler, _Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches_ vol. iii.
+  (Leipzig 1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This surname has only been applied to Charles since the 13th
+    century.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1316-1378), Roman emperor and king of Bohemia, was the
+eldest son of John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, and Elizabeth, sister
+of Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the Premyslides dynasty. He
+was born at Prague on the 14th of May 1316, and in 1323 went to the
+court of his uncle, Charles IV., king of France, and exchanged his
+baptismal name of Wenceslas for that of Charles. He remained for seven
+years in France, where he was well educated and learnt five languages;
+and there he married Blanche, sister of King Philip VI., the successor
+of Charles IV. In 1331 he gained some experience of warfare in Italy
+with his father; and on his return to Bohemia in 1333 he was made
+margrave of Moravia. Three years later he undertook the government of
+Tirol on behalf of his brother John Henry, and was soon actively
+concerned in a struggle for the possession of this county. In
+consequence of an alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI., the
+relentless enemy of the emperor Louis IV., Charles was chosen German
+king in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rense on the 11th
+of July 1346. As he had previously promised to be subservient to Clement
+he made extensive concessions to the pope in 1347. Confirming the papacy
+in the possession of wide territories, he promised to annul the acts of
+Louis against Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend
+and protect the church. Meanwhile he had accompanied his father into
+France and had taken part in the battle of Crecy in August 1346, when
+John was killed and Charles escaped wounded from the field. As king of
+Bohemia he returned to Germany, and after being crowned German king at
+Bonn on the 26th of November 1346, prepared to attack Louis. Hostilities
+were interrupted by the death of the emperor in October 1347, and
+Günther, count of Schwarzburg, who was chosen king by the partisans of
+Louis, soon abandoned the struggle. Charles, having made good use of the
+difficulties of his opponents, was recrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the
+25th of July 1349, and was soon the undisputed ruler of Germany. Gifts
+or promises had won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a
+marriage alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and that of
+Rudolph II., count palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when Charles, who
+had become a widower in 1348, married his daughter Anna.
+
+In 1350 the king was visited at Prague by Cola di Rienzi, who urged him
+to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the citizens of Florence
+also implored his presence. Turning a deaf ear to these entreaties,
+Charles kept Rienzi in prison for a year, and then handed him as a
+prisoner to Clement at Avignon. Four years later, however, he crossed
+the Alps without an army, received the Lombard crown at Milan on the 6th
+of January 1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on the
+5th of April in the same year. His sole object appears to have been to
+obtain the imperial crown in peace, and in accordance with a promise
+previously made to Pope Clement he only remained in the city for a few
+hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the Romans. Having virtually
+abandoned all the imperial rights in Italy, the emperor recrossed the
+Alps, pursued by the scornful words of Petrarch but laden with
+considerable wealth. On his return Charles was occupied with the
+administration of Germany, then just recovering from the Black Death,
+and in 1356 he promulgated the Golden Bull (q.v.) to regulate the
+election of the king. Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry,
+and erected the county of Luxemburg into a duchy for another, Wenceslas,
+he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other territories as
+compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian monarchy. To this end he
+purchased part of the upper Palatinate of the Rhine in 1353, and in 1367
+annexed Lower Lusatia to Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various
+parts of Germany. On the death in 1363 of Meinhard, duke of Upper
+Bavaria and count of Tirol, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the sons of the
+emperor Louis IV., and Tirol by Rudolph IV., duke of Austria. Both
+claims were admitted by Charles on the understanding that if these
+families died out both territories should pass to the house of
+Luxemburg. About the same time he was promised the succession to the
+margraviate of Brandenburg, which he actually obtained for his son
+Wenceslas in 1373. He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian
+territory, partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna, daughter
+of Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. In 1365 Charles visited Pope Urban V.
+at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome; and on the same occasion
+was crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 4th of June
+1365.
+
+His second journey to Italy took place in 1368, when he had a meeting
+with Urban at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at Siena, and left the
+country before the end of the year 1369. During his later years the
+emperor took little part in German affairs beyond securing the election
+of his son Wenceslas as king of the Romans in 1376, and negotiating a
+peace between the Swabian league and some nobles in 1378. After dividing
+his lands between his three sons, he died on the 29th of November 1378
+at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was erected to his
+memory in 1848.
+
+Charles, who according to the emperor Maximilian I. was the step-father
+of the Empire, but the father of Bohemia, brought the latter country to
+a high state of prosperity. He reformed the finances, caused roads to be
+made, provided for greater security to life and property, and introduced
+or encouraged various forms of industry. In 1348 he founded the
+university of Prague, and afterwards made this city the seat of an
+archbishop, and beautified it by the erection of several fine buildings.
+He was an accomplished diplomatist, possessed a penetrating intellect,
+and was capable of much trickery in order to gain his ends. By refusing
+to become entangled in Italian troubles and confining himself to
+Bohemia, he proved that he preferred the substance of power to its
+shadow. Apparently the most pliant of men, he had in reality great
+persistence of character, and if foiled in one set of plans readily
+turned round and reached his goal by a totally different path. He was
+superstitious and peace-loving, had few personal wants, and is described
+as a round-shouldered man of medium height, with black hair and beard,
+and sallow cheeks.
+
+  His autobiography the "Vita Caroli IV.," which deals with events down
+  to the year 1346, and various other documents relating to his life and
+  times, are published in the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, Band I.,
+  edited by J.F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1885). For other documents relating to
+  the time see _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Kaiser Karl IV._,
+  edited by J.F. Böhmer and A. Huber (Innsbruck, 1889); _Acta Karoli IV.
+  imperatoris inedita_ (Innsbruck, 1891); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex
+  registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885). See also
+  E. Werunsky, _Geschichte Kaiser Karls IV. und seiner Zeit_ (Innsbruck,
+  1880-1892); H. Friedjung, _Kaiser Karl IV. und sein Antheil am
+  geistigen Leben seiner Zeit_ (Vienna, 1876); A. Gottlob, _Karls IV.
+  private und politische Beziehungen zu Frankreich_ (Innsbruck, 1883);
+  O. Winckelmann, _Die Beziehungen Kaiser Karls IV. zum Königreich
+  Arelat_ (Strassburg, 1882); K. Palm, "Zu Karls IV. Politik gegen
+  Baiern," in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band XV.
+  (Göttingen, 1862-1866); Th. Lindner, "Karl IV. und die Wittelsbacher,"
+  and S. Stienherz, "Die Beziehungen Ludwigs I. von Ungarn zu Karl IV.,"
+  and "Karl IV. und die österreichischen Freiheitsbriefe," in the
+  _Mittheilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung_
+  (Innsbruck, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. (1500-1558), Roman emperor and (as CHARLES I.) king of Spain,
+was born at Ghent on the 24th of February 1500. His parents were Philip
+of Burgundy and Joanna, third child of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip
+died in 1506, and Charles succeeded to his Netherland possessions and
+the county of Burgundy (Franche Comté). His grandfather, the emperor
+Maximilian, as regent, appointed his daughter Margaret vice-regent, and
+under her strenuous guardianship Charles lived in the Netherlands until
+the estates declared him of age in 1515. In Castile, Ferdinand, king of
+Aragon, acted as regent for his daughter Joanna, whose intellect was
+already clouded. On the 23rd of January 1516 Ferdinand died. Charles's
+visit to Spain was delayed until the autumn of 1517, and only in 1518
+was he formally recognized as king conjointly with his mother, firstly
+by the cortes of Castile, and then by those of Aragon. Joanna lived to
+the very eve of her son's abdication, so that he was only for some
+months technically sole king of Spain. During this Spanish visit
+Maximilian died, and Charles succeeded to the inheritance of the
+Habsburgs, to which was shortly added the duchy of Württemberg.
+Maximilian had also intended that he should succeed as emperor. In spite
+of the formidable rivalry of Francis I. and the opposition of Pope Leo
+X., pecuniary corruption and national feeling combined to secure his
+election in 1519. Charles hurriedly left Spain, and after a visit to
+Henry VIII. and his aunt Catherine, was crowned at Aix on the 23rd of
+October 1520.
+
+The difficulty of Charles's reign consists in the complexity of
+interests caused by the unnatural aggregate of distinct territories and
+races. The crown of Castile brought with it the two recently conquered
+kingdoms of Navarre and Granada, together with the new colonies in
+America and scattered possessions in northern Africa. That of Aragon
+comprised the three distinct states of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia,
+and in addition the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, each with a
+separate character and constitution of its own. No less than eight
+independent cortes or parliaments existed in this Spanish-Italian group,
+adding greatly to the intricacy of government. In the Netherland
+provinces again the tie was almost purely personal; there existed only
+the rudiments of a central administration and a common representative
+system, while the county of Burgundy had a history apart. Much the same
+was true of the Habsburg group of states, but Charles soon freed himself
+from direct responsibility for their government by making them over,
+together with Württemberg, to his brother Ferdinand. The Empire entailed
+serious liabilities on its ruler without furnishing any reliable assets:
+only through the cumbrous machinery of the diet could Charles tap the
+military and financial resources of Germany. His problem here was
+complicated by the growth of Lutheranism, which he had to face at his
+very first diet in 1521. In addition to such administrative difficulties
+Charles had inherited a quarrel with France, to which the rivalry of
+Francis I. for the Empire gave a personal character. Almost equally
+formidable was the advance of Sultan Suliman up the Danube, and the
+union of the Turkish naval power with that of the Barbary States of
+northern Africa. Against Lutheran Germany the Catholic emperor might
+hope to rely upon the pope, and against France on England. But the
+attitude of the popes was almost uniformly disagreeable, while from
+Henry VIII. and Edward VI. Charles met with more unpleasantness than
+favour.
+
+The difficulty of Charles himself is also that of the historian and
+reader of his reign. It is probably more instructive to treat it
+according to the emperor's several problems than in strict chronological
+order. Yet an attempt to distinguish the several periods of his career
+may serve as a useful introduction. The two best dividing lines are,
+perhaps, the coronation as emperor at Bologna in 1530, and the peace of
+Crépy in 1544. Until his visit to Italy (1529) Charles remained in the
+background of the European stage, except for his momentous meeting with
+Luther at the diet of Worms (1521). This meeting in itself forms a
+subdivision. Previously to this, during his nominal rule in the
+Netherlands, his visit to Spain, and his candidature for the Empire, he
+seemed, as it was said, spell-bound under the ferule of his minister
+Chièvres. Almost every report represented him as colourless, reserved
+and weak. His dependence on his Flemish counsellors provoked the rising
+in Castile, the feebleness of his government the social war in Aragon.
+The religious question first gave him a living interest, and at this
+moment Chièvres died. Aleander, the papal nuncio at Worms, now
+recognized that public opinion had been wrong in its estimate of
+Charles. Never again was he under tutelage. The necessity, however, of
+residence in Spain prevented his taking a personal part in the great
+fight with Francis I. for Italy. He could claim no credit for the
+capture of his rival at Pavia. When his army sacked Rome and held Pope
+Clement VII. prisoner, he could not have known where this army was. And
+when later the French overran Naples, and all but deprived him of his
+hold on Italy, he had to instruct his generals that they must shift for
+themselves. The world had become afraid of him, but knew little of his
+character. In the second main division of his career Charles changed all
+this. No monarch until Napoleon was so widely seen in Europe and in
+Africa. Complexity of problems is the characteristic of this period. At
+the head of his army Charles forced the Turks backwards down the Danube
+(1532). He personally conquered Tunis (1535), and was only prevented by
+"act of God" from winning Algiers (1541). The invasion of Provence in
+1536 was headed by the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of
+Ghent (1540). In his last war with Francis (1542-44) he journeyed from
+Spain to the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his
+knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace of
+Crépy (1544). In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augsburg (1530)
+onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences, which, as he
+hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.
+
+Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness with
+Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole energies to
+the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving impossible, he led
+the army which received the submission of the Lutheran states, and then
+captured the elector of Saxony at Mühlberg, after which the other
+leader, Philip of Hesse, capitulated. The Armed Diet of 1548 was the
+high-water mark of Charles's power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he
+published the Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with
+the church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses.
+During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight, his
+power was ebbing. In 1552 he was flying over the Brenner from Maurice of
+Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had made. Once again the old
+complications had arisen. His old enemy's son, Henry II., had attacked
+him indirectly in Piedmont and Parma, and then directly in Germany in
+alliance with Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and
+in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight gave Charles
+new spirit, and he once more led an army through Germany against the
+French, only to be checked by the duke of Guise's defence of Metz.
+Henceforth the waves of his fortune plashed to and fro until his
+abdication without much ostensible loss or gain.
+
+Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius, and he
+was by nature conservative. Consequently he never sought to impose any
+new or common principles of administration on his several states. He
+took them as he found them, and at most, as in the Netherlands, improved
+upon what he found. So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may
+be called opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating
+Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have frequently
+repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life laughingly denied
+the imputation, and facts are in favour of his denial. When Francis I.
+was in his power he made no attempt to dismember France, in spite of his
+pledges to his allies Henry VIII. and the duke of Bourbon. He did,
+indeed, demand the duchy of Burgundy, because he believed this to have
+been unrighteously stolen by Louis XI. from his grandmother when a
+helpless girl. The claim was not pressed, and at the height of his
+fortunes in 1548 he advised his son never to surrender it, but also
+never to make it a cause of war. When Clement VII. was his prisoner, he
+was vehemently urged to overthrow the temporal power, to restore
+imperial dominion in Italy, at least to make the papacy harmless for the
+future. In reply he restored his enemy to the whole of his dominions,
+even reimposing him by force on the Florentine republic. To the end of
+his life his conscience was sensitive as to Ferdinand's expulsion of the
+house of Albret from Spanish Navarre, though this was essential to the
+safety of Spain. Though always at war he was essentially a lover of
+peace, and all his wars were virtually defensive. "Not greedy of
+territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, "but most greedy of
+peace and quiet." For peace he made sacrifices which angered his
+hot-headed brother Ferdinand. He would not aid in expelling the sultan's
+puppet Zapolya from Ferdinand's kingdom of Hungary, and he suffered the
+restoration of the ruffianly duke of Württemberg, to the grave prejudice
+of German Catholicism. In spite of his protests, Henry VIII. with
+impunity ill-treated his aunt Catherine, and the feeble government of
+Edward VI. bullied his cousin Mary, who had been his fiancée. No serious
+efforts were made to restore his brother-in-law, Christian II., to the
+throne of Denmark, and he advised his son Philip to make friends with
+the usurper. After the defeat of the Lutheran powers in 1547 he did not
+gain a palm's breadth of territory for himself. He resisted Ferdinand's
+claim for Wurttemberg, which the duke had deserved to forfeit; he
+disliked his acceptance of the voluntary surrender of the city of
+Constance; he would not have it said that he had gone to war for the
+benefit of the house of Habsburg.
+
+On the other hand, Charles V.'s policy was not merely negative. He
+enlarged upon the old Habsburg practice of marriage as a means of
+alliance of influence. Previously to his election as emperor, his sister
+Isabella was married to Christian II. of Denmark, and the marriages of
+Mary and Ferdinand with the king of Hungary and his sister had been
+arranged. Before he was twenty Charles himself had been engaged some ten
+times with a view to political combinations. Naturally, therefore, he
+regarded his near relations as diplomatic assets. The federative system
+was equally familiar; Germany, the Netherlands, and even Spain, were in
+a measure federations. Combining these two principles, he would within
+his more immediate spheres of influence strengthen existing federations
+by intermarriage, while he hoped that the same means would convert the
+jarring powers of Europe into a happy family. He made it a condition of
+the treaty of Madrid (1526) that Francis I. should marry his sister
+Eleanor, Manuel of Portugal's widow, in the hope, not that she would be
+an ally or a spy within the enemy's camp, but an instrument of peace.
+His son's marriage with Mary Tudor would not only salve the rubs with
+England, but give such absolute security to the Netherlands that France
+would shrink from war. The personal union of all the Iberian kingdoms
+under a single ruler had long been an aim of Spanish statecraft. So
+Charles had married his sister Eleanor, much against her will, to the
+old king Manuel, and then his sister Catherine to his successor. The
+empress was a Portuguese infanta, and Philip's first wife was another.
+It is thus small wonder that, within a quarter of a century of Charles's
+death, Philip became king of Portugal.
+
+In the wars with Francis I. Italy was the stake. In spite of his success
+Charles for long made no direct conquests. He would convert the
+peninsula into a federation mainly matrimonial. Savoy, the important
+buffer state, was detached from France by the marriage of the somewhat
+feeble duke to Charles's capable and devoted sister-in-law, Beatrice of
+Portugal. Milan, conquered from France, was granted to Francesco Sforza,
+heir of the old dynasty, and even after his treason was restored to him.
+In the vain hope of offspring Charles sacrificed his niece, Christina of
+Denmark, to the valetudinarian duke. In the long negotiations for a
+Habsburg-Valois dynasty which followed Francesco's death, Charles was
+probably sincere. He insisted that his daughter or niece should marry
+the third rather than the second son of Francis I., in order, apart from
+other reasons, to run less risk of the duchy falling under French
+dominion. The final investiture of Philip was forced upon him, and does
+not represent his saner policy. The Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga of
+Mantua, the papal house of Farnese, were all attached by Habsburg
+marriages. The republics of Genoa and Siena were drawn into the circle
+through the agency of their chief noble families, the Doria and
+Piccolomini; while Charles behaved with scrupulous moderation towards
+Venice in spite of her active hostility before and after the League of
+Cognac. Occasional acts of violence there were, such as the
+participation in the murder of Pierluigi Farnese, and the measures which
+provoked the rebellion of Siena. These were due to the difficulty of
+controlling the imperial agents from a distance, and in part to the
+faults of the victim prince and republic. On the whole, the loose
+federation of viceroyalties and principalities harmonized with Italian
+interests and traditions. The alternative was not Italian independence,
+but French domination. At any rate, Charles's structure was so durable
+that the French met with no real success in Italy until the 18th
+century.
+
+Germany offered a fine field for a creative intellect, since the evils
+of her disintegration stood confessed. On the other hand, princes and
+towns were so jealous of an increase of central authority that Charles,
+at least until his victory over the League of Schmalkalden, had little
+effective power. Owing to his wars with French and Turks he was rarely
+in Germany, and his visits were very short. His problem was infinitely
+complicated by the union of Lutheranism and princely independence. He
+fell back on the old policy of Maximilian, and strove to create a party
+by personal alliances and intermarriage. In this he met with some
+success. The friendship of the electors of Brandenburg, whether Catholic
+or Protestant, was unbroken. In the war of Schmalkalden half the
+Protestant princes were on Charles's side or friendly neutrals. At the
+critical moment which preceded this, the lately rebellious duke of
+Cleves and the heir of Bavaria were secured through the agency of two of
+Ferdinand's invaluable daughters. The relations, indeed, between the two
+old enemies, Austria and Bavaria, were permanently improved. The elector
+palatine, whose love affairs with his sister Eleanor Charles as a boy
+had roughly broken, received in compensation a Danish niece. Her sister,
+widow of Francesco Sforza, was utilized to gain a hold upon the French
+dynasty which ruled Lorraine. More than once there were proposals for
+winning the hostile house of Saxony by matrimonial means. After his
+victory over the League of Schmalkalden, Charles perhaps had really a
+chance of making the imperial power a reality. But he lacked either
+courage or imagination, contenting himself with proposals for voluntary
+association on the lines of the defunct Swabian League, and dropping
+even these when public opinion was against them. Now, too, he made his
+great mistake in attempting to foist Philip upon the Empire as
+Ferdinand's successor. Gossip reported that Ferdinand himself was to be
+set aside, and careless historians have given currency to this. Such an
+idea was impossible. Charles wished Philip to succeed Ferdinand, while
+he ultimately conceded that Ferdinand's son Maximilian should follow
+Philip, and even in his lifetime exercise the practical power in
+Germany. This scheme irritated Ferdinand and his popular and ambitious
+son at the critical moment when it was essential that the Habsburgs
+should hold together against princely malcontents. Philip was
+imprudently introduced to Germany, which had also just received a
+foretaste of the unpleasant characteristics of Spanish troops. Yet the
+person rather than the policy was, perhaps, at fault. It was natural
+that the quasi-hereditary succession should revert to the elder line.
+France proved her recuperative power by the occupation of Savoy and of
+Metz, Toul and Verdun, the military keys of Lorraine. The separation of
+the Empire and Spain left two weakened powers not always at accord, and
+neither of them permanently able to cope on equal terms with France.
+Nevertheless, this scheme did contribute in no small measure to the
+failure of Charles in Germany. The main cause was, of course, the
+religious schism, but his treatment of this requires separate
+consideration.
+
+The characteristics of Charles's government, its mingled conservatism
+and adaptability, are best seen in Spain and the Netherlands, with which
+he was in closer personal contact than with Italy and Germany. In Spain,
+when once he knew the country, he never repeated the mistakes which on
+his first visit caused the rising of the communes. The cortes of Castile
+were regularly summoned, and though he would allow no encroachment on
+the crown's prerogatives, he was equally scrupulous in respecting their
+constitutional rights. They became, perhaps, during the reign slightly
+more dependent on the crown. This has been ascribed to the system of
+gratuities which in later reigns became a scandal, but was not
+introduced by Charles, and as yet amounted to little more than the
+payment of members' expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased
+owing to the greater control which had gradually been exercised over the
+composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the deputies
+for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to the power and
+wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than the crown had conquered
+the communes, and in the past they rather than the towns had been the
+enemies of monarchy. He earnestly warned his son against giving them
+administrative power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his
+sanctimonious and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions: in
+foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was Spain's best
+soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into collision with the
+nobles as a class. They usually attended only on ceremonial occasions,
+since they were exempted from direct taxation, which was the main
+function of the cortes. Now, however, they were summoned, because
+Charles was bent upon a scheme of indirect taxation which would have
+affected all classes. They offered an uncompromising opposition, and
+Charles somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon them
+again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental councils was further
+developed, so that it may be said that the bureaucratic element was
+slightly increasing just as the parliamentary element was on the wane.
+The evils of this tendency were as yet scarcely apparent owing to
+Charles's personal intervention in all departments. The councils
+presented their reports through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles
+heard their advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon
+Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers: let him
+hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he was well served
+by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed. After the death of the
+Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella
+for Netherland and German affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for
+Spanish, while the younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to
+1555 these were the only ministers of high importance. Above all,
+Charles never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised
+any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret and
+his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortunate.
+Charles was never quite popular in Spain, but the empress whom he
+married at his people's request was much beloved. Complaints were made
+of his absenteeism, but until 1543 he spent the greater portion of his
+reign in Spain, or on expeditions such as those against Tunis and
+Algiers which were distinctively in Spanish interests. Spaniards
+disliked his Netherland and German connexions, but without the vigorous
+blows which these enabled him to strike at France, it is improbable that
+Spain could have retained her hold on Italy, or her monopoly of commerce
+with the Indies. The wars with Francis I. were, in spite of the rival
+candidature for the Empire, Spanish wars entailed by Ferdinand's
+retention of Roussillon, his annexation of Navarre, his summary eviction
+of the French from Naples. The Netherlands had become convinced on
+commercial grounds of the wisdom of peace with France, and the German
+interest in Milan was not sufficiently active to be a standing cause of
+war. Charles and Francis had inherited the hostility of Ferdinand and
+Louis XII.
+
+The reign of Charles was in America the age of conquest and
+organization. Upon his accession the settlements upon the mainland were
+insignificant; by 1556 conquest was practically complete, and civil and
+ecclesiastical government firmly established. Actual expansion was the
+work of great adventurers starting on their own impulse from the older
+colonies. To Charles fell the task of encouraging such ventures, of
+controlling the conquerors, of settling the relations between colonists
+and natives, which involved those between the colonists and the
+missionary colonial church. He must arrest depopulation, provide for the
+labour market, regulate oceanic trade, and check military preponderance
+by civil and ecclesiastical organization. In America Charles took an
+unceasing interest; he had a boundless belief in its possibilities, and
+a determination to safeguard the interests of the crown. Cortes,
+Alvarado and the brothers Pizarro were brought into close personal
+communication with the emperor. If he bestowed on Cortes the confidence
+which the loyal conqueror deserved, he showed the sternest determination
+in crushing the rebellious and autonomous instincts of Almagro and the
+Pizarros. But for this, Peru and Chile must have become independent
+almost as soon as they were conquered. Throughout he strove to protect
+the natives, to prevent actual slavery, and the consequent raids upon
+the natives. Legislation was not, indeed, always consistent, because the
+claims of the colonists could not always be resisted, but on the whole
+he gave earnest support to the missionaries, who upheld the cause of the
+natives against the military, and sometimes the civil and ecclesiastical
+elements. His humane care for his native subjects may well be studied in
+the instructions sent to Philip from Germany in 1548, when Charles was
+at the summit of his power. If Charles had had his will, he would have
+opened the colonial trade to the whole of his wide possessions. The
+Castilians, however, jealously confined it to the city of Seville,
+artificially fostering the indolence of the colonists to maintain the
+agricultural and manufacturing monopoly of Castile, and by extreme
+protective measures forcing them to live on smuggled goods from other
+countries. Charles did actually attempt to cure the exclusive interest
+of the colonists in mineral wealth by the establishment of peasant and
+artisan colonies. If in many respects he failed, yet the organization of
+Spanish America and the survival of the native races were perhaps the
+most permanent results of his reign. It is a proof of the complexity of
+his interests that the march of the Turk upon Vienna and of the French
+on Naples delayed until the following reign the foundation of Spain's
+eastern empire. Charles carefully organized the expedition of Magellan,
+which sailed for the Moluccas and discovered the Philippines.
+Unfortunately, his straits for money in 1529 compelled him to mortgage
+to Portugal his disputed claim to the Moluccas, and the Philippines
+consequently dropped out of sight.
+
+If in the administration of Spain Charles did little more than mark
+time, in the Netherlands advance was rapid. Of the seven northern
+provinces he added five, containing more than half the area of the later
+United Provinces. In the south he freed Flanders and Artois from French
+suzerainty, annexed Tournai and Cambrai, and closed the natural line of
+French advance through the great bishopric of Liége by a line of
+fortresses across its western frontier. Much was done to convert the
+aggregate of jarring provinces into a harmonious unity by means of
+common principles of law and finance, and by the creation of a national
+army. While every province had its own assembly, there were at Charles's
+accession only the rudiments of estates general for the Netherlands at
+large. At the close of the reign the common parliamentary system was in
+full swing, and was fast converting the loosely knit provinces into a
+state. By these means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of
+supply, but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could
+recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip II. all
+patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of his father as
+the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process of consolidation was
+infinitely difficult, and conflicts between local and central
+authorities were frequent. That they were safely tided over was due to
+Charles's moderation and his legal mind, which prompted him to draw back
+when his case was bad. The harshest act of his life was the punishment
+of the rebellion of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy
+in other quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the
+other members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere local
+quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.
+
+In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with which he
+regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the growth of large estates
+through primogeniture; he gave the nobles the provincial governorships,
+the great court offices, the command of the professional cavalry. In the
+Order of the Golden Fleece and the long established presence of the
+court at Brussels, he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The
+nobility were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces.
+Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part of the
+Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly liable to
+papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers. Thus the usual
+conflict between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was peculiarly
+acute. To remedy this dualism of authority and the consequent moral and
+religious abuses, Charles early designed the creation of a national
+diocesan system, and this was a darling project throughout his life. He
+was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or Lutheran,
+attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent on the crown, with
+nomination and institution in his hands, and with reasonable control
+over taxation and jurisdiction. The papacy unfortunately thwarted him,
+and the scheme, which under Charles would have been carried with
+national assent, and created a national church, took the appearance
+under Philip of alien domination.
+
+If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands territorial
+prince, and thus his interests might easily be at disaccord with those
+of the Empire. Consequently, just as he had shaken off French suzerainty
+from Flanders and Artois, so he loosened the tie of the other provinces
+to Germany. In 1548 they were declared free and sovereign principalities
+not subject to imperial laws, and all the territories were incorporated
+in the Burgundian circle. It was, indeed, agreed that they should
+contribute to imperial taxation, and in return receive imperial
+protection. But this soon became a dead letter, and the Netherlands were
+really severed from the Empire, save for the nominal feudal tie in the
+case of some provinces. Thus some writers have dated their independence
+from Charles's convention of 1548 rather than from the peace of
+Westphalia, a century later. Having converted his heterogeneous
+territories into a self-sufficient state, Charles often contemplated the
+formation of a middle kingdom between France and Germany. At the last
+moment he spoiled his own work by granting the Netherlands to Philip. It
+was indeed hard to set aside the order of inheritance, and the
+commercial interests of the provinces were closely bound with Spain, and
+with England, whose queen Philip had married. Under any other ruler than
+Philip the breach might not have come so early. Yet it must be regretted
+that Charles had not the courage of his convictions, and that he lost
+the opportunity of completing the new nation which he had faithfully
+laboured to create.
+
+Charles V. is in the eyes of many the very picture of a Catholic zealot.
+Popular opinion is probably mainly based upon the letters written from
+Yuste in 1558, when two hot-beds of heresy had been discovered in Spain
+herself, and on the contemporary codicil to his will. These were,
+perhaps, really in part responsible for the later persecution. Yet the
+circumstances were far from being typical of the emperor's career. Death
+was very near him; devotional exercises were his main occupation. The
+letters, moreover, were cries of warning, and not edicts. Charles was
+not then the responsible authority. There is a long step between a
+violent letter and a violent act. Few men would care to have their lives
+judged by letters written in the last extremities of gout. Less
+pardonable was the earlier persecution of the Valencian Moriscoes in
+1525-1526. They had fought for their landlords in the cause of order,
+had been forcibly converted by the revolutionaries, and on the
+suppression of revolution had naturally relapsed. But for this momentary
+conversion the Inquisition would have had no hold upon them. The edict
+of persecution was cruel and unnecessary, and all expert opinion in
+Valencia was against it. It was not, however, actually enforced until
+after the victory of Pavia. It seems likely that Charles in a fit of
+religious exaltation regarded the persecution as a sacrificial
+thank-offering for his miraculous preservation. It is characteristic
+that, when in the following year he was brought into personal contact
+with the Moors of Granada, he allowed them to buy themselves off from
+the more obnoxious measures of the Inquisition. Henceforth the reign was
+marked by extreme leniency. Spain enjoyed a long lull in the activity of
+her Inquisition. At Naples in 1547 a rumour that the Spanish Inquisition
+was to be introduced to check the growth of heresy in influential
+quarters produced a dangerous revolt. The briefs were, however, issued
+by Paul III., no friend of Charles, and when a Neapolitan deputation
+visited the emperor he disclaimed any intention of making innovations.
+Of a different type to all the above was the persecution in the
+Netherlands. Here it was deliberate, chronic, and on an ascending scale.
+It is not a sufficient explanation that heresy also was persistent,
+ubiquitous and increasing, for this was also the case in Germany where
+Charles's methods were neither uniform nor drastic. But in the
+Netherlands the heretics were his immediate subjects, and as in every
+other state, Catholic or Lutheran, they must conform to their prince's
+religion. But there was more than this. After the suppression of the
+German peasant revolt in 1525 many of the refugees found shelter in the
+teeming Netherland cities, and heresy took the form, not of Lutheranism,
+but of Anabaptism, which was believed to be perilous to society and the
+state. The government put down Anabaptism, as a modern government might
+stamp out Anarchism. The edicts were, indeed, directed against heresy in
+general, and were as harsh as they could be--at least on paper. Yet when
+Charles was assured that they were embarrassing foreign trade he let it
+be understood that they should not affect the foreign mercantile
+communities. Prudential considerations proved frequently a drag upon
+religious zeal.
+
+The relations of Charles to heresy must be judged in the main by his
+treatment of German Lutheranism. Here he had to deal, not with
+drawing-room imprudences nor hole-and-corner conventicles, not with
+oriental survivals nor millenary aspirations, but with organized
+churches protected by their princes, supported by revenues filched from
+his own church and stiffened by formulae as rigid as those of
+Catholicism. The length and stubbornness of the conflict will serve to
+show that Charles's religious conservatism had a measure of elasticity,
+that he was not a bigot and nothing more. It should be remembered that
+all his principal ministers were inclined to be Erasmian or indifferent,
+that one of his favourite confessors, Loaysa, advised compromise, and
+that several intimate members of his court and chapel were, after his
+death, victims of the Inquisition. The two more obvious courses towards
+the restoration of Catholic unity were force and reconciliation, in
+other words, a religious war or a general council. Neither of these was
+a simple remedy. The latter was impossible without papal concurrence,
+inoperative without the assistance of the European powers, and merely
+irritant without the adhesion of the Lutherans. It was most improbable
+that the papacy, the powers and the Lutherans would combine in a
+measure so palpably advantageous to the emperor. Force was hopeless save
+in the absence of war with France and the Turk, and of papal hostility
+in Italian territorial politics. Charles must obtain subsidies from
+ecclesiastical sources, and the support of all German Catholics,
+especially of the traditional rival, Bavaria. Even so the Protestants
+would probably be the stronger, and therefore they must be divided by
+utilizing any religious split, any class distinction, any personal or
+traditional dislikes, or else by bribery. Force and reconciliation
+seeming equally difficult, could an alternative be found in toleration?
+The experiment might take the form either of individual toleration, or
+of toleration for the Lutheran states. The former would be equally
+objectionable to Lutheran and Catholic princes as loosening their grip
+upon their subjects. Territorial toleration might seem equally obnoxious
+to the emperor, for its recognition would strengthen the anti-imperial
+particularism so closely associated with Lutheranism. If Charles could
+find no permanent specific, he must apply a provisional palliative. It
+was absolutely necessary to patch, if not to cure, because Germany must
+be pulled together to resist French and Turks. Such palliatives were
+two--suspension and comprehension. Suspension deferred the execution of
+penalties incurred by heresy, either for a term of years, or until a
+council should decide. Thus it recognized the divorce of the two
+religions, but limited it by time. Comprehension instead of recognizing
+the divorce would strive to conceal the breach. It was a domestic
+remedy, German and national, not European and papal. To become permanent
+it must receive the sanction of pope and council, for the Roman emperor
+could not set up a church of Germany. Yet the formula adopted might
+conceivably be found to fall within the four corners of the faith, and
+so obviate the necessity alike of force or council. Such were the
+conditions of the emperor's task, and such the methods which he actually
+pursued. He would advance now on one line, now on another, now on two or
+three concurrently, but he never definitely abandoned any. This fusion
+of obstinacy and versatility was a marked feature of his character.
+
+Suspension was of course often accidental and involuntary. The two chief
+stages of Lutheran growth naturally corresponded with the periods, each
+of nine years, when Charles was absent. Deliberate suspension was
+usually a consequence of the failure of comprehension. Thus at Augsburg
+in 1530 the wide gulf between the Lutheran confession and the Catholic
+confutation led to the definite suspensive treaty granted to the
+Lutherans at Nuremberg (1532). Charles dared not employ the alternative
+of force, because he needed their aid for the Turkish war. In 1541,
+after a series of religious conferences, he personally presented a
+compromise in the so-called Book of Regensburg, which was rejected by
+both parties. He then proposed that the articles agreed upon should be
+compulsory, while on others toleration should be exercised until a
+national council should decide. Never before nor after did he go so far
+upon the path of toleration, or so nearly accept a national settlement.
+He was then burning to set sail for Algiers. His last formal suspensive
+measure was that of Spires (Speyer) in 1544, when he was marching
+against Francis. He promised a free and general council to be held in
+Germany, and, as a preparation, a national religious congress. The
+Lutherans were privately assured that a measure of comprehension should
+be concluded with or without papal approval. Meanwhile all edicts
+against heresy were suspended. No wonder that Charles afterwards
+confessed that he could scarcely reconcile these concessions with his
+conscience, but he won Lutheran aid for his campaign. The peace of Crépy
+gave all the conditions required for the employment of force. He had
+peace with French and Turk, he won the active support of the pope, he
+had deeply divided the Lutherans and reconciled Bavaria. Finding that
+the Lutherans would not accept the council summoned by the pope to
+Trent, he resorted to force, and force succeeded. At the Armed Diet of
+1548 reunion seemed within reach. But Paul III. in direct opposition to
+Charles's wish had withdrawn the council from Trent to Bologna. Charles
+could not force Lutherans to submit to a council which he did not
+himself recognize, and he could not bring himself to national schism.
+Thus, falling back upon his old palliatives, he issued the Interim and
+the accompanying Reform of the Clergy, pending a final settlement by a
+satisfactory general council. These measures pleased neither party, and
+Charles at the very height of his power had failed. He was conscious of
+failure, and made few attempts even to enforce the Interim. Henceforward
+political complications gathered round him anew. The only remedy was
+toleration in some form, independent of the papacy and limitless in
+time. To this Charles could never assent. His ideal was shattered, but
+it was a great ideal, and the patience, the moderation, even at times
+the adroitness with which he had striven towards it, proved him to be no
+bigot.
+
+The idea of abdication had long been present with Charles. After his
+failure to eject the French from Metz he had not shrunk from a wearisome
+campaign against Henry II., and he was now tired out. His mother's death
+removed an obstacle, for there could now be no question as to his son's
+succession to the Spanish kingdoms. Religious settlement in Germany
+could no longer be postponed, and he shrank from the responsibility; the
+hand that should rend the seamless raiment of God's church must not be
+his. To Ferdinand he gave his full authority as emperor, although at his
+brother's earnest request formal abdication was delayed until 1558. In
+the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels on the 25th of October 1555 he
+formally resigned to Philip the sovereignty of his beloved Netherlands.
+Turning from his son to the representatives of the estates he said,
+"Gentlemen, you must not be astonished if, old and feeble as I am in all
+my members, and also from the love I bear you, I shed some tears." In
+the Netherlands at least the love was reciprocal, and tears were
+infectious among the thousand deputies who listened to their sovereign's
+last speech. On the 16th of January 1556, Charles resigned his Spanish
+kingdoms and that of Sicily, and shortly afterwards his county of
+Burgundy. On the 17th of September he sailed from Flushing on the last
+of his many voyages, an English fleet from Portland bearing him company
+down the Channel. In February 1557 he was installed in the home which he
+had chosen at Yuste in Estremadura.
+
+The excellent books which have been written upon the emperor's
+retirement have inspired an interest out of all proportion to its real
+significance. His little house was attached to the monastery, but was
+not within it. He was neither an ascetic nor a recluse. Gastronomic
+indiscretions still entailed their inevitable penalties. Society was not
+confined to interchange of civilities with the brethren. His relations,
+his chief friends, his official historians, all found their way to
+Yuste. Couriers brought news of Philip's war and peace with Pope Paul
+IV., of the victories of Saint Quentin and Gravelines, of the French
+capture of Calais, of the danger of Oran. As head of the family he
+intervened in the delicate relations with the closely allied house of
+Portugal: he even negotiated with the house of Navarre for reparation
+for the wrong done by his grandfather Ferdinand, which appeared to weigh
+upon his conscience. Above all he was shocked by the discovery that
+Spain, his own court, and his very chapel were infected with heresy. His
+violent letters to his son and daughter recommending immediate
+persecution, his profession of regret at having kept his word when
+Luther was in his power, have weighed too heavily on his reputation. The
+feverish phrases of religious exaltation due to broken health and
+unnatural retirement cannot balance the deliberate humanity and honour
+of wholesome manhood. Apart from such occasional moments of excitement,
+the emperor's last years passed tranquilly enough. At first he would
+shoot pigeons in the monastery woods, and till his last illness tended
+his garden and his animal pets, or watched the operations of Torriani,
+maker of clocks and mechanical toys. After an illness of three weeks the
+call came in the early hours of the feast of St Matthew, who, as his
+chaplain said, had for Christ's sake forsaken wealth even as Charles had
+forsaken empire. The dying man clasped his wife's crucifix to his breast
+till his fingers lost their hold. The archbishop held it before his
+eyes, and with the cry of "_Ay Jesus!_" died, in the words of his
+faithul squire D. Luis de Quijada, "the chief of men that had ever been
+or would ever be." Posterity need not agree, but no great man can boast
+a more honest panegyric.
+
+In character Charles stands high among contemporary princes. It consists
+of pairs of contrasts, but the better side is usually stronger than the
+worse. Steadfast honesty of purpose was occasionally warped by
+self-interest, or rather he was apt to think that his own course must
+needs be that of righteousness. Self-control would give way, but very
+rarely, to squalls of passion. Obstinacy and irresolution were fairly
+balanced, the former generally bearing upon ends, the latter upon means.
+His own ideals were constant, but he could gradually assimilate the
+views of others, and could bend to argument and circumstance; yet even
+here he had a habit of harking back to earlier schemes which he had
+seemed to have definitely abandoned. Intercourse with different
+nationalities taught him a certain versatility; he was dignified with
+Spaniards, familiar with Flemings, while the material Italians were
+pleased with his good sense. His sympathies were neither wide nor quick,
+but he was a most faithful friend, and the most considerate of masters.
+For all who sought him his courtesy and patience were unfailing. At his
+abdication he dwelt with reasonable pride upon his labours and his
+journeyings. Few monarchs have lived a more strenuous life. Yet his
+industry was broken by fits of indolence, which were probably due to
+health. In his prime his confessor warned him against this defect, and
+it caused, indeed, the last great disaster of his life. Fortunately he
+was conscious of his obstinacy, his irresolution and his indolence. He
+would accept admonition from the chapter of the Golden Fleece, would
+comment on his failings as a warning to his son. When Cardinal Contarini
+politely assured him that to hold fast to good opinions is not obstinacy
+but firmness, the emperor replied, "Ah! but I sometimes stick to bad
+ones." Charles was not cruel, indeed the character of his reign was
+peculiarly merciful. But he was somewhat unforgiving. He especially
+resented any slight upon his honour, and his unwise severity to Philip
+of Hesse was probably due to the unfounded accusation that he had
+imprisoned him in violation of his pledge. The excesses of his troops in
+Italy, in Guelders and on the Austrian frontiers caused him acute pain,
+although he called himself "hard to weep." No great nobleman, statesman
+or financier was executed at Charles's order. He was proud of his
+generalship, classing himself with Alva and Montmorenci as the best of
+his day. Yet his failures nearly balanced his successes. It is true that
+in his most important campaign, that against the League of Schmalkalden,
+the main credit must be ascribed to his well-judged audacity at the
+opening, and his dogged persistency at the close. As a soldier he must
+rank very high. It was said that his being emperor lost to Spain the
+best light horseman of her army. At every crisis he was admirably cool,
+setting a truly royal example to his men. His mettle was displayed when
+he was attacked on the burning sands of Tunis, when his troops were
+driven in panic from Algiers, when in spite of physical suffering he
+forded the Elbe at Mühlberg, and when he was bombarded by the vastly
+superior Lutheran artillery under the walls of Ingolstadt. When blamed
+for exposing himself on this last occasion, "I could not help it," he
+apologized; "we were short of hands, 1 could not set a bad example."
+Nevertheless he was by nature timid. Just before this very action he had
+a fit of trembling, and he was afraid of mice and spiders. The force of
+his example was not confined to the field. Melanchthon wrote from
+Augsburg in 1530 that he was a model of continence, temperance and
+moderation, that the old domestic discipline was now only preserved in
+the imperial household. He tenderly loved his wife, whom he had married
+for pecuniary and diplomatic reasons. Of his two well-known illegitimate
+children, Margaret was born before he married, and Don John long after
+his wife's death, but he felt this latter to be a child of shame. His
+sobriety was frequently contrasted with the universal drunkenness of the
+German and Flemish nobles, which he earnestly condemned. But on his
+appetite he could place no control, in spite of the ruinous effects of
+his gluttony upon his health. In dress, in his household, and in his
+stable he was simple and economical. He loved children, flowers, animals
+and birds. Professional jesters amused him, and he was not above a joke
+himself. Maps and mechanical inventions greatly interested him, and in
+later life he became fond of reading. He takes his place indeed among
+authors, for he dictated the commentaries on his own career. Of music he
+possessed a really fine knowledge, and his high appreciation of Titian
+proves the purity of his feeling for art. The little collection of books
+and pictures which he carried to Yuste is an index of his tastes.
+Charles was undeniably plain. He confessed that he was by nature ugly,
+but that as artists usually painted him uglier than he was, strangers on
+seeing him were agreeably disappointed. The protruding lower jaw and the
+thin pale face were redeemed by the fine open brow and the bright
+speaking eyes. He was, moreover, well made, and in youth had an
+incomparable leg. Above all no man could doubt his dignity; Charles was
+every inch an emperor.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Commentaries de Charles-quint_, ed. by Baron Kervyn de
+  Lettenhove (Brussels, 1862); _Memoirs_ written by Charles in 1550, and
+  treating somewhat fully of the years 1543-1548; W. Robertson, _History
+  of the Emperor Charles V._ (latest ed., London, 1887), an English
+  classic, which needs supplementing by later authorities; F.A. Mignet,
+  _Rivalité de François I et de Charles-quint_ (2 vols., Paris, 1875);
+  E. Armstrong, _The Emperor Charles V._ (2 vols., London, 1902), to
+  which reference may be made for monographs and collections of
+  documents bearing on the reign; H. Baumgarten, _Geschichte Karls V._
+  (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885-1893), very full but extending only to 1539;
+  G. de Leva, _Storia documentata di Carlo V. in correlazione all'
+  Italia_ (5 vols., Venice, 1862-1894), a general history of the reign,
+  though with special reference to its Italian aspects, and extending to
+  1552; article by L.P. Gachard in _Biographie nationale_, vol. iii.,
+  1872, an excellent compressed account. The life of Charles V. at Yuste
+  may be studied in L.P. Gachard's _Retraite et mort de Charles-quint au
+  monastère de Yuste_ (Brussels, 1854-1855), and in Sir W.
+  Stirling-Maxwell's _The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V._
+  (London, 4 editions from 1852); also in W.H. Prescott's edition of
+  Robertson's _History_ (1857).     (E. Ar.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VI. (1685-1740), Roman emperor, was born on the 1st of October
+1685 at Vienna. He was the second son of the emperor Leopold I. by his
+third marriage with Eleanore, daughter of Philip William of Neuburg,
+elector palatine of the Rhine. When the Spanish branch of the house of
+Habsburg became extinct in 1700, he was put forward as the lawful heir
+in opposition to Philip V., the Bourbon to whom the Spanish dominions
+had been left by the will of Charles II. of Spain. He was proclaimed at
+Vienna on the 19th of September 1703, and made his way to Spain by the
+Low Countries, England and Lisbon, remaining in Spain till 1711, mostly
+in Catalonia, where the Habsburg party was strong. Although he had a
+certain tenacity of purpose, which he showed in later life, he displayed
+none of the qualities required in a prince who had to gain his throne by
+the sword (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF). He was so afraid of
+appearing to be ruled by a favourite that he would not take good advice,
+but was easily earwigged by flatterers who played on his weakness for
+appearing independent. In 1708 he was married at Barcelona to Elizabeth
+Christina of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1691-1750), a Lutheran princess who
+was persuaded to accept Roman Catholicism by the assurances of
+Protestant divines and of the philosopher Leibnitz, that she could
+always give an Evangelical meaning to Catholic ceremonies. On the death
+of his elder brother Joseph I. on the 17th of April 1711, Charles
+inherited the hereditary possessions of the house of Habsburg, and their
+claims on the Empire. The death of Joseph without male issue had been
+foreseen, and Charles had at one time been prepared to give up Spain and
+the Indies on condition that he was allowed to retain Naples, Sicily and
+the Milanese. But when the case arose, his natural obstinacy led him to
+declare that he would not think of surrendering any of the rights of his
+family. It was with great difficulty that he was persuaded to leave
+Spain, months after the death of his brother (on the 27th of September
+1711). Only the emphatic refusal of the European powers to tolerate the
+reconstruction of the empire of Charles V. forced him to give a sullen
+submission to necessity. He abandoned Spain and was crowned emperor in
+December 1711, but for a long time he would not recognize Philip V. It
+is to his honour that he was very reluctant to desert the Catalans who
+had fought for his cause. Some of their chiefs followed him to Vienna,
+and their advice had an unfortunate influence on his mind. They almost
+succeeded in arousing his suspicions of the loyalty of Prince Eugene at
+the very moment when the prince's splendid victories over the Turks had
+led to the peace of Passarowitz on the 28th of July 1718, and a great
+extension of the Austrian dominions eastward. Charles showed an
+enlightened, though not always successful, interest in the commercial
+prosperity of his subjects, but from the date of his return to Germany
+till his death his ruling passion was to secure his inheritance against
+dismemberment. As early as 1713 he had begun to prepare the "Pragmatic
+Sanction" which was to regulate the succession. An only son, born on the
+13th of April 1716, died in infancy, and it became the object of his
+policy to obtain the recognition of his daughter Maria Theresa as his
+heiress. He made great concessions to obtain his aim, and embarked on
+complicated diplomatic negotiations. His last days were embittered by a
+disastrous war with Turkey, in which he lost almost all he had gained by
+the peace of Passarowitz. He died at Vienna on the 20th of October 1740,
+and with him expired the male line of his house. Charles VI. was an
+admirable representative of the tenacious ambition of the Habsburgs, and
+of their belief in their own "august greatness" and boundless rights.
+
+  For the personal character of Charles VI. see A. von Arneth,
+  _Geschichte Maria Theresias_ (Vienna, 1863-1879). Dr Franz Krones, R.
+  v. Marchland, _Grundriss der dsterreichischen Geschichte_ (Vienna,
+  1882), gives a very copious bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VII. (1697-1745), Roman emperor, known also as Charles Albert,
+elector of Bavaria, was the son of the elector Maximilian Emanuel and
+his second wife, Theresa Cunigunda, daughter of John Sobieski, king of
+Poland. He was born on the 6th of August 1697. His father having taken
+the side of Louis XIV. of France in the War of the Spanish Succession
+(q.v.), Bavaria was occupied by the allies. Charles and his brother
+Clement, afterwards archbishop of Cologne, were carried prisoners to
+Vienna, and were educated by the Jesuits under the name of the counts of
+Wittelsbach. When his father was restored to his electorate, Charles was
+released, and in 1717 he led the Bavarian contingent of the imperial
+army which served under Prince Eugene against the Turks, and is said to
+have distinguished himself at Belgrade. On the 25th of September 1722 he
+was betrothed to Maria Amelia, the younger of the two orphan daughters
+of the emperor Joseph I. Her uncle Charles VI. insisted that the
+Bavarian house should recognize the Pragmatic Sanction which established
+his daughter Maria Theresa as heiress of the Habsburg dominions. They
+did so, but with secret protests and mental reservations of their
+rights, which were designed to render the recognition valueless. The
+electors of Bavaria had claims on the possessions of the Habsburgs under
+the will of the emperor Ferdinand I., who died in 1564.
+
+Charles succeeded his father on the 26th of February 1726. As a ruler of
+Bavaria, he showed a vague disposition to improve the condition of his
+subjects, but his profuse habits and his efforts to rival the splendour
+of the French court crippled his finances. His policy was one of much
+duplicity, for he was constantly endeavouring to keep on good terms with
+the emperor while slipping out of his obligation to accept the Pragmatic
+Sanction and intriguing to secure French support for his claims whenever
+Charles VI. should die. On hearing of the emperor's last illness, he
+ordered his agent at Vienna to renew his claim to the Austrian
+inheritance. The claim was advanced immediately after the death of
+Charles VI. on the 20th of October 1740. Charles Albert now entered into
+the league against Maria Theresa, to the great misfortune of himself and
+his subjects. By the help of her enemies he was elected emperor in
+opposition to her husband Francis, grand duke of Tuscany, on the 24th of
+January 1742, under the title of Charles VII., and was crowned at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 12th of February. But as his army had been
+neglected, he was utterly unable to resist the Austrian troops. While he
+was being crowned his hereditary dominions in Bavaria were being
+overrun. He described himself as attacked by stone and gout, ill,
+without money or land, and in distress comparable to the sorrows of
+Job. During the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.) he was a mere
+puppet in the hands of the anti-Austrian coalition, and was often in
+want of mere necessaries. In the changes of the war he was able to
+re-enter his capital, Munich, in 1743, but had immediately afterwards to
+take flight again. He was restored by Frederick the Great in October
+1744, but died worn out at Munich on the 20th of January 1745.
+
+  See A. von Arneth, _Geschichte Maria Theresias_ (Vienna, 1863-1879);
+  and P.T. Heigel. _Der österreichische Erbfolgestreit und die
+  Kaiserwahl Karls VII._ (Munich, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1600-1649), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second son of
+James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline on the 19th of
+November 1600. At his baptism he was created duke of Albany, and on the
+16th of January 1605 duke of York. In 1612, by the death of his elder
+brother Henry, he became heir-apparent, and was created prince of Wales
+on the 3rd of November 1616. In 1620 he took up warmly the cause of his
+sister the queen of Bohemia, and in 1621 he defended Bacon, using his
+influence to prevent the chancellor's degradation from the peerage. The
+prince's marriage with the infanta Maria, daughter of Philip III. of
+Spain, had been for some time the subject of negotiation, James desiring
+to obtain through Spanish support the restitution of his son-in-law,
+Frederick, to the Palatinate; and in 1623 Charles was persuaded by
+Buckingham, who now obtained a complete ascendancy over him in
+opposition to wiser advisers and the king's own wishes, to make a secret
+expedition himself to Spain, put an end to all formalities, and bring
+home his mistress himself: "a gallant and brave thing for his Highness."
+"Steenie" and "Baby Charles," as James called them, started on the 17th
+of February, arriving at Paris on the 21st and at Madrid on the 7th of
+March, where they assumed the unromantic names of Mr Smith, and Mr
+Brown. They found the Spanish court by no means enthusiastic for the
+marriage[1] and the princess herself averse. The prince's immediate
+conversion was expected, and a complete religious tolerance for the
+Roman Catholics in England demanded. James engaged to allow the infanta
+the right of public worship and to use his influence to modify the law,
+but Charles himself went much further. He promised the alteration of the
+penal laws within three years, conceded the education of the children to
+the mother till the age of twelve, and undertook to listen to the
+infanta's priests in matters of religion, signing the marriage contract
+on the 25th of July 1623. The Spanish, however, did not trust to words,
+and Charles was informed that his wife could only follow him to England
+when these promises were executed. Moreover, they had no intention
+whatever of aiding the Protestant Frederick. Meanwhile Buckingham,
+incensed at the failure of the expedition, had quarrelled with the
+grandees, and Charles left Madrid, landing at Portsmouth on the 5th of
+October, to the joy of the people, to whom the proposed alliance was
+odious. He now with Buckingham urged James to make war on Spain, and in
+December 1624 signed a marriage treaty with Henrietta Maria, daughter of
+Henry IV. of France. In April Charles had declared solemnly to the
+parliament that in case of his marriage to a Roman Catholic princess no
+concessions should be granted to recusants, but these were in September
+1624 deliberately promised by James and Charles in a secret article, the
+first instance of the duplicity and deception practised by Charles in
+dealing with the parliament and the nation. The French on their side
+promised to assist in Mansfeld's expedition for the recovery of the
+Palatinate, but Louis in October refused to allow the men to pass
+through France; and the army, without pay or provisions, dwindled away
+in Holland to nothing.
+
+On the 27th of March 1625 Charles I. succeeded to the throne by the
+death of his father, and on the 1st of May he was married by proxy to
+Henrietta Maria. He received her at Canterbury on the 13th of June, and
+on the 18th his first parliament assembled. On the day of his marriage
+Charles had given directions that the prosecutions of the Roman
+Catholics should cease, but he now declared his intention of enforcing
+the laws against them, and demanded subsidies for carrying on the war
+against Spain. The Commons, however, responded coldly. Charles had lent
+ships to Louis XIII. to be used against the Protestants at La Rochelle,
+and the Commons were not aware of the subterfuges and fictitious delays
+intended to prevent their employment. The Protestant feelings of the
+Commons were also aroused by the king's support of the royal chaplain,
+Richard Montagu, who had repudiated Calvinistic doctrine. They only
+voted small sums, and sent up a petition on the state of religion and
+reflecting upon Buckingham, whom they deemed responsible for the failure
+of Mansfeld's expedition, at the same time demanding counsellors in whom
+they could trust. Parliament was accordingly dissolved by Charles on the
+12th of August. He hoped that greater success abroad would persuade the
+Commons to be more generous. On the 8th of September 1625 he made the
+treaty of Southampton with the Dutch against Spain, and sent an
+expedition to Cadiz under Sir Edward Cecil, which, however, was a
+failure. In order to make himself independent of parliament he attempted
+to raise money on the crown jewels in Holland, and to diminish the
+opposition in the Commons he excluded the chief leaders by appointing
+them sheriffs. When the second parliament met, however, on the 6th of
+February 1626, the opposition, led by Sir John Eliot, was more
+determined than before, and their attack was concentrated upon
+Buckingham. On the 29th of March, Charles, calling the Commons into his
+presence, accused them of leading him into the war and of taking
+advantage of his difficulties to "make their own game." "I pray you not
+to be deceived," he said, "it is not a parliamentary way, nor 'tis not a
+way to deal with a king. Remember that parliaments are altogether in my
+power for their calling, sitting, and dissolution; therefore as I find
+the fruits of them good or evil, they are to continue or not to be."
+Charles, however, was worsted in several collisions with the two houses,
+with a consequent loss of influence. He was obliged by the peers to set
+at liberty Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, whom he had put into the
+Tower, and to send a summons to the earl of Bristol, whom he had
+attempted to exclude from parliament, while the Commons compelled him,
+with a threat of doing no business, to liberate Eliot and Digges, the
+managers of Buckingham's impeachment, whom he had imprisoned. Finally in
+June the Commons answered Charles's demand for money by a remonstrance
+asking for Buckingham's dismissal, which they decided must precede the
+grant of supply. They claimed responsible ministers, while Charles
+considered himself the executive and the sole and unfettered judge of
+the necessities of the state. Accordingly on the 15th Charles dissolved
+the parliament.
+
+The king was now in great need of money. He was at war with Spain and
+had promised to pay £30,000 a month to Christian IV. of Denmark in
+support of the Protestant campaign in Germany. To these necessities was
+now added a war with France. Charles had never kept his promise
+concerning the recusants; disputes arose in consequence with his wife,
+and on the 31st of July 1626 he ordered all her French attendants to be
+expelled from Whitehall and sent back to France. At the same time
+several French ships carrying contraband goods to the Spanish
+Netherlands were seized by English warships. On the 27th of June 1627
+Buckingham with a large expedition sailed to the Isle of Ré to relieve
+La Rochelle, then besieged by the forces of Louis XIII. Though the
+success of the French Protestants was an object much desired in England,
+Buckingham's unpopularity prevented support being given to the
+expedition, and the duke returned to Plymouth on the 11th of November
+completely defeated. Meanwhile Charles had endeavoured to get the money
+refused to him by parliament by means of a forced loan, dismissing Chief
+Justice Crewe for declining to support its legality, and imprisoning
+several of the leaders of the opposition for refusing to subscribe to
+it. These summary measures, however, only brought a small sum into the
+treasury. On the 2nd of January 1628 Charles ordered the release of all
+the persons imprisoned, and on the 17th of March summoned his third
+parliament.
+
+Instead of relieving the king's necessities the Commons immediately
+proceeded to discuss the constitutional position and to formulate the
+Petition of Right, forbidding taxation without consent of parliament,
+arbitrary and illegal imprisonment, compulsory billeting in private
+houses, and martial law. Charles, on the 1st of May, first demanded that
+they should "rest on his royal word and promise." He obtained an opinion
+from the judges that the acceptance of the petition would not absolutely
+preclude in certain cases imprisonments without showing cause, and after
+a futile endeavour to avoid an acceptance by returning an ambiguous
+answer which only exasperated the Commons, he gave his consent on the
+7th of June in the full and usual form. Charles now obtained his
+subsidies, but no real settlement was reached, and his relations with
+the parliament remained as unfriendly as before. They proceeded to
+remonstrate against his government and against his support of
+Buckingham, and denied his right to tonnage and poundage. Accordingly,
+on the 26th of June they were prorogued. New disasters befell Charles,
+in the assassination of Buckingham and in the failure of the fresh
+expedition sent to Ré. In January 1629 the parliament reassembled,
+irritated by the exaction of the duties and seizure of goods during the
+interval, and suspicious of "innovations in religion," the king having
+forbidden the clergy to continue the controversy concerning Calvinistic
+and Arminian doctrines, the latter of which the parliament desired to
+suppress. While they were discussing these matters, on the 2nd of March
+1629, the king ordered them to adjourn, but amidst a scene of great
+excitement the speaker, Sir John Finch, was held down in his chair and
+the doors were locked, whilst resolutions against innovations in
+religion and declaring those who levied or paid tonnage and poundage
+enemies to their country were passed. Parliament was immediately
+dissolved, and Charles imprisoned nine members, leaders of the
+opposition, Eliot, Holles, Strode, Selden, Valentine, Coryton, Heyman,
+Hobart and Long, his vengeance being especially shown in the case of
+Eliot, the most formidable of his opponents, who died in the Tower of
+consumption after long years of close and unhealthy confinement, and
+whose corpse even Charles refused to give up to his family.
+
+For eleven years Charles ruled without parliaments and with some
+success. There seemed no reason to think that "that noise," to use
+Laud's expression concerning parliaments, would ever be heard again by
+those then living. A revenue of about £618,000 was obtained by enforcing
+the payment of tonnage and poundage, and while avoiding the taxes,
+loans, and benevolences forbidden by the petition of right, by
+monopolies, fines for knighthood, and for pretended encroachments on the
+royal domains and forests, which enabled the king to meet expenditure at
+home. In Ireland, Charles, in order to get money, had granted the Graces
+in 1628, conceding security of titles of more than sixty years'
+standing, and a more moderate oath of allegiance for the Roman
+Catholics, together with the renunciation of the shilling fine for
+non-attendance at church. He continued, however, to make various
+attempts to get estates into his possession on the pretext of invalid
+title, and on the 12th of May 1635 the city of London estates were
+sequestered. Charles here destroyed one of the most valuable settlements
+in Ireland founded by James I. in the interests of national defence, and
+at the same time extinguished the historic loyalty of the city of
+London, which henceforth steadily favoured the parliamentary cause. In
+1633 Wentworth had been sent to Ireland to establish a medieval monarchy
+and get money, and his success in organization seemed great enough to
+justify the attempt to extend the system to England. Charles at the same
+time restricted his foreign policy to scarcely more than a wish for the
+recovery of the Palatinate, to further which he engaged in a series of
+numerous and mutually destructive negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus
+and with Spain, finally making peace with Spain on the 5th of November
+1630, an agreement which was followed on the 2nd of January 1631 by a
+further secret treaty, the two kings binding themselves to make war on
+the Dutch and partition their territories. A notable feature of this
+agreement was that while in Charles's portion Roman Catholicism was to
+be tolerated, there was no guarantee for the security of Protestantism
+in the territory to be ceded to Spain.
+
+In 1634 Charles levied ship-money from the seaport towns for the
+increase of the navy, and in 1635 the tax was extended to the inland
+counties, which aroused considerable opposition. In February 1637
+Charles obtained an opinion in favour of his claims from the judges, and
+in 1638 the great Hampden case was decided in his favour. The apparent
+success, however, of Charles was imperilled by the general and growing
+resentment aroused by his exactions and whole policy, and this again was
+small compared with the fears excited by the king's attitude towards
+religion and Protestantism. He supported zealously Laud's rigid Anglican
+orthodoxy, his compulsory introduction of unwelcome ritual, and his
+narrow, intolerant and despotic policy, which was marked by several
+savage prosecutions and sentences in the Star Chamber, drove numbers of
+moderate Protestants out of the Church into Presbyterianism, and created
+an intense feeling of hostility to the government throughout the
+country. Charles further increased the popular fears on the subject of
+religion by his welcome given to Panzani, the pope's agent, in 1634, who
+endeavoured unsuccessfully to reconcile the two churches, and afterwards
+to George Conn, papal agent at the court of Henrietta Maria, while the
+favour shown by the king to these was contrasted with the severe
+sentences passed upon the Puritans.
+
+The same imprudent neglect of the national sentiment was pursued in
+Scotland. Charles had already made powerful enemies there by a
+declaration announcing the arbitrary revocation of former church estates
+to the crown. On the 18th of June 1633 he was crowned at Edinburgh with
+full Anglican ceremonial, which lost him the hearts of numbers of his
+Scottish subjects and aroused hostility to his government in parliament.
+After his return to England he gave further offence by ordering the use
+of the surplice, by his appointment of Archbishop Spotiswood as
+chancellor of Scotland, and by introducing other bishops into the privy
+council. In 1636 the new _Book of Canons_ was issued by the king's
+authority, ordering the communion table to be placed at the east end,
+enjoining confession, and declaring excommunicate any who should presume
+to attack the new prayer-book. The latter was ordered to be used on the
+18th of October 1636, but it did not arrive in Scotland till May 1637.
+It was intensely disliked both as "popish" and as English. A riot
+followed its first use in St Giles' cathedral on the 23rd of July, and
+Charles's order to enforce it on the 10th of September was met by fresh
+disturbances and by the establishment of the "Tables," national
+committees which now became the real though informal government of
+Scotland. In 1638 the national covenant was drawn up, binding those that
+signed it to defend their religion to the death, and was taken by large
+numbers with enthusiasm all over the country. Charles now drew back,
+promised to enforce the canons and prayer-book only in a "fair and legal
+way," and sent the marquis of Hamilton as a mediator. The latter,
+however, a weak and incapable man, desirous of popularity with all
+parties, and unfaithful to the king's interests, yielded everything,
+without obtaining the return of Charles's subjects to their allegiance.
+The assembly met at Glasgow on the 21st of November, and in spite of
+Hamilton's opposition immediately proceeded to judge the bishops. On the
+28th Hamilton dissolved it, but it continued to sit, deposed the bishops
+and re-established Presbyterianism. The rebellion had now begun, and an
+appeal to arms alone could decide the quarrel between Charles and his
+subjects. On the 28th of May 1639 he arrived at Berwick with a small and
+ill-trained force, thus beginning what is known as the first Bishops'
+War; but being confronted by the Scottish army at Duns Law, he was
+compelled to sign the treaty of Berwick on the 18th of June, which
+provided for the disbandment of both armies and the restitution to the
+king of the royal castles, referring all questions to a general assembly
+and a parliament. When the assembly met it abolished episcopacy, but
+Charles, who on the 3rd of August had returned to Whitehall, refused his
+consent to this and to other measures proposed by the Scottish
+parliament. His extreme financial necessities, and the prospect of
+renewed hostilities with the Scots, now moved Charles, at the
+instigation of Strafford, who in September had left Ireland to become
+the king's chief adviser, to turn again to parliament for assistance as
+the last resource, and on the 13th of April 1640 the Short Parliament
+assembled. But on its discussing grievances before granting supplies and
+finally refusing subsidies till peace was made with the Scots, it was
+dissolved on the 5th of May. Charles returned once more to measures of
+repression, and on the 10th imprisoned some of the London aldermen who
+refused to lend money. He prepared for war, scraping together what money
+he could and obtaining a grant through Strafford from Ireland. His
+position, however, was hopeless; his forces were totally undisciplined,
+and the Scots were supported by the parliamentary opposition in England.
+On the 20th of August the Scots crossed the Tweed, beginning the
+so-called second Bishops' War, defeated the king's army at Newburn on
+the 28th, and subsequently occupied Newcastle and Durham. Charles at
+this juncture, on the 24th of September, summoned a great council of the
+peers; and on the 21st of October a cessation of arms was agreed to by
+the treaty of Ripon, the Scots receiving £850 a day for the maintenance
+of the army, and further negotiations being transferred to London. On
+the 3rd of November the king summoned the Long Parliament.
+
+Such was the final issue of Charles's attempt to govern without
+parliaments--Scotland in triumphant rebellion, Ireland only waiting for
+a signal to rise, and in England the parliament revived with almost
+irresistible strength, in spite of the king, by the force of
+circumstances alone. At this great crisis, which would indeed have taxed
+the resolution and resource of the most cool-headed and sagacious
+statesman, Charles failed signally. Two alternative courses were open to
+him, either of which still offered good chances of success. He might
+have taken his stand on the ancient and undoubted prerogative of the
+crown, resisted all encroachments on the executive by the parliament by
+legal and constitutional means, which were probably ample, and in case
+of necessity have appealed to the loyalty of the nation to support him
+in arms; or he might have waived his rights, and, acknowledging the
+mistakes of his past administration, have united with the parliament and
+created once more that union of interests and sentiment of the monarchy
+with the nation which had made England so powerful. Charles, however,
+pretended to do both simultaneously or by turns, and therefore
+accomplished neither. The illegally imprisoned members of the last
+parliament, now smarting with the sense of their wrongs, were set free
+to stimulate the violence of the opposition to the king in the new
+assembly. Of Charles's double statecraft, however, the series of
+incidents which terminated the career of the great Strafford form the
+most terrible example. Strafford had come to London in November, having
+been assured by Charles that he "should not suffer in his person, honour
+or fortune," but was impeached and thrown into the Tower almost
+immediately. Charles took no steps to hinder the progress of the
+proceedings against him, but entered into schemes for saving him by
+bringing up an army to London, and this step exasperated Strafford's
+enemies and added new zeal to the prosecution. On the 23rd of April,
+after the passing of the attainder by the Commons, he repeated to
+Strafford his former assurances of protection. On the 1st of May he
+appealed to the Lords to spare his life and be satisfied with rendering
+him incapable of holding office. On the 2nd he made an attempt to seize
+the Tower by force. On the 10th, yielding to the queen's fears and to
+the mob surging round his palace, he signed his death-warrant. "If my
+own person only were in danger," he declared to the council, "I would
+gladly venture it to save my Lord Strafford's life; but seeing my wife,
+children, all my kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way
+unto it." On the 11th he sent to the peers a petition for Strafford's
+life, the force of which was completely annulled by the strange
+postscript: "If he must die, it were a charity to reprieve him until
+Saturday." This tragic surrender of his great and devoted servant left
+an indelible stain upon the king's character, and he lived to repent it
+bitterly. One of his last admonitions to the prince of Wales was "never
+to give way to the punishment of any for their faithful service to the
+crown." It was regarded by Charles as the cause of his own subsequent
+misfortunes, and on the scaffold the remembrance of it disturbed his own
+last moments. The surrender of Strafford was followed by another
+stupendous concession by Charles, the surrender of his right to
+dissolve the parliament without its own consent, and the parliament
+immediately proceeded, with Charles's consent, to sweep away the
+star-chamber, high commission and other extra-legal courts, and all
+extra-parliamentary taxation. Charles, however, did not remain long or
+consistently in the yielding mood. In June 1641 he engaged in a second
+army plot for bringing up the forces to London, and on the 10th of
+August he set out for Scotland in order to obtain the Scottish army
+against the parliament in England; this plan was obviously doomed to
+failure and was interrupted by another appeal to force, the so-called
+Incident, at which Charles was suspected (in all probability unjustly)
+of having connived, consisting in an attempt to kidnap and murder
+Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark, with whom he was negotiating. Charles had
+also apparently been intriguing with Irish Roman Catholic lords for
+military help in return for concessions, and he was suspected of
+complicity in the Irish rebellion which now broke out. He left Scotland
+more discredited than ever, having by his concessions made, to use
+Hyde's words, "a perfect deed of gift of that kingdom," and without
+gaining any advantage.
+
+Charles returned to London on the 25th of November 1641 and was
+immediately confronted by the Grand Remonstrance (passed on the 22nd),
+in which, after reciting the chief points of the king's misgovernment,
+the parliament demanded the appointment of acceptable ministers and the
+constitution of an assembly of divines to settle the religious question.
+On the 2nd of January 1642 Charles gave office to the opposition members
+Colepeper and Falkland, and at the same time Hyde left the opposition
+party to serve the king. Charles promised to take no serious step
+without their advice. Nevertheless, entirely without their knowledge,
+through the influence of the queen whose impeachment was intended,
+Charles on the 4th made the rash and fatal attempt to seize with an
+armed force the five members of the Commons, Pym, Hampden, Holies,
+Hesilrige and Strode, whom, together with Mandeville (afterwards earl of
+Manchester) in the Lords, he had impeached of high treason. No English
+sovereign ever had (or has since that time) penetrated into the House of
+Commons. So complete and flagrant a violation of parliamentary
+liberties, and an appeal so crude and glaring to brute force, could only
+be justified by complete success; but the court plans had been betrayed,
+and were known to the offending members, who, by order of the House, had
+taken refuge in the city before the king's arrival with the soldiers.
+Charles, on entering the House, found "the birds flown," and returned
+baffled, having thrown away the last chance of a peaceful settlement
+(see LENTHALL, WILLIAM). The next day Charles was equally unsuccessful
+in obtaining their surrender in the city. "The king had the worst day in
+London yesterday," wrote a spectator of the scene, "that ever he had,
+the people crying 'privilege of parliament' by thousands and prayed God
+to turn the heart of the king, shutting up their shops and standing at
+their doors with swords and halberds."[2] On the 10th, amidst general
+manifestations of hostility, Charles left Whitehall to prepare for war,
+destined never to return till he was brought back by his victorious
+enemies to die.
+
+Several months followed spent in manoeuvres to obtain the control of the
+forces and in a paper war of controversy. On the 23rd of April Charles
+was refused entry into Hull, and on the 2nd of June the parliament sent
+to him the "Nineteen Propositions," claiming the whole sovereignty and
+government for the parliament, including the choice of the ministers,
+the judges, and the control of the army, and the execution of the laws
+against the Roman Catholics. The military events of the war are
+described in the article GREAT REBELLION. On the 22nd of August the king
+set up his standard at Nottingham, and on the 23rd of October he fought
+the indecisive battle of Edgehill, occupying Oxford and advancing as far
+as Brentford. It seemed possible that the war might immediately be ended
+by Charles penetrating to the heart of the enemy's position and
+occupying London, but he drew back on the 13th of November before the
+parliamentary force at Turnham Green, and avoided a decisive contest.
+
+Next year (1643) another campaign, for surrounding instead of
+penetrating into London, was projected. Newcastle and Hopton were to
+advance from the north and west, seize the north and south banks of the
+river below the city, destroy its commerce, and combine with Charles at
+Oxford. The royalist force, however, in spite of victories at Adwalton
+Moor (June 30th) and Roundway Down (July 13th), did not succeed in
+combining with Charles, Newcastle in the north being kept back by the
+Eastern Association and the presence of the enemy at Hull, and Hopton in
+the west being detained by their successful holding out at Plymouth.
+Being too weak to attempt anything alone against London, Charles marched
+to besiege Gloucester, Essex following him and relieving the place.
+Subsequently the rival forces fought the indecisive first battle of
+Newbury, and Charles failed in preventing the return of Essex to London.
+Meanwhile on the 1st of February the parliament had submitted proposals
+to Charles at Oxford, but the negotiations came to nothing, and
+Charles's unwise attempt at the same time to stir up a rising in his
+favour in the city, known as Waller's Plot, injured his cause
+considerably. He once more turned for help to Ireland, where the
+cessation of the campaign against the rebels was agreed upon on the 15th
+of September 1643, and several English regiments became thereby
+available for employment by the king in England. Charles also accepted
+the proposal for bringing over 2000 Irish. On the 22nd of January 1644
+the king opened the rival parliament at Oxford.
+
+The campaign of 1644 began far less favourably for Charles than the two
+last, principally owing to the alliance now made between the Scots and
+the parliament, the parliament taking the Solemn League and Covenant on
+the 25th of September 1643, and the Scottish army crossing the border on
+the 19th of January 1644. No attempt was this year made against London,
+and Rupert was sent to Newcastle's succour in the north, where the great
+disaster of Marston Moor on the 2nd of July ruined Charles's last
+chances in that quarter. Meanwhile Charles himself had defeated Waller
+at Cropredy Bridge on the 29th of June, and he subsequently followed
+Essex to the west, compelling the surrender of Essex's infantry at
+Lostwithiel on the 2nd of September. With an ill-timed leniency he
+allowed the men to go free after giving up their stores and arms, and on
+his return towards Oxford he was confronted again by Essex's army at
+Newbury, combined now with that of Waller and of Manchester. Charles
+owed his escape here from complete annihilation only to Manchester's
+unwillingness to inflict a total defeat, and he was allowed to get away
+with his artillery to Oxford and to revictual Donnington Castle and
+Basing House.
+
+The negotiations carried on at Uxbridge during January and February 1645
+failed to secure a settlement, and on the 14th of June the crushing
+defeat of the king's forces by the new model army at Naseby practically
+ended the civil war. Charles, however, refused to make peace on Rupert's
+advice, and considered it a point of honour "neither to abandon God's
+cause, injure my successors, nor forsake my friends." His chief hope was
+to join Montrose in Scotland, but his march north was prevented by the
+parliamentary forces, and on the 24th of September he witnessed from the
+walls of Chester the rout of his followers at Rowton Heath. He now
+entered into a series of intrigues, mutually destructive, which,
+becoming known to the different parties, exasperated all and diminished
+still further the king's credit. One proposal was the levy of a foreign
+force to reduce the kingdom; another, the supply through the marquis of
+Ormonde of 10,000 Irish. Correspondence relating to these schemes,
+fatally compromising as they were if Charles hoped ever to rule England
+again, was discovered by his enemies, including the Glamorgan treaty,
+which went much further than the instructions to Ormonde, but of which
+the full responsibility has never been really traced to Charles, who on
+the 29th of January 1646 disavowed his agent's proceedings. He
+simultaneously treated with the parliament, and promised toleration to
+the Roman Catholics if they and the pope would aid in the restoration of
+the monarchy and the church. Nor was this all. The parliamentary forces
+had been closing round Oxford. On the 27th of April the king left the
+city, and on the 5th of May gave himself up to the Scottish army at
+Newark, arriving on the 13th with them at Newcastle. On the 13th of July
+the parliament sent to Charles the "Newcastle Propositions," which
+included the extreme demands of Charles's acceptance of the Covenants,
+the abolition of episcopacy and establishment of Presbyterianism,
+severer laws against the Roman Catholics and parliamentary control of
+the forces, with the withdrawal of the Irish Cessation, and a long list
+of royalists to be exempted from pardon. Charles returned no definite
+answer for several months. He imagined that he might now find support in
+Scottish royalism, encouraged by Montrose's series of brilliant
+victories, but these hopes were destroyed by the latter's defeat at
+Philiphaugh on the 3rd of September. The Scots insisted on the Covenant
+and on the permanent establishment of Presbyterianism, while Charles
+would only consent to a temporary maintenance for three years.
+Accordingly the Scots, in return for the payment of part of their army
+arrears by the parliament, marched home on the 30th of January 1647,
+leaving Charles behind, who under the care of the parliamentary
+commissioners was conducted to Holmby House. Thence on the 12th of May
+he sent his answer to the Newcastle Propositions, offering the militia
+to the parliament for ten years and the establishment of Presbyterianism
+for three, while a final settlement on religion was to be reached
+through an assembly of twenty divines at Westminster. But in the midst
+of the negotiation with the parliament Charles's person was seized, on
+the 3rd of June 1647, by Cornet Joyce under instructions of the army,
+which soon afterwards occupied London and overpowered the parliament,
+placing Charles at Hampton Court.
+
+If Charles could have remained firm to either one or the other faction,
+and have made concessions either to Presbyterianism or on the subject of
+the militia, he might even now have prevailed. But he had learned
+nothing by experience, and continued at this juncture his characteristic
+policy of intrigue and double-dealing, "playing his game," to use his
+own words, negotiating with both parties at once, not with the object or
+wish to arrive at a settlement with either, but to augment their
+disputes, gain time and profit ultimately by their divisions. The "Heads
+of the Proposals," submitted to Charles by the army on the 28th of July
+1647, were terms conceived on a basis far broader and more statesmanlike
+than the Newcastle Propositions, and such as Charles might well have
+accepted. The proposals on religion anticipated the Toleration Act of
+1689. There was no mention of episcopacy, and its existence was thereby
+indirectly admitted, but complete religious freedom for all Protestant
+denominations was provided, and the power of the church to inflict civil
+penalties abolished, while it was also suggested that dangers from Roman
+Catholics and Jesuits might be avoided by means other than enforcing
+attendance at church. The parliament was to dissolve itself and be
+succeeded by biennial assemblies elected on a reformed franchise, not to
+be dissolved without their own consent before 120 days, and not to sit
+more than 240 days in the two years. A council of state was to conduct
+the foreign policy of the state and conclude peace and war subject to
+the approval of parliament, and to control the militia for ten years,
+the commanders being appointed by parliament, as also the officers of
+state for ten years. No peer created since May the 21st, 1642, was to
+sit in parliament without consent of both Houses, and the judicial
+decisions of the House of Lords were to be ratified by the Commons. Only
+five persons were excepted from amnesty, but royalists were not to hold
+office for five years and not to sit in the Commons till the end of the
+second biennial parliament. Proposals for a series of reforms were also
+added. Charles, however, was at the same time negotiating with
+Lauderdale for an invasion of England by the Scots, and imagined he
+could win over Cromwell and Fairfax by "proffers of advantage to
+themselves." The precious opportunity was therefore allowed to slip by.
+On the 9th of September he rejected the proposals of the parliament for
+the establishment of Presbyterianism. His hopes of gaining advantages by
+playing upon the differences of his opponents proved a complete failure.
+Fresh terms were drawn up by the army and parliament together on the
+10th of November, but before these could be presented, Charles, on the
+11th, had escaped to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight. Thence on
+the 16th he sent a message offering Presbyterianism for three years and
+the militia for his lifetime to the parliament, but insisting on the
+maintenance of episcopacy. On the 28th of December he refused his assent
+to the Four Bills, which demanded the militia for parliament for twenty
+years and practically for ever, annulled the honours recently granted by
+the king and his declarations against the Houses, and gave to parliament
+the right to adjourn to any place it wished. On the 3rd of January 1648
+the Commons agreed to a resolution to address the king no further, in
+which they were joined by the Lords on the 15th.
+
+Charles had meanwhile taken a further fatal step which brought about his
+total destruction. On the 26th of December 1647 he had signed at
+Carisbrooke with the Scottish commissioners the secret treaty called the
+"Engagement," whereby the Scots undertook to invade England on his
+behalf and restore him to the throne on condition of the establishment
+of Presbyterianism for three years and the suppression of the
+sectarians. In consequence the second civil war broke out and the Scots
+invaded England under Hamilton. The royalist risings in England were
+soon suppressed, and Cromwell gained an easy and decisive victory over
+the Scots at Preston. Charles was now left alone to face his enemies,
+with the whole tale of his intrigues and deceptions unmasked and
+exposed. The last intrigue with the Scots was the most unpardonable in
+the eyes of his contemporaries, no less wicked and monstrous than his
+design to conquer England by the Irish soldiers; "a more prodigious
+treason," said Cromwell, "than any that had been perfected before;
+because the former quarrel was that Englishmen might rule over one
+another; this to vassalize us to a foreign nation." Cromwell, who up to
+this point had shown himself foremost in supporting the negotiations
+with the king, now spoke of the treaty of Newport, which he found the
+parliament in the act of negotiating on his return from Scotland, as
+"this ruining hypocritical agreement." Charles had engaged in these
+negotiations only to gain time and find opportunity to escape. "The
+great concession I made this day," he wrote on the 7th of October, "was
+made merely in order to my escape." At the beginning he had stipulated
+that no concession from him should be valid unless an agreement were
+reached upon every point. He had now consented to most of the demands of
+the parliament, including the repudiation of the Irish Cessation, the
+surrender of the delinquents and the cession of the militia for twenty
+years, and of the offices of state to parliament, but remained firm in
+his refusal to abolish episcopacy, consenting only to Presbyterianism
+for three years. Charles's devotion to the church is undoubted. In April
+1646, before his flight from Oxford, inspired perhaps by superstitious
+fears as to the origin of his misfortunes, he had delivered to Sheldon,
+afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, a written vow (now in the library
+of St Paul's cathedral) to restore all church lands held by the crown on
+his restoration to the throne; and almost his last injunction to the
+prince of Wales was that of fidelity to the national church. His present
+firmness, however, in its support was caused probably less by his
+devotion to it than by his desire to secure the failure of the whole
+treaty, and his attempts to escape naturally weakened the chances of
+success. Cromwell now supported the petitions of the army against the
+treaty. On the 16th of November the council of officers demanded the
+trial of the king, "the capital and grand author of our troubles," and
+on the 27th of November the parliamentary commissioners returned from
+Newport without having secured Charles's consent. Charles was removed to
+Hurst Castle on the 1st of December, where he remained till the 19th,
+thence being taken to Windsor, where he arrived on the 23rd. On the 6th
+"Pride's Purge" had removed from the Commons all those who might show
+any favour to the king. On the 25th a last attempt by the council of
+officers to come to terms with him was repulsed. On the 1st of January
+the remnant of the Commons resolved that Charles was guilty of treason
+by "levying war against the parliament and kingdom of England"; on the
+4th they declared their own power to make laws without the lords or the
+sovereign, and on the 6th established a "high court of justice" to try
+the king. On the 19th Charles was brought to St James's Palace, and on
+the next day his trial began in Westminster Hall, without the assistance
+of any of the judges, who all refused to take part in the proceedings.
+He laughed aloud at hearing himself called a traitor, and immediately
+demanded by what authority he was tried. He had been in treaty with the
+parliament in the Isle of Wight and taken thence by force; he saw no
+lords present. He was told by Bradshaw, the president of the court, that
+he was tried by the authority of the people of England, who had elected
+him king; Charles making the obvious reply that he was king by
+inheritance and not by election, that England had been for more than
+1000 years an hereditary kingdom, and Bradshaw cutting short the
+discussion by adjourning the court. On the 22nd Charles repeated his
+reasoning, adding, "It is not my case alone; it is the freedom and
+liberty of the people of England, and do you pretend what you will, I
+stand more for their liberties, for if power without law may make laws
+... I do not know what subject he is in England that can be sure of his
+life or anything that he calls his own." On the 23rd he again refused to
+plead. The court was adjourned, and there were several signs that the
+army in their prosecution of the king had not the nation at their back.
+While the soldiers had shouted "Justice! justice!" as the king passed
+through their ranks, the civilian spectators from the end of the hall
+had cried "God save the king!" There was considerable opposition and
+reluctance to proceed among the members of the court. On the 26th,
+however, the court decided unanimously upon his execution, and on the
+27th Charles was brought into court for the last time to hear his
+sentence. His request to be heard before the Lords and Commons was
+rejected, and his attempts to answer the charges of the president were
+silenced. Sentence was pronounced, and the king was removed by the
+soldiers, uttering his last broken protest: "I am not suffered to speak.
+Expect what justice other people will have."
+
+In these last hours Charles, who was probably weary of life, showed a
+remarkable dignity and self-possession, and a firm resignation supported
+by religious faith and by the absolute conviction of his own innocence,
+which, says Burnet, "amazed all people and that so much the more because
+it was not natural to him. It was imputed to a very extraordinary
+measure of supernatural assistance....; it was owing to something within
+himself that he went through so many indignities with so much true
+greatness without disorder or any sort of affectation." Nothing in his
+life became Charles like the leaving it. "He nothing common did or mean
+Upon that memorable scene." On the morning of the 29th of January he
+said his last sad farewell to his younger children, Elizabeth and Henry,
+duke of Gloucester. On the 30th at ten o'clock he walked across from St
+James's to Whitehall, calling on his guard "in a pleasant manner" to
+walk apace, and at two he stepped upon the scaffold from a window,
+probably the middle one, of the Banqueting House (see ARCHITECTURE,
+Plate VI., fig. 75). He was separated from the people by large ranks of
+soldiers, and his last speech only reached Juxon and those with him on
+the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of
+the people as much as any; "but I must tell you that their liberty and
+freedom consists in having government. ... It is not their having a
+share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A
+subject and a sovereign are clean different things." These, together
+with his declaration that he died a member of the Church of England, and
+the mysterious "Remember," spoken to Juxon, were Charles's last words.
+"It much discontents the citizens," wrote a spectator; "ye manner of his
+deportment was very resolutely with some smiling countenances,
+intimating his willingness to be out of his troubles."[3] "The blow I
+saw given," wrote another, Philip Henry, "and can truly say with a sad
+heart, at the instant whereof, I remember well, there was such a grone
+by the Thousands then present as I never heard before and desire I may
+never hear again. There was according to order one Troop immediately
+marching fromwards Charing-Cross to Westminster and another fromwards
+Westminster to Charing-Cross, purposely to masker" (i.e. to overpower)
+"the people and to disperse and scatter them, so that I had much adoe
+amongst the rest to escape home without hurt."[4]
+
+Amidst such scenes of violence was at last effected the destruction of
+Charles. "It is lawful," wrote Milton, "and hath been held so through
+all ages for any one who have the power to call to account a Tyrant or
+wicked King and after due conviction to depose and put him to death."[5]
+But here (it might well be contended) there had been no "due
+conviction." The execution had been the act of the king's personal
+enemies, of "only some fifty or sixty governing Englishmen with Oliver
+Cromwell in the midst of them" an act technically illegal, morally
+unjustifiable because the supposed crimes of Charles had been condoned
+by the later negotiations with him, and indefensible on the ground of
+public expediency, for the king's death proved a far greater obstacle to
+the re-establishment of settled government than his life could have
+been. The result was an extraordinary revulsion of feeling in favour of
+Charles and the monarchy, in which the incidents of his misgovernment
+were completely forgotten. He soon became in the popular veneration a
+martyr and a saint. His fate was compared with the Crucifixion, and his
+trials and sufferings to those of the Saviour. Handkerchiefs dipped in
+his blood wrought "miracles," and the _Eikon Basilike_, published on the
+day of his funeral, presented to the public a touching if not a genuine
+portrait of the unfortunate sovereign. At the Restoration the
+anniversary of his death was ordered to be kept as a day of fasting and
+humiliation, and the service appointed for use on the occasion was only
+removed from the prayer-book in 1859. The same conception of Charles as
+a martyr for religion appeals still to many, and has been stimulated by
+modern writers. "Had Charles been willing to abandon the church and give
+up episcopacy," says Bishop Creighton, "he might have saved his throne
+and his life. But on this point Charles stood firm, for this he died and
+by dying saved it for the future."[6] Gladstone, Keble, Newman write in
+the same strain. "It was for the Church," says Gladstone, "that Charles
+shed his blood upon the scaffold."[7] "I rest," says Newman, "on the
+scenes of past years, from the Upper Room in Acts to the Court of
+Carisbrooke and Uxbridge." The injustice and violence of the king's
+death, however, the pathetic dignity of his last days, and the many
+noble traits in his character, cannot blind us to the real causes of his
+downfall and destruction, and a sober judgment cannot allow that Charles
+was really a martyr either for the church or for the popular liberties.
+
+The constitutional struggle between the crown and parliament had not
+been initiated by Charles I. It was in full existence in the reign of
+James I., and distinct traces appear towards the latter part of that of
+Elizabeth. Charles, therefore, in some degree inherited a situation for
+which he was not responsible, nor can he be justly blamed, according to
+the ideas of kingship which then prevailed, for defending the
+prerogatives of the crown as precious and sacred personal possessions
+which it was his duty to hand down intact to his successors. Neither
+will his persistence in refusing to yield up the control of the
+executive to the parliament or the army, or his zeal in defending the
+national church, be altogether censured. In the event the parliament
+proved quite incapable of governing, an army uncontrolled by the
+sovereign was shown to constitute a more grievous tyranny than Charles's
+most arbitrary rule, and the downfall of the church seen to make room
+only for a sectarian despotism as intolerable as the Laudian. The
+natural inference might be that both conceptions of government had much
+to support them, that they were bound sooner or later to come into
+collision, and that the actual individuals in the drama, including the
+king himself, were rather the victims of the greatness of events than
+real actors in the scene, still less the controllers of their own and
+the national destiny. A closer insight, however, shows that biographical
+more than abstract historical elements determined the actual course and
+issue of the Rebellion. The great constitutional and religious points of
+dispute between the king and parliament, though doubtless involving
+principles vital to the national interests, would not alone have
+sufficed to destroy Charles. Monarchy was too much venerated, was too
+deeply rooted in the national life, to be hastily and easily extirpated;
+the perils of removing the foundation of all government, law and order
+were too obvious not to be shunned at almost all costs. Still less can
+the crowning tragedy of the king's death find its real explanation or
+justification in these disputes and antagonisms. The real cause was the
+complete discredit into which Charles had brought himself and the
+monarchy. The ordinary routine of daily life and of business cannot
+continue without some degree of mutual confidence between the
+individuals brought into contact, far less could relations be maintained
+by subjects with a king endowed with the enormous powers then attached
+to the kingship, and with whom agreements, promises, negotiations were
+merely subterfuges and prevarications. We have seen the series of
+unhappy falsehoods and deceptions which constituted Charles's
+statecraft, beginning with the fraud concerning the concessions to the
+Roman Catholics at his marriage, the evasions with which he met the
+Petition of Right, the abandonment of Strafford, the simultaneous
+negotiation with, and betrayal of, all parties. Strafford's reported
+words on hearing of his desertion by Charles, "Put not your trust in
+princes," re-echo through the whole of Charles's reign. It was the
+degradation and dishonour of the kingship, and the personal loss of
+credit which Charles suffered through these transactions--which never
+appear to have caused him a moment's regret or uneasiness, but the fatal
+consequences of which were seen only too clearly by men like Hyde and
+Falkland--that were the real causes of the rebellion and of the king's
+execution. The constitutional and religious grievances were the outward
+and visible sign of the corroding suspicions which slowly consumed the
+national loyalty. In themselves there was nothing incapable of
+settlement either through the spirit of union which existed between
+Elizabeth and her subjects, or by the principle of compromise which
+formed the basis of the constitutional settlement in 1688. The bond of
+union between his people and himself Charles had, however, early broken,
+and compromise is only possible between parties both of whom can
+acknowledge to some extent the force of the other's position, which can
+trust one another, and which are sincere in their endeavour to reach
+agreement. Thus on Charles himself chiefly falls the responsibility for
+the catastrophe.
+
+His character and motives fill a large place in English history, but
+they have never been fully understood and possibly were largely due to
+physical causes. His weakness as a child was so extreme that his life
+was despaired of. He outgrew physical defects, and as a young man
+excelled in horsemanship and in the sports of the times, but always
+retained an impediment of speech. At the time of his accession his
+reserve and reticence were especially noticed. Buckingham was the only
+person who ever enjoyed his friendship, and after his death Charles
+placed entire confidence in no man. This isolation was the cause of an
+ignorance of men and of the world, and of an incapacity to appreciate
+the ideas, principles and motives of others, while it prepared at the
+same time a fertile soil for receiving those exalted conceptions of
+kingship, of divine right and prerogative, which came into vogue at this
+period, together with those exaggerated ideas of his own personal
+supremacy and importance to which minds not quite normal are always
+especially inclined. His character was marked by a weakness which
+shirked and postponed the settlement of difficulties, by a meanness and
+ingratitude even when dealing with his most devoted followers, by an
+obstinacy which only feigned compliance and by an untruthfulness which
+differed widely from his son's unblushing deceit, which found always
+some reservation or excuse, but which while more scrupulous was also
+more dangerous and insidious because employed continually as a principle
+of conduct. Yet Charles, in spite of his failings, had many fine
+qualities. Clarendon, who was fully conscious of them, who does not
+venture to call him a good king, and allows that "his kingly virtues had
+some mixture and alloy that hindered them from shining in full lustre,"
+declares that "he was if ever any, the most worthy of the title of an
+Honest Man, so great a lover of justice that no temptation could dispose
+him to a wrongful action except that it was disguised to him that he
+believed it just," "the worthiest of gentlemen, the best master, the
+best friend, the best husband, the best father and the best Christian
+that the age in which he lived produced." With all its deplorable
+mistakes and failings Charles I.'s reign belongs to a sphere infinitely
+superior to that of his unscrupulous, corrupt, selfish but more
+successful son. His private life was without a blemish. Immediately on
+his accession he had suppressed the disorder which had existed in the
+household of James I., and let it be known that whoever had business
+with him "must never approach him by backstairs or private doors."[8] He
+maintained a strict sobriety in food and dress. He had a fine artistic
+sense, and Milton reprehends him for having made Shakespeare "the
+closest companion of his solitudes." "Monsieur le Prince de Galles,"
+wrote Rubens in 1625, "est le prince le plus amateur de la peinture qui
+soit au monde." He succeeded in bringing together during twenty years an
+unrivalled collection, of which a great part was dispersed at his death.
+He showed a noble insensibility to flattery. He was deeply and sincerely
+religious. He wished to do right, and was conscious of the purity of his
+motives. Those who came into contact with him, even the most bitter of
+his opponents, were impressed with his goodness. The great tragedy of
+his life, to be read in his well-known, dignified, but weak and unhappy
+features, and to be followed in his inexplicable and mysterious choice
+of baneful instruments, such as Rupert, Laud, Hamilton, Glamorgan,
+Henrietta Maria--all in their several ways working out his
+destruction--seems to have been inspired by a fateful insanity or
+infirmity of mind or will, recalling the great Greek dramas in which the
+poets depicted frenzied mortals rushing into their own destruction,
+impelled by the unseen and superior powers.
+
+The king's body, after being embalmed, was buried by the few followers
+who remained with him to the last, hastily and without any funeral
+service, which was forbidden by the authorities, in the tomb of Henry
+VIII., in St George's Chapel, Windsor, where his coffin was identified
+and opened in 1813. An "account of what appeared" was published by Sir
+Henry Halford, and a bone abstracted on the occasion was replaced in the
+vault by the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) in 1888. Charles
+I. left, besides three children who died in infancy, Charles (afterwards
+Charles II.); James (afterwards James II.); Henry, duke of Gloucester
+(1639-1660); Mary (1631-1660), who married William of Orange; Elizabeth
+(1635-1650); and Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1644-1670).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The leading authority for the life and reign of Charles
+  I. is the _History of England_ (1883) and _History of the Great Civil
+  War_ (1893), by S.R. Gardiner, with the references there given. Among
+  recent works may be mentioned _Memoirs of the Martyr King_, by A. Fea
+  (1905); _Life of Charles I, 1600-1625_, by E.B. Chancellor (1886);
+  _The Visits of Charles I. to Newcastle_, by C.S. Terry (1898);
+  _Charles I._, by Sir J. Skelton, valuable for its illustrations
+  (1898); _The Manner of the Coronation of King Charles I._, ed. by C.
+  Wordsworth (Henry Bradshaw Soc., 1892); _The Picture Gallery of
+  Charles I._, by C. Phillips (1896). See also _Calendars of State
+  Papers_, _Irish_ and _Domestic Series_; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series_,
+  esp. _MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin, F.J. Savile Foljambe, Lord Montagu of
+  Beaulieu, Duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, Marquis of Ormonde, Earl
+  Cowper (Coke MSS.), Earl of Lonsdale_ (note-books of parliaments of
+  1626 and 1628), _Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, Duke of
+  Portland_, 11th Rep. app. pt. vi., _Duke of Hamilton_, pt. i.,
+  _Salvetti Correspondence_, 10th Rep. pt. vi., _Lord Braye_; _Add.
+  MSS._ Brit. Mus., 33,596 fols. 21-32 (keys to ciphers), 34,171,
+  35,297; _Notes and Queries_, ser. vi., vii., viii., ix. indexes; _Eng.
+  Hist. Rev._ ii. 687 ("Charles and Glamorgan" by S.R. Gardiner), vii.
+  176; _Cornhill Mag._ vol. 75, January 1897, "Execution of Charles," by
+  C.H. Firth.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11 Rep. app. Pt. iv. 21.
+
+  [2] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Lord Montagu of Beaulieu_, 141.
+
+  [3] _Notes and Queries_, 7th ser., viii. 326.
+
+  [4] _Letters and Diaries of P. Henry_ (1882), 12.
+
+  [5] _Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_.
+
+  [6] _Lectures on Archbishop Laud_ (1895), p. 25.
+
+  [7] _Remarks on the Royal Supremacy_ (1850), p. 57.
+
+  [8] Salvetti's Corresp. in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. app. pt. i.
+    p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1630-1685), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second son
+of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born on the 29th of May
+1630 at St James's Palace, and was brought up under the care
+successively of the countess of Dorset, William Cavendish, duke of
+Newcastle, and the marquess of Hertford. He accompanied the king during
+the campaigns of the Civil War, and sat in the parliament at Oxford, but
+on the 4th of March 1645 he was sent by Charles I. to the west,
+accompanied by Hyde and others who formed his council. Owing, however,
+to the mutual jealousies and misconduct of Goring and Grenville, and the
+prince's own disregard and contempt of the council, his presence was in
+no way advantageous, and could not prevent the final overthrow of the
+king's forces in 1646. He retired (17th of February) to Pendennis Castle
+at Falmouth, and on the approach of Fairfax (2nd of March) to Scilly,
+where he remained with Hyde till the 16th of April. Thence he fled to
+Jersey, and finally refusing all the overtures from the parliament, and
+in opposition to the counsels of Hyde, who desired the prince to remain
+on English territory, he repaired to the queen at Paris, where he
+remained for two years. He is described at this time by Mme de
+Motteville as "well-made, with a swarthy complexion agreeing well with
+his fine black eyes, a large ugly mouth, a graceful and dignified
+carriage and a fine figure"; and according to the description circulated
+later for his capture after the battle of Worcester, he was over six
+feet tall. He received instruction in mathematics from Hobbes, and was
+early initiated into all the vices of the age by Buckingham and Percy.
+In July 1648 the prince joined the royalist fleet and blockaded the
+Thames with a fleet of eleven ships, returning to Holland, where he
+received the news of the final royalist defeats and afterwards of the
+execution of his father. On the 14th of January 1649 he had forwarded to
+the council a signed _carte blanche_, granting any conditions provided
+his father's life were spared. He immediately assumed the title of king,
+and was proclaimed in Scotland (5th of February) and in some parts of
+Ireland. On the 17th of September, after a visit to his mother at St
+Germain, Charles went to Jersey and issued a declaration proclaiming his
+rights; but, owing to the arrival of the fleet at Portsmouth, he was
+obliged, on the 13th of February 1650, to return again to Breda. The
+projected invasion of Ireland was delayed through want of funds till it
+was too late; Hyde's mission to Spain, in the midst of Cromwell's'
+successes, brought no assistance, and Charles now turned to Scotland for
+aid. Employing the same unscrupulous and treacherous methods which had
+proved so fatal to his father, he simultaneously supported and
+encouraged the expedition of Montrose and the royalists, and negotiated
+with the covenanters. On the 1st of May he signed the first draft of a
+treaty at Breda with the latter, in which he accepted the Solemn League
+and Covenant, conceded the control of public and church affairs to the
+parliament and the kirk, and undertook to establish Presbyterianism in
+the three kingdoms. He also signed privately a paper repudiating Ormonde
+and the loyal Irish, and recalling the commissions granted to them. In
+acting thus he did not scruple to desert his own royalist followers, and
+to repudiate and abandon the great and noble Montrose, whose heroic
+efforts he was apparently merely using in order to extort better terms
+from the covenanters, and who, having been captured on the 4th of May,
+was executed on the 21st in spite of some attempts by Charles to procure
+for him an indemnity.
+
+Thus perjured and disgraced the young king embarked for Scotland on the
+2nd of June; on the 11th when off Heligoland he signed the treaty, and
+on the 23rd, on his arrival at Speymouth, before landing, he swore to
+both the covenants. He proceeded to Falkland near Perth and passed
+through Aberdeen, where he saw the mutilated arm of Montrose suspended
+over the city gate. He was compelled to dismiss all his followers except
+Buckingham, and to submit to interminable sermons, which generally
+contained violent invectives against his parents and himself. To Argyll
+he promised the payment of £40,000 at his restoration, doubtless the sum
+owing as arrears of the Scottish army unpaid when Charles I. was
+surrendered to the English at Newcastle, and entered into negotiations
+for marrying his daughter. In August he was forced to sign a further
+declaration, confessing his own wickedness in dealing with the Irish,
+his father's blood-guiltiness, his mother's idolatry, and his abhorrence
+of prelacy, besides ratifying his allegiance to the covenants and to
+Presbyterianism. At the same time he declared himself secretly to King,
+dean of Tuam, "a true child of the Church of England," "a true
+Cavalier," and avowed that "what concerns Ireland is in no ways
+binding"; while to the Roman Catholics in England he promised
+concessions and expressed his goodwill towards their church to Pope
+Innocent X. His attempt, called "The Start," on the 4th of October 1650,
+to escape from the faction at Perth and to join Huntly and the royalists
+in the north failed, and he was overtaken and compelled to return. On
+the 1st of January 1651 he was crowned at Scone, when he was forced to
+repeat his oaths to both the covenants.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had advanced and had defeated the Presbyterians at
+Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, subsequently occupying Edinburgh.
+This defeat was not wholly unwelcome to Charles in the circumstances; in
+the following summer, during Cromwell's advance to the north, he shook
+off the Presbyterian influence, and on the 31st of July 1651 marched
+south into England with an army of about 10,000 commanded by David
+Leslie. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, joined by the earl of Derby
+in Lancashire, evaded the troops of Lambert and Harrison in Cheshire,
+marched through Shropshire, meeting with a rebuff at Shrewsbury, and
+entered Worcester with a small, tired and dispirited force of only
+16,000 men (22nd of August). Here the decisive battle, which ruined his
+hopes, and in which Charles distinguished himself by conspicuous courage
+and fortitude, was fought on the 3rd of September. After leading an
+unsuccessful cavalry charge against the enemy he fled, about 6 P.M.,
+accompanied by Buckingham, Derby, Wilmot, Lauderdale and others, towards
+Kidderminster, taking refuge at Whiteladies, about 25 m. from Worcester,
+where he separated himself from all his followers except Wilmot,
+concealing himself in the famous oak during the 6th of September, moving
+subsequently to Boscobel, to Moseley and Bentley Hall, and thence,
+disguised as Miss Lane's attendant, to Abbots Leigh near Bristol, to
+Trent in Somersetshire, and finally to the George Inn at Brighton,
+having been recognized during the forty-one days of his wanderings by
+about fifty persons, none of whom, in spite of the reward of £1000
+offered for his capture, or of the death penalty threatened for aiding
+his concealment, had betrayed him.
+
+He set sail from Shoreham on the 15th of October 1651, and landed at
+Fécamp in Normandy the next day. He resided at Paris at St Germain till
+June 1654, in inactivity, unable to make any further effort, and living
+with difficulty on a grant from Louis XIV. of 600 livres a month.
+Various missions to foreign powers met with failure; he was excluded
+from Holland by the treaty made with England in April 1654, and he
+anticipated his expulsion from France, owing to the new relations of
+friendship established with Cromwell, by quitting the country in July.
+He visited his sister, the princess of Orange, at Spa, and went to
+Aix-la-Chapelle, thence finally proceeding in November to Cologne, where
+he was hospitably received. The conclusion of Cromwell's treaty with
+France in October 1655, and the war between England and Spain, gave hope
+of aid from the latter power. In April 1656 Charles went to Bruges, and
+on the 7th of February 1658 to Brussels, where he signed a treaty with
+Don John of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by which he
+received an allowance in place of his French pension and undertook to
+assemble all his subjects in France in aid of the Spanish against the
+French. This plan, however, came to nothing; projected risings in
+England were betrayed, and by the capture of Dunkirk in June 1658, after
+the battle of the Dunes, by the French and Cromwell's Ironsides, the
+Spanish cause in Flanders was ruined.
+
+As long as Cromwell lived there appeared little hope of the restoration
+of the monarchy, and Charles and Hyde had been aware of the plots for
+his assassination, which had aroused no disapproval. By the protector's
+death on the 3rd of September 1658 the scene was wholly changed, and
+amidst the consequent confusion of factions the cry for the restoration
+of the monarchy grew daily in strength. The premature royalist rising,
+however, in August 1659 was defeated, and Charles, who had awaited the
+result on the coast of Brittany, proceeded to Fuenterrabia on the
+Spanish frontier, where Mazarin and Luis de Haro were negotiating the
+treaty of the Pyrenees, to induce both powers to support his cause; but
+the failure of the attempt in England ensured the rejection of his
+request, and he returned to Brussels in December, visiting his mother at
+Paris on the way. Events had meanwhile developed fast in favour of a
+restoration. Charles, by Hyde's advice, had not interfered in the
+movement, and had avoided inconvenient concessions to the various
+factions by referring all to a "free parliament." He left Brussels for
+Breda, and issued in April 1660, together with the letters to the
+council, the officers of the army and the houses of parliament and the
+city, the declaration of an amnesty for all except those specially
+excluded afterwards by parliament, which referred to parliament the
+settlement of estates and promised a liberty to tender consciences in
+matters of religion not contrary to the peace of the kingdom.
+
+On the 8th of May Charles II. was proclaimed king in Westminster Hall
+and elsewhere in London. On the 24th he sailed from the Hague, landing
+on the 26th at Dover, where he was met by Monk, whom he saluted as
+father, and by the mayor, from whom he accepted a "very rich bible,"
+"the thing that he loved above all things in the world." He reached
+London on the 29th, his thirtieth birthday, arriving with the
+procession, amidst general rejoicings and "through a lane of happy
+faces," at seven in the evening at Whitehall, where the houses of
+parliament awaited his coming, to offer in the name of the nation their
+congratulations and allegiance.
+
+No event in the history of England had been attended with more lively
+and general rejoicing than Charles's restoration, and none was destined
+to cause greater subsequent disappointment and disillusion. Indolent,
+sensual and dissipated by nature, Charles's vices had greatly increased
+during his exile abroad, and were now, with the great turn of fortune
+which gave him full opportunity to indulge them, to surpass all the
+bounds of decency and control. A long residence till the age of thirty
+abroad, together with his French blood, had made him politically more of
+a foreigner than an Englishman, and he returned to England ignorant of
+the English constitution, a Roman Catholic and a secret adversary of the
+national religion, and untouched by the sentiment of England's greatness
+or of patriotism. Pure selfishness was the basis of his policy both in
+domestic and foreign affairs. Abroad the great national interests were
+eagerly sacrificed for the sake of a pension, and at home his personal
+ease and pleasure alone decided every measure, and the fate of every
+minister and subject. During his exile he had surrounded himself with
+young men of the same spirit as himself, such as Buckingham and Bennet,
+who, without having any claim to statesmanship, inattentive to business,
+neglectful of the national interests and national prejudices, became
+Charles's chief advisers. With them, as with their master, public office
+was only desirable as a means of procuring enjoyment, for which an
+absolute monarchy provided the most favourable conditions. Such persons
+were now, accordingly, destined to supplant the older and responsible
+ministers of the type of Clarendon and Ormonde, men of high character
+and patriotism, who followed definite lines of policy, while at the same
+time the younger men of ability and standing were shut out from office.
+
+The first period of Charles II.'s reign (1660-1667) was that of the
+administration of Lord Clarendon, the principal author of the
+Restoration settlement. The king was granted the large revenue of
+£1,300,000. The naval and military forces were disbanded, but Charles
+managed to retain under the name of guards three regiments, which
+remained the nucleus of a standing army. The settlement of estates on a
+legal basis provided ill for a large number of the king's adherents who
+had impoverished themselves in his cause. The king's honour was directly
+involved in their compensation and, except for the gratification of a
+few individuals, was tarnished by his neglect to afford them relief.
+Charles used his influence to carry through parliament the act of
+indemnity, and the execution of some of the regicides was a measure not
+more severe than was to be expected in the times and circumstances; but
+that of Sir Henry Vane, who was not a regicide and whose life Charles
+had promised the parliament to spare in case of his condemnation, was
+brought about by Charles's personal insistence in revenge for the
+victim's high bearing during his trial, and was an act of gross cruelty
+and perfidy. Charles was in favour of religious toleration, and a
+declaration issued by him in October 1660 aroused great hopes; but he
+made little effort to conciliate the Presbyterians or to effect a
+settlement through the Savoy conference, and his real object was to gain
+power over all the factions and to free his co-religionists, the Roman
+Catholics, in favour of whom he issued his first declaration of
+indulgence (26th of December 1662), the bill to give effect to it being
+opposed by Clarendon and defeated in the Lords, and being replied to by
+the passing of further acts against religious liberty. Meanwhile the
+plot of Venner and of the Fifth Monarchy men had been suppressed in
+January 1661, and the king was crowned on the 23rd of April. The
+convention parliament had been dissolved on the 29th of December 1660,
+and Charles's first parliament, the Long Parliament of the Restoration,
+which met on the 8th of May 1661 and continued till January 1679,
+declared the command of the forces inherent in the crown, repudiated the
+taking up of arms against the king, and repealed in 1664 the Triennial
+Act, adding only a provision that there should not be intermission of
+parliaments for more than three years. In Ireland the church was
+re-established, and a new settlement of land introduced by the Act of
+Settlement 1661 and the Act of Explanation 1665. The island was excluded
+from the benefit of the Navigation Laws, and in 1666 the importation of
+cattle and horses into England was forbidden. In Scotland episcopacy was
+set up, the covenant to which Charles had taken so many solemn oaths
+burnt by the common hangman, and Argyll brought to the scaffold, while
+the kingdom was given over to the savage and corrupt administration of
+Lauderdale. On the 21st of May 1662, in pursuance of the pro-French and
+anti-Spanish policy, Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter of
+John IV. of Portugal, by which alliance England obtained Tangier and
+Bombay. She brought him no children, and her attractions for Charles
+were inferior to those of his mistress, Lady Castlemaine, whom she was
+compelled to receive as a lady of her bedchamber. In February 1665 the
+ill-omened war with Holland was declared, during the progress of which
+it became apparent how greatly the condition of the national services
+and the state of administration had deteriorated since the Commonwealth,
+and to what extent England was isolated and abandoned abroad, Michael de
+Ruyter, on the 13th of June 1667, carrying out his celebrated attack on
+Chatham and burning several warships. The disgrace was unprecedented.
+Charles did not show himself and it was reported that he had abdicated,
+but to allay the popular panic it was given out "that he was very
+cheerful that night at supper with his mistresses." The treaty of Breda
+with Holland (21st of July 1667) removed the danger, but not the
+ignominy, and Charles showed the real baseness of his character when he
+joined in the popular outcry against Clarendon, the upright and devoted
+adherent of his father and himself during twenty-five years of
+misfortune, and drove him into poverty and exile in his old age,
+recalling ominously Charles I.'s betrayal of Strafford.
+
+To Clarendon now succeeded the ministry of Buckingham and Arlington, who
+with Lauderdale, Ashley (afterwards Lord Shaftesbury) and Clifford,
+constituted the so-called Cabal ministry in 1672. With these advisers
+Charles entered into those schemes so antagonistic to the national
+interests which have disgraced his reign. His plan was to render himself
+independent of parliament and of the nation by binding himself to France
+and the French policy of aggrandizement, and receiving a French pension
+with the secret intention as well of introducing the Roman Catholic
+religion again into England. In 1661 under Clarendon's rule, the evil
+precedent had been admitted of receiving money from France, in 1662
+Dunkirk had been sold to Louis, and in February 1667 during the Dutch
+war a secret alliance had been made with Louis, Charles promising him a
+free hand in the Netherlands and Louis undertaking to support Charles's
+designs "in or out of the kingdom." In January 1668 Sir W. Temple had
+made with Sweden and Holland the Triple Alliance against the
+encroachments and aggrandizement of France, but this national policy was
+soon upset by the king's own secret plans. In 1668 the conversion of his
+brother James to Romanism became known to Charles. Already in 1662 the
+king had sent Sir Richard Bellings to Rome to arrange the terms of
+England's conversion, and now in 1668 he was in correspondence with
+Oliva, the general of the Jesuits in Rome, through James de la Cloche,
+the eldest of his natural sons, of whom he had become the father when
+scarcely sixteen during his residence at Jersey. On the 25th of January
+1669, at a secret meeting between the two royal brothers, with
+Arlington, Clifford and Arundell of Wardour, it was determined to
+announce to Louis XIV. the projected conversion of Charles and the
+realm, and subsequent negotiations terminated in the two secret treaties
+of Dover. The first, signed only, among the ministers, by Arlington and
+Clifford, the rest not being initiated, on the 20th of May 1670,
+provided for the return of England to Rome and the joint attack of
+France and England upon Holland, England's ally, together with Charles's
+support of the Bourbon claims to the throne of Spain, while Charles
+received a pension of £200,000 a year. In the second, signed by
+Arlington, Buckingham, Lauderdale and Ashley on the 31st of December
+1670, nothing was said about the conversion, and the pension provided
+for that purpose was added to the military subsidy, neither of these
+treaties being communicated to parliament or to the nation. An immediate
+gain to Charles was the acquisition of another mistress in the person of
+Louise de Kéroualle, the so-called "Madam Carwell," who had accompanied
+the duchess of Orleans, the king's sister, to Dover, at the time of the
+negotiations, and who joined Charles's seraglio, being created duchess
+of Portsmouth, and acting as the agent of the French alliance throughout
+the reign.
+
+On the 24th of October 1670, at the very time that these treaties were
+in progress, Charles opened parliament and obtained a vote of £800,000
+on the plea of supporting the Triple Alliance. Parliament was prorogued
+in April 1671, not assembling again till February 1673, and on the 2nd
+of January 1672 was announced the "stop of the exchequer," or national
+bankruptcy, one of the most blameworthy and unscrupulous acts of the
+reign, by which the payments from the exchequer ceased, and large
+numbers of persons who had lent to the government were thus ruined. On
+the reassembling of parliament on the 4th of February 1673 a strong
+opposition was shown to the Cabal ministry which had been constituted at
+the end of 1672. The Dutch War, declared on the 17th of March 1672,
+though the commercial and naval jealousies of Holland had certainly not
+disappeared in England, was unpopular because of the alliance with
+France and the attack upon Protestantism, while the king's second
+declaration of indulgence (15th of March 1672) aroused still further
+antagonism, was declared illegal by the parliament, and was followed up
+by the Test Act, which obliged James and Clifford to resign their
+offices. In February 1674 the war with Holland was closed by the treaty
+of London or of Westminster, though Charles still gave Louis a free hand
+in his aggressive policy towards the Netherlands, and the Cabal was
+driven from office. Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) now became chief
+minister; but, though in reality a strong supporter of the national
+policy, he could not hope to keep his place without acquiescence in the
+king's schemes. In November 1675 Charles again prorogued parliament, and
+did not summon it again till February 1677, when it was almost
+immediately prorogued. On the 17th of February 1676, with Danby's
+knowledge, Charles concluded a further treaty with Louis by which he
+undertook to subordinate entirely his foreign policy to that of France,
+and received an annual pension of £100,000. On the other hand, Danby
+succeeded in effecting the marriage (4th of November 1677) between
+William of Orange and the princess Mary, which proved the most important
+political event in the whole reign. Louis revenged himself by intriguing
+with the Opposition and by turning his streams of gold in that
+direction, and a further treaty with France for the annual payment to
+Charles of £300,000 and the dismissal of his parliament, concluded on
+the 17th of May 1678, was not executed. Louis made peace with Holland
+at Nijmwegen on the 10th of August, and punished Danby by disclosing
+his secret negotiations, thus causing the minister's fall and
+impeachment. To save Danby Charles now prorogued the parliament on the
+30th of December, dissolving it on the 24th of January 1679.
+
+Meanwhile the "Popish Plot," the creation of a band of impostors
+encouraged by Shaftesbury and the most violent and unscrupulous of the
+extreme Protestant party in order to exclude James from the throne, had
+thrown the whole country into a panic. Charles's conduct in this
+conjuncture was highly characteristic and was marked by his usual
+cynical selfishness. He carefully refrained from incurring suspicion and
+unpopularity by opposing the general outcry, and though he saw through
+the imposture from the beginning he made no attempt to moderate the
+popular frenzy or to save the life of any of the victims, his
+co-religionists, not even intervening in the case of Lord Stafford, and
+allowing Titus Oates to be lodged at Whitehall with a pension. His
+policy was to take advantage of the violence of the faction, to "give
+them line enough," to use his own words, to encourage it rather than
+repress it, with the expectation of procuring finally a strong royalist
+reaction. In his resistance to the great movement for the exclusion of
+James from the succession, Charles was aided by moderate men such as
+Halifax, who desired only a restriction of James's powers, and still
+more by the violence of the extreme exclusionists themselves, who headed
+by Shaftesbury brought about their own downfall and that of their cause
+by their support of the legitimacy and claims of Charles's natural son,
+the duke of Monmouth. In 1679 Charles denied, in council, his supposed
+marriage with Lucy Walter, Monmouth's mother, his declarations being
+published in 1680 to refute the legend of the black box which was
+supposed to contain the contract of marriage, and told Burnet he would
+rather see him hanged than legitimize him. He deprived him of his
+general's commission in consequence of his quasi-royal progresses about
+the country, and in December on Monmouth's return to England he was
+forbidden to appear at court. In February 1679 the king had consented to
+order James to go abroad, and even approved of the attempt of the
+primate and the bishop of Winchester to convert him to Protestantism. To
+weaken the opposition to his government Charles accepted Sir W Temple's
+new scheme of governing by a council which included the leaders of the
+Opposition, and which might have become a rival to the parliament, but
+this was an immediate failure. In May 1679 he prorogued the new
+parliament which had attainted Danby, and in July dissolved it, while in
+October he prorogued another parliament of the same mind till January
+and finally till October 1680, having resolved "to wait till this
+violence should wear off." He even made overtures to Shaftesbury in
+November 1679, but the latter insisted on the departure of both the
+queen and James. All attempts at compromise failed, and on the
+assembling of the parliament in October 1680 the Exclusion Bill passed
+the Commons, being, however, thrown out in the Lords through the
+influence of Halifax. Charles dissolved the parliament in January 1681,
+declaring that he would never give his consent to the Exclusion Bill,
+and summoned another at Oxford, which met there on the 21st of March
+1681, Shaftesbury's faction arriving accompanied by armed bands. Charles
+expressed his willingness to consent to the handing over of the
+administration to the control of a Protestant, in the case of a Roman
+Catholic sovereign, but the Opposition insisted on Charles's nomination
+of Monmouth as his successor, and the parliament was accordingly once
+more (28th of March) dissolved by Charles, while a royal proclamation
+ordered to be read in all the churches proclaimed the ill-deeds of the
+parliament and the king's affection for the Protestant religion.
+
+Charles's tenacity and clever tact were now rewarded. A great popular
+reaction ensued in favour of the monarchy, and a large number of loyal
+addresses were sent in, most of them condemning the Exclusion Bill.
+Shaftesbury was imprisoned, and though the Middlesex jury threw out his
+indictment and he was liberated, he never recovered his power, and in
+October 1682 left England for ever. The Exclusion Bill and the
+limitation of James's powers were no more heard of, and full liberty
+was granted to the king to pursue the retrograde and arbitrary policy to
+which his disposition naturally inclined. In Scotland James set up a
+tyrannical administration of the worst type. The royal enmity towards
+William of Orange was increased by a visit of the latter to England in
+July. No more parliaments were called, and Charles subsisted on his
+permanent revenue and his French pensions. He continued the policy of
+double-dealing and treachery, deceiving his ministers as at the treaty
+of Dover, by pretending to support Holland and Spain while he was
+secretly engaged to Louis to betray them. On the 22nd of March 1681 he
+entered into a compact with Louis whereby he undertook to desert his
+allies and offer no resistance to French aggressions. In August he
+joined with Spain and Holland in a manifesto against France, while
+secretly for a million livres he engaged himself to Louis, and in 1682
+he proposed himself as arbitrator with the intention of treacherously
+handing over Luxemburg to France, an offer which was rejected owing to
+Spanish suspicions of collusion. In the event, Charles's duplicity
+enabled Louis to seize Strassburg in 1681 and Luxemburg in 1684. The
+government at home was carried on principally by Rochester, Sunderland
+and Godolphin, while Guilford was lord chancellor and Jeffreys lord
+chief justice. The laws against the Nonconformists were strictly
+enforced. In order to obtain servile parliaments and also obsequious
+juries, who with the co-operation of judges of the stamp of Jeffreys
+could be depended upon to carry out the wishes of the court, the borough
+charters were confiscated, the charter of the city of London being
+forfeited on the 12th of June 1683.
+
+The popularity of Charles, now greatly increased, was raised to national
+enthusiasm by the discovery of the Rye House plot in 1683, said to be a
+scheme to assassinate Charles and James at an isolated house on the high
+road near Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire as they returned from Newmarket to
+London, among those implicated being Algernon Sidney, Lord Russell and
+Monmouth, the two former paying the death penalty and Monmouth being
+finally banished to the Hague. The administration became more and more
+despotic, and Tangier was abandoned in order to reduce expenses and to
+increase the forces at home for overawing opposition. The first
+preliminary steps were now taken for the reintroduction of the Roman
+Catholic religion. Danby and those confined on account of participation
+in the popish plot were liberated, and Titus Oates thrown into prison. A
+scheme was announced for withdrawing the control of the army in Ireland
+from Rochester, the lord-lieutenant, and placing it in the king's own
+hands, and the commission to which the king had delegated ecclesiastical
+patronage was revoked. In May 1684 the office of lord high admiral, in
+spite of the Test Act, was again given to James, who had now returned
+from Scotland. To all appearances the same policy afterwards pursued so
+recklessly and disastrously by James was now cautiously initiated by
+Charles, who, however, not being inspired by the same religious zeal as
+his brother, and not desiring "to go on his travels again," would
+probably have drawn back prudently before his throne was endangered. The
+developments of this movement were, however, now interrupted by the
+death of Charles after a short illness on the 6th of February 1685. He
+was buried on the 17th in Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster Abbey with
+funeral ceremonies criticized by contemporaries as mean and wanting in
+respect, but the scantiness of which was probably owing to the fact that
+he had died a Roman Catholic.
+
+On his death-bed Charles had at length declared himself an adherent of
+that religion and had received the last rites according to the Romanist
+usage. There appears to be no trustworthy record of his formal
+conversion, assigned to various times and various agencies. As a youth,
+says Clarendon, "the ill-bred familiarity of the Scotch divines had
+given him a distaste" for Presbyterianism, which he indeed declared "no
+religion for gentlemen," and the mean figure which the fallen national
+church made in exile repelled him at the same time that he was attracted
+by the "genteel part of the Catholic religion." With Charles religion
+was not the serious matter it was with James, and was largely regarded
+from the political aspect and from that of ease and personal
+convenience. Presbyterianism constituted a dangerous encroachment on the
+royal prerogative; the national church and the cavalier party were
+indeed the natural supporters of the authority of the crown, but on the
+other hand they refused to countenance the dependence upon France; Roman
+Catholicism at that moment was the obvious medium of governing without
+parliaments, of French pensions and of reigning without trouble, and was
+naturally the faith of Charles's choice. Of the two papers in defence of
+the Roman Catholic religion in Charles's own hand, published by James,
+Halifax says "though neither his temper nor education made him very fit
+to be an author, yet in this case ... he might write it all himself and
+yet not one word of it his own...."
+
+Of his amours and mistresses the same shrewd observer of human
+character, who was also well acquainted with the king, declares "that
+his inclinations to love were the effects of health and a good
+constitution with as little mixture of the _seraphic_ part as ever man
+had.... I am apt to think his stayed as much as any man's ever did in
+the _lower_ region." His health was the one subject to which he gave
+unremitting attention, and his fine constitution and devotion to all
+kinds of sport and physical exercise kept off the effects of
+uncontrolled debauchery for thirty years. In later years the society of
+his mistresses seems to have been chiefly acceptable as a means to avoid
+business and petitioners, and in the case of the duchess of Portsmouth
+was the price paid for ease and the continuance of the French pensions.
+His ministers he never scrupled to sacrifice to his ease. The love of
+ease exercised an entire sovereignty in his thoughts. "The motive of his
+giving bounties was rather to make men less uneasy to him than more easy
+to themselves." He would rob his own treasury and take bribes to press a
+measure through the council. He had a natural affability, but too
+general to be much valued, and he was fickle and deceitful. Neither
+gratitude nor revenge moved him, and good or ill services left little
+impression on his mind. Halifax, however, concludes by desiring to
+moderate the roughness of his picture by emphasizing the excellence of
+his intellect and memory and his mechanical talent, by deprecating a too
+censorious judgment and by dwelling upon the disadvantages of his
+bringing up, the difficulties and temptations of his position, and on
+the fact that his vices were those common to human frailty. His capacity
+for king-craft, knowledge of the world, and easy address enabled him to
+surmount difficulties and dangers which would have proved fatal to his
+father or to his brother. "It was a common saying that he could send
+away a person better pleased at receiving nothing than those in the good
+king his father's time that had requests granted them,"[1] and his
+good-humoured tact and familiarity compensated for and concealed his
+ingratitude and perfidy and preserved his popularity. He had good taste
+in art and literature, was fond of chemistry and science, and the Royal
+Society was founded in his reign. According to Evelyn he was "débonnaire
+and easy of access, naturally kind-hearted and possessed an excellent
+temper," virtues which covered a multitude of sins.
+
+These small traits of amiability, however, which pleased his
+contemporaries, cannot disguise for us the broad lines of Charles's
+career and character. How far the extraordinary corruption of private
+morals which has gained for the restoration period so unenviable a
+notoriety was owing to the king's own example of flagrant debauchery,
+how far to the natural reaction from an artificial Puritanism, is
+uncertain, but it is incontestable that Charles's cynical selfishness
+was the chief cause of the degradation of public life which marks his
+reign, and of the disgraceful and unscrupulous betrayal of the national
+interests which raised France to a threatening predominance and
+imperilled the very existence of Britain for generations. The reign of
+his predecessor Charles I., and even of that of his successor James II.,
+with their mistaken principles and ideals, have a saving dignity wholly
+wanting in that of Charles II., and the administration of Cromwell, in
+spite of the popularity of the restoration, was soon regretted. "A lazy
+Prince," writes Pepys, "no Council, no money, no reputation at home or
+abroad. It is strange how ... everybody do nowadays reflect upon Oliver
+and commend him, what brave things he did and made all the neighbour
+princes fear him; while here a prince, come in with all the love and
+prayers and good liking of his people ... hath lost all so soon...."
+
+Charles II. had no children by his queen. By his numerous mistresses he
+had a large illegitimate progeny. By Barbara Villiers, Mrs Palmer,
+afterwards countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland, mistress
+_en titre_ till she was superseded by the duchess of Portsmouth, he had
+Charles Fitzroy, duke of Southampton and Cleveland, Henry Fitzroy, duke
+of Grafton, George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, Anne, countess of
+Sussex, Charlotte, countess of Lichfield, and Barbara, a nun; by Louise
+de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, Charles Lennox, duke of Richmond;
+by Lucy Walter, James, duke of Monmouth and Buccleuch, and a daughter;
+by Nell Gwyn, Charles Beauclerk, duke of St Albans, and James Beauclerk;
+by Catherine Peg, Charles Fitz Charles, earl of Plymouth; by Lady
+Shannon, Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth; by Mary Davis, Mary Tudor,
+countess of Derwentwater.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._ by A.W.
+  Ward (1887), with authorities there given; _Charles II._, by O. Airy
+  (1904); _Life of Sir G. Savile_, by H.C. Foxcroft, and esp. Halifax's
+  _Character of Charles II._ printed in the appendix (1898); _The Essex
+  Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1890); _Despatches of W. Perwich_ (Royal Hist.
+  Soc. Pubtns., 1903); _History of England, of the Civil War_ and _of
+  the Commonwealth_, by S.R. Gardiner; _Hist. of Scotland_, by A. Lang,
+  vol. iii. (1904); Macaulay's _Hist, of England_, vol. i.; _Notes which
+  passed at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the
+  Earl of Clarendon_ (Roxburghe Club, 1896); _A French Ambassador at the
+  Court of Charles II._, by J.J. Jusserand (1902); _The Story of Nell
+  Gwyn and the Sayings of Charles II._, by P. Cunningham, ed. by H.B.
+  Wheatley (1892); for his adventures and period of exile see _Memoiren
+  der Herzogin Sophie_, ed. by A. Köcher (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth
+  Stuart," by A. Wendland (_Litterarischer Verein in Stuttgart_, No.
+  228); Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Mlle de Montpensier and Mme de
+  Motteville; _The King in Exile_, by E. Scott (1905); Scottish History
+  Pubtns. vols. 17 (_Charles II. in Scotland_, by S.R. Gardiner, 1894)
+  and 18 (_Scotland and the Commonwealth, 1651-1653_, ed. by C.H. Firth,
+  1895); _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_, by S.E. Hoskins (1854) i
+  _Boscobel_, by T. Blount, &c., ed. by C.G. Thomas (1894); _The Flight
+  of the King_ (1897) and _After Worcester Fight_ (1904), by A. Fea;
+  _Edinburgh Review_, (January 1894); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xix. (1904) 363;
+  _Revue historique_, xxviii. and xxix.; _Art Journal_ (1889), p. 178
+  ("Boscobel and Whiteladies," by J. Penderel-Brodhurst); _England under
+  Charles II._, by W.F. Taylor (1889), a collection of passages from
+  contemporary writers; and R. Crawfurd, _The Last Days of Charles II._
+  (1909).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Mem. of Thomas, earl of Ailesbury_, p. 95.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. and II., kings of France. By the French, Charles the Great,
+Roman emperor and king of the Franks, is reckoned the first of the
+series of French kings named Charles (see CHARLEMAGNE). Similarly the
+emperor Charles II. the Bald (q.v.) is reckoned as Charles II. of
+France. In some enumerations the emperor Charles III. the Fat (q.v.) is
+reckoned as Charles II. of France, Charlemagne not being included in the
+list, and Charles the Bald being styled Charles I.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III., the Simple (879-929), king of France, was a posthumous son
+of Louis the Stammerer and of his second wife Adelaide. On the
+deposition of Charles the Fat in 887 he was excluded from the throne by
+his youth; but during the reign of Odo, who had succeeded Charles, he
+succeeded in gaining the recognition of a certain number of notables and
+in securing his coronation at Reims on the 28th of January 893. He now
+obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced Odo to cede part of
+Neustria. In 898, by the death of his rival (Jan. 1), he obtained
+possession of the whole kingdom. His most important act was the treaty
+of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Normans in 911. Some of them were
+baptized; the territory which was afterwards known as the duchy of
+Normandy was ceded to them; but the story of the marriage of their chief
+Rollo with a sister of the king, related by the chronicler Dudo of Saint
+Quentin, is very doubtful. The same year Charles, on the invitation of
+the barons, took possession of the kingdom of Lotharingia. In 920 the
+barons, jealous of the growth of the royal authority and discontented
+with the favour shown by the king to his counsellor Hagano, rebelled,
+and in 922 elected Robert, brother of King Odo, in place of Charles.
+Robert was killed in the battle of Soissons, but the victory remained
+with his party, who elected Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king. In his
+extremity Charles trusted himself to Herbert, count of Vermandois, who
+deceived him, and threw him into confinement at Château-Thierry and
+afterwards at Péronne. In the latter town he died on the 7th of October
+929. In 907 he had married Frederona, sister of Bovo, bishop of Chalons.
+After her death he married Eadgyfu (Odgiva), daughter of Edward the
+Elder, king of the English, who was the mother of Louis IV.
+
+  See A. Eckel, _Charles le Simple_ (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1294-1328), king of France, called THE FAIR, was the third
+and youngest son of Philip IV. and Jeanne of Navarre. In 1316 he was
+created count of La Marche, and succeeded his brother Philip V. as king
+of France and Navarre early in 1322. He followed the policy of his
+predecessors in enforcing the royal authority over the nobles, but the
+machinery of a centralized government strong enough to hold nobility in
+check increased the royal expenditure, to meet which Charles had
+recourse to doubtful financial expedients. At the beginning of his reign
+he ordered a recast of the coinage, with serious results to commerce;
+civil officials were deprived of offices, which had been conferred free,
+but were now put up to auction; duties were imposed on exported
+merchandise and on goods brought into Paris; the practice of exacting
+heavy fines was encouraged by making the salaries of the magistrates
+dependent on them; and on the pretext of a crusade to free Armenia from
+the Turks, Charles obtained from the pope a tithe levied on the clergy,
+the proceeds of which he kept for his own use; he also confiscated the
+property of the Lombard bankers who had been invited to France by his
+father at a time of financial crisis. The history of the assemblies
+summoned by Charles IV. is obscure, but in 1326, on the outbreak of war
+with England, an assembly of prelates and barons met at Meaux.
+Commissioners were afterwards despatched to the provinces to state the
+position of affairs and to receive complaints. The king justified his
+failure to summon the estates on the ground of the expense incurred by
+provincial deputies. The external politics of his reign were not marked
+by any striking events. He maintained excellent relations with Pope John
+XXII., who made overtures to him, indirectly, offering his support in
+case of his candidature for the imperial crown. Charles tried to form a
+party in Italy in support of the pope against the emperor Louis IV. of
+Bavaria, but failed. A treaty with the English which secured the
+district of Agenais for France was followed by a feudal war in Guienne.
+Isabella, Charles's sister and the wife of Edward II., was sent to
+France to negotiate, and with her brother's help arranged the final
+conspiracy against her husband. Charles's first wife was Blanche,
+daughter of Otto IV., count of Burgundy, and of Matilda (Mahaut),
+countess of Artois, to whom he was married in 1307. In May 1314, by
+order of King Philip IV., she was arrested and imprisoned in the
+Château-Gaillard with her sister-in-law Marguerite, daughter of Robert
+II., duke of Burgundy, and wife of Louis Hutin, on the charge of
+adultery with two gentlemen of the royal household, Philippe and Gautier
+d'Aunai. Jeanne, sister of Marguerite and wife of Philip the Tall, was
+also arrested for not having denounced the culprits, and imprisoned at
+Dourdan. The two knights were put to the torture and executed, and their
+goods confiscated. It is impossible to say how far the charges were
+true. Tradition has involved and obscured the story, which is the origin
+of the legend of the _tour de Nesle_ made famous by the drama of A.
+Dumas the elder. Marguerite died shortly in prison; Jeanne was declared
+innocent by the parlement and returned to her husband. Blanche was still
+in prison when Charles became king. He induced Pope John XXII. to
+declare the marriage null, on the ground that Blanche's mother had been
+his godmother. Blanche died in 1326, still in confinement, though at the
+last in the abbey of Maubuisson.
+
+In 1322, freed from his first marriage, Charles married his cousin Mary
+of Luxemburg, daughter of the emperor Henry VII., and upon her death,
+two years later, Jeanne, daughter of Louis, count of Evreux. Charles IV.
+died at Vincennes on the 1st of February 1328. He left no issue by his
+first two wives to succeed him, and daughters only by Jeanne of Evreux.
+He was the last of the direct line of Capetians.
+
+  See A. d'Herbomey, "Notes et documents pour servir à l'histoire des
+  rois fils de Philippe le Bel," in _Bibl. de l'École des Chartes_ (lix.
+  pp. 479 seq. and 689 seq.); de Bréquigny, "Mémoire sur les différends
+  entre la France et l'Angleterre sous le règne de Charles le Bel," in
+  _Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_ (xli. pp. 641-692); H. Lot,
+  "Projets de crusade sous Charles le Bel et sous Philippe de Valois"
+  (_Bibl. de l'École des Chartes_, xx. pp. 503-509); "Chronique
+  parisienne anonyme de 1316 à 1339 ..." ed. Hellot in _Mém. de la soc.
+  de l'hist. de Paris_ (xi., 1884, pp. 1-207).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. (1337-1380), king of France, called THE WISE, was born at the
+château of Vincennes on the 21st of January 1337, the son of John II.
+and Bonne of Luxemburg. In 1349 he became dauphin of the Viennois by
+purchase from Humbert II., and in 1355 he was created duke of Normandy.
+At the battle of Poitiers (1356) his father ordered him to leave the
+field when the battle turned against the French, and he was thus saved
+from the imprisonment that overtook his father. After arranging for the
+government of Normandy he proceeded to Paris, where he took the title of
+lieutenant of the kingdom. During the years of John II.'s imprisonment
+in England Charles was virtually king of France. He summoned the
+states-general of northern France (Langue d'oïl) to Paris in October
+1356 to obtain men and money to carry on the war. But under the
+leadership of Étienne Marcel, provost of the Parisian merchants and
+president of the third estate, and Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon,
+president of the clergy, a partisan of Charles of Navarre, the states
+refused any "aid" except on conditions which Charles declined to accept.
+They demanded the dismissal of a number of the royal ministers; the
+establishment of a commission elected from the three estates to regulate
+the dauphin's administration, and of another board to act as council of
+war; also the release of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who had been
+imprisoned by King John. The estates of Languedoc, summoned to Toulouse,
+also made protests against misgovernment, but they agreed to raise a
+war-levy on terms to which the dauphin acceded. Charles sought the
+alliance of his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., to whom he did homage at
+Metz as dauphin of the Viennois, and he was also made imperial vicar of
+Dauphiné, thus acknowledging the imperial jurisdiction. But he gained
+small material advantage from these proceedings. The states-general were
+again convoked in February 1357. Their demands were more moderate than
+in the preceding year, but they nominated members to replace certain
+obnoxious persons on the royal council, demanded the right to assemble
+without the royal summons, and certain administrative reforms. In return
+they promised to raise and finance an army of 30,000 men, but the
+money--a tithe levied on the annual revenues of the clergy and
+nobility--voted for this object was not to pass through the dauphin's
+hands. Charles appeared to consent, but the agreement was annulled by
+letters from King John, announcing at the same time the conclusion of a
+two years' truce, and the reformers failed to secure their ends. Charles
+had escaped from their power by leaving Paris, but he returned for a new
+meeting of the estates in the autumn of 1357.
+
+Meanwhile Charles of Navarre had been released by his partisans, and
+allying himself with Marcel had become a popular hero in Paris. The
+dauphin was obliged to receive him and to undergo an apparent
+reconciliation. In Paris Étienne Marcel was supreme. He forced his way
+into the dauphin's palace (February 1358), and Charles's servant, Jean
+de Conflans, marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of
+Normandy, were murdered before his eyes. Charles was powerless openly to
+resent these outrages, but he obtained from the provincial assemblies
+the money refused him by the states-general, and deferred his vengeance
+until the dissensions of his enemies should offer him an opportunity.
+Charles of Navarre, now in league with the English and master of lower
+Normandy and of the approaches to Paris, returned to the immediate
+neighbourhood of the city, and Marcel found himself driven to avowed
+co-operation with the dauphin's enemies, the English and the Navarrese.
+Charles had been compelled in March to take the title of regent to
+prevent the possibility of further intervention from King John. In
+defiance of a recent ordinance prohibiting provincial assemblies, he
+presided over the estates of Picardy and Artois, and then over those of
+Champagne. The states-general of 1358 were summoned to Compiègne instead
+of Paris, and granted a large aid. The condition of northern France was
+rendered more desperate by the outbreak (May-June 1358) of the peasant
+revolt known as the Jacquerie, which was repressed with a barbarity far
+exceeding the excesses of the rebels. Within the walls of Paris Jean
+Maillart had formed a royalist party; Marcel was assassinated (31st July
+1358), and the dauphin entered Paris in the following month. A reaction
+in Charles's favour had set in, and from the estates of 1359 he regained
+the authority he had lost. It was with their full concurrence that he
+restored their honours to the officials who had been dismissed by the
+estates of 1356 and 1357. They supported him in repudiating the treaty
+of London (1359), which King John had signed in anxiety for his personal
+freedom, and voted money unconditionally for the continuation of the
+war. From this time the estates were only once convoked by Charles, who
+contented himself thenceforward by appeals to the assembly of notables
+or to the provincial bodies. Charles of Navarre was now at open war with
+the regent; Edward III. landed at Calais in October; and a great part of
+the country was exposed to double depredations from the English and the
+Navarrese troops. In the scarcity of money Charles had recourse to the
+debasement of the coinage, which suffered no less than twenty-two
+variations in the two years before the treaty of Brétigny. This
+disastrous financial expedient was made good later, the coinage being
+established on a firm basis during the last sixteen years of Charles's
+reign in accordance with the principles of Nicolas Oresme. On the
+conclusion of peace King John was restored to France, but, being unable
+to raise his ransom, he returned in 1364 to England, where he died in
+April, leaving the crown to Charles, who was crowned at Reims on the
+19th of May.
+
+The new king found an able servant in Bertrand du Guesclin, who won a
+victory over the Navarrese troops at Cocherel and took prisoner their
+best general, Jean de Grailli, captal of Buch. The establishment of
+Charles's brother, Philip the Bold, in the duchy of Burgundy, though it
+constituted in the event a serious menace to the monarchy, put an end to
+the king of Navarre's ambitions in that direction. A treaty of peace
+between the two kings was signed in 1365, by which Charles of Navarre
+gave up Mantes, Meulan and the county of Longueville in exchange for
+Montpellier. Negotiations were renewed in 1370 when Charles of Navarre
+did homage for his French possessions, though he was then considering an
+offensive and defensive alliance with Edward III. Du Guesclin undertook
+to free France from the depredations of the "free companies," mercenary
+soldiers put out of employment by the cessation of the war. An attempt
+to send them on a crusade against the Turks failed, and Du Guesclin led
+them to Spain to put Henry of Trastamara on the throne of Castile. By
+the marriage of his brother Philip the Bold with Margaret of Flanders,
+Charles detached the Flemings from the English alliance, and as soon as
+he had restored something like order in the internal affairs of the
+kingdom he provoked a quarrel with the English. The text of the treaty
+of Brétigny presented technical difficulties of which Charles was not
+slow to avail himself. The English power in Guienne was weakened by the
+disastrous Spanish expedition of the Black Prince, whom Charles summoned
+before the parlement of Paris in January 1369 to answer the charges
+preferred against him by his subjects, thus expressly repudiating the
+English supremacy in Guienne. War was renewed in May after a meeting of
+the states-general. Between 1371 and 1373 Poitou and Saintonge were
+reconquered by Du Guesclin, and soon the English had to abandon all
+their territory north of the Garonne. John IV. of Brittany (Jean de
+Montfort) had won his duchy with English help by the defeat of Charles
+of Blois, the French nominee, at Auray in 1364. His sympathies remained
+English, but he was now (1373) obliged to take refuge in England, and
+later in Flanders, while the English only retained a footing in two or
+three coast towns. Charles's generals avoided pitched battles, and
+contented themselves with defensive and guerrilla tactics, with the
+result that in 1380 only Bayonne, Bordeaux, Brest and Calais were still
+in English hands.
+
+Charles had in 1378 obtained proof of Charles of Navarre's treasonable
+designs. He seized the Norman towns held by the Navarrese, while Henry
+of Trastamara invaded Navarre, and imposed conditions of peace which
+rendered his lifelong enemy at last powerless. A premature attempt to
+amalgamate the duchy of Brittany with the French crown failed. Charles
+summoned the duke to Paris in 1378, and on his non-appearance committed
+one of his rare errors of policy by confiscating his duchy. But the
+Bretons rose to defend their independence, and recalled their duke. The
+matter was still unsettled when Charles died at Vincennes on the 16th of
+September 1380. His health, always delicate, had been further weakened,
+according to popular report, by a slow poison prepared for him by the
+king of Navarre. His wife, Jeanne of Bourbon, died in 1378, and the
+succession devolved on their elder son Charles, a boy of twelve. Their
+younger son was Louis, duke of Orleans.
+
+Personally Charles was no soldier. He owed the signal successes of his
+reign partly to his skilful choice of advisers and administrators, to
+his chancellors Jean and Guillaume de Dormans and Pierre d'Orgemont, to
+Hugues Aubriot, provost of Paris, Bureau de la Riviere and others;
+partly to a singular coolness and subtlety in the exercise of a not
+over-scrupulous diplomacy, which made him a dangerous enemy. He had
+learnt prudence and self-restraint in the troubled times of the regency,
+and did not lose his moderation in success. He modelled his private life
+on that of his predecessor Saint Louis, but was no fanatic in religion,
+for he refused his support to the violent methods of the Inquisition in
+southern France, and allowed the Jews to return to the country, at the
+same time confirming their privileges. His support of the schismatic
+pope Clement VII. at Avignon was doubtless due to political
+considerations, as favouring the independence of the Gallican church.
+Charles V. was a student of astrology, medicine, law and philosophy, and
+collected a large and valuable library at the Louvre. He gathered round
+him a group of distinguished writers and thinkers, among whom were Raoul
+de Presles, Philippe de Mézières, Nicolas Oresme and others. The ideas
+of these men were applied by him to the practical work of
+administration, though he confined himself chiefly to the consolidation
+and improvement of existing institutions. The power of the nobility was
+lessened by restrictions which, without prohibiting private wars, made
+them practically impossible. The feudal fortresses were regularly
+inspected by the central authority, and the nobles themselves became in
+many cases paid officers of the king. Charles established a merchant
+marine and a formidable navy, which under Jean de Vienne threatened the
+English coast between 1377 and 1380. The states-general were silenced
+and the royal prerogative increased; the royal domains were extended,
+and the wealth of the crown was augmented; additions were made to the
+revenue by the sale of municipal charters and patents; and taxation
+became heavier, since Charles set no limits to the gratification of his
+tastes either in the collection of jewels and precious objects, of
+books, or of his love of building, examples of which are the renovation
+of the Louvre and the erection of the palace of Saint Paul in Paris.
+
+  See the chronicles of Froissart, and of Pierre d'Orgemont (_Grandes
+  Chroniques de Saint Denis_, Paris, vol. vi, 1838); Christine de Pisan,
+  _Le Livre des fais et bonnes moeurs du sage roy Charles V_, written in
+  1404, ed. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. ii. (1836); L. Delisle,
+  _Mandements et actes divers de Charles V_ (1886); letters of Charles
+  V. from the English archives in Champollion-Figeac, _Lettres de rois
+  et de reines_, ii. pp. 167 seq.; the anonymous _Songe du vergier_ or
+  _Somnium viridarii_, written in 1376 and giving the political ideas of
+  Charles V. and his advisers; "Relation de la mort de Charles V" in
+  Haureau, _Notices et extraits_, xxxi. pp. 278-284; Ch. Benoist, _La
+  Politique du roi Charles V_ (1874); S. Luce, _La France pendant la
+  guerre de cent ans_; G. Clément Simon, _La Rupture du traité de
+  Brétigny_ (1898); A. Vuitry, _Êtudes sur le régime financier de la
+  France_, vols. i. and ii. (1883); and R. Delachenal, _Histoire de
+  Charles V_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VI. (1368-1422), king of France, son of Charles V. and Jeanne of
+Bourbon, was born in Paris on the 3rd of December 1368. He received the
+appanage of Dauphiné at his birth, and was thus the first of the princes
+of France to bear the title of dauphin from infancy. Charles V. had
+entrusted his education to Philippe de Mézières, and had fixed his
+majority at fourteen. He succeeded to the throne in 1380, at the age of
+twelve, and the royal authority was divided between his paternal uncles,
+Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke of Berry, Philip the Bold, duke of
+Burgundy, and his mother's brother, Louis II., duke of Bourbon. In
+accordance with an ordinance of the late king the duke of Anjou became
+regent, while the guardianship of the young king, together with the
+control of Paris and Normandy, passed to the dukes of Burgundy and
+Bourbon, who were to be assisted by certain of the councillors of
+Charles V. The duke of Berry, excluded by this arrangement, was
+compensated by the government of Languedoc and Guienne. Anjou held the
+regency for a few months only, until the king's coronation in November
+1380. He enriched himself from the estate of Charles V. and by excessive
+exactions, before he set out in 1382 for Italy to effect the conquest of
+Naples. Considerable discontent existed in the south of France at the
+time of the death of Charles V., and when the duke of Anjou re-imposed
+certain taxes which the late king had remitted at the end of his reign,
+there were revolts at Puy and Montpellier. Paris, Rouen, the cities of
+Flanders, with Amiens, Orleans, Reims and other French towns, also rose
+(1382) in revolt against their masters. The _Maillotins_, as the
+Parisian insurgents were named from the weapon they used, gained the
+upper hand in Paris, and were able temporarily to make terms, but the
+commune of Rouen was abolished, and the _Tuchins_, as the marauders in
+Languedoc were called, were pitilessly hunted down. Charles VI. marched
+to the help of the count of Flanders against the insurgents headed by
+Philip van Artevelde, and gained a complete victory at Roosebeke
+(November 27th, 1382). Strengthened by this success the king, on his
+return to Paris in the following January, exacted vengeance on the
+citizens by fines, executions and the suppression of the privileges of
+the city. The help sent by the English to the Flemish cities resulted in
+a second Flemish campaign. In 1385 Jean de Vienne made an unsuccessful
+descent on the Scottish coast, and Charles equipped a fleet at Sluys for
+the invasion of England, but a series of delays ended in the destruction
+of the ships by the English.
+
+In 1385 Charles VI. married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen II., duke of
+Bavaria, her name being gallicized as Isabeau. Three years later, with
+the help of his brother, Louis of Orleans, duke of Touraine, he threw
+off the tutelage of his uncles, whom he replaced by Bureau de la Rivière
+and others among his father's counsellors, nicknamed by the royal
+princes the _marmousets_ because of their humble origin. Two years later
+he deprived the duke of Berry of the government of Languedoc. The
+opening years of Charles VI.'s effective rule promised well, but excess
+in gaiety of all kinds undermined his constitution, and in 1392 he had
+an attack of madness at Le Mans, when on his way to Brittany to force
+from John V. the surrender of his cousin Pierre de Craon, who had tried
+to assassinate the constable Olivier de Clisson in the streets of Paris.
+Other attacks followed, and it became evident that Charles was unable
+permanently to sustain the royal authority. Clisson, Bureau de la
+Rivière, Jean de Mercier, and the other _marmousets_ were driven from
+office, and the royal dukes regained their power. The rivalries between
+the most powerful of these--the duke of Burgundy, who during the king's
+attacks of madness practically ruled the country, and the duke of
+Orleans--were a constant menace to peace. In 1306 peace with England
+seemed assured by the marriage of Richard II. with Charles VI.'s
+daughter Isabella, but the Lancastrian revolution of 1399 destroyed the
+diplomatic advantages gained by this union. In France the country was
+disturbed by the papal schism. At an assembly of the clergy held in
+Paris in 1398 it was resolved to refuse to recognize the authority of
+Benedict XIII., who succeeded Clement VII. as schismatic pope at
+Avignon. The question became a party one; Benedict was supported by
+Louis of Orleans, while Philip the Bold and the university of Paris
+opposed him. Obedience to Benedict's authority was resumed in 1403, only
+to be withdrawn again in 1408, when the king declared himself the
+guardian and protector of the French church, which was indeed for a time
+self-governing. Edicts further extending the royal power in
+ecclesiastical affairs were even issued in 1418, after the schism was at
+an end.
+
+The king's intelligence became yearly feebler, and in 1404 the death of
+Philip the Bold aggravated the position of affairs. The new duke, John
+the Fearless, did not immediately replace his father in general affairs,
+and the influence of the duke of Orleans increased. Queen Isabeau, who
+had generally supported the Burgundian party, was now practically
+separated from her husband, whose madness had become pronounced. She was
+replaced by a young Burgundian lady, Odette de Champdivers, called by
+her contemporaries _la petite reine_, who rescued the king from the
+state of neglect into which he had fallen. Isabeau of Bavaria was freely
+accused of intrigue with the duke of Orleans. She was from time to time
+regent of France, and as her policy was directed by personal
+considerations and by her love of splendour she further added to the
+general distress. The relations between John the Fearless and the duke
+of Orleans became more embittered, and on the 23rd of November 1407
+Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of his
+rival. The young duke Charles of Orleans married the daughter of the
+Gascon count Bernard VII. of Armagnac, and presently formed alliances
+with the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, and others who formed the
+party known as the Armagnacs (see ARMAGNAC), against the Burgundians who
+had gained the upper hand in the royal council. In 1411 John the
+Fearless contracted an alliance with Henry IV. of England, and civil war
+began in the autumn, but in 1412 the Armagnacs in their turn sought
+English aid, and, by promising the sovereignty of Aquitaine to the
+English king, gave John the opportunity of posing as defender of France.
+In Paris the Burgundians were hand in hand with the corporation of the
+butchers, who were the leaders of the Parisian populace. The
+malcontents, who took their name from one of their number, Caboche,
+penetrated into the palace of the dauphin Louis, and demanded the
+surrender of the unpopular members of his household. A royal ordinance,
+promising reforms in administration, was promulgated on the 27th of May
+1413, and some of the royal advisers were executed. The king and the
+dauphin, powerless in the hands of Duke John and the Parisians, appealed
+secretly to the Armagnac princes for deliverance. They entered Paris in
+September; the ordinance extracted by the Cabochiens was rescinded; and
+numbers of the insurgents were banished the city.
+
+In the next year Henry V. of England, after concluding an alliance with
+Burgundy, resumed the pretensions of Edward III. to the crown of France,
+and in 1415 followed the disastrous battle of Agincourt. The two elder
+sons of Charles VI., Louis, duke of Guienne, and John, duke of Touraine,
+died in 1415 and 1417, and Charles, count of Ponthieu, became heir
+apparent. Paris was governed by Bernard of Armagnac, constable of
+France, who expelled all suspected of Burgundian sympathies and treated
+Paris like a conquered city. Queen Isabeau was imprisoned at Tours, but
+escaped to Burgundy. The capture of Paris by the Burgundians on the 20th
+of May 1418 was followed by a series of horrible massacres of the
+Armagnacs; and in July Duke John and Isabeau, who assumed the title of
+regent, entered Paris. Meanwhile Henry V. had completed the conquest of
+Normandy. The murder of John the Fearless in 1419 under the eyes of the
+dauphin Charles threw the Burgundians definitely into the arms of the
+English, and his successor Philip the Good, in concert with Queen
+Isabeau, concluded (1420) the treaty of Troyes with Henry V., who became
+master of France. Charles VI. had long been of no account in the
+government, and the state of neglect in which he existed at Senlis
+induced Henry V. to undertake the re-organization of his household. He
+came to Paris in September 1422, and died on the 21st of October.
+
+  The chief authorities for the reign of Charles VI. are:--_Chronica
+  Caroli VI._, written by a monk of Saint Denis, commissioned officially
+  to write the history of his time, edited by C. Bellaguet with a French
+  translation (6 vols., 1839-1852); Jean Juvenal des Ursins,
+  _Chronique_, printed by D. Godefroy in _Histoire de Charles VI_
+  (1653), chiefly an abridgment of the monk of St Denis's narrative; a
+  fragment of the _Grandes Chroniques de Saint Denis_ covering the years
+  1381 to 1383 (ed. J. Pichon 1864); correspondence of Charles VI.
+  printed by Champollion-Figeac in _Lettres de rois_, vol. ii.; _Choix
+  de pièces inédites rel. au règne de Charles VI_ (2 vols., 1863-1864),
+  edited by L. Douët d'Arcq for the Société de l'Histoire de France; J.
+  Froissart, _Chroniques_; Enguerrand de Monstrelet, _Chroniques_,
+  covering the first half of the 15th century (Eng. trans., 4 vols.,
+  1809); _Chronique des quatre premiers Valois_, by an unknown author,
+  ed. S. Luce (1862). See also E. Lavisse, _Hist, de France_, iv. 267
+  seq.; E. Petit, "Séjours de Charles VI," _Bull. du com. des travaux
+  hist._ (1893); Vallet de Viriville, "Isabeau de Bavière," _Revue
+  française_ (1858-1859); M. Thibaut, _Isabeau de Bavière_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VII. (1403-1461), king of France, fifth son of Charles VI. and
+Isabeau of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1403. The
+count of Ponthieu, as he was called in his boyhood, was betrothed in
+1413 to Mary of Anjou, daughter of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of
+Sicily, and spent the next two years at the Angevin court. He received
+the duchy of Touraine in 1416, and in the next year the death of his
+brother John made him dauphin of France. He became lieutenant-general of
+the kingdom in 1417, and made active efforts to combat the complaisance
+of his mother. He assumed the title of regent in December 1418, but his
+authority in northern France was paralysed in 1419 by the murder of John
+the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, in his presence at Montereau. Although
+the deed was not apparently premeditated, as the English and Burgundians
+declared, it ruined Charles's cause for the time. He was disinherited by
+the treaty of Troyes in 1420, and at the time of his father's death in
+1422 had retired to Mehun-sur-Yèvre, near Bourges, which had been the
+nominal seat of government since 1418. He was recognized as king in
+Touraine, Berry and Poitou, in Languedoc and other provinces of southern
+France; but the English power in the north was presently increased by
+the provinces of Champagne and Maine, as the result of the victories of
+Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424). The Armagnac administrators who had
+been driven out of Paris by the duke of Bedford gathered round the young
+king, nicknamed the "king of Bourges," but he was weak in body and mind,
+and was under the domination of Jean Louvet and Tanguy du Chastel, the
+instigators of the murder of John the Fearless, and other discredited
+partisans. The power of these favourites was shaken by the influence of
+the queen's mother, Yolande of Aragon, duchess of Anjou. She sought the
+alliance of John V., duke of Brittany, who, however, vacillated
+throughout his life between the English and French alliance, concerned
+chiefly to maintain the independence of his duchy. His brother, Arthur
+of Brittany, earl of Richmond (comte de Richemont), was reconciled with
+the king, and became constable in 1425, with the avowed intention of
+making peace between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy. Richemont
+caused the assassination of Charles's favourites Pierre de Giac and Le
+Camus de Beaulieu, and imposed one of his own choosing, Georges de la
+Trémoille, an adventurer who rapidly usurped the constable's power. For
+five years (1427-1432) a private war between these two exhausted the
+Armagnac forces, and central France returned to anarchy.
+
+Meanwhile Bedford had established settled government throughout the
+north of France, and in 1428 he advanced to the siege of Orleans. For
+the movement which was to lead to the deliverance of France from the
+English invaders, see JOAN OF ARC. The siege of Orleans was raised by
+her efforts on the 8th of May 1429, and two months later Charles VII.
+was crowned at Reims. Charles's intimate counsellors, La Trémoille and
+Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, saw their profits menaced by
+the triumphs of Joan of Arc, and accordingly the court put every
+difficulty in the way of her military career, and received the news of
+her capture before Compiègne (1430) with indifference. No measures were
+taken for her deliverance or her ransom, and Normandy and the Isle of
+France remained in English hands. Fifteen years of anarchy and civil war
+intervened before peace was restored. Bands of armed men fighting for
+their own hand traversed the country, and in the ten years between 1434
+and 1444 the provinces were terrorized by these _écorcheurs_, who, with
+the decline of discipline in the English army, were also recruited from
+the ranks of the invaders. The duke of Bedford died in 1435, and in the
+same year Philip the Good of Burgundy concluded a treaty with Charles
+VII. at Arras, after fruitless negotiations for an English treaty. From
+this time Charles's policy was strengthened. La Trémoille had been
+assassinated in 1433 by the constable's orders, with the connivance of
+Yolande of Aragon. For his former favourites were substituted energetic
+advisers, his brother-in-law Charles of Anjou, Dunois (the famous
+bastard of Orleans), Pierre de Brézé, Richemont and others. Richemont
+entered Paris on the 13th of April 1436, and in the next five years the
+finance of the country was re-established on a settled basis. Charles
+himself commanded the troops who captured Pontoise in 1441, and in the
+next year he made a successful expedition in the south.
+
+Meanwhile the princes of the blood and the great nobles resented the
+ascendancy of councillors and soldiers drawn from the smaller nobility
+and the _bourgeoisie_. They made a formidable league against the crown
+in 1440 which included Charles I., duke of Bourbon, John II., duke of
+Alençon, John IV. of Armagnac, and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The
+revolt broke out in Poitou in 1440 and was known as the _Praguerie_.
+Charles VII. repressed the rising, and showed great skill with the rebel
+nobles, finally buying them over individually by considerable
+concessions. In 1444 a truce was concluded with England at Tours, and
+Charles proceeded to organize a regular army. The central authority was
+gradually made effective, and a definite system of payment, by removing
+the original cause of brigandage, and the establishment of a strict
+discipline learnt perhaps from the English troops, gradually stamped out
+the most serious of the many evils under which the country had suffered.
+Pierre Bessonneau, and the brothers Gaspard and Jean Bureau created a
+considerable force of artillery. Domestic troubles in their own country
+weakened the English in France. The conquest of Normandy was completed
+by the battle of Formigny (15th of April 1450). Guienne was conquered in
+1451 by Duncis, but not subdued, and another expedition was necessary in
+1453, when Talbot was defeated and slain at Castillon. Meanwhile in 1450
+Charles VII. had resolved on the rehabilitation of Joan of Arc, thus
+rendering a tardy recognition of her services. This was granted in 1456
+by the Holy See. The only foothold retained by the English on French
+ground was Calais. In its earlier stages the deliverance of France from
+the English had been the work of the people themselves. The change which
+made Charles take an active part in public affairs is said to have been
+largely due to the influence of Agnes Sorel, who became his mistress in
+1444 and died in 1450. She was the first to play a public and political
+rôle as mistress of a king of France, and may be said to have
+established a tradition. Pierre de Brézé, who had had a large share in
+the repression of the Praguerie, obtained through her a dominating
+influence over the king, and he inspired the monarch himself and the
+whole administration with new vigour. Charles and René of Anjou retired
+from court, and the greater part of the members of the king's council
+were drawn from the bourgeois classes. The most famous of all these was
+Jacques Coeur (q.v.). It was by the zeal of these councillors that
+Charles obtained the surname of "The Well-Served."
+
+Charles VII. continued his father's general policy in church matters. He
+desired to lessen the power of the Holy See in France and to preserve as
+far as possible the liberties of the Gallican church. With the council
+of Constance (1414-1418) the great schism was practically healed.
+Charles, while careful to protest against its renewal, supported the
+anti-papal contentions of the French members of the council of Basel
+(1431-1449), and in 1438 he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction at
+Bourges, by which the patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was removed
+from the Holy See, while certain interventions of the royal power were
+admitted. Bishops and abbots were to be elected, in accordance with
+ancient custom, by their clergy. After the English had evacuated French
+territory Charles still had to cope with feudal revolt, and with the
+hostility of the dauphin, who was in open revolt in 1446, and for the
+next ten years ruled like an independent sovereign in Dauphiné. He took
+refuge in 1457 with Charles's most formidable enemy, Philip of Burgundy.
+Charles VII. nevertheless found means to prevent Philip from attaining
+his ambitions in Lorraine and in Germany. But the dauphin succeeded in
+embarrassing his father's policy at home and abroad, and had his own
+party in the court itself. Charles VII. died at Mehun-sur-Yévre on the
+22nd of July 1461. He believed that he was poisoned by his son, who
+cannot, however, be accused of anything more than an eager expectation
+of his death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The history of the reign of Charles VII. has been
+  written by two modern historians,--Vallet de Viriville, _Histoire de
+  Charles VII ... et de son époque_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1862-1865), and G.
+  du Fresne de Beaucourt, _Hist, de Charles VII_ (Paris, 6 vols.,
+  1881-1891). There is abundant contemporary material. The herald,
+  Jacques le Bouvier or Berry (b. 1386), whose _Chronicques du feu roi
+  Charles VII_ was first printed in 1528 as the work of Alain Chartier,
+  was an eye-witness of many of the events he described. His
+  _Recouvrement de Normandie_, with other material on the same subject,
+  was edited for the "Rolls" series (_Chronicles and Memorials_) by
+  Joseph Stevenson in 1863. The _Histoire de Charles VII_ by Jean
+  Chartier, historiographer-royal from 1437, was included in the
+  _Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis_, and was first printed under
+  Chartier's name by Denis Godefroy, together with other contemporary
+  narratives, in 1661. It was re-edited by Vallet de Viriville (Paris, 3
+  vols., 1858-1859). With these must be considered the Burgundian
+  chroniclers Enguerrand de Monstrelet, whose chronicle (ed. L. Douët
+  d'Arcq; Paris, 6 vols., 1857-1862) covers the years 1400-1444, and
+  Georges Chastellain, the existing fragments of whose chronicle are
+  published in his _OEuvres_ (ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove; Brussels, 8
+  vols., 1863-1866). For a detailed bibliography and an account of
+  printed and MS. documents see du Fresne de Beaucourt, already cited,
+  also A. Molinier, _Manuel de bibliographie historique_, iv. 240-306.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VIII. (1470-1498), king of France, was the only son of Louis XI.
+During the whole of his childhood Charles lived far from his father at
+the château of Amboise, which was throughout his life his favourite
+residence. On the death of Louis XI in 1483 Charles, a lad of thirteen,
+was of age, but was absolutely incapable of governing. Until 1492 he
+abandoned the government to his sister Anne of Beaujeu. In 1491 he
+married Anne, duchess of Brittany, who was already betrothed to
+Maximilian of Austria. Urged by his favourite, Étienne de Vesc, he then,
+at the age of twenty-two, threw off the yoke of the Beaujeus, and at the
+same time discarded their wise and able policy. But he was a thoroughly
+worthless man with a weak and ill-balanced intellect. He had a romantic
+imagination and conceived vast projects. He proposed at first to claim
+the rights of the house of Anjou, to which Louis XI. had succeeded, on
+the kingdom of Naples, and to use this as a stepping-stone to the
+capture of Constantinople from the Turks and his own coronation as
+emperor of the East. He sacrificed everything to this adventurous
+policy, signed disastrous treaties to keep his hands free, and set out
+for Italy in 1494. The ceremonial side of the expedition being in his
+eyes the most important, he allowed himself to be intoxicated by his
+easy triumph and duped by the Italians. On the 12th of May 1495 he
+entered Naples in great pomp, clothed in the imperial insignia. A
+general coalition was, however, formed against him, and he was forced to
+return precipitately to France. It cannot be denied that he showed
+bravery at the battle of Fornovo (the 5th of July 1495). He was
+preparing a fresh expedition to Italy, when he died on the 8th of April
+1498, from the results of an accident, at the château of Amboise.
+
+  See _Histoire de Charles VIII, roy de France_, by G. de Jaligny, André
+  de la Vigne, &c., edited by Godefroy (Paris, 1684); De Cherrier,
+  _Histoire de Charles VIII_ (Paris, 1868); H. Fr. Delaborde,
+  _Expédition de Charles VIII en Italie_ (Paris, 1888). For a complete
+  bibliography see H. Hauser, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France,
+  1494-1610_, vol. i. (Paris, 1906); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de
+  France_, vol. v. part i., by H. Lemonnier (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IX. (1550-1574), king of France, was the third son of Henry II.
+and Catherine de' Medici. At first he bore the title of duke of Orleans.
+He became king in 1560 by the death of his brother Francis II., but as
+he was only ten years old the power was in the hands of the
+queen-mother, Catherine. Charles seems to have been a youth of good
+parts, lively and agreeable, but he had a weak, passionate and fantastic
+nature. His education had spoiled him. He was left to his whims--even
+the strangest--and to his taste for violent exercises; and the excesses
+to which he gave himself up ruined his health. Proclaimed of age on the
+17th of August 1563, he continued to be absorbed in his fantasies and
+his hunting, and submitted docilely to the authority of his mother. In
+1570 he was married to Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Maximilian II.
+It was about this time that he dreamed of making a figure in the world.
+The successes of his brother, the duke of Anjou, at Jarnac and
+Moncontour had already caused him some jealousy. When Coligny came to
+court, he received him very warmly, and seemed at first to accept the
+idea of an intervention in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. For
+the upshot of this adventure see the article ST BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE
+OF. Charles was in these circumstances no hypocrite, but weak,
+hesitating and ill-balanced. Moreover, the terrible events in which he
+had played a part transformed his character. He became melancholy,
+severe and taciturn. "It is feared," said the Venetian ambassador, "that
+he may become cruel." Undermined by fever, at the age of twenty he had
+the appearance of an old man, and night and day he was haunted with
+nightmares. He died on the 30th of May 1574. By his mistress, Marie
+Touchet, he had one son, Charles, duke of Angoulême. Charles IX. had a
+sincere love of letters, himself practised poetry, was the patron of
+Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiad, and granted privileges to the first
+academy founded by Antoine de Baïf (afterwards the Académie du Palais).
+He left a work on hunting, _Traité de la chasse royale_, which was
+published in 1625, and reprinted in 1859.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The principal sources are the contemporary memoirs and
+  chronicles of T.A. d'Aubigné, Brantôme, Castelnau, Haton, la Place,
+  Montluc, la Noue, l'Estoile, Ste Foy, de Thou, Tavannes, &c.; the
+  published correspondence of Catherine de' Medici, Marguerite de
+  Valois, and the Venetian ambassadors; and Calendars of State Papers,
+  &c. See also Abel Desjardins, _Charles IX, deux années de règne_
+  (Paris, 1873); de la Ferrière, _Le XVIe siècle et les Valois_ (Paris,
+  1879); H. Mariéjol, _La Réforme et la Ligue_ (Paris, 1904), in vol. v.
+  of the _Histoire de France_, by E. Lavisse, which contains a
+  bibliography for the reign.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES X. (1757-1836), king of France from 1824 to 1830, was the fourth
+child of the dauphin, son of Louis XV. and of Marie Josephe of Saxony,
+and consequently brother of Louis XVI. He was known before his accession
+as Charles Philippe, count of Artois. At the age of sixteen he married
+Marie Thérèse of Savoy, sister-in-law of his brother, the count of
+Provence (Louis XVIII.). His youth was passed in scandalous dissipation,
+which drew upon himself and his coterie the detestation of the people of
+Paris. Although lacking military tastes, he joined the French army at
+the siege of Gibraltar in 1772, merely for distraction. In a few years
+he had incurred a debt of 56 million francs, a burden assumed by the
+impoverished state. Prior to the Revolution he took only a minor part in
+politics, but when it broke out he soon became, with the queen, the
+chief of the reactionary party at court. In July 1789 he left France,
+became leader of the _émigrés_, and visited several of the courts of
+Europe in the interest of the royalist cause. After the execution of
+Louis XVI. he received from his brother, the count of Provence, the
+title of lieutenant-general of the realm, and, on the death of Louis
+XVII., that of "Monsieur." In 1795 he attempted to aid the royalist
+rising of La Vendée, landing at the island of Yeu. But he refused to
+advance farther and to put himself resolutely at the head of his party,
+although warmly acclaimed by it, and courage failing him, he returned to
+England, settling first in London, then in Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh
+and afterwards at Hartwell. There he remained until 1813, returning to
+France in February 1814, and entering Paris in April, in the track of
+the Allies.
+
+During the reign of his brother, Louis XVIII., he was the leader of the
+ultra-royalists, the party of extreme reaction. On succeeding to the
+throne in September 1824 the dignity of his address and his affable
+condescension won him a passing popularity. But his coronation at Reims,
+with all the gorgeous ceremonial of the old régime, proclaimed his
+intention of ruling, as the Most Christian King, by divine right. His
+first acts, indeed, allayed the worst alarms of the Liberals; but it was
+soon apparent that the weight of the crown would be consistently thrown
+into the scale of the reactionary forces. The _émigrés_ were awarded a
+milliard as compensation for their confiscated lands; and Gallicans and
+Liberals alike were offended by measures which threw increased power
+into the hands of the Jesuits and Ultramontanes. In a few months there
+were disquieting signs of the growing unpopularity of the king. The
+royal princesses were insulted in the streets; and on the 29th of April
+1825 Charles, when reviewing the National Guard, was met with cries from
+the ranks of "Down with the ministers!" His reply was, next day, a
+decree disbanding the citizen army.
+
+It was not till 1829, when the result of the elections had proved the
+futility of Villèle's policy of repression, that Charles consented
+unwillingly to try a policy of compromise. It was, however, too late.
+Villèle's successor was the vicomte de Martignac, who took Decazes for
+his model; and in the speech from the throne Charles declared that the
+happiness of France depended on "the sincere union of the royal
+authority with the liberties consecrated by the charter." But Charles
+had none of the patience and commonsense which had enabled Louis XVIII.
+to play with decency the part of a constitutional king. "I would rather
+hew wood," he exclaimed, "than be a king under the conditions of the
+king of England"; and when the Liberal opposition obstructed all the
+measures proposed by a ministry not selected from the parliamentary
+majority, he lost patience. "I told you," he said, "that there was no
+coming to terms with these men." Martignac was dismissed; and Prince
+Jules de Polignac, the very incarnation of clericalism and reaction, was
+called to the helm of state.
+
+The inevitable result was obvious to all the world. "There is no such
+thing as political experience," wrote Wellington, certainly no friend of
+Liberalism; "with the warning of James II. before him, Charles X. was
+setting up a government by priests, through priests, for priests." A
+formidable agitation sprang up in France, which only served to make the
+king more obstinate. In opening the session of 1830 he declared that he
+would "find the power" to overcome the obstacles placed in his path by
+"culpable manoeuvres." The reply of the chambers was a protest against
+"the unjust distrust of the sentiment and reason of France"; whereupon
+they were first prorogued, and on the 16th of May dissolved. The result
+of the new elections was what might have been foreseen: a large increase
+in the Opposition; and Charles, on the advice of his ministers,
+determined on a virtual suspension of the constitution. On the 25th of
+July were issued the famous "four ordinances" which were the immediate
+cause of the revolution that followed.
+
+With singular fatuity Charles had taken no precautions in view of a
+violent outbreak. Marshal Marmont, who commanded the scattered troops in
+Paris, had received no orders, beyond a jesting command from the duke of
+Angoulême to place them under arms "as some windows might be broken." At
+the beginning of the revolution Charles was at St Cloud, whence on the
+news of the fighting he withdrew first to Versailles and then to
+Rambouillet. So little did he understand the seriousness of the
+situation that, when the laconic message "All is over!" was brought to
+him, he believed that the insurrection had been suppressed. On realizing
+the truth he hastily abdicated in favour of his grandson, the duke of
+Bordeaux (comte de Chambord), and appointed Louis Philippe, duke of
+Orleans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom (July 30th). But, on the news
+of Louis Philippe's acceptance of the crown, he gave up the contest and
+began a dignified retreat to the sea-coast, followed by his suite, and
+surrounded by the infantry, cavalry and artillery of the guard. Beyond
+sending a corps of observation to follow his movements, the new
+government did nothing to arrest his escape. At Maintenon Charles took
+leave of the bulk of his troops, and proceeding with an escort of some
+1200 men to Cherbourg, took ship there for England on the 16th of
+August. For a time he returned to Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh, which
+was again placed at his disposal. He died at Goritz, whither he had
+gone for his health, on the 6th of November 1836.
+
+The best that can be said of Charles X. is that, if he did not know how
+to rule, he knew how to cease to rule. The dignity of his exit was more
+worthy of the ancient splendour of the royal house of France than the
+theatrical humility of Louis Philippe's entrance. But Charles was an
+impossible monarch for the 19th century, or perhaps for any other
+century. He was a typical Bourbon, unable either to learn or to forget;
+and the closing years of his life he spent in religious austerities,
+intended to expiate, not his failure to grasp a great opportunity, but
+the comparatively venial excesses of his youth.[1]
+
+  See Achille de Vaulabelle, _Chute de l'empire: histoire des deux
+  restaurations_ (Paris, 1847-1857); Louis de Vielcastel, _Hist. de la
+  restauration_ (Paris, 1860-1878); Alphonse de Lamartine, _Hist. de la
+  restauration_ (Paris, 1851-1852); Louis Blanc, _Hist. de dix ans,
+  1830-1840_ (5 vols., 1842-1844); G.I. de Montbel, _Derniére Époque de
+  l'hist. de Charles X_ (5th ed., Paris, 1840); Théodore Anne,
+  _Mémoires, souvenirs, et anecdotes sur l'interieur du palais de
+  Charles X et les évènements de 1815 à 1830_ (2 vols., Paris, 1831);
+  ib., _Journal de Saint-Cloud a Cherbourg_; Védrenne, _Vie de Charles
+  X_ (3 vols., Paris, 1879); Petit, _Charles X_ (Paris, 1886);
+  Villeneuve, _Charles X et Louis XIX en exil. Mémoires inédits_ (Paris,
+  1889); Imbert de Saint-Amand, _La Cour de Charles X_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This, at any rate, represents the general verdict of history. It
+    is interesting, however, to note that so liberal-minded and shrewd a
+    critic of men as King Leopold I. of the Belgians formed a different
+    estimate. In a letter of the 18th of November 1836 addressed to
+    Princess (afterwards Queen) Victoria he writes:--"History will state
+    that Louis XVIII. was a most liberal monarch, reigning with great
+    mildness and justice to his end, but that his brother, from his
+    despotic and harsh disposition, upset all the other had done, and
+    lost the throne. Louis XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man,
+    shackled by no principle, very proud and false. Charles X. an honest
+    man, a kind friend, an honourable master, sincere in his opinions,
+    and inclined to do everything that is right. That teaches us what we
+    ought to believe in history as it is compiled according to ostensible
+    events and results known to the generality of people."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1288-1342), king of Hungary, the son of Charles Martell of
+Naples, and Clemencia, daughter of the emperor Rudolph, was known as
+Charles Robert previously to being enthroned king of Hungary in 1309. He
+claimed the Hungarian crown, as the grandson of Stephen V., under the
+banner of the pope, and in August 1300 proceeded from Naples to Dalmatia
+to make good his claim. He was crowned at Esztergom after the death of
+the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1301), but was forced the same year to
+surrender the crown to Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia (1289-1306). His
+failure only made Pope Boniface VIII. still more zealous on his behalf,
+and at the diet of Pressburg (1304) his Magyar adherents induced him to
+attempt to recover the crown of St Stephen from the Czechs. But in the
+meantime (1305) Wenceslaus transferred his rights to Duke Otto of
+Bavaria, who in his turn was taken prisoner by the Hungarian rebels.
+Charles's prospects now improved, and he was enthroned at Buda on the
+15th of June 1309, though his installation was not regarded as valid
+till he was crowned with the sacred crown (which was at last recovered
+from the robber-barons) at Székesfehérvár on the 27th of August 1310.
+For the next three years Charles had to contend with rebellion after
+rebellion, and it was only after his great victory over all the elements
+of rapine and disorder at Rozgony (June 15, 1312) that he was really
+master in his own land. His foreign policy aimed at the aggrandizement
+of his family, but his plans were prudent as well as ambitious, and
+Hungary benefited by them greatly. His most successful achievement was
+the union with Poland for mutual defence against the Habsburgs and the
+Czechs. This was accomplished by the convention of Trencsén (1335),
+confirmed the same year at the brilliant congress of Visegrád, where all
+the princes of central Europe met to compose their differences and were
+splendidly entertained during the months of October and November. The
+immediate result of the congress was a combined attack by the Magyars
+and Poles upon the emperor Louis and his ally Albert of Austria, which
+resulted in favour of Charles in 1337. Charles's desire to unite the
+kingdoms of Hungary and Naples under the eldest son Louis was frustrated
+by Venice and the pope, from fear lest Hungary might become the dominant
+Adriatic power. He was, however, more than compensated for this
+disappointment by his compact (1339) with his ally and brother-in-law,
+Casimir of Poland, whereby it was agreed that Louis should succeed to
+the Polish throne on the death of the childless Casimir. For an account
+of the numerous important reforms effected by Charles see HUNGARY:
+_History_. A statesman of the first rank, he not only raised Hungary
+once more to the rank of a great power, but enriched and civilized her.
+In character he was pious, courtly and valiant, popular alike with the
+nobility and the middle classes, whose increasing welfare he did so much
+to promote, and much beloved by the clergy. His court was famous
+throughout Europe as a school of chivalry.
+
+Charles was married thrice. His first wife was Maria, daughter of Duke
+Casimir of Teschen, whom he wedded in 1306. On her death in 1318 he
+married Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Henry VII. On her decease two
+years later he gave his hand to Elizabeth, daughter of Wladislaus
+Lokietek, king of Poland. Five sons were the fruit of these marriages,
+of whom three, Louis, Andrew and Stephen, survived him. He died on the
+16th of July 1342, and was laid beside the high altar at Székesfehérvár,
+the ancient burial-place of the Arpads.
+
+  See Béla Kerékgyartó, _The Hungarian Royal Court under the House of
+  Anjou_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1881); _Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in
+  Hungaria_ (Budapest, 1887); _Diplomas of the Angevin Period_, edited
+  by Imre Nagy (Hung. and Lat.), vols. i.-iii. (Budapest, 1878, &c.).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1226-1285), king of Naples and Sicily and count of Anjou,
+was the seventh child of Louis VIII. of France and Blanche of Castile.
+Louis died a few months after Charles's birth and was succeeded by his
+son Louis IX. (St Louis), and on the death in 1232 of the third son
+John, count of Anjou and Maine, those fiefs were conferred on Charles.
+In 1246 he married Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Raymond Bérenger
+V., the last count of Provence, and after defeating James I. of Aragon
+and other rivals with the help of his brother the French king, he took
+possession of his new county. In 1248 he accompanied Louis in the
+crusade to Egypt, but on the defeat of the Crusaders he was taken
+prisoner with his brother. Shortly afterwards he was ransomed, and
+returned to Provence in 1250. During his absence several towns had
+asserted their independence; but he succeeded in subduing them without
+much difficulty and gradually suppressed their communal liberties.
+Charles's ambition aimed at wider fields, and when Margaret, countess of
+Flanders, asked help of the French court against the German king William
+of Holland, by whom she had been defeated, he gladly accepted her offer
+of the county of Hainaut in exchange for his assistance (1253); this
+arrangement was, however, rescinded by Louis of France, who returned
+from captivity in 1254, and Charles gave up Hainaut for an immense sum
+of money. He extended his influence by the subjugation of Marseilles in
+1257, then one of the most important maritime cities of the world, and
+two years later several communes of Piedmont recognized Charles's
+suzerainty. In 1262 Pope Urban IV. determined to destroy the power of
+the Hohenstaufen in Italy, and offered the kingdoms of Naples and
+Sicily, in consideration of a yearly tribute, to Charles of Anjou, in
+opposition to Manfred, the bastard son of the late emperor Frederick II.
+The next year Charles succeeded in getting himself elected senator of
+Rome, which gave him an advantage in dealing with the pope. After long
+negotiations he accepted the Sicilian and Neapolitan crowns, and in 1264
+he sent a first expedition of Provençals to Italy; he also collected a
+large army and navy in Provence and France with the help of King Louis,
+and by an alliance with the cities of Lombardy was able to send part of
+his force overland. Pope Clement IV. confirmed the Sicilian agreement on
+conditions even more favourable to Charles, who sailed in 1265, and
+conferred on the expedition all the privileges of a crusade. After
+narrowly escaping capture by Manfred's fleet he reached Rome safely,
+where he was crowned king of the Two Sicilies. The land army arrived
+soon afterwards, and on the 26th of February 1266 Charles encountered
+Manfred at Benevento, where after a hard-fought battle Manfred was
+defeated and killed, and the whole kingdom was soon in Charles's
+possession. Then Conradin, Frederick's grandson and last legitimate
+descendant of the Hohenstaufen, came into Italy, where he found many
+partisans among the Ghibellines of Lombardy and Tuscany, and among
+Manfred's former adherents in the south. He gathered a large army
+consisting partly of Germans and Saracens, but was totally defeated by
+Charles at Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268); taken prisoner, he was
+tried as a rebel and executed at Naples. Charles, in a spirit of the
+most vindictive cruelty, had large numbers of Conradin's barons put to
+death and their estates confiscated, and the whole population of several
+towns massacred.
+
+He was now one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe, for besides
+ruling over Provence and Anjou and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, he
+was imperial vicar of Tuscany, lord of many cities of Lombardy and
+Piedmont, and as the pope's favourite practically arbiter of the papal
+states, especially during the interregnum between the death of Clement
+IV. (1268) and the election of Gregory X. (1272). But his ambition was
+by no means satisfied, and he even aspired to the crown of the East
+Roman empire. In 1272 he took part with Louis IX. in a crusade to north
+Africa, where the French king died of fever, and Charles, after
+defeating the soldan of Tunis, returned to Sicily. The election of
+Rudolph of Habsburg as German king after a long interregnum, and that of
+Nicholas III. to the Holy See (1277), diminished Charles's power, for
+the new pope set himself to compose the difference between Guelphs and
+Ghibellines in the Italian cities, but at his death Charles secured the
+election of his henchman Martin IV. (1281), who recommenced persecuting
+the Ghibellines, excommunicated the Greek emperor, Michael Palaeologus,
+proclaimed a crusade against the Greeks, filled every appointment in the
+papal states with Charles's vassals, and reappointed the Angevin king
+senator of Rome. But the cruelty of the French rulers of Sicily drove
+the people of the island to despair, and a Neapolitan nobleman, Giovanni
+da Procida, organized the rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers (see
+VESPERS, SICILIAN), in which the French in Sicily were all massacred or
+expelled (1282). Charles determined to subjugate the island and sailed
+with his fleet for Messina. The city held out until Peter III. of
+Aragon, whose wife Constance was a daughter of Manfred, arrived in
+Sicily, and a Sicilian-Catalan fleet under the Calabrese admiral,
+Ruggiero di Lauria, completely destroyed that of Charles. "If thou art
+determined, O God, to destroy me," the unhappy Angevin exclaimed, "let
+my fall be gradual!" He was forced to abandon all attempts at
+reconquest, but proposed to decide the question by single combat between
+himself and Peter, to take place at Bordeaux under English protection.
+The Aragonese accepted, but fearing treachery, as the French army was in
+the neighbourhood, he failed to appear on the appointed day. In the
+meanwhile Ruggiero di Lauria appeared before Naples and destroyed
+another Angevin fleet commanded by Charles's son, who was taken prisoner
+(May 1284). Charles came to Naples with a new fleet from Provence, and
+was preparing to invade Sicily again, when he contracted a fever and
+died at Foggia on the 7th of January 1285. He was undoubtedly an
+extremely able soldier and a skilful statesman, and much of his
+legislation shows a real political sense; but his inordinate ambition,
+his oppressive methods of government and taxation, and his cruelty
+created enemies on all sides, and led to the collapse of the edifice of
+dominion which he had raised.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1250-1309), king of Naples and Sicily, son of Charles I.,
+had been captured by Ruggiero di Lauria in the naval battle at Naples in
+1284, and when his father died he was still a prisoner in the hands of
+Peter of Aragon. In 1288 King Edward I. of England had mediated to make
+peace, and Charles was liberated on the understanding that he was to
+retain Naples alone, Sicily being left to the Aragonese; Charles was
+also to induce his cousin Charles of Valois to renounce for twenty
+thousand pounds of silver the kingdom of Aragon which had been given to
+him by Pope Martin IV. to punish Peter for having invaded Sicily, but
+which the Valois had never effectively occupied. The Angevin king was
+thereupon set free, leaving three of his sons and sixty Provençal
+nobles as hostages, promising to pay 30,000 marks and to return a
+prisoner if the conditions were not fulfilled within three years. He
+went to Rieti, where the new pope Nicholas IV. immediately absolved him
+from all the conditions he had sworn to observe, crowned him king of the
+Two Sicilies (1289), and excommunicated Alphonso, while Charles of
+Valois, in alliance with Castile, prepared to take possession of Aragon.
+Alphonso III, the Aragonese king, being hard pressed, had to promise to
+withdraw the troops he had sent to help his brother James in Sicily, to
+renounce all rights over the island, and pay a tribute to the Holy See.
+But Alphonso died childless in 1291 before the treaty could be carried
+out, and James took possession of Aragon, leaving the government of
+Sicily to the third brother Frederick. The new pope Boniface VIII.,
+elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King Charles, mediated
+between the latter and James, and a most dishonourable treaty was
+signed: James was to marry Charles's daughter Bianca and was promised
+the investiture by the pope of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to
+leave the Angevin a free hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the
+Sicilians resisted. An attempt was made to bribe Frederick into
+consenting to this arrangement, but being backed up by his people he
+refused, and was afterwards crowned king of Sicily. The war was fought
+with great fury on land and sea, but Charles, although aided by the
+pope, by Charles of Valois, and by James II. of Aragon, was unable to
+conquer the island, and his son the prince of Taranto was taken prisoner
+at the battle of La Falconara in 1299. Peace was at last made in 1302 at
+Caltabellotta, Charles II. giving up all rights to Sicily and agreeing
+to the marriage of his daughter Leonora to King Frederick; the treaty
+was ratified by the pope in 1303. Charles spent his last years quietly
+in Naples, which city he improved and embellished. He died in August
+1309, and was succeeded by his son Robert.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. de Saint-Priest, _Histoire de la conquête de Naples
+  par Charles d'Anjou_ (4 vols., Paris, 1847-1849), is still of use for
+  the documents from the archives of Barcelona, but it needs to be
+  collated with more recent works; S. de Sismondi, in vol. ii. of his
+  _Histoire des republiques italiennes_ (Brussels, 1838), gives a good
+  general sketch of the reigns of Charles I. and II., but is
+  occasionally inaccurate as to details; the best authority on the early
+  life of Charles I. is R. Sternfeld, _Karl von Anjou als Graf von
+  Provence_ (Berlin, 1888); Charles's connexion with north Italy is
+  dealt with in Merkel's _La Dominazione di Carlo d'Angio in Piemonte e
+  in Lombardia_ (Turin, 1891), while the R. Deputazione di Storia
+  Patria Toscana has recently published a _Codice diplomatico delle
+  relazioni di Carlo d'Angio con la Toscana_; the contents of the
+  Angevin archives at Naples have been published by Durrien, _Archives
+  angevines de Naples_ (Toulouse, 1866-1867). M. Amari's _La Guerra del
+  Vespro Siciliano_ (8th ed., Florence, 1876) is a valuable history, but
+  the author is too bitterly prejudiced against the French to be quite
+  impartial; his work should be compared with L. Cadier's _Essai sur
+  l'administration du royaume de Sicile sous Charles I et Charles II
+  d'Anjou_ (Paris, 1891, _Bibl. des écoles françaises d'Athenes et de
+  Rome_, fasc. 59), which contains many documents, and tends somewhat to
+  rehabilitate the Angevin rule.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1332-1387), called THE BAD, king of Navarre and count of
+Evreux, was a son of Jeanne II., queen of Navarre, by her marriage with
+Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343). Having become king of Navarre on
+Jeanne's death in 1349, he suppressed a rising at Pampeluna with much
+cruelty, and by this and similar actions thoroughly earned his surname
+of "The Bad." In 1352 he married Jeanne (d. 1393), a daughter of John
+II., king of France, a union which made his relationship to the French
+crown still more complicated. Through his mother he was a grandson of
+Louis X. and through his father a great-grandson of Philip III., having
+thus a better claim to the throne of France than Edward III. of England;
+and, moreover, he held lands under the suzerainty of the French king,
+whose son-in-law he now became. Charles was a man of great ability,
+possessing popular manners and considerable eloquence, but he was
+singularly unscrupulous, a quality which was revealed during the years
+in which he played an important part in the internal affairs of France.
+Trouble soon arose between King John and his son-in-law. The promised
+dowry had not been paid, and the county of Angoulême, which had formerly
+belonged to Jeanne of Navarre, was now in the possession of the French
+king's favourite, the constable Charles la Cerda. In January 1354 the
+constable was assassinated by order of Charles, and preparations for war
+were begun. The king of Navarre, who defended this deed, had, however,
+many friends in France and was in communication with Edward III.; and
+consequently John was forced to make a treaty at Mantes and to
+compensate him for the loss of Angoulême by a large grant of lands,
+chiefly in Normandy. This peace did not last long, and in 1355 John was
+compelled to confirm the treaty of Mantes. Returning to Normandy,
+Charles was partly responsible for some unrest in the duchy, and in
+April 1356 he was treacherously seized by the French king at Rouen,
+remaining in captivity until November 1357, when John, after his defeat
+at Poitiers, was a prisoner in England. Charles was regarded with much
+favour in France, and the states-general demanded his release, which,
+however, was effected by a surprise. Owing to his popularity he was
+considered by Étienne Marcel and his party as a suitable rival to the
+dauphin, afterwards King Charles V., and on entering Paris he was well
+received and delivered an eloquent harangue to the Parisians.
+Subsequently peace was made with the dauphin, who promised to restore to
+Charles his confiscated estates. This peace was not enduring, and as his
+lands were not given back Charles had some ground for complaint. War
+again broke out, quickly followed by a new treaty, after which the king
+of Navarre took part in suppressing the peasant rising known as the
+_Jacquerie_. Answering the entreaties of Marcel he returned to Paris on
+June 1358, and became captain-general of the city, which was soon
+besieged by the dauphin. This position, however, did not prevent him
+from negotiating both with the dauphin and with the English; terms were
+soon arranged with the former, and Charles, having lost much of his
+popularity, left Paris just before the murder of Marcel in July 1358. He
+continued his alternate policy of war and peace, meanwhile adding if
+possible by his depredations to the misery of France, until the
+conclusion of the treaty of Brétigny in May 1360 deprived him of the
+alliance of the English, and compelled him to make peace with King John
+in the following October. A new cause of trouble arose when the duchy of
+Burgundy was left without a ruler in November 1361, and was claimed by
+Charles; but, lacking both allies and money, he was unable to prevent
+the French king from seizing Burgundy, while he himself returned to
+Navarre.
+
+In his own kingdom Charles took some steps to reform the financial and
+judicial administration and so to increase his revenue; but he was soon
+occupied once more with foreign entanglements, and in July 1362, in
+alliance with Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, he invaded Aragon,
+deserting his new ally soon afterwards for Peter IV., king of Aragon.
+Meanwhile the war with the dauphin had been renewed. Still hankering
+after Burgundy, Charles saw his French estates again seized; but after
+some desultory warfare, chiefly in Normandy, peace was made in March
+1365, and he returned to his work of interference in the politics of the
+Spanish kingdoms. In turn he made treaties with the kings of Castile and
+Aragon, who were at war with each other; promising to assist Peter the
+Cruel to regain his throne, from which he had been driven in 1366 by his
+half-brother Henry of Trastamara, and then assuring Henry and his ally
+Peter of Aragon that he would aid them to retain Castile. He continued
+this treacherous policy when Edward the Black Prince advanced to succour
+Peter the Cruel; then signed a treaty with Edward of England, and then
+in 1371 allied himself with Charles V. of France. His next important
+move was to offer his assistance to Richard II. of England for an attack
+upon France. About this time serious charges were brought against him.
+Accused of attempting to poison the king of France and other prominent
+persons, and of other crimes, his French estates were seized by order of
+Charles V., and soon afterwards Navarre was invaded by the Castilians.
+Won over by the surrender of Cherbourg in July 1378, the English under
+John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, came to his aid; but a heavy price had
+to be paid for the neutrality of the king of Castile. After the death of
+Charles V. in 1380, the king of Navarre did not interfere in the
+internal affairs of France, although he endeavoured vainly again to
+obtain aid from Richard II., and to regain Cherbourg. His lands in
+France were handed over to his eldest son Charles, who governed them
+with the consent of the new king Charles VI. Charles died on the 1st of
+January 1387, and many stories are current regarding the manner of his
+death. Froissart relates that he was burned to death through his
+bedclothes catching fire; Secousse says that he died in peace with many
+signs of contrition; another story says he died of leprosy; and a
+popular legend tells how he expired by a divine judgment through the
+burning of the clothes steeped in sulphur and spirits in which he had
+been wrapped as a cure for a loathsome disease caused by his debauchery.
+He had three sons and four daughters, and was succeeded by his eldest
+son Charles; one of his daughters, Jeanne, became the wife of Henry IV.
+of England.
+
+  See Jean Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
+  (Paris, 1869-1897); D.F. Secousse, _Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire
+  de Charles II, roi de Navarre_ (Paris, 1755-1768); E. Meyer, _Charles
+  II, roi de Navarre et la Normandie au XIVe siècle_ (Paris, 1898); F.T.
+  Perrens, _Étienne Marcel_ (Paris, 1874); R. Delachenal, _Premières
+  negotiations de Charles le Mauvais avec les Anglais_ (Paris, 1900);
+  and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome iv. (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. (1361-1425), called THE NOBLE, king of Navarre and count of
+Evreux, was the eldest son of Charles II. the Bad, king of Navarre, by
+his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of John II., king of France, and was
+married in 1375 to Leonora (d. 1415), daughter of Henry II., king of
+Castile. Having passed much of his early life in France, he became king
+of Navarre on the death of Charles II. in January 1387, and his reign
+was a period of peace and order, thus contrasting sharply with the long
+and calamitous reign of his father. In 1393 he regained Cherbourg, which
+had been handed over by Charles II. to Richard II. of England, and in
+1403 he came to an arrangement with the representatives of Charles VI.
+of France concerning the extensive lands which he claimed in that
+country. Cherbourg was given to the French king; certain exchanges of
+land were made; and in the following year Charles III. surrendered the
+county of Evreux, and was created duke of Nemours and made a peer of
+France. After this his only interference in the internal affairs of
+France was when he sought to make peace between the rival factions in
+that country. Charles sought to improve the condition of Navarre by
+making canals and rendering the rivers navigable, and in other ways. He
+died at Olite on the 8th of September 1425 and was buried at Pampeluna.
+After the death of his two sons in 1402 the king decreed that his
+kingdom should pass to his daughter Blanche (d. 1441), who took for her
+second husband John, afterwards John II., king of Aragon; and the cortes
+of Navarre swore to recognize Charles (q.v.), prince of Viana, her son
+by this marriage, as king after his mother's death.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL), king of Rumania
+(1839-   ), second son of Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
+was born on the 20th of April 1839. He was educated at Dresden
+(1850-1856), and passed through his university course at Bonn. Entering
+the Prussian army in 1857, he won considerable distinction in the Danish
+war of 1864, and received instruction in strategy from General von
+Moltke. He afterwards travelled in France, Italy, Spain and Algeria. He
+was a captain in the 2nd regiment of Prussian Dragoon Guards when he was
+elected _hospodar_ or prince of Rumania on the 20th of April 1866, after
+the compulsory abdication of Prince Alexander John Cuza. Regarded at
+first with distrust by Turkey, Russia and Austria, he succeeded in
+gaining general recognition in six months; but he had to contend for ten
+years with fierce party struggles between the Conservatives and the
+Liberals.
+
+During this period, however, Charles displayed great tact in his
+dealings with both parties, and kept his country in the path of
+administrative and economic reform, organizing the army, developing the
+railways, and establishing commercial relations with foreign powers. The
+sympathy of Rumania with France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and
+the consequent interruption of certain commercial undertakings, led to a
+hostile movement against Prince Charles, which, being fostered by
+Russia, made him resolve to abdicate; and it was with difficulty that he
+was persuaded to remain. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he joined
+the Russians before Plevna (q.v.), and being placed in command of the
+combined Russian and Rumanian forces, forced Osman Pasha to surrender.
+As a consequence of the prince's vigorous action the independence of
+Rumania, which had been proclaimed in May 1877, was confirmed by various
+treaties in 1878, and recognized by Great Britain, France and Germany in
+1880. On the 26th of March 1881 he was proclaimed king of Rumania, and,
+with his consort, was crowned on the 22nd of May following. From that
+time he pursued a successful career in home and foreign policy, and
+greatly improved the financial and military position of his country;
+while his appreciation of the fine arts was shown by his formation of an
+important collection of paintings of all schools in his palaces at
+Sinaïa and Bucharest. For a detailed account of his reign, see RUMANIA.
+On the 1st of November 1869 he married Princess Elizabeth (q.v.), a
+daughter of Prince Hermann of Wied, widely known under her literary name
+of "Carmen Sylva." As the only child of the marriage, a daughter, died
+in 1874, the succession was finally settled upon the king's nephew,
+Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was created prince of
+Rumania on the 18th of March 1889, and married, on the 10th of January
+1893, Princess Marie, daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg, their
+children being Prince Carol (b. 1893) and Princess Elizabeth (b. 1894).
+
+  The official life of King Charles, mainly his own composition, _Aus
+  dem Leben Konig Karls von Rumänien_ (Stuttgart, 1894-1900, 4 vols.),
+  deals mainly with political history. See for an account of his
+  domestic life, M. Kremnitz, _König Karl von Rumänien. Ein Lebensbild_
+  (Breslau, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1661-1700), king of Spain, known among Spanish kings as
+"The Desired" and "The Bewitched," was the son of Philip IV. by his
+second marriage with Maria, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand III., his
+niece. He was born on the 11th of November 1661, and was the only
+surviving son of his father's two marriages--a child of old age and
+disease, in whom the constant intermarriages of the Habsburgs had
+developed the family type to deformity. His birth was greeted with joy
+by the Spaniards, who feared the dispute as to the succession which must
+have ensued if Philip IV. left no male issue. The boy was so feeble that
+till the age of five or six he was fed only from the breast of a nurse.
+For years afterwards it was not thought safe to allow him to walk. That
+he might not be overtaxed he was left entirely uneducated, and his
+indolence was indulged to such an extent that he was not even expected
+to be clean. When his brother, the younger Don John of Austria, a
+natural son of Philip IV., obtained power by exiling the queen mother
+from court he insisted that at least the king's hair should be combed.
+Charles made the malicious remark that nothing was safe from Don
+John--not even vermin. The king was then fifteen, and, according to
+Spanish law, of age. But he never became a man in body or mind. The
+personages who ruled in his name arranged a marriage for him with Maria
+Louisa of Orleans. The French princess, a lively young woman of no
+sense, died in the stifling atmosphere of the Spanish court, and from
+the attendance of Spanish doctors. Again his advisers arranged a
+marriage with Maria Ana of Neuburg. The Bavarian wife stood the strain
+and survived him. Both marriages were merely political--the first a
+victory for the French, and the second for the Austrian party. France
+and Austria were alike preparing for the day when the Spanish succession
+would have to be fought for. The king was a mere puppet in the hands of
+each alternately. By natural instinct he hated the French, but there was
+no room in his nearly imbecile mind for more than childish superstition,
+insane pride of birth, and an interest in court etiquette. The only
+touch of manhood was a taste for shooting which he occasionally indulged
+in the preserves of the Escorial. In his later days he suffered much
+pain, and was driven wild by the conflict between his wish to transmit
+his inheritance to "the illustrious house of Austria," his own kin, and
+the belief instilled into him by the partisans of the French claimant
+that only the power of Louis XIV. could avert the dismemberment of the
+empire. A silly fanatic made the discovery that the king was bewitched,
+and his confessor Froilan Diaz supported the belief. The king was
+exorcised, and the exorcists of the kingdom were called upon to put
+stringent questions to the devils they cast out. The Inquisition
+interfered, and the dying king was driven mad among them. Very near his
+end he had the lugubrious curiosity to cause the coffins of his embalmed
+ancestors to be opened at the Escorial. The sight of the body of his
+first wife, at whom he also insisted on looking, provoked a passion of
+tears and despair. Under severe pressure from the cardinal archbishop of
+Toledo, Portocarrero, he finally made a will in favour of Philip, duke
+of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., and died on the 1st of November 1700,
+after a lifetime of senile decay.
+
+  The best picture of Charles II. is to be found in _Les Mémoires de la
+  tour d'Espagne_ of the Marquis de Villars (London, 1861), and the
+  _Letters_ of the Marquise de Villars (Paris, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. (1716-1788), king of Spain, born on the 20th January 1716,
+was the first son of the second marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth
+Farnese of Parma. It was his good fortune to be sent to rule as duke of
+Parma by right of his mother at the age of sixteen, and thus came under
+more intelligent influence than he could have found in Spain. In 1734 he
+made himself master of Naples and Sicily by arms. Charles had, however,
+no military tastes, seldom wore uniform, and could with difficulty be
+persuaded to witness a review. The peremptory action of the British
+admiral commanding in the Mediterranean at the approach of the War of
+the Austrian Succession, who forced him to promise to observe neutrality
+under a threat to bombard Naples, made a deep impression on his mind. It
+gave him a feeling of hostility to England which in after-times
+influenced his policy.
+
+As king of the Two Sicilies Charles began there the work of internal
+reform which he afterwards continued in Spain. Foreign ministers who
+dealt with him agreed that he had no great natural ability, but he was
+honestly desirous to do his duty as king, and he showed good judgment in
+his choice of ministers. The chief minister in Naples, Tanucci, had a
+considerable influence over him. On the death of his half-brother
+Ferdinand VI. he became king of Spain, and resigned the Two Sicilies to
+his third son Ferdinand. As king of Spain his foreign policy was
+disastrous. His strong family feeling and his detestation of England,
+which was unchecked after the death of his wife, Maria Amelia, daughter
+of Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, led him into the Family Compact
+with France. Spain was entangled in the close of the Seven Years' War,
+to her great loss. In 1770 he almost ran into another war over the
+barren Falkland Islands. In 1779 he was, somewhat reluctantly, led to
+join France and the American insurgents against England, though he well
+knew that the independence of the English colonies must have a ruinous
+influence on his own American dominions. For his army he did practically
+nothing, and for his fleet very little except build fine ships without
+taking measures to train officers and men.
+
+But his internal government was on the whole beneficial to the country.
+He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give up emptying their
+slops out of the windows, and when they objected he said they were like
+children who cried when their faces were washed. In 1766 his attempt to
+force the Madrileños to adopt the French dress led to a riot during
+which he did not display much personal courage. For a long time after it
+he remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands of his
+minister Aranda. All his reforms were not of this formal kind. Charles
+was a thorough despot of the benevolent order, and had been deeply
+offended by the real or suspected share of the Jesuits in the riot of
+1766. He therefore consented to the expulsion of the order, and was then
+the main advocate for its suppression. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and
+the recollection of some disputes with the pope he had had when king of
+Naples, turned him towards a general policy of restriction of the
+overgrown power of the church. The number of the idle clergy, and more
+particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the Inquisition,
+though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the meantime much
+antiquated legislation which tended to restrict trade and industry was
+abolished; roads, canals and drainage works were carried out. Many of
+his paternal ventures led to little more than waste of money, or the
+creation of hotbeds of jobbery. Yet on the whole the country prospered.
+The result was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised
+did at least work steadily at his task of government. His example was
+not without effect on some at least of the nobles. In his domestic life
+King Charles was regular, and was a considerate master, though he had a
+somewhat caustic tongue and took a rather cynical view of mankind. He
+was passionately fond of hunting. During his later years he had some
+trouble with his eldest son and his daughter-in-law. If Charles had
+lived to see the beginning of the French Revolution he would probably
+have been frightened into reaction. As he died on the 14th of December
+1788 he left the reputation of a philanthropic and "philosophic" king.
+In spite of his hostility to the Jesuits, his dislike of friars in
+general, and his jealousy of the Inquisition, he was a very sincere
+Roman Catholic, and showed much zeal in endeavouring to persuade the
+pope to proclaim the Immaculate Conception as a dogma necessary to
+salvation.
+
+  See the _Reign of Charles III._, by M. Danvila y Collado (6 vols.), in
+  the _Historia General de España de la Real Academia de la Historia_
+  (Madrid, 1892, &c.); and F. Rousseau, _Règne de Charles III d'Espagne_
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1748-1819), king of Spain, second son of Charles III. and
+his wife Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born at Portici on the 11th of
+November 1748, while his father was king of the Two Sicilies. The elder
+brother was set aside as imbecile and epileptic. Charles had inherited a
+great frame and immense physical strength from the Saxon line of his
+mother. When young he was fond of wrestling with the strongest
+countrymen he could find. In character he was not malignant, but he was
+intellectually torpid, and of a credulity which almost passes belief.
+His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, his first cousin, a thoroughly coarse
+and vicious woman, ruled him completely, though he was capable of
+obstinacy at times. During his father's lifetime he was led by her into
+court intrigues which aimed at driving the king's favourite minister,
+Floridablanca, from office, and replacing him by Aranda, the chief of
+the "Aragonese" party. After he succeeded to the throne in 1788 his one
+serious occupation was hunting. Affairs were left to be directed by his
+wife and her lover Godoy (q.v.). For Godoy the king had an unaffected
+liking, and the lifelong favour he showed him is almost pathetic. When
+terrified by the French Revolution he turned to the Inquisition to help
+him against the party which would have carried the reforming policy of
+Charles III. much further. But he was too slothful to have more than a
+passive part in the direction of his own government. He simply obeyed
+the impulse given him by the queen and Godoy. If he ever knew his wife's
+real character he thought it more consistent with his dignity to shut
+his eyes. For he had a profound belief in his divine right and the
+sanctity of his person. If he understood that his kingdom was treated as
+a mere dependence by France, he also thought it due to his "face" to
+make believe that he was a powerful monarch. Royalty never wore a more
+silly aspect than in the person of Charles IV., and it is highly
+credible that he never knew what his wife was, or what was the position
+of his kingdom. When he was told that his son Ferdinand was appealing to
+the emperor Napoleon against Godoy, he took the side of the favourite.
+When the populace rose at Aranjuez in 1808 he abdicated to save the
+minister. He took refuge in France, and when he and Ferdinand were both
+prisoners of Napoleon's, he was with difficulty restrained from
+assaulting his son. Then he abdicated in favour of Napoleon, handing
+over his people like a herd of cattle. He accepted a pension from the
+French emperor and spent the rest of his life between his wife and
+Godoy. He died at Rome on the 20th of January 1819, probably without
+having once suspected that he had done anything unbecoming a king by
+divine right and a gentleman.
+
+  See _Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV._, by General Gomez de Arteche
+  (3 vols.), in the _Historia General de España de la Real Academia de
+  la Historia_ (Madrid, 1892, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IX. (1550-1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest son of
+Gustavus Vasa and Margareto Lejonhufrud. By his father's will he got, by
+way of appanage, the duchy of Södermanland, which included the provinces
+of Neriké and Vermland; but he did not come into actual possession of
+them till after the fall of Eric XIV. (1569). In 1568 he was the real
+leader of the rebellion against Eric, but took no part in the designs of
+his brother John against the unhappy king after his deposition. Indeed,
+Charles's relations with John III. were always more or less strained. He
+had no sympathy with John's high-church tendencies on the one hand, and
+he sturdily resisted all the king's endeavours to restrict his authority
+as duke of Södermanland (Sudermania) on the other. The nobility and the
+majority of the _Riksdag_ supported John, however, in his endeavours to
+unify the realm, and Charles had consequently (1587) to resign his
+pretensions to autonomy within his duchy; but, fanatical Calvinist as he
+was, on the religious question he was immovable. The matter came to a
+crisis on the death of John III. (1592). The heir to the throne was
+John's eldest son, Sigismund, already king of Poland and a devoted
+Catholic. The fear lest Sigismund might re-catholicize the land alarmed
+the Protestant majority in Sweden, and Charles came forward as their
+champion, and also as the defender of the Vasa dynasty against foreign
+interference. It was due entirely to him that Sigismund was forced to
+confirm the resolutions of the council of Upsala, thereby recognizing
+the fact that Sweden was essentially a Protestant state (see SWEDEN:
+_History_). In the ensuing years Charles's task was extraordinarily
+difficult. He had steadily to oppose Sigismund's reactionary tendencies;
+he had also to curb the nobility, which he did with cruel rigour.
+Necessity compelled him to work rather with the people than the gentry;
+hence it was that the _Riksdag_ assumed under his government a power and
+an importance which it had never possessed before. In 1595 the _Riksdag_
+of Söderköping elected Charles regent, and his attempt to force Klas
+Flemming, governor of Finland, to submit to his authority, rather than
+to that of the king, provoked a civil war. Technically Charles was,
+without doubt, guilty of high treason, and the considerable minority of
+all classes which adhered to Sigismund on his landing in Sweden in 1598
+indisputably behaved like loyal subjects. But Sigismund was both an
+alien and a heretic to the majority of the Swedish nation, and his
+formal deposition by the _Riksdag_ in 1599 was, in effect, a natural
+vindication and legitimation of Charles's position. Finally, the diet of
+Linköping (Feb. 24, 1600) declared that Sigismund and his posterity had
+forfeited the Swedish throne, and, passing over duke John, the second
+son of John III., a youth of ten, recognized duke Charles as their
+sovereign under the title of Charles IX.
+
+Charles's short reign was an uninterrupted warfare. The hostility of
+Poland and the break up of Russia involved him in two overseas contests
+for the possession of Livonia and Ingria, while his pretensions to
+Lapland brought upon him a war with Denmark in the last year of his
+reign. In all these struggles he was more or less unsuccessful, owing
+partly to the fact that he had to do with superior generals (e.g.
+Chodkiewicz and Christian IV.) and partly to sheer ill-luck. Compared
+with his foreign policy, the domestic policy of Charles IX. was
+comparatively unimportant. It aimed at confirming and supplementing what
+had already been done during his regency. Not till the 6th of March
+1604, after Duke John had formally renounced his rights to the throne,
+did Charles IX. begin to style himself king. The first deed in which the
+title appears is dated the 20th of March 1604; but he was not crowned
+till the 15th of March 1607. Four and a half years later Charles IX.
+died at Nyköping (Oct. 30, 1611). As a ruler he is the link between his
+great father and his still greater son. He consolidated the work of
+Gustavus Vasa, the creation of a great Protestant state: he prepared the
+way for the erection of the Protestant empire of Gustavus Adolphus.
+Swedish historians have been excusably indulgent to the father of their
+greatest ruler. Indisputably Charles was cruel, ungenerous and
+vindictive; yet he seems, at all hazards, strenuously to have
+endeavoured to do his duty during a period of political and religious
+transition, and, despite his violence and brutality, possessed many of
+the qualities of a wise and courageous statesman. By his first wife
+Marie, daughter of the elector palatine Louis VI., he had six children,
+of whom only one daughter, Catherine, survived; by his second wife,
+Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, he had five
+children, including Gustavus Adolphus and Charles Philip, duke of
+Finland.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1878); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905), caps. 5-7.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES X. [CHARLES GUSTAVUS] (1622-1660), king of Sweden, son of John
+Casimir, count palatine of Zweibrücken, and Catherine, sister of
+Gustavus Adolphus, was born at Nyköping Castle on the 8th of November
+1622. He learnt the art of war under the great Lennart Torstensson,
+being present at the second battle of Breitenfeld and at Jankowitz. From
+1646 to 1648 he frequented the Swedish court. It was supposed that he
+would marry the queen regnant, Christina, but her unsurmountable
+objection to wedlock put an end to these anticipations, and to
+compensate her cousin for a broken half-promise she declared him (1649)
+her successor, despite the opposition of the senate headed by the
+venerable Axel Oxenstjerna. In 1648 he was appointed generalissimo of
+the Swedish forces in Germany. The conclusion of the treaties of
+Westphalia prevented him from winning the military laurels he so
+ardently desired, but as the Swedish plenipotentiary at the executive
+congress of Nuremberg, he had unrivalled opportunities of learning
+diplomacy, in which science he speedily became a past-master. As the
+recognized heir to the throne, his position on his return to Sweden was
+not without danger, for the growing discontent with the queen turned the
+eyes of thousands to him as a possible deliverer. He therefore withdrew
+to the isle of Öland till the abdication of Christina (June 5, 1654)
+called him to the throne.
+
+The beginning of his reign was devoted to the healing of domestic
+discords, and the rallying of all the forces of the nation round his
+standard for a new policy of conquest. He contracted a political
+marriage (Oct. 24, 1654) with Hedwig Leonora, the daughter of Frederick
+III., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by way of securing a future ally against
+Denmark. The two great pressing national questions, war and the
+restitution of the alienated crown lands, were duly considered at the
+_Riksdag_ which assembled at Stockholm in March 1655. The war question
+was decided in three days by a secret committee presided over by the
+king, who easily persuaded the delegates that a war with Poland was
+necessary and might prove very advantageous; but the consideration of
+the question of the subsidies due to the crown for military purposes was
+postponed to the following _Riksdag_ (see SWEDEN: _History_). On the
+10th of July Charles quitted Sweden to engage in his Polish adventure.
+By the time war was declared he had at his disposal 50,000 men and 50
+warships. Hostilities had already begun with the occupation of Dünaburg
+(Dvinsk) in Polish Livonia by the Swedes (July 1, 1655), and the Polish
+army encamped among the marshes of the Netze concluded a convention
+(July 25) whereby the palatinates of Posen and Kalisz placed themselves
+under the protection of the Swedish king. Thereupon the Swedes entered
+Warsaw without opposition and occupied the whole of Great Poland. The
+Polish king, John Casimir, fled to Silesia. Meanwhile Charles pressed on
+towards Cracow, which was captured after a two months' siege. The fall
+of Cracow extinguished the last hope of the boldest Pole; but before the
+end of the year an extraordinary reaction began in Poland itself. On the
+18th of October the Swedes invested the fortress-monastery of
+Czenstochowa, but the place was heroically defended; and after a seventy
+days' siege the besiegers were compelled to retire with great loss.
+
+This astounding success elicited an outburst of popular enthusiasm which
+gave the war a national and religious character. The tactlessness of
+Charles, the rapacity of his generals, the barbarity of his mercenaries,
+his refusal to legalize his position by summoning the Polish diet, his
+negotiations for the partition of the very state he affected to
+befriend, awoke the long slumbering public spirit of the country. In the
+beginning of 1656 John Casimir returned from exile and the Polish army
+was reorganized and increased. By this time Charles had discovered that
+it was easier to defeat the Poles than to conquer Poland. His chief
+object, the conquest of Prussia, was still unaccomplished, and a new foe
+arose in the elector of Brandenburg, alarmed by the ambition of the
+Swedish king. Charles forced the elector, indeed, at the point of the
+sword to become his ally and vassal (treaty of Königsberg, Jan. 17,
+1656); but the Polish national rising now imperatively demanded his
+presence in the south. For weeks he scoured the interminable
+snow-covered plains of Poland in pursuit of the Polish guerillas,
+penetrating as far south as Jaroslau in Galicia, by which time he had
+lost two-thirds of his 15,000 men with no apparent result. His retreat
+from Jaroslau to Warsaw, with the fragments of his host, amidst three
+converging armies, in a marshy forest region, intersected in every
+direction by well-guarded rivers, was one of his most brilliant
+achievements. But his necessities were overwhelming. On the 21st of June
+Warsaw was retaken by the Poles, and four days later Charles was obliged
+to purchase the assistance of Frederick William by the treaty of
+Marienburg. On July 18-20 the combined Swedes and Brandenburgers, 18,000
+strong, after a three days' battle, defeated John Casimir's army of
+100,000 at Warsaw and reoccupied the Polish capital; but this brilliant
+feat of arms was altogether useless, and when the suspicious attitude of
+Frederick William compelled the Swedish king at last to open
+negotiations with the Poles, they refused the terms offered, the war was
+resumed, and Charles concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
+the elector of Brandenburg (treaty of Labiau, Nov. 20) whereby it was
+agreed that Frederick William and his heirs should henceforth possess
+the full sovereignty of East Prussia.
+
+This was an essential modification of Charles's Baltic policy; but the
+alliance of the elector had now become indispensable on almost any
+terms. So serious, indeed, were the difficulties of Charles X. in Poland
+that it was with extreme satisfaction that he received the tidings of
+the Danish declaration of war (June 1, 1657). The hostile action of
+Denmark enabled him honourably to emerge from the inglorious Polish
+imbroglio, and he was certain of the zealous support of his own people.
+He had learnt from Torstensson that Denmark was most vulnerable if
+attacked from the south, and, imitating the strategy of his master, he
+fell upon her with a velocity which paralysed resistance. At the end of
+June 1657, at the head of 8000 seasoned veterans, he broke up from
+Bromberg in Prussia and reached the borders of Holstein on the 18th of
+July. The Danish army at once dispersed and the duchy of Bremen was
+recovered by the Swedes, who in the early autumn swarmed over Jutland
+and firmly established themselves in the duchies. But the fortress of
+Fredriksodde (Fredericia) held Charles's little army at bay from
+mid-August to mid-October, while the fleet of Denmark, after a stubborn
+two days' battle, compelled the Swedish fleet to abandon its projected
+attack on the Danish islands. The position of the Swedish king had now
+become critical. In July an offensive and defensive alliance was
+concluded between Denmark and Poland. Still more ominously, the elector
+of Brandenburg, perceiving Sweden to be in difficulties, joined the
+league against her and compelled Charles to accept the proffered
+mediation of Cromwell and Mazarin. The negotiations foundered, however,
+upon the refusal of Sweden to refer the points in dispute to a general
+peace-congress, and Charles was still further encouraged by the capture
+of Fredriksodde (Oct. 23-24), whereupon he began to make preparations
+for conveying his troops over to Fünen in transport vessels. But soon
+another and cheaper expedient presented itself. In the middle of
+December 1657 began the great frost which was to be so fatal to Denmark.
+In a few weeks the cold had grown so intense that even the freezing of
+an arm of the sea with so rapid a current as the Little Belt became a
+conceivable possibility; and henceforth meteorological observations
+formed an essential part of the strategy of the Swedes. On the 28th of
+January 1658, Charles X. arrived at Haderslev (Hadersleben) in South
+Jutland, when it was estimated that in a couple of days the ice of the
+Little Belt would be firm enough to bear even the passage of a
+mail-clad host. The cold during the night of the 29th of January was
+most severe; and early in the morning of the 30th the Swedish king gave
+the order to start, the horsemen dismounting where the ice was weakest,
+and cautiously leading their horses as far apart as possible, when they
+swung into their saddles again, closed their ranks and made a dash for
+the shore. The Danish troops lining the opposite coast were quickly
+overpowered, and the whole of Fünen was won with the loss of only two
+companies of cavalry, which disappeared under the ice while fighting
+with the Danish left wing. Pursuing his irresistible march, Charles X.,
+with his eyes fixed steadily on Copenhagen, resolved to cross the frozen
+Great Belt also. After some hesitation, he accepted the advice of his
+chief engineer officer Eric Dahlberg, who acted as pioneer throughout
+and chose the more circuitous route from Svendborg, by the islands of
+Langeland, Laaland and Falster, in preference to the direct route from
+Nyborg to Korsör, which would have been across a broad, almost
+uninterrupted expanse of ice. Yet this second adventure was not embarked
+upon without much anxious consideration. A council of war, which met at
+two o'clock in the morning to consider the practicability of Dahlberg's
+proposal, at once dismissed it as criminally hazardous. Even the king
+wavered for an instant; but, Dahlberg persisting in his opinion, Charles
+overruled the objections of the commanders. On the night of the 5th of
+February the transit began, the cavalry leading the way through the
+snow-covered ice, which quickly thawed beneath the horses' hoofs so that
+the infantry which followed after had to wade through half an ell of
+sludge, fearing every moment lest the rotting ice should break beneath
+their feet. At three o'clock in the afternoon, Dahlberg leading the way,
+the army reached Grimsted in Laaland without losing a man On the 8th of
+February Charles reached Falster. On the 11th he stood safely on the
+soil of Sjaelland (Zealand). Not without reason did the medal struck to
+commemorate "the glorious transit of the Baltic Sea" bear the haughty
+inscription: _Natura hoc debuit uni._ An exploit unique in history had
+been achieved. The crushing effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
+Danish government found expression in the treaties of Taastrup (Feb. 18)
+and Roskilde (Feb. 26, 1658), whereby Denmark sacrificed nearly half her
+territory to save the rest (see DENMARK: _History_). But even this was
+not enough for the conqueror. Military ambition and greed of conquest
+moved Charles X. to what, divested of all its pomp and circumstance, was
+an outrageous act of political brigandage. At a council held at Gottorp
+(July 7), Charles X. resolved to wipe from the map of Europe an
+inconvenient rival, and without any warning, in defiance of all
+international equity, let loose his veterans upon Denmark a second time.
+For the details of this second struggle, with the concomitant diplomatic
+intervention of the western powers, see DENMARK: _History_, and SWEDEN:
+_History_. Only after great hesitation would Charles X. consent to
+reopen negotiations with Denmark direct, at the same time proposing to
+exercise pressure upon the enemy by a simultaneous winter campaign in
+Norway. Such an enterprise necessitated fresh subsidies from his already
+impoverished people, and obliged him in December 1659 to cross over to
+Sweden to meet the estates, whom he had summoned to Gothenburg. The
+lower estates murmured at the imposition of fresh burdens; and Charles
+had need of all his adroitness to persuade them that his demands were
+reasonable and necessary. At the very beginning of the _Riksdag_, in
+January 1660, it was noticed that the king was ill; but he spared
+himself as little in the council-chamber as in the battle-field, till
+death suddenly overtook him on the night of the 13th of February 1660,
+in his thirty-eighth year. The abrupt cessation of such an inexhaustible
+fount of enterprise and energy was a distinct loss to Sweden; and signs
+are not wanting that, in his latter years, Charles had begun to feel the
+need and value of repose. Had he lived long enough to overcome his
+martial ardour, and develop and organize the empire he helped to create,
+Sweden might perhaps have remained a great power to this day. Even so
+she owes her natural frontiers in the Scandinavian peninsula to Charles
+X.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);
+  Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+  Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); E. Haumant, _La Guerre du
+  nord et la paix d'Oliva_ (Paris, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain,
+  _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, _The Diplomatic Relations
+  between Cromwell and Charles X._ (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XI. (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of Charles X., and
+Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born in the palace at Stockholm,
+on the 24th of November 1655. His father, who died when the child was in
+his fourth year, left the care of his education to the regents whom he
+had appointed. So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when, at
+the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority, he was ignorant
+of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost illiterate. Yet those
+nearest to him had great hopes of him. He was known to be truthful,
+upright and God-fearing; if he had neglected his studies it was to
+devote himself to manly sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his
+favourite pastime, bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most
+splendid courage. It was the general disaster produced by the
+speculative policy of his former guardians which first called forth his
+sterling qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With
+indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the
+difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle with
+sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal anarchy, the young
+king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced, ill-served, snatching
+at every expedient, worked day and night in his newly-formed camp in
+Scania (Skåne) to arm the nation for its mortal struggle. The victory of
+Fyllebro (Aug. 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief S.G.
+Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam of good luck, and
+on the 4th of December, on the tableland of Helgonabäck, near Lund, the
+young Swedish monarch defeated Christian V. of Denmark, who also
+commanded his army in person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were
+practically annihilated. The battle of Lund was, relatively to the
+number engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. More
+than half the combatants (8357, of whom 3000 were Swedes) actually
+perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish commanders showed
+remarkable ability, but the chief glory of the day indisputably belongs
+to Charles XI. This great victory restored to the Swedes their
+self-confidence and prestige. In the following year, Charles with 9000
+men routed 12,000 Danes near Malmõ (July 15, 1678). This proved to be
+the last pitched battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to
+attack their once more invincible enemy in the open field. In 1679 Louis
+XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, who
+bitterly resented "the insufferable tutelage" of the French king, was
+forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least left his empire
+practically intact. Charles devoted the rest of his life to the gigantic
+task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a _reduktion_, or recovery of
+alienated crown lands, a process which involved the examination of every
+title deed in the kingdom, and resulted in the complete readjustment of
+the finances. But vast as it was, the _reduktion_ represents only a
+tithe of Charles XI.'s immense activity. The constructive part of his
+administration was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial.
+Here, too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance,
+commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial procedure,
+church government, education, even art and science--everything, in
+short--emerged recast from his shaping hand. Charles XI. died on the 5th
+of April 1697, in his forty-first year. By his beloved consort Ulrica
+Leonora of Denmark, from the shock of whose death in July 1693 he never
+recovered, he had seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son
+Charles, and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and
+Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the Swedish
+throne. After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus Charles XI. was,
+perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden. His modest, homespun
+figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by the brilliant and colossal
+shapes of his heroic father and his meteoric son; yet in reality Charles
+XI. is far worthier of admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII.
+He was in an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden in
+ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations of a
+new order of things which, in its essential features, has endured to the
+present day.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);
+  Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+  Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet Bain,
+  _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); O. Sjõgren, _Karl den Elfte och
+  Svenska Folket_ (Stockholm, 1897); S. Jacobsen, _Den nordiske Kriegs
+  Krönicke, 1675-1679_ (Copenhagen, 1897); J.A. de Mesmes d'Avaux,
+  _Négociations du comte d'Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698_ (Utrecht, 1882,
+  &c.).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XII. (1682-1718), king of Sweden, the only surviving son of
+Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III. of Denmark,
+was born on the 17th of June 1682. He was carefully educated by
+excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his parents. His natural
+parts were excellent; and a strong bias in the direction of abstract
+thought, and mathematics in particular, was noticeable at an early date.
+His memory was astonishing. He could translate Latin into Swedish or
+German, or Swedish or German into Latin at sight. Charles XI. personally
+supervised his son's physical training. He was taught to ride before he
+was four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only
+eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew older
+his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops, inspecting
+studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the lad was gradually
+initiated into all the _minutiae_ of administration. The influence of
+Charles XI. over his son was, indeed, far greater than is commonly
+supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles XII.'s character which is
+otherwise inexplicable, for instance his precocious reserve and
+taciturnity, his dislike of everything French, and his inordinate
+contempt for purely diplomatic methods. On the whole, his early training
+was admirable; but the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of
+gradually gaining experience under his guardians. At the _Riksdag_
+assembled at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of
+the regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate
+acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared that he
+could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and would take over
+the government of the realm "in God's name." The subsequent coronation
+was marked by portentous novelties, the most significant of which was
+the king's omission to take the usual coronation oath, which omission
+was interpreted to mean that he considered himself under no obligation
+to his subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however,
+still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict
+principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to countenance torture as
+an instrument of judicial investigation, on the ground that "confessions
+so extorted give no sure criteria for forming a judgment," showed him to
+be more humane as well as more enlightened than the majority of his
+council, which had defended the contrary opinion. His intense
+application to affairs is noted by the English minister, John Robinson
+(1650-1723), who informed his court that there was every prospect of a
+happy reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did not
+injure his health by too much work.
+
+The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold Patkul, which
+resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War (1699), abruptly put
+an end to Charles XII.'s political apprenticeship, and forced into his
+hand the sword he was never again to relinquish. The young king resolved
+to attack the nearest of his three enemies--Denmark--first. The timidity
+of the Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlõve, and the daring of Charles,
+who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the passage of
+the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous _flinterend_, hitherto
+reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the Swedish king to effect a landing
+at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand), a few miles north of Copenhagen
+(Aug. 4, 1700). He now hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty
+years before, had vainly attempted--the destruction of the
+Danish-Norwegian monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once
+prudential considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war was
+terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby Frederick IV.
+conceded full sovereignty to Charles's ally and kinsman the duke of
+Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity of 200,000 rix-dollars and
+solemnly engaging to commit no hostilities against Sweden in future.
+From Sjaelland Charles now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th
+of October he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving
+Riga, but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn
+northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13th of
+November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared the effect
+on untried troops of a week's march through a wasted land, along boggy
+roads guarded by no fewer than three formidable passes which a little
+engineering skill could easily have made impregnable. Fortunately, the
+two first passes were unoccupied; and the third, Pyhäjoggi, was captured
+by Charles, who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight. On
+the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a village about 9
+m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach to the beleaguered
+fortress, and early on the following morning it advanced in battle
+array. The attack on the Russian fortified camp began at two o'clock in
+the afternoon, in the midst of a violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the
+whole position was in the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was
+annihilated. The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost
+Charles less than 2000 men.
+
+After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His best
+advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-stricken
+Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them and live at their
+expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering discontent caused by the
+reforms of Peter the Great, and so disable Russia for some time to come.
+But Charles's determination promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus
+prevailed over every other consideration. It is easy from the
+vantage-point of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting
+the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the 18th
+century his decision was natural enough. The real question was, which of
+the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles had many reasons to
+think the civilized and martial Saxons far more formidable than the
+imbecile Muscovites. Charles also rightly felt that he could never trust
+the treacherous Augustus to remain quiet, even if he made peace with
+him. To leave such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of
+Russia would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view
+Charles's whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long and so
+loudly--the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the Polish
+throne--takes quite another complexion: it was a policy not of
+overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.
+
+First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July 1701),
+subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and converting it into a
+Swedish governor-generalship. In January 1702 Charles established
+himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and, after issuing a proclamation
+declaring that "the elector of Saxony" had forfeited the Polish crown,
+set out for Warsaw, which he reached on the 14th of May. The
+cardinal-primate was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for
+the purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted
+Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the combined
+Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later, captured the
+fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous audacity. Thus, within
+four months of the opening of the campaign, the Polish capital and the
+coronation city were both in the possession of the Swedes. After
+Klissow, Augustus made every effort to put an end to the war, but
+Charles would not even consider his offers. By this time, too, he had
+conceived a passion for the perils and adventures of warfare. His
+character was hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous
+expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views. Such commands
+as "ravage, singe, and burn all about, and reduce the whole district to
+a wilderness!" "sweat contributions well out of them!" "rather let the
+innocent suffer than the guilty escape!" became painfully frequent in
+the mouth of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being
+naturally cruel.
+
+The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles's victory at Pultusk
+(April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied him eight months
+but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of July 1704, with the assistance
+of a bribing fund, Charles's ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard
+Horn, succeeded in forcing through the election of Charles's candidate
+to the Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned
+however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the Saxons had
+again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn of 1705 to the spring of
+1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing the Russian auxiliary army under
+Ogilvie through the forests of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he
+recrossed the Vistula and established himself in Saxony, where his
+presence in the heart of Europe, at the very crisis of the war of the
+Spanish Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies, in
+particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought the Swedes.
+Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague to the castle of
+Altranstädt near Leipzig, where Charles had fixed his headquarters, "to
+endeavour to penetrate the designs" of the king of Sweden. He soon
+convinced himself that western Europe had nothing to fear from Charles,
+and that no bribes were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany
+to Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was forced to sign
+the peace of Altranstädt, whereby he resigned the Polish throne and
+renounced every anti-Swedish alliance. Charles's departure from Saxony
+was delayed for twelve months by a quarrel with the emperor. The court
+of Vienna had treated the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity,
+in direct contravention of the treaty of Osnabrück, of which Sweden was
+one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and complete
+restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared for war. But the
+allies interfered in Charles's favour, lest he might be tempted to aid
+France, and induced the emperor to satisfy all the Swedish king's
+demands, the maritime Powers at the same time agreeing to guarantee the
+provisions of the peace of Altranstädt.
+
+Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious arms against
+the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he evacuated Saxony at the
+head of the largest host he ever commanded, consisting of 24,000 horse
+and 20,000 foot. Delayed during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy
+arrival of reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707
+that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year's Day 1708 he
+crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous condition. On the
+4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the Russian army, 6 m. long,
+which barred his progress on the Wabis, near Holowczyn, and compelled it
+to retreat. The victory of Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last
+pitched battle won by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper.
+The Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder running
+short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured bullocks. The
+Russians slowly retired before the invader, burning and destroying
+everything in his path. On the 20th of December it was plain to Charles
+himself that Moscow was inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was
+intolerable to him, so he determined to march southwards instead of
+northwards as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those
+of the hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had 100,000
+horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal. Short of falling
+back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable in the circumstances,
+but it was rendered abortive by Peter's destruction of Mazepa's capital
+Baturin, so that when Mazepa joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of
+November 1708, it was as a ruined man with little more than 1300
+personal attendants (see MAZEPA-KOLEDINSKY). A still more serious blow
+was the destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to
+Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of loaded wagons,
+was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at Lyesna after a two days'
+battle against fourfold odds (October). The very elements now began to
+fight against the perishing but still unconquered host. The winter of
+1708 was the severest that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of
+November firewood would not ignite in the open air, and the soldiers
+warmed themselves over big bonfires of straw. By the time the army
+reached the little Ukrainian fortress of Hadjacz in January 1709, wine
+and spirits froze into solid masses of ice; birds on the wing fell dead;
+saliva congealed on its passage from the mouth to the ground.
+"Nevertheless," says an eye-witness, "though earth, sea and sky were
+against us, the king's orders had to be obeyed and the daily march
+made."
+
+Never had Charles XII. seemed so superhuman as during these awful days.
+It is not too much to say that his imperturbable equanimity, his serene
+_bonhomie_ kept the host together. The frost broke at the end of
+February 1709, and then the spring floods put an end to all active
+operations till May, when Charles began the siege of the fortress of
+Poltava, which he wished to make a base for subsequent operations while
+awaiting reinforcements from Sweden and Poland. On the 7th of June a
+bullet wound put Charles _hors de combat_, whereupon Peter threw the
+greater part of his forces over the river Vorskla, which separated the
+two armies (June 19-25). On the 26th of June Charles held a council of
+war, at which it was resolved to attack the Russians in their
+entrenchments on the following day. The Swedes joyfully accepted the
+chances of battle and, advancing with irresistible _élan_, were, at
+first, successful on both wings. Then one or two tactical blunders were
+committed; and the tsar, taking courage, enveloped the little band in a
+vast semicircle bristling with the most modern guns, which fired five
+times to the Swedes' once, and swept away the guards before they could
+draw their swords. The Swedish infantry was well nigh annihilated, while
+the 14,000 cavalry, exhausted and demoralized, surrendered two days
+later at Perevolochna on Dnieper. Charles himself with 1500 horsemen
+took refuge in Turkish territory.
+
+For the first time in his life Charles was now obliged to have recourse
+to diplomacy; and his pen proved almost as formidable as his sword. He
+procured the dismissal of four Russo-phil grand-viziers in succession,
+and between 1710 and 1712 induced the Porte to declare war against the
+tsar three times. But after November 1712 the Porte had no more money to
+spare; and, the tsar making a show of submission, the sultan began to
+regard Charles as a troublesome guest. On the 1st of February 1713 he
+was attacked by the Turks in his camp at Bender, and made prisoner after
+a contest which reads more like an extravagant episode from some heroic
+folk-tale than an incident of sober 18th-century history. Charles
+lingered on in Turkey fifteen months longer, in the hope of obtaining a
+cavalry escort sufficiently strong to enable him to restore his credit
+in Poland. Disappointed of this last hope, and moved by the despairing
+appeals of his sister Ulrica and the senate to return to Sweden while
+there was still a Sweden to return to, he quitted Demotika on the 20th
+of September 1714, and attended by a single squire arrived unexpectedly
+at midnight, on the 11th of November, at Stralsund, which, excepting
+Wismar, was now all that remained to him on German soil.
+
+For the diplomatic events of these critical years see SWEDEN: _History_.
+Here it need only be said that Sweden, during the course of the Great
+Northern War, had innumerable opportunities of obtaining an honourable
+and even advantageous peace, but they all foundered oh the dogged
+refusal of Charles to consent to the smallest concession to his
+despoilers. Even now he would listen to no offers of compromise, and
+after defending Stralsund with desperate courage till it was a mere
+rubbish heap, returned to Sweden after an absence of 14 years. Here he
+collected another army of 20,000 men, with which he so strongly
+entrenched himself on the Scanian coast in 1716 that his combined
+enemies shrank from attacking him, whereupon he assumed the offensive by
+attacking Norway in 1717, and again in 1718, in order to conquer
+sufficient territory to enable him to extort better terms from his
+enemies. It was during this second adventure that he met his death. On
+the 11th of December, when the Swedish approaches had come within 280
+paces of the fortress of Fredriksten, which the Swedes were closely
+besieging, Charles looked over the parapet of the foremost trench, and
+was shot through the head by a bullet from the fortress.
+
+  See Charles XII., _Die eigenhändigen Briefe König Karls XII._ (Berlin,
+  1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under
+  Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire_ (London
+  and Oxford, 1895); _Bidrag til den Store Nordishe Krigs Historie_
+  (Copenhagen, 1899-1900); G. Syveton, _Louis XIV et Charles XII_
+  (Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, _Historia ablegationis D. Krmann ad
+  regem Sueciae Carolum XII._ (Budapest, 1894); Oscar II., _Några bidrag
+  till Sveriges Krigshistoria åren 1711-1713_ (Stockholm, 1892); Martin
+  Weibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XIII. (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway, the second son of
+Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica, sister of
+Frederick the Great, was born at Stockholm on the 7th of October 1748.
+In 1772 he co-operated in the revolutionary plans of his brother
+Gustavus III. (q.v.). On the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788
+he served with distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the
+battles of Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the
+latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the
+unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral Liljehorn. On
+the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke of Sudermania, acted as
+regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real ruler of the country was the
+narrow-minded and vindictive Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (q.v.), whose
+mischievous influence over him was supreme. These four years were
+perhaps the most miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of
+lead succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be
+briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and ruthless
+despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November 1796), the duke
+became a mere cipher in politics till the 13th of March 1809, when those
+who had dethroned Gustavus IV. appointed him regent, and finally elected
+him king. But by this time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte
+(see CHARLES XIV.) took over the government as soon as he landed in
+Sweden (1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of
+Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of
+Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), but their only child, Carl Adolf, duke of
+Vermland, died in infancy (1798). Charles XIII., who for eight years had
+been king only in title, died on the 5th of February 1818.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_ vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884); _Drottning Hedwig
+  Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar_ (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1895)_; ib.
+  Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XIV. (1763-1844), king of Sweden and Norway, born at Pau on the
+26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri Bernadotte (1711-1780),
+procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean (1725-1809). The family name was
+originally Deu Pouey, but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning
+of the 17th century. Bernadotte's christian names were Jean Baptiste; he
+added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French army on the 3rd
+of September 1780, and first saw service in Corsica. On the outbreak of
+the Revolution his eminent military qualities brought him speedy
+promotion. In 1794 we find him as brigadier attached to the army of the
+Sambre et Meuse, and after Jourdan's victory at Fleurus he was appointed
+a general of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he
+contributed, more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the
+French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles. In
+1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in
+Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento,
+and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, but was compelled to quit
+his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolor
+over the embassy. On the 16th of August 1798 he married Désirée Clary
+(1777-1860), the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph
+Bonaparte's wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September he was
+war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability. About this
+time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he declined to help
+Napoleon in the preparations for the _coup d'état_ of November 1799, he
+accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 till the
+18th of August 1801 commanded the army in La Vendée. On the introduction
+of the empire he was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and,
+from June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the
+recently-occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with
+an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great movement which
+resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm. He was rewarded for his
+services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) by the principality of Ponte
+Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, the same
+year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his
+army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand.
+In 1808, as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the
+expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to
+nought because of the want of transports and the defection of the
+Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon
+contingent at the battle of Wagram, on which occasion, on his own
+initiative he issued an order of the day, attributing the victory
+principally to the valour of his Saxons, which Napoleon at once
+disavowed.
+
+Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris, where the
+council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands
+against the English. In 1810 he was about to enter upon his new post of
+governor of Rome when he was, unexpectedly, elected successor to the
+Swedish throne, partly because a large part of the Swedish army, in view
+of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a
+soldier, and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden, owing
+to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the late
+war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish couriers,
+Baron Karl Otto Mörner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the
+succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated
+Mörner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an
+absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Mörner that he would not refuse
+the honour if he were duly elected. Although the Swedish government,
+amazed at Mörner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his
+return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour
+there, and, on the 21st of August 1810, he was elected crown-prince.
+
+On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm,
+and on the 5th he received the homage of the estates and was adopted by
+Charles XIII. under the name of Charles John. The new crown-prince was
+very soon the most popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The
+infirmity of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state
+placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs,
+entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the
+acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous ways
+(see SWEDEN: _History_), and made him a very tricky ally during the
+struggle with Napoleon in 1813. Great Britain and Prussia very properly
+insisted that Charles John's first duty was to them, the former power
+rigorously protesting against the expenditure of her subsidies on the
+nefarious Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed.
+After the defeats of Lützen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-prince
+who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference of
+Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began
+after the expiration of the truce of Pläswitz. Though undoubtedly
+sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just displeasure of the allies,
+Charles John, as commander-in-chief of the northern army, successfully
+defended the approaches to Berlin against Oudinot in August and against
+Ney in September; but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at
+all hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events which
+led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see SWEDEN: _History_ and NORWAY:
+_History_. As unional king, Charles XIV. (who succeeded to that title in
+1818 on the death of Charles XIII.) was popular in both countries.
+Though his ultra-conservative views were detested, and as far as
+possible opposed (especially after 1823), his dynasty was never in
+serious danger, and Swedes and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch
+with a European reputation. It is true that the _Riksdag_ of 1840
+meditated compelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his
+jubilee was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at
+Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of uninterrupted
+peace, and the great material development of the two kingdoms during the
+first half of the 19th century was largely due to his energy and
+foresight.
+
+  See J.E. Sars, _Norges politiske historia_ (Christiania, 1899); Yngvar
+  Nielsen, _Carl Johan som han virkelig var_ (Christiania, 1897); Johan
+  Almén, _Ätten Bernadotte_ (Stockholm, 1893); C. Schefer, _Bernadotte
+  roi_ (Paris, 1899); G.R. Lagerhjelm, _Napoleon och Carl Johan under
+  Kriget i Tyskland, 1813_ (Stockholm, 1891).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XV. (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway, eldest son of Oscar
+I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine Beauharnais of
+Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826. On the 19th of June 1850
+he married Louisa, daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. He
+became regent on the 25th of September 1857, and king on the death of
+his father (8th of July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles's brusque and
+downright manners had led many to regard his future accession with some
+apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of
+Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense of the
+word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and far-reaching
+reforms. Sweden's existing communal law (1862), ecclesiastical law
+(1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted appropriately enough under
+the direction of a king whose motto was: "Build up the land upon the
+laws!" Charles XV. also materially assisted De Geer (q.v.) to carry
+through his memorable reform of the constitution in 1863. Charles was a
+warm advocate of "Scandinavianism" and the political solidarity of the
+three northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII., it
+is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on the eve of
+the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were perhaps misleading
+and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the unpreparedness of the
+Swedish army and the difficulties of the situation, Charles was forced
+to observe a strict neutrality. He died at Malmö on the 18th of
+September 1872. Charles XV. was highly gifted in many directions. He
+attained to some eminence as a painter, and his _Digte_ show him to have
+been a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina
+Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of Denmark.
+
+  See Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg, _Carl XV., som enskild man, konung och
+  konstnär_ (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, _Det norske og svenske
+  Kongehus fra 1818_ (Christiania, 1883).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (c. 1319-1364), duke of Brittany, known as CHARLES OF BLOIS and
+CHARLES OF CHÂTILLON, was the son of Guy of Châtillon, count of Blois (d.
+1342), and of Marguerite of Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In
+1337 he married Jeanne of Penthièvre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of
+Brittany, count of Penthièvre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the
+succession of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of
+Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-l'Amaury,
+and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed the succession.
+Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI., captured John of Montfort, who
+was supported by King Edward III. at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of
+Flanders at Hennebont, and took Quimper and Guérande (1344). But next
+year his partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was
+himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was not liberated
+until 1356, when he continued the war against the young John of Montfort,
+and perished in the battle of Auray, on the 29th of September 1364.
+Charles bore a high reputation for piety, and was believed to have
+performed miracles. The Roman Church has canonized him.
+
+  See Siméon Luce, _Histoire de Bertrand du Gueselin el de son époque_
+  (Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, called THE BOLD (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy, son of Philip
+the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was born at Dijon on the
+10th of November 1433. In his father's lifetime he bore the title of
+count of Charolais. He was brought up under the direction of the
+seigneur d'Auxy, and early showed great application to study and also to
+warlike exercises. Although he was on familiar terms with the dauphin
+(afterwards Louis XI.), when the latter was a refugee at the court of
+Burgundy, he could not but view with chagrin the repurchase by the king
+of France of the towns on the Somme, which had been temporarily ceded to
+Philip the Good by the treaty of Arras; and when his father's failing
+health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of government (which
+Philip abandoned to him completely by an act of the 12th of April 1465),
+he entered upon his lifelong struggle against Louis XI., and became one
+of the principal leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant
+bravery at the battle of Montlhéry (16th of July 1465), where he was
+wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the king
+from re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive victory. He
+succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the treaty of Conflans (1466),
+by which the king restored to him the towns on the Somme, and promised
+him the hand of his infant daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry.
+In the meanwhile the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of
+Ponthieu. The revolt of Liége and Dinant intervened to divert his
+attention from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles
+took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and succeeded
+in treating at the same time with the Liégeois. After the death of
+Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Liégeois renewed hostilities, but
+Charles defeated them at St Trond, and made a victorious entry into
+Liége, which he dismantled and deprived of some of its privileges.
+
+Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and anxious to
+settle various questions relating to the execution of the treaty of
+Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles and placed himself in
+his hands at Péronne. In the course of the negotiations the duke was
+informed of a fresh revolt of the Liégeois secretly fomented by Louis.
+After deliberating for four days how to deal with his adversary, who had
+thus maladroitly placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect
+the parole he had given and to treat with Louis (October 1468), at the
+same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt. The town was
+carried by assault and the inhabitants were massacred, Louis not having
+the courage to intervene on behalf of his ancient allies. At the expiry
+of the one year's truce which followed the treaty of Péronne, the king
+accused Charles of treason, cited him to appear before the parlement,
+and seized some of the towns on the Somme (1471). The duke retaliated by
+invading France with a large army, taking possession of Nesle and
+massacring its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an attack on
+Beauvais, and had to content himself with ravaging the country as far as
+Rouen, eventually retiring without having attained any useful result.
+
+Other matters, moreover, engaged his attention. Relinquishing, if not
+the stately magnificence, at least the gay and wasteful profusion which
+had characterized the court of Burgundy under the preceding duke, he had
+bent all his efforts towards the development of his military and
+political power. Since the beginning of his reign he had employed
+himself in reorganizing his army and the administration of his
+territories. While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he had
+endeavoured to establish a system of rigid discipline among his troops,
+which he had strengthened by taking into his pay foreign mercenaries,
+particularly Englishmen and Italians, and by developing his artillery.
+Furthermore, he had lost no opportunity of extending his power. In 1469
+the archduke of Austria, Sigismund, had sold him the county of Ferrette,
+and the landgraviate of Alsace and some other towns, reserving to
+himself the right to repurchase. In 1472-1473 Charles bought the
+reversion of the duchy of Gelderland from its old duke, Arnold, whom he
+had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content with being
+"the grand duke of the West," he conceived the project of forming a
+kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself as independent sovereign, and
+even persuaded the emperor Frederick to assent to crown him king at
+Trier. The ceremony, however, did not take place owing to the emperor's
+precipitate flight by night (September 1473), occasioned by his
+displeasure at the duke's attitude. In the following year Charles
+involved himself in a series of difficulties and struggles which
+ultimately brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively
+with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his
+possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss, who
+supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against the tyranny
+of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who was condemned and
+executed by the rebels in May 1474); and finally, with René of Lorraine,
+with whom he disputed the succession of Lorraine, the possession of
+which had united the two principal portions of Charles's
+territories--Flanders and the duchy and county of Burgundy. All these
+enemies, incited and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in
+joining forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first
+rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop of
+Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months (July 1474-June
+1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the Rhine, but was
+compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial army to raise the
+siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded his brother-in-law,
+Edward IV. of England, to undertake against Louis was stopped by the
+treaty of Picquigny (29th of August 1475). He was more successful in
+Lorraine, where he seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he
+marched against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson
+in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was attacked
+before Granson by the confederate army and suffered a shamful defeat,
+being compelled to fly with a handful of attendants, and leaving his
+artillery and an immense booty in the hands of the allies (February
+1476). He succeeded in raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he
+attacked Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted by
+the cavalry of René of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the 6th of
+October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by René. Making a last
+effort, Charles formed a new army and arrived in the depth of winter
+before the walls of Nancy. Having lost many of his troops through the
+severe cold, it was with only a few thousand men that he met the joint
+forces of the Lorrainers and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of
+the town (6th of January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his
+mutilated body being discovered some days afterwards.
+
+Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last representative of
+the feudal spirit--a man who possessed no other quality than a blind
+bravery--and accordingly has often been contrasted with his rival Louis
+XI. as representing modern politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide
+knowledge and culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals;
+and although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he had the
+secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never refused him
+their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice married--to
+Catherine (d, 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of France, by whom he had
+one daughter, Mary, afterwards the wife of the Emperor Maximilian I.; to
+Isabella (d. 1465), daughter of Charles I., duke of Bourbon; and to
+Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of England, whom he married in
+1468.
+
+  The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold
+  are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of the
+  latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of the
+  _Mémoires_ of Philippe de Comines, and of the _Mémoires_ and other
+  writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, _Les Sources
+  de l'histoire de France_, tome iv. (1904), and the compendious
+  bibliography in U. Chevalier's _Répertoire des sources historiques_,
+  part iii. (1904). _Charles the Bold_, by J.F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a
+  good English biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam's
+  _Charles the Bold_ (1908). For a general sketch of the relations
+  between France and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, _Histoire de
+  France_, tome iv. (1902).     (R. Po.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, called THE GOOD (le Bon), or THE DANE (c. 1084-1127), count of
+Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV., king of Denmark, by Adela,
+daughter of Robert the Frisian, count of Flanders, was born about 1084.
+After the assassination of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in
+Flanders, taking with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother
+and grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great
+services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII., counts
+of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle in 1119, and,
+having no issue, left by will the succession to his countship to Charles
+the Dane. Charles did not secure his heritage without a civil war, but
+he was speedily victorious and made his position secure by treating his
+opponents with great clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the
+welfare of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of
+Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He well deserved
+the surname of _Le Bon_, by which he is known to posterity. He refused
+the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on the death of Baldwin, and
+declined to be nominated as a candidate for the imperial crown in
+succession to the emperor Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St
+Donat at Bruges on the 2nd of March 1127.
+
+  See J. Perneel, _Histoire du règne de Charles le Bon, précedé d'un
+  résumé de l'histoire de Flandres_ (Brussels, 1830).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a younger son of
+the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently a member of the
+Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the duchy of Burgundy owing to the
+opposition of his brother, King Lothair, he went to the court of his
+maternal uncle, the emperor Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977
+received from the emperor Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His
+authority in Lorraine was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle
+with Lothair, and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort
+to secure the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful
+candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes and had
+captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously seized by Adalberon,
+bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh. Imprisoned with his wife and
+children at Orleans, Charles did not long survive his humiliation. His
+eldest son Otto, duke of Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (d. 1431), duke of Lorraine, called THE BOLD, is sometimes
+referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I., he succeeded his father
+in 1390; but he neglected his duchy and passed his life in warfare. He
+died on the 25th of January 1431, leaving two daughters, one of whom,
+Isabella (d. 1453), married René I. of Anjou (1409-1450), king of
+Naples, who succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. or II. (1543-1608), called THE GREAT, duke of Lorraine, was
+a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a descendant of René of Anjou.
+He was only an infant when he became duke, and was brought up at the
+court of Henry II. of France, marrying Henry's daughter Claude in 1559.
+He took part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the
+League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises, although he
+was a possible candidate for the French crown in 1589. The duke, who was
+an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608.
+He had three sons: Henry (d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in
+turn dukes of Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and
+Strassburg.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. or III. (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a son of Duke
+Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604. He became duke on
+the abdication of his father in 1624, and obtained the duchy of Bar
+through his marriage with his cousin Nicole (d. 1657), daughter of Duke
+Henry. Mixing in the tortuous politics of his time, he was in continual
+conflict with the crown of France, and spent much of his time in
+assisting her enemies and in losing and regaining his duchies (see
+LORRAINE). He lived an adventurous life, and in the intervals between
+his several struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II.
+at Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in England;
+and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 entered the
+service of Spain. He died on the 18th of September 1675, leaving by his
+second wife, Beatrix de Cusance (d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count
+of Vaudemont (1642-1723).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. or IV. (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew of Duke Charles
+IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in 1664 received a colonelcy
+in the emperor's army. In the same year he fought with distinction at
+the battle of St Gotthard, in which he captured a standard from the
+Turks. He was a candidate for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In
+1670 the emperor made him general of horse, and during the following
+years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks and
+subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was wounded. In the
+same year he was again a candidate for the Polish crown, but was
+unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to be associated with him in his
+greatest feat of arms, being elected. In 1675, on the death of Charles
+IV., he rode with a cavalry corps into the duchy of Lorraine, then
+occupied by the French, and secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops
+to himself; a little after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of
+the imperial army on the Rhine, and was made a field marshal. The chief
+success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg, after a
+long and arduous siege. The war continued without decisive result for
+some time, and the fate of the duchy, which was still occupied by the
+French, was the subject of endless diplomacy. At the general peace
+Charles had to accept the hard conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he
+never entered into effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he
+married the widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for
+nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish invasion
+of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose their will on
+Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the head of a weak
+imperial army the duke offered the best resistance he could to the
+advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had to fall back, contesting
+every position, and the Turks finally invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683).
+At this critical moment other powers came to the assistance of Austria,
+reinforcements poured into Charles's camp, and John Sobieski, king of
+Poland, brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over 80,000
+men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning of the 12th of
+September they moved forward to the attack. By nightfall the Turks were
+in complete disorder, Vienna was relieved, and the danger was at an end.
+Soon the victors took the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom
+of Hungary. The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles
+continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen (Buda)
+resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of 1685 Neuhaüsel was
+taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now reinforced by German
+auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen. All attempts to relieve the
+place were repulsed, and Ofen was stormed on the 2nd of September. In
+the following campaign the Austrians won a decisive victory on the
+famous battle-ground of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took
+the field on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of
+his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign, but Charles
+in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly at Wels on the 18th
+of April 1690.
+
+His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-1729), at the peace of Ryswick in
+1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had been dispossessed by
+France, and was the father of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who
+became the husband of Maria Theresa (q.v.), and of Charles (Karl
+Alexander), a distinguished Austrian commander in the wars with
+Frederick the Great. The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to
+Stanislaus Leczynski, the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis
+receiving instead the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. [CHARLES LOUIS DE BOURBON] (1799-1883), duke of Parma,
+succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess of Lucca, as duke of Lucca
+in 1824. He introduced economy into the administration, increased the
+schools, and in 1832 as a reaction against the bigotry of the priests
+and monks with which his mother had surrounded him, he became a
+Protestant. He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the
+Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected of being a
+Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities soon made him the
+laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned to the Catholic Church and
+made Thomas Ward, an English groom, his prime minister, a man not
+without ability and tact. Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal
+ideas, and in 1847 declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by
+Pius IX. The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised them
+by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the duke, in spite of
+the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions. A few weeks later he
+retired to Modena, selling his life-interest in the duchy to Tuscany.
+On the 17th of October Maria Louisa of Austria, duchess of Parma, died,
+and Charles Louis succeeded to her throne by the terms of the Florence
+treaty, assuming the style of Charles II. His administration of Parma
+was characterized by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased
+taxation, and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
+Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there were riots
+in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his readiness to throw
+in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and Leopold of Tuscany,
+repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised a constitution. Then he
+again changed his mind, abdicated in April, and left Parma in the hands
+of a provisional government, whereupon the people voted for union with
+Piedmont. After the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August
+1848) the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II.
+issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the provisional
+government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again in 1849, Parma was
+evacuated, but reoccupied by General d'Aspre in April.
+
+In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was succeeded by his
+son CHARLES III. (1823-1854), who, protected by Austrian troops, placed
+Parma under martial law, inflicted heavy penalties on the members of the
+late provisional government, closed the university, and instituted a
+regular policy of persecution. A violent ruler, a drunkard and a
+libertine, he was assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death
+his widow Maria Louisa, sister of the comte de Chambord, became regent,
+during the minority of his son Robert. The duchess introduced some sort
+of order into the administration, seemed inclined to rule more mildly
+and dismissed some of her husband's more obnoxious ministers, but the
+riots of the Mazzinians in July 1854 were repressed with ruthless
+severity, and the rest of her reign was characterized by political
+trials, executions and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists
+replied with assassinations.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Massei, _Storia civile di Lucca_, vol. ii. (Lucca,
+  1878); Anon., _Y Borboni di Parma ... del 1847 al 1859_ (Parma, 1860);
+  N. Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (Turin, 1865,
+  &c.); C. Tivaroni, _L'Italia sotto il dominio austriaco_, ii. 96-101,
+  i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and _L'Italia degli Italiani_, i. 126-143
+  (Turin, 1895) by the same; S. Lottici and G. Sitti, _Bibliografia
+  generale per la storia parmense_ (Parma, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES [KARL LUDWIG] (1771-1847), archduke of Austria and duke of
+Teschen, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was born at Florence (his
+father being then grand-duke of Tuscany) on the 5th of September 1771.
+His youth was spent in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian
+Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the war of
+the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the
+campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the action of Aldenhoven and
+the battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became _Statthalter_ in
+Belgium and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, which
+promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. In the remainder
+of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and he was
+present at Fleurus. In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following
+year was entrusted with the chief control of all the Austrian forces on
+that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in
+1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe.
+At first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally
+marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau; falling upon
+Jourdan he beat him in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg, and drove him
+over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which
+he defeated and forced out of Germany. For this campaign, one of the
+most brilliant in modern history, see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1797
+he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in
+Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with
+the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he was once more opposed to
+Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Osterach and Stokach,
+following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna
+in the (first) battle of Zürich, after which he re-entered Germany and
+drove the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however, forced
+him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to undertake the
+task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the battle of
+Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had
+to make the armistice of Steyer. His popularity was now such that the
+diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his
+honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but Charles
+refused both distinctions.
+
+In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles commanded
+what was intended to be the main army, in Italy, but events made Germany
+the decisive theatre of operations, and the defeats sustained on the
+Danube neutralized the success obtained by the archduke over Masséna in
+the desperately fought battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace
+began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on
+the field in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field
+marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War, and
+supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved
+capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching
+scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th
+century, the chief characteristics of the new order being the adoption
+of the "nation in arms" principle and of the French war organization and
+tactics. The new army was surprised in the process of transition by the
+war of 1809, in which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved
+a far more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now
+heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS)
+it succumbed only after a desperate struggle. Its initial successes were
+neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmühl; but,
+after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of
+Aspern-Essling (q.v.) and soon afterwards fought the still more
+desperate battle of Wagram (q.v.), at the close of which the Austrians
+were defeated but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss of
+over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign the
+archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent the rest of his
+life in retirement, except a short time in 1815, when he was governor of
+Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke
+Charles married, in 1815, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d.
+1829). He had four sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (q.v.)
+became one of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters,
+the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna on the 30th
+of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory in Vienna,
+1860.
+
+The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategical
+works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand
+it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favour of the
+defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and
+executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in
+the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at
+Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was
+certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only
+excepted. The campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he
+sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical
+superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition
+of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the
+victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable criticism. As a
+military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very
+important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight.
+Nevertheless they cannot but be considered as antiquated even in 1806.
+Caution and the importance of "strategic points" are the chief features
+of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered
+from the prescription that "this principle is _never_ to be departed
+from." Again and again he repeats the advice that nothing should be
+hazarded unless one's army is _completely_ secure, a rule which he
+himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. "Strategic
+points," he says (not the defeat of the enemy's army), "decide the fate
+of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main
+solicitude"--a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in
+the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a
+feeble defence against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more
+value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical
+writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is
+designed to "cover a retreat." The baneful influence of these antiquated
+principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgrätz-Josefstadt
+in 1866 as a "strategic point," which was preferred to the defeat of the
+separated Prussian armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for
+the campaign of 1859, and in the "almost unintelligible" battle of
+Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of the archduke
+Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In
+the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest
+skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable
+opponent of Napoleon.
+
+  His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the
+  archduke William in the _Ausgewahlte Schriften weiland Sr. K. Hoheit
+  Erzh. Carl v. Österreich_ (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and Leipzig),
+  which includes the _Grundsatze der Kriegskunst für die Generale_
+  (1806), _Grundsatze der Strategie erlautert durch die Darstellung des
+  Feldzugs 1796_ (1814), _Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799_ (1819)--the two
+  latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and papers
+  "on the higher art of war," "on practical training in the field," &c.
+  See, besides the histories of the period, C. von
+  B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (Vienna, 1895);
+  Caemmerer, _Development of Strategical Science_ (English transl.), ch.
+  iv.; M. Edler v. Angeli, _Erzherzog Carl v. Österr._ (Vienna and
+  Leipzig, 1896); Duller, _Erzh. Karl v. Österr._ (Vienna, 1845);
+  Schneidawind, _Karl, Erzherzog v. Österr. und die österr. Armee_
+  (Vienna, 1840); _Das Buch vom Erzh. Carl_ (1848); Thielen, _Erzh. Karl
+  v. Österr._ (1858); Wolf, _Erzh. Carl_ (1860); H. von Zeissberg,
+  _Erzh. Karl v. Österr._ (Vienna, 1895); M. von Angeli, _Erzh. Karl als
+  Feldherr und Organisator_ (Vienna, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1525-1574), cardinal of Lorraine, French statesman, was the
+second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise, and brother of Francis,
+duke of Guise. He was archbishop of Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547.
+At first he was called the cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death
+of his uncle John, cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style
+of cardinal of Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he
+was, like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples.
+He had, said Brantôme, "a soul exceeding smirched," and, he adds, "by
+nature he was exceeding craven." Together with his brother, Duke
+Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-powerful during the reigns of
+Henry II. and Francis II.; in 1558 and 1559 he was one of the
+negotiators of the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis; he fought and pitilessly
+persecuted the reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke
+the crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived
+him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the
+Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was commissioned
+to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1562 he went to the council of Trent,
+where he at first defended the rights of the Gallican Church against the
+pretensions of the pope; but after the assassination of his brother, he
+approached the court of Rome, and on his return to France he
+endeavoured, but without success, to obtain the promulgation of the
+decrees of the council (1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up
+arms, he held for some time the first place in the king's council, but
+Catherine de' Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he
+had to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by negotiating
+at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry of Navarre with
+Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th of December 1574, at the
+beginning of the reign of Henry III. An orator of talent, he left
+several harangues or sermons, among them being _Oraison prononcée au
+Colloque de Poissy_ (Paris, 1562) and _Oratio habita in Concil. Trident._
+(_Concil. Trident. Orationes_, Louvain, 1567).
+
+  A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliothèque
+  Nationale, Paris. See also René de Bouillé, _Histoire des ducs de
+  Guise_ (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, _Les Guises et leur époque_ (Paris,
+  1877); Guillemin, _Le Cardinal de Lorraine_ (1847).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780), prince of Lorraine, was the
+youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and grandson of Charles V.,
+duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous general. He was born at
+Lunéville on the 12th of December 1712, and educated for a military
+career. After his elder brother Francis, the duke, had exchanged
+Lorraine for Tuscany and married Maria Theresa, Charles became an
+Austrian officer, and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738
+against the Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see
+AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE), the queen made her brother-in-law a
+field marshal, though he was not yet thirty years old, and in 1742
+Charles encountered Frederick the Great for the first time at the battle
+of Chotusitz (May 17th). The victory of the Prussians on that field was
+far from decisive, and Charles drew off his forces in good order. His
+conduct of the successful campaign of 1743 against the French and
+Bavarians heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744,
+Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them jointly
+governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very soon the war broke
+out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the Austrian army on the Rhine,
+won great renown by his brilliant crossing of the Rhine. Once more a
+Lorraine prince at the head of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and
+drove the French before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the
+Silesian war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and
+the French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to
+Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field marshal Traun,
+he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close of his victorious
+campaign he received the news that his wife, to whom he was deeply
+attached, had died in childbirth on the 16th of December 1744 at
+Brussels. He took the field again in 1745 in Silesia, but this time
+without the advice of Traun, and he was twice severely defeated by
+Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg and at Soor. Subsequently, as
+commander-in-chief in the Low Countries he received, at Roucoux, a heavy
+defeat at the hands of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian
+Netherlands during the peace of 1749-1756 was marked by many reforms,
+and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless activity on
+their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven Years' War (q.v.),
+Maria Theresa called Charles again to the supreme command in the field.
+The campaign of 1757 opened with Frederick's great victory of Prague,
+and Prince Charles was shut up with his army in that fortress. In the
+victory of the relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part.
+Nevertheless the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a
+defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him, and great
+enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory, which seemed to be
+the final blow to Frederick. But soon afterwards the king of Prussia
+routed the French at Rossbach, and, swiftly returning to Silesia, he
+inflicted on Charles the complete and crushing defeat of Leuthen
+(December 5, 1757). A mere remnant of the Austrian army reassembled
+after the pursuit, and Charles was relieved of his command. He received,
+however, from the hands of the empress the grand cross, of the newly
+founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince Charles
+acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned to Brussels,
+where, during the remainder of his life, he continued to govern in the
+same liberal spirit as before. The affection of the people for the
+prince was displayed during his dangerous illness in 1765, and in 1775
+the estates of Brabant erected a statue in his honour at Brussels. He
+died on the 4th of July 1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried
+with his Lorraine ancestors at Nancy.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1270-1325), count of Valois, of Maine, and of Anjou, third son
+of Philip III., king of France, surnamed the Bold, and of Isabella of
+Aragon, was born on the 12th of March 1270. By his father's will he
+inherited the four lordships of Crépy, La Ferté-Milon, Pierrefonds and
+Béthisy, which together formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin
+IV., having excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that
+kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place his son on
+this throne, and died on the return of the expedition. In 1290 Charles
+married Margaret, daughter of Charles II., king of Naples, and renounced
+his pretensions to Aragon. In 1294, at the beginning of the hostilities
+against England, he invaded Guienne and took La Réole and Saint-Sever.
+During the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Béthune and Dam, received
+the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King Philip IV., the Fair,
+to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, on the 18th of August 1304. Asked
+by Boniface VIII. for his aid against the Ghibellines, he crossed the
+Alps in June 1301, entered Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame,
+king of Sicily, to reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of
+Aragon, but was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife
+Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay, a granddaughter of Baldwin
+II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried to assert his
+rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished to get him elected
+emperor; but Clement V. quashed his candidature in favour of Henry of
+Luxemburg, afterwards the emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles
+headed the party of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed
+the ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV., the
+Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at Perray
+(Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His second wife had died
+in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married a third wife, Mahaut de
+Châtillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip, his eldest son, ascended the
+French throne in 1328, and from him sprang the royal house of Valois.
+
+  See Joseph Petit, _Charles de Valois_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called Charles IV. king
+of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards John II., king of Aragon, by
+his marriage with Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of
+Navarre. Both his grandfather Charles and his mother, who ruled over
+Navarre from 1425 to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose
+right had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche died in
+1441 her husband John seized the government to the exclusion of his son.
+The ill-feeling between father and son was increased when in 1447 John
+took for his second wife Joanna Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who
+soon bore him a son, afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who
+regarded her stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in
+the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452
+Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated and
+taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the kingly title
+until after his father's death, the prince, again unsuccessful in an
+appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with Alphonso V., king of Aragon,
+Naples and Sicily. In 1458 Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon,
+while Charles was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined
+these proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned to
+Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess, he was then
+thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans rose in his favour.
+This insurrection soon became general and John was obliged to yield. He
+released his son, and recognized him as perpetual governor of Catalonia,
+and heir to the kingdom. Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of
+September 1461, the prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion
+that he had been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and
+amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated the _Ethics_
+of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at Saragossa in 1509,
+and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, _Crónica de los reyes de
+Navarra_, an edition which, edited by J. Yangues y Miranda, was
+published at Pampeluna in 1843.
+
+  See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, _Anales del reyno de Navarra_, tome
+  iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M.J. Quintana, _Vidas de españoles célebres_
+  (Paris, 1827); and G. Desdevises du Dézert, _Carlos d'Aragon_ (Paris,
+  1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896), English author, was born at Tavistock on
+the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of John Rundle, M.P. Some of her
+youthful poems won the praise of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript.
+In 1851 she married Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written
+to order for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, _The
+Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family_, was published in 1862, and
+was translated into most of the European languages, into Arabic, and
+into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all some fifty books,
+the majority of a semi-religious character. She took an active part in
+the work of various charitable institutions, and among her friends and
+correspondents were Dean Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley,
+Jowett and Pusey. She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR (1746-1823), French mathematician and
+physicist, was born at Beaugency, Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746.
+After spending some years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he
+turned to scientific pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by
+his skilful and elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was
+the first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons
+(see AERONAUTICS), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac's law of the
+dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account is sometimes known
+by his name. In 1785 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and
+subsequently he became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des
+Arts et Métiers. He died in Paris on the 7th of April 1823. His
+published papers are chiefly concerned with mathematical topics.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born of
+humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish of Llanfihangel Abercywyn,
+near St Clears, Carmarthenshire, on the 14th of October 1755. He was
+educated for the Anglican ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at
+Jesus College, Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the
+evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon in 1778 on the
+title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford, Somerset; and
+took priest's orders in 1780. He afterwards added to his charge at
+Sparkford, Lovington, South Barrow and North Barrow, and in September
+1782 was presented to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev.
+John Hughes, Coln St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though the
+contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his curacies in June
+1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on August 20th) Sarah Jones of
+Bala, the orphan of a flourishing shopkeeper. He had early fallen under
+the influence of the great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of
+seventeen had been "converted" by a sermon of Daniel Rowland's. This was
+enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh clergy, and being
+denied the privilege of preaching for nothing at two churches, he helped
+his old Oxford friend John Mayor, now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire,
+from October until January 11th, 1784. On the 25th of January he took
+charge of Llan yn Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to
+continue there more than three months. Three influential people, among
+them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners against him,
+and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His preaching, his catechizing
+of the children after evensong, and his connexion with the Bala
+Methodists--his wife's step-father being a Methodist preacher--gave
+great offence. After a fortnight more at Shawbury, he wrote to John
+Newton and another clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of
+England denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services.
+His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late. By
+September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his rector at
+Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying him on a tour in
+Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching at the Bont Uchel
+Association; so that he joined the Methodists (see CALVINISTIC
+METHODISTS) in 1784.
+
+Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced leisure to
+gather the poor children of Bala into his house for instruction, and so
+thickly did they come that he had to adjourn with them to the chapel.
+This was the origin of the Welsh Circulating Schools, which he developed
+on the lines adopted by Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of
+Llanddowror. First one man was trained for the work by himself, then he
+was sent to a district for six months, where, (for £8 a year) he taught
+gratis the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and
+Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses were met by
+collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist Societies, and as the
+funds increased masters were multiplied, until in 1786 Charles had
+seven masters to whom he paid £10 per annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789,
+fifteen; in 1794, twenty. By this time the salary had been increased to
+£12; in 1801 it was £14. He had learnt of Raikes's Sunday Schools before
+he left the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on
+foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same, he
+gave six days' tuition for every one given by them, and many people not
+only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but thought the children
+forgot in the six days what they learnt on the one. But Sunday Schools
+were first adopted by Charles to meet the case of young people in
+service who could not attend during the week, and even in that form much
+opposition was shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form
+of Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1787. Wilberforce,
+Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were among the
+philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798 the Sunday School
+Society (established 1785) extended its operations to Wales, making him
+its agent, and Sunday Schools grew rapidly in number and favour. A
+powerful revival broke out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his
+account of it in letters to correspondents, sent without his knowledge
+to magazines, kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh
+bibles was Charles's greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and
+Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for the
+Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when the stock
+became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was brought out by the
+Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies of the 10,000 issued; the
+Sunday School Society got 3000 testaments printed, and most of them
+passed into his hands in 1801.
+
+In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and much fear for
+his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester, died, leaving him
+director and one of three trustees over his chapel at Boughton; and this
+added much to his anxiety. The Welsh causes at Manchester and London,
+too, gave him much uneasiness, and burdened him with great
+responsibilities at this juncture. In November 1802 he went to London,
+and on the 7th of December he sat at a committee meeting of the
+Religious Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph
+Tarn--a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society
+committees--introduced the subject of a regular supply of bibles for
+Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the committee, and so
+forcibly did he impress them, that it was there and then decided to move
+in the matter of a general dispersion of the bible. When he visited
+London a year later, his friends were ready to discuss the name of a new
+Society, and the sole object of which should be to supply bibles.
+Charles returned to Wales on the 30th of January 1804, and the British
+and Foreign Bible Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March
+the 7th. The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on
+the 6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807--both being edited
+by Charles.
+
+Between 1805 and 1811 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in four volumes,
+which still remains the standard work of its kind in Welsh. Three
+editions of his Welsh catechism were published for the use of his
+schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English catechism for the use of
+schools in Lady Huntingdon's Connexion was drawn up by him in 1797; his
+shorter catechism in Welsh appeared in 1799, and passed through several
+editions, in Welsh and English, before 1807, when his _Instructor_
+(still the Connexional catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December
+1801 six numbers of a Welsh magazine called _Trysorfa Ysprydol_
+(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and himself; in
+March 1809 the first number of the second volume appeared, and the
+twelfth and last in November 1813.
+
+The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr David Bogue, the
+Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to Ireland in August 1807, to
+report on the state of Protestant religion in the country. Their report
+is still extant, and among the movements initiated as a result of their
+visit was the Circulating School system. In 1810, owing to the growth of
+Methodism and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in
+the movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence
+was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From 1811
+to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing auxiliary Bible
+Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some friends in Edinburgh to
+establish charity schools in the Highlands, and the Gaelic School
+Society (1811) was his idea. His last work was a corrected edition of
+the Welsh Bible issued in small pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher
+he was in great request, though possessing but few of the qualities of
+the popular preacher. All his work received very small remuneration; the
+family was maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs
+Charles--a keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of October
+1814. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed as one of
+the makers of modern Wales.     (D. E. J.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES ALBERT [CARLO ALBERTO] (1798-1849), king of Sardinia (Piedmont),
+son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano and Princess Albertine of
+Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of October 1798, a few days before
+the French occupied Piedmont and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel
+to take refuge in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano
+adhered to the French Republican régime, they soon fell under suspicion
+and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and his widow
+married a Count de Montléart and for some years led a wandering
+existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son and giving him
+mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of J.J. Rousseau, now
+under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King Charles Emmanuel abdicated in
+favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I.; the latter's only son being
+dead, his brother Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him
+Charles Albert. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court
+returned to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for
+Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him from it in
+favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he regarded him as
+an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary upbringing.
+Charles Albert was summoned to Turin, given tutors to instruct him in
+legitimist principles, and on the 1st of October 1817 married the
+archduchess Maria Theresa of Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820,
+gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.
+
+The Piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary, and had
+made a clean sweep of all French institutions. But there were strong
+Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian tendencies among the younger
+nobles and army officers, and the Carbonari and other revolutionary
+societies had made much progress.
+
+Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable manners had
+endeared him to all, and who had many friends among the Liberals and
+Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary movement was set on foot, and
+vague plans of combined risings all over Italy and a war with Austria
+were talked of. Charles Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never
+actually became a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after
+the outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading
+conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre di
+Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a military rising was
+ready and that they counted on his help (2nd March 1821). He induced
+them to delay the outbreak and informed the king, requesting him,
+however, not to punish anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria
+mutinied, and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents,
+the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at once
+abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter, pressed by
+the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers, granted the
+constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who was now king, of the
+occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then at Modena, repudiated the
+regent's acts, accepted Austrian military assistance, with which the
+rising was easily quelled, and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The
+young prince found himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while
+the Liberals looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the
+Conservatives he was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of
+Verona (1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to
+induce Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert's rights of succession.
+But the king was piqued by Austria's interference, and as both the
+grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported him, Charles
+Albert's claims were respected. France having decided to intervene in
+the Spanish revolution on the side of autocracy, Charles Albert asked
+permission to join the duc d'Angoulême's expedition. The king granted it
+and the young prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such
+gallantry at the storming of the Trocadero (1st of September 1823) that
+the French soldiers proclaimed him the "first Grenadier of France." But
+it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking binding himself, as
+soon as he ascended the throne, to place himself under the tutelage of a
+council composed of the higher clergy and the knights of the Annunziata,
+and to maintain the existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, _Cesare
+Alfieri_, xi. 77, Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin
+and forgiven.
+
+On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 1831) Charles Albert
+succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army, with an empty
+treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval laws. His first task was
+to set his house in order; he reorganized the finances, created the
+army, and started Piedmont on a path which if not liberalism was at
+least progress. "He was," wrote his reactionary minister, Count della
+Margherita, "hostile to Austria from the depths of his soul and full of
+illusions as to the possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on
+her.... As for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them,
+and was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim." In
+1833 a conspiracy of the _Giovane Italia_ Society, organized by Mazzini,
+was discovered, and a number of its members punished with ruthless
+severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who appeared to be a
+Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all Italy were turned on him
+as the heaven-born leader who was to rescue the country from the
+foreigner. This to some extent reconciled the king to the Liberal
+movement, for it accorded with his religious views. "I confess," he
+wrote to the marquis of Villamarina, in 1847, "that a war of national
+independence which should have for its object the defence of the pope
+would be the greatest happiness that could befall me." On the 30th of
+October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when risings broke
+out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further liberties were
+demanded, he was at last induced to grant the constitution (8th
+February).
+
+When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians reached Turin
+(19th of March) public opinion demanded that the Piedmontese should
+succour their struggling brothers; and after some hesitation the king
+declared war. But much time had been wasted and many precious
+opportunities lost. With an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000
+men from other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after
+defeating the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito
+on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded, more time was
+wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the Austrian general, having
+received reinforcements, drove the centre of the extended Italian line
+back across the Mincio (23rd of July), and in the two days' fighting at
+Custozza (24th and 25th of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to
+retreat, and to ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles
+Albert was badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans,
+and although he declared himself ready to die defending the city the
+municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation; the mob, urged on
+by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration against him at the
+Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in the night with difficulty and
+returned to Piedmont with his defeated army. [** amended from armp] The
+French Republic offered to intervene in the spring of 1848, but Charles
+Albert did not desire foreign aid, the more so as in this case it would
+have had to be paid for by the cession of Nice and Savoy. The
+revolutionary movement throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles
+Albert felt that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the
+Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last chance. On
+the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice and took the field
+again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave the chief command to the
+Polish general Chrzanowski. General Ramorino commanding the Lombard
+division proved unable to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino
+(20th of April), and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and
+defeated at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd. The Piedmontese fought
+with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain. After the
+battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded the occupation by
+Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the heir to the throne as a
+hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to be the obstacle to better
+conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son Victor
+Emmanuel. That same night he departed alone and made his way to Oporto,
+where he retired into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.
+
+Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of a
+hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an almost
+morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberalism, he was a
+confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble qualities: he was brave to
+the verge of foolhardiness, devoted to his country, and ready to risk
+his crown to free Italy from the foreigner. To him the people of Italy
+owe a great debt, for if he failed in his object he at least
+materialized the idea of the Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the
+charges which the Republicans and demagogues brought against him were
+monstrously unjust.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the general works on modern Italy, see the
+  Marquis Costa de Beauregard's interesting volumes _La Jeunesse du roi
+  Charles Albert_ (Paris, 1899) and _Novare et Oporto_ (1890), based on
+  the king's letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful
+  equerry, though the author's views are those of an old-fashioned
+  Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi's _Il
+  Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto_ (Bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating
+  essay; Domenico Perrero, _Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia_ (Turin, 1889);
+  L. Cappelletti, _Storia di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1891); Nicomede
+  Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (8 vols., Turin,
+  1865, &c.), a most important work of a general character, and the same
+  author's _Scritti e lettere di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1879) and his
+  _Storia della monarchia piemontese_ (Turin, 1877); Count S. della
+  Margherita, _Memorandum storico-politico_ (Turin, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES AUGUSTUS [KARL AUGUST] (1757-1828), grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar,
+son of Constantine, duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and Anna Amalia of
+Brunswick, was born on the 3rd of September 1757. His father died when
+he was only nine months old, and the boy was brought up under the
+regency and supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but
+masterful temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Görz, a German
+nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more humane element was
+introduced into his training when, in 1771, Wieland was appointed his
+tutor. In 1774 the poet Karl Ludwig von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor
+to the young Prince Constantine; and in the same year the two princes
+set out, with Count Görz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel
+introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning of a momentous
+friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned to Weimar, and the same year
+came of age and married Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.
+
+One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon Goethe to
+Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the privy council. "People
+of discernment," he said, "congratulate me on possessing this man. His
+intellect, his genius is known. It makes no difference if the world is
+offended because I have made Dr Goethe a member of my most important
+_collegium_ without his having passed through the stages of minor
+official professor and councillor of state." To the undiscerning, the
+beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent. With
+Goethe the "storm and stress" spirit descended upon Weimar, and the
+stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in a riot of youthful
+exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker, but also a good sportsman; and
+the revels of the court were alternated with break-neck rides across
+country, ending in nights spent round the camp fire under the stars.
+Karl August, however, had more serious tastes. He was interested in
+literature, in art, in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery,
+praised his judgment in painting; biologists found in him an expert in
+anatomy. Nor did he neglect the government of his little state. His
+reforms were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the
+"enlightened despots" of the 18th century; for from the first he had
+realized that the powers of the prince to play "earthly providence" were
+strictly limited. His aim, then, was to educate his people to work out
+their own political and social salvation, the object of education being
+in his view, as he explained later to the dismay of Metternich and his
+school, to help men to "independence of judgment." To this end Herder
+was summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and it is
+little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the university of
+Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar became the intellectual
+centre of Germany.
+
+Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the character of Karl
+August gave him an influence out of all proportion to his position as a
+sovereign prince. He had early faced the problem presented by the decay
+of the Empire, and began to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of
+the emperor Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of
+Germany into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the
+arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment of the
+league of princes (_Furstenbund_) in 1785, by which, under the
+leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph's intrigues were frustrated.
+He was, however, under no illusion as to the power of Austria, and he
+wisely refused the offer of the Hungarian crown, made to him in 1787 by
+Prussia at the instance of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark
+that he had no desire to be another "Winter King." In 1788 Karl August
+took service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command of
+a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the cannonade of
+Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz and the battles of
+Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern (October 28-30). After this,
+dissatisfied with the attitude of the powers, he resigned; but rejoined
+on the accession of his friend King Frederick William III. to the
+Prussian throne. The disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the
+14th of October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and Karl
+August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was forced to
+join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time till after the
+Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought under the French flag in
+all Napoleon's wars. In 1813, however, he joined the Grand Alliance, and
+at the beginning of 1814 took the command of a corps of 30,000 men
+operating in the Netherlands.
+
+At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person, and
+protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers in confining
+their debates to the "rights of the princes" to the exclusion of the
+"rights of the people." His services in the war of liberation were
+rewarded with an extension of territory and the title of grand-duke; but
+his liberal attitude had already made him suspect, and his subsequent
+action brought him still further into antagonism to the reactionary
+powers. He was the first of the German princes to grant a liberal
+constitution to his state under Article XIII. of the Act of
+Confederation (May 5, 1816); and his concession of full liberty to the
+press made Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation
+against the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously "der
+grosse Bursche" for his patronage of the "revolutionary"
+_Burschenschaften_; and the celebrated "festival" held at the Wartburg
+by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest of political
+demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath of the great powers.
+Karl August, against his better judgment, was compelled to yield to the
+remonstrances of Prussia, Austria and Russia; the liberty of the press
+was again restricted in the grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good
+understanding between the grand-duke and his people, the régime of the
+Carlsbad Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other German
+states.
+
+Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his contemporaries of
+the most various types his personality made a great impression. Karl von
+Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed the coadjutorship of Mainz to the
+duke's friendship, said that he had never met a prince "with so much
+understanding, character, frankness and true-heartedness"; the Milanese,
+when he visited their city, called him the "uomo principe"; and Goethe
+himself said of him "he had the gift of discriminating intellects and
+characters and setting each one in his place. He was inspired by the
+noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and with his whole soul desired
+only what was best. There was in him something of the divine. He would
+gladly have wrought the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was
+greater than his surroundings,... Everywhere he himself saw and judged,
+and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself." He left
+two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was succeeded, and
+Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1792-1862), a distinguished soldier, who,
+after the congress of Vienna, became colonel of a regiment in the
+service of the king of the Netherlands, distinguished himself as
+commander of the Dutch troops in the Belgian campaign of 1830, and from
+1847 to 1850 held the command of the forces in the Dutch East Indies.
+Bernhard's son, William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of
+Saxe-Weimar (1823-1902), entered the British army, served with much
+distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the 1st Life
+Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted a morganatic marriage
+with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox (d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of
+Richmond and Gordon, who in Germany received the title of countess of
+Dornburg, but was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal
+decree in 1866. Karl August's only daughter, Caroline, married Frederick
+Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and was the mother
+of Helene (1814-1858), wife of Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of
+King Louis Philippe.
+
+  Karl August's correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols. at
+  Weimar in 1863. See the biography by von Wegele in the _Allgem.
+  deutsche Biographie._
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES EDWARD [CHARLES EDWARD LOUIS PHILIP CASIMIR STUART] (1720-1788),
+English prince, called the "Young Pretender" and also the "Young
+Chevalier," was born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson
+of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the "Old
+Pretender," by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth prince
+of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites during his
+father's lifetime. The young prince was educated at his father's
+miniature court in Rome, with James Murray, Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for
+his governor, and under various tutors, amongst whom were the learned
+Chevalier Ramsay, Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abbé Légoux. He quickly
+became conversant with the English, French and Italian languages, but
+all his extant letters written in English appear singularly ill-spelt
+and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria, afterwards duke
+of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for
+the crown of Naples, passed through Rome. He offered to take Charles on
+his expedition, and the boy of thirteen, having been appointed general
+of artillery by Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the
+successful siege of Gaeta.
+
+The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were eagerly reported
+by the English ambassador at Florence and by the spy, John Walton, at
+Rome, was now introduced by his father and the pope to the highest
+Italian society, which he fascinated by the frankness of his manner and
+the grace and dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son
+on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as a
+prince and man of the world might be completed. The distinction with
+which he was received on his journey, the royal honours paid to him in
+Venice, and the jealous interference of the English ambassador in regard
+to his reception by the grand-duke of Tuscany, show how great was the
+respect in which the exiled house was held at this period by foreign
+Catholic powers, as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to
+its fortunes. The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in
+his attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea of
+rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad
+was one which it was left for Charles Edward to endeavour to realize. Of
+all the European nations France was the one on which Jacobite hopes
+mainly rested, and the warm sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had
+succeeded Fleury as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted
+in a definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed
+simultaneously with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was
+secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron under Admiral
+Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France. Transports containing 7000
+troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe, accompanied by the young prince, were
+in readiness to set sail for England. A severe storm effected, however,
+a complete disaster without any actual engagement taking place.
+
+The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a
+crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France for over a
+year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had at Rome already made
+the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of John Murray of Broughton; at Paris
+he had seen many supporters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in
+every European court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue;
+and he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other
+actual work connected with the promotion of his own and his father's
+interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends, on the 13th of July
+1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on board the small brig "La
+Doutelle," which was accompanied by a French man-of-war, the
+"Elisabeth," laden with arms and ammunition. The latter fell in with an
+English man-of-war, the "Lion," and had to return to France; Charles
+escaped during the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of
+August off Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however,
+but a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again and
+arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of Inverness-shire.
+
+The Macdonalds of Clanranald and Kinloch Moidart, along with other
+chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from the rashness of an
+unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the enthusiasm and charm of
+his manner, and Charles landed on Scottish soil in the company of the
+"Seven Men of Moidart" who had come with him from France. Everywhere,
+however, he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence he
+wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of Cameron of
+Lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion. With secrecy and
+speed communications were entered into with the known leaders of the
+Highland clans, and on the 19th of August, in the valley of Glenfinnan,
+the standard of James III. and VIII. was raised in the midst of a motley
+but increasing crowd. On the same day Sir John Cope at the head of 1500
+men left Edinburgh in search of Charles; but, fearing an attack in the
+Pass of Corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to Inverness, and
+Charles thus had the undefended south country before him. In the
+beginning of September he entered Perth, having gained numerous
+accessions to his forces on his march. Crossing the Forth unopposed at
+the Fords of Frew and passing through Stirling and Linlithgow, he
+arrived within a few miles of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th
+of September a body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of Colonel
+Gardiner in what was known as the "Canter of Coltbrig." His success was
+still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the city, a few of
+Cameron's Highlanders having on the following morning, by a happy ruse,
+forced their way through the Canon-gate. On the 18th he publicly
+proclaimed James VIII. of Scotland at the Market Cross and occupied
+Holyrood.
+
+Cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea to Dunbar.
+On the 20th Charles met and defeated him at Prestonpans, and returned to
+prosecute the siege of Edinburgh Castle, which, however, he raised on
+General Guest's threatening to lay the city in ruins. In the beginning
+of November Charles left Edinburgh, never to return. He was at the head
+of at least 6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the
+desertion of Highlanders, whose traditions had led them to consider war
+merely as a raid and an immediate return with plunder. Having passed
+through Kelso, on the 9th of November he laid siege to Carlisle, which
+capitulated in a week. Manchester received the prince with a warm
+welcome and with 150 recruits under Francis Towneley. On the 4th of
+December he had reached Derby and was within ten days' march of London,
+where the inhabitants were terror-struck and a commercial panic
+immediately ensued. Two armies under English leadership were now in the
+field against him, one under Marshal Wade, whom he had evaded by
+entering England by the west, and the other under William, duke of
+Cumberland, who had returned from the continent. London was not to be
+supposed helpless in such an emergency; Manchester, Glasgow and
+Dumfries, rid of his presence, had risen against him, and Charles
+paused. There was division among his advisers and desertion among his
+men, and on the 6th of December he reluctantly was forced to begin his
+retreat northward. Closely pursued by Cumberland, he marched by way of
+Carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest Stirling
+Castle. At Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, he defeated General
+Hawley, who had marched from Edinburgh to intercept his retreat. A
+fortnight later, however, Charles raised the siege of Stirling, and
+after a weary though successful march rested his troops at Inverness.
+Having taken Forts George and Augustus, and after varying success
+against the supporters of the government in the north, he at last
+prepared to face the duke of Cumberland, who had passed the early spring
+at Aberdeen. On the 8th of April the duke marched thence to meet
+Charles, whose little army, exhausted with a futile night march,
+half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely worsted at
+Culloden on the 16th of April 1746.
+
+This decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of Charles Edward and the
+house of Stuart. Accompanied by the faithful Ned Burke and a few other
+followers, Charles at last gained the wild western coast. Hunted hither
+and thither, he wandered on foot or cruised restlessly in open boats
+among the many barren isles of the Scottish shore, enduring the greatest
+hardships with marvellous courage and cheerfulness. Charles, upon whose
+head a reward £30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five
+months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the government.
+Disguised in female attire and aided by a passport obtained by the
+devoted Flora Macdonald, he passed through Skye and parted from his
+gallant conductress at Portree. Towards the end of July he took refuge
+in the cave of Coiraghoth in the Braes of Glenmoriston, and in August he
+joined Lochiel and Cluny Macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding
+until the news was brought that two French ships were in waiting for him
+at the place of his first arrival in Scotland--Lochnanuagh. He embarked
+with speed and sailed for France, reaching the little port of Roscoff,
+near Morlaix, on the 29th of September 1746. He was warmly welcomed by
+Louis XV., and ere long he was again vigorously intriguing in Paris, and
+even in Madrid. So far as political assistance was concerned, his
+efforts proved fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and
+idol of the people of Paris. So enraged was he with his brother Henry's
+acceptance of a cardinal's hat in July 1747, that he deliberately broke
+off communication with his father in Rome (who had approved the step),
+nor did he ever see him again. The enmity of the British government to
+Charles Edward made peace with France an impossibility so long as she
+continued to harbour the young prince. A condition of the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded in October 1748, was that every member of the
+house of Stuart should be expelled the French dominions. Charles had
+forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an indignant protest
+against its injustice, and a declaration that he would not be bound by
+its provisions. But his indignation and persistent refusal to comply
+with the request that he should voluntarily leave France had to be met
+at last with force: he was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at
+Vincennes, and on the 17th of December conducted to the French border.
+He lingered at Avignon; but the French, compelled to hard measures by
+the English, refused to be satisfied; and Pope Benedict XIV., alarmed by
+the threat of a bombardment of Civita Vecchia, advised the prince to
+withdraw. Charles quietly disappeared; for years Europe watched for him
+in vain. It is now established, almost with certainty, that he returned
+to the neighbourhood of Paris; and it is supposed that his residence was
+known to the French ministers, who, however, firmly proclaimed their
+ignorance. In 1750, and again, it is thought, in 1754, he was in London,
+hatching futile plots and risking his safety for his hopeless cause, and
+even abjuring the Roman Catholic faith in order to further his political
+interests.
+
+During the next ten years of his life Charles Edward's illicit connexion
+with Miss Clementina Walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom he had first met at
+Bannockburn House while conducting the siege of Stirling, his imperious
+fretful temper, his drunken habits and debauched life, could no longer
+be concealed. He wandered over Europe in disguise, alienating the
+friends and crushing the hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning
+to Rome at the death of his father, he was treated by Pope Clement XIII.
+with coldness, and his title as heir to the British throne was openly
+repudiated by all the great Catholic powers. It was probably through the
+influence of the French court, still intriguing against England, that
+the marriage between Charles (now self-styled count of Albany) and
+Princess Louise of Stolberg was arranged in 1772. The union proved
+childless and unhappy, and in 1780 the countess fled for refuge from her
+husband's drunken violence to a convent in Florence, where Charles had
+been residing since 1774. Later, the countess of Albany (q.v.) threw
+herself on the protection of her brother-in-law Henry, Cardinal York, at
+Rome, and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was finally
+brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices of King Gustavus
+III. of Sweden. Charles, lonely, ill, and evidently near death, now
+summoned to Florence his natural daughter, Charlotte Stuart, the child
+of Clementina Walkinshaw, born at Liége in October 1753 and hitherto
+neglected by the prince. Charlotte Stuart, who was declared legitimate
+and created duchess of Albany, tended her father for the remaining years
+of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two Stuart
+brothers, so that in 1785 Charles returned to Rome, where he died in the
+old Palazzo Muti on the 30th of January 1788. He was buried in his
+brother's cathedral church at Frascati, but in 1807 his remains were
+removed to the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's. His daughter Charlotte
+survived her father less than two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in
+November 1789, at the early age of thirty-six.
+
+  See A.C. Ewald, _Life and Times of Charles Stuart, the Young
+  Pretender_ (2 vols., 1875); C.S. Terry, _Life of the Young Pretender_,
+  and _The Rising of 1745; with Bibliography of Jacobite History
+  1689--1788_ (Scott. Hist. fr. Contemp. Writers, iii.) (1900); Earl
+  Stanhope, _History of England_ (1836) and _Decline of the Last
+  Stuarts_ (1854); Bishop R. Forbes, _The Lyon in Mourning_ (1895-1896);
+  Andrew Lang, _Pickle, the Spy_ (1897), and _Prince Charles Edward_
+  (1900); R. Chambers, _History of the Rebellion in Scotland_, &c. &c.
+       (H. M. V.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES EMMANUEL I. [CARLO EMANUELE] (1562-1630), duke of Savoy,
+succeeded his father, Emmanuel Philibert, in 1580. He continued the
+latter's policy of profiting by the rivalry of France and Spain in order
+to round off and extend his dominions. His three chief objects were the
+conquest of Geneva, of Saluzzo and of Monferrato. Saluzzo he succeeded
+in wresting from France in 1588. He intervened in the French religious
+wars, and also fought with Bern and other Swiss cantons, and on the
+murder of Henry III. of France in 1580 he aspired to the French throne
+on the strength of the claims of his wife Catherine, sister of Henry of
+Navarre, afterwards King Henry IV. In 1590 he sent an expedition to
+Provence in the interests of the Catholic League, and followed it
+himself later, but the peace of 1593, by which Henry of Navarre was
+recognized as king of France, put an end to his ambitions. In the war
+between France and Spain Charles sided with the latter, with varying
+success. Finally, by the peace of Lyons (1601), he gave up all
+territories beyond the Rhone, but his possession of Saluzzo was
+confirmed. He now meditated a further enterprise against Geneva; but his
+attempt to capture the city by treachery and with the help of Spain (the
+famous _escalade_) in 1602 failed completely. The next few years were
+filled with negotiations and intrigues with Spain and France which did
+not lead to any particular result, but on the death in 1612 of Duke
+Francesco Gonzaga of Mantua, who was lord of Monferrato, Charles
+Emmanuel made a successful _coup de main_ on that district. This
+arrayed the Venetians, Tuscany, the Empire and Spain against him, and
+he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. The Spaniards invaded the
+duchy from Lombardy, and although the duke was defeated several times he
+fought bravely, gained some successes, and the terms of the peace of
+1618 left him more or less in the _status quo ante_. We next find
+Charles Emmanuel aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without
+success. In 1628 he was in alliance with Spain in the war against
+France; the French invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by Spain,
+was overrun by their armies. The duke fought desperately, but was taken
+ill at Savigliano and died in 1630. He was succeeded by his son Victor
+Amedeo I., while his third son Tommaso founded the line of
+Savoy-Carignano from which the present royal house of Italy is
+descended. Charles Emmanuel achieved a great reputation as a statesman
+and warrior, and increased the prestige of Savoy, but he was too shifty
+and ingenious, and his schemes ended in disaster.
+
+  See E. Ricotti, _Storia della monarchia piemontese_, vols. iii. and
+  iv. (Florence, 1865); T. Raulich, _Storia di Carlo Emanuele I._
+  (Milan, 1896-1902); G. Curti, _Carlo Emanuele I. secondo; più recenti
+  studii_ (Milan, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES MARTEL[1] (c. 688-741), Frankish ruler, was a natural son of
+Pippin II., mayor of the palace, and Chalpaïda. Charles was baptized by
+St Rigobert, bishop of Reims. At the death of his father in 714,
+Pippin's widow Plectrude claimed the government in Austrasia and
+Neustria in the name of her grandchildren, and had Charles thrown into
+prison. But the Neustrians threw off the Austrasian yoke and entered
+into an offensive alliance with the Frisians and Saxons. In the general
+anarchy Charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the Neustrians at
+Amblève, south of Liége, in 716, and at Vincy, near Cambrai, in 717, and
+forced them to come to terms. In Austrasia he wrested the power from
+Plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the palace, thus prejudicing
+the interests of his nephews. According to the Frankish custom he
+proclaimed a king in Austrasia in the person of the young Clotaire IV.,
+but in reality Charles was the sole master--the entry in the annals for
+the year 717 being "Carolus regnare coepit." Once in possession of
+Austrasia, Charles sought to extend his dominion over Neustria also. In
+719 he defeated Ragenfrid, the Neustrian mayor of the palace, at
+Soissons, and forced him to retreat to Angers. Ragenfrid died in 731,
+and from that time Charles had no competitor in the western kingdom. He
+obliged the inhabitants of Burgundy to submit, and disposed of the
+Burgundian bishoprics and countships to his _leudes_. In Aquitaine Duke
+Odo (Eudes) exercised independent authority, but in 719 Charles forced
+him to recognize the suzerainty of northern France, at least nominally.
+After the alliance between Charles and Odo on the field of Poitiers, the
+mayor of the palace left Aquitaine to Odo's son Hunald, who paid homage
+to him. Besides establishing a certain unity in Gaul, Charles saved it
+from a very great peril. In 711 the Arabs had conquered Spain. In 720
+they crossed the Pyrenees, seized Narbonensis, a dependency of the
+kingdom of the Visigoths, and advanced on Gaul. By his able policy Odo
+succeeded in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali,
+Abdur Rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the
+attack, reached Poitiers, and advanced on Tours, the holy town of Gaul.
+In October 732--just 100 years after the death of Mahomet--Charles
+gained a brilliant victory over Abdur Rahman, who was called back to
+Africa by the revolts of the Berbers and had to give up the struggle.
+This was the last of the great Arab invasions of Europe. After his
+victory Charles took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest Narbonensis
+from the Mussulmans. Although he was not successful in his attempt to
+recover Narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of Agde, Béziers and
+Maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at Nîmes. He subdued also
+the Germanic tribes; annexed Frisia, where Christianity was beginning to
+make progress; put an end to the duchy of Alemannia; intervened in the
+internal affairs of the dukes of Bavaria; made expeditions into Saxony;
+and in 738 compelled some of the Saxon tribes to pay him tribute. He
+also gave St Boniface a safe conduct for his missions in Thuringia,
+Alemannia and Bavaria.
+
+During the government of Charles Martel important changes appear to have
+been made in the internal administration. Under him began the great
+assemblies of nobles known as the _champs de Mars_. To attach his
+_leudes_ Charles had to give them church lands as _precarium_, and this
+had a very great influence in the development of the feudal system. It
+was from the _precarium_, or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal
+fief originated. Vassalage, too, acquired a greater consistency at this
+period, and its rules began to crystallize. Under Charles occurred the
+first attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the Franks. Pope
+Gregory III., menaced by the Lombards, invoked the aid of Charles (739),
+sent him a deputation with the keys of the Holy Sepulchre and the chains
+of St Peter, and offered to break with the emperor and Constantinople,
+and to give Charles the Roman consulate (_ut a partibus imperatoris
+recederet et Romanum consulatum Carolo sanciret_). This proposal, though
+unsuccessful, was the starting-point of a new papal policy. Since the
+death of Theuderich IV. in 737 there had been no king of the Franks. In
+741 Charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as though he were
+himself master of the realm. To the elder, Carloman, he gave Austrasia,
+Alemannia and Thuringia, with suzerainty over Bavaria; the younger,
+Pippin, received Neustria, Burgundy and Provence. Shortly after this
+division of the kingdom Charles died at Quierzy on the 22nd of October
+741, and was buried at St Denis. The characters of Charles Martel and
+his grandson Charlemagne offer many striking points of resemblance. Both
+were men of courage and activity, and the two men are often confused in
+the _chansons de geste_.
+
+  See T. Breysig, _Jahrbücher d. fränk. Reichs, 714--741; die Zeit Karl
+  Martells_ (Leipzig, 1869); A.A. Beugnot, "Sur la spoliation des biens
+  du clergé attribuée à Charles Martel," in the _Mém. de l'Acad. des
+  Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853); Ulysse Chevalier,
+  _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Or "The Hammer."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, a city and the county-seat of Coles county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 45 m. W. of Terre Haute,
+Indiana. Pop. (1900) 5488; (1910) 5884. It is served by the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western
+railways, and by interurban electric lines. It is the seat of the
+Eastern Illinois state normal school (opened in 1899). The city is
+situated in an important broom-corn raising district, and has broom
+factories, a tile factory and planing mills. The water-works are owned
+and operated by the municipality. Charleston was settled about 1835, was
+incorporated in 1839, and was reincorporated in 1865. One of the
+Lincoln-Douglas debates was held here in 1858.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, the largest city of South Carolina, U.S.A., the county-seat
+of Charleston county, a port of entry, and an important South Atlantic
+seaport, on a narrow peninsula formed by the Cooper river on the E. and
+the Ashley on the W. and S.W., and within sight of the ocean about 7 m.
+distant. Pop. (1890) 54,955; (1900) 55,807, of whom 31,522 were of negro
+descent and 2592 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 58,833. It is served
+by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern railways, the Clyde
+Steamship Line to New York, Boston and Jacksonville, the Baltimore &
+Carolina Steamship Co. to Baltimore and Georgetown, and a branch of the
+North German Lloyd Steamship Co., which brings immigrants from Europe
+direct to the Southern states; there are freight boat lines to ports in
+the West Indies, Central America and other foreign countries.
+
+The city extends over 3.76 sq. m. of surface, nowhere rising more than 8
+or 10 ft. above the rivers, and has about 9 m. of water front. In the
+middle of the harbour, on a small island near its entrance, is the
+famous Fort Sumter; a little to the north-east, on Sullivan's Island, is
+the scarcely less historic Fort Moultrie, as well as extensive modern
+fortifications; on James Island, opposite, is Fort Johnson, now the
+United States Quarantine Station, and farther up, on the other islands,
+are Fort Ripley and Castle Pinckney (now the United States buoy
+station). Viewed from any of these forts, Charleston's spires and public
+buildings seem to rise out of the sea. The streets are shaded with the
+live oak and the linden, and are ornamented with the palmetto; and the
+quaint specimens of colonial architecture, numerous pillared porticoes,
+spacious verandas--both upper and lower--and flower gardens made
+beautiful with magnolias, palmettoes, azaleas, jessamines, camelias and
+roses, give the city a peculiarly picturesque character.
+
+King Street, running north and south through the middle of the
+peninsula, and Market Street, crossing it about 1 m. from its lower end,
+are lined with stores, shops or stalls; on Broad Street are many of the
+office buildings and banks; the wholesale houses are for the most part
+on Meeting Street, the first thoroughfare east of King; nearly all of
+the wharves are on the east side; the finest residences are at the lower
+end of the peninsula on East Battery and South Battery, on Meeting
+Street below Broad, on Legare Street, on Broad Street and on Rutledge
+Avenue to the west of King. At the south-east corner of Broad and
+Meeting streets is Saint Michael's (built in 1752-1761), the oldest
+church edifice in the city, and a fine specimen of colonial
+ecclesiastical architecture; in its tower is an excellent chime of eight
+bells. Beneath the vestry room lie the remains of Charles Cotesworth
+Pinckney, and in the churchyard are the graves of John Rutledge, James
+Louis Petigru (1789-1863), and Robert Young Hayne. At the intersection
+of the same streets are also the massive United States post office
+building (Italian Renaissance in style), with walls of granite; the
+county court house, the city hall and Washington Square--in which stand
+a statue of William Pitt (one arm of which was broken off by a cannon
+shot during the British bombardment in 1780), and a monument to the
+memory of Henry Timrod (1829-1867), the poet. At the foot of Broad
+Street is the Colonial Exchange in which the South Carolina convention
+organized a new government during the War of Independence; and at the
+foot of Market Street is the large modern custom house of white marble,
+built in the Roman-Corinthian style. Saint Philip's church, with
+admirable architectural proportions, has a steeple nearly 200 ft. in
+height, from which a beacon light shines for the guidance of mariners
+far out at sea. In the west cemetery of this church are the tombs of
+John C. Calhoun, and of Robert James Turnbull (1775-1833), who was
+prominent locally as a nullifier and under the name of "Brutus" wrote
+ably on behalf of nullification, free trade and state's rights. The
+French Protestant Church, though small, is an attractive specimen of
+Gothic architecture; and the Unitarian, which is in the Perpendicular
+style and is modelled after the chapel of Edward VI. in Westminster, has
+a beautiful fan-tracery ceiling.
+
+Of the few small city squares, gardens or parks, the White Point Garden
+at the lower end of the peninsula is most frequented; it is shaded with
+beautiful live oaks, is adorned with palmettoes and commands a fine view
+of the harbour. About 1½ m. north of this on Meeting Street is Marion
+Square, with a tall graceful monument to the memory of John C. Calhoun
+on the south side, and the South Carolina Military Academy along the
+north border. The largest park in Charleston is Hampton Park, named in
+honour of General Wade Hampton. It is situated in the north-west part of
+the city and is beautifully laid out. The Isle of Palms, to the north of
+Sullivan's Island, has a large pavilion and a wide sandy beach with a
+fine surf for bathing, and is the most popular resort for visitors. The
+Magnolia Gardens are about 8 m. up the Ashley. Twenty-two miles beyond
+is the town of Summerville (pop. in 1900, 2420), a health resort in the
+pine lands, with one of the largest tea farms in the country. Magnolia
+Cemetery, the principal burial-place, is a short distance north of the
+city limits; in it are the graves of William Washington (1732-1810) and
+Hugh Swinton Legaré. Charleston was the home of the Pinckneys, the
+Rutledges, the Gadsdens, the Laurenses, and, in a later generation, of
+W.G. Simms. A trace of the early social organization of the brilliant
+colonial town remains in the St Cecilia Society, first formed in 1737 as
+an amateur concert society.
+
+Charleston has an excellent system of public schools. Foremost among the
+educational institutions is the college of Charleston, chartered in 1785
+and again in 1791, and opened in 1790; it is supported by the city and
+by funds of its own, ranks high within the state, and has a large and
+well-equipped museum of natural history, probably founded as early as
+1777 and transferred to the college in 1850. Here, too, are the Medical
+College of the state of South Carolina, which includes a department of
+pharmacy; the South Carolina Military Academy (opened in 1843), which is
+a branch of the University of South Carolina; the Porter Military
+Academy (Protestant Episcopal), the Confederate home school for young
+women, the Charleston University School, and the Avery Normal Institute
+(Congregationalist) for coloured students. In the Charleston library
+(about 25,000 volumes), founded in 1748, are important collections of
+rare books and manuscripts; the rooms of the South Carolina Historical
+Society are in the same building. The Charleston _News and Courier_,
+published first as the _Courier_ in 1803 and combined with the _Daily
+News_ (1865) in 1873, is one of the most influential newspapers in the
+South. The charitable institutions of the city include the Roper
+hospital, the Charleston Orphan Asylum (founded in 1792), the William
+Euston home for the aged, and a home for the widows of Confederate
+soldiers.
+
+In 1878 the United States government began the construction of jetties
+to remove the bar at the entrance to Charleston harbour, which was
+otherwise deep and spacious and well protected, and by means of these
+jetties the bar has been so far removed as to admit vessels drawing
+about 30 ft. of water. The result has been not only the promotion of the
+city's commerce, but the removal of the United States naval station and
+navy yard from Port Royal to what was formerly Chicora Park on the left
+bank of the Cooper river, a short distance above the city limits. The
+city's commerce consists largely in the export of cotton,[1] rice,
+fertilizers, fruits, lumber and naval stores; the value of its exports,
+$10,794,000 in 1897, decreased to $2,196,596 in 1907 ($3,164,089 in
+1908), while that of the import trade ($1,255,483 in 1897) increased to
+$3,840,585 in 1907 ($3,323,844 in 1908). The principal industries are
+the preparation of fertilizers--largely from the extensive beds of
+phosphate rock along the banks of the Ashley river and from cotton-seed
+meal--cotton compressing, rice cleaning, canning oysters, fruits and
+vegetables, and the manufacture of cotton bagging, of lumber, of
+cooperage goods, clothing and carriages and wagons. Between 1880 and
+1890 the industrial development of the city was very rapid, the
+manufactures in 1890 showing an increase of 229.6% over those of 1880;
+the increase between 1890 and 1900 was only 6.2%. In 1900 the total
+value of the city's manufactures, 16.3% (in value) of the product of the
+entire state, was $9,562,387, the value of the fertilizer product alone,
+much the most important, being $3,697,090.[2]
+
+_History_.--The first English settlement in South Carolina, established
+at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley river in 1670, was
+named Charles Town in honour of Charles II. The location proving
+undesirable, a new Charles Town on the site of the present city was
+begun about 1672, and the seat of government was removed to it in 1680.
+The name Charles Town became Charlestown about 1719 and Charleston in
+1783. Among the early settlers were English Churchmen, New England
+Congregationalists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Dutch and German
+Lutherans, Huguenots (especially in 1680-1688) from France and
+Switzerland, and a few Quakers; later the French element of the
+population was augmented by settlers from Acadia (1755) and from San
+Domingo (1793). Although it soon became the largest and the wealthiest
+settlement south of Philadelphia, Charleston did not receive a charter
+until 1783, and did not have even a township government. Local
+ordinances were passed by the provincial legislature and enforced partly
+by provincial officials and partly by the church wardens. It was,
+however, the political and social centre of the province, being not only
+the headquarters of the governor, council and colonial officials, but
+also the only place at which courts of justice were held until the
+complaints of the Up Country people led to the establishment of circuit
+courts in 1772. After the American War of Independence it continued to
+be the capital of South Carolina until 1790. The charter of 1783, though
+frequently amended and altered, is still in force. By an act of the
+state legislature passed in 1837 the terms "mayor" and "alderman"
+superseded the older terms "intendant" and "wardens." The city was the
+heart of the nullification movement of 1832-1833; and in St Andrew's
+Hall, in Broad Street, on the 20th of December 1860, a convention called
+by the state legislature passed an ordinance of secession from the
+Union.
+
+Charleston has several times been attacked by naval forces and has
+suffered from many storms. Hurricane and epidemic together devastated
+the town both in 1699 and in 1854; the older and more thickly settled
+part of the town was burnt in 1740, and a hurricane did great damage in
+1752. In 1706, during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined
+fleet of Spanish and French under Captain Le Feboure was repulsed by the
+forces of Governor Nathaniel Johnson (d. 1713) and Colonel William Rhett
+(1666-1721). During the War of Independence Charleston withstood the
+attack of Sir Peter Parker and Sir Henry Clinton in 1776, and that of
+General Augustus Prevost in 1779, but shortly afterwards became the
+objective of a more formidable attack by Sir Henry Clinton, the
+commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In the later years
+of the contest the British turned their attention to the reduction of
+the colonies in the south, and the prominent point and best base of
+operations in that section was the city of Charleston, which was
+occupied in the latter part of 1779 by an American force under General
+Benjamin Lincoln. In December of that year Sir Henry Clinton embarked
+from New York with 8000 British troops and proceeded to invest
+Charleston by land. He entrenched himself west of the city between the
+Cooper and Ashley rivers, which bound it north and south, and thus
+hemmed Lincoln in a _cul-de-sac_. The latter made the mistake of
+attempting to defend the city with an inferior force. Delays had
+occurred in the British operations and Clinton was not prepared to
+summon the Americans to surrender until the 10th of April 1780. Lincoln
+refused, and Clinton advanced his trenches to the third parallel,
+rendering his enemy's works untenable. On the 12th of May Lincoln
+capitulated. About 2000 American Continentals were made prisoners, and
+an equal number of militia and armed citizens. This success was regarded
+by the British as an offset against the loss of Burgoyne's army in 1777,
+and Charleston at once became the base of active operations in the
+Carolinas, which Clinton left Cornwallis to conduct. Thenceforward
+Charleston was under military rule until evacuated by the British on the
+14th of December 1782.
+
+The bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter (garrisoned by Federal
+troops) by the South Carolinians, on the 12th and 13th of April 1861,
+marked the actual beginning of the American Civil War. From 1862 onwards
+Charleston was more or less under siege by the Federal naval and
+military forces until 1865. The Confederates repulsed a naval attack
+made by the Federals under Admiral S.F. Du Pont in April 1863, and a
+land attack under General Q.A. Gillmore in June of the same year. They
+were compelled to evacuate the city on the 17th of February 1865, after
+having burned a considerable amount of cotton and other supplies to
+prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy. After the Civil
+War the wealth and the population steadily increased, in spite of the
+destruction wrought by the earthquake of 31st August 1886 (see
+EARTHQUAKE). In that catastrophe 27 persons were killed, many more were
+injured and died subsequently, 90% of the buildings were injured, and
+property to the value of more than $5,000,000 was destroyed. The South
+Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition, held here from the 1st
+of December 1901 to the 1st of June 1902, called the attention of
+investors to the resources of the city and state, but was not successful
+financially, and Congress appropriated $160,000 to make good the
+deficit.
+
+  Much information concerning Charleston may be obtained in A.S.
+  Salley's _A Guide and Historical Sketch of Charleston_ (Charleston,
+  1903), and in Mrs St Julien Ravenel's _Charleston; The Place and the
+  People_ (New York, 1906). The best history of Charleston is William A.
+  Courtenay's _Charleston, S.C.: The Centennial of Incorporation_
+  (Charleston, 1884). There is also a good sketch by Yates Snowden in
+  L.P. Powell's _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York,
+  1900). For the earthquake see the account by Carl McKinley in the
+  _Charleston Year-Book_ for 1886. See also SOUTH CAROLINA.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At an early date cotton became an important article in
+    Charleston's commerce; some was shipped so early as 1747. At the
+    outbreak of the Civil War Charleston was one of the three most
+    important cotton-shipping ports in the United States, being exceeded
+    in importance only by New Orleans and New York.
+
+  [2] The special census of 1905 dealt only with the factory product,
+    that of 1905 ($6,007,094) showing an increase of 5.1% over that of
+    1900 ($5,713,315). In 1905 the (factory) fertilizer product of
+    Charleston was $1,291,859, which represented more than 35% of the
+    (factory) fertilizer product of the whole state.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, the capital of West Virginia, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Kanawha county, situated near the centre of the state, on the N. bank of
+the Kanawha river, at the mouth of the Elk river, about 200 m. E. of
+Cincinnati, Ohio, and about 130 m. S.W. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 6742;
+(1900) 11,099, of whom 1787 were negroes, and 353 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 22,996. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Toledo
+& Ohio Central, the Coal & Coke, and the Kanawha & West Virginia (39 m.
+to Blakeley) railways, and by several river transportation lines on the
+Kanawha river (navigable throughout the year by means of movable locks)
+connecting with Ohio and Mississippi river ports. The city is
+attractively built on high level land, above the river; in addition to a
+fine customs house, court house and high school, it contains the West
+Virginia state capitol, erected in 1880. The libraries include the state
+law library, with 14,000 volumes in 1908, and the library of the state
+Department of Archives and History, with about 11,000 volumes.
+Charleston is in the midst of a region rich in bituminous coal, the
+shipment of which by river and rail constitutes one of its principal
+industries. Oil wells in the vicinity also furnish an important product
+for export, and there are iron and salt mines near. An ample supply of
+natural gas is utilized by its manufacturing establishments; and among
+its manufactures are axes, lumber, foundry and machine shop products,
+furniture, boilers, woollen goods, glass and chemical fire-engines. The
+value of the city's factory products increased from $1,261,815 in 1900
+to $2,728,074 in 1905, or 116.2%, a greater rate of increase than that
+of any other city (with 8000 or more inhabitants) in the state during
+this period. The first permanent white settlement at Charleston was made
+soon after the close of the War of Independence; it was one of the
+places through which the streams of immigrants entered the Ohio Valley,
+and it became of considerable importance as a centre of transfer and
+shipment, but it was not until the development of the coal-mining region
+that it became industrially important. Charleston was incorporated in
+1794, and was chartered as a city in 1870. Since the latter year it has
+been the seat of government of West Virginia, with the exception of the
+decade 1875-1885, when Wheeling was the capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTOWN, formerly a separate city of Middlesex county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., but since 1874 a part of the city of Boston, with
+which it had long before been in many respects practically one. It is
+situated on a small peninsula on Boston harbour, between the mouths of
+the Mystic and Charles rivers; the first bridge across the Charles,
+built in 1786, connected Charlestown and Boston. A United States navy
+yard (1800), occupying about 87 acres, and the Massachusetts state
+prison (1805) are here; the old burying-ground contains the grave of
+John Harvard and that of Thomas Beecher, the first American member of
+the famous Beecher family; and there is a soldiers' and sailors'
+monument (1872), designed by Martin Milmore. Charlestown was founded in
+1628 or 1629, being the oldest part of Boston, and soon rose into
+importance; it was organized as a township in 1630, and was chartered as
+a city in 1847. Within its limits was fought, on the 17th of June 1775,
+the battle of Bunker Hill (q.v.), when Charlestown was almost completely
+destroyed by the British. The Bunker Hill Monument commemorates the
+battle; and the navy yard at Moulton's Point was the landing-place of
+the attacking British troops. Little was done toward the rebuilding of
+Charlestown until 1783. The original territory of the township was very
+large, and from parts of it were formed Woburn (1642), Malden (1649),
+Stoneham (1725), and Somerville (1842); other parts were annexed to
+Cambridge, to Medford and to Arlington. S.F.B. Morse, the inventor of
+the electric telegraph, was born here; and Charlestown was the
+birthplace and home of Nathaniel Gorham (1738-1796), a member of the
+Continental Congress in 1782-1783 and 1785-1787, and its president in
+1786; and was the home of Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), a well-known civil
+engineer; of Samuel Dexter (1761-1816), an eminent lawyer, secretary of
+war and for a short time secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of
+President John Adams; and of Oliver Holden (1765-1831), a composer of
+hymn-tunes, including "Coronation."
+
+  See R. Frothingham, _History of Charlestown_ (Boston, 1845), covering
+  1629-1775; J.F. Hunnewell, _A Century of Town Life ... 1775-1887_
+  (Boston, 1888); and Timothy T. Sawyer, _Old Charlestown_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT (1792-1845), French designer and painter,
+more especially of military subjects, was born in Paris on the 20th of
+December 1792. He was the son of a dragoon in the Republican army, whose
+death in the ranks left the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances.
+Madame Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme
+Napoleonist, managed to give her boy a moderate education at the Lycée
+Napoléon, and was repaid by his lifelong affection. His first employment
+was in a Parisian mairie, where he had to register recruits: he served
+in the National Guard in 1814, fought bravely at the Barrière de Clichy,
+and, being thus unacceptable to the Bourbon party, was dismissed from
+the mairie in 1816. He then, having from a very early age had a
+propensity for drawing, entered the atelier of the distinguished painter
+Baron Gros, and soon began issuing the first of those lithographed
+designs which eventually brought him renown. His "Grenadier de
+Waterloo," 1817, with the motto "La Garde meurt et ne se rend pas" (a
+famous phrase frequently attributed to Cambronne, but which he never
+uttered, and which cannot, perhaps, be traced farther than to this
+lithograph by Charlet), was particularly popular. It was only towards
+1822, however, that he began to be successful in a professional sense.
+Lithographs (about 2000 altogether), water-colours, sepia-drawings,
+numerous oil sketches, and a few etchings followed one another rapidly;
+there were also three exhibited oil pictures, the first of which was
+especially admired--"Episode in the Campaign of Russia" (1836), the
+"Passage of the Rhine by Moreau" (1837), "Wounded Soldiers Halting in a
+Ravine" (1843). Besides the military subjects in which he peculiarly
+delighted, and which found an energetic response in the popular heart,
+and kept alive a feeling of regret for the recent past of the French
+nation and discontent with the present,--a feeling which increased upon
+the artist himself towards the close of his career,--Charlet designed
+many subjects of town life and peasant life, the ways of children, &c.,
+with much wit and whim in the descriptive mottoes. One of the most
+famous sets is the "Vie civile, politique, et militaire du Caporal
+Valentin," 50 lithographs, dating from 1838 to 1842. In 1838 his health
+began to fail owing to an affection of the chest. He died in Paris on
+the 30th of October 1845. Charlet was an uncommonly tall man, with an
+expressive face, bantering and good natured; his character corresponded,
+full of boyish fun and high spirits, with manly independence, and a vein
+of religious feeling, and he was a hearty favourite among his intimates,
+one of whom was the painter Géricault. Charlet married in 1824, and two
+sons survived him.
+
+  A life of Charlet was published in 1856 by a military friend, De la
+  Combe.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVILLE, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of
+Ardennes, 151 m. N.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906)
+19,693. Charleville is situated within a bend of the Meuse on its left
+bank, opposite Mézières, with which it is united by a suspension bridge.
+The town was founded in 1606 by Charles III. (Gonzaga), duke of Nevers,
+afterwards duke of Mantua, and is laid out on a uniform plan. Its
+central and most interesting portion is the Place Ducale, a large square
+surrounded by old houses with high-pitched roofs, the porches being
+arranged so as to form a continuous arcade; in the centre there is a
+fountain surmounted by a statue of the duke Charles. A handsome church
+in the Romanesque style and the other public buildings date from the
+19th century. An old mill, standing on the bank of the river, dates from
+the early years of the town's existence. On the right bank of the Meuse
+is Mont Olympe, with the ruins of a fortress dismantled under Louis XIV.
+Charleville, which shares with Mézières the administrative institutions
+of the department of Ardennes, has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators and lycées
+and training colleges for both sexes. Its chief industries are
+metal-founding and the manufacture of nails, anvils, tools and other
+iron goods, and brush-making; leather-working and sugar-refining, and
+the making of bricks and clay pipes are also carried on.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE (1682-1761), French Jesuit
+traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin on the 29th of October
+1682. At the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus; and at the
+age of twenty-three was sent to Canada, where he remained for four years
+as professor at Quebec. He then returned and became professor of belles
+lettres at home, and travelled on the errands of his society in various
+countries. In 1720-1722, under orders from the regent, he visited
+America for the second time, and went along the Great Lakes and down the
+Mississippi. In later years (1733-1755) he was one of the directors of
+the _Journal de Trévoux_. He died at La Flèche on the 1st of February
+1761. His works, enumerated in the _Bibliographie des Prèrs de la
+Compagnie de Jesus_ (by Carlos Sommervogel), fall into two groups. The
+first contains his _Histoire de l'établissement, du progrès et de la
+décadence du Christianisme dans l'empire du Japon_ (Rouen, 1715; English
+trans. _History of the Church of Japan_, 1715), and his _Histoire et
+description générale du Japon_ (1736), a compilation chiefly from
+Kämpfer. The second group includes his historical work on America:
+_Histoire de l'Isle Espagnole ou de Saint Domingue_ (1730), based on
+manuscript memoirs of P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers and original sources;
+_Histoire de Paraguay_ (1756); _Vie de la Mère Marie de l'Incarnation,
+institutrice et première supérieure des Urselines de la Nouvelle-France_
+(1724); _Histoire et description générale de la Nouvelle-France_ (1744;
+in English 1769; tr. J.G. Shea, 1866-1872), a work of capital importance
+for Canadian history.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVOIX, a village and the county-seat of Charlevoix county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., 16 m. E.S.E. of Petoskey, on Lake Michigan and Pine
+Lake, which are connected by Pine river and Round Lake. Pop. (1890)
+1496; (1900) 2079; (1904) 2395; (1910) 2420. It is on the main line of
+the Père Marquette railway, and during the summer season is served by
+lake steamers. The village is best known as a summer resort; it is built
+on bluffs and on a series of terraces rising from Round and Pine lakes
+and affording extensive views; and there are a number of attractive
+summer residences. Charlevoix is an important hardwood lumber port, and
+the principal industries are the manufacture of lumber and of cement;
+fishing (especially for lake trout and white fish); the raising of sugar
+beets; and the manufacture of rustic and fancy wood-work. Charlevoix was
+settled about 1866, and was incorporated as a village in 1879.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTE, a city and the county-seat of Mecklenburg county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., situated on Sugar Creek, in the south-west part of the
+state, about 175 m. south-west of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 11,557; (1900)
+18,091, of whom 7151 were negroes; (1910 census) 34,014. It is served by
+the Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways. Among the public
+buildings are a fine city hall, court-house, Federal and Young Men's
+Christian Association buildings, and a Carnegie library; several
+hospitals: St Peter's (Episcopal) for whites, Good Samaritan (Episcopal)
+for negroes, Mercy General (Roman Catholic) and a Presbyterian. The city
+is the seat of Elizabeth College and Conservatory of Music (1897), a
+non-sectarian institution for women, of the Presbyterian College for
+women, and of Biddle University (Presbyterian) for negroes, established
+in 1867. There is a United States assay office, established as a branch
+mint in 1837, during the days of North Carolina's great importance as a
+gold producing state, and closed from 1861 to 1869. The city has large
+cotton, clothing, and knitting mills, and manufactories of cotton-seed
+oil, tools, machinery, fertilizers and furniture. The total value of its
+factory products was $4,849,630 in 1905. There are large electric power
+plants in and near the city. Printing and publishing are of some
+importance: Charlotte is the publication headquarters of the African
+Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; and several textile trade journals and
+two medical periodicals are published here. The water-works are owned by
+the municipality. Charlotte was settled about 1750 and was incorporated
+in 1768. Here in May 1775 was adopted the "Mecklenburg Declaration of
+Independence" (see NORTH CAROLINA), and in honour of its signers there
+is a monument in front of the court-house. Charlotte was occupied in
+September 1780 by Cornwallis, who left it after learning of the battle
+of King's Mountain, and subsequently it became the principal base and
+rendezvous of General Greene.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
+Spree, lying immediately west of Berlin, of which it forms practically
+the entire western suburb. The earlier name of the town was Lietzenburg.
+Pop. (1890) 76,859; (1900) 189,290; (1905) 237,231. It is governed by a
+council of 94 members. The central part of the town is connected with
+Berlin by a magnificent avenue, the Charlottenburger Chaussee, which
+runs from the Brandenburger Tor through the whole length of the
+Tiergarten. Although retaining its own municipal government,
+Charlottenburg, together with the adjacent suburban towns of Schoneberg
+and Rixdorf, was included in 1900 in the police district of the capital.
+The Schloss, built in 1696 for the electress Sophie Charlotte, queen of
+the elector Frederick, afterwards King Frederick I., after whom the town
+was named, contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. In the
+grounds stands a granite mausoleum, the work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel,
+with beautiful white marble recumbent statues of Frederick William III.
+and his queen Louise by Christian Daniel Rauch, and also those of the
+emperor William I. and the empress Augusta by Erdmann Encke. It was in
+the Schloss that the emperor Frederick III. took over the reins of
+government in 1888, and here he resided for nearly the whole of his
+three months' reign. The town contains an equestrian statue of
+Frederick. Of public buildings, the famous technical academy and the
+Kaiser Wilhelm memorial church are referred to in the article BERLIN. In
+Charlottenburg is the Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, a state
+institution for the carrying out of scientific experiments and
+measurements, and for testing instruments of precision, materials, &c.
+It was established in 1886 with money provided by Ernst Werner Siemens.
+In addition to the famous royal porcelain manufactory, Charlottenburg
+has many flourishing industries, notably iron-works grouped along the
+banks of the Spree. Its main thoroughfares are laid out on a spacious
+plan, while there are many quiet streets containing pretty villas. See
+F. Schultz, _Chronik von Charlottenburg_ (Charlottenburg, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Albemarle county,
+Virginia, U.S.A., picturesquely situated on the Rivanna river, 96 m. (by
+rail) N.W. of Richmond in the beautiful Piedmont region. Pop. (1890)
+5591; (1900) 6449 (2613 being negroes); (1910) 6765. The city is served
+by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the Southern railways, and is best known
+as the seat of the University of Virginia (q.v.), which was founded by
+Thomas Jefferson. Here are also the Rawlings Institute for girls,
+founded as the Albemarle Female Institute in 1857, and a University
+school. Monticello, Jefferson's home, is still standing about 2 m.
+south-east of the city on a fine hill, called Little Mountain until
+Jefferson Italianised the name. The south pavilion of the present house
+is the original brick building, one and a half storeys high, first
+occupied by Jefferson in 1770. He was buried near the house, which was
+sold by his daughter some years after his death. George Rogers Clark was
+born near Monticello. Charlottesville is a trade centre for the
+surrounding country; among its manufactures are woollen goods, overalls,
+agricultural implements and cigars and tobacco. The city owns its
+water-supply system and owns and operates its gas plant; an electric
+plant, privately owned, lights the streets and many houses. The site of
+the city was a part of the Castle Hill estate of Thomas Walker
+(1715-1794), an intimate friend of George Washington. The act
+establishing the town of Charlottesville was passed by the Assembly of
+Virginia in November 1762, when the name Charlottesville (in honour of
+Queen Charlotte, wife of George III.) first appeared. In 1779-1780 about
+4000 of Burgoyne's troops, surrendered under the "Convention" of
+Saratoga, were quartered here; in October 1780 part of them were sent to
+Lancaster, Pa., and later the rest were sent north. In June 1781
+Tarleton raided Charlottesville and the vicinity, nearly captured Thomas
+Jefferson, and destroyed the public records and some arms and
+ammunition. In 1888 Charlottesville was chartered as a city
+administratively independent of the county.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTETOWN, a city of Canada, the capital of Prince Edward Island,
+situated in Queen's county, on Hillsborough river. Pop. (1901) 12,080.
+It has a good harbour, and the river is navigable by large vessels for
+several miles. The export trade of the island centres here, and the city
+has regular communication by steamer with the chief American and
+Canadian ports. Besides the government buildings and the court-house, it
+contains numerous churches, the Prince of Wales College, supported by
+the province, the Roman Catholic college of St Dunstan's and a normal
+school; among its manufactures are woollen goods, lumber, canned goods,
+and foundry products. The head office and workshops of the Prince Edward
+Island railway are situated here. The town was founded in 1750 by the
+French under the name of Port la Joie, but under British rule changed
+its name in honour of the queen of George III.
+
+
+
+
+CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. _carmen_, a song), an incantation,
+verses sung with supposed magical results, hence anything possessing
+powers of bringing good luck or averting evil, particularly articles
+worn with that purpose, such as an amulet. It is thus used of small
+trinkets attached to bracelets or chains. The word is also used,
+figuratively, of fascinating qualities of feature, voice or character.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DESIRE (1828- ), French traveller and
+archaeologist, was born in Fleurie (Rhone), on the 2nd of May 1828. He
+studied at the Lycée Charlemagne, in 1850 became a teacher in New
+Orleans, Louisiana, and there became acquainted with John Lloyd
+Stephens's books of travel in Yucatan. He travelled in Mexico, under a
+commission from the French ministry of education, in 1857-1861; in
+Madagascar in 1863; in South America, particularly Chile and Argentina,
+in 1875; and in Java and Australia in 1878. In 1880-1883 he again
+visited the ruined cities of Mexico. Pierre Lorillard of New York
+contributed to defray the expense of this expedition, and Charnay named
+a great ruined city near the Guatemalan boundary line Ville Lorillard in
+his honour. Charnay went to Yucatan in 1886. The more important of his
+publications are _Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage_
+(1863), being his personal report on the expedition of 1857-61, of
+which the official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc's _Cités et
+ruines americaines: Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal_
+(1863), vol. 19 of _Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les Anciennes
+Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (1885; English translation, _The Ancient Cities
+of the New World_, 1887, by Mmes. Gonino and Conant); a romance, _Une
+Princesse indienne avant la conquête_ (1888); _À travers les forêts
+vierges_ (1890); and _Manuscrit Ramirez: Histoire de I'origine des
+Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_ (1903).
+He translated Cortez's letters into French, under the title _Lettres de
+Fernand Cortes à Charles-quint sur la découverte et la conquête du
+Mexique_ (1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and
+considered the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because of
+observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration,
+Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNEL HOUSE (Med. Lat. _carnarium_), a place for depositing the bones
+which might be thrown up in digging graves. Sometimes, as at Gloucester,
+Hythe and Ripon, it was a portion of the crypt; sometimes, as at Old St
+Paul's and Worcester (both now destroyed), it was a separate building in
+the churchyard; sometimes chantry chapels were attached to these
+buildings. Viollet-le-Duc has given two very curious examples of such
+_ossuaires_ (as the French call them)--one from Fleurance (Gers), the
+other from Faouët (Finistère).
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCK, JOB (d. 1693), English founder of Calcutta, went out to India
+in 1655 or 1656, apparently not in the East India Company's service, but
+soon joined it. He was stationed at Cossimbazar, and subsequently at
+Patna. In 1685 he became chief agent at Hugli. Being besieged there by
+the Mogul viceroy of Bengal, he put the company's goods and servants on
+board his light vessels and dropped down the river 27 m. to the village
+of Sutanati, a place well chosen for the purpose of defence, which
+occupied the site of what is now Calcutta. It was only, however, at the
+third attempt that Charnock finally settled down at this spot, and the
+selection of the future capital of India was entirely due to his
+stubborn resolution. He was a silent morose man, not popular among his
+contemporaries, but "always a faithfull Man to the Company." He is said
+to have married a Hindu widow.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCK (or CHERNOCK), ROBERT (c.1663-1696), English conspirator,
+belonged to a Warwickshire family, and was educated at Magdalen College,
+Oxford, becoming a fellow of his college and a Roman Catholic priest.
+When in 1687 the dispute arose between James II. and the fellows of
+Magdalen over the election of a president Charnock favoured the first
+royal nominee, Anthony Farmer, and also the succeeding one, Samuel
+Parker, bishop of Oxford. Almost alone among the fellows he was not
+driven out in November 1687, and he became dean and then vice-president
+of the college under the new regime, but was expelled in October 1688.
+Residing at the court of the Stuarts in France, or conspiring in
+England, Charnock and Sir George Barclay appear to have arranged the
+details of the unsuccessful attempt to kill William III. near Turnham
+Green in February 1696, Barclay escaped, but Charnock was arrested, was
+tried and found guilty, and was hanged on the 18th of March 1696.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCKITE, a series of foliated igneous rocks of wide distribution and
+great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar and Africa. The name was
+given by Dr T.H. Holland from the fact that the tombstone of Job
+Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, is made of a block of this rock. The
+charnockite series includes rocks of many different types, some being
+acid and rich in quartz and microcline, others basic and full of
+pyroxene and olivine, while there are also intermediate varieties
+corresponding mineralogically to norites, quartz-norites and diorites. A
+special feature, recurring in many members of the group, is the presence
+of strongly pleochroic, reddish or green hypersthene. Many of the
+minerals of these rocks are "schillerized," as they contain minute platy
+or rod-shaped enclosures, disposed parallel to certain crystallographic
+planes or axes. The reflection of light from the surfaces of these
+enclosures gives the minerals often a peculiar appearance, e.g. the
+quartz is blue and opalescent, the felspar has a milky shimmer like
+moonshine, the hypersthene has a bronzy metalloidal gleam. Very often
+the different rock types occur in close association as one set forms
+bands alternating with another set, or veins traversing it, and where
+one facies appears the others also usually are found. The term
+charnockite consequently is not the name of a rock, but of an assemblage
+of rock types, connected in their origin because arising by
+differentiation of the same parent magma. The banded structure which
+these rocks commonly present in the field is only in a small measure due
+to crushing, but is to a large extent original, and has been produced by
+fluxion in a viscous crystallizing intrusive magma, together with
+differentiation or segregation of the mass into bands of different
+chemical and mineralogical composition. There have also been, of course,
+earth movements acting on the solid rock at a later time and injection
+of dikes both parallel to and across the primary foliation. In fact, the
+history of the structures of the charnockite series is the history of
+the most primitive gneisses in all parts of the world, for which we
+cannot pretend to have as yet any thoroughly satisfactory explanations
+to offer. A striking fact is the very wide distribution of rocks of this
+group in the southern hemisphere; but they also, or rocks very similar
+to them, occur in Norway, France, Germany, Scotland and North America,
+though in these countries they have been mostly described as pyroxene
+granulites, pyroxene gneisses, anorthosites, &c. They are usually
+regarded as being of Archean age (pre-Cambrian), and in most cases this
+can be definitely proved, though not in all. It is astonishing to find
+that in spite of their great age their minerals are often in excellent
+preservation. In India they form the Nilgiri Hills, the Shevaroys and
+part of the Western Ghats, extending southward to Cape Comorin and
+reappearing in Ceylon. Although they are certainly for the most part
+igneous gneisses (or orthogneisses), rocks occur along with them, such
+as marbles, scapolite limestones, and corundum rocks, which were
+probably of sedimentary origin.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARNWOOD FOREST, an upland tract in the N.-W. of Leicestershire,
+England. It is undulating, rocky, picturesque, and in great part barren,
+though there are some extensive tracts of woodland; its elevation is
+generally 600 ft. and upwards, the area exceeding this height being
+about 6100 acres. The loftiest point, Bardon Hill, is 912 ft. On its
+western flank lies a coalfield, with Coalville and other mining towns,
+and granite and hone-stones are worked.
+
+
+
+
+CHAROLLES, a town of east-central France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Saône-et-Loire, situated at the confluence of the
+Semence and the Arconce, 39 m. W.N.W. of Mâcon on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 3228. It has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of primary
+instance and commerce, and a communal college. There are stone quarries
+in the vicinity; the town manufactures pottery, and is the centre for
+trade in the famous breed of Charolais cattle and in agricultural
+products. The ruins of the castle of the counts of Charolais occupy the
+summit of a hill in the immediate vicinity of the town. Charolles was
+the capital of Charolais, an old division of France, which from the
+early 14th century gave the title of count to its possessors. In 1327
+the countship passed by marriage to the house of Armagnac, and in 1390
+it was sold to Philip of Burgundy. After the death of Charles the Bold,
+who in his youth had borne the title of count of Charolais, it was
+seized by Louis XI. of France, but in 1493 it was ceded by Charles VIII.
+to Maximilian of Austria, the representative of the Burgundian family.
+Ultimately passing to the Spanish kings, it became for a considerable
+period an object of dispute between France and Spain, until at length in
+1684 it was assigned to the great Condé, a creditor of the king of
+Spain. It was united to the French crown in 1771.
+
+
+
+
+CHARON, in Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and Nyx (Night). It was
+his duty to ferry over the Styx (or Acheron) those souls of the deceased
+who had duly received the rites of burial, in payment for which service
+he received an obol, which was placed in the mouth of the corpse. It was
+only exceptionally that he carried living passengers (_Aeneid_, vi. 295
+ff). As ferryman of the dead he is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod, and
+in this character is probably of Egyptian origin. He is represented as a
+morose and grisly old man in a black sailor's cape. By the Etruscans he
+was also supposed to be a kind of executioner of the powers of the
+nether world, who, armed with an enormous hammer, was associated with
+Mars in the slaughter of battle. Finally he came to be regarded as the
+image of death and the world below. As such he survives in the Charos or
+Charontas of the modern Greeks--a black bird which darts down upon its
+prey, or a winged horseman who fastens his victims to the saddle and
+bears them away to the realms of the dead.
+
+  See J.A. Ambrosch, _De Charonte Etrusco_ (1837), a learned and
+  exhaustive monograph; B. Schmidt, _Volksleben der Neugriechen_
+  (1871), i. 222-251; O. Waser, _Charon, Charun, Charos,
+  mythologisch-archaologische Monographie_ (1898); S. Rocco, "Sull'
+  origine del Mito di Caronte," in _Rivista di storia antica_, ii.
+  (1897), who considers Charon to be an old name for the sun-god Helios
+  embarking during the night for the East.
+
+
+
+
+CHARONDAS, a celebrated lawgiver of Catina in Sicily. His date is
+uncertain. Some make him a pupil of Pythagoras (c. 580-504 B.C.); but
+all that can be said is that he was earlier than Anaxilaus of Rhegium
+(494-476), since his laws were in use amongst the Rhegians until they
+were abolished by that tyrant. His laws, originally written in verse,
+were adopted by the other Chalcidic colonies in Sicily and Italy.
+According to Aristotle there was nothing special about these laws,
+except that Charondas introduced actions for perjury; but he speaks
+highly of the precision with which they were drawn up (_Politics_, ii.
+12). The story that Charondas killed himself because he entered the
+public assembly wearing a sword, which was a violation of his own law,
+is also told of Diocles and Zaleucus (Diod. Sic. xii. 11-19). The
+fragments of laws attributed to him by Stobaeus and Diodorus are of late
+(neo-Pythagorean) origin.
+
+  See Bentley, _On Phalaris_, which (according to B. Niese s.v. in
+  Pauly, _Realencyclopadie_) contains what is even now the best account
+  of Charondas; A. Holm, _Geschichte Siciliens_, i.; F.D. Gerlach,
+  _Zaleukos, Charondas, und Pythagoras_ (1858); also art. GREEK LAW.
+
+
+
+
+CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS (1620-1702), French archaeologist and man of
+letters, was born in Paris on the 15th of February 1620. He was intended
+for the bar, but was employed by Colbert, who had determined on the
+foundation of a French East India Company, to draw up an explanatory
+account of the project for Louis XIV. Charpentier regarded as absurd the
+use of Latin in monumental inscriptions, and to him was entrusted the
+task of supplying the paintings of Lebrun in the Versailles Gallery with
+appropriate legends. His verses were so indifferent that they had to be
+replaced by others, the work of Racine and Boileau, both enemies of his.
+Charpentier in his _Excellence de la langue française_ (1683) had
+anticipated Perrault in the famous academical dispute concerning the
+relative merit of the ancients and moderns. He is credited with a share
+in the production of the magnificent series of medals that commemorate
+the principal events of the age of Louis XIV. Charpentier, who was long
+in receipt of a pension of 1200 livres from Colbert, was erudite and
+ingenious, but he was always heavy and commonplace. His other works
+include a _Vie de Socrate_ (1650), a translation of the _Cyropaedia_ of
+Xenophon (1658), and the _Traité de la peinture parlante_ (1684).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE (1740-1805), Swiss author, was Dutch
+by birth, her maiden name being van Tuyll van Seeroskerken van Zuylen.
+She married in 1771 her brother's tutor, M. de Charrière, and settled
+with him at Colombier, near Lausanne. She made her name by the
+publication of her _Lettres neuchâteloises_ (Amsterdam, 1784), offering
+a simple and attractive picture of French manners. This, with _Caliste,
+ou lettres écrites de Lausanne_ (2 vols. Geneva, 1785-1788), was
+analysed and highly praised by Sainte-Beuve in his _Portraits de femmes_
+and in vol. in of his _Portraits littéraires_. She wrote a number of
+other novels, and some political tracts; but is perhaps best remembered
+by her liaison with Benjamin Constant between 1787 and 1796.
+
+  Her letters to Constant were printed in the _Revue suisse_ (April
+  1844), her _Lettres-Mémoires_ by E.H. Gaullieur in the same review in
+  1857, and all the available material is utilized in a monograph on her
+  and her work by P. Godet, _Madame de Charrière et ses amis_ (2 vols.,
+  Geneva, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRON, PIERRE (1541-1603), French philosopher, born in Paris, was one
+of the twenty-five children of a bookseller. After studying law he
+practised at Paris as an advocate, but, having met with no great
+success, entered the church, and soon gained the highest popularity as a
+preacher, rising to the dignity of canon, and being appointed preacher
+in ordinary to Marguerite, wife of Henry IV. of Navarre. About 1588, he
+determined to fulfil a vow which he had once made to enter a cloister;
+but being rejected by the Carthusians and the Celestines, he held
+himself absolved, and continued to follow his old profession. He
+delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year passed to
+Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with Montaigne. At the
+death of Montaigne, in 1592, Charron was requested in his will to bear
+the Montaigne arms.
+
+In 1594 Charron published (at first anonymously, afterwards under the
+name of "Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy Faith," and also, in
+1594, in his own name) _Les Trois Verités_, in which by methodical and
+orthodox arguments, he seeks to prove that there is a God and a true
+religion, that the true religion is the Christian, and that the true
+church is the Roman Catholic. The last book (which is three-fourths of
+the whole work) is chiefly an answer to the famous Protestant work
+entitled _Le Traité de l'Église_ by Du Plessis Mornay; and in the second
+edition (1595) there is an elaborate reply to an attack made on the
+third _Vérité_ by a Protestant writer. _Les Trois Vérités_ ran through
+several editions, and obtained for its author the favour of the bishop
+of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and theological canon. It also
+led to his being chosen deputy to the general assembly of the clergy, of
+which body he became chief secretary. It was followed in 1600 by
+_Discours chrestiens_, a book of sermons, similar in tone, half of which
+treat of the Eucharist. In 1601 Charron published at Bordeaux his third
+and most remarkable work--the famous _De la sagesse_, a complete popular
+system of moral philosophy. Usually, and so far correctly, it is coupled
+with the Essays of Montaigne, to which the author is under very
+extensive obligations. There is, however, distinct individuality in the
+book. It is specially interesting from the time when it appeared, and
+the man by whom it was written. Conspicuous as a champion of orthodoxy
+against atheists, Jews and Protestants--without resigning this position,
+and still upholding practical orthodoxy--Charron suddenly stood forth as
+the representative of the most complete intellectual scepticism. The _De
+la sagesse_, which represented a considerable advance on the standpoint
+of the _Trois Vérités_, brought upon its author the most violent
+attacks, the chief being by the Jesuit François Garasse (1585-1631), who
+described him as a "brutal atheist." It received, however, the warm
+support of Henry IV. and of the president Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622). A
+second edition was soon called for. In 1603, notwithstanding much
+opposition, it began to appear; but only a few pages had been printed
+when Charron died suddenly in the street of apoplexy. His death was
+regarded as a judgment for his impiety.
+
+Charron's psychology is sensationalist. With sense all our knowledge
+commences, and into sense all may be resolved. The soul, located in the
+ventricles of the brain, is affected by the temperament of the
+individual; the dry temperament produces acute intelligence; the moist,
+memory; the hot, imagination. Dividing the intelligent soul into these
+three faculties, he shows--after the manner which Francis Bacon
+subsequently adopted--what branches of science correspond with each.
+With regard to the nature of the soul he merely quotes opinions. The
+belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs,
+but the most feebly supported by reason. As to man's power of attaining
+truth his scepticism is decided; and he plainly declares that none of
+our faculties enable us to distinguish truth from error. In comparing
+man with the lower animals, Charron insists that there are no breaks in
+nature. The latter have reason; nay, they have virtue; and, though
+inferior in some respects, in others they are superior. The estimate
+formed of man is not, indeed, flattering. His most essential qualities
+are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, presumption. Upon this view of human
+nature and the human lot Charron founds his moral system. Equally
+sceptical with Montaigne, and decidedly more cynical, he is
+distinguished by a deeper and sterner tone. Man comes into the world to
+endure; let him endure then, and that in silence. Our compassion should
+be like that of God, who succours the suffering without sharing in their
+pain. Avoid vulgar errors; cherish universal sympathy. Let no passion or
+attachment become too powerful for restraint. Follow the customs and
+laws which surround you. Morality has no connexion with religion. Reason
+is the ultimate criterion.
+
+Special interest attaches to Charron's treatment of religion. He insists
+on the diversities in religions; he dwells also on what would indicate a
+common origin. All grow from small beginnings and increase by a sort of
+popular contagion; all teach that God is to be appeased by prayers,
+presents, vows, but especially, and most irrationally, by human
+suffering. Each is said by its devotees to have been given by
+inspiration. In fact, however, a man is a Christian, Jew, or Mahommedan,
+before he knows he is a man. One religion is built upon another. But
+while he openly declares religion to be "strange to common sense," the
+practical result at which Charron arrives is that one is not to sit in
+judgment on his faith, but to be "simple and obedient," and to allow
+himself to be led by public authority. This is one rule of wisdom with
+regard to religion; and another equally important is to avoid
+superstition, which he boldly defines as the belief that God is like a
+hard judge who, eager to find fault, narrowly examines our slightest
+act, that He is revengeful and hard to appease, and that therefore He
+must be flattered and importuned, and won over by pain and sacrifice.
+True piety, which is the first of duties, is, on the other hand, the
+knowledge of God and of one's self, the latter knowledge being necessary
+to the former. It is the abasing of man, the exalting of God,--the
+belief that what He sends is all good, and that all the bad is from
+ourselves. It leads to spiritual worship; for external ceremony is
+merely for our advantage, not for His glory. Charron is thus the founder
+of modern secularism. His political views are neither original nor
+independent. He pours much hackneyed scorn on the common herd, declares
+the sovereign to be the source of law, and asserts that popular freedom
+is dangerous.
+
+  A summary and defence of the _Sagesse_, written shortly before his
+  death, appeared in 1606. In 1604 his friend Michel de la Rochemaillet
+  prefixed to an edition of the _Sagesse_ a Life, which depicts Charron
+  as a most amiable man of purest character. His complete works, with
+  this Life, were published in 1635. An excellent abridgment of the
+  _Sagesse_ is given in Tennemann's _Philosophie_, vol. ix.; an edition
+  with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820.
+
+  See Liebscher, _Charron u. sein Werk, De la sagesse_ (Leipzig, 1890);
+  H.T. Buckle, _Introd. to History of Civilization in England_, vol. ii.
+  19; Abbé Lezat, _De la prédication sous Henri IV._ c. vi.; J.M.
+  Robertson, _Short History of Free Thought_ (London, 1906), vol. ii. p.
+  19; J. Owen, _Skeptics of the French Renaissance_ (1893); Lecky,
+  _Rationalism in Europe_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRUA, a tribe of South American Indians, wild and warlike, formerly
+ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil. They were dark and heavily
+built, fought on horses and used the bolas or weighted lasso. They were
+always at war with the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by
+them in 1516. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern
+Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.
+
+
+
+
+CHART (from Lat. _carta, charta_, a map). A chart is a marine map
+intended specially for the use of seamen (for history, see MAP), though
+the word is also used loosely for other varieties of graphical
+representation. The marine or nautical chart is constructed for the
+purpose of ascertaining the position of a ship with reference to the
+land, of finding the direction in which she has to steer, the distance
+to sail or steam, and the hidden dangers to avoid. The surface of the
+sea on charts is studded with numerous small figures. These are known as
+the _soundings_, indicating in fathoms or in feet (as shown upon the
+title of the chart), at low water of ordinary spring tides, the least
+depth of water through which the ship may be sailing. Charts show the
+nature of the unseen bottom of the sea--with the irregularities in its
+character in the shape of hidden rocks or sand-banks, and give
+information of the greatest importance to the mariner. No matter how
+well the land maybe surveyed or finely delineated, unless the soundings
+are shown a chart is of little use.
+
+The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued by the
+hydrographic office. This department of the admiralty was established
+under Earl Spencer by an order in council in 1795, consisting of the
+hydrographer, one assistant and a draughtsman. The first hydrographer
+was Alexander Dalrymple, a gentleman in the East India Company's civil
+service. From this small beginning arose the important department which
+is now the main source of the supply of hydrographical information to
+the whole of the maritime world. The charts prepared by the officers and
+draughtsmen of the hydrographic office, and published by order of the
+lords commissioners of the admiralty, are compiled chiefly from the
+labours of British naval officers employed in the surveying service; and
+also from valuable contributions received from time to time from
+officers of the royal navy and mercantile marine. In addition to the
+work of British sailors, the labours of other nations have been
+collected and utilized. Charts of the coasts of Europe have naturally
+been taken from the surveys made by the various nations, and in charts
+of other quarters of the world considerable assistance has been
+received from the labours of French, Spanish, Dutch and American
+surveyors. Important work is done by the Hydrographic Office of the
+American navy, and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The admiralty
+charts are published with the view of meeting the wants of the sailor in
+all parts of the world. They may be classed under five heads, viz.
+ocean, general, and coast charts, harbour plans and physical charts; for
+instance, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, approaches to Plymouth,
+Plymouth Sound and wind and current charts. The harbour plans and coast
+sheets are constructed on the simple principles of plane trigonometry by
+the surveying officers. (See SURVEYING: _Nautical_.) That important
+feature, the depth of the sea, is obtained by the ordinary sounding line
+or wire; all soundings are reduced to low water of ordinary spring
+tides. The times and heights of the tides, with the direction and
+velocity of the tidal streams, are also ascertained. These MS. charts
+are forwarded to the admiralty, and form the foundation of the
+hydrography of the world. The ocean and general charts are compiled and
+drawn at the hydrographic office, and as originals, existing charts,
+latest surveys and maps, have to be consulted, their compilation
+requires considerable experience and is a painstaking work, for the
+compiler has to decide what to omit, what to insert, and to arrange the
+necessary names in such a manner that while full information is given,
+the features of the coast are not interfered with. As a very slight
+error in the position of a light or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might
+lead to grave disaster, every symbol on the admiralty chart has been
+delineated with great care and consideration, and no pains are spared in
+the effort to lay before the public the labours of the nautical
+surveyors and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world;
+reducing their various styles into a comprehensive system furnishing the
+intelligent seaman with an intelligible guide, which common industry
+will soon enable him to appreciate and take full advantage of.
+
+As certain abbreviations are used in the charts, attention is called to
+the "signs and abbreviations adopted in the charts published by the
+admiralty." Certain parts of the world are still unsurveyed, or not
+surveyed in sufficient detail for the requirements that steamships now
+demand. Charts of these localities are therefore drawn in a light
+hair-line and unfinished manner, so that the experienced seaman sees at
+a glance that less trust is to be reposed upon charts drawn in this
+manner. The charts given to the public are only correct up to the time
+of their actual publication. They have to be kept up to date. Recent
+publications by foreign governments, newly reported dangers, changes in
+character or position of lights and buoys, are as soon as practicable
+inserted on the charts and due notice given of such insertions in the
+admiralty "Notices to Mariners."
+
+  The charts are supplemented by the _Admiralty Pilots_, or books of
+  sailing directions, with tide tables, and lists of lighthouses, light
+  vessels, &c., for the coasts to which a ship may be bound. The
+  physical charts are the continuation of the work so ably begun by
+  Maury of the United States and FitzRoy of the British navy, and give
+  the sailor a good general idea of the world's ocean winds and currents
+  at the different periods of the year; the probable tracks and seasons
+  of the tropical revolving or cyclonic storms; the coastal winds; the
+  extent or months of the rainy seasons; localities and times where ice
+  may be fallen in with; and, lastly, the direction and force of the
+  stream and drift currents of the oceans.     (T. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTER (Lat. _charta, carta_, from Gr. [Greek: chartês], originally for
+_papyrus_, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from
+this material to the document, in O. Eng. _boc_, book), a written
+instrument, contract or convention by which cessions of sales of
+property or of rights and privileges are confirmed and held, and which
+may be produced by the grantees in proof of lawful possession. The use
+of the word for any written document is obsolete in England, but is
+preserved in France, e.g. the École des Chartes at Paris. In feudal
+times charters of privileges were granted, not only by the crown, but by
+mesne lords both lay and ecclesiastical, as well to communities, such as
+boroughs, gilds and religious foundations, as to individuals. In modern
+usage grants by charter have become all but obsolete, though in England
+this form is still used in the incorporation by the crown of such
+societies as the British Academy.
+
+The grant of the Great Charter by King John in 1215 (see MAGNA CARTA),
+which guaranteed the preservation of English liberties, led to a special
+association of the word with constitutional privileges, and so in modern
+times it has been applied to constitutions granted by sovereigns to
+their subjects, in contradistinction to those based on "the will of the
+people." Such was the Charter (_Charte_) granted by Louis XVIII. to
+France in 1814. In Portugal the constitution granted by Dom Pedro in
+1826 was called by the French party the "Charter," while that devised by
+the Cortes in 1821 was known as the "Constitution." Magna Carta also
+suggested to the English radicals in 1838 the name "People's Charter,"
+which they gave to their published programme of reforms (see CHARTISM).
+This association of the idea of liberty with the word charter led to its
+figurative use in the sense of freedom or licence. This is, however,
+rare; the most common use being in the phrase "chartered libertine"
+(Shakespeare, _Henry V._ Act i. Sc. 1) from the derivative verb "to
+charter," e.g. to grant a charter. The common colloquialism "to
+charter," in the sense of to take, or hire, is derived from the special
+use of "to charter" as to hire (a ship) by charter-party.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERED COMPANIES. A chartered company is a trading corporation
+enjoying certain rights and privileges, and bound by certain obligations
+under a special charter granted to it by the sovereign authority of the
+state, such charter defining and limiting those rights, privileges and
+obligations, and the localities in which they are to be exercised. Such
+companies existed in early times, but have undergone changes and
+modifications in accordance with the developments which have taken place
+in the economic history of the states where they have existed. In Great
+Britain the first trading charters were granted, not to English
+companies, which were then non-existent, but to branches of the
+Hanseatic League (q.v.), and it was not till 1597 that England was
+finally relieved from the presence of a foreign chartered company. In
+that year Queen Elizabeth closed the steel-yard where Teutons had been
+established for 700 years.
+
+The origin of all English trading companies is to be sought in the
+Merchants of the Staple. They lingered on into the 18th century, but
+only as a name, for their business was solely to export English products
+which, as English manufactures grew, were wanted at home. Of all early
+English chartered companies, the "Merchant Adventurers" conducted its
+operations the most widely. Itself a development of very early trading
+gilds, at the height of its prosperity it employed as many as 50,000
+persons in the Netherlands, and the enormous influence it was able to
+exercise undoubtedly saved Antwerp from the institution of the
+Inquisition within its walls in the time of Charles V. In the reign of
+Elizabeth British trade with the Netherlands reached in one year
+12,000,000 ducats, and in that of James I. the company's yearly commerce
+with Germany and the Netherlands was as much as £1,000,000. Hamburg
+afterwards was its principal depot, and it became known as the "Hamburg
+Company." In the "Merchant Adventurers'" enterprises is to be seen the
+germ of the trading companies which had so remarkable a development in
+the 16th and 17th centuries. These old regulated trade gilds passed
+gradually into joint-stock associations, which were capable of far
+greater extension, both as to the number of members and amount of stock,
+each member being only accountable for the amount of his own stock, and
+being able to transfer it at will to any other person.
+
+It was in the age of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts that the chartered
+company, in the modern sense of the term, had its rise. The discovery of
+the New World, and the opening out of fresh trading routes to the
+Indies, gave an extraordinary impulse to shipping, commerce and
+industrial enterprise throughout western Europe. The English, French and
+Dutch governments were ready to assist trade by the granting of charters
+to trading associations. It is to the "Russia Company," which received
+its first charter in 1554, that Great Britain owed its first intercourse
+with an empire then almost unknown. The first recorded instance of a
+purely chartered company annexing territory is to be found in the action
+of this company in setting up a cross at Spitzbergen in 1613 with King
+James's arms upon it. Among other associations trading to the continent
+of Europe, receiving charters at this time, were the Turkey Company
+(Levant Co.) and the Eastland Company. Both the Russia and Turkey
+Companies had an important effect upon British relations with those
+empires. They maintained British influence in those countries, and even
+paid the expenses of the embassies which were sent out by the English
+government to their courts. The Russia Company carried on a large trade
+with Persia through Russian territory; but from various causes their
+business gradually declined, though the Turkey Company existed in name
+until 1825.
+
+The chartered companies which were formed during this period for trade
+with the Indies and the New World have had a more wide-reaching
+influence in history. The extraordinary career of the East India Company
+(q.v.) is dealt with elsewhere.
+
+Charters were given to companies trading to Guinea, Morocco, Guiana and
+the Canaries, but none of these enjoyed a very long or prosperous
+existence, principally owing to the difficulties caused by foreign
+competition. It is when we turn to North America that the importance of
+the chartered company, as a colonizing rather than a trading agency, is
+seen in its full development. The "Hudson's Bay Company," which still
+exists as a commercial concern, is dealt with under its own heading, but
+most of the thirteen British North American colonies were in their
+inception chartered companies very much in the modern acceptation of the
+term. The history of these companies will be found under the heading of
+the different colonies of which they were the origin. It is necessary,
+however, to bear in mind that two classes of charters are to be found in
+force among the early American colonies: (1) Those granted to trading
+associations, which were often useful when the colony was first founded,
+but which formed a serious obstacle to its progress when the country had
+become settled and was looking forward to commercial expansion; the
+existence of these charters then often led to serious conflicts between
+the grantees of the charter and the colonies; ultimately elective
+assemblies everywhere superseded control of trading companies. (2) The
+second class of charters were those granted to the settlers themselves,
+to protect them against the oppressions of the crown and the provincial
+governors. These were highly prized by the colonists.
+
+In France and Holland, no less than in England, the institution of
+chartered companies became a settled principle of the governments of
+those countries during the whole of the period in question. In France
+from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 of such companies came into existence,
+but after 1770, when the great _Compagnie des Indes orientales_ went
+into liquidation, they were almost abandoned, and finally perished in
+the general sweeping away of privileges which followed on the outbreak
+of the Revolution.
+
+If we inquire into the economic ideas which induced the granting of
+charters to these earlier companies and animated their promoters, we
+shall find that they were entirely consistent with the general
+principles of government at the time and what were then held to be sound
+commercial views. Under the old régime everything was a matter of
+monopoly and privilege, and to this state of things the constitution of
+the old companies corresponded, the sovereign rights accorded to them
+being also quite in accordance with the views of the time. It would have
+been thought impossible then that private individuals could have found
+the funds or maintained the magnitude of such enterprises. It was only
+this necessity which induced statesmen like Colbert to countenance them,
+and Montesquieu took the same view (_Esprit des lois_, t. xx. c. 10).
+John de Witt's view was that such companies were not useful for
+colonization properly so called, because they want quick returns to pay
+their dividends. So, even in France and Holland, opinion was by no means
+settled as to their utility. In England historic protests were made
+against such monopolies, but the chartered companies were less exclusive
+in England than in either France or Holland, the governors of provinces
+almost always allowing strangers to trade on receiving some pecuniary
+inducement. French commercial companies were more privileged, exclusive
+and artificial than those in Holland and England. Those of Holland may
+be said to have been national enterprises. French companies rested more
+than did their rivals on false principles; they were more fettered by
+the royal power, and had less initiative of their own, and therefore had
+less chance of surviving. As an example of the kind of rules which
+prevented the growth of the French companies, it may be pointed out that
+no Protestants were allowed to take part in them. State subventions,
+rather than commerce or colonization, were often their object; but that
+has been a characteristic of French colonial enterprise at all times.
+
+Such companies, however, under the old commercial system could hardly
+have come into existence without exclusive privileges. Their existence
+might have been prolonged had the whole people in time been allowed the
+chance of participating in them.
+
+To sum up the causes of failure of the old chartered companies, they are
+to be attributed to (1) bad administration; (2) want of capital and
+credit; (3) bad economic organization; (4) distribution of dividends
+made prematurely or fictitiously. But those survived the longest which
+extended the most widely their privileges to outsiders. According to
+contemporary protests, they had a most injurious effect on the commerce
+of the countries where they had their rise. They were monopolies, and
+therefore, of course, obnoxious; and it is undoubted that the colonies
+they founded only became prosperous when they had escaped from their
+yoke.
+
+On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that they contributed in no
+small degree to the commercial progress of their own states. They gave
+colonies to the mother country, and an impulse to the development of its
+fleet. In the case of England and Holland, the enterprise of the
+companies saved them from suffering from the monopolies of Spain and
+Portugal, and the wars of the English, and those of the Dutch in the
+Indies with Spain and Portugal, were paid for by the companies. They
+furnished the mother country with luxuries which, by the 18th century,
+had become necessaries. They offered a career for the younger sons of
+good families, and sometimes greatly assisted large and useful
+enterprises.
+
+During the last twenty years of the 19th century there was a great
+revival of the system of chartered companies in Great Britain. It is a
+feature of the general growth of interest in colonial expansion and
+commercial development which has made itself felt almost universally
+among European nations. Great Britain, however, alone has succeeded in
+establishing such companies as have materially contributed to the growth
+of her empire. These companies succeed or fail for reasons different
+from those which affected the chartered companies of former days, though
+there are points in common. Apart from causes inherent in the particular
+case of each company, which necessitates their being examined
+separately, recent experience leads us to lay down certain general
+principles regarding them. The modern companies are not like those of
+the 16th and 17th centuries. They are not privileged in the sense that
+those companies were. They are not monopolists; they have only a limited
+sovereignty, always being subject to the control of the home government.
+It is true that they have certain advantages given them, for without
+these advantages no capital would risk itself in the lands where they
+carry on their operations. They often have very heavy corresponding
+obligations, as will be seen in the case of one (the East Africa) where
+the obligations were too onerous for the company to discharge, though
+they were inseparable from its position. The charters of modern
+companies differ in two points strongly from those of the old: they
+contain clauses prohibiting any monopoly of trade, and they generally
+confer some special political rights directly under the control of the
+secretary of state. The political freedom of the old companies was much
+greater. In these charters state control has been made a distinguishing
+feature. It is to be exercised in almost all directions in which the
+companies may come into contact with matters political. Of course, it is
+inevitable in all disputes of the companies with foreign powers, and is
+extended over all decrees of the company regarding the administration of
+its territories, the taxation of natives, and mining regulations. In all
+cases of dispute between the companies and the natives the secretary of
+state is _ex officio_ the judge, and to the secretary of state (in the
+case of the South Africa Company) the accounts of administration have to
+be submitted for his approbation. It is deserving of notice that the
+British character of the company is insisted upon in each case in the
+charter which calls it into life. The crown always retains complete
+control over the company by reserving to itself the power of revoking
+the charter in case of the neglect of its stipulations. Special clauses
+were inserted in the charters of the British East Africa and South
+Africa Companies enabling the government to forfeit their charters if
+they did not promote the objects alleged as reasons for demanding a
+charter. This bound them still more strongly; and in the case of the
+South Africa Company the duration of the charter was fixed at
+twenty-five years.
+
+The chartered company of these days is therefore very strongly fixed
+within limits imposed by law on its political action. As a whole,
+however, very remarkable results have been achieved. This may be
+attributed in no small degree to the personality of the men who have had
+the supreme direction at home and abroad, and who have, by their social
+position and personal qualities, acquired the confidence of the public.
+With the exception of the Royal Niger Company, it would be incorrect to
+say that they have been financially successful, but in the domain of
+government generally it may be said that they have added vast
+territories to the British empire (in Africa about 1,700,000 sq. m.),
+and in these territories they have acted as a civilizing force. They
+have made roads, opened facilities for trade, enforced peace, and laid
+at all events the foundation of settled administration. It is not too
+much to say that they have often acted unselfishly for the benefit of
+the mother country and even humanity. We may instance the anti-slavery
+and anti-alcohol campaigns which have been carried on, the latter
+certainly being against the immediate pecuniary interests of the
+companies themselves. It must, of course, be recognized that to a
+certain extent this has been done under the influence of the home
+government. The occupation of Uganda certainly, and of the Nigerian
+territory and Rhodesia probably, will prove to have been rather for the
+benefit of posterity than of the companies which effected it. In the two
+cases where the companies have been bought out by the state, they have
+had no compensation for much that they have expended. In fact, it would
+have been impossible to take into account actual expenditure day by day,
+and the cost of wars. To use the expression of Sir William Mackinnon,
+the shareholders have been compelled in some cases to "take out their
+dividends in philanthropy."
+
+The existence of such companies to-day is justified in certain political
+and economic conditions only. It may be highly desirable for the
+government to occupy certain territories, but political exigencies at
+home will not permit it to incur the expenditure, or international
+relations may make such an undertaking inexpedient at the time. In such
+a case the formation of a chartered company may be the best way out of
+the difficulty. But it has been demonstrated again and again that,
+directly, the company's interests begin to clash with those of foreign
+powers, the home government must assume a protectorate over its
+territories in order to simplify the situation and save perhaps
+disastrous collisions. So long as the political relations of such a
+company are with savages or semi-savages, it may be left free to act,
+but directly it becomes involved with a civilized power the state has
+(if it wishes to retain the territory) to acquire by purchase the
+political rights of the company, and it is obviously much easier to
+induce a popular assembly to grant money for the purpose of maintaining
+rights already existing than to acquire new ones. With the strict system
+of government supervision enforced by modern charters it is not easy for
+the state to be involved against its will in foreign complications.
+Economically such companies are also justifiable up to a certain point.
+When there is no other means of entering into commercial relations with
+remote and savage races save by enterprise of such magnitude that
+private individuals could not incur the risk involved, then a company
+may be well entrusted with special privileges for the purpose, as an
+inventor is accorded a certain protection by law by means of a patent
+which enables him to bring out his invention at a profit if there is
+anything in it. But such privileges should not be continued longer than
+is necessary for the purpose of reasonably recompensing the adventurers.
+A successful company, even when it has lost monopoly or privileges, has,
+by its command of capital and general resources, established so strong a
+position that private individuals or new companies can rarely compete
+with it successfully. That this is so is clearly shown in the case of
+the Hudson's Bay Company as at present constituted. In colonizing new
+lands these companies often act successfully. They have proved more
+potent than the direct action of governments. This may be seen in
+Africa, where France and England have of late acquired vast areas, but
+have developed them with very different results, acting from the
+opposite principles of private and state promotion of colonization.
+Apart from national characteristics, the individual has far more to gain
+under the British system of private enterprise. A strong point in favour
+of some of the British companies has been that their undertakings have
+been practically extensions of existing British colonies rather than
+entirely isolated ventures. But a chartered company can never be
+anything but a transition stage of colonization; sooner or later the
+state must take the lead. A company may act beneficially so long as a
+country is undeveloped, but as soon as it becomes even semi-civilized
+its conflicts with private interests become so frequent and serious that
+its authority has to make way for that of the central government.
+
+The companies which have been formed in France during recent years do
+not yet afford material for profitable study, for they have been subject
+to so much vexatious interference from home owing to lack of a fixed
+system of control sanctioned by government, that they have not been
+able, like the British, to develop along their own lines.
+
+  See also BORNEO; NIGERIA; BRIT. EAST AFRICA; RHODESIA; &c. The
+  following works deal with the subject of chartered companies
+  generally: Bonnassieux, _Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (Paris,
+  1892); Chailly-Bert, _Les Compagnies de colonisation sous l'ancien
+  régime_ (Paris, 1898); Cawston and Keane, _The Early Chartered
+  Companies_ (London, 1896); W. Cunningham, _A History of British
+  Industry and Commerce_ (Cambridge, 1890, 1892); Egerton, _A Short
+  History of British Colonial Policy_ (London, 1897); J. Scott Keltie,
+  _The Partition of Africa_ (London, 1895); Leroy-Beaulieu, _De la
+  colonisation chez les peuples modernes_ (Paris, 1898); _Les Nouvelles
+  Sociétés anglo-saxonnes_ (Paris, 1897); MacDonald, _Select Charters
+  illustrative of American History, 1606-1775_ (New York, 1899); B.P.
+  Poore, _Federal and State Constitutions_, &c (Washington, 1877; a more
+  complete collection of American colonial charters); H.L. Osgood,
+  _American Colonies in the 17th Cent._ (1904-7); Carton de Wiart, _Les
+  Grandes Compagnies coloniales anglaises au 19me siècle_ (Paris, 1899).
+  Also see articles "Compagnies de Charte," "Colonies," "Privilege," in
+  _Nouveau Dictionnaire d'économie politique_ (Paris, 1892); and
+  article "Companies, Chartered," in _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of
+  England_, edited by A. Wood Renton (London, 1907-1909).     (W. B. Du.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERHOUSE. This name is an English corruption of the French _maison
+chartreuse_, a religious house of the Carthusian order. As such it
+occurs not uncommonly in England, in various places (e.g.
+Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton) where the Carthusians were
+established. It is most familiar, however, in its application to the
+Charterhouse, London. On a site near the old city wall, west of the
+modern thoroughfare of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in
+1371 by Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its
+dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands. In 1558,
+while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied by Queen
+Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation, and James I. held
+court here on his first entrance into London. The Charterhouse was then
+in the hands of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, but in May 1611 it came
+into those of Thomas Sutton (1532-1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He
+acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had
+leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he
+carried on a commercial career. In the year of his death, which took
+place on the 12th of December 1611, he endowed a hospital on the site
+of the Charterhouse, calling it the hospital of King James; and in his
+will he bequeathed moneys to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and
+school. The will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the
+foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male
+pensioners ("gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have
+borne arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, or
+servants in household to the King or Queen's Majesty"), and to educate
+forty boys. The school developed beyond the original intentions of its
+founder, and now ranks among the most eminent public schools in England.
+In 1872 it was removed, during the headmastership (1863-1897) of the
+Rev. William Haig-Brown (d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in
+Surrey, which were opened on the 18th of June in that year. The number
+of foundation scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not
+now distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate
+house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving the former
+title of the scholars. The land on which the old school buildings stood
+in London was sold for new buildings to accommodate the Merchant
+Taylors' school, but the pensioners still occupy their picturesque home,
+themselves picturesque figures in the black gowns designed for them
+under the foundation. The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a
+panelled chapel, in which is the founder's tomb, a fine dining-hall,
+governors' room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old
+library, and the beautiful great staircase.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTER-PARTY (Lat. _charta partita_, a legal paper or instrument,
+"divided," i.e. written in duplicate so that each party retains half), a
+written, or partly written and partly printed, contract between merchant
+and shipowner, by which a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of
+goods on a specified voyage, or for a definite period. (See
+AFFREIGHTMENT.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERS TOWERS, a mining town of Devonport county, Queensland,
+Australia, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and 820 m. direct N.N.W. of
+Brisbane. It is the centre of an important gold-field, the reefs of
+which improve at the lower depths, the deepest shaft on the field being
+2558 ft. below the surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An
+abundant water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m.
+distant. The population of the town in 1901 was 5523; but within a 5 m.
+radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became a municipality in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTIER, ALAIN (c. 1392-c. 1430), French poet and political writer, was
+born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged to a family marked by
+considerable ability. His eldest brother Guillaume became bishop of
+Paris; and Thomas became notary to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St
+Denis, whose history of Charles VII. is printed in vol. iii. of _Les
+Grands Chroniques de Saint-Denis_ (1477), was not, as is sometimes
+stated, also a brother of the poet Alain studied, as his elder brother
+had done, at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the _Livre des
+quatre dames_, written after the battle of Agincourt. This was followed
+by the _Débat du réveille-matin_, _La Belle Dame sans merci_, and others.
+None of these poems show any very patriotic feeling, though Chartier's
+prose is evidence that he was not indifferent to the misfortunes of his
+country. He followed the fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles
+VII., acting in the triple capacity of clerk, notary and financial
+secretary. In 1422 he wrote the famous _Quadrilogue-invectif_. The
+interlocutors in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of
+the state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the
+sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to his country
+by maintaining that the cause of France, though desperate to all
+appearance, was not yet lost if the contending factions could lay aside
+their differences in the face of the common enemy. In 1424 Chartier was
+sent on an embassy to Germany, and three years later he accompanied to
+Scotland the mission sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of
+Scotland, then not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI.
+In 1429 he wrote the _Livre d'espérance_, which contains a fierce attack
+on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a diatribe on the
+courtiers of Charles VII. entitled _Le Curial_, translated into English
+(_Here foloweth the copy of a lettre whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to
+his brother_) by Caxton about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed
+about 1430. A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says,
+however, that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in
+the city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for Alain
+described himself as a _simple clerc_ and certainly died long before
+1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret of Scotland on
+_la précieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis tant de bons mots
+et vertueuses paroles_ is mythical, for Margaret did not come to France
+till 1436, after the poet's death; but the story, first told by Guillaume
+Bouchet in his _Annales d'Aquitaine_ (1524), is interesting, if only as a
+proof of the high degree of estimation in which the ugliest man of his
+day was held. Jean de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has
+recorded how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required
+daily to learn by heart passages of his _Bréviaire des nobles_. John
+Lydgate studied him affectionately. His _Belle Dame sans merci_ was
+translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about 1640, with an
+introduction of his own; and Clément Marot and Octavien de Saint-Gelais,
+writing fifty years after his death, find many fair words for the old
+poet, their master and predecessor.
+
+  See Mancel, _Alain Chartier, étude bibliographique et littéraire_, 8vo
+  (Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay's _Étude sur Alain Chartier_ (1876), with
+  considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by A.
+  Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville,
+  "Essais critiques sur les historiens originaux du règne de Charles
+  VIII," in the _Bibl. de l'École des Chartes_ (July-August 1857).
+
+
+
+
+CHARTISM, the name given to a movement for political reform in England,
+from the so-called "People's Charter" or "National Charter," the
+document in which in 1838 the scheme of reforms was embodied. The
+movement itself may be traced to the latter years of the 18th century.
+Checked for a while by the reaction due to the excesses of the French
+Revolution, it received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that
+followed the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the
+introduction of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed, not only
+against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against the political
+movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the spokesman in the House of
+Commons, which demanded manhood suffrage, the ballot, annual
+parliaments, the abolition of the property qualification for members of
+parliament and their payment. The movement was checked for a while by
+the Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though the
+middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and political
+grievances of the labouring population remained unredressed. Two
+separate movements now developed: one socialistic, associated with the
+name of Robert Owen; the other radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of
+the "masses" as the first step to the amelioration of their condition.
+The latter was represented in the Working Men's Association, by which in
+1838 the "People's Charter" was drawn up. It embodied exactly the same
+programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned above, with the
+addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.
+
+In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the principal
+leader of which was Feargus O'Connor, whose irresponsible and erratic
+oratory produced a vast effect. Monster meetings were held, at which
+seditious language was occasionally used, and slight collisions with the
+military took place. Petitions of enormous size, signed in great part
+with fictitious names, were presented to parliament; and a great many
+newspapers were started, of which the _Northern Star_, conducted by
+Feargus O'Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a
+Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack on Newport,
+Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders, John Frost and two
+others, were seized, were found guilty of high treason, and were
+condemned to death. The sentence, however, was changed to one of
+transportation, and Frost spent over fourteen years in Van Diemen's
+Land. In 1854 he was pardoned, and from 1856 until his death on the 29th
+of July 1877 he lived in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was
+still further organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the
+National Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the
+head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have numbered
+40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made towards a coalition
+with the more moderate radicals, but these failed; and a land scheme was
+started by O'Connor, which prospered for a few years. In 1844 the
+uncompromising spirit of some of the leaders was well illustrated by
+their hostile attitude towards the Anti-Corn-Law League. O'Connor,
+especially, entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in
+which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season of great
+suffering among the working classes, and under the influence of the
+revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the Chartist movement was
+discovered and the prevalent discontent became known. Early in March
+disturbances occurred in Glasgow which required the intervention of the
+military, while in the manufacturing districts all over the west of
+Scotland the operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main
+movement succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and in
+Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was a real and
+widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort to decided
+measures.
+
+The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was London. An
+enormous gathering of half a million was announced for the 10th of April
+on Kennington Common, from which they were to march to the Houses of
+Parliament to present a petition signed by nearly six million names, in
+order by this imposing display of numbers to secure the enactment of the
+six points. Probably some of the more violent members of the party
+thought to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their
+own hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm, and
+the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to prevent a
+rising. The procession was forbidden. The military were called out under
+the command of the duke of Wellington, and by him concealed near the
+bridges and other points where the procession might attempt to force its
+way. Even the Bank of England and other public buildings were put in a
+state of defence, and special constables, to the number, it is said, of
+170,000, were enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the
+emperor of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both
+sides the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant
+affair. Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on
+Kennington Common, and their leaders, Feargus O'Connor and Ernest
+Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving the authorities
+by conducting the procession to the Houses of Parliament. The monster
+petition was duly presented, and scrutinized, with the result that the
+number of signatures was found to have been grossly exaggerated, and
+that the most unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to.
+Thereafter the movement specially called Chartism soon died out. It
+became merged, so far as its political programme is concerned, with the
+advancing radicalism of the general democratic movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTRES, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of
+Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway to Le Mans. Pop. (1906)
+19,433. Chartres is built on the left bank of the Eure, on a hill
+crowned by its famous cathedral, the spires of which are a landmark in
+the surrounding country. To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain
+of Beauce, "the granary of France," of which the town is the commercial
+centre. The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches, is
+crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is fringed in
+places by remains of the old fortifications, of which the Porte
+Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers, is the most
+complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the old town contrast
+with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle it and divide it from the
+suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant park, lies to the north-west, and
+squares and open spaces are numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France_; and
+CATHEDRAL), one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in
+the 11th century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church
+destroyed by fire. In 1194 another conflagration laid waste the new
+building then hardly completed; but clergy and people set zealously to
+work, and the main part of the present structure was finished by 1240.
+Though there have been numerous minor additions and alterations since
+that time, the general character of the cathedral is unimpaired. The
+upper woodwork was consumed by fire in 1836, but the rest of the
+building was saved. The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained
+glass of the 13th century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are
+all unique from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned
+for the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That to
+the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 13th
+century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than that of
+the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till the 16th
+century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its choir measures
+150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is 121 ft. The abbey
+church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 13th century, contains,
+besides some fine stained glass, twelve representations of the apostles
+in enamel, executed about 1547 by Léonard Limosin. Of the other churches
+of Chartres the chief are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and
+St Martin-au-Val (12th century). The hôtel de ville, a building of the
+17th century, containing a museum and library, an older hôtel de ville
+of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance houses, are of
+interest. There is a statue of General F.S. Marceau-Desgraviers (b.
+1769), a native of the town.
+
+The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes, and
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce,
+training colleges, a lycée for boys, a communal college for girls, and a
+branch of the Bank of France. Its trade is carried on chiefly on
+market-days, when the peasants of the Beauce bring their crops and
+live-stock to be sold and make their purchases. The game-pies and other
+delicacies of Chartres are well known, and the industries also include
+flour-milling, brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture,
+dyeing, and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites,
+hosiery, &c.
+
+Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and by the
+Romans was called _Autricum_, from the river _Autura_ (Eure), and
+afterwards _civitas Carnutum_. It was burnt by the Normans in 858, and
+unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. In 1417 it fell into the hands
+of the English, from whom it was recovered in 1432. It was attacked
+unsuccessfully by the Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by
+Henry IV., who was crowned there three years afterwards. In the
+Franco-German War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October
+1870, and continued during the rest of the campaign an important centre
+of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief town of the
+district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship which was held by
+the counts of Blois and Champagne and afterwards by the house of
+Châtillon, a member of which in 1286 sold it to the crown. It was raised
+to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by Francis I. After the time of Louis
+XIV. the title of duke of Chartres was hereditary in the family of
+Orleans.
+
+  See M.T. Bulteau, _Monographie de la cathédrale de Chartres_ (1887);
+  A. Pierval, _Chartres, sa cathédrale, ses monuments_ (1896); H.J.L.J.
+  Massé, _Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARTREUSE, a liqueur, so called from having been made at the famous
+Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at Grenoble (see below). In
+consequence of the Associations Law, the Chartreux monks left France in
+1904, and now continue the manufacture of this liqueur in Spain. There
+are two main varieties of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The
+green contains about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are
+other differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the
+flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are
+jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced by means
+of a distillation process.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, the mother house of the very severe order of
+Carthusian monks (see CARTHUSIANS). It is situated in the French
+department of the Isère, about 12½ m. N. of Grenoble, at a height of
+3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart of a group of limestone mountains,
+and not far from the source of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement
+here was founded by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the
+small village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St
+Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was built
+between 1132 and 1137, but the actual buildings date only from about
+1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The convent stands in a
+very picturesque position in a large meadow, sloping to the S.W., and
+watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers Mort. On the north, fine
+forests extend to the Col de la Ruchère, and on the west rise
+well-wooded heights, while on the east tower white limestone ridges,
+culminating in the Grand Som (6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the
+early Carthusian monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from 1160
+to 1181, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian house at
+Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of Lincoln, and before his
+death in 1200 had built the angel choir and other portions of the
+wonderful cathedral there.
+
+The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du Pont, a
+village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built by the monks--it
+is connected by steam tramways with Voiron (for Grenoble) and St Béron
+(for Chambéry). Among the other routes may be mentioned those from
+Grenoble by Le Sappey, or by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chambéry
+by the Col de Couz and the village of Les Échelles. St Laurent is about
+5½ m. from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and soon
+reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from _forata via_, as about
+1510 the road was first pierced hence towards the convent. Here are iron
+forges, and here was formerly the chief centre of the manufacture of the
+famed Chartreuse liqueur. Beyond, the road enters the "Désert" and
+passes through most delightful scenery. Some way farther the Guiers Mort
+is crossed by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older bridge of Parant
+being still visible higher up the stream. Here begins the splendid
+carriage road, constructed by M.E. Viaud between 1854 and 1856. It soon
+passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette or Aiguillette, beyond
+which formerly women were not allowed to penetrate. After passing
+through four tunnels the road bends north (leaving the Guiers Mort which
+flows past St Pierre de Chartreuse), and the valley soon opens to form
+the upland hollow in which are the buildings of the convent. These are
+not very striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the cross-surmounted
+turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief features. But the
+situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were formerly lodged
+in the old infirmary, close to the main gate, which is now a hôtel.
+Within the conventual buildings are four halls formerly used for the
+reception of the priors of the various branch houses in France, Italy,
+Burgundy and Germany. The very plain and unadorned chapel dates from the
+15th century, but the cloisters, around which cluster the thirty-six
+small houses for the fully professed monks, are of later date. The
+library contained before the Revolution a very fine collection of books
+and MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.
+
+The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in 1816, but then
+they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings and the forests
+around, though both one and the other were due to the industry of their
+predecessors. They were again expelled in 1904, and are dispersed in
+various houses in England, at Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain).
+It is at the last-named spot that the various pharmaceutical
+preparations are now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold
+only since about 1840)--the _Elixir_, the _Boule d'acier_ (a mineral
+paste or salve), and the celebrated _liqueur_. The magnificent revenues
+derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the monks
+to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the neighbouring
+villages, which owe to this source their churches, schools, hospitals,
+&c., &c., built and maintained at the expense of the monks.
+
+  See _La Grande Chartreuse par un Chartreux_ (Grenoble, 1898); H.
+  Ferrand, _Guide à la Grande Chartreuse_ (1889); and _Les Montagnes de
+  la Chartreuse_ (1899)     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARWOMAN, one who is hired to do occasional household work. "Char" or
+"chare," which forms the first part of the word, is common, in many
+forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning a "turn," and, in this original
+sense, is seen in "ajar," properly "on char," of a door "on the turn" in
+the act of closing. It is thus applied to a "turn of work," an odd job,
+and is so used, in the form "chore," in America, and in dialects of the
+south-west of England.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), American statesman and jurist, was
+born in Cornish township, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January 1808.
+His father died in 1817, and the son passed several years (1820-1824) in
+Ohio with his uncle, Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost
+pioneer of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop
+of Ohio (1819-1831), and after 1835 bishop of Illinois. He graduated at
+Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under William Wirt,
+attorney-general of the United States, in Washington, D.C., was admitted
+to the bar in 1829, and removed to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he
+soon gained a position of prominence at the bar, and published an
+annotated edition, which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At
+a time when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by
+Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by James G.
+Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the anti-slavery
+movement, and became recognized as the leader of the political reformers
+as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionists. To the cause he freely gave
+his services as a lawyer, and was particularly conspicuous as counsel
+for fugitive slaves seized in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the
+Fugitive Slave Law of 1793--indeed, he came to be known as the
+"attorney-general of fugitive slaves." His argument (1847) in the famous
+Van Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted
+particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the kind the
+judgment was against him. In brief he contended that slavery was "local,
+not national," that it could exist only by virtue of positive State Law,
+that the Federal government was not empowered by the Constitution to
+create slavery anywhere, and that "when a slave leaves the jurisdiction
+of a state he ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and
+leaves behind him the law which made him a slave." In 1841 he abandoned
+the Whig party, with which he had previously been affiliated, and for
+seven years was the undisputed leader of the Liberty party in Ohio; he
+was remarkably skilful in drafting platforms and addresses, and it was
+he who prepared the national Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty
+address of 1845. Realizing in time that a third party movement could not
+succeed, he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the
+Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats of New York to
+form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous Free-Soil platform, and it
+was largely through his influence that Van Buren was nominated for the
+presidency. His object, however, was not to establish a permanent new
+party organization, but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern
+Democrats to force them to adopt a policy opposed to the further
+extension of slavery.
+
+In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the result of a
+coalition between the Democrats and a small group of Free-Soilers in the
+state legislature; and for some years thereafter, except in 1852, when
+he rejoined the Free-Soilers, he classed himself as an Independent
+Democrat, though he was out of harmony with the leaders of the
+Democratic party. During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was
+pre-eminently the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one
+spoke more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850 and
+the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska legislation, and
+the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having convinced him of the futility
+of trying to influence the Democrats, he assumed the leadership in the
+North-west of the movement to form a new party to oppose the extension
+of slavery. The "Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the
+People of the United States," written by Chase and Giddings, and
+published in the New York _Times_ of the 24th of January 1854, may be
+regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican party creed. He was the
+first Republican governor of Ohio, serving from 1855 to 1859. Although,
+with the exception of Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in
+the country, and had done more against slavery than any other
+Republican, he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in
+1860, partly because his views on the question of protection were not
+orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because the old
+line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the Democrats in
+the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncompromising and conspicuous
+anti-slavery record, too, was against him from the point of view of
+"availability." As secretary of the treasury in President Lincoln's
+cabinet in 1861-1864, during the first three years of the Civil War, he
+rendered services of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed
+two great changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a
+national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper currency.
+The former was Chase's own particular measure. He suggested the idea,
+worked out all of the important principles and many of the details, and
+induced Congress to accept them. The success of that system alone
+warrants his being placed in the first rank of American financiers. It
+not only secured an immediate market for government bonds, but it also
+provided a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic,
+is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest financial
+blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes, although he did
+not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push his opposition to the point
+of resigning.
+
+Perhaps Chase's chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable desire for
+supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and also temperamental
+differences from the president, which led him to retire from the cabinet
+in June 1864. A few months later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed
+chief justice of the United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney,
+a position which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most
+important decisions were _Texas v. White_ (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in
+which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an "indestructible
+union composed of indestructible states," _Veazie Bank_ v. _Fenno_ (8
+Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part of the banking legislation
+of the Civil War which imposed a tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and
+_Hepburn_ v. _Griswold_ (8 Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain
+parts of the legal tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal
+tender decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges,
+1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared a very
+able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he gradually drifted
+back toward his old Democratic position, and made an unsuccessful effort
+to secure the nomination of the Democratic party for the presidency in
+1872. He died in New York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of
+the ablest political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be
+placed in the front rank of American statesmen.
+
+  The standard biography is A.B. Hart's _Salmon Portland Chase_ in the
+  "American Statesmen Series" (1899). Less philosophical, but containing
+  a greater wealth of detail, is J.W. Shuckers' _Life and Public
+  Services of Salmon Portland Chase_ (New York, 1874). R.B. Warden's
+  _Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland
+  Chase_ (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase's private life.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, SAMUEL (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in Somerset county,
+Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was admitted to the bar at
+Annapolis in 1761, and for more than twenty years was a member of the
+Maryland legislature. He took an active part in the resistance to the
+Stamp Act, and from 1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the
+Continental Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was
+sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side of the
+revolting colonies, and after his return did much to persuade Maryland
+to advocate a formal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great
+Britain, he himself being one of those who signed the Declaration of
+Independence on the 2nd of August 1776. In this year he was also a
+member of the convention which framed the first constitution for the
+state of Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which
+ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there vigorously
+opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an ardent Federalist, he
+became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland general court, which position
+he resigned in 1796 for that of an associate justice of the Supreme
+Court of the United States. His radical Federalism, however, led him to
+continue active in politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity,
+on the bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His overbearing
+conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for treason, and of
+James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious libel in 1800, drove
+the lawyers for the defence from the court, and evoked the wrath of the
+Republicans, who were stirred to action by a political harangue on the
+evil tendencies of democracy which he delivered as a charge to a grand
+jury at Baltimore in 1803. The House of Representatives adopted a
+resolution of impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804
+the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph, Joseph H.
+Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-1824), laid their
+articles of impeachment before the Senate. The trial, with frequent
+interruptions and delays, lasted from the 2nd of January to the 1st of
+March 1805. Judge Chase was defended by the ablest lawyers in the
+country, including Luther Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825),
+Philip Barton Key (1757-1815), Charles Lee (1758-1815), and Joseph
+Hopkinson (1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his
+conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of a
+Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making "highly
+indecent, extra-judicial" reflections upon the national administration,
+probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes. On only three articles
+was there a majority against Judge Chase, the largest, on article viii.,
+being four short of the necessary two-thirds to convict. "The case,"
+says Henry Adams, "proved impeachment to be an impracticable thing for
+partisan purposes, and it decided the permanence of those lines of
+constitutional development which were a reflection of the common law."
+Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it until his
+death on the 19th of June 1811.
+
+  See _The Trial of Samuel Chase_ (2 vols., Washington, 1805), reported
+  by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in _The American Law
+  Review_, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1899); and Henry Adams's
+  _History of the United States_, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849-   ), American painter, was born at
+Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849. He was a pupil of B.F.
+Hays at Indianapolis, of J.O. Eaton in New York, and subsequently of A.
+Wagner and Piloty in Munich. In New York he established a school of his
+own, after teaching with success for some years at the Art Students'
+League. A worker in all mediums--oils, water-colour, pastel and
+etching--painting with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life,
+he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering some of
+the most important men and women of his time. Mr Chase won many honours
+at home and abroad, became a member of the National Academy of Design,
+New York, and for ten years was president of the Society of American
+Artists. Among his important canvases are "Ready for the Ride" (Union
+League Club, N.Y.), "The Apprentice," "Court Jester," and portraits of
+the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and of Peter Cooper.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE. (1) (Fr. _chasse_, from Lat. _captare_, frequentative of
+_capere_, to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or sport (see
+HUNTING). The word is used of the pursuit of anything, and also of the
+thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of a ship. A transferred meaning is
+that of park land reserved for the breeding and hunting of wild animals,
+in which sense it appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock
+Chase. It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (q.v.). (2) (Fr.
+_châsse_, Lat. _capsa_, a box, cf. _caisse_, and "chest"), an enclosure,
+such as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove cut
+to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the "forme."
+
+
+
+
+CHASING, or ENCHASING, the art of producing figures and ornamental
+patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic surfaces by means of
+steel tools or punches. It is practised extensively for the
+ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith work, electro-plate and
+similar objects, being employed to produce bold flutings and bosses, and
+in another manner utilized for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work
+can be produced by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in
+the watch-cases chased by G.M. Moser, R.A. (1704-1783). The chaser first
+outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament, after which, if
+the work involves bold or high embossments, these are blocked out by a
+process termed "snarling." The snarling iron is a long iron tool turned
+up at the end, and made so that when securely fastened in a vise the
+upturned end can reach and press against any portion of the interior of
+the vase or other object to be chased. The part to be raised being held
+firmly against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman
+gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow, which
+causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive stroke, and
+thus throw up the surface of the metal held against the tool. When the
+blocking out from the interior is finished, or when no such embossing is
+required, the object to be chased is filled with molten pitch, which is
+allowed to harden. It is then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and
+a multitude of small punches of different outline the whole details of
+the pattern, lined, smooth or "matt," are worked out. Embossing and
+stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long since taken the
+place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper kinds of plated works.
+(See EMBOSSING.)
+
+
+
+
+CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE (1798-1873), French critic and man
+of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure et Loir) on the 8th of
+October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques Michel Chasles (1754-1826), was
+a member of the Convention, and was one of those who voted the death of
+Louis XVI. He brought up his son according to the principles of
+Rousseau's _Émile_, and the boy, after a régime of outdoor life,
+followed by some years' classical study, was apprenticed to a printer,
+so that he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master was
+involved in one of the plots of 1815, and Philarète suffered two months'
+imprisonment. On his release he was sent to London, where he worked for
+the printer Valpy on editions of classical authors. He wrote articles
+for the English reviews, and on his return to France did much to
+popularize the study of English authors. He was also one of the earliest
+to draw attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature. He
+contributed to the _Revue des deux mondes_, until he had a violent
+quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with François Buloz, who won his
+case. He became librarian of the Bibliothèque Mazarine, and from 1841
+was professor of comparative literature at the Collège de France. During
+his active life he produced some fifty volumes of literary history and
+criticism, and of social history, much of which is extremely valuable.
+He died at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, Émile Chasles (b.
+1827), was a philologist of some reputation.
+
+  Among his best critical works is _Dix-huitième Siècle en Angleterre_
+  ... (1846), one of a series of 20 vols. of _Études de littérature
+  comparée_ (1846-1875), which he called later _Trente ans de critique_.
+  An account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his _Maison de mon
+  père_. His _Mémoires_ (1876-1877) did not fulfil the expectations
+  based on his brilliant talk.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSE (from the Fr., in full _chasse-café_, or "coffee-chaser"), a
+draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSÉ (Fr. for "chased"), a gliding step in dancing, so called since
+one foot is brought up behind or chases the other. The _chassé croisé_
+is a double variety of the step.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS, MARQUIS DE (1754-1833), French general and
+military engineer, was born at St Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of
+August 1754, of a noble family, and entered the French engineers in
+1774. He was still a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution,
+becoming captain in 1791. His ability as a military engineer was
+recognized in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he
+won distinction in various actions and was promoted successively _chef
+de bataillon_ and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the siege of
+Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He there conducted the
+first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the positions and lines of
+advance of the army of Bonaparte. He was promoted general of brigade
+before the close of the campaign, and was subsequently employed in
+fortifying the new Rhine frontier of France. His work as chief of
+engineers in the army of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and
+after the battle of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon
+took the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again
+selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of
+1801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences of
+northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous Quadrilateral.
+His _chef-d'oeuvre_ was the great fortress of Alessandria on the Tanaro.
+In 1805 he remained in Italy with Masséna, but at the end of 1806
+Napoleon, then engaged in the Polish campaign, called him to the _Grande
+Armée_, with which he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the
+sieges of Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic
+domination in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses, in
+particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again served in Italy.
+In 1810 Napoleon made him a councillor of state. His last campaign was
+that of 1812 in Russia. He retired from active service soon afterwards,
+though in 1814 he was occasionally engaged in the inspection and
+construction of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France
+and a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred
+Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber of peers
+against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics he belonged to the
+constitutional party. The king created him a marquis. Chasseloup's later
+years were employed chiefly in putting in order his manuscripts, a task
+which he had to abandon owing to the failure of his sight. His only
+published work was _Correspondence d'un général français, &c. sur divers
+sujets_ (Paris, 1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 1811, under the title
+_Correspondance de deux générals, &c., essais sur quelques parties
+d'artillerie et de fortification_). The most important of his papers are
+in manuscript in the Depôt of Fortifications, Paris.
+
+As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of advanced views, of
+the old bastioned system. He followed in many respects the engineer
+Bousmard, whose work was published in 1797 and who fell, as a Prussian
+officer, in the defence of Danzig in 1807 against Chasseloup's own
+attack. His front was applied to Alessandria, as has been stated, and
+contains many elaborations of the bastion trace, with, in particular,
+masked flanks in the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the
+bastions. The bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The
+ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier after the
+example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard's, his own ravelin was a
+large and powerful work pushed out beyond the glacis.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSEPOT, officially "fusil modèle 1866," a military breech-loading
+rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-German War
+of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor, Antoine Alphonse
+Chassepot (1833-1905), who, from 1857 onwards, had constructed various
+experimental forms of breech-loader, and it became the French service
+weapon in 1866. In the following year it made its first appearance on
+the battle-field at Mentana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted
+severe losses upon Garibaldi's troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very
+greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was closed by a
+bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and amongst the
+technical features of interest were the method of obturation, which was
+similar in principle to the de Bange obturator for heavy guns (see
+ORDNANCE), and the retention of the paper cartridge. The principal
+details of the chassepot are:--weight of rifle, 9 lb. 5 oz.; length with
+bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.; calibre, .433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386
+grains; weight of charge (black powder), 86.4 grains; muzzle velocity,
+1328 f.s.; sighted to 1312 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in
+1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles of
+the older model remaining in store were converted to take the same
+ammunition (fusil modèle 1866/74).
+
+
+
+
+CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE (1819-1856), French painter, was born in the
+Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and at Rome, subsequently
+falling under the influence of Paul Delaroche. He was a well-known
+painter of portraits and historical pieces, his "Tepidarium at Pompeii"
+(1853) being now in the Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSIS (Fr. _châssis_, a frame, from the Late. Lat. _capsum_, an
+enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived the word
+"sash"; also the movable traversing frame of a gun, and more
+particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of the wheels,
+frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage part rests.
+
+
+
+
+CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE (1540-1563), French poet, was born in
+Dauphiné, a scion of the house of Bayard. His name is inseparably
+connected with Mary, queen of Scots. From the service of the Constable
+Montmorency, Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal
+Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in escort of
+Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal's train, but left for
+Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of recommendation to
+Mary from his old protector, Montmorency, and the _Regrets_ addressed to
+the ex-queen of France by Pierre Ronsard, his master in the art of song.
+He undertook to transmit to the poet the service of plate with which
+Mary rewarded him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said
+to have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between them; she
+lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his person and
+conversation. The young man hid himself under her bed, where he was
+discovered by her maids of honour. Mary pardoned the offence, and the
+old familiar terms between them were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as
+again to violate her privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized,
+sentenced and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and
+consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master's noble
+_Hymne de la mort_, and turning at the instant of doom towards the
+palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress the famous
+farewell--"Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me tues et que je ne
+puis cesser d'aimer." This at least is the version of the _Mémoires_ of
+Brantôme, who is, however, notoriously untrustworthy. But for his
+madness of love, it is possible that Chastelard would have left no
+shadow or shred of himself behind. As it is, his life and death are of
+interest as illustrating the wild days in which his lot was cast.
+
+
+
+
+CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler, was a native of
+Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from the fact that his
+ancestors were burgraves or châtelains of the town; his parents, who
+belonged to illustrious Flemish families, were probably the Jean
+Chastellain and his wife Marie de Masmines mentioned in the town records
+in 1425 and 1432. A copy of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states
+that he died on the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he
+states that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect
+the details of events in that year, and since he was "_écolier_" at
+Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 1415 than 1405.
+He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and probably elsewhere,
+winning the surname of _L'adventureux_. In 1434 he received a gift from
+Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, for his military services, but on the
+conclusion of the peace of Arras in the next year he abandoned
+soldiering for diplomacy. The next ten years were spent in France, where
+he was connected with Georges de la Trémoille, and afterwards entered
+the household of Pierre de Brézé, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by
+whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy, in an attempt
+to establish better relations between Charles VII. and the duke. During
+these years Chastellain had ample opportunity of obtaining an intimate
+knowledge of French affairs, but on the further breach between the two
+princes, Chastellain left the French service to enter Philip's
+household. He was at first pantler, then carver, titles which are
+misleading as to the nature of his services, which were those of a
+diplomatist; and in 1457 he became a member of the ducal council. He was
+continually employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing
+apparently to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the
+counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a considerable
+pension, on condition that the recipient should put in writing "_choses
+nouvelles et morales_," and a chronicle of notable events. That is to
+say, he was appointed Burgundian historiographer with a recommendation
+to write also on other subjects not strictly within the scope of a
+chronicler. From this time he worked hard at his _Chronique_, with
+occasional interruptions in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or
+to visit the Burgundian court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards,
+by his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and
+redundant style may be fairly traced in some passages of the
+_Chronique_. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his house as
+a patron of literature, and showed special favour to Chastellain, who,
+after being constituted _indiciaire_ or chronicler of the order of the
+Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of the order on the 2nd of May
+1473. He died at Valenciennes on the 13th of February (according to the
+treasury accounts), or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph)
+1475. He left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred
+and twenty livres for a copy of the _Chronique_ intended for Charles
+V.'s sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-third of the whole
+work, which extended from 1410 to 1474, is known to be in existence, but
+MSS. carried by the Habsburgs to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be
+discovered.
+
+Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great reputation by his
+poems and occasional pieces now little considered. The unfinished state
+of his _Chronique_ at the time of his death, coupled with political
+considerations, may possibly account for the fact that it remained
+unprinted during the century that followed his death, and his historical
+work was only disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and
+Brussels by the painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain
+was constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in
+negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and thus had
+personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt with in his history.
+A partisan element in writing of French affairs was inevitable in a
+Burgundian chronicle. This defect appears most strongly in his treatment
+of Joan of Arc; and the attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been
+dictated by the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in
+Burgundy, of whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was
+not, however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart had
+been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception of the
+radical injustice of the English cause in France; and except in isolated
+instances where Burgundian interests were at stake, he did full justice
+to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among his most sympathetic portraits are
+those of his friend Pierre de Brézé and of Jacques Coeur. His French
+style, based partly on his Latin reading, has, together with its
+undeniable vigour and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and
+rhetorical quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere
+annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his own
+conclusions, in accordance with his political experience. The most
+interesting feature of his work is the skill with which he pictures the
+leading figures of his time. His "characters" are the fruit of acute and
+experienced observation, and abound in satirical traits, although the
+42nd chapter of his second book, devoted expressly to portraiture, is
+headed "_Comment Georges escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des
+princes de son temps._"
+
+  The known extant fragments of Chastellain's _Chroniques_ with his
+  other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the Brussels
+  Academy in 1863-1866 (8 vols., Brussels) as _OEuvres de Georges
+  Chastellain_. This edition includes all that had been already
+  published by Buchon in his _Collection de chroniques_ and _Choix de
+  chroniques_ (material subsequently incorporated in the _Panthéon
+  littéraire_), and portions printed by Renard in his _Trésor national_,
+  vol. i. and by Quicherat in the _Procès de la Pucelle_ vol. iv. Kervyn
+  de Lettenhove's text includes the portions of the chronicle covering
+  the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December
+  1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463,
+  and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes of
+  minor pieces of considerable interest, especially _Le Temple de
+  Boccace_, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the _Déprécation_ for
+  Pierre Brézé, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor works
+  the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous, notably in
+  the case of the _Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalain_, which is the
+  work of Lefèbvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece. In the
+  allegorical _Oultré d'amour_ it has been thought a real romance
+  between Brézé and a lady of the royal house is concealed.
+
+  See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_; as well as
+  notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the _OEuvres_ and in the
+  _Biographie nationale de Belgique_; and an article (three parts) by
+  Vallet de Viriville in the _Journal des savants_ (1867).
+
+
+
+
+CHASUBLE (Fr. _chasuble_, Ger. _Kasel_, Span. _casulla_; Late Lat.
+_casula_, a little house, hut, from _casa_), a liturgical vestment of
+the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by bishops and
+priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming with the alb (q.v.) the
+most essential part of the eucharistic vestments. Since it is only used
+at the Mass, or rarely for functions intimately connected with the
+sacrament of the altar, it may be regarded as the Mass vestment _par
+excellence_. The chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal
+vestment, and at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite,
+the bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back
+(_planeta plicata_), with the words, "Take the sacerdotal robe, the
+symbol of love," &c.; at the end of the ordination Mass the vestment is
+unrolled. The chasuble or _planeta_ (as it is called in the Roman
+missal), according to the prevailing model in the Roman Catholic Church,
+is a scapular-like cloak, with a hole in the middle for the head,
+falling down over breast and back, and leaving the arms uncovered at the
+sides. Its shape and size, however, differ considerably in various
+countries (see fig. 1), while some churches--e.g. those of certain
+monastic orders--have retained or reverted to the earlier "Gothic" forms
+to be described later. According to the decisions of the Congregation of
+Rites chasubles must not be of linen, cotton or woollen stuffs, but of
+silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen and cotton) and silk is allowed
+if the silk completely cover the other material on the outer side; spun
+glass thread, as a substitute for gold or silver thread, is also
+forbidden, owing to the possible danger to the priest's health through
+broken fragments falling into the chalice.
+
+[Illustration: From Braun's _Liturgische Gewandung_, by permission of
+the publisher, B. Herder.
+
+FIG. 1.--Comparative shape and size of Chasubles as now in use in
+various countries.
+
+a, b, German. c, Roman. d, Spanish.]
+
+The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the [Greek: phelonion], &c.)
+in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman _paenula_ or
+_planeta_, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the
+Graeco-Roman world (see VESTMENTS). Though early used in the celebration
+of the liturgy it had for several centuries no specifically liturgical
+character, the first clear instances of its ritual use being in a letter
+of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the next in the twenty-eighth
+canon of the Council of Toledo (633). Much later than this, however, it
+was still an article of everyday clerical dress, and as such was
+prescribed by the German council convened by Carloman and presided over
+by St Boniface in 742. Amalarius of Metz, in his _De ecclesiasticis
+officiis_ (ii. 19), tells us in 816 that the _casula_ is the _generale
+indumentum sacrorum ducum_ and "is proper generally to all the clergy."
+It was not until the 11th century, when the cope (q.v.) had become
+established as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be
+reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating this
+process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting correspondence
+between Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and John of Avranches,
+archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a bishop wearing a chasuble
+at the consecration of a church, Lanfranc maintaining as an established
+principle that the vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th
+century, with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the
+chasuble became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating
+priest; though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier
+general use of the chasuble survive in the _planeta plicata_ worn by
+deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other penitential
+seasons.
+
+At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other vestments by
+the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however, survived in the Lutheran
+churches; and though in those of Germany it is no longer worn, it still
+forms part of the liturgical costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical
+churches. In the Church of England, though it was prescribed
+alternatively with the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it
+was ultimately discarded, with the other "Mass vestments," the cope
+being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion in
+cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however, during the last
+fifty years been widely revived in connexion with the reactionary
+movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation doctrine of the
+eucharist. The difficult question of its legality is discussed in the
+article VESTMENTS.
+
+_Form._--The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which fell in
+loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4). Its obvious
+inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however, caused its
+gradual modification. The object of the change was primarily to leave
+the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful performance of the
+manual acts, and to this end a process of cutting away at the sides of
+the vestment began, which continued until the tent-shaped chasuble of
+the 12th century had developed in the 16th into the scapular-like
+vestment at present in use. This process was, moreover, hastened by the
+substitution of costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the
+simple stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed; for,
+as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be made smaller.
+For the extremely exiguous proportions of some chasubles actually in
+use, which have been robbed of all the beauty of form they ever
+possessed, less respectable motives have sometimes been responsible,
+viz. the desire of their makers to save on the materials. The most
+beautiful form of the chasuble is undoubtedly the "Gothic" (see the
+figure of Bishop Johannes of Lübeck in the article VESTMENTS), which is
+the form most affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the
+English Church before the Reformation.
+
+_Decoration._--Though _planetae_ decorated with narrow orphreys are
+occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries, these
+vestments were until the 10th century generally quite plain, and even at
+the close of this century, when the custom of decorating the chasuble
+with orphreys had become common, there was no definite rule as to their
+disposition; sometimes they were merely embroidered borders to the
+neck-opening or hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less
+often a forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the
+shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery became ever
+more and more elaborate, and with this tendency the orphreys were
+broadened to allow of their being decorated with figures. About the
+middle of the 13th century, the cross with horizontal arms begins to
+appear on the back of the vestment, and by the 15th this had become the
+most usual form, though the forked cross also survived--e.g. in England,
+where it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the
+Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed both on the
+back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-armed cross, on the other
+hand, is placed only on the back, the front being decorated with a
+vertical strip extending to the lower hem (fig. 1, b, d). Sometimes
+the back of the chasuble has no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and
+in this case the front, besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal
+orphrey just below the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter
+is the type used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in
+certain dioceses in South Germany and Switzerland, and of late years in
+the Roman Catholic churches in England, e.g. Westminster cathedral (see
+Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).
+
+[Illustration PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Chasuble of Pope Calixtus III. (15th century) preserved at
+  Valencia.
+
+  From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_, by
+  permission of the publisher, B. Herder.
+
+  FIG. 3.--Chasuble of Pope Pius V. (late 15th century) at S. Maria
+  Maggiore at Rome.
+
+  From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Chasuble dedicated by Stephen of Hungary (997-1038) and his
+  wife Gisela, used as the Hungarian Coronation Robe.
+
+  (From Braun, _Die liturg. Gewandung_.)
+
+  FIG. 5.--Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop Bourne of Westminster.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Modern English Chasuble, used at St Paul's Church,
+  Knightsbridge, London.]
+
+[Illustration PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with
+  Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early 16th century, the
+  Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and
+  Albert Museum.)]
+
+It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious imitation
+of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, _Gesch. der liturg. Gewänder_,
+ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated is proper to archbishops.
+Father Braun, however, makes it quite clear that this was not the case,
+and gives proof that this decoration was not even originally conceived
+as a cross at all, citing early instances of its having been worn by
+laymen and even by non-Christians (p. 210). It was not until the 13th
+century that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated,
+and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century onward by
+the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it the figure of the
+crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion. This, however, did
+not represent any definite rule; and the orphreys of chasubles were
+decorated with a great variety of pictorial subjects, scriptural or
+drawn from the stories of the saints, while the rest of the vestment was
+either left plain or, if embroidered, most usually decorated with
+arabesque patterns of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true
+to its ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern
+Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conventional
+arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with the arms of the
+archbishop and his see.
+
+_The Eastern Church._--The original equivalent of the chasuble is the
+phelonion ([Greek: phelonion, phelonês, phainolion], from _paenula_). It
+is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell chasuble; but,
+instead of being cut away at the sides, it is for convenience' sake
+either gathered up or cut short in front. In the Armenian, Syrian,
+Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-shaped. There is some difference
+of opinion as to the derivation of the vestment in the latter case; the
+Five Bishops (Report to Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope,
+from the _birrus_, while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope,
+to be a modification of the _paenula_.[1] The phelonion (Arm.
+_shurtshar_, Syr. _phaina_, Chald. _maaphra_ or _phaina_, Copt, _burnos,
+felonion, kuklion_) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian,
+Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by the
+lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic vestment as
+in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions besides the liturgy,
+e.g. marriages, processions, &c.
+
+Until the 11th century the phelonion is always pictured as a perfectly
+plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose of decorating the
+patriarchal phelonion with a number of crosses, whence its name of
+[Greek: polystaurion]. By the 14th century the use of these polystauria
+had been extended to metropolitans and later still to all bishops. The
+purple or black phelonion, however, remained plain in all cases. The
+Greeks and Greek Melchite metropolitans now wear the _sakkos_ instead of
+the phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and Italo-Greek
+churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion in the case of all
+bishops (see DALMATIC and VESTMENTS).
+
+  See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the
+    following note:--"That the Syrian _phaina_ was formerly a closed
+    mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the
+    evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the
+    Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in _Die
+    liturgische Gewandung_). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians
+    are derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite; so that in this
+    case also there can be no doubt that the _shurtshar_ was originally
+    closed. The Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian.
+    Moreover, it would be further necessary to prove that the _birrus_,
+    in contradistinction to the _paenula_, was always open in front;
+    whereas, _per contra_, the _paenula_, both as worn by soldiers and in
+    ordinary life, was, like the modern Arab _burnus_, often slit up the
+    front to the neck. For the rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian
+    _phaina_ was still quite closed in the 13th century, and was only
+    provided with a slit since that time, the same is very probable in
+    the case of the Armenian chasuble. The absence of the hood might also
+    be taken as additional proof of the derivation of the _phaina_ from
+    the _paenula_, but I should not lay particular stress upon it. The
+    question is settled by the above-mentioned miniatures."
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAU (from Lat. _castellum_, fortress, through O. Fr. _chastel,
+chasteau_), the French word for castle (q.v.). The development of the
+medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries, into houses arranged
+rather for residence than defence led to a corresponding widening of the
+meaning of the term _château_, which came to be applied to any
+seigniorial residence and so generally to all houses, especially country
+houses, of any pretensions (cf. the Ger. _Schloss_). The French
+distinguish the fortified castle from the residential mansion by
+describing the former as the _château fort_, the latter as the _château
+de plaisance_. The development of the one into the other is admirably
+illustrated by surviving buildings in France, especially in the
+_châteaux_ scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in
+perfect preservation, is a fine type of the _château fort_, with its
+10th-century keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois
+(1500-1540), Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux (1515-1560),
+Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the _château
+de plaisance_ of the transition period, all retaining in greater or less
+degree some of the architectural characteristics of the medieval castle.
+Some description of these is given under their several headings. In
+English the word _château_ is often used to translate foreign words
+(e.g. _Schloss_) meaning country house or mansion.
+
+  For the Loire châteaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Old Touraine_
+  (1892).
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ, VICOMTE DE (1768-1848), French author,
+youngest son of René Auguste de Chateaubriand, comte de Combourg,[1] was
+born at St Malo on the 4th of September 1768. He was a brilliant
+representative of the reaction against the ideas of the French
+Revolution, and the most conspicuous figure in French literature during
+the First Empire. His naturally poetical temperament was fostered in
+childhood by picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his
+morose father, the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his
+ancient family, the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered
+Breton district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the
+neighbouring ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile,[2] a
+passionate-hearted girl, divided between her devotion to him and to
+religion. François received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean
+Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes he proceeded to
+the College of Dinan, and passed some years in desultory study in
+preparation for the priesthood. He finally decided, after a year's
+holiday at the family château of Combourg, that he had no vocation for
+the Church, and was on the point of proceeding to try his fortune in
+India when he received (1786) a commission in the army. After a short
+visit to Paris he joined his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the
+following year was presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure
+in order to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris
+(1787-1789) he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He
+met la Harpe, Évariste Parny, "Pindare" Lebrun, Nicolas Chamfort, Pierre
+Louis Ginguené, and others, of whom he has left portraits in his
+memoirs.
+
+Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its first
+stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover, his
+regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the party of
+reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased no one. These
+causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced him to take part in a
+romantic scheme for the discovery of the North-West Passage, in
+pursuance of which he departed for America in the spring of 1791. The
+passage was not found or even attempted, but the adventurer returned
+enriched with the--to him--more important discovery of his own powers
+and vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation of
+nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery, derived from
+the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the western continent.
+That he actually lived among the Indians, however, is shown by Bedier to
+be doubtful, and the same critic has exposed the untrustworthiness of
+the autobiographical details of his American trip. His knowledge of
+America was mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.
+
+The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June 1791 recalled
+him to France. In 1792 he married Mlle Céleste Buisson de Lavigne, a
+girl of seventeen, who brought him a small fortune. This enabled him to
+join the ranks of the emigrants, a course practically imposed on him by
+his birth and his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke
+of Brunswick's invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he was
+left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His brother succeeded
+in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent him to Jersey. The captain
+of the boat in which he travelled left him on the beach in Guernsey. He
+was once more rescued from death, this time by some fishermen. After
+spending some time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant
+uncle, the comte de Bédée, he made his way to London. In England he
+lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaintance with
+English literature and a practical acquaintance with poverty. His own
+account of this period has been exposed by A. le Braz, _Au pays d'exil
+de Chateaubriand_ (1909), and by E. Dick, _Revue d'histoire littéraire
+de la France_ (1908), i. From his English exile dates the _Natchez_
+(first printed in his _OEuvres complètes_, 1826-1831), a prose epic
+designed to portray the life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes
+originally designed for this work, _Atala_ and _René_, are among his
+most famous productions. Chateaubriand's first publication, however, was
+the _Essai historique, politique et moral sur les révolutions_ ...
+(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but took care
+not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a mediator between
+royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-thinker in religion, and a
+philosopher imbued with the spirit of Rousseau. A great change in his
+views was, however, at hand, induced, according to his own statement, by
+a letter from his sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief
+his views had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release
+from the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished on the
+scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, Lucile and Julie, and his
+wife had been imprisoned at Rennes. Mme de Farcy did not long survive
+her imprisonment.
+
+Chateaubriand's thoughts turned to religion, and on his return to France
+in 1800 the _Génie du christianisme_ was already in an advanced state.
+Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile with Chateaubriand in London,
+and he now introduced him to the society of Mme de Staël, Mme Récamier,
+Benjamin Constant, Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand's
+favourite resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined
+to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the
+preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being written
+at her house at Savigny. _Atala, ou les amours de deux sauvages dans le
+désert_, used as an episode in the _Génie du christianisme_, appeared
+separately in 1801 and immediately made his reputation. Exquisite style,
+impassioned eloquence and glowing descriptions of nature gained
+indulgence for the incongruity between the rudeness of the personages
+and the refinement of the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending
+of prudery with sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece
+is a more emphatic and highly coloured _Paul et Virginie_; it has been
+justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and
+Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the author resumed
+his _Génie du christianisme, ou beautés de la religion chrétienne_,
+which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of Napoleon's re-establishment
+of the Catholic religion in France, for which it thus seemed almost to
+have prepared the way. No coincidence could have been more opportune,
+and Chateaubriand came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in
+the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in mind the
+admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the public would care very
+little for his erudition and very much for his eloquence. It is
+consequently an inefficient production from the point of view of serious
+argument. The considerations derived from natural theology are but
+commonplaces rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels
+between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters, are
+at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages, however,
+where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic liturgy and its
+accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance, are splendid
+instances of the effect produced by the accumulation and judicious
+distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass, and treated with the
+utmost refinement of detail. The work is a masterpiece of literary art,
+and its influence in French literature was immense. The _Éloa_ of Alfred
+de Vigny, the _Harmonies_ of Lamartine and even the _Légende des
+siècles_ of Victor Hugo may be said to have been inspired by the _Génie
+du christianisme_. Its immediate effect was very considerable. It
+admirably subserved the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803
+appointed the writer _attaché_ to the French legation at Rome, whither
+he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.
+
+When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his recall he was
+transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais. The murder of the duke
+of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took place before he took up this
+appointment. Chateaubriand, who was in Paris at the time, showed his
+courage and independence by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he
+gave great offence to Napoleon by an article in the _Mercure de France_
+(4th of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken to
+refer to the emperor. The _Mercure_, of which he had become proprietor,
+was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year amalgamated with
+the _Décade_. Chateaubriand states in his _Mémoires_ that his life was
+threatened, but it is more than possible that he exaggerated the danger.
+Before this, in 1806, he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as
+he subsequently acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest
+of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz and
+Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the place and the meeting
+apparently suggested the romantic tale of _Le Dernier Abencérage_,
+which, for political reasons, remained unprinted until the publication
+of the _OEuvres complètes_ (1826-1831). The journey also produced
+_L'Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem_ ... (3 vols., 1811), a record of
+travel distinguished by the writer's habitual picturesqueness; and
+inspired his prose epic, _Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion
+chrétienne_ (2 vols., 1809). This work may be regarded as the argument
+of the _Génie du christianisme_ thrown into an objective form. As in the
+_Epicurean_ of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast
+between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose partly
+from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity, and
+partly because the heathen are the most interesting characters after
+all. _René_ had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the _Génie du
+christianisme_, and was published separately at Leipzig without its
+author's consent in the same year. It was perhaps Chateaubriand's most
+characteristic production. The connecting link in European literature
+between _Werther_ and _Childe Harold_, it paints the misery of a morbid
+and dissatisfied soul. The representation is mainly from the life.
+Chateaubriand betrayed amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile
+in the Amélie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his own
+early surroundings. With _Les Natchez_ his career as an imaginative
+writer is closed. In 1831 he published his _Études ou discours
+historiques_ ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his antagonists
+when in opposition and to his friends when in office. His poetical
+receptivity and impressionableness rendered him no doubt honestly
+inconsistent with himself; his vanity and ambition, too morbidly acute
+to be restrained by the ties of party allegiance, made him dangerous and
+untrustworthy as a political associate. He was forbidden to deliver the
+address he had prepared (1811) for his reception to the Academy on M.J.
+Chénier on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it.
+From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at the
+Vallée-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay. His
+pamphlet _De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la nécessité de se rattier à
+nos princes légitimes_, published on the 31st of March 1814, the day of
+the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as opportune in the moment of
+its appearance as the _Génie du christianisme_, and produced a hardly
+less signal effect. Louis XVIII. declared that it had been worth a
+hundred thousand men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior,
+accompanied him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time
+associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction. Political
+bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly drifted into
+liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in September 1816 for his
+pamphlet _De la monarchie selon la charte_. He had to sell his library
+and his house of the Vallée-aux-loups.
+
+After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand obtained
+the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was transferred to London
+(1822), and he also acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of
+Verona (1822). He here made himself mainly responsible for the
+iniquitous invasion of Spain--an expedition undertaken, as he himself
+admits, with the idea of restoring French prestige by a military parade.
+He next received the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by
+his desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the
+interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective
+pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome in 1827,
+under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at Prince Polignac's
+accession to office. On the downfall of the elder branch of the
+Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably fruitless protest from the
+tribune in defence of the principle of legitimacy. During the first half
+of Louis Philippe's reign he was still politically active with his pen,
+and published a _Mémoire sur la captivité de madame la duchesse de
+Berry_ (1833) and other pamphlets in which he made himself the champion
+of the exiled dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect
+of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he relapsed into
+an attitude of complete discouragement. His _Congrès de Vérone_ (1838),
+_Vie de Rancé_ (1844), and his translation of Milton, _Le Paradis perdu
+de Milton_ (1836), belong to the writings of these later days. He died
+on the 4th of July 1848, wholly exhausted and thoroughly discontented
+with himself and the world, but affectionately tended by his old friend
+Madame Récamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years
+of his life he had been engaged on his _Mémoires_, and his chief
+distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Récamier, at whose house
+he met the European celebrities. He was buried in the Grand Bé, an islet
+in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his death his memory was revived,
+and at the same time exposed to much adverse criticism, by the
+publication, with sundry mutilations as has been suspected, of his
+celebrated _Mémoires d'outre-tombe_ (12 vols., 1849-1850). These memoirs
+undoubtedly reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of
+his professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attachment,
+except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Récamier. Though the book must be
+read with the greatest caution, especially in regard to persons with
+whom Chateaubriand came into collision, it is perhaps now the most read
+of all his works.
+
+Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a great poet.
+Something of affectation or unreality commonly interferes with the
+enjoyment of his finest works. The _Génie du christianisme_ is a
+brilliant piece of special pleading; _Atala_ is marred by its
+unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human nature, _René_ by the
+perversion of sentiment which solicits sympathy for a contemptible
+character. Chateaubriand is chiefly significant as marking the
+transition from the old classical to the modern romantic school. The
+fertility of ideas, vehemence of expression and luxury of natural
+description, which he shares with the romanticists, are controlled by a
+discipline learnt in the school of their predecessors. His palette,
+always brilliant, is never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an
+artist. He is also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings.
+Perhaps, however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is
+the peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a note of
+Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a familiar
+object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with "the light that never was
+on sea or land." This incommunicable gift supplies an element of
+sincerity to Chateaubriand's writings which goes far to redeem the
+artificial effect of his calculated sophistry and set declamation. It is
+also fortunate for his fame that so large a part of his writings should
+directly or indirectly refer to himself, for on this theme he always
+writes well. Egotism was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity
+and the loftiness of his intellectual carriage his character presents
+little to admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of
+genuine poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of man
+and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with absorption in
+self and general sterility of heart.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _OEuvres complétes_ of Chateaubriand were printed
+  in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in many later
+  editions, notably in 1858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an introductory
+  study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for Chateaubriand's
+  biography is the _Mémoires d'outre-tombe_ (1849-1850), of which there
+  is an English translation, _The Memoirs of ... Chateaubriand_ (6
+  vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the admirable edition
+  (4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Biré. This work should be supplemented
+  by the _Souvenirs et correspondances tirés des papiers de Mme
+  Récamier_ (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant). See also Comte de
+  Marcellus, _Chateaubriand et son temps_ (1859); the same editor's
+  _Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondance intime de Chateaubriand_
+  (1858); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Chateaubriand et son groupe littéraire
+  sous l'empire_ (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed., 3 vols., 1872);
+  other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case a somewhat
+  prejudiced critic, in the _Portraits contemporains_, vols. i. and ii.;
+  _Causeries du lundi_, vols. i., ii. and x.; _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol.
+  iii.; _Premiers Lundis_, vol. iii.; A. Vinet, _Études sur la litt.
+  française au XIXe siècle_ (1849); M. de Lescure, _Chateaubriand_
+  (1892) in the _Grands écrivains français_; Émile Faguet, _Études
+  littéraires sur le XIXe siècle_ (1887); and _Essai d'une
+  bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_ (Vannes, 1896),
+  by René Kerviler. Joseph Bedier, in _Études critiques_ (1903), deals
+  with the American writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was
+  edited by Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Staël
+  appeared in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (Oct. 1903).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler,
+    _Essai d'une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_
+    (Vannes, 1895).
+
+  [2] Her _OEuvres_ were edited in 1879, with a memoir, by Anatole
+   France.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAUBRIANT, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Loire-Inférieure, on the left bank of the Chère, 40 m.
+N.N.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop. (1906) 5969. Châteaubriant takes its name
+from a castle founded in the 11th century by Brient, count of
+Penthièvre, remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four
+towers, still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first
+half of the 16th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as the
+residence of Françoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of this the most
+beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right angles to the main
+building, and connecting it with a graceful pavilion. It is occupied by
+a small museum and some of the public offices. There is also an
+interesting Romanesque church dedicated to St Jean de Béré.
+Châteaubriant is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance. It is an important centre on the Ouest-État railway, and has
+trade in agricultural products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural
+implements and preserved angelica are carried on. In 1551 Henry II.
+signed an edict against the reformed religion at Châteaubriant.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAUDUN, a town of north central France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m. S.S.W. of Chartres by rail.
+Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands on an eminence near the left bank of the
+Loire. The streets, which are straight and regular, radiate from a
+central square, a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after
+fires in 1723 and 1870. The château, the most remarkable building in the
+town, was built in great part by Jean, count of Dunois, and his
+descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and rebuilt in the 12th and
+15th centuries, it consists of a principal wing with a fine staircase of
+the 16th century, and, at right angles, a smaller wing adjoined by a
+chapel. To the left of the courtyard thus formed rises a lofty keep of
+the 12th century. The fine apartments and huge kitchens of the château
+are in keeping with its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine
+dates from the 12th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it
+belonged are occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the
+hospital. The medieval churches of St Valérien and St Jean and the
+ruined chapel of Notre-Dame du Champdé, of which the façade in the
+Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the cemetery, are other
+notable buildings. The public institutions include a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. Flour-milling, tanning and
+leather-dressing, and the manufacture of blankets, silver jewelry, nails
+and machinery are the prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain,
+wool and hemp. Châteaudun (_Castrodunum_), which dates from the
+Gallo-Roman period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship
+of Dunois.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAU-GONTIER, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by
+road. Pop. (1906) 6871. Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the
+castle, dates from the 11th century. Château-Gontier is the seat of a
+subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college for
+boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-spinning, the
+manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an agricultural market.
+There are chalybeate springs close to the town. Château-Gontier owes its
+origin and its name to a castle erected in the first half of the 11th
+century by Gunther, the steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a
+farm belonging to the monks of St Aubin d'Angers. On the extinction of
+the family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XI. to Philippe de
+Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the League. In
+1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE, the name popularly given to RENÉE DE RIEUX,
+daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de Châteauneuf, who was descended
+from one of the greatest families of Brittany. The dates both of her
+birth and death are not known. She was maid of honour to the
+queen-mother Catherine de' Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the
+duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke
+from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with Elizabeth
+of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Châteauneuf for Marie of
+Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find a husband for Renee de
+Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her an influence which the
+queen-mother feared, and matches were in turn suggested with the voivode
+of Transylvania, the earl of Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris,
+and with the count of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately,
+on the ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen,
+Louise of Lorraine-Vaudémont, Renée was banished from the court. She
+married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she stabbed in a fit of
+jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her husband being Philip Altoviti,
+who in 1586 was killed in a duel by the Grand Prior Henry of Angoulême,
+who was himself mortally wounded.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, FRANÇOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET, MARQUIS DE (1637-1716),
+French admiral, was the fourth son of the third marquis of
+Château-Renault. The family was of Breton origin, but had been long
+settled near Blois. He entered the army in 1658, but in 1661 was
+transferred to the navy, which Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high
+level of strength. After a short apprenticeship he was made captain in
+1666. His early services were mostly performed in cruises against the
+Barbary pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named _chef d'escadre_, and he
+was promoted _lieutenant général des armées navales_ in 1687. During the
+wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but he had been
+wounded in action with the pirates, and had been on a cruise to the West
+Indies. When war broke out between England and France after the
+revolution of 1688, he was in command at Brest, and was chosen to carry
+the troops and stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in
+Ireland. Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington,
+q.v.), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay, he
+executed his mission with success. Château-Renault commanded a squadron
+under Tourville at the battle of Beachy Head in 1690. He was with
+Tourville in the attack of the Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named
+grand cross of the order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in
+constant service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the
+financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings for
+fighting at sea during the rest of the war.
+
+On the death of Tourville in 1701 he was named to the vacant post of
+vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of the Spanish
+Succession he was named for the difficult task of protecting the Spanish
+ships which were to bring the treasure from America. It was a duty of
+extreme delicacy, for the Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner,
+and the French king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to
+one of his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to
+resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With the utmost
+difficulty Château-Renault was able to bring the galleons as far as
+Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt that a powerful English
+and Dutch armament was on the Spanish coast, and had to recognize that
+the Spanish officers would not consent to make for a French harbour or
+for Passages, which they thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen
+French and three Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve
+galleons, had anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles,
+some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of the
+Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing of the
+treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town, and the local
+militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he would probably be attacked,
+Château-Renault strove to protect his fleet by means of a boom. The
+order to land the treasure was delayed, and until it came from Madrid
+nothing could be done, since according to law it should have been landed
+at Cadiz, which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the
+order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the Gallician
+militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very large part, if
+not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen and the farmers whose
+carts had been commandeered for the service. But the bulk of the
+merchandise was on board of the galleons when the allied fleet appeared
+outside of the bay on the 22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his
+colleagues resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops
+which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and had been beaten
+off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the sea side, and on the
+land side there were none. There was therefore nothing to offer a
+serious resistance to the allies when they landed soldiers. The fleet of
+twenty-four sail was steered at the boom and broke through it, while the
+troops turned the forts and had no difficulty in scattering the
+Gallician militia. In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the
+French and Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty
+gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done to the
+French and Spanish governments was great.
+
+Château-Renault suffered no loss of his master's favour by his failure
+to save the treasure. The king considered him free from blame, and must
+indeed have known that the admiral had been trusted with too many
+secrets to make it safe to inflict a public rebuke. The Spanish
+government declined to give him the rank of grandee which was to have
+been the reward for bringing home the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was
+made a marshal of France, and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of
+Brittany. The fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service
+performed by Château-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he
+inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 1716 he died in
+Paris. He married in 1684 Marie-Anne-Renée de la Porte, daughter and
+heiress of the count of Crozon. His eldest son was killed at the battle
+of Malaga 1704, and another, also a naval officer, was killed by
+accident in 1708. A third son, who too was a naval officer, succeeded
+him in the title.
+
+  A life of Château-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-Maison.
+  There is a French as well as an English account of the part played by
+  him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy still
+  continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XIV. see
+  Léon Guerin, _Histoire maritime de la France_ (1863), vols. iii., iv.;
+  and his _Les Marins illustres_ (1861). Also the naval history by
+  Charles Bouzel de la Roncière.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE, DUCHESSE DE (1717-1744),
+mistress of Louis XV. of France, was the fourth daughter of Louis,
+marquis de Nesle, a descendant of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the
+death of her husband, the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the
+attention of Louis XV.; and by the aid of the duc de Richelieu, who,
+dominated by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the
+state, she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress
+in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king, dragging
+him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance with Frederick II. of
+Prussia, in 1744. Her political rôle, however, has been exaggerated. Her
+triumph after the passing disgrace provoked by the king's illness at
+Metz did not last long, for she died on the 8th of December 1744.
+
+  See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, _La Duchesse de Châteauroux et ses soeurs_
+  (Paris, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAUROUX, a town of central France, capital of the department of
+Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the Indre, 88 m. S. of
+Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 21,048. The
+old town, close to the river, forms a nucleus round which a newer and
+more extensive quarter, bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the
+suburbs of St Christophe and Déols (q.v.) lie on the right bank of the
+Indre. The principal buildings of Châteauroux are the handsome modern
+church of St André, in the Gothic style, and the Château Raoul, of the
+14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms part of the prefecture.
+The hôtel de ville contains a library and a museum which possesses a
+collection of paintings of the Flemish school and some interesting
+souvenirs of Napoleon I. A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1773-1844)
+stands in one of the principal squares. Châteauroux is the seat of a
+prefect and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of
+France, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, a college for girls and training
+colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for military clothing and
+other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory, occupy large numbers of the
+inhabitants. Wool-spinning, iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the
+manufacture of agricultural implements are also carried on. Trade is in
+wool, iron, grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle
+from which Châteauroux takes its name was founded about the middle of
+the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Déols, and during the middle ages
+was the seat of a seigniory, which was raised to the rank of countship
+in 1497, and in 1616, when it was held by Henry II., prince of Condé, to
+that of duchy. In 1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis
+XV. in 1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of
+Châteauroux.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTEAU-THIERRY, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway
+to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872. Château-Thierry is built on rising ground on
+the right bank of the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the
+suburb of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the
+memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 1621; his house is
+still preserved in the street that bears his name. On the top of a hill
+are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been built by Charles
+Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV., and is plainly the origin of
+the name of the town. The chief relic is a gateway flanked by massive
+round towers, known as the Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th
+century and the church of St Crépin of the same period are of some
+interest. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of
+first instance and a communal college. The distinctive industry is the
+manufacture of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in
+the white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and
+agricultural products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried
+in the vicinity. Château-Thierry was formerly the capital of the
+district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from
+Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421, by Charles
+V. in 1544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1591. During the wars of the
+Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the campaign of 1814 it suffered
+severely. On the 12th of February of the latter year the Russo-Prussian
+forces were beaten by Napoleon in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHÂTELAIN (Med. Lat. _castellanus_, from _castellum_, a castle), in
+France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan, i.e.
+the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal system,
+however, the title gained in France a special significance which it
+never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction of which the
+castle became the centre. The _châtelain_ was originally, in Carolingian
+times, an official of the count; with the development of feudalism the
+office became a fief, and so ultimately hereditary. In this as in other
+respects the châtelain was the equivalent of the viscount (q.v.)
+sometimes the two titles were combined, but more usually in those
+provinces where there were châtelains there were no viscounts, and vice
+versa. The title châtelain continued also to be applied to the inferior
+officer, or _concierge châtelain_, who was merely a castellan in the
+English sense. The power and status of châtelains necessarily varied
+greatly at different periods and places. Usually their rank in the
+feudal hierarchy was equivalent to that of the simple _sire_
+(_dominus_), between the baron and the _chevalier_; but occasionally
+they were great nobles with an extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low
+Countries (see BURGRAVE). This variation was most marked in the cities,
+where in the struggle for power that of the châtelain depended on the
+success with which he could assert himself against his feudal superior,
+lay or ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the
+rising power of the communes. The _châtellenie_ (_castellania_), or
+jurisdiction of the châtelain, as a territorial division for certain
+judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance of the
+title and office of the châtelain in France, and continued till the
+Revolution.
+
+  See Achille Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions françaises_ (Paris,
+  1892); Du Cange, _Glossarium, s._ "Castellanus."
+
+
+
+
+CHATELAINE (Fr. _châtelaine_, the feminine form of _châtelain_, a keeper
+of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom of a châtelaine
+to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her girdle, the word is
+now applied to the collection of short chains, often worn by ladies, to
+which are attached various small articles of domestic and toilet use, as
+keys, penknife, needlecase, scissors, &c.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8
+       "Chariot" to "Chatelaine"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2010 [EBook #33427]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+One typographical error has been corrected. It
+appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME V SLICE VIII<br /><br />
+Chariot to Chatelaine</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CHARIOT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CHARLES MARTEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CHARLESTON</a> (Illinois, U.S.A)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CHARITON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CHARLESTON</a> (South Carolina, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CHARITY AND CHARITIES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CHARLESTON</a> (West Virginia, U.S.A.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CHARIVARI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CHARLESTOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CHARKHARI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CHARLATAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CHARLEVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CHARLEMAGNE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CHARLEVOIX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CHARLOTTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CHARLEROI</a> (town in Belgium)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CHARLOTTENBURG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CHARLEROI</a> (borough of Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CHARLOTTESVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CHARLOTTETOWN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CHARLES II.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CHARM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CHARLES III.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DÉSIRÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CHARLES IV.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CHARNEL HOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CHARLES V.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CHARNOCK, JOB</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CHARLES VI.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CHARNOCK, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CHARLES VII.</a> (Roman emperor)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CHARNOCKITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Great Britain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CHARNWOOD FOREST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Great Britain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CHAROLLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CHARLES I. and II.</a> (kings of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CHARON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CHARLES III.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CHARONDAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CHARLES IV.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CHARLES V.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CHARLES VI.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CHARRON, PIERRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CHARLES VII.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CHARRUA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CHARLES VIII.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CHART</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CHARLES IX.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CHARTER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CHARLES X.</a> (king of France)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CHARTERED COMPANIES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Hungary)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CHARTERHOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CHARLES I.</a> (king of Naples)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CHARTER-PARTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Naples)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CHARTERS TOWERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Navarre)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CHARTIER, ALAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CHARLES III.</a> (king of Navarre)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CHARTISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CHARLES</a> (king of Rumania)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CHARTRES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CHARLES II.</a> (king of Spain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CHARTREUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CHARLES III.</a> (king of Spain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CHARLES IV.</a> (king of Spain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CHARWOMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CHARLES IX.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CHARLES X.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CHASE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CHARLES XI.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CHARLES XII.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CHASE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CHARLES XIII.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CHASING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CHARLES XIV.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CHARLES XV.</a> (king of Sweden)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CHASSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CHARLES</a> (duke of Brittany)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CHASSÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CHARLES</a> (duke of Burgundy)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CHARLES</a> (count of Flanders)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CHASSEPOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CHARLES I.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CHARLES II.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CHASSIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CHARLES III. or II.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CHARLES IV. or III.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CHARLES V. or IV.</a> (duke of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CHASUBLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CHARLES II.</a> (duke of Parma)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CHÂTEAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CHARLES</a> (archduke of Austria)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CHARLES</a> (cardinal of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CHÂTEAUBRIANT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CHARLES</a> (prince of Lorraine)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CHÂTEAUDUN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CHARLES</a> (count of Valois)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CHÂTEAU-GONTIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CHARLES</a> (prince of Viana)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CHARLES, ELIZABETH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, FRANÇOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CHARLES, THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CHÂTEAUROUX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CHARLES ALBERT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CHÂTEAU-THIERRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CHARLES AUGUSTUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CHÂTELAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CHARLES EDWARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CHATELAINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CHARLES EMMANUEL I.</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page860" id="page860"></a>860</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">CHARIOT<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from <i>char</i>, a car),
+in antiquity, a conveyance (Gr. <span class="grk" title="arma">&#7941;&#961;&#956;&#945;</span>, Lat. <i>currus</i>)
+used in battle, for the chase, in public processions and in games. The
+Greek chariot had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two
+horses; if a third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were
+added, they were attached on each side of the main pair by a
+single trace fastened to the front of the chariot, as may be seen
+on two prize vases in the British Museum from the Panathenaic
+games at Athens. On the monuments there is no other sign of
+traces, from the want of which wheeling round must have been difficult.
+Immediately on the axle (<span class="grk" title="axôn">&#7940;&#958;&#969;&#957;</span>, <i>axis</i>), without springs
+of any kind, rested the basket or body (<span class="grk" title="diphros">&#948;&#943;&#966;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>) of the chariot,
+which consisted of a floor to stand on, and a semicircular guard
+round the front about half the height of the driver. It was
+entirely open at the back, so that the combatant might readily
+leap to the ground and up again as was necessary. There was no
+seat, and generally only room for the combatant and his charioteer
+to stand in. The pole (<span class="grk" title="rumos">&#8165;&#965;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, <i>temo</i>) was probably attached to
+the middle of the axle, though it appears to spring from the front of the
+basket; at the end of the pole was the yoke (<span class="grk" title="zygon">&#950;&#965;&#947;&#8056;&#957;</span>, <i>jugum</i>),
+which consisted of two small saddles fitting the necks of the horses,
+and fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides this the
+harness of each horse consisted of a bridle and a pair of reins,
+mostly the same as in use now, made of leather and ornamented
+with studs of ivory or metal. The reins were passed through
+rings attached to the collar bands or yoke, and were long enough
+to be tied round the waist of the charioteer in case of his having
+to defend himself. The wheels and body of the chariot were
+usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or iron; the
+wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or iron.
+This description applies generally to the chariots of all the nations
+of antiquity; the differences consisted chiefly in the mountings.
+The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the
+bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with
+quivers full of arrows, while those of the Greeks, whose characteristic
+weapon was the spear, were plain except as regards mere
+decoration. Among the Persians, again, and more remarkably
+among the ancient Britons, there was a class of chariot having
+the wheels mounted with sharp, sickle-shaped blades, which cut
+to pieces whatever came in their way. This was probably an
+invention of the Persians; Cyrus the younger employed these
+chariots in large numbers. Among the Greeks and Romans, on
+the other hand, the chariot had passed out of use in war before
+historical times, and was retained only for races in the public
+games, or for processions, without undergoing any alteration
+apparently, its form continuing to correspond with the description
+of Homer, though it was lighter in build, having to carry
+only the charioteer. On two Panathenaic prize vases in the
+British Museum are figures of racing <i>bigae</i>, in which, contrary
+to the description given above, the driver is seated with his feet
+resting on a board hanging down in front close to the legs of his
+horses. The <i>biga</i> itself consists of a seat resting on the axle, with
+a rail at each side to protect the driver from the wheels. The
+chariot was unsuited to the uneven soil of Greece and Italy, and
+it is not improbable that these nations had brought it with them
+as part of their original habits from their former seats in the
+East. In the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art there are
+numerous representations of chariots, from which it may be
+seen with what richness they were sometimes ornamented. The
+&ldquo;iron&rdquo; chariots in use among the Jews appear to have been
+chariots strengthened or plated with metal, and no doubt were
+of the form above described, which prevailed generally among
+the other ancient nations. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carriage</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authorities are J.C. Ginzrot, <i>Die Wagen and Fahrwerke
+der Griechen und Römer</i> (1817); C.F. Grashof, <i>Über das Fuhrwerk
+bei Homer und Hesiod</i> (1846); W. Leaf in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>,
+v.; E. Buchholz, <i>Die homerischen Realien</i> (1871-1885); W. Helbig,
+<i>Das homerische Epos aus den Denkmälern erläutert</i> (1884), and
+the article &ldquo;Currus&rdquo; in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des
+Antiquités</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> Latin grammarian,
+flourished about the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He was
+probably an African by birth, summoned to Constantinople to
+take the place of Euanthius, a learned commentator on Terence.
+The <i>Ars Grammatica</i> of Charisius, in five books, addressed to his
+son (not a Roman, as the preface shows), has come down to us
+in a mutilated condition, the beginning of the first, part of the
+fourth, and the greater part of the fifth book having been lost.
+The work, which is merely a compilation, is valuable as containing
+excerpts from the earlier writers on grammar, who are in
+many cases mentioned by name&mdash;Q. Remmius Palaemon, C.
+Julius Romanus, Cominianus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition is by H. Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, i. (1857); see
+also article by G. Götz in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, iii. 2
+(1899); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. of Roman Literature</i> (Eng. trans.),
+§ 419, I. 2; Fröhde, in <i>Jahr. f. Philol.</i>, 18 Suppl. (1892), 567-672.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARITON,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> of Aphrodisias in Caria, the author of a Greek
+romance entitled <i>The Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoë</i>, probably
+flourished in the 4th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The action of the story,
+which is to a certain extent historical, takes place during the time
+of the Peloponnesian War. Opinions differ as to the merits of the
+romance, which is an imitation of Xenophon of Ephesus and Heliodorus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Editions by J.P. D&rsquo;Orville (1783), G.A. Hirschig (1856) and
+R. Hercher (1859); there is an (anonymous) English translation
+(1764); see also E. Rohde, <i>Der griechische Roman</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARITY AND CHARITIES.<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> The word &ldquo;charity,&rdquo; or love,
+represents the principle of the good life. It stands for a mood
+or habit of mind and an endeavour. From it, as a habit of mind,
+springs the social and personal endeavour which in the widest
+sense we may call charity. The two correspond. Where the
+habit of mind has not been gained, the endeavour fluctuates
+and is relatively purposeless. In so far as it has been gained,
+the endeavour is founded on an intelligent scrutiny of social
+conditions and guided by a definite purpose. In the one case
+it is realized that some social theory must be found by us, if
+our action is to be right and consistent; in the other case no
+need of such a theory is felt. This article is based on the assumption
+that there are principles in charity or charitable work, and
+that these can be ascertained by a study of the development
+of social conditions, and their relation to prevalent social aims
+and religious or philosophic conceptions. It is assumed also
+that the charity of the religious life, if rightly understood, cannot
+be inconsistent with that of the social life.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Perhaps some closer definition of charity is necessary. The words
+that signify goodwill towards the community and its members are
+primarily words expressive of the affections of family life in the
+relations existing between parents, and between parent and child.
+As will be seen, the analogies underlying such phrases as &ldquo;God the
+Father,&rdquo; &ldquo;children of God,&rdquo; &ldquo;brethren,&rdquo; have played a great part
+in the development of charitable thought in pre-Christian as well
+as in Christian days. The germ, if we may say so, of the words <span class="grk" title="philia,
+agapê">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;, &#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>, <i>amor</i>, love; <i>amicitia</i>, friendship, is the sexual or the
+parental relation. With the realization of the larger life in man the
+meaning of the word expands. <i>Caritas</i>, or charity, strikes another
+note&mdash;high price, and thus dearness. It is charity, indeed, expressed
+in mercantile metaphor; and it would seem that it was associated
+in thought with the word <span class="grk" title="charis">&#967;&#940;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>, which has also a commercial
+meaning, but signifies as well favour, gratitude, grace, kindness. Partly
+thus, perhaps, it assumed and suggested a nobler conception; and
+sometimes, as, for instance, in English ecclesiastical documents, it
+was spelt <i>charitas</i>. <span class="grk" title="Agapê">&#902;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>, which in the Authorized Version of the
+Bible is translated charity, was used by St Paul as a translation of
+the Hebrew word <i>h&#275;s&#275;d</i>, which in the Old Testament is in the same
+version translated &ldquo;mercy&rdquo;&mdash;as in Hosea vi. 6, &ldquo;I desired mercy,
+and not sacrifice.&rdquo; This word represents the charity of kindness
+and goodness, as distinguished from almsgiving. Almsgiving,
+<i>&#351;ed&#257;q&#257;h</i>, is translated by the word <span class="grk" title="eleêmosunê">&#7952;&#955;&#949;&#951;&#956;&#959;&#973;&#957;&#951;</span> in the
+Septuagint, and in the Authorized Version by the word &ldquo;righteousness.&rdquo; It
+represents the deed or the gift which is due&mdash;done or made, not spontaneously,
+but under a sense of religious obligation. In the earlier
+Christian period the word almsgiving has this meaning, and was in
+that sense applied to a wide range of actions and contracts, from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page861" id="page861"></a>861</span>
+a gift to a beggar at a church door to a grant and a tenure of land.
+It also, in the word almoner, represented the fulfilment of the
+religious obligation with the aid of an agent or delegate. The words
+charity or love (<i>caritas</i> or <span class="grk" title="agapê">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>), on the other hand, without losing
+the tone with which the thought of parental or family love inspires
+them, assume a higher meaning. In religious thought they imply
+an ideal life, as represented by such expressions as &ldquo;love (<i>agape</i>)
+of God.&rdquo; This on the one side; and on the other an ideal social
+relation, in such words as &ldquo;love of man.&rdquo; Thus in the word
+&ldquo;charity&rdquo; religious and social associations meet; and thus regarded
+the word means a disciplined and habitual mood in which the mind
+is considerate of the welfare of others individually and generally,
+and devises what is for their real good, and in which the intelligence
+and the will strive to fulfil the mind&rsquo;s purpose. Charity thus has
+no necessary relation to relief or alms. To give a lecture, or to nurse
+a sick man who is not in want or &ldquo;poor,&rdquo; may be equally a deed
+of charity; though in fact charity concerns itself largely with the
+classes usually called &ldquo;the poor,&rdquo; and with problems of distress and
+relief. Relief, however, is not an essential part of charity or charitable
+work. It is one of many means at its disposal. If the world
+were so poor that no one could make a gift, or so wealthy that no one
+needed it, charity&mdash;the charity of life and of deeds&mdash;would remain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The history of charity is a history of many social and religious
+theories, influences and endeavours, that have left their mark
+alike upon the popular and the cultivated thought of the present
+day. The inconsistencies of charitable effort and argument
+may thus in part be accounted for. To understand the problem
+of charity we have therefore (1) to consider the stages of charitable
+thought&mdash;the primitive, pagan, Greek and Roman, Jewish
+and Christian elements, that make up the modern consciousness
+in regard to charity, and also the growth of the habit of &ldquo;charity&rdquo;
+as representing a gradually educated social instinct. (2) We
+have also to consider in their relation to charity the results of
+recent investigations of the conditions of social life. (3) At
+each stage we have to note the corresponding stage of practical
+administration in public relief and private effort&mdash;for the division
+between public or &ldquo;poor-law&rdquo; relief and charity which prevails
+in England is, comparatively speaking, a novelty, and, generally
+speaking, the work of charity can hardly be appreciated or
+understood if it be considered without reference to public
+relief. (4) As to the present day, we have to consider practical
+suggestions in regard to such subjects as charity and economic
+thought, charity organization, friendly visiting and almonership,
+co-operation with the poor-law, charity and thrift, parochial
+management, hospitals and medical relief, exceptional distress
+and the &ldquo;unemployed,&rdquo; the utilization of endowments and their
+supervision, and their adaptation to new needs and emergencies.
+(5) We have also throughout to consider charitable help in
+relation to classes of dependants, who appear early in the history
+of the question&mdash;widows and orphans, the sick and the aged,
+vagrants and wayfarers.</p>
+
+<p>First in the series come the charities of the family and of
+hospitality; then the wider charities of religion, the charities
+of the community, and of individual donors and of mutual help.
+These gradually assumed importance in communities which
+consisted originally of self-supporting classes, within which
+widows and orphans, for instance, would be rather provided for,
+in accordance with recognized class obligations, than relieved.
+Then come habitual almsgiving, the charitable endowment, and
+the modern charitable institution and association. But throughout
+the test of progress or decadence appears to be the condition
+of the family. The family is the source, the home and the
+hearthstone of charity. It has been created but slowly, and
+there is naturally a constant tendency to break away from its
+obligations and to ignore and depreciate its utility. Yet the
+family, as we now have it, is itself the outcome of infinite thought
+working through social instinct, and has at each stage of its
+development indicated a general advance. To it, therefore,
+constant reference must be made.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part I.&mdash;primitive Charity</p>
+
+<p>The study of early communities has brought to light the history
+of the development of the family. &ldquo;Marriage in its lowest
+phases is by no means a matter of affection or companionship&rdquo;;
+and only very slowly has the position of both parents been
+recognized as implying different but correlative responsibilities
+towards their child. Only very slowly, also, has the morality
+necessary to the making of the family been won. Charity at
+earlier stages is hardly recognized as a virtue, nor infanticide
+as an evil. Hospitality&mdash;the beginning of a larger social life&mdash;is
+non-existent. The self-support of the community is secured
+by marriage, and when relations fail marriage becomes a provision
+against poverty. Then by the tribal system is created
+another safeguard against want. But apart also from these
+methods of maintenance, at a very early stage there is charitable
+relief. The festivals of the solstices and equinoxes, and of
+the seasons, are the occasions for sacrifice and relief; and, as
+Christmas customs prove, the instinct to give help or alms at
+such festival periods still remains. Charity is concerned primarily
+with certain elemental forces of social life: the relation
+between these primitive instincts and impulses that still influence
+charity should not, therefore, be overlooked. The basis of
+social life is also the basis of charitable thought and action.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The savage is the civilized man in the rough. &ldquo;The lowest races
+have,&rdquo; Lord Avebury writes, &ldquo;no institution of marriage.&rdquo; Many
+have no word for &ldquo;dear&rdquo; or &ldquo;beloved.&rdquo; The child belongs to the
+tribe rather than to the parent. In these circumstances a problem
+of charity such as the following may arise:&mdash;&ldquo;Am I to starve, while
+my sister has children whom she can sell?&rdquo; a question asked of
+Burton by a negro. From the point of view of the tribe, an able-bodied
+man would be more valuable than dependent children, and
+the relationship of the larger family of brothers and sisters would
+be a truer claim to help than that of mother and child. Subsequently
+the child is recognized as related, not to the father, but to the
+mother, and there is &ldquo;a kind of bond which lasts for life between
+mother and child, although the father is a stranger to it.&rdquo; Slowly
+only is the relative position of both parents, with different but correlative
+responsibilities, recognized. The first two steps of charity
+have then been made: the social value of the bond between the
+mother, and then between the father, and the child has been recognized.
+Until this point is reached the morality necessary to the
+making of the family is wanting, and for a long time afterwards it
+is hardly won. The virtue of chastity&mdash;the condition precedent to
+the higher family life&mdash;is unrecognized. Indeed, the set of such
+religious thought as there may be is against it. Abstract conceptions,
+even in the nobler races, are lacking. The religion of life is vaguely
+struggling with its animality, and that which it at last learns to rule
+it at first worships. In these circumstances there is little charity
+for the child and little for the stranger. &ldquo;There is,&rdquo; Dr Schweinfurth
+wrote in his <i>Heart of Africa</i>, &ldquo;an utter want of wholesome
+intercourse between race and race. For any member of a tribe that
+speaks one dialect to cross the borders of a tribe that speaks another
+is to make a venture at the hazard of his life.&rdquo; The religious obligations
+that fostered and sanctified family life among the Greeks and
+Romans and Jews are unknown. Much later in development comes
+charity for the child, with the abhorrence of infanticide&mdash;against
+which the Jewish-Christian charity of 2000 years ago uttered its
+most vigorous protests. If the child belonged primarily to the tribe
+or state, its maintenance or destruction was a common concern.
+This motive influenced the Greeks, who are historically nearer the
+earlier forms of social life than ourselves. For the common good they
+exposed the deformed child; but also &ldquo;where there were too many,
+for in our state population has a limit,&rdquo; as Aristotle says, &ldquo;the babe
+or unborn child was destroyed.&rdquo; And so, to lighten their own
+responsibilities, parents were wont to do in the slow years of the
+degradation of the Roman empire, though the interest of the state
+then required a contrary policy. The transition to our present
+feeling of responsibility for child-life has been very gradual and
+uncertain, through the middle ages and even till the 18th century.
+Strictly it may be said that all penitentiaries and other similar
+institutions are concrete protests on behalf of a better family life.
+The movement for the care of children in the 18th century naturally
+and instinctively allied itself with the penitentiary movement. The
+want of regard for child-life, when the rearing of children becomes
+a source of economic pressure, suggests why in earlier stages of
+civilization all that charitable apparatus which we now think necessary
+for the assistance of children is wanting, even if the need, so far
+as it does arise, is not adequately met by the recognized obligations
+of the clan-family or brotherhood.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of barbarous races charity and self-support may be
+considered from some other points of view. Self-support is secured
+in two ways&mdash;by marriage and by slavery. &ldquo;For a man or woman
+to be unmarried after the age of thirty is unheard of&rdquo; (T.H. Lewin,
+<i>Wild Races of South-East India</i>). On the other hand, if any one is
+without a father, mother or other relative, and destitute of the
+necessaries of life, he may sell himself and become a slave. Thus
+slavery becomes a provision for poverty when relations fail. The
+clan-family may serve the same purpose. David Livingstone describes
+the formation of the clan-family among the Bakuena. &ldquo;Each
+man, by virtue of paternity, is chief of his own children. They build
+huts round his.... Near the centre of each circle of huts is a spot
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page862" id="page862"></a>862</span>
+called a &lsquo;kotla,&rsquo; with a fireplace; here they work, eat, &amp;c. A poor
+man attaches himself to the &lsquo;kotla&rsquo; of a rich one, and is considered
+a child of the latter.&rdquo; Thus the clan-family is also a poor-relief
+association.</p>
+
+<p>Studies in folklore bring to light many relations between the
+charity of the old world and that of our own day.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In regard to the charity of the early community, we may take
+the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as the point of departure. The <i>Odyssey</i>
+(about 800 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Hesiod (about 700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are
+roughly parallel with Amos (816-775), and represent
+<span class="sidenote">The early community.</span>
+two streams of thought that meet in the early Christian
+period. The period covered by the <i>Odyssey</i> seems to
+merge into that of Hesiod. We take the former first, dealing
+with the clan-family and the phratry, which are together the
+self-maintaining unit of society, with the general relief of the
+poor, with hospitality, and with vagrancy. In Hesiod we find
+the customary law of charity in the earlier community definitely
+stated, and also indications of the normal methods of neighbourly
+help which were in force in country districts. First of the family
+and brotherhood, or phratry. The family (<i>Od</i>. viii. 582) included
+alike the wife&rsquo;s father and the daughter&rsquo;s husband. It was thus
+a clanlike family. Out of this was developed the phratry or
+brotherhood, in which were included alike noble families, peasants
+and craftsmen, united by a common worship and responsibilities
+and a common customary law (<i>themis</i>). Zeus, the god of social
+life, was worshipped by the phratry. He was the father of the
+law (<i>themis</i>). He was god of host and guest. Society was thus
+based on law, the brotherhood and the family. The irresponsible
+man, the man worthy of no respect or consideration, was one
+who belonged to no brotherhood, was subject to no customary
+law, and had no hearth or family. The phratry was, and became
+afterwards still more, &ldquo;a natural gild.&rdquo; Outside the self-sustaining
+phratry was the stranger, including the wayfarer and
+the vagrant; and partly merged in these classes was the beggar,
+the recognized recipient of the alms of the community. To
+change one&rsquo;s abode and to travel was assumed to be a cause of
+reproach (<i>Il</i>. ix. 648). The &ldquo;land-louper&rdquo; was naturally suspected.
+On the other hand, a stranger&rsquo;s first thought in a new
+country was whether the inhabitants were wild or social (<span class="grk" title="dikaioi">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#953;</span>),
+hospitable and God-fearing (<i>Od</i>. xiii. 201). Hospitality thus
+became the first public charity; Zeus sent all strangers and
+beggars, and it was against all law (<span class="grk" title="themis">&#952;&#941;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span>) to slight them. Out
+of this feeling&mdash;a kind of glorified almsgiving&mdash;grew up the
+system of hospitality in Greek states and also in the Roman
+world. The host greeted the stranger (or the suppliant). An
+oath of friendship was taken by the stranger, who was then
+received with the greeting, Welcome (<span class="grk" title="chaire">&#967;&#945;&#8150;&#961;&#949;</span>), and water was
+provided for ablution, and food and shelter. In the larger
+house there was a guests&rsquo; table. In the hut he shared the peasant&rsquo;s
+meal. The custom bound alike the rich and the poor. On parting
+presents were given, usually food for the onward journey,
+sometimes costly gifts. The obligation was mutual, that the
+host should give hospitality, and that the guest should not abuse
+it. From early times tallies were exchanged between them as
+evidence of this formal relationship, which each could claim
+again of the other by the production of the token. And further,
+the relationship on either side became hereditary. Thus individuals
+and families and tribes remained linked in friendship
+and in the interchange of hospitalities.</p>
+
+<p>Under the same patronage of Zeus and the same laws of
+hospitality were vagrants and beggars. The vagrant and loafer
+are sketched in the <i>Odyssey</i>&mdash;the vagrant who lies glibly that he
+may get entertainment, and the loafer who prefers begging to
+work on a farm. These and the winter idlers, whom Hesiod
+pictures&mdash;a group known to modern life&mdash;prefer at that season
+to spend their time in the warmth of the village smithy, or at a
+house of common resort (<span class="grk" title="leschê">&#955;&#941;&#963;&#967;&#951;</span>)&mdash;a common lodging-house,
+we might say&mdash;where they would pass the night. Apparently,
+as in modern times, the vagrants had organized their own system
+of entertainment, and, supported by the public, were a class for
+whom it was worth while to cater. The local or public beggars
+formed a still more definite class. Their begging was a recognized
+means of maintenance; it was a part of the method of poor
+relief. Thus of Penelope it was said that, if Odysseus&rsquo; tale were
+true, she would give him better clothes, and then he might beg
+his bread throughout the country-side. Feasts, too, and almsgiving
+were nearly allied, and feasts have always been one resource
+for the relief of the poor. Thus naturally the beggars frequented
+feasts, and were apparently a recognized and yet inevitable
+nuisance. They wore, as part of their dress, scrips or wallets
+in which they carried away the food they received, as later
+Roman clients carried away portions of food in baskets (<i>sportula</i>)
+from their patron&rsquo;s dinner. Odysseus, when he dresses up as a
+beggar, puts on a wallet as part of his costume. Thus we find
+a system of voluntary relief in force based on a recognition of the
+duty of almsgiving as complete and peremptory as that which we
+shall notice later among the Jews and the early Christians. We
+are concerned with country districts, and not with towns, and,
+as social conditions that are similar produce similar methods
+of administration, so we find here a general plan of relief similar
+to that which was in vogue in Scotland till the Scottish Poor Law
+Act of 1845.</p>
+
+<p>In Hesiod the fundamental conceptions of charity are more
+clearly expressed. He has, if not his ten, at least his four
+commandments, for disobedience to which Zeus will punish the
+offender. They are: Thou shalt do no evil to suppliant or guest;
+thou shalt not dishonour any woman of the family; thou shalt
+not sin against the orphan; thou shalt not be unkind to aged
+parents.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The laws of social life are thus duty to one&rsquo;s guest and duty to
+one&rsquo;s family; and chastity has its true place in that relation, as the
+later Greeks, who so often quote Hesiod (cf. the so-called <i>Economics</i>
+of Aristotle), fully realized. Also the family charities due to the
+orphan, whose lot is deplored in the <i>Iliad</i> (xxii. 490), and to the aged
+are now clearly enunciated. But there is also in Hesiod the duty to
+one&rsquo;s neighbour, not according to the &ldquo;perfection&rdquo; of &ldquo;Cristes
+lore,&rdquo; but according to a law of honourable reciprocity in act and
+intent. &ldquo;Love him who loves thee, and cleave to him who cleaveth
+to thee: to him who would have given, give; to him who would not
+have given, give not.&rdquo; The groundwork of Hesiod&rsquo;s charity outside
+the family is neighbourly help (such as formed no small part of old
+Scottish charity in the country districts); and he put his argument
+thus: Competition, which is a kind of strife, &ldquo;lies in the roots of the
+world and in men.&rdquo; It is good, and rouses the idle &ldquo;handless&rdquo; man
+to work. On one side are social duty (<span class="grk" title="dikê">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;</span>) and work, done briskly
+at the right season of the year, which brings a full barn. On the other
+side are unthrift and hunger, and relief with the disgrace of begging;
+and the relief, when the family can do no more, must come from
+neighbours, to whose house the beggar has to go with his wife and
+children to ask for victual. Once they may be helped, or twice,
+and then they will be refused. It is better, Hesiod tells his brother,
+to work and so pay off his debts and avoid hunger (see <i>Erga</i>, 391,
+&amp;c., and elsewhere). Here indeed is a problem of to-day as it
+appeared to an early Greek. The alternatives before the idler&mdash;so
+far as his own community is concerned&mdash;are labour with neighbourly
+help to a limited extent, or hunger.</p>
+
+<p>Hesiod was a farmer in Boeotia. Some 530 years afterwards a
+pupil of Aristotle thus describes the district and its community of
+farmers. &ldquo;They are,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;well to do, but simple in their
+way of life. They practise justice, good faith, and hospitality.
+To needy townsmen and vagabonds they give freely of their substance;
+for meanness and covetousness are unknown to them.&rdquo;
+The charitable method of Homeric and Hesiodic days still continued.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part II.&mdash;Charity among the Greeks</p>
+
+<p>Society in a Greek state was divided into two parts, citizens
+and slaves. The citizens required leisure for education, war
+and government. The slaves were their ministers
+and servants to enable them to secure this leisure.
+<span class="sidenote">The Greek state.</span>
+We have therefore to consider, on the one hand, the
+position of the family and the clan-family, and the maintenance
+of the citizen from public funds and by public and private
+charities; and on the other hand the condition of the slaves,
+and the relation between slavery and charity.</p>
+
+<p>The slaves formed the larger part of the population. The
+census of Attica, made between 317 and 307 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, gives their
+numbers at 400,000 out of a population of about 500,000; and
+even if this be considered excessive, the proportion of slaves
+to citizens would certainly be very large. The citizens with their
+wives and children formed some 12% of the community. Thus,
+apart from the resident aliens, returned in the census at 10,000,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page863" id="page863"></a>863</span>
+and their wives and children, we have two divisions of society:
+the citizens, with their own organization of relief and charities;
+and the slaves, permanently maintained by reason of their
+dependence on individual members of the civic class. Thus,
+there is no poverty but that of the poor citizens. Poverty is
+limited to them. The slaves&mdash;that is to say, the bulk of the
+labouring population&mdash;are provided for.</p>
+
+<p>From times relatively near to Hesiod&rsquo;s we may trace the growth
+and influence of the clan-family as the centre of customary
+charity within the community, the gradual increase of a class of
+poor either outside the clan-family or eventually independent
+of it, and the development of a new organization of relief introduced
+by the state to meet newer demands. We picture the
+early state as a group of families, each of which tends to form
+in time a separate group or clan. At each expansion from the
+family to the clan the members of the clan retain rights and have
+to fulfil duties which are the same as, or similar to, those which
+prevailed in the family. Thus, in Attica the clan-families
+(<i>genos</i>) and the brotherhoods (<i>phratria</i>) were &ldquo;the only basis of
+legal rights and obligations over and above the natural family.&rdquo;
+The clan-family was &ldquo;a natural guild,&rdquo; consisting of rich and
+poor members&mdash;the well-born or noble and the craftsman alike.
+Originally it would seem that the land was divided among the
+families of the clan by lot and was inalienable. Thus with the
+family was combined the means of supporting the family. On
+the other hand, every youth was registered in his phratry, and
+the phratry remained till the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+a political, and even after that time a social, organization of
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>First, as to the family&mdash;the mother and wife, and the father.
+Already before the age of Plato and Xenophon (450-350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+we find that the family has suffered a slow decline. The wife,
+according to later Greek usage, was married as a child, hardly
+educated, and confined to the house, except at some festival or
+funeral. But with the decline came criticism and a nobler
+conception of family life. &ldquo;First, then, come laws regarding
+the wife,&rdquo; writes the author of the so-called <i>Economics</i> of Aristotle,
+and the law, &ldquo;thou shalt do no wrong; for, if we do no
+wrong, we shall not be wronged.&rdquo; This is the &ldquo;common law,&rdquo;
+as the Pythagoreans say, &ldquo;and it implies that we must not wrong
+the wife in the least, but treat her with the reverence due to a
+suppliant, or one taken from the altar.&rdquo; The sanctity of marriage
+is thus placed among the &ldquo;commandments&rdquo; of Hesiod, beside
+the duty towards the stranger and the orphan. These and other
+references to the Pythagoreans suggest that they, possibly in
+common with other mystics, preached the higher religion of
+marriage and social life, and thus inspired a deeper social feeling,
+which eventually allied itself with the Christian movement.</p>
+
+<p>Next, as to parents and children: the son was under an obligation
+to support his father, subject, after Solon&rsquo;s time, to the
+condition that he had taught him a trade; and after Solon&rsquo;s
+time the father had no claim for support from an illegitimate
+son. &ldquo;The possession of children,&rdquo; it was said (Arist. <i>Econ.</i>),
+&ldquo;is not by nature for the public good only, but also for private
+advantage. For what the strong may gain by their toil for the
+weak, the weak in their old age receive from the strong... Thus
+is the nature of each, the man and the woman, prearranged by the
+Divine Being for a life in common.&rdquo; Honour to parents is &ldquo;the
+first and greatest and oldest of all debts&rdquo; (Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 717).
+The child has to care for the parent in his old age. &ldquo;Nemesis,
+the minister of justice (<span class="grk" title="dikê">&#948;&#943;&#954;&#951;</span>), is appointed to watch over all these
+things.&rdquo; And &ldquo;if a man fail to adorn the sepulchre of his dead
+parents, the magistrates take note of it and inquire&rdquo; (Xen.
+<i>Mem.</i> ii. 14). The heightened conception of marriage implies
+a fuller interpretation of the mutual relations of parent and child
+as well; both become sacred.</p>
+
+<p>Then as to orphans. Before Solon&rsquo;s time (594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the property
+of any member of the clan-family who died without children
+went to the clan; and after his time, when citizens were permitted
+to leave their property by will, the property of an intestate fell
+to the clan. This arrangement carried with it corresponding
+duties. Through the clan-family provision was made for orphans.
+Any member of the clan had the legal right to claim an orphan
+member in marriage; and, if the nearest agnate did not marry
+her, he had to give her a dowry proportionate to the amount of
+his own property. Later, there is evidence of a growing sense of
+responsibility in regard to orphans. Hippodamus (about 443
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), in his scheme of the perfected state (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1268),
+suggested that there should be public magistrates to deal with
+the affairs of orphans (and strangers); and Plato, his contemporary,
+writes of the duty of the state and of the guardian towards
+them very fully. Orphans, he proposes (<i>Laws</i>, 927), should be
+placed under the care of public guardians. &ldquo;Men should have
+a fear of the loneliness of orphans ... and of the souls of the
+departed, who by nature take a special care of their own children....
+A man should love the unfortunate orphan (boy or girl)
+of whom he is guardian as if he were his own child; he should
+be as careful and diligent in the management of the orphan&rsquo;s
+property as of his own&mdash;or even more careful still.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To relieve the poverty of citizens and to preserve the citizen-hood
+were objects of public policy and of charity. In Crete and
+Sparta the citizens were wholly supported out of the public
+resources. In Attica the system was different. The citizens
+were aided in various ways, in which, as often happens, legal
+or official and voluntary or private methods worked on parallel
+lines. The means were (1) legal enactment for release of debts;
+(2) emigration; (3) the supply of corn; (4) poor relief for the
+infirm, and relief for the children of those fallen in war; (5)
+emoluments; (6) voluntary public service, separate gifts and
+liberality; (7) loan societies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) In 594 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the labouring class in Attica were overwhelmed
+with debts and mortgages, and their persons pledged as security.
+Only by a sharp reform was it possible to preserve them from
+slavery. This Solon effected. He annulled their obligations,
+abolished the pledge of the person, and gave the labourers the
+franchise (but see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>). Besides the laws above mentioned,
+he gave power to the Areopagus to inquire from what sources
+each man obtained the necessaries of life, and to punish those who
+did not work. His action and that of his successor, Peisistratus
+(560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), suggest that the class of poor (<span class="grk" title="aporoi">&#7940;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>) was increasing,
+and that by the efforts of these two men the social decline of the
+people was avoided or at least postponed. Peisistratus lent the poor
+money that they might maintain themselves in husbandry. He wished,
+it is said (Arist. <i>Ath. Pol.</i> xvi.), to enable them to earn a moderate
+living, that they might be occupied with their own affairs, instead
+of spending their time in the city or neglecting their work in order
+to visit it. As rent for their land they paid a tenth of the produce.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Akin to this policy was that of emigration. Athenians, selected
+in some instances from the two lowest political classes, emigrated,
+though still retaining their rights of citizenship. In 570-565 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Salamis was annexed and divided into lots and settled, and later
+Pericles settled more than 2750 citizens in the Chersonese and elsewhere&mdash;practically
+a considerable section of the whole body of
+citizens. &ldquo;By this means,&rdquo; says Plutarch, &ldquo;he relieved the state
+of numerous idle agitators and assisted the necessitous.&rdquo; In other
+states this expedient was frequently adopted.</p>
+
+<p>(3)  A third method was the supply of corn at reduced rates&mdash;a
+method similar to that adopted, as we shall see, at Rome, Constantinople
+and elsewhere. The maintenance of the mass of the people
+depended on the corn fleets. There were public granaries, where
+large stores were laid up at the public expense. A portion of all
+cargoes of corn was retained at Athens and in other ways importation
+was promoted. Exportation was forbidden. Public donations
+and distributions of corn were frequent, and in times of scarcity rich
+citizens made large contributions with that object. The distributions
+were made to adult citizens of eighteen years of age and upwards
+whose names were on the registers.</p>
+
+<p>(4) In addition to this there was a system of public relief for those
+who were unable to earn a livelihood on account of bodily defects
+and infirmities. The qualification was a property test. The property
+of the applicant had to be shown to be of a value of not more
+than three minae (say £12). Socrates, it may be noted, adopts the
+same method of estimating his comparative poverty (Xen. <i>Econ.</i> 2.
+6), saying that his goods would realize about five minae (or about
+twenty guineas). The senate examined the case, and the ecclesia
+awarded the bounty, which amounted to 1 or 2 obols a day, rather
+more than 1½d. or 3d.&mdash;out-door relief, as we might say, amounting
+at most to about 1s. 9d. a week. There was also a fund for the
+maintenance of the children of those who had fallen in war, up to the
+age of eighteen.</p>
+
+<p>(5)  But the main source of support was the receipt of emoluments
+for various public services. This was not relief, though it produced
+in the course of time the effect of relief. It was rather the Athenian
+method of supporting a governing class of citizens.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page864" id="page864"></a>864</span> </p>
+
+<p>The inner political history of Athens is the history of the extension
+of the franchise to the lower classes of citizens, with the privileges
+of holding office and receiving emoluments. In early times, either
+by Solon (<i>q.v.</i>) or previously, the citizens were classified on the
+basis of property. The rich retained the franchise and the right
+of holding office; the middle classes obtained the franchise; the
+fourth or lowest class gained neither. By the reforms of Cleisthenes
+(509 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the clan-family and the phratry were set aside for
+the <i>deme</i> or parish, a geographical division superseding the social.
+Finally, about 478 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when all had acquired the franchise, the
+right to hold office also was obtained by the third class. These
+changes coincided with a period of economic progress. The rate of
+interest was high, usually 12%; and in trading and bottomry the
+returns were much higher. A small capital at this interest soon
+produced comparative wealth; and simultaneously prices were
+falling. Then came the reaction. &ldquo;After the Peloponnesian war&rdquo;
+(432-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), writes Professor Jebb, &ldquo;the wealth of the country
+ceased to grow, as population had ceased to grow about 50 years
+sooner. The rich went on accumulating: the poor, having no means
+of enriching themselves by enterprise, were for the most part occupied
+in watching for some chance of snatching a larger share of the
+stationary total.&rdquo; Thus the poorer classes in a time of prosperity
+had won the power which they were able to turn to their own account
+afterwards. A period of economic pressure followed, coupled with a
+decline in the population; no return to the land was feasible, nor
+was emigration; the people had become town-folk inadaptable to
+new uses; decreasing vitality and energy were marked by a new
+temper, the &ldquo;pauper&rdquo; temper, unsettled, idle and grasping, and
+political power was utilized to obtain relief. The relief was forthcoming,
+but it was of no avail to stop the general decline. The state,
+it might almost be said, in giving scope to the assertion of the spirit
+of dependence, had ruined the self-regarding energy on which both
+family and state alike depended. The emoluments were diverse.
+The number of citizens was not large; the functions in which citizens
+could take part were numerous; and when payment was forthcoming
+the poorer citizens pressed in to exercise their rights (cf.
+Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1293 a). All Athenian citizens could attend the public
+assembly or <i>ecclesia</i>. Probably the attendance at it varied from
+a few hundred to 5000 persons. In 395 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the payment for attendance
+was fixed at 3 obols, or little more than 4½d. a day&mdash;for the
+system of payment had probably been introduced a few years before
+(but see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span> and refs.). A juror or <i>dicast</i> would receive
+the same sum for attendance, and the courts or juries often consisted
+of 500 persons. If the estimate (Böckh, <i>Public Economy of Athens</i>,
+Eng. trans. pp. 109, 117) holds good that in the age of Demosthenes
+(384-323 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the member of a poor family of four free persons could
+live (including rent) on about 3.3d. or between 2 and 3 obols a day,
+the pay of the citizen attending the assembly or the court would at
+least cover the expenses of subsistence. On the other hand, it would
+be less than the pay of a day labourer, which was probably about
+4 obols or 6d. a day. In any case many citizens&mdash;they numbered
+in all about 20,000&mdash;in return for their participation in political
+duties would receive considerable pecuniary assistance. Attending
+a great public festival also, the citizen would receive 2 obols or 3d.
+a day during the festival days; and there were besides frequent
+public sacrifices, with the meal or feast which accompanied them.
+But besides this there were confiscations of private property, which
+produced a surplus revenue divisible among the poorer citizens.
+(Some hold that there were confiscations in other Greek states, but
+not in Athens.) In these circumstances it is not to be wondered
+that men like Isocrates should regret that the influence of the
+Areopagus, the old court of morals and justice in Athens, had disappeared,
+for it &ldquo;maintained a sort of censorial police over the lives
+and habits of the citizens; and it professed to enforce a tutelary
+and paternal discipline, beyond that which the strict letter of the
+law could mark out, over the indolent, the prodigal, the undutiful,
+and the deserters of old rite and custom.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(6) In addition to public emoluments and relief there was much
+private liberality and charity. Many expensive public services
+were undertaken honorarily by the citizens under a kind of civic
+compulsion. Thus in a trial about 425 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (Lysias, <i>Or.</i> 19. 57) a
+citizen submitted evidence that his father expended more than
+£2000 during his life in paying the expenses of choruses at festivals,
+fitting out seven triremes for the navy, and meeting levies of income
+tax to meet emergencies. Besides this he had helped poor citizens
+by portioning their daughters and sisters, had ransomed some, and
+paid the funeral expenses of others (cf. for other instances Plutarch&rsquo;s
+<i>Cimon</i>, Theophrastus, <i>Eth.</i>, and Xen. <i>Econ.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(7) There were also mutual help societies (<span class="grk" title="eranoi">&#7956;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>). Those for
+relief would appear to have been loan societies (cf. Theoph. <i>Eth.</i>),
+one of whose members would beat up contributions to help a friend,
+who would afterwards repay the advance.</p>
+
+<p>The criticisms of Aristotle (384-321 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) suggest the direction
+to which he looked for reform. He (<i>Pol.</i> 1320 a) passes a very
+unfavourable judgment on the distribution of public money to the
+poorer citizens. The demagogues (he does not speak of Athens
+particularly) distributed the surplus revenues to the poor, who
+received them all at the same time; and then they were in want
+again. It was only, he argued, like pouring water through a sieve.
+It were better to see to it that the greater number were not so entirely
+destitute, for the depravity of a democratic government was due to
+this. The problem was to contrive how plenty (<span class="grk" title="euporia">&#949;&#8016;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>, not poverty,
+<span class="grk" title="aporia">&#7936;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#943;&#945;</span>) should become permanent. His proposals are adequate aid
+and voluntary charity. Public relief should, he urges, be given in
+large amounts so as to help people to acquire small farms or start
+in business, and the well-to-do (<span class="grk" title="euporoi">&#949;&#8020;&#960;&#959;&#961;&#959;&#953;</span>) should in the meantime
+subscribe to pay the poor for their attendance at the public assemblies.
+(This proves, indeed, how the payments had become poor
+relief.) He mentions also how the Carthaginian notables divided
+the destitute amongst them and gave them the means of setting
+to work, and the Tarentines (<span class="grk" title="koina poiountes">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#8048; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>) shared their property
+with the poor. (The Rhodians also may be mentioned (Strabo xiv.
+c. 652), amongst whom the well-to-do undertook the relief of the
+poor voluntarily.) The later word for charitable distribution was
+a sharing (<span class="grk" title="koinonia">&#954;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#969;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span>, Ep. Rom. xv. 26), which would seem to indicate
+that after Aristotle&rsquo;s time popular thought had turned in that
+direction. But the chief service rendered by Aristotle&mdash;a service
+which covered indeed the whole ground of social progress&mdash;was to
+show that unless the purpose of civil and social life was carefully
+considered and clearly realized by those who desired to improve its
+conditions, no change for the better could result from individual
+or associated action.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two forms of charity have still to be mentioned: charity
+to the stranger and to the sick. It will be convenient to consider
+both in relation to the whole classical period.</p>
+
+<p>With the growth of towns the administration of hospitality
+was elaborated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) There was hospitality between members of families bound
+by the rites of host and guest. The guest received as a right only
+shelter and fire. Usually he dined with the host the first
+day, and if afterwards he was fed provisions were supplied
+<span class="sidenote">The stranger.</span>
+to him. There were large guest-chambers (<span class="grk" title="xenon">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>) or small
+guest-houses, completely isolated on the right or left of the principal
+house; and here the guest was lodged. (2) There were also, <i>e.g.</i> at
+Hierapolis (Sir W.M. Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Phrygia</i>, ii. 97), brotherhoods
+of hospitality (<span class="grk" title="xenoi tekmêreioi">&#958;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#953; &#964;&#949;&#954;&#956;&#951;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#953;</span>, bearers of the sign), which made
+hospitality a duty, and had a common chest and Apollo as their
+tutelary god. (3) There were inns or resting-places (<span class="grk" title="katagogia">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#947;&#974;&#947;&#953;&#945;</span>)
+for strangers at temples (Thuc. iii. 68; Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 953 A) and
+places of resort (<span class="grk" title="lesche">&#955;&#941;&#963;&#967;&#951;</span>) at or near the temples for the entertainment
+of strangers&mdash;for instance, at a temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus
+(Pausanias ii. 174); and Pausanias argues that they were
+common throughout the country. Probably also at the temples
+hospitable provision was made for strangers. The evidence at
+present is not perhaps sufficiently complete, but, so far as it goes,
+it tends to the conclusion that in pre-Christian times hospitality
+was provided to passers-by and strangers in the temple buildings,
+as later it was furnished in the monasteries and churches. (4) There
+were also in towns houses for strangers (<span class="grk" title="xenon">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>) provided at the
+public cost. This was so at Megara; and in Crete strangers had a
+place at the public meals and a dormitory. Xenophon suggested
+that it would be profitable for the Athenian state to establish inns
+for traders (<span class="grk" title="katagogia dêmusia">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#947;&#974;&#947;&#953;&#945; &#948;&#951;&#956;&#972;&#963;&#953;&#945;</span>) at Athens. Thus, apart from the
+official hospitality of the proxenus or &ldquo;consul,&rdquo; who had charge of
+the affairs of foreigners, and the hospitality which was shown to
+persons of distinction by states or private individuals, there was in
+Greece a large provision for strangers, wayfarers and vagrants based
+on the charitable sentiment of hospitality. Among the Romans
+similar customs of private and public hospitality prevailed; and
+throughout the empire the older system was altered, probably very
+slowly. In Christian times (cf. Ramsay above) Pagan temples were
+(about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 408) utilized for other purposes, including that of hospitality
+to strangers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Round the temples, at first probably village temples, the
+organization of medical relief grew up. Primitive medicine is
+connected with dreams, worship, and liturgical
+&ldquo;pollution,&rdquo; punishment and penitence, and an
+<span class="sidenote">The sick.</span>
+experimental practice. Finally, systematic observation and
+science (with no knowledge of chemistry and little of physiology)
+assert themselves, and a secular administration is created by
+the side of the older religious organization.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Sickness among primitive races is conceived to be a material
+substance to be extracted, or an evil spirit to be driven away by
+incantation. Religion and medicine are thus at the beginning
+almost one and the same thing. In Anatolia, in the groups of
+villages (cf. Ramsay as above, i. 101) under the theocratic government
+of a central <span class="grk" title="ieron">&#7985;&#949;&#961;&#972;&#957;</span> or temple, the god Men Karou was the
+physician and saviour (<span class="grk" title="soter">&#963;&#969;&#964;&#942;&#961;</span> and <span class="grk" title="sozon">&#963;&#974;&#950;&#969;&#957;</span>) of his people.
+Priests, prophets and physicians were his ministers. He punished wrong-doing
+by diseases which he taught the penitent to cure. So elsewhere
+pollution, physical or moral, was chastened by disease and
+loss of property or children, and further ills were avoided by sacrifice
+and expiation and public warning. In the temple and out of this
+phase of thought grew up schools of medicine, in whose practice
+dreams and religious ritual retained a place. The newer gods,
+Asclepius and Apollo, succeeded the older local divinities; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page865" id="page865"></a>865</span>
+the &ldquo;sons&rdquo; of Asclepius became a profession, and the temple with
+its adjacent buildings a kind of hospital. There were many temples
+of Asclepius in Greece and elsewhere, placed generally in high and
+salubrious positions. After ablution the patient offered sacrifices,
+repeating himself the words of the hymn that was chanted. Then,
+when night came on, he slept in the temple. In the early dawn he
+was to dream &ldquo;the heavenly dream&rdquo; which would suggest his cure;
+but if he did not dream, relations and others&mdash;officials at the
+temple&mdash;might dream for him. At dawn the priests or sons of Asclepius
+came into the temple and visited the sick, so that, in a kind of
+drama, where reality and appearance seemed to meet, the patients
+believed that they saw the god himself. The next morning the
+prescription and treatment were settled. At hand in the inn or
+guest-chambers of the temple the patient could remain, sleeping
+again in the temple, if necessary, and carrying out the required
+regimen. In the temple were votive tablets of cases, popular and
+awe-inspiring, and records and prescriptions, which later found
+their way into the medical works of Galen and others. At the
+temple of Asclepius at Epidaurus was an inn (<span class="grk" title="katagogion">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#947;&#974;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>) with
+four courts and colonnades, and in all 160 rooms. (Cf. Pausanias
+ii. 171; and <i>Report, Archaeol. in Greece</i>, R.C. Bosanquet, 1899,
+1900.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At three centres more particularly, Rhodes, Cnidos and Cos,
+were the medical schools of the Asclepiads. If one may judge
+from an inscription at Athens, priests of Asclepius attended the
+poor gratuitously. And years afterwards, in the 11th century,
+when there was a revival of medicine, we find (Daremberg, <i>La
+Médecine: histoire et doctrines</i>) at Salerno the Christian priest as
+doctor, a simple and less palatable pharmacy for the poor than
+for the rich, and gratuitous medical relief.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the temple schools and hospitals there was a secular
+organization of medical aid and relief. States appointed trained
+medical men as physicians, and provided for them medical
+establishments (<span class="grk" title="iatreia">&#7984;&#945;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>, &ldquo;large houses with large doors full of
+light&rdquo;) for the reception of the sick, and for operations there
+were provided beds, instruments, medicines, &amp;c. At these places
+also pupils were taught. A lower degree of medical establishment
+was to be found at the barbers&rsquo; shops. Out-patients were seen
+at the <i>iatreia</i>. They were also visited at home. There were
+doctors&rsquo; assistants and slave doctors. The latter, apparently,
+attended only slaves (Plato, <i>Laws</i>, 720); they do &ldquo;a great
+service to the master of the house, who in this manner is relieved
+of the care of his slaves.&rdquo; It was a precept of Hippocrates that
+if a physician came to a town where there were sick poor, he
+should make it his first duty to attend to them; and the state
+physician attended gratuitously any one who applied to him.
+There were also travelling physicians going rounds to heal
+children and the poor. These methods continued, probably all
+of them, to Christian times.</p>
+
+<p>It has been argued that medical practice was introduced into
+Italy by the Greeks. But the evidence seems to show that there
+was a quite independent Latin tradition and school of medicine
+(René Brian, &ldquo;Médecine dans le Latium et à Rome,&rdquo; <i>Rev.
+Archéol.</i>, 1885). In Rome there were consulting-rooms and
+dispensaries, and houses in which the sick were received.
+Hospitals are mentioned by Roman writers in the 1st century
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> There were infirmaries&mdash;detached buildings&mdash;for sick
+slaves; and in Rome, as at Athens, there were slaves skilled in
+medicine. In Rome also for each <i>regio</i> there was a chief physician
+who attended to the poorer people.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery was so large a factor in pre-Christian and early
+Christian society that a word should be said on its relation
+to charity. Indirectly it was a cause of poverty
+and social degradation. Thus in the case of Athens,
+<span class="sidenote">Slavery.</span>
+with the achievement of maritime supremacy the number of
+slaves increased greatly. Manual arts were despised as unbecoming
+to a citizen, and the slaves carried on the larger part
+of the agricultural and industrial work of the community; and
+for a time&mdash;until after the Peloponnesian War (404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)&mdash;slavery
+was an economic success. But by degrees the slave, it
+would seem, dispossessed the citizen and rendered him unfit
+for competition. The position of the free artisan thus became
+akin to that of the slave (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> 1260 a, &amp;c.), and slavery
+became the industrial method of the country. Though Greeks,
+Romans, Jews and Christians spent money in ransoming
+individual slaves and also enfranchised many, no general abolition
+of slavery was possible. At last through economic changes the
+new status of <i>coloni</i>, who paid as rent part of the produce of the
+land they tilled, superseded the status of slavery (cf. above;
+the system turned to account by Peisistratus). But this result
+was only achieved much later, when a new society was being
+created, when the slaves from the slave prisons (<i>ergastula</i>) of
+Italy joined its invaders, and the slave-owner or master, as one
+may suppose, unable any longer to work the gangs, let them
+become <i>coloni</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In Greece the feeling towards the slave became constantly
+more humane. Real slavery, Aristotle said, was a cast of mind,
+not a condition of life. The slave was not to be ordered about,
+but to be commanded and persuaded like a child. The master
+was under the strongest obligation to promote his welfare. In
+Rome, on the other hand, slavery continued to the end a massive,
+brutal, industrial force&mdash;a standing danger to the state. But
+alike in Greece and Rome the influence of slavery on the family
+was pernicious. The pompous array of domestic slaves, the
+transfer of motherly duties to slave nurses, the loss of that
+homely education which for most people comes only from the
+practical details of life&mdash;all this in later Greece and Italy, and
+far into Christian times, prevented that permanent invigoration
+and reform of family life which Jewish and Christian influences
+might otherwise have produced.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part III.&mdash;Charity in Roman Times</p>
+
+<p>The words that suggest most clearly the Roman attitude
+towards what we call charity are <i>liberalitas</i>, <i>beneficentia</i> and
+<i>pietas</i>. The two former are almost synonymous (Cicero, <i>De
+Offic.</i> i. 7, 14). Liberality lays stress on the mood&mdash;that of the
+<i>liber</i>, the freeborn, and so in a sense the independent and superior;
+beneficence on the deed and its purpose (Seneca, <i>De Benef.</i> vi. 10).
+The conditions laid down by Cicero, following Panaetius the Stoic
+(185-112 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) are three: not to do harm to him whom one would
+benefit, not to exceed one&rsquo;s means, and to have regard to merit.
+The character of the person whom we would benefit should be
+considered, his feelings towards us, the interest of the community,
+our social relations in life, and services rendered in the past.
+The utility of the deed or gift graded according to social relationship
+and estimated largely from the point of view of ultimate
+advantage to the doer or donor seems to predominate in the
+general thought of the book, though (cf. Aristotle, <i>Eth.</i> viii. 3)
+the idea culminates in the completeness of friendship where &ldquo;all
+things are in common.&rdquo; <i>Pietas</i> has the religious note which the
+other words lack, loving dutifulness to gods and home and
+country. Not &ldquo;piety&rdquo; only but &ldquo;pity&rdquo; derive from it: thus
+it comes near to our &ldquo;charity.&rdquo; Both books, the <i>De Officiis</i>
+and the <i>De Beneficiis</i>, represent a Roman and Stoical revision
+of the problem of charity and, as in Stoicism generally, there
+seems to be a half-conscious attempt to feel the way to a new
+social standpoint from this side.</p>
+
+<p>As from the point of view of charity the well-being of the
+community depends upon the vigour of the deep-laid elemental
+life within it, so in passing to Roman times we consider
+the family first. The Roman family was unique in its
+<span class="sidenote">Roman times.</span>
+completeness, and by some of its conditions the world
+has long been bound. The father alone had independent authority
+(<i>sui juris</i>), and so long as he lived all who were under his power&mdash;his
+wife, his sons, and their wives and children, and his unmarried
+daughters&mdash;could not acquire any property of their own. Failing
+father or husband, the unmarried daughters were placed under
+the guardianship of the nearest male members of the family.
+Thus the family, in the narrower sense in which we commonly
+use the word, as meaning descendants of a common father or
+grandfather, was, as it were, a single point of growth in a larger
+organism, the <i>gens</i>, which consisted of all those who shared a
+common ancestry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The wife, though in law the property of her husband, held a
+position of honour and influence higher than that of the Greek
+wife, at least in historic times. She seems to come nearer to the
+ideal of Xenophon: &ldquo;the good wife should be the mistress of everything
+within the house.&rdquo; &ldquo;A house of his own and the blessing
+of children appeared to the Roman citizen as the end and essence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page866" id="page866"></a>866</span>
+of life&rdquo; (Mommsen, <i>Hist. Rome</i>). The obligation of the father to
+the sons was strongly felt. The family, past, present and future,
+was conceived as one and indivisible. Each succeeding generation
+had a right to the care of its predecessor in mind, body and estate.
+The training of the sons was distinctly a home and not a school
+training. Brought up by the father and constantly at his side, they
+learnt spontaneously the habits and traditions of the family. The
+home was their school. By their father they were introduced into
+public life, and though still remaining under his power during his
+lifetime, they became citizens, and their relation to the state was
+direct. The nation was a nation of yeomen. Only agriculture and
+warfare were considered honourable employments. The father and
+sons worked outdoors on the farm, employing little or no slave
+labour; the wife and daughters indoors at spinning and weaving.
+The drudgery of the household was done by domestic slaves. The
+father was the working head of a toiling household. Their chief
+gods were the same as those of early Greece&mdash;Zeus-Diovis and
+Hestia-Vesta, the goddess of the hearth and home. Out of this
+solid, compact family Roman society was built, and so long as the
+family was strong attachment to the service of the state was intense.
+The <i>res publica</i>, the common weal, the phrase and the thought, meet
+one at every turn; and never were citizens more patient and
+tenacious combatants on their country&rsquo;s behalf. The men were
+soldiers in an unpaid militia and were constantly engaged in wars
+with the rivals of Rome, leaving home and family for their campaigns
+and returning to them in the winter. With a hardness and
+closeness inconsistent with&mdash;indeed, opposed to&mdash;the charitable
+spirit, they combined the strength of character and sense of justice
+without which charity becomes sentimental and unsocial. In the
+development of the family, and thus, indirectly, in the development
+of charity, they stand for settled obligation and unrelenting duty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Under the protection of the head of the family &ldquo;in dependent
+freedom&rdquo; lived the clients. They were in a middle position
+between the freemen and the slaves. The relation between
+patron and client lasted for several generations; and there were
+many clients. Their number increased as state after state was
+conquered, and they formed the <i>plebs</i>, in Rome the <i>plebs urbana</i>,
+the lower orders of the city.</p>
+
+<p>In relation to our subject the important factors are the family,
+the <i>plebs</i> and slavery.</p>
+
+<p>Two processes were at work from an early date, before the first
+agrarian law (486 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>): the impoverishment of the <i>plebs</i> and
+the increase of slavery. The former led to the <i>annona civica</i>, or
+the free supply of corn to the citizens, and to the <i>sportula</i> or the
+organized food-supply for poor clients, and ultimately to the
+<i>alimentarii pueri</i>, the maintenance of children of citizens by
+voluntary and imperial bounty. The latter (slavery) was the
+standing witness that, as self-support was undermined, the task
+of relief became hopeless, and the impoverished citizen, as the
+generations passed, became in turn dependant, beggar, pauper
+and slave.</p>
+
+<p>The great patrician families&mdash;&ldquo;an oligarchy of warriors and
+slaveholders&rdquo;&mdash;did not themselves engage in trade, but, entering
+on large speculations, employed as their agents their clients,
+<i>libertini</i> or freedmen, and, later, their slaves. The constant
+wars, for which the soldiers of a local militia were eventually
+retained in permanent service, broke up the yeomanry and very
+greatly reduced their number. Whole families of citizens became
+impoverished, and their lands were in consequence sold to
+the large patrician families, members of which had acquired
+lucrative posts, or prospered in their speculations, and assumed
+possession of the larger part of the land, the <i>ager publicus</i>,
+acquired by the state through conquest. The city had always
+been the centre of the patrician families, the patron of the trading
+<i>libertini</i> and other dependants. To it now flocked as well the
+<i>metoeci</i>, the resident aliens from the conquered states, and the
+poorer citizens, landless and unable for social reasons to turn to
+trade. There was thus in Rome a growing multitude of aliens,
+dispossessed yeomen and dependent clients. Simultaneously
+slavery increased very largely after the second Punic War
+(202 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Every conquest brought slaves into the market, for
+whom ready purchasers were found. The slaves took the place
+of the freemen upon the old family estates, and the free country
+people became extinct. Husbandry gave place to shepherding.
+The estates were thrown into large domains (<i>latifundia</i>), managed
+by bailiffs and worked by slaves, often fettered or bound by
+chains, lodged in cells in houses of labour (<i>ergastula</i>), and sometimes
+cared for when ill in infirmaries (<i>valetudinaria</i>). In Crete
+and Sparta the slaves toiled that the mass of citizens might have
+means and leisure. In Rome the slave class was organized for
+private and not for common ends. In Athens the citizens were
+paid for their services; at Rome no offices were paid. Thus
+the citizen at Rome was, one might almost say, forced into a
+dependence on the public corn, for as the large properties
+swallowed up the smaller, and the slave dispossessed the citizen,
+a population grew up unfit for rural toil, disinclined to live by
+methods that pride considered sordid, unstable and pleasure-loving,
+and yet a serious political factor, as dependent on the
+rich for their enjoyments as they were on their patrons or the
+prefect of the corn in the city for their food.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It is estimated, from extremely difficult and uncertain data, that
+the population of Rome in the time of Augustus was about 1,200,000
+or 1,500,000. At that time the<i> plebs urbana</i> numbered 320,000. If
+this be multiplied by three, to give a low average of dependants,
+wives and children, this section of the population would number
+960,000. The remainder of the 1,500,000, 540,000, would consist of
+(a) slaves, and (b) those, the comparatively few, who would be
+members of the great clan-families (<i>gentes</i>). Proportionately to
+Attica this seems to allow too small a population of slaves. But
+however this be, we may picture the population of Rome as consisting
+chiefly of a few patrician families ministered to by a very large
+number of slaves, and a populace of needy citizens, in whose ranks it
+was profitable for an outsider to find a place in order that he might
+participate in the advantages of state maintenance.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Rome the clan-family became the dominant political factor.
+As in England and elsewhere in the middle ages, and even in
+later times, the family, in these circumstances, assumes
+an influence which is out of harmony with the common
+<span class="sidenote">The annona civica.</span>
+good. The social advantage of the family lies in its
+self-maintenance, its home charities, and its moral
+and educational force, but if its separate interests are made
+supreme, it becomes uncharitable and unsocial. In Rome this
+was the line of development. The stronger clan-families crushed
+the weaker, and became the &ldquo;oligarchy of warriors and slaveholders.&rdquo;
+In the same spirit they possessed themselves of
+the <i>ager publicus</i>. The land obtained by the Romans by right
+of conquest was public. It belonged to the state, and to a yeoman
+state it was the most valuable acquisition. At first part of
+it was sold and part was distributed to citizens without property
+and destitute (cf. Plutarch, <i>Tib. Gracchus</i>). At a very early date,
+however, the patrician families acquired possession of much of
+it and held it at a low rental, and thus the natural outlet for a
+conquering farmer race was monopolized by one class, the richer
+clan-families. This injustice was in part remedied by the
+establishment of colonies, in which the emigrant citizens received
+sufficient portions of land. But these colonies were comparatively
+few, and after each conquest the rich families made large purchases,
+while the smaller proprietors, whose services as soldiers
+were constantly required, were unable to attend to their lands
+or to retain possession of them. To prevent this (367 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+the Licinian law was passed, by which ownership in land was
+limited to 500 <i>jugera</i>, about 312 acres. This law was ignored,
+however, and more than two centuries later the evil, the double
+evil of the dispossession of the citizen farmer and of slavery,
+reached a crisis. The slave war broke out (134 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and (133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+Tiberius Gracchus made his attempt to re-endow the Roman
+citizens with the lands which they had acquired by conquest.
+He undertook what was essentially a charitable or philanthropic
+movement, which was set on foot too late. He had passed through
+Tuscany, and seen with resentment and pity the deserted
+country where the foreign slaves and barbarians were now
+the only shepherds and cultivators. He had been brought up
+under the influence of Greek Stoical thought, with which, almost
+in spite of itself, there was always associated an element of pity.
+The problem which he desired to solve, though larger in scale,
+was essentially the same as that with which Solon and Peisistratus
+had dealt successfully. At bottom the issue lay between
+private property, considered as the basis of family life for the
+great bulk of the community, with personal independence, and
+pauperism, with the <i>annona</i> or slavery. In 133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Tiberius
+Gracchus became tribune. To expand society on the lines of
+private property, he proposed the enforcement of &ldquo;the Licinian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page867" id="page867"></a>867</span>
+Rogations&rdquo;; the rich were to give up all beyond their rightful
+312 acres, and the remainder was to be distributed amongst
+the poor. The measure was carried by the use of arbitrary
+powers, and followed by the death of Tiberius at the hands of
+the patricians, the dominant clan-families. In 132 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Caius
+Gracchus took up his brother&rsquo;s quarrel, and adopting, it would
+seem, a large scheme of political and social reform, proposed
+measures for emigration and for relief. The former failed; the
+latter apparently were acceptable to all parties, and continued
+in force long after C. Gracchus had been slain (121 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Already,
+at times, there had been sales of corn at cheap prices. Now, by
+the <i>lex frumentaria</i> he gave the citizens&mdash;those who had the
+Roman franchise&mdash;the right to purchase corn every month from
+the public stores at rather more than half-price, 6<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> <i>asses</i> or about
+3.3d. the peck. This, the fatal alternative, was accepted, and
+henceforth there was no possibility of a reversion to better social
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The provisioning of Rome was, like that of Athens, a public
+service. There were public granaries (267 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and there was
+a quaestor to supervise the transit of the corn from Sicily and,
+later, from Spain and Africa, and an elaborate administration
+for collecting and conveying it. The <i>lex frumentaria</i> of Caius was
+followed by the <i>lex Octavia</i>, restricting the monthly sale to citizens
+settled in Rome, and to 5 <i>modii</i> (1¼ bushels). According to
+Polybius, the amount required for the maintenance of a slave
+was 5 <i>modii</i> a month, and of a soldier 4. Hence the allowance,
+if continued at this rate, was practically a maintenance. The
+<i>lex Clodia</i> (58 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) made the corn gratuitous to the <i>plebs
+urbana</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Julius Caesar (5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) found the number of recipients to be 320,000,
+and reduced them to 150,000. In Augustus&rsquo;s time they rose to
+200,000. There seems, however, to be some confusion as to the
+numbers. From the <i>Ancyranum Monumentum</i> it appears that the
+<i>plebs urbana</i> who received Augustus&rsquo;s dole of 60 <i>denarii</i> (37s. 6d.)
+in his eighth consulship numbered 320,000. And (Suet. <i>Caes.</i> 41)
+it seems likely that in Caesar&rsquo;s time the lists of the recipients were
+settled by lot; further, probably only those whose property was
+worth less than 400,000 <i>sesterces</i> (£3541) were placed on the lists.
+It is probable, therefore, that 320,000 represents a maximum,
+reduced for purposes of administration to a smaller number (a) by
+a property test, and (b) by some kind of scrutiny. The names of
+those certified to receive the corn were exposed on bronze tablets.
+They were then called <i>aerarii</i>. They had tickets (<i>tesserae</i>) for
+purposes of identification, and they received the corn or bread in the
+time of the republic at the temple of Ceres, and afterwards at steps
+in the several (14) regions or wards of Rome. Hence the bread was
+called <i>panis gradilis</i>. In the middle of the 2nd century there were
+state bakeries, and wheaten loaves were baked for the people perhaps
+two or three times a week. In Aurelian&rsquo;s time (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 270) the flour
+was of the best, and the weight of the loaf (one <i>uncia</i>) was doubled.
+To the gifts of bread were added pork, oil and possibly wine;
+clothes also&mdash;white tunics with long sleeves&mdash;were distributed.
+In the period after Constantine (cf. <i>Theod. Code</i>, xiv. 15) three
+classes received the bread&mdash;the palace people (<i>palatini</i>), soldiers
+(<i>militares</i>), and the populace (<i>populares</i>). No distribution was
+permitted except at the steps. Each class had its own steps in the
+several wards. The bread at one step could not be transferred to
+another step. Each class had its own supply. There were arrangements
+for the exchange of stale loaves. Against misappropriation
+there were (law of Valentinian and Valens) severe penalties. If a public
+prosecutor (<i>actor</i>), a collector of the revenue (<i>procurator</i>), or
+the slave of a senator obtained bread with the cognizance of the
+clerk, or by bribery, the slave, if his master was not a party to the
+offence, had to serve in the state bakehouse in chains. If the master
+were involved, his house was confiscated. If others who had not the
+right obtained the bread, they and their property were placed at
+the service of the bakery (<i>pistrini exercitio subjugari</i>). If they were
+poor (<i>pauperes</i>) they were enslaved, and the delinquent client was
+to be put to death.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The right to relief was dependent on the right of citizenship.
+Hence it became hereditary and passed from father to son.
+It was thus in the nature of a continuous endowed charity, like the
+well-known family charity of Smith, for instance, in which a
+large property was left to the testator&rsquo;s descendants, of whom
+it was said that as a result no Smith of that family could fail to be
+poor. But the <i>annona civica</i> was an endowed charity, affecting
+not a single family, but the whole population. Later, when
+Constantinople was founded, the right to relief was attached to
+new houses as a premium on building operations. Thus it
+belonged not to persons only, but also to houses, and became a
+species of &ldquo;immovable&rdquo; property, passing to the purchaser of
+the house or property, as would the adscript slaves. The bread
+followed the house (<i>aedes sequantur annonae</i>). If, on the transfer
+of a house, bread claims were lost owing to the absence of
+claimants, they were transferred to the treasury (<i>fisci viribus
+vindicentur</i>). But the savage law of Valentinian, referred to
+above, shows to what lengths such a system was pushed. Early
+in its history the <i>annona civica</i> attracted many to Rome in the
+hope of living there without working. For the 400 years since
+the <i>lex Clodia</i> was enacted constant injury had been done by it,
+and now (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 364) people had to be kept off the civic bounty as
+if they were birds of prey, and the very poor man (<i>pauperrimus</i>),
+who had no civic title to the food, if he obtained it by fraud,
+was enslaved. Thus, in spite of the abundant state relief, there
+had grown up a class of the very poor, the Gentiles of the state,
+who were outside the sphere of its ministrations. The <i>annona
+civica</i> was introduced not only into Constantinople, but also
+into Alexandria, with baleful results, and into Antioch. When
+Constantinople was founded the corn-ships of Africa sailed there
+instead of to Rome. On charitable relief, as we shall see, the
+<i>annona</i> has had a long-continued and fatal influence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. If the government considers itself responsible for provisioning
+the people it must fix the price of necessaries, and to meet distress
+or popular clamour it will lower the price. It becomes thus a large
+relief society for the supply of corn. In a time of distress, when the
+corn laws were a matter of moment in England, a similar system was
+adopted in the well-known Speenhamland scale (1795), by which a
+larger or lesser allowance was given to a family according to its size
+and the prevailing price of corn. A maintenance was thus provided
+for the able-bodied and their families, at least in part, without any
+equivalent in labour; though in England labour was demanded of
+the applicant, and work was done more or less perfunctorily. In
+amount the Roman dole seems to have been equivalent to the
+allowance provided for a slave, but the citizen received it without
+having to do any labour task. He received it as a statutory right.
+There could hardly be a more effective method for degrading his
+manhood and denaturalizing his family. He was also a voter, and
+the alms appealed to his weakness and indolence; and the fear of
+displeasing him and losing his vote kept him, socially, master of the
+situation, to his own ruin. If in England now relief were given to
+able-bodied persons who retained their votes, this evil would also
+attach to it.</p>
+
+<p>2. The system obliged the hard-working to maintain the idlers,
+while it continually increased their number. The needy teacher
+in Juvenal, instead of a fee, is put off with a <i>tessera</i>, to which, not
+being a citizen, he has no right. &ldquo;The foreign reapers,&rdquo; it was said,
+&ldquo;filled Rome&rsquo;s belly and left Rome free for the stage and the circus.&rdquo;
+The freeman had become a slave&mdash;&ldquo;stupid and drowsy, to whom
+days of ease had become habitual, the games, the circus, the theatre,
+dice, eating-houses and brothels.&rdquo; Here are all the marks of a
+degraded pauperism.</p>
+
+<p>3. The system led the way to an ever more extensive slavery.
+The man who could not live on his dole and other scrapings had the
+alternative of becoming a slave. &ldquo;Better have a good master than
+live so distressfully&rdquo;; and &ldquo;If I were free I should live at my own
+risk; now I live at yours,&rdquo; are the expressions suggestive of the
+natural temptations of slavery in these conditions. The escaped
+slaves returned to &ldquo;their manger.&rdquo; The <i>annona</i> did not prevent
+destitution. It was a half-way house to slavery.</p>
+
+<p>4. The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce
+generally, was ruinous. The largest corn-market, Rome, was withdrawn
+from the trade&mdash;the market to which all the necessaries of
+life would naturally have gravitated; and the supply of corn was
+placed in the hands of producers at a few centres where it could be
+grown most cheaply&mdash;Sicily, Spain and Africa. The Italian farmer
+had to turn his attention to other produce&mdash;the cultivation of the
+olive and the vine, and cattle and pig rearing. The greater the
+extension of the system the more impossible was the regeneration of
+Rome. The Roman citizen might well say that he was out of
+work, for, so far as the land was concerned, the means of obtaining
+a living were placed out of his reach. While not yet unfitted for
+the country by life in the town, he at least could not &ldquo;return to the land.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>5. The method was the outcome of distress and political hopelessness.
+Yet the rich also adopted it in distributing their private
+largess. Cicero (<i>De Off.</i> ii. 16) writes as though he recognized its
+evil; but though he expresses his disapprobation of the popular
+shows upon which the <i>aediles</i> spent large sums, he argues that
+something must be done &ldquo;if the people demand it, and if good men,
+though they do not wish it, assent to it.&rdquo; Thus in a guarded manner
+he approves a distribution of food&mdash;a free breakfast in the streets
+of Rome. One bad result of the <i>annona</i> was that it encouraged a
+special and ruinous form of charitable munificence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page868" id="page868"></a>868</span> </p>
+
+<p>The <i>sportula</i> was a form of charity corresponding to the <i>annona
+civica</i>. Charity and poor relief run on parallel lines, and when
+the one is administered without discrimination, little
+discrimination will usually be exercised in the other.
+<span class="sidenote">The sportula.</span>
+It was the charity of the patron of the chiefs of the
+clan-families to their clients. Between them it was natural that
+a relation, partly hospitable, partly charitable, should grow up.
+The clients who attended the patron at his house were invited
+to dine at his table. The patron, as Juvenal describes him,
+dined luxuriously and in solitary grandeur, while the guests put
+up with what they could get; or, as was usual under the empire,
+instead of the dinner (<i>coena recta</i>) a present of food was given at
+the outer vestibule of the house to clients who brought with them
+baskets (<i>sportula</i>) to carry off their food, or even charcoal stoves
+to keep it warm. There was endless trickery. The patron (or
+almoner who acted for him) tried to identify the applicant,
+fearing lest he might get the dole under a false name; and at each
+mansion was kept a list of persons, male and female, entitled to
+receive the allowance. &ldquo;The pilferer grabs the dole&rdquo; (<i>sportulam
+furunculus captat</i>) was a proverb. The <i>sportula</i> was a charity
+sufficiently important for state regulation. Nero (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 54)
+reduced it to a payment in money (100 <i>quadrantes</i>, about 1s.).
+Domitian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 81) restored the custom of giving food. Subsequently
+both practices&mdash;gifts in money and in food&mdash;appear to have been continued.</p>
+
+<p>In these conditions the Roman family steadily decayed. Its
+&ldquo;old discipline&rdquo; was neglected; and Tacitus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 75), in his
+dialogue on Oratory, wrote (c. xxviii.) what might be called its
+epitaph. Of the general decline the laws of Caesar and Augustus
+to encourage marriage and to reward the parents of large families
+are sufficient evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of the working-class family must have been
+finally achieved by the imperial control of the <i>collegia</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In old Rome there were corporations of craftsmen for common
+worship, and for the maintenance of the traditions of the craft.
+These corporations were ruined by slave labour, and
+becoming secret societies, in the time of Augustus were
+<span class="sidenote">The collegia.</span>
+suppressed. Subsequently they were reorganized, and
+gave scope for much friendliness. They often existed in connexion
+with some great house, whose chief was their patron and whose
+household gods they worshipped. The gilds of the poor, or rather
+of the lower orders (<i>collegia tenuiorum</i>), consisted of artisans and
+others, and slaves also, who paid monthly contributions to a common
+fund to meet the expenses of worship, common meals, and funerals.
+They were not in Italy, it would seem (J.P. Waltzing, <i>Études histor.
+sur les corporations professionnelles chez les Romains</i>, i. 145, 300),
+though they may have been in Asia Minor and elsewhere, societies
+for mutual help generally. They were chiefly funeral benefit societies.
+Under Severus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192) the <i>collegia</i> were extended and more
+closely organized as industrial bodies. They were protected and
+controlled, as in England in the 15th century the municipalities
+affected the cause of the craft gilds and ended by controlling them.
+Industrial disorder was thus prevented; the government were able
+to provide the supplies required in Rome and the large cities with
+less risk and uncertainty; and the workmen employed in trade,
+especially the carrying trade, became almost slaves. In the 2nd
+century, and until the invasions, there were three groups of <i>collegia</i>:
+(1) those engaged in various state manufactures; (2) those engaged
+in the provision trade; and (3) the free trades, which gradually
+lapsed into a kind of slavery. If the members of these gilds fled they
+were brought back by force. Parents had to keep to the trade to
+which they belonged; their children had to succeed them in it.
+A slave caste indeed had been formed of the once free workmen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As a charitable protest against the destruction of children,
+in the midst of a broken family life, and increasing dependence
+and poverty, a special institution was founded (to use
+<span class="sidenote">Pueri alimentarii.</span>
+the Scottish word) for the &ldquo;alimentation&rdquo; of the
+children of citizens, at first by voluntary charity and
+afterwards by imperial bounty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Nerva and Trajan adopted the plan. Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 18) refers
+to it. There was a desire to give more lasting and certain help
+than an allotment of food to parents. A list of children, whose
+names were on the relief tables at Rome, was accordingly drawn
+up, and a special service for their maintenance established. Two
+instances are recorded in inscriptions&mdash;one at Veleia, one at Beneventum.
+The emperor lent money for the purpose at a low percentage&mdash;2½
+or 5% as against the usual 10 or 12. At Veleia his loan
+amounted to 1,044,000 <i>sesterces</i>&mdash;about £8156, and 51 of the local
+landed proprietors mortgaged land, valued at 13 or 14 million
+<i>sesterces</i>, as security for the debt. The interest on the emperor&rsquo;s
+money at 5% was paid into the municipal treasury, and out of it the
+children were relieved. The figures seem small; at Veleia 300
+children were assisted, of whom 36 were girls. The annual interest
+at 5% amounted to nearly £408, which divided among 300 gives
+about 27s. a head. The figures suggest that the money served as a
+charitable supplementation of the citizens&rsquo; relief in direct aid of
+the children. Apparently the scheme was widely adopted. Curators
+of high position were the patrons; procurators acted as inspectors
+over large areas; and <i>quaestores alimentarii</i> undertook the local
+management. Antoninus Pius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 138), and Marcus Aurelius
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 160), and subsequently Severus (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 192) established these
+bursaries for children in the names of their wives. In the 3rd century
+the system fell into disorder. There were large arrears of payments,
+and in the military anarchy that ensued it came to an end. It is of
+special interest, as indicating a new feeling of responsibility towards
+children akin to the humane Stoicism of the Antonines, and an
+attempt to found, apart from temples or <i>collegia</i>, what was in the
+nature of a public endowed charity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part IV.&mdash;Jewish and Christian Charity</p>
+
+<p>With Christianity two elements came into fusion, the Jewish
+and the Greco-Roman. To trace this fusion and its results it is
+necessary to describe the Jewish system of charity, and to compare
+it with that of the early Christian church, to note the theory
+of love or friendship in Aristotle as representing Greek thought,
+and of charity in St Paul as representing Christian thought, and
+to mark the Roman influences which moulded the administration
+of Ambrose and Gregory and Western Christianity generally.</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of the Hebrews we find the family,
+clan-family and tribe. With the Exodus (probably about 1390 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>)
+comes the law of Moses (cf. Kittel, <i>Hist. of the Hebrews</i>,
+Eng. trans. i. 244), the central and permanent element
+<span class="sidenote">Hebrew charity.</span>
+of Jewish thought. We may compare it to the
+&ldquo;commandments&rdquo; of Hesiod. There is the recognition of the
+family and its obligations: &ldquo;Honour thy father and mother&rdquo;;
+and honour included help and support. There is also the law
+essential to family unity: &ldquo;Thou shalt not commit adultery&rdquo;;
+and as to property there is imposed the regulation of desire:
+&ldquo;Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour&rsquo;s house.&rdquo; Maimonides
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1135), true to the old conception of the family (x. 16), calls
+the support of adult children, &ldquo;after one is exempt from supporting
+them,&rdquo; and the support of a father or mother by a child,
+&ldquo;great acts of charity; since kindred are entitled to the first
+consideration.&rdquo; To relief of the stranger the Decalogue makes no
+reference, but in the Hebraic laws it is constantly pressed; and
+the Levitical law (xix. 18) goes further. It first applies a new
+standard to social life: &ldquo;Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.&rdquo;
+This thought is the outcome of a deep ethical fervour&mdash;the
+element which the Jews brought into the work of charity.
+In Judges and Joshua, the &ldquo;Homeric&rdquo; books of the Old Testament,
+the Hebrews appear as a passionately fierce and cruel
+people. Subsequently against their oppression of the poor the
+prophets protested with a vehemence as great as the evil was
+intense; and their denunciations remained part of the national
+literature, a standing argument that life without charity is
+nothing worth. Thus schooled and afterwards tutored into
+discipline by the tribulation of the exile (587 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), they turned
+their fierceness into a zeal, which, as their literature shows, was
+as fervent in ethics as it was in religion and ceremonial. In the
+services at the synagogues, which supplemented and afterwards
+took the place of the Temple, the Commandments were constantly
+repeated and the Law and the Prophets read; and as the Jews
+of the Dispersion increased in number, and especially after the
+destruction of Jerusalem, the synagogues became centres of social
+and charitable co-operation. Thus rightly would a Jewish rabbi
+say, &ldquo;On three things the world is stayed: on the Thorah (or
+the law), and on worship, and on the bestowal of kindness.&rdquo;
+Also there was on the charitable side an indefinite power of
+expansion. Rigid in its ceremonial, there it was free. Within
+the nation, as the Prophets, and after the exile, as the Psalms
+show, there was the hope of a universal religion, and with it of a
+universally recognized charity. St Paul accentuated the prohibitive
+side of the law and protested against it; but, even while
+he was so doing, stimulated by the Jewish discipline, he was
+moving unfettered towards new conceptions of charity and life&mdash;charity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page869" id="page869"></a>869</span>
+as the central word of the Christian life, and life as a
+participation in a higher existence&mdash;the &ldquo;body of Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To mark the line of development, we could compare&mdash;1. The
+family among the Jews and in the early Christian church;
+2. The sources of relief and the tithe, the treatment of the poor
+and their aid, and the assistance of special classes of poor;
+3. The care of strangers; and, lastly, we would consider the
+theory of almsgiving, friendship or love, and charity.</p>
+
+<p>1. As elsewhere, property is the basis of the family. Wife and
+children are the property of the father. But the wife is held
+in high respect. In the post-exilian period the virtuous wife
+is represented as laborious as a Roman matron, a &ldquo;lady bountiful&rdquo;
+to the poor, and to her husband wife and friend alike.
+Monogamy without concubinage is now the rule&mdash;is taken for
+granted as right. There is no &ldquo;exposure of children.&rdquo; The
+slaves are kindly treated, as servants rather than slaves&mdash;though
+in Roman times and afterwards the Jews were great slave-traders.
+The household is not allowed to eat the bread of idleness.
+&ldquo;Six days,&rdquo; it was said, &ldquo;<i>must</i> [not <i>mayest</i>] thou
+work.&rdquo; &ldquo;Labour, if poor; but find work, if rich.&rdquo; &ldquo;Whoever
+does not teach his son business or work, teaches him robbery.&rdquo;
+In Job xxxi., a chapter which has been called &ldquo;an inventory of
+late Old Testament morality,&rdquo; we find the family life developed
+side by side with the life of charity. In turn are mentioned the
+relief of the widow, the fatherless and the stranger&mdash;the
+classification of dependents in the Christian church; and the whole
+chapter is a justification of the homely charities of a good family.
+&ldquo;The Jewish religion, more especially in the old and orthodox form,
+is essentially a family religion&rdquo; (C.G. Montefiore, <i>Religion
+of Ancient Hebrews</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In the early documents of the Church the fifth commandment
+is made the basis of family life (cf. Eph. vi. 1; <i>Apost. Const.</i>
+ii. 32, iv. 11&mdash;if we take the first six books of the <i>Apost. Const.</i>
+as a composite production before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, representing
+Judaeo-Christian or Eastern church thought). But two points are
+prominent. Duties are insisted on as reciprocal (cf. especially
+St Paul&rsquo;s Epistles), as, <i>e.g.</i> between husband and wife, parent
+and child, master and servant. Charity is mutual; the family
+is a circle of reciprocal duties and charities. This implies a
+principle of the greatest importance in relation to the social
+utility of charity. Further reference will be made to it later.
+Next the &ldquo;thou shalt love thy neighbour&rdquo; is translated from
+its position as one among many sayings to the chief place as a
+rule of life. In the <i>Didach&#275;</i> or <i>Teaching of the Twelve Apostles</i>
+(Jewish-Christian, c. 90-120 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) the first commandment in &ldquo;the
+way of life&rdquo; is adapted from St Matthew&rsquo;s Gospel thus: &ldquo;First,
+thou shalt love God who made thee; secondly, thy neighbour
+as thyself; and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have
+done to thee, neither do thou to another.&rdquo; A principle is thus
+applied which touches all social relations in which the &ldquo;self&rdquo;
+can be made the standard of judgment. Of this also later. To
+touch on other points of comparison: the earlier documents
+seem to ring with a reiterated cry for a purer family life (cf. the
+second, the negative, group of commandments in the <i>Didach&#275;</i>,
+and the judgment of the apocalyptic writings, such as the
+Revelations of Peter, &amp;c.); and, sharing the Jewish feeling, the
+riper conscience of the Christian community formulates and
+accepts the injunction to preserve infant life at every stage.
+It advocates, indeed, the Jewish purity of family life with a
+missionary fervour, and it makes of it a condition of church
+membership. The Jewish rule of labour is enforced (<i>Ap. Const.</i>
+ii. 63). If a stranger settle (<i>Didach&#275;</i>, xii. 3) among the brotherhood,
+&ldquo;let him work and eat.&rdquo; And the father (<i>Constit.</i> iv. 11)
+is to teach the children &ldquo;such trades as are agreeable and
+suitable to their need.&rdquo; And the charities to the widow, the
+fatherless, are organized on Jewish lines.</p>
+
+<p>2. The sources of relief among the Jews were the three gifts of
+corn: (1) the corners of the field (cf. Lev. xix. &amp;c.), amounting
+to a sixtieth part of it; (2) the gleanings, a definite minimum
+dropped in the process of reaping (Maimonides, <i>Laws of the
+Hebrews relating to the Poor</i>, iv. 1); (3) corn overlooked and
+left behind. So it was with the grapes and with all crops that
+were harvested, as opposed, <i>e.g.</i> to figs, that were gathered from
+time to time. These gifts were divisible three times in the day,
+so as to suit the convenience of the poor (Maim. ii. 17), and the
+poor had a right to them. They are indeed a poor-rate paid in
+kind such as in early times would naturally spring up among an
+agricultural people. Another gift &ldquo;out of the seed of the
+earth,&rdquo; is the tithe. In the post-exilian period the septenniad
+was in force. Each year a fiftieth part of the produce (Maim.
+vi. 2, and Deut. xviii. 4) was given to the priest (the class which
+in the Jewish state was supported by the community). Of the
+remainder one-tenth went to the Levite, and one-tenth in three
+years of the septennium was retained for pilgrimage to Jerusalem,
+in two given to the poor. In the seventh year &ldquo;all things were
+in common.&rdquo; Supplementing these gifts were alms to all who
+asked; &ldquo;and he who gave less than a tenth of his means was a
+man of evil eye&rdquo; (Maim. vii. 5). All were to give alms, even
+the poor themselves who were in receipt of relief. Refusal
+might be punished with stripes at the hand of the Sanhedrim.
+At the Temple alms for distribution to the worthy poor were
+placed by worshippers in the cell of silence; and it is said that
+in Palestine at meal times the table was open to all comers. As
+the synagogues extended, and possibly after the fall of Jerusalem
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70), the collections of alms was further systematized. There
+were two collections. In each city alms of the box or chest
+(<i>kupha</i>) were collected for the poor of the city on each Sabbath
+eve (later, monthly or thrice a year), and distributed in money
+or food for seven days. Two collected, three distributed. Three
+others gathered and distributed daily alms of the basket
+(<i>tamchui</i>). These were for strangers and wayfarers&mdash;casual
+relief &ldquo;for the poor of the whole world.&rdquo; In the Jewish synagogue
+community from early times the president (<i>parnass</i>) and
+treasurer were elected annually with seven heads of the congregation
+(see Abraham&rsquo;s <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>, p. 54),
+and sometimes special officers for the care of the poor. A staff
+of almoners was thus forthcoming. In addition to these collections
+were the <i>pruta</i> given to the poor before prayers (Maim. x.
+15), and moneys gathered to help particular cases (cf. <i>Jewish
+Life</i>, p. 322) by circular letter. There were also gifts at marriages
+and funerals; and fines imposed for breach of the communal
+ordinances were reserved for the poor. The distinctive feature
+of the Jewish charity was the belief that &ldquo;the poor would not
+cease out of the land,&rdquo; and that therefore on charitable grounds
+a permanent provision should be made for them&mdash;a poor-rate, in
+fact, subject to stripes and distraint, if necessary (Maim. vii. 10;
+and generally cf. articles on &ldquo;Alms&rdquo; and &ldquo;Charity&rdquo; in the
+<i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>If we compare this with the early church we find the following
+sources of relief: (1) The Eucharistic offerings, some consumed at
+the time, some carried home, some reserved for the absent (see
+Hatch, <i>Early Church</i>, p. 40). The ministration, like the Eucharist,
+was connected with the love feast, and was at first daily (Acts ii.
+42, vi. 1, and the <i>Didache</i>). (2) Freewill offerings and first-fruits
+and voluntary tithes (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 25) brought to the bishop and
+used for the poor&mdash;orphans, widows, the afflicted and strangers
+in distress, and for the clergy, deaconesses, &amp;c. (3) Collections
+in churches on Sundays and week-days, alms-boxes and gifts to
+the poor by worshippers as they entered church; also collections
+for special purposes (cf. for Christians at Jerusalem). Apart from
+&ldquo;the corners,&rdquo; &amp;c., the sources of relief in the Christian and Jewish
+churches are the same. The separate Jewish tithe for the poor,
+which (Maim. vi. II, 13) might be used in part by the donor as
+personal charity, disappears. A voluntary tithe remains, in part
+used for the poor. We do not hear of stripes and distraint, but in
+both bodies there is a penitential system and excommunication
+(cf. <i>Jewish Life</i>, p. 52), and in both a settlement of disputes within
+the body (Clem. <i>Hov</i>. iii. 67). In both, too, there is the abundant
+alms provided in the belief of the permanence of poverty and the duty
+of giving to all who ask. As to administration in the early church
+(Acts vi. 3), we find seven deacons, the number of the local Jewish
+council; and later there were in Rome seven ecclesiastical relief
+districts, each in charge of a deacon. The deacon acted as the
+minister of the bishop (<i>Ep.</i> Clem, to Jam. xii.), reporting to him
+and giving as he dictated (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 30, 31). He at first combined
+disciplinary powers with charitable. The presbyters also (Polycarp,
+<i>Ad Phil.</i> 6, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-155), forming (Hatch, p. 69) a kind of bishop&rsquo;s
+council, visited the sick, &amp;c. The bishop was president and treasurer.
+The bishop was thus the trustee of the poor. By reason of the
+churches&rsquo; care of orphans, responsibilities of trusteeship also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page870" id="page870"></a>870</span>
+devolved on him. The temples were in pagan times depositories of
+money. Probably the churches were also.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Great stress is laid by the Jews on the duty of gentleness
+to the poor (Maim. x. 5). The woman was to have first attention
+(Maim. vi. 13). If the applicant was hungry he was to be fed,
+and then examined to learn whether he was a deceiver (Maim.
+vii. 6). Assistance was to be given according to the want&mdash;clothes,
+household things, a wife or a husband&mdash;and according
+to the poor man&rsquo;s station in life. For widows and orphans the
+&ldquo;gleanings&rdquo; were left. Both are the recognized objects of
+charity (Maim. x. 16,17). &ldquo;The poor and the orphan were to be
+employed in domestic affairs in preference to servants.&rdquo; The
+dower was a constant form of help. The ransoming of slaves
+took precedence of relief to the poor. The highest degree of
+alms-deed (Maim. x. 7) was &ldquo;to yield support to him who is
+cast down, either by means of gifts, or by loan, or by commerce,
+or by procuring for him traffic with others. Thus his hand
+becometh strengthened, exempt from the necessity of soliciting
+succour from any created being.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>If we compare the Christian methods we find but slight
+difference. The absoluteness of &ldquo;Give to him that asketh&rdquo;
+is in the <i>Didach&#275;</i> checked by the &ldquo;Woe to him that receives:
+for if any receives having need, he shall be guiltless, but he that
+has no need shall give account, ... and coming into distress
+... he shall not come out thence till he hath paid the last
+farthing.&rdquo; It is the duty of the bishop to know who is most
+worthy of assistance (<i>Ap. Con.</i> ii. 3, 4); and &ldquo;if any one is in
+want by gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve
+assistance, or to be esteemed a member of the church.&rdquo; The
+widow assumes the position not only of a recipient of alms, but
+a church worker. Some were a private charge, some were
+maintained by the church. The recognized &ldquo;widow&rdquo; was
+maintained: she was to be sixty years of age (cf. 1 Tim, v. 9 and
+<i>Ap. Con.</i> iii. 1), and was sometimes tempted to become a bedes-woman
+and gossipy pauper, if one may judge from the texts.
+Remarriage was not approved. Orphans were provided for by
+members of the churches. The virgins formed another class, as,
+contrary to the earlier feeling, marriage came to be held a state
+of lesser sanctity. They too seem to have been also, in part at
+least, church workers. Thus round the churches grew up new
+groups of recognized dependents; but the older theory of charity
+was broad and practical&mdash;akin to that of Maimonides. &ldquo;Love
+all your brethren, performing to orphans the part of parents, to
+widows that of husbands, affording them sustenance with all
+kindliness, arranging marriages for those who are in their prime,
+and for those who are without a profession the means of necessary
+support through employment: giving work to the artificer and
+alms to the incapable&rdquo; (<i>Ep.</i> Clem, to James viii.).</p>
+
+<p>4. The Jews in pre-Christian and Talmudic times supported
+the stranger or wayfarer by the distribution of food (<i>tamchui</i>);
+the strangers were lodged in private houses, and there were inns
+provided at which no money was taken (cf. <i>Jewish Life</i>, p. 314).
+Subsequently, besides these methods, special societies were
+formed &ldquo;for the entertainment of the resident poor and of
+strangers.&rdquo; There were commendatory letters also. These conditions
+prevailed in the Christian church also. The <i>Xenodocheion</i>,
+coming by direct succession alike from Jewish and Greek precedents,
+was the first form of Christian hospital both for strangers
+and for members of the Christian churches. In the Christian
+community the endowment charity comes into existence in the
+4th century, among the Jews not till the 13th. The charities
+of the synagogue without separate societies sufficed.</p>
+
+<p>We may now compare the conceptions of Jews and Christians
+on charity with those of the Greeks. There are two chief exponents
+of the diverse views&mdash;Aristotle and St Paul;
+for to simplify the issues we refer to them only.
+<span class="sidenote">Greek, Jewish and Christian thought.</span>
+Thoughts such as Aristotle&rsquo;s, recast by the Stoic
+Panaetius (185-112 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and used by Cicero in his <i>De
+Officiis</i>, became in the hands of St Ambrose arguments
+for the direction of the clergy in the founding of the medieval
+church; and in the 13th century Aristotle reasserts his influence
+through such leaders of medieval thought as St Thomas Aquinas.
+St Paul&rsquo;s chapters on charity, not fully appreciated and understood,
+one is inclined to think, have perhaps more than any other
+words prevented an absolute lapse into the materialism of almsgiving.
+After him we think of St Francis, the greatest of a group
+of men who, seeking reality in life, revived charity; but to the
+theory of charity it might almost be said that since Aristotle and
+St Paul nothing has been added until we come to the economic
+and moral issues which Dr Chalmers explained and illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The problem turns on the conception (1) of purpose, (2) of the
+self, and (3) of charity, love or friendship as an active force in
+social life. To the Greek, or at least to Greek philosophic
+thought, purpose was the measure of goodness. To have no
+purpose was, so far as the particular act was concerned, to be
+simply irrational; and the less definite the purpose the more
+irrational the act. This conception of purpose was the touchstone
+of family and social life, and of the civic life also. In no
+sphere could goodness be irrational. To say that it was without
+purpose was to say that it was without reality. So far as the
+actor was concerned, the main purpose of right action was the
+good of the soul (<span class="grk" title="psyche">&#968;&#965;&#967;&#942;</span>); and by the soul was meant the better
+self, &ldquo;the ruling part&rdquo; acting in harmony with every faculty
+and function of the man. With faculties constantly trained and
+developed, a higher life was gradually developed in the soul.
+We are thus, it might be said, what we become. The gates of
+the higher life are within us. The issue is whether we will open
+them and pass in.</p>
+
+<p>Consistent with this is the social purpose. Love or friendship
+is not conceived by Aristotle except in relation to social life.
+Society is based on an interchange of services. This interchange
+in one series of acts we call justice; in another friendship or
+love. A man cannot be just unless he has acquired a certain
+character or habit of mind; and hence no just man will act
+without knowledge, previous deliberation and definite purpose.
+So also will a friend fulfil these conditions in his acts of love or
+friendship. In the love existing between good men there is
+continuance and equality of service; but in the case of benefactor
+and benefited, in deeds of charity, in fact, there is no such
+equality. The satisfaction is on one side but often not on the
+other. (The dilemma is one that is pressed, though not satisfactorily,
+in Cicero and Seneca.) The reason for this will be found,
+Aristotle suggests, in the feeling of satisfaction which men
+experience in action. We realize ourselves in our deeds&mdash;throw
+ourselves into them, as people say; and this is happiness.
+What we make we like: it is part of us. On the other hand,
+in the person benefited there may be no corresponding action,
+and in so far as there is not, there is no exchange of service or the
+contentment that arises from it. The &ldquo;self&rdquo; of the recipient
+is not drawn out. On the contrary, he may be made worse,
+and feel the uneasiness and discontent that result from this.
+In truth, to complete Aristotle&rsquo;s argument, the good deed on one
+side, as it represents the best self of the benefactor, should on the
+other side draw out the best self of the person benefited. And
+where there is not ultimately this result, there is not effective
+friendship or charity, and consequently there is no personal or
+social satisfaction. The point may be pushed somewhat further.
+In recent developments of charitable work the term &ldquo;friendly
+visitor&rdquo; is applied to persons who endeavour to help families
+in distress on the lines of associated charity. It represents the
+work of charity in one definite light. So far as the relation is
+mutual, it cannot at the outset be said to exist. The charitable
+friend wishes to befriend another; but at first there may be no
+reciprocal feeling of friendship on the other&rsquo;s part&mdash;indeed,
+such a feeling may never be created. The effort to reciprocate
+kindness by becoming what the friend desires may be too painful
+to make. Or the two may be on different planes, one not really
+befriending, but giving without intelligence, the other not really
+endeavouring to change his nature, but receiving help solely
+with a view to immediate advantage. The would-be befriender
+may begin &ldquo;despairing of no man,&rdquo; expecting nothing in return;
+but if, in fact, there is never any kind of return, the friendship
+actually fails of its purpose, and the &ldquo;friend&rsquo;s&rdquo; satisfaction is
+lost, except in that he may &ldquo;have loved much.&rdquo; In any case,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page871" id="page871"></a>871</span>
+according to this theory friendship, love and charity represent
+the mood from which spring social acts, the value of which will
+depend on the knowledge, deliberation and purpose with which
+they are done, and accordingly as they acquire value on this
+account will they give lasting satisfaction to both parties.</p>
+
+<p>St Paul&rsquo;s position is different. He seems at first sight to ignore
+the state and social life. He lays stress on motive force rather
+than on purpose. He speaks as an outsider to the state, though
+technically a citizen. His mind assumes towards it the external
+Judaic position, as though he belonged to a society of settlers
+(<span class="grk" title="paroikoi">&#960;&#940;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#953;</span>). Also, as he expects the millennium, social life and
+its needs are not uppermost in his thoughts. He considers charity
+in relation to a community of fellow-believers&mdash;drawn together
+in congregations. His theory springs from this social base, though
+it over-arches life itself. He is intent on creating a spiritual
+association. He conceives of the spirit (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">&#960;&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#956;&#945;</span>) as &ldquo;an immaterial
+personality.&rdquo; It transcends the soul (<span class="grk" title="psychê">&#968;&#965;&#967;&#942;</span>), and is the
+Christ life, the ideal and spiritual life. Christians participate
+in it, and they thus become part of &ldquo;the body of Christ,&rdquo;
+which exists by virtue of love&mdash;love akin to the ideal life, <span class="grk" title="agapê">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>.
+The word represents the love that is instinct with reverence,
+and not love <span class="grk" title="philia">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span> which may have in it some quality of passion.
+This love is the life of &ldquo;the body of Christ.&rdquo; Therefore no act
+done without it is a living act&mdash;but, on the contrary, must be
+dead&mdash;an act in which no part of the ideal life is blended. On the
+individual act or the purpose no stress is laid. It is assumed that
+love, because it is of this intense and exalted type, will find the
+true purpose in the particular act. And, when the expectation of
+the millennium passed away, the theory of this ideal charity
+remained as a motive force available for whatever new conditions,
+spiritual or social, might arise. Nevertheless, no sooner does this
+charity touch social conditions, than the necessity asserts itself
+of submitting to the limitations which knowledge, deliberation
+and purpose impose. This view had been depreciated or ignored
+by Christians, who have been content to rely upon the strength
+of their motives, or perhaps have not realized what the Greeks
+understood, that society was a natural organism (Arist. <i>Pol.</i>
+1253A), which develops, fails or prospers in accordance with
+definite laws. Hence endless failure in spite of some success.
+For love, whether we idealize it as <span class="grk" title="agapê">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span> or consider it a social
+instinct as <span class="grk" title="philia">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>, cannot be love at all unless it quickens the
+intelligence as much as it animates the will. It cannot, except
+by some confusion of thought, be held to justify the indulgence
+of emotion irrespective of moral and social results. Yet, though
+this fatal error may have dominated thought for a long time, it
+is hardly possible to attribute it to St Paul&rsquo;s theory of charity
+when the very practical nature of Judaism and early Christianity
+is considered. In his view the misunderstanding could not arise.
+And to create a world or &ldquo;body&rdquo; of men and women linked together
+by love, even though it be outside the normal life of the
+community, was to create a new form of religious organization,
+and to achieve for it (so far as it was achieved) what, <i>mutatis
+mutandis</i>, Aristotle held to be the indispensable condition of
+social life, friendship (<span class="grk" title="philia">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#943;&#945;</span>), &ldquo;the greatest good of states,&rdquo;
+for &ldquo;Socrates and all the world declare,&rdquo; he wrote, that &ldquo;the
+unity of the state&rdquo; is &ldquo;created by friendship&rdquo; (Arist. <i>Pol.</i> ii.
+1262 b).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It should, however, be considered to what extent charity in the
+Christian church was devoid of social purpose, (1) The Jewish conceptions
+of charity passed, one might almost say, in their completeness
+into the Christian church. Prayer, the petition and the purging
+of the mind, fasting, the humiliation of the body, and alms, as part of
+the same discipline, the submissive renunciation of possessions&mdash;all
+these formed part of the discipline that was to create the religious
+mood. Alms henceforth become a definite part of the religious
+discipline and service. Humility and poverty hereafter appear as
+yoked virtues, and many problems of charity are raised in regard to
+them. The non-Christian no less than the Christian world appreciated
+more and more the need of self-discipline (<span class="grk" title="askêsis">&#7940;&#963;&#954;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>); and it seems
+as though in the first two centuries <span class="scs">A.D.</span> those who may have thought
+of reinvigorating society searched for the remedy rather in the
+preaching and practice of temperance than in the application of
+ideas that were the outcome of the observation of social or economic
+conditions. Having no object of this kind as its mark, almsgiving
+took the place of charity, and, as Christianity triumphed, the family
+life, instead of reviving, continued to decay, while the virtues of
+the discipline of the body, considered apart from social life, became
+an end in themselves, and it was desired rather to annihilate instinct
+than to control it. Possibly this was a necessary phase in a movement
+of progress, but however that be, charity, as St Paul understood
+it, had in it no part. (2) But the evil went farther. Jewish religious
+philosophy is not elaborated as a consistent whole by any one writer.
+It is rather a miscellany of maxims; and again and again, as in much
+religious thought, side issues assume the principal place. The
+direct effect of the charitable act, or almsgiving, is ignored. Many
+thoughts and motives are blended. The Jews spoke of the poor
+as the means of the rich man&rsquo;s salvation. St Chrysostom emphasizes
+this: &ldquo;If there were no poor, the greater part of your sins
+would not be removed: they are the healers of your wounds&rdquo;
+(<i>Hom.</i> xiv., Timothy, &amp;c., St Cyprian on works and alms). Alms
+are the medicine of sin. And the same thought is worked into the
+penitential system. Augustine speaks of &ldquo;penance such as fasting,
+almsgiving and prayer for breaches of the Decalogue&rdquo; (Reichel,
+<i>Manual of Canon Law</i>, p. 23); and many other references might be
+cited. &ldquo;Pecuniary penances (Ib. 154), in so far as they were relaxations
+of, or substitutes for, bodily penances, were permitted
+because of the greater good thereby accruing to others&rdquo; (and in
+this case they were&mdash;<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1284&mdash;legally enforceable under English
+statute law). The penitential system takes for granted that the
+almsgiving is good for others and puts a premium on it, even though in
+fact it were done, not with any definite object, but really for the
+good of the penitent. Thus almsgiving becomes detached from
+charity on the one side and from social good on the other. Still further
+is it vulgarized by another confusion of thought. It is considered
+that the alms are paid to the credit of the giver, and are realized
+as such by him in the after-world; or even that by alms present
+prosperity may be obtained, or at least evil accident avoided. Thus
+motives were blended, as indeed they now are, with the result that
+the gift assumed a greater importance than the charity, by which
+alone the gift should have been sanctified, and its actual effect
+was habitually overlooked or treated as only partially relevant.</p>
+
+<p>(3) The Christian maxim of &ldquo;loving (<span class="grk" title="agapê">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>) one&rsquo;s neighbour as one&rsquo;s
+self&rdquo; sets a standard of charity. Its relations are idealized according
+as the &ldquo;self&rdquo; is understood; and thus the good self becomes
+the measure of charity. In this sense, the nobler the self the completer
+the charity; and the charity of the best men, men who
+love and understand their neighbours best, having regard to their
+chief good, is the best, the most effectual charity. Further, if in
+what we consider &ldquo;best&rdquo; we give but a lesser place to social purpose
+or even allow it no place at all, our &ldquo;self&rdquo; will have no sufficient
+social aim and our charity little or no social result. For this &ldquo;self,&rdquo;
+however, religion has substituted not St Paul&rsquo;s conception of the
+spirit (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">&#960;&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#956;&#945;</span>), but a soul, conceived as endowed with a substantial
+nature, able to enjoy and suffer quasi-material rewards and punishments
+in the after-life; and in so far as the safeguard of this soul
+by good deeds or almsgiving has become a paramount object, the
+purpose of charitable action has been translated from the actual
+world to another sphere. Thus, as we have seen, the aid of the poor
+has been considered not an object in itself, but as a means by which
+the almsgiver effects his own ulterior purpose and &ldquo;makes God his
+debtor.&rdquo; The problem thus handled raises the question of reward
+and also of punishment. Properly, from the point of view of charity,
+both are excluded. We may indeed act from a complexity of
+motives and expect a complexity of rewards, and undoubtedly a
+good act does refresh the &ldquo;self,&rdquo; and may as a result, though not as
+a reward, win approval. But in reality reward, if the word be used
+at all, is according to purpose; and the only reward of a deed lies
+in the fulfilment of its purpose. In the theory of almsgiving which
+we are discussing, however, act and reward are on different planes.
+The reward is on that of a future life; the act related to a distressed
+person here and now. The interest in the act on the doer&rsquo;s part lies
+in its post-mortal consequences to himself, and not either wholly
+or chiefly in the act itself. Nor, as the interest ends with the act&mdash;the
+giving&mdash;can the intelligence be quickened by it. The
+questions &ldquo;How? by whom? with what object? on what plan?
+with what result?&rdquo; receive no detailed consideration at all. Two
+general results follow. In so far as it is thus practised, almsgiving
+is out of sympathy with social progress. It is indeed alien to it.
+Next also the self-contained, self-sustained poverty that will have
+no relief and does without it, is outside the range of its thought and
+understanding. On the other hand, this almsgiving is equally incapable
+of influencing the weak and the vicious; and those who are
+suffering from illness or trouble it has not the width of vision to
+understand nor the moral energy to support so that they shall not
+fall out of the ranks of the self-supporting. It believes that &ldquo;the
+poor&rdquo; will not cease out of the land. And indeed, however great
+might be the economic progress of the people, it is not likely that
+the poor will cease, if the alms given in this spirit be large enough in
+amount to affect social conditions seriously one way or the other.
+When we measure the effects of charity, this inheritance of
+divided thought and inconsistent counsels must be given its full
+weight.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sub-apostolic church was a congregation, like a synagogue,
+the centre of a system of voluntary and personal relief, connected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page872" id="page872"></a>872</span>
+with the congregational meals (or <span class="grk" title="agapai">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#945;&#953;</span>) and the Eucharist,
+<span class="sidenote">The organization of the parish and endowed charities.</span>
+and under the supervision of no single officer or bishop. Out
+of this was developed a system of relief controlled by
+a bishop, who was assisted chiefly by deacons or
+presbyters, while the <span class="grk" title="agapai">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#945;&#953;</span>, consisting of offerings
+laid before the altar, still remained. Subsequently
+the meal was separated from the sacrament, and
+became a dole of food, or poor people&rsquo;s meal&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> in
+St Augustine&rsquo;s time in western Africa&mdash;and it was not allowed
+to be served in churches (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 391). As religious asceticism
+became dominant, the sacrament was taken fasting; it appeared
+unseemly that men and women should meet together for such
+purposes, and the <span class="grk" title="agapai">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#945;&#953;</span> fell out of repute. Simultaneously
+it would seem that the parish <span class="grk" title="paroikia">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span> became from a congregational
+settlement a geographical area.</p>
+
+<p>The organization of relief at Rome illustrates both a type of
+administration and a transition. St Gregory&rsquo;s reforms (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 590)
+largely developed it. The first factor in the transition was the
+church fund of the second period of Christianity, about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 150
+to after 208 (Tertullian, <i>Apol</i>. 39). It served as a friendly fund,
+was supported by voluntary gifts, and was used to succour and
+to bury the poor, to help destitute and orphaned children,
+old household slaves and those who suffered for the faith. This
+fund is quite different from the <i>collegia tenuiorum</i> or <i>funeratica</i>
+of the Romans, which were societies to which the members paid
+stipulated sums at stated periods, for funeral benefits or for common
+meals (J.P. Waltzing, <i>Corporations professionnelles chez
+les Romains</i>, i. 313). It represents the charitable centre round
+which the parochial system developed. That system was
+adopted probably about the middle of the 3rd century, but in
+Rome the diaconate probably remained centralized. At the
+end of the 4th century Pope Anastasius had founded deaconries
+in Rome, and endowed them largely &ldquo;to meet the frequent
+demands of the diaconate.&rdquo; Gregory two hundred years later
+reorganized the system. He divided the fourteen old &ldquo;regions&rdquo;
+into seven ecclesiastical districts and thirty &ldquo;titles&rdquo; (or parishes).
+The parishes were under the charge of sixty-six priests; the
+districts were eleemosynary divisions. Each was placed under
+the charge of a deacon, not (Greg. <i>Ep</i>. xi. and xxviii.) under the
+priests (<i>presbyteri titularii</i>). Over the deacons was an archdeacon.
+It was the duty of the deacons to care for the poor, widows,
+orphans, wards, and old people of their several districts. They
+inquired in regard to those who were relieved, and drew up under
+the guidance of the bishop the register of poor (<i>matricula</i>).
+Only these received regular relief. In each district was an
+hospital or office for alms, of which the deacon had charge,
+assisted by a steward (or <i>oeconomus</i>). Here food was given and
+meals were taken, the sick and poor were maintained, and orphan
+or foundling children lodged. The churches of Rome and of
+other large towns possessed considerable estates, &ldquo;the patrimony
+of the patron saints,&rdquo; and to Rome belonged estates in Sicily
+which had not been ravaged by the invaders, and they continued
+to pay to it their tenth of corn, as they had done since Sicily
+was conquered. Four times a year (Milman, <i>Lat. Christ</i>, ii. 117)
+the shares of the (1) clergy and papal officers, (2) churches and
+monasteries, and (3) &ldquo;hospitals, deaconries and ecclesiastical
+wards for the poor,&rdquo; were calculated in money and distributed;
+and the first day in every month St Gregory distributed to the
+poor in kind corn, wine, cheese, vegetables, bacon, meal, fish
+and oil. The sick and infirm were superintended by persons
+appointed to inspect every street. Before the pope sat down to his
+own meal a portion was separated and sent out to the hungry at
+his door. The Roman <i>plebs</i> had thus become the poor of Christ
+(<i>pauperes Christi</i>), and under that title were being fed by <i>civica
+annona</i> and <i>sportula</i> as their ancestors had been; and the deaconries
+had superseded the &ldquo;regions&rdquo; and the &ldquo;steps&rdquo; from which
+the corn had been distributed. The <i>hospitium</i> was now part of a
+common organization of relief, and the sick were visited according
+to Jewish and early Christian precedent. How far kindly Romans
+visited the sick of their day we do not know. Alms and the
+<i>annona</i> were now, it would seem, administered concurrently;
+and there was a system of poor relief independent of the churches
+and their alms (unless these, organized, as in Scottish towns,
+on the ancient ecclesiastical lines, were paid wholly or in part to a
+central diaconate fund). Much had changed, but in much Roman
+thought still prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>On lines similar to these the organization of poor relief in the
+middle ages was developed. In the provinces in the later empire
+the senate or <i>ordo decurionum</i> were responsible for the public
+provisioning of the towns (Fustel de Coulanges, <i>La Gaule romaine</i>,
+p. 251), and no doubt the care of the poor would thus in some
+measure devolve on them in times of scarcity or distress. On
+the religious side, on the other hand, the churches would probably
+be constant centres of almsgiving and relief; and then, further,
+when the Roman municipal system had decayed, each citizen
+(as in Charlemagne&rsquo;s time, 742-814) was required to support his
+own dependants&mdash;a step suggestive of much after-history.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The change in sentiment and method could hardly be more
+strongly marked than by a comparison of &ldquo;the <i>Teaching</i>&rdquo; with
+St Ambrose&rsquo;s (334-397) &ldquo;Duties of the Clergy&rdquo; (<i>De Officiis Ministrorum</i>).
+For the old instinctive obedience to a command there is
+now an endeavour to find a reasoned basis for charitable action.
+Pauperism is recognized. &ldquo;Never was the greed of beggars greater
+than it is now.... They want to empty the purses of the poor,
+to deprive them of the means of support. Not content with a little,
+they ask for more.... With lies about their lives they ask for
+further sums of money.&rdquo; &ldquo;A method in giving is necessary.&rdquo; But
+in the suggestions made there is little consistency. Liberality is
+urged as a means of gaining the love of the people; a new and a
+false issue is thus raised. The relief is neither to be &ldquo;too freely given
+to those who are unsuitable, nor too sparingly bestowed upon the
+needy.&rdquo; Everywhere there is a doctrine of the mean reflected
+through Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De Officiis</i>, the doctrine insufficiently stated, as
+though it were a mean of quantity, and not that rightly tempered
+mean which is the harmony of opposing moods. The poor are not
+to be sent away empty. Those rejected by the church are not to
+be left to the &ldquo;outer darkness&rdquo; of an earlier Christianity. They
+must be supplied if they are in want. The methodic giver is &ldquo;hard
+towards none, but is free towards all.&rdquo; Consequently none are
+refused, and no account is taken of the regeneration that may spring
+up in a man from the effort towards self-help which refusal may
+originate. Thus after all it appears that method means no more
+than this&mdash;to give sometimes more, sometimes less, to all needy
+people. In the small congregational church of early Christianity,
+each member of which was admitted on the conditions of strictest
+discipline, the common alms of the faithful could hardly have done
+much harm within the body, even though outside they created and
+kept alive a horde of vagrant alms-seekers and pretenders. Now
+in this department at least the church had become the state, and
+discipline and a close knowledge of one&rsquo;s fellow-Christians no longer
+safeguarded the alms. From Cicero is borrowed the thought of
+&ldquo;active help,&rdquo; which &ldquo;is often grander and more noble,&rdquo; but the
+thought is not worked out. From the social side the problem is not
+understood or even stated, and hence no principle of charity or of
+charitable administration is brought to light in the investigation.
+Still there are rudiments of the economics of charity in the praise of
+Joseph, who made the people <i>buy</i> the corn, for otherwise &ldquo;they
+would have given up cultivating the soil; for he who has the use
+of what is another&rsquo;s often neglects his own.&rdquo; Perhaps, as St Augustine
+inspired the theology of the middle ages, we may say that St
+Ambrose, in the mingled motives, indefiniteness, and kindliness of this
+book, stands for the charity of the middle ages, except in so far as
+the movement which culminated in the brotherhood of St Francis
+awakened the intelligence of the world to wider issues.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In Constantinople the pauperism seems to have been extreme.
+The corn supplies of Africa were diverted there in great part
+when it became the capital of the empire. This must have
+left to Rome a larger scope for the development of the civic-religious
+administration of relief. St Chrysostom&rsquo;s sermons give
+no impression of the rise of any new administrative force, alike
+sagacious and dominant. The appeal to give alms is constant,
+but the positive counsel on charitable work is <i>nil</i>. The people
+had the <i>annona civica</i>, and imperial gifts, corn, allowances
+(<i>salaria</i>) from the treasury granted for the poor and needy,
+and an annual gift of 50 gold pounds (rather more than £1400)
+for funerals. Besides these there were many institutions, and
+the begging and the almsgiving at the church doors. &ldquo;The land
+could not support the lazy and valiant beggars.&rdquo; There were
+public works provided for them; if they refused to work on
+them they were to be driven away. The sick might visit the
+capital, but must be registered and sent back (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 382); the
+sturdy beggar was condemned to slavery. So little did alms
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page873" id="page873"></a>873</span>
+effect. And in the East monasticism seems to have produced
+no firmness of purpose such as led to the organization of the
+church and of charitable relief under St Gregory.</p>
+
+<p>Another movement of the Byzantine period was the establishment
+of the endowed charity. The Jewish synagogue long served
+as a place for the reception of strangers&mdash;a religious <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>.
+Probably the strangers referred to in &ldquo;the <i>Teaching</i>&rdquo; were so
+entertained. The table of the bishop and a room in his house
+served as the guest-chamber, for which afterwards a separate
+building was instituted. In the East the Jewish charitable
+inn first appears, and there took place the earliest extension of
+institutions. There was probably a demand for an elaboration
+of institutions as social changes made themselves felt in the
+churches. We have seen this in the case of the <span class="grk" title="agapê">&#7936;&#947;&#940;&#960;&#951;</span>. Similar
+changes would affect other branches of charitable work. The
+hospital (<i>hospitalium</i>, <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>) is defined as a &ldquo;house of
+God in which strangers who lack hospitality are received&rdquo;
+(Suicerus, <i>Thesaur.</i>), a home separated from the church; and
+round the church, out of the primitive <span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span> of early
+Christian times and the entertainment of strangers at the houses
+of members of the community, would grow up other similar
+charities. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 321 licence was given by Constantine to leave
+property to the Church. The churches were thus placed in the
+same position as pagan temples, and though subsequently
+Valentinian (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 379) withdrew the permission on account
+of the shameless legacy-hunting of the clergy, in that period
+much must have been done to endow church and charitable
+institutions. In the same period grew to its height the passion
+for monasticism. This affected the parish and the endowed
+charity alike. Under its influence the deacon as an almoner
+tends to disappear, except where, as in Rome, there is an elaborate
+system of relief. Nor does it seem that deaconesses, widows,
+and virgins continued to occupy their old position as church
+workers and alms-receivers. Naturally when marriage was
+considered &ldquo;in itself an evil, perhaps to be tolerated, but still
+degrading to human nature,&rdquo; and (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 385) the marriage of
+the clergy was prohibited, men, except those in charge of parishes,
+and women would join regular monastic bodies; the deacon,
+as almoner, would disappear, and the &ldquo;widows&rdquo; and virgins
+would become nuns. Thus there would grow up a large body
+of men and women living segregated in institutions, and forming
+a leisured class able to superintend institutional charities. And
+now two new officers appear, the <i>eleemosynarius</i> or almoner
+and the <i>oeconomus</i> or steward (already an assistant treasurer
+to the bishop), who superintend and distribute the alms and
+manage the property of the institution. (In the first six books
+of the <i>Apost. Constit.</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 300, these officers are not mentioned.)
+In these circumstances the <i>hospitium</i> or hospital (<span class="grk" title="xenon">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>, <span class="grk" title="katagôgion">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#947;&#974;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>)
+assumes a new character. It becomes in St Basil&rsquo;s hands
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 330-379) a resort not only for those who &ldquo;visit it from
+time to time as they pass by, but also for those who need some
+treatment in illness.&rdquo; And round St Basil at Caesarea there
+springs up a colony of institutions. Four kinds principally are
+mentioned in the Theodosian code: (i) the guest-houses (<span class="grk" title="xenodocheia">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>);
+(2) the poor-houses (<span class="grk" title="ptôcheia">&#960;&#964;&#969;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>), where the poor (<i>mendici</i>)
+were housed and maintained (the <span class="grk" title="ptôcheion">&#960;&#964;&#969;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span> was a general term
+also applied to all houses for the poor, the aged, orphans and
+sick); (3) there were orphanages (<span class="grk" title="orphanotropheia">&#8000;&#961;&#966;&#945;&#957;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>) for orphans
+and wards; and (4) there were houses for infant children (<span class="grk" title="brephotropheia">&#946;&#961;&#949;&#966;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>).
+Thus a large number of endowed charities had grown
+up. This new movement it is necessary to consider in connexion
+with the law relating to religious property and bequests, in its
+bearing on the rule of the monasteries, and in its effect on the
+family.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The sacred property (<i>res sacra</i>) of Roman law consisted of things
+dedicated to the gods by the pontiff with the approval of the civil
+authority, in turn, the people, the senate and the emperor. Things
+so consecrated were inalienable. Apart from this in the empire,
+the municipalities as they grew up were considered &ldquo;juristic persons&rdquo;
+who were entitled to receive and hold property. In a similar position
+were authorized <i>collegia</i>, amongst which were the mutual aid societies
+referred to above. Christians associated in these societies would
+leave legacies to them. Thus (W.M. Ramsay, <i>Cities and Bishoprics
+of Phrygia</i>, I. i. 119) an inscription mentions a bequest (possibly by
+a Christian) to the council (<span class="grk" title="synhedrion">&#963;&#965;&#957;&#941;&#948;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>) of the presidents of the dyers
+in purple for a ceremonial, on the condition that, if the ceremony
+be neglected, the legacy shall become the property of the gild for
+the care of nurslings; and in the same way a bequest is left in Rome
+(Orelli 4420) for a memorial sacrifice, on the condition that, if it be
+not performed, double the cost be paid to the treasury of the corn-supply
+(<i>fisco stationis annonae</i>). No unauthorized <i>collegia</i> could
+receive a legacy. &ldquo;The law recognized no freedom of association.&rdquo;
+Nor could any private individual create a foundation with separate
+property of its own. Property could only be left to an authorized
+juristic person, being a municipality or a <i>collegium</i>. But as the
+problem of poverty was considered from a broader standpoint, there
+was a desire to deal with it in a more permanent manner than by
+the <i>annona civica</i>. The <i>pueri alimentarii</i> (see above) were considered
+to hold their property as part of the <i>fiscus</i> or property of the state.
+Pliny (<i>Ep.</i> vii. 18), seeking a method of endowment, transferred
+property in land to the steward of public property, and then took
+it back again subject to a permanent charge for the aid of children
+of freemen. By the law of Constantine and subsequent laws no
+such devices were necessary. Widows or deaconesses, or virgins
+dedicated to God, or nuns (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 455), could leave bequests to a
+church or memorial church (<i>martyrum</i>), or to a priest or a monk, or
+to the poor in any shape or form, in writing or without it. Later
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 475) donations of every kind, &ldquo;to the person of any martyr,
+or apostle, or prophet, or the holy angels,&rdquo; for building an oratory
+were made valid, even if the building were promised only and not
+begun; and the same rule applied to infirmaries (<span class="grk" title="nosokomoeia">&#957;&#959;&#963;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>) and
+poor-houses (<span class="grk" title="ptôcheia">&#960;&#964;&#969;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#945;</span>)&mdash;the bishop or steward being competent
+to appear as plaintiff in such cases. Later, again (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 528), contributions
+of 50 solidi (say about £19, 10s.) to a church, hostel (<span class="grk" title="xenodocheion">&#958;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#967;&#949;&#8150;&#959;&#957;</span>),
+&amp;c., were made legal, though not registered; while larger
+sums, if registered, were also legalized. So (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 529) property
+might be given for &ldquo;churches, hostels, poor-houses, infant and
+orphan homes, and homes for the aged, or any such community&rdquo;
+(<i>consortium</i>), even though not registered, and such property was
+free from taxation. The next year (530) it was enacted that prescription
+even for 100 years did not alienate church and charitable
+property. The broadest interpretation was allowed. If by will
+a share of an estate was left &ldquo;to Christ our Lord,&rdquo; the church of the
+city or other locality might receive it as heir; &ldquo;let these, the law
+says, belong to the holy churches, so that they may become the
+alimony of the poor.&rdquo; It was sufficient to leave property to the poor
+(<i>Corpus Juris Civilis</i>, ed. Krueger, 1877, ii. 25). The bequest was
+legal. It went to the legal representative of the poor&mdash;the church.
+Charitable property was thus church property. The word &ldquo;alms&rdquo;
+covered both. It was given to pious uses, and as a kind of public
+institution &ldquo;shared that corporate capacity which belonged to all
+ecclesiastical institutions by virtue of a general rule of law.&rdquo; On
+a <i>pia causa</i> it was not necessary to confer a juristic personality.
+Other laws preserved or regulated alienation (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 477, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 530),
+and checked negligence or fraud in management. The clergy had
+thus become the owners of large properties, with the <i>coloni</i> and
+slaves upon the estates and the allowances of civic corn (<i>annona
+civica</i>); and (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 357) it was stipulated that whatever they acquired
+by thrift or trading should be used for the service of the poor and
+needy, though what they acquired from the labour of their slaves
+in the labour houses (<i>ergastula</i>) or inns (<i>tabernae</i>) might be considered
+a profit of religion (<i>religionis lucrum</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus grew up the system of endowed charities, which with
+certain modifications continued throughout the middle ages,
+and, though it assumed different forms in connexion with gilds
+and municipalities, in England it still retains, partially at least,
+its relation to the church. It remained the system of institutional
+relief parallel to the more personal almsgiving of the parish.</p>
+
+<p>Monasticism, in acting on men of strong character, endowed
+them with a double strength of will, and to men like St Gregory
+it seemed to give back with administrative power the relentless
+firmness of the Roman. In the East it produced the turbulent
+soldiery of the church, in the West its missionaries; and each
+mission-monastery was a centre of relief. But whatever the
+services monasticism rendered, it can hardly be said to have
+furthered true charity from the social standpoint, though out of
+regard to some of its institutional work we may to a certain degree
+qualify this judgment. The movement was almost of necessity
+in large measure anti-parochial, and thus out of sympathy with
+the charities of the parish, where personal relations with the poor
+at their homes count for most.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The good and evil of it may be weighed. Monasticism working
+through St Augustine helped the world to realize the mood of love
+as the real or eternal life. Of the natural life of the world and its
+responsibilities, through which that mood would have borne its
+completest fruit, it took but little heed, except in so far as, by
+creating a class possessed of leisure, it created able scholars, lawyers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page874" id="page874"></a>874</span>
+and administrators, and disciplined the will of strong men. It had
+no power to stay the social evils of the day. Unlike the friars, at
+their best the monks were a class apart, not a class mixed up with
+the people. So were their charities. The belief in poverty as a
+fixed condition&mdash;irretrievable and ever to be alleviated without
+any regard to science or observation, subjected charity to a perpetual
+stagnation. Charity requires belief in growth, in the sharing
+of life, in the utility and nobility of what is done here and now for
+the hereafter of this present world. Monasticism had no thought
+of this. It was based on a belief in the evil of matter; and from
+that root could spring no social charity. Economic difficulties also
+fostered monasticism. Gold was appreciated in value, and necessaries
+were expensive, and the cost of maintaining a family was great.
+It was an economy to force a son or a brother into the church. The
+population was decreasing; and in spite of church feeling Marjorian
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 461) had to forbid women from taking the veil before forty, and
+to require the remarriage of widows, subject to a large forfeit of
+property (Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, ii. 420). Monasticism
+was inconsistent with the social good. As to the family&mdash;like the
+moderns who depreciate thrift and are careless of the life of the
+family, the monks, believing that marriage was a lower form of
+morality, if not indeed, as would at times appear, hardly moral at
+all, could feel but little enthusiasm for what is socially a chief source
+of health to the community and a well-spring of spontaneous charitable
+feeling. By the sacerdotal-monastic movement the moralizing
+force of Christianity was denaturalized. Among the secular clergy
+the falsity of the position as between men and women revealed
+itself in relations which being unhallowed and unrecognized became
+also degrading. But worse than all, it pushed charity from its
+pivot. For this no monasteries or institutions, no domination of
+religious belief, could atone. The church that with so fine an intensity
+of purpose had fostered chastity and marriage was betraying
+its trust. It was out of touch with the primal unit of social life, the
+child-school of dawning habits and the loving economy of the home.
+It produced no treatise on economy in the older Greek sense of the
+word. The home and its associations no longer retained their pre-eminence.
+In the extreme advocacy of the celibate state, the
+honourable development of the married life and its duties were
+depreciated and sometimes, one would think, quite forgotten.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may ask, then, What were the results of charity at the
+close of the period which ends with St Gregory and the founding of
+the medieval church?&mdash;for if the charity is reflected in the social
+good the results should be manifest. Economic and social
+conditions were adverse. With lessened trade the middle class
+was decaying (Dill, <i>Roman Society in the Last Century of the
+Western Empire</i>, p. 204) and a selfish aristocracy rising up. Municipal
+responsibility had been taxed to extinction. The public
+service was corrupt. The rich evaded taxation, the poor were
+oppressed by it. There were laws upon laws, endeavours to
+underpin the framework of a decaying society. Society was
+bankrupt of skill&mdash;and the skill of a generation has a close bearing
+on its charitable administration. While hospitals increased,
+medicine was unprogressive. There were miserable years of
+famine and pestilence, and constant wars. The care of the
+poorer classes, and ultimately of the people, was the charge of the
+church. The church strengthened the feeling of kindness for
+those in want, widows, orphans and the sick. It lessened the
+degradation of the &ldquo;actresses,&rdquo; and, co-operating with Stoic
+opinion, abolished the slaughter of the gladiatorial shows. It
+created a popular &ldquo;dogmatic system and moral discipline,&rdquo;
+which paganism failed to do; but it produced no prophet of
+charity, such as enlarged the moral imagination of the Jews.
+It ransomed slaves, as did paganism also, but it did not abolish
+slavery. Large economic causes produced that great reform.
+The serf attached to the soil took the place of the slave. The
+almsgiving of the church by degrees took the place of <i>annona</i> and
+<i>sportula</i>, and it may have created pauperism. But dependence on
+almsgiving was at least an advance on dependence founded on a
+civic and hereditary right to relief. As the <i>colonus</i> stood higher
+than the slave, so did the pauper, socially at any rate, free to
+support himself, exceed the <i>colonus</i>. Bad economic conditions
+and traditions, and a bad system of almsgiving, might enthral
+him. But the way, at least, was open; and thus it became
+possible that charity, working in alliance with good economic
+traditions, should in the end accomplish the self-support of society,
+the independence of the whole people.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part V.&mdash;Medieval Charity and its Development</p>
+
+<p>It remains to trace the history of thought and administration
+in relation to (1) the development of charitable responsibility in
+the parish, and the use of tithe and church property for poor
+relief; and (2) the revision of the theory of charity, with which
+are associated the names of St Augustine (354-430), St Benedict
+(480-542), St Bernard (1091-1153), St Francis (1182-1226), and
+St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). (3) There follows, in reference
+chiefly to England, a sketch of the dependence of the poor under
+feudalism, the charities of the parish, the monastery and the
+hospital&mdash;the medieval system of endowed charity; the rise of
+gild and municipal charities; the decadence at the close of the
+15th century, and the statutory endeavours to cope with economic
+difficulties which, in the 16th century, led to the establishment of
+statutory serfdom and the poor-laws. New elements affect the
+problem of charity in the 17th and 18th centuries; but it is not
+too much to say that almost all these headings represent phases
+of thought or institutions which in later forms are interwoven
+with the charitable thought and endeavours of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, two methods of relief have usually been prominent:
+relief administered locally, chiefly to residents in their own
+homes, and relief administered in an institution. At
+the time of Charlemagne (742-814) the system of
+<span class="sidenote">The parish and charitable relief.</span>
+relief was parochial, consisting principally of assistance
+at the home. After that time, except probably in
+England, the institutional method appears to have predominated,
+and the monastery or hospital in one form or another gradually
+encroached on the parish.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The system of parochial charity was the outcome, apparently,
+of three conditions: the position and influence of the bishop, the
+eleemosynary nature of the church funds, and the need of some
+responsible organization of relief. It resulted in what might almost
+be called an ecclesiastical poor-law. The affairs of a local church
+or congregation were superintended by a bishop. To deal with the
+outlying districts he detached priests for religious work and, as in
+Rome and (774) Strassburg, deacons also for the administration
+of relief. Originally all the income of the church or congregation
+was paid into one fund only, of which the bishop had charge, and
+this fund was available primarily for charitable purposes. Church
+property was the patrimony of the poor. In the 4th century (IV.
+Council of Carthage, 398) the names of the clergy were entered on
+a list (<i>matricula</i> or <i>canon</i>), as were also the names of the poor, and
+both received from the church their daily portion (cf. Ratzinger,
+<i>Geschichte der kirchlichen Armenpflege</i>, p. 117). There were no
+expenses for building. Before the reign of Constantine (306) very
+few churches were built (Ratzinger, p. 120). Thus the early church
+as has been said, was chiefly a charitable society. By degrees the
+property of the church was very largely increased by gifts and
+bequests, and in the West before St Gregory&rsquo;s time the division
+of it for four separate purposes&mdash;the support of the bishop, of the
+clergy, and of the poor, and for church buildings&mdash;still further
+promoted decentralization. Apart from any special gifts, there was
+thus created a separate fund for almsgiving, supervised by the bishop,
+consisting of a fourth of the church property, the oblations (mostly
+used for the poor), and the tithe, which at first was used for the
+poor solely. The organization of the church was gradually extended.
+The church once established in the chief city of a district would
+become in turn the mother church of other neighbourhoods, and the
+bishop or priest of the mother church would come to exercise supervision
+over them and their parishes.</p>
+
+<p>In France, which may serve as a good illustration, in the 4th century
+(Ratzinger, p. 181) the civic organization was utilized for a
+further change. The Roman provinces were divided into large
+areas, <i>civitales</i>, and these were adopted by the church as bishop&rsquo;s
+parishes or, as we should call them, dioceses; and the chief city
+became the cathedral city. The bishop thus became responsible
+in Charlemagne&rsquo;s time both for his own parish&mdash;that of the mother
+church&mdash;and for the supervision of the parishes in the <i>civitas</i>, and
+so for the sick and needy of the diocese generally. He had to take
+charge of the poor in his own parish personally, keep the list of the
+poor, and houses for the homeless. The other parishes were at first,
+or in some measure, supported from his funds, but they acquired
+by degrees tithe and property of their own and were endowed by
+Charlemagne, who gave one or more manses or lots of land (cf.
+Fustel de Coulanges, <i>Hist, des institutions politiques de l&rsquo;ancienne
+France</i>, p. 360) for the support of each parish priest. The priests
+were required to relieve their own poor so that they should not stray
+into other cities (II. Counc. Tours, 567), and to provide food and
+lodging for strangers. The method was indeed elaborated and
+became, like the Jewish, that contradiction in terms&mdash;a compulsory
+system of charitable relief. The payment of tithe was enforced by
+Charlemagne, and it became a legal due (Counc. Frankfort, 794;
+Arelat. 794). At the same time two other conditions were enforced.
+Each person (<i>unusquisque fidelium nostrorum</i> or <i>omnes cives</i>) was
+to keep his own family, <i>i.e.</i> all dependent on him&mdash;all, that is, upon
+his freehold estate (<i>allodium</i>), and no one was to presume to give
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page875" id="page875"></a>875</span>
+relief to able-bodied beggars unless they were set to work (Charlem.
+<i>Capit</i>. v. 10). Thus we find here the germ of a poor-law system.
+As in the times of the <i>annona civica</i>, slavery, feudalism, or statutory
+serfdom, the burthen of the maintenance of the poor fell only in
+part on charity. Only those who could not be maintained as
+members of some &ldquo;family&rdquo; were properly entitled to relief, and
+in these circumstances the officially recognized clients of the church
+consisted of the gradually decreasing number of free poor and those
+who were tenants of church lands.</p>
+
+<p>Since 817 there has been no universally binding decision of the
+church respecting the care of the poor (Ratzinger, p. 236). So long
+ago did laicization begin in charity. In the wars and confusion of
+the 9th and 10th centuries the poorer freemen lapsed still further
+into slavery, or became <i>coloni</i> or bond servants; and later they
+passed under the feudal rule. Thus the church&rsquo;s duty to relieve them
+became the masters&rsquo; obligation to maintain them. Simultaneously
+the activity of the clergy, regular and secular alike, dwindled. They
+were exhorted to increase their alms. The revenues and property
+of &ldquo;the poor&rdquo; were largely turned to private or partly ecclesiastical
+purposes, or secularized. Legacies went wholly to the clergy, but
+only the tithe of the produce of their own lands was used for relief;
+and of the general tithe, only a third or fourth part was so applied.
+Eventually to a large extent, but more elsewhere than in England
+(Ratzinger, pp. 246, 269), the tithe itself was appropriated by nobles
+or even by the monasteries; and thus during and after the 10th
+century a new organization of charity was created on non-parochial
+methods of relief. Alms, with prayer and fasting, had always been
+connected with penance. But the character of the penitential
+system had altered. By the 7th century private penance had superseded
+the public and congregational penance of the earlier church
+(<i>Dict. Christian Antiquities</i>, art. &ldquo;Penitence&rdquo;). To the penalties
+of exclusion from the sacraments or from the services of the church
+or from its communion was coupled, with other penitential discipline,
+an elaborate penitential system, in which about the 7th century the
+redemption of sin by the &ldquo;sacrifice&rdquo; of property, payments of
+money fines, &amp;c., was introduced. (Cf. for instance Conc. Elberti:&mdash;Labbeus
+i. 969 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 305), with Conc. Berghamstedense, Wilkins,
+Conc. p. 60 (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 696), and the Penitential (p. 115) and Canons
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 960), p. 236.) The same sin committed by an overseer (<i>praepositus
+paganus</i>) was compensated by a fine of 100 <i>solidi</i>; in the
+case of a <i>colonus</i> by a fine of 50. So amongst the ways of penitence
+were entered in the above-mentioned Canons, to erect a church, and
+if means allowed, add to it land ... to repair the public roads ...
+&ldquo;to distribute,&rdquo; to help poor widows, orphans and strangers, redeem
+slaves, fast, &amp;c.&mdash;a combination of &ldquo;good deeds&rdquo; which suggests a line
+of thought such as ultimately found expression in the definition of
+charities in the Charitable Uses Act of Queen Elizabeth. The confessor,
+too, was &ldquo;<i>spiritualis medicus</i>,&rdquo; and much that from the point
+of view of counsel would now be the work of charity would in his
+hands be dealt with in that capacity. For lesser sins (cf. Bede (673-735),
+<i>Hom.</i> 34, quoted by Ratzinger) the penalty was prayer, fasting
+and alms; for the greater sins&mdash;murder, adultery and idolatry&mdash;to
+give up all. Thus while half-converted barbarians were kept in
+moral subjection by material penances, the church was enriched
+by their gifts; and these tended to support the monastic and
+institutional methods which were in favour, and to which, on the
+revival of religious earnestness in the 11th century, the world looked
+for the reform of social life.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To understand medieval charity it is necessary to return
+to St Augustine. According to him, the motive of man in his
+legitimate effort to assert himself in life was love or
+desire (<i>amor</i> or <i>cupido</i>). &ldquo;All impulses were only
+<span class="sidenote">Medieval revision of the theory of charity.</span>
+evolutions of this typical characteristic&rdquo; (Harnack,
+<i>History of Dogma</i> (trans.), v. iii.); and this was so
+alike in the spiritual and the sensuous life. Happiness thus
+depended on desire; and desire in turn depended on the
+regulation of the will; but the will was regulated only by grace.
+God was the <i>spiritualis substantia</i>; and freedom was the identity
+of the will with the omnipotent unchanging nature. This
+highest Being was &ldquo;holiness working on the will in the form of
+omnipotent love.&rdquo; This love was grace&mdash;&ldquo;grace imparting itself
+in love.&rdquo; Love (<i>caritas</i>&mdash;charity) is identified with justice; and
+the will, the goodwill, is love. The identity of the will with the
+will of God was attained by communion with Him. The after-life
+consummated by sight this communion, which was here
+reached only by faith. Such a method of thought was entirely
+introspective, and it turned the mind &ldquo;wholly to hope, asceticism
+and the contemplation of God in worship.&rdquo; &ldquo;Where St Augustine
+indulges in the exposition of practical piety he has no theory
+at all of Christ&rsquo;s work.&rdquo; To charity on that side he added
+nothing. In the 11th century there was a revival of piety, which
+had amongst its objects the restoration of discipline in the
+monasteries and a monastic training for the secular clergy.
+To this Augustinian thought led the way. &ldquo;Christianity was
+asceticism and the city of God&rdquo; (Harnack vi. 6). A new religious
+feeling took possession of the general mind, a regard and adoration
+of the actual, the historic Christ. Of this St Bernard was
+the expositor. &ldquo;Beside the sacramental Christ the image of the
+historical took its place,&mdash;majesty in humility, innocence in
+penal suffering, life in death.&rdquo; The spiritual and the sensuous
+were intermingled. Dogmatic formulae fell into the background.
+The picture of the historic Christ led to the realization of the
+Christ according to the spirit (<span class="grk" title="kata pneuma">&#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#960;&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#956;&#945;</span>). Thus St Bernard
+carried forward Augustinian thought; and the historic Christ
+became the &ldquo;sinless man, approved by suffering, to whom the
+divine grace, by which He lives, has lent such power that His
+image takes shape in other men and incites them to corresponding
+humility and love.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Humility and poverty represented the conditions under
+which alone this spirit could be realized; and the poverty must
+be spiritual, and therefore self-imposed (&ldquo;wilful,&rdquo; as it was
+afterwards called). This led to practical results. Poverty was
+not a social state, but a spiritual; and consequently the poor
+generally were not the <i>pauperes Christi</i>, but those who, like the
+monks, had taken vows of poverty. From these premisses
+followed later the doctrine that gifts to the church were not
+gifts to the poor, as once they had been, but to the religious
+bodies. The church was not the church of the poor, but of the
+poor in spirit. But the immediate effect was the belief for a time,
+apparently almost universal, that the salvation of society would
+come from the monastic orders. By their aid, backed by the
+general opinion, the secular clergy were brought back to celibacy
+and the monasteries newly disciplined. But charity could not
+thus regain its touch of life and become the means of raising
+the standard of social duty.</p>
+
+<p>Next, one amongst many who were stirred by a kindred
+inspiration, St Francis turned back to actual life and gave a new
+reality to religious idealism. For him the poor were once again
+the <i>pauperes Christi</i>. To follow Christ was to adopt the life of
+&ldquo;evangelical poverty,&rdquo; and this was to live among the poor the
+life of a poor man. The follower was to work with his hands (as
+the poor clergy of the early church had done and the clergy of
+the early English church were exhorted to do); he was to receive
+no money; he was to earn the actual necessaries of life, though
+what he could not earn he might beg. To ask for this was a right,
+so long as he was bringing a better life into the world. All in
+excess of this he gave to the poor. He would possess no property,
+buildings or endowments, nor was his order to do so. The fulness
+of his life was in the complete realization of it now, without the
+cares of property and without any fear of the future. Having a
+definite aim and mission, he was ready to accept the want that
+might come upon him, and his life was a discipline to enable him
+to suffer it if it came. To him humility was the soul making
+itself fit to love; and poverty was humility expanded from a
+mood to a life, a life not guarded by seclusion, but spent amongst
+those who were actually poor. The object of life was to console
+the poor&mdash;those outside all monasteries and institutions&mdash;the
+poor as they lived and worked. The movement was practically
+a lay movement, and its force consisted in its simplicity and
+directness. Book learning was disparaged: life was to be the
+teacher. The brothers thus became observant and practical,
+and afterwards indeed learned, and their learning had the same
+characteristics. Their power lay in their practical sagacity,
+in their treatment of life, outside the cloister and the hospital,
+at first hand. They knew the people because they settled
+amongst them, living just as they did. This was their method
+of charity.</p>
+
+<p>The inspiration that drew St Francis to this method was
+the contemplation of the life of Christ. But it was more than
+this. The Christ was to him, as to St Bernard, an ideal, whose
+nature passed into that of the contemplating and adoring
+beholder, so that, as he said, &ldquo;having lost its individuality, of
+itself the creature could no longer act.&rdquo; He had no impulse
+but the Christ impulse. He was changed. His identity was
+merged in that of Christ. And with this came the conception of a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page876" id="page876"></a>876</span>
+gracious and finely ordered charity, moving like the natural
+world in a constant harmonious development towards a definite
+end. The mysticism was intense, but it was practical because it
+was intense. In that lay the strength of the movement of the
+true Franciscans, and in those orders that, whether called
+heretical or not, followed them&mdash;Lollards and others. Religion
+thus became a personal and original possession. It became
+individual. It was inspired by a social endeavour, and for the
+world at large it made of charity a new thing.</p>
+
+<p>St Thomas Aquinas took up St Bernard&rsquo;s position. Renunciation
+of property, voluntary poverty, was in his view
+also a necessary means of reaching the perfect life; and the
+feeling that was akin to this renunciation and prompted it was
+charity. &ldquo;All perfection of the Christian life was to be attained
+according to charity,&rdquo; and charity united us to God.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the system elaborated by St Thomas Aquinas two lines of
+thought are wrought into a kind of harmony. The one stands
+for Aristotle and nature, the other for Christian tradition and
+theology. We have thus a duplicate theory of thought and action
+throughout, both rational and theologic virtues, and a duplicate
+beatitude or state of happiness correspondent to each. On the one
+hand it is argued that the good act is an act which, in relation to
+its object, wholly serves its purpose; and thus the measure of goodness
+(<i>Prima Secundae Summae Theolog. Q.</i> xviii. 2) is the proportion
+between action and effect. On the other hand, the act has to satisfy
+the twofold law, human reason and eternal reason. From the point
+of view of the former the cardinal factor is desire, which, made proportionate
+to an end, is love (<i>amor</i>); and, seeking the good of others,
+it loses its quality of concupiscence and becomes friendly love (<i>amor
+amicitiae</i>). But this rational love (<i>amor</i>) and charity (<i>caritas</i>), the
+theologic virtue, may meet. All virtue or goodness is a degree of
+love (<i>amor</i>), if by virtue we mean the cardinal virtues and refer to the
+rule of reason only. But there are also theologic virtues, which
+are on one side &ldquo;essential,&rdquo; on the other side participative. As
+wood ignited participates in the natural fire, so does the individual
+in these virtues (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> lxii. l). Charity is a kind of friendship
+towards God. It is received <i>per infusionem spiritus sancti</i>, and is
+the chief and root of the theologic virtues of faith and hope, and on
+it the rational virtues depend. They are not degrees of charity as
+they are of (<i>amor</i>) love, but charity gives purpose, order and quality
+to them all. In this sense the word is applied to the rational virtues&mdash;as,
+for instance, beneficence. The counterpart of charity in social
+life is pity (<i>misericordia</i>), the compassion that moves us to supply
+another&rsquo;s want (<i>summa religionis Christianae in misericordia consistit
+quantum ad exteriora opera</i>). It is, however, an emotion, not a virtue,
+and must be regulated like any other emotion (... <i>passio est et
+non virtus. Hic autem motus potest esse secundum rationem regulatus</i>,
+II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxx. 3). Thus we pass to alms, which are the instrument of
+pity&mdash;an act of charity done through the intervention of pity. The
+act is not done in order to purchase spiritual good by a corporal
+means, but to merit a spiritual good (<i>per effectum caritatis</i>) through
+being in a state of charity; and from that point of view its effect
+is tested by the recipient being moved to pray for his benefactor.
+The claim of others on our beneficence is relative, according to
+consanguinity and other bonds (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxxi. 3), subject to the
+condition that the common good of many is a holier obligation
+(<i>divinius</i>) than that of one. Obedience and obligation to parents
+may be crossed by other obligations, as, for instance, duty to the
+church. To give alms is a command. Alms should consist of the
+superfluous&mdash;that is, of all that the individual possesses after he has
+reserved what is necessary. What is necessary the donor should
+fix in due relation to the claims of his family and dependants, his
+position in life (<i>dignitas</i>), and the sustenance of his body. On the
+other hand, his gift should meet the actual necessities of the recipient
+and no more. More than this will lead to excess on the recipient&rsquo;s
+part (<i>ut inde luxurietur</i>) or to want of spirit and apathy (<i>ut aliis
+remissio et refrigerium sit</i>), though allowance must be made for
+different requirements in different conditions of life. It were better
+to distribute alms to many persons than to give more than is necessary
+to one. In individual cases there remains the further question
+of correction&mdash;the removing of some evil or sin from another; and
+this, too, is an act of charity.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that though St Thomas bases his argument on a
+duplicate theory of thought, action and happiness, part natural,
+part theologic, and states fully the conditions of good action, he
+does not bring the two into unison. Logically the argument should
+follow that alms that fail in social benefit (produce <i>remissionem et
+refrigerium</i>, for instance) fail also in spiritual good, for the two cannot
+be inconsistent. But in regard to the former he does not press the
+importance of purpose, and, in spite of his Aristotle, he misses the
+point on which Aristotle, as a close observer of social conditions,
+insists, that gifts without purpose and reciprocity foster the dependence
+they are designed to meet. The proverb of the &ldquo;pierced cask&rdquo;
+is as applicable to ecclesiastical as to political almsgiving, as has
+often been proved by the event. The distribution of all &ldquo;superfluous&rdquo;
+income in the form of alms would have the effect of a huge
+endowment, and would stereotype &ldquo;the poor&rdquo; as a permanent and
+unprogressive class. The proposal suggests that St Thomas contemplated
+the adoption of a method of relief which would be like
+a voluntary poor-law; and it is noteworthy that his phrase &ldquo;necessary
+relief&rdquo; forms the defining words of the Elizabethan poor-law,
+while he also lays stress on the importance of &ldquo;correction,&rdquo; which,
+on the decline and disappearance of the penitential system, assumed
+at the Reformation a prominent position in administration in relation
+not only to &ldquo;sin,&rdquo; but also to offences against society, such as
+idleness, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On this foundation was built up the classification of acts of
+charity, which in one shape or another has a long social tradition,
+and which St Thomas quotes in an elaborated form&mdash;the seven
+spiritual acts (<i>consule</i>, <i>carpe</i>, <i>doce</i>, <i>solare</i>, <i>remitte</i>, <i>fer</i>, <i>ora</i>),
+counsel, sustain, teach, console, save, pardon, pray; and the
+seven corporal (<i>vestio</i>, <i>poto</i>, <i>cibo</i>, <i>redimo</i>, <i>tego</i>, <i>colligo</i>, <i>condo</i>)
+I clothe, I give drink to, I feed, I free from prison, I shelter,
+I assist in sickness, I bury (II. II.<span class="sp">ae</span> xxxii. 2). These in subsequent
+thought became &ldquo;good works,&rdquo; and availed for the
+after-life, bringing with them definite boons. Thus charity
+was linked to the system of indulgences. The bias of the act
+of charity is made to favour the actor. Primarily the benefit
+reverts to him. He becomes conscious of an ultimate reward
+accruing to himself. The simplicity of the deed, the spontaneity
+from which, as in a well-practised art, its freshness springs and
+its good effects result, is falsified at the outset. The thought
+that should be wholly concerned in the fulfilment of a definite
+purpose is diverted from it. The deed itself, apart from the
+outcome of the deed, is highly considered. An extreme inducement
+is placed on giving, counselling, and the like, but none on
+the personal or social utility of the gift or counsel. Yet the
+value of these lies in their end. No policy or science of charity
+can grow out of such a system. It can produce innumerable
+isolated acts, which may or may not be beneficent, but it cannot
+enkindle the &ldquo;ordered charity.&rdquo; This charity is, strictly speaking,
+by its very nature alike intellectual and emotional. Otherwise
+it would inevitably fail of its purpose, for though emotion
+might stimulate it, intelligence would not guide it.</p>
+
+<p>There are, then, these three lines of thought. That of St
+Bernard, who invigorated the monastic movement, and helped
+to make the monastery or hospital the centre of charitable
+relief. That of St Francis, who, passing by regular and secular
+clergy alike, revived and reinvigorated the conception of charity
+and gave it once more the reality of a social force, knowing that
+it would find a freer scope and larger usefulness in the life of the
+people than in the religious aristocracy of monasteries. And
+that of St Thomas Aquinas, who, analysing the problem of
+charity and almsgiving, and associating it with definite groups
+of works, led to its taking, in the common thought, certain
+stereotyped forms, so that its social aim and purpose were
+ignored and its power for good was neutralized.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to turn to the conditions of social life in
+which these thoughts fermented and took practical shape. The
+population of England from the Conquest to the
+14th century is estimated at between 1½ and 2½
+<span class="sidenote">Charity and social conditions in England.</span>
+millions. London, it is believed, had a population
+of about 40,000. Other towns were small. Two or
+three of the larger had 4000 or 5000 inhabitants. The
+only substantial building in a village, apart perhaps from the
+manor-house, was the church, used for many secular as well
+as religious purposes. In the towns the mud or wood-paved huts
+sheltered a people who, accepting a common poverty, traded
+in little more than the necessaries of life (Green, <i>Town Life in
+the 15th Century</i>, i. 13). The population was stationary. Famine
+and pestilence were of frequent occurrence (Creighton, <i>Epidemics
+in Britain</i>, p. 19), and for the careless there was waste at harvest-time
+and want in winter. Hunger was the drill-sergeant of
+society. Owing to the hardship and penury of life infant mortality
+was probably very great (Blashill, <i>Sutton in Holdernesse</i>,
+p. 123). The 15th century was, however, &ldquo;the golden age of
+the labourer.&rdquo; Our problem is to ascertain what was the service
+of charity to this people till the end of that century. In order
+to estimate this we have to apply tests similar to those we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page877" id="page877"></a>877</span>
+applied before to Greece and Rome and the pre-medieval
+church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Family.</i>&mdash;Largely Germanic in its origin, we may perhaps
+set down as elemental in the English race what Tacitus said of the
+Germans. They had the home virtues. They had a high regard
+for chastity, and respected and enforced the family tie. The wife
+was honoured. The men were poor, but when the actual pressure
+of their work&mdash;fighting&mdash;was removed, idle. They were born
+gamblers. Much toil fell upon the wife; but slavery was rather a
+form of tenure than a Roman bondage. As elsewhere, there was in
+England &ldquo;the joint family or household&rdquo; (Pollock and Maitland,
+<i>English Law before Edward I.</i> i. 31). Each member of the community
+was, or should be, under some lord; for the lordless man
+was, like the wanderer in Homer, who belonged to no phratry,
+suspected and dangerous, and his kinsfolk might be required to find
+a lord for him. There was personal servitude, but it was not of one
+complexion; there were grades amongst the unfree, and the general
+advance to freedom was continuous. By the 9th century the larger
+amount of the slavery was bondage by tenure. In the reign of
+Edward I., though &ldquo;the larger half of the rural population was
+unfree,&rdquo; yet the serf, notwithstanding the fact that he was his lord&rsquo;s
+chattel, was free against all save his lord. A century later (1381)
+villenage&mdash;that is payment for tenancy by service, instead of by
+quit-rent&mdash;was practically extinguished. So steady was the progress
+towards the freedom and self-maintenance of the individual and his
+family.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Manor.</i>&mdash;In social importance, next to the family, comes
+the manor, the organization of which affected charity greatly on
+one side. It was &ldquo;an economic unit,&rdquo; the estate of a lord on which
+there were associated the lord with his demesne, tenants free of
+service, and villeins and others, tenants by service. All had the use
+of land, even the serf. The estate was regulated by a manor court,
+consisting of the lord of the manor or his representative, and the free
+tenants, and entrusted with wide quasi-domestic jurisdiction. The
+value of the estate depended on the labour available for its cultivation,
+and the cultivators were the unfree tenants. Hence the lord, through
+the manor-court, required an indemnity or fine if a child, for instance,
+left the manor; and similarly, if a villein died, his widow might have
+to remarry or pay a fine. Thus the lord reacquired a servant and
+the widow and her family were maintained. The courts, too, fixed
+prices, and thus in local and limited conditions of supply and demand
+were able to equalize them in a measure and neutralize some of the
+effects of scarcity. In this way, till the reign of Edward I., and, where
+the manor courts remained active, till much later, a self-supporting
+social organization made any systematic public or charitable relief
+unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Parish and the Tithe.</i>&mdash;The conversion of England in the
+7th century was effected by bishops, accompanied by itinerant
+priests, who made use of conventual houses as the centres of their
+work. The parochial system was not firmly established till the
+10th century (970). Then, by a law of Edgar, a man who had a
+church on his own land was allowed to pay a third of his tithe to his
+own church, instead of giving the whole of it to the minister or
+conventual church. Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury (667), had
+introduced the Carolingian system into England; and, accordingly,
+the parish priest was required to provide for strangers and to keep
+a room in his house for them. Of the tithe, a third and not a fourth
+was to go to the poor with any surplus; and in order to have larger
+means of helping them, the priests were urged to work themselves,
+according to the ancient canons of the church (cf. Labbeus, IV.
+Conc. Carthag. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 398). The importance of the tithe to the poor
+is shown by acts of Richard II. and Henry IV., by which it was
+enacted that, if parochial tithes were appropriated to a monastery,
+a portion of them should be assigned to the poor of the parish. At
+a very early date (1287) quasi-compulsory charges in the nature of
+a rate were imposed on parishioners for various church purposes
+(Pollock and Maitland, i. 604), though in the 14th and 15th centuries
+a compulsory church rate was seldom made. Collections were made
+by paid collectors, especially for Hock-tide (<i>q.v.</i>) money&mdash;gathered for
+church purposes (Brand&rsquo;s <i>Antiquities</i>, p. 112). But there must have
+been many varieties in practice. In Somersetshire the churchwardens&rsquo;
+accounts (1349 to 1560) show that the parish contributed
+nothing to the relief of the poor, and it seems probable that the
+personal charities of the parishioners, and the charities of the gild
+fellowships and of the parsonage house sufficed (Bishop Hobhouse,
+<i>Churchwardens&rsquo; Accounts, 1349-1560</i>, Somerset Record Society).
+Many parishes possessed land, houses and cattle, and received gifts
+and legacies of all kinds. The proceeds of this property, if given
+for the use of the parish generally, might, if necessary, be available
+for the relief of the poor, but, if given definitely for their use, would
+provide doles, or stock cattle or &ldquo;poor&rsquo;s&rdquo; lands, &amp;c. (Cf. Augustus
+Jessopp, <i>Before the Great Pillage</i>, p. 40; and many instances in the
+reports of the Charity Commissioners, 1818-1835.) Of the endowments
+for parish doles very many may have disappeared in the break-up
+of the 16th century. There were also &ldquo;Parish Ales,&rdquo; the proceeds
+of which would be used for parish purposes or for relief. Further,
+all the greater festivals were days of feasting and the distribution
+of food; at funerals also there were often large distributions, and
+also at marriages. The faithful generally, subject to penance, were
+required to relieve the poor and the stranger. In the larger part of
+England the parish and the vill were usually coterminous. In the
+north a parish contained several vills. There were thus side by side
+the charitable relief system of the parish, which at an early date
+became a rating area, and the self-supporting system of the manor.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Monasteries.</i>&mdash;As Christianity spread monasteries spread,
+and each monastery was a centre of relief. Sometimes they were
+established, like St Albans (796), for a hundred Benedictine monks
+and for the entertainment of strangers; or sometimes without any
+such special purpose, like the abbey of Croyland (reorganized 946),
+which, becoming exceeding rich from its <i>diversorium pauperum</i>,
+or almonry, &ldquo;relieved the whole country round so that prodigious
+numbers resorted to it.&rdquo; At Glastonbury, for instance (1537),
+£140 16s. 8d. was given away in doles. But documents seem to
+prove (Denton, <i>England in Fifteenth Century</i>, p. 245) that the
+relief generally given by monasteries was much less than is usually
+supposed.</p>
+
+<p>The general system may be described (cf. Rule, <i>St Dunst. Cant.
+Archp.</i> p. 42, Dugdale; J.B. Clark, <i>The Observances</i>, Augustinian
+Priory, Barnwell; Abbot Gasquet, <i>English Monastic Life</i>). The
+almonry was usually near the church of the monastery. An almoner
+was in charge. He was to be prudent and discreet in the distribution
+of his doles (<i>portiones</i>) and to relieve travellers, palmers, chaplains
+and mendicants (<i>mendicantes</i>, apparently the beggars recognized
+as living by begging, such as we have noted under other social conditions),
+and the leprous more liberally than others. The old and
+infirm, lame and blind who were confined to their beds he was to
+visit and relieve suitably (<i>in competenti annona</i>). The importunity
+of the poor he was to put up with, and to meet their need as far as
+he could. In the almonry there were usually rooms for the sick.
+The sick outside the precincts were relieved at the almoner&rsquo;s discretion.
+Continuous relief might be given after consultation with
+the superior. All the remnants of meals and the old clothes of the
+monks were given to the almoner for distribution, and at Christmas
+he had a store of stockings and other articles to give away as
+presents to widows, orphans and poor clerks. He also provided
+the Maundy gifts and selected the poor for the washing of feet.
+He was thus a local visitor and alms distributor, not merely at the
+gate of the monastery but in the neighbourhood, and had also at
+his disposal &ldquo;indoor&rdquo; relief for the sick. Separate from the rest
+the house there was also a dormitory and rooms and the kitchen
+for strangers. A <i>hospitularius</i> attended to their needs and novices
+waited on them. Guests who were laymen might stay on, working
+in return for board and lodging (Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dict. Christian Antiq.</i>,
+&ldquo;Benedictine&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>The monasteries often established hospitals; they served also as
+schools for the gentry and for the poor; and they were pioneers of
+agriculture. In the 12th century, in which many monastic orders
+were constituted, there were many lavish endowments. In the 14th
+century their usefulness had begun to wane. At the end of that
+century the larger estates were generally held in entail, with the
+result that younger sons were put into religious houses. This
+worldliness had its natural consequences. In the 15th century,
+owing to mismanagement, waste, and subsequently to the decline
+of rural prosperity, their resources were greatly crippled. In their
+relation to charity one or two points may be noted: (1) Of the small
+population of England the professed monks and nuns with the parish
+priests (Rogers, <i>Hist. Agric. and Prices</i>, i. 58) numbered at least
+30,000 or 40,000. This number of celibates was a standing protest
+against the moral sufficiency of the family life. On the other hand,
+amongst them were the brothers and sisters who visited the poor
+and nursed the sick in hospitals; and many who now succumb
+physically or mentally to the pressure of life, and are cared for in
+institutions, may then have found maintenance and a retreat in
+the monasteries. (2) Bound together by no common controlling
+organization, the monasteries were but so many miscellaneous
+centres of relief, chiefly casual relief. They were mostly &ldquo;magnificent
+hostelries.&rdquo; (3) They stood outside the parish, and they
+weakened its organization and hampered its development.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hospitals.</i>&mdash;The revival of piety in the 11th century led to
+a large increase in the number of hospitals and hospital orders.
+To show how far they covered the field in England two instances
+may be quoted. At Canterbury (Creighton, <i>Epidemics</i>, p. 87) there
+were four for different purposes, two endowed by Lanfranc (1084),
+one for poor, infirm, lame and blind men and women, and one outside
+the town for lepers. These hospitals were put under the charge
+of a priory, and endowed out of tithes payable to the secular clergy.
+Later (Henry II.), a hospital for leprous sisters was established,
+and afterwards a hospital for leprous monks and poor relations of
+the monks of St Augustine&rsquo;s. In a less populous parish, Luton
+(Cobbe, <i>Luton Church</i>), there were a hospital for the poor, an almshouse,
+and two hospitals, one for the sick and one for the leprous.
+The word &ldquo;leper,&rdquo; it is evident, was used very loosely, and was
+applied to many diseases other than leprosy. There were hospitals
+for the infirm and the leprous; the disease was not considered
+contagious. The hospital in its modern sense was but slowly created.
+Thus St Bartholomew&rsquo;s in London was founded (1123) for a master,
+brethren and sisters, and for the entertainment of poor diseased
+persons till they got well; of distressed women big with child till
+they were able to go abroad; and for the maintenance, until the age
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page878" id="page878"></a>878</span>
+of seven, of all such children whose mothers died in the house.
+St Thomas&rsquo;s (rebuilt 1228) had a master and brethren and three lay
+sisters, and 40 beds for poor, infirm and impotent people, who
+had also victual and firing. There were hospitals for many special
+purposes&mdash;as for the blind, for instance. There were also many
+hospital orders in England and on the continent. They sprang up
+beside the monastic orders, and for a time were very popular:
+brothers and sisters of the Holy Ghost (1198), sisters of St Elizabeth
+(1207-1231), Beguines and Beghards (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beguines</a></span>), knights of St
+John and others.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mendicant Orders.</i>&mdash;The Franciscans tended the sick and
+poor in the slums of the towns with great devotion&mdash;indeed, the
+whole movement tells of a splendid self-abandonment and an
+intensity of effort in the early spring of its enthusiasm, and with
+the aid of reform councils and reformations it lengthened out its
+usefulness for two centuries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As in the pre-medieval church, the system of relief is that
+of charitable endowments&mdash;a marked contrast to
+<span class="sidenote">Medieval endowed charities.</span>
+the modern method of voluntary associations or
+rate-supported institutions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) <i>The Church as Legatee.</i>&mdash;The church building among the
+Teutonic races was not held by the bishop as part of what was
+originally the charitable property of the church. It was assigned
+to the patron saint of the church by the donor, who retained the
+right of administration, of which his own patronage or right of
+presentation is a relic. Subsequently, with the study of Roman
+law, the conception of the church as a <i>persona ficta</i> prevailed; and
+till the larger growth of the gilds and corporations it was the only
+general legatee for charitable gifts. As these arise a large number
+of charitable trusts are created and held by lay corporations; and
+&ldquo;alms&rdquo; include gifts for social as well as religious or eleemosynary
+purposes. (2) <i>Freedom from Taxation and Service.</i>&mdash;Gifts to the
+church for charitable or other purposes were made in free, pure and
+perpetual alms (&ldquo;<i>ad tenendum in puram et perpetuam eleemosynam
+sine omni temporali servicio et consuetudine</i>&rdquo;). Land held under this
+<i>frankalmoigne</i> was given &ldquo;in perpetual alms,&rdquo; therefore the donor
+could not retract it; in free alms, therefore he could exact no services
+in regard to it; and in pure alms as being free from secular
+jurisdiction (cf. Pollock and Maitland). (3) <i>Alienation and
+Mortmain.</i>&mdash;To prevent alienation of property to religious houses, with
+the consequent loss of service to the superior or chief lords, a licence
+from the chief lord was required to legalize the alienation (Magna
+Carta, and Edw. I., <i>De viris religiosis</i>). Other statutes (Edw. I.
+and Rich. II.) enacted that this licence should be issued out of
+chancery after investigation; and the principle was applied to
+civil corporations. The necessity of this licence was one lay check
+on injurious alienation. (4) <i>Irresponsible Administration.</i>&mdash;Until
+after the 13th century, when the lay courts had asserted their
+right to settle disputes as to lands held in alms, the administration
+of charity was from the lay point of view entirely irresponsible.
+It was outside the secular jurisdiction; and civilly the professed
+clergy, who were the administrators, were &ldquo;dead.&rdquo; They could
+not sue or be sued except through their sovereign&mdash;their chief, the
+abbot. They formed a large body of non-civic inhabitants free from
+the pressure and the responsibilities of civil life.
+(5) <i>Control</i>.&mdash;Apart
+from the control of the abbot, prior, master or other head, the
+bishop was visitor, or, as we should say, inspector; and abuses
+might be remedied by the visit of the bishop or his ordinary. The
+bishop&rsquo;s ordinary (2 Henry V. i. 1) was the recognized visitor of all
+hospitals apart from the founder. The founder and his family
+retained a right of intervention. Sometimes thus an institution
+was reorganized, or even dissolved, the property reverting to the
+founder (Dugdale, <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>, vi. 2. 715).
+(6) <i>Cy-près.</i>&mdash;Charities
+were, especially after Henry V.&rsquo;s reign, appropriated to
+other uses, either because their original purpose failed or because
+some new object had become important. Thus, for instance, a
+college or hospital for lepers (1363) is re-established by the founder&rsquo;s
+family with a master and priest, <i>quod nulli leprosi reperiebantur</i>;
+and a similar hospital founded in Henry I.&rsquo;s time near Oxford has
+decayed, and is given by Edward III. to Oriel College, Oxford, to
+maintain a chaplain and poor brethren. Thus, apart from alienation
+pure and simple, the principle of adaptation to new uses was put in
+force at an early date, and supplied many precedents to Wolsey,
+Edward VI. and the post-Reformation bishops. The system of
+endowments was indeed far more adaptable than it would at first
+sight seem to have been. (7) <i>The Sources of Income.</i>&mdash;The hospitals
+were chiefly supported by rents or the produce of land; or, if
+attached to monasteries, out of the tithe of their monastic lands or
+other sources of revenue, or out of the appropriated tithes of the
+secular clergy; or they might be in part maintained by collections
+made, for instance, by a commissioner duly authorized by a formal
+attested document, in which were recounted the indulgences by
+popes, archbishops and bishops to those who became its benefactors
+(Cobbe, p. 75); or, in the case of leper hospitals, by a leper with a
+&ldquo;clapdish,&rdquo; who begged in the markets; or by a proctor, in the
+case of more important institutions in towns, who &ldquo;came with his
+box one day in every month to the churches and other religious
+houses, at times of service, and there received the voluntary gifts
+of the congregation&rdquo;; or they might receive inmates on payment,
+and thus apparently a frequent abuse, decayed servants of the court
+and others, were &ldquo;farmed out.&rdquo; (8) <i>Mode of Admission.</i>&mdash;The
+admission was usually, no doubt, regulated by the prior or master.
+At York, at the hospital of St Nicholas for the leprous, the conditions
+of admission were: promise or vow of continence, participation in
+prayer, the abandonment of all business, the inmate&rsquo;s property at
+death to go to the house. This may serve as an example. The
+master was usually one of the regular clergy. (9) <i>Decline of the
+Hospitals.</i>&mdash;It is said that, in addition to 645 monasteries and
+90 &ldquo;colleges&rdquo; and many chantries, Henry VIII. suppressed 110
+hospitals (Speed&rsquo;s <i>Chronicle</i>, p. 778). The numbers seem small.
+In the economic decline at the end of the 15th and beginning of the
+16th centuries many hospitals may have lapsed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the 15th century the towns grew in importance. First the
+wool trade and then the cloth trade flourished, and the English
+developed a large shipping trade. The towns grew up
+like &ldquo;little principalities&rdquo;; and for the advancement
+<span class="sidenote">Gild and municipal charities.</span>
+of trade, gilds, consisting alike of masters and workmen,
+were formed, which endeavoured to regulate and then
+to monopolize the market. By degrees the corporations of the
+towns were worked in their interests, and the whole commercial
+system became restrictive and inadaptable. Meanwhile the
+towns attracted newcomers; freedom from feudal obligations
+was gained with comparative ease; and a new <i>plebs</i> was congregating,
+a population of inhabitants not qualified as burghers
+or gild members, women, sons living with their fathers, menial
+servants and apprentices. There was thus an increasing restriction
+imposed on trade, coupled with a growing <i>plebs</i>. Naturally,
+then, lay charities sprang up for members of gilds, and for
+burghers and for the commonalty. Men left estates to their gilds
+to maintain decayed members in hospitals, almshouses or otherwise,
+to educate their children, portion their daughters, and to
+assist their widows. The middle-class trader was thus in great
+measure insured against the risks of life. The gilds were one
+sign of the new temper and wants of burghers freed from feudalism.
+Another sign was a new standard of manners. Rules and
+saws, Hesiodic in their tone, became popular&mdash;in regard, for
+instance, to such a question as &ldquo;how to enable a man to live
+on his means, and to keep himself and those belonging to him.&rdquo;
+The boroughs established other charities also, hospitals and almshouses
+for the people, a movement which, like that of the gilds,
+began very early&mdash;in Italy as early as the 9th century. They
+sometimes gave outdoor relief also to registered poor (Green i. 41),
+and they had in large towns courts of orphans presided over by
+the mayor and aldermen, thus taking over a duty that previously
+had been one of conspicuous importance in the church. As early
+as 1257 in Westphalian towns there was a rough-and-ready
+system of Easter relief of the poor; and in Frankfort in 1437
+there was a town council of almoners with a systematic programme
+of relief (Ratzinger, p. 352). Thus at the close of the
+middle ages the towns were gradually assuming what had been
+charitable functions of the church.</p>
+
+<p>While a new freedom was being attained by the labourer in
+the country and the burgher in the town, the difficulty of obtaining
+a sufficient supply of labour for agriculture must
+have been constant, especially at every visitation of
+<span class="sidenote">Statutory wage control.</span>
+plague and famine. In accordance with a general
+policy of state regulation which was to control and
+supervise industry, agriculture and poor relief and to repress
+vagrancy by gaols and houses of correction, the state stepped
+in as arbiter and organizer. By Statutes of Labourers beginning
+in 1351 (25 Edw. III. 135), it aimed at enforcing a settled wage
+and restraining migration. From 1351 it endeavoured to suppress
+mendicity, and in part to systematize it in the interest of infirm
+and aged mendicants. Each series of enactments is the natural
+complement of the other. In the main their signification, from
+the point of view of charity, lies in the fact that they represent
+a persistent endeavour to prevent social unsettlement and in
+part the distress which unsettlement causes, and which vagrancy
+in some measure indicates, by keeping the people within the
+ranks of recognized dependence, the settled industry of the
+crafts and of agriculture, or forcing them back into it by fear
+of the gaol or the stocks. The extreme point of this policy was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page879" id="page879"></a>879</span>
+reached when by the laws of Edward VI. and Elizabeth the
+&ldquo;rogue, vagabond or sturdy beggar&rdquo; was branded with an <b>R</b>
+on the shoulder and handed over as a bondman for a period to any
+one who would take him. On the other hand, it was desired
+that relief should be a means of preventing migration. In any
+time of general pressure there is a desire to organize mendicity,
+to prevent the wandering of beggars, to create a kind of settled
+poor, distinguished from the rest as infirm and not able-bodied,
+and to keep these at least at home sufficiently supported by local
+and parochial relief; and this, in its simpler form all the world
+over, has in the past been by response to public begging. The
+argument may be summed up thus: We cannot have begging,
+which implies that the beggar is cared for by no one, belongs
+to no one, and therefore throws himself on the world at large.
+Therefore, if he is able-bodied he must be punished as unsocial,
+for it is his fault that he belongs to no one; or we must make
+him some one&rsquo;s dependant, and so keep him; or if he is infirm,
+and therefore of no service to any one&mdash;if no one will keep him&mdash;we
+must organize his mendicity, for such mendicity is justified.
+If he cannot dig for the man to whom he does or should belong,
+he must beg. Then out of the failure to organize mendicity&mdash;for
+relief of itself is no remedy, least of all casual relief&mdash;a
+poor-law springs up, which, afterwards associated with the
+provision of employment, will, it is hoped, make relief in some
+measure remedial by increasing its quantity by means of compulsory
+levies. This argument, which combined statutory wage
+control and statutory poor relief, seems to have been firmly
+bedded in the English legislative mind for more than two centuries,
+from 1351 till after 1600; and until 1834 these two series of laws
+effectually reduced the English labourer to a new industrial
+dependence. To people imbued with ideas of feudalism the way
+of escape from villenage seemed to be not independence, but
+a new reversion to it.</p>
+
+<p>Many elements produced the social and economic catastrophe
+of the 16th century, for the condition into which the country
+fell can hardly be considered less than a catastrophe.
+With the growing independence of the people there was
+<span class="sidenote">The decadence.</span>
+created after the 13th century an unsettled &ldquo;masterless&rdquo;
+class, a residue of failure resulting from social changes,
+which was large and important enough to call for legislation.
+In the 15th century, &ldquo;the golden age of the English labourer,&rdquo;
+the towns increased and flourished. Both town and country did
+well. At the end of the century came the decadence. The
+measure of the strain, when perhaps it had reached its lowest
+level, is indicated by the following comparison: &ldquo;The cost of
+a peasant&rsquo;s family of four in the early part of the 14th century
+was £3:4:9; after 1540 it was £8&rdquo; (Rogers, <i>Hist, of Agric. and
+Prices</i>, iv. 756).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The cause of this has now been fairly investigated. The value
+of land in the 13th century generally depended chiefly on &ldquo;the
+head of labour&rdquo; retained upon it. Its fertility depended on mainoeuvre
+(manure). To keep labour upon it was therefore the aim
+of the lord or owner. The enclosing of lands for sheep began early,
+and in the time of Edward III., in the great days of the woolstaple,
+must have been extensive. So long as the demand for the exportation
+of wool, and then for its consumption at home in the cloth trade,
+continued, the towns prospered, and the enclosures did not become
+a grievance. Even before the reign of Henry VII., with the decay
+of trade, the towns decayed, and their population in some cases
+diminished extraordinarily. This reacted on the country, where the
+great families had already become impoverished, and were hardly
+able to support their retainers. In Henry VIII.&rsquo;s time the lands of
+the religious houses were confiscated. Worked on old lines, the
+custom of tillage remained in force on them. Accordingly, when
+these estates fell into private hands they were transferred subject
+to the condition that they should be tilled as heretofore. The condition
+was evaded by the new owners, and the disbandment of farm
+labourers went on apace. In England and Wales these changes, it is
+said, affected a third of the country, more than 12,000,000 acres, if
+the estimates be correct, or rather a third of the best land in the
+kingdom. With towns decaying, the effect of this must have been
+terrible. What were really &ldquo;latifundia&rdquo; were created, &ldquo;great
+landes,&rdquo; &ldquo;enclosures of a mile or two or thereabouts ... destroying
+thereby not only the farms and cottages within the same circuits,
+but also the towns and villages adjoining.&rdquo; A herdsman and his
+wife took the place of eighteen to twenty-four farm hands. The
+people thus set wandering could only join the wanderers from the
+decaying towns. At the same time the economic difficulty was
+aggravated by a new patrician or commercial greed; and once more
+the land question&mdash;the absorption of property into a few hands
+instead of its free exchange&mdash;led to lasting social demoralization.
+A few years after the alienation of the monasteries the coinage
+(1543) was debased. By this means prices were arbitrarily raised,
+and wages were increased nominally; but nevertheless the price
+of necessaries was &ldquo;so enhanced&rdquo; that neither &ldquo;the poor labourers
+can live with their wages that is limited by your grace&rsquo;s laws, nor
+the artificers can make, much less sell, their wares at any reasonable
+price&rdquo; (Lamond, <i>The Commonweal of this Realm of England</i>, p. xlvii).
+No social reformation, such as the charitable instincts of Wycliffe,
+More, Hales, Latimer and other men suggested, was attempted, or
+at least persistently carried out. In towns the organization of labour
+had become restrictive, exclusive and inadaptable, or, judged from
+the moral standpoint, uncharitable. There had been a time of plenty
+and extravagance, of which in high quarters the famous &ldquo;field of
+the cloth of gold&rdquo; was typical; and probably, in accordance with
+the frequently observed law of social economics, as the advance in
+wages and their purchasing power in the earlier part of the 15th
+century had not been accompanied by a simultaneous advance in
+self-discipline and intelligent expenditure, it resulted in part in
+lessened competence and industrial ability on the part of the workmen,
+and thus in the end produced pauperism.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The poverty of the country was very great in the reigns of
+Edward VI. and Elizabeth. Adversity then taught the people
+new manners, and households became more simple and thrifty.
+In the reign of James I., with enforced economy and thrift, a
+&ldquo;slow but substantial improvement in agriculture&rdquo; took place,
+and a new growth of commercial enterprise. The vigour of the
+municipalities had abated, so that in Henry VIII.&rsquo;s time they
+had become the very humble servants of the government;
+and the government, on the other hand, had become strongly
+centralized&mdash;in itself a sign of the general withdrawal of self-sustaining
+activity in all administration, in the administration
+of charitable relief no less than in other departments. A system
+of endowed charities had been built up, supported chiefly by
+rents from landed property. These now had disappeared, and
+thus the means of relief, which Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth
+might have utilized at a time of general distress, had been dissipated
+by the acts of their predecessors. The civil independence
+of the monasteries and religious houses might have been justified,
+possibly, when they were engaged in missionary work and were
+instilling into the people the precepts of a higher moral law than
+that which was in force around them. But afterwards, as the
+ability and intelligence of the community increased, their privileges
+became more and more antagonistic to charity, and tended
+to create a non-social and even anti-social ecclesiastical democracy
+actuated by aims and interests in which the general good of the
+people had little or no place. There was a growing alienation
+between religious tradition and secular opinion, as Lollardism
+slowly permeated the thought of the people and led the way
+to the Reformation. While this alienation existed no national
+system of charity, civic and yet religious, could be created. But
+worse than all, the ideal of charity had been degraded. A self-regarding
+system of relief had superseded charity, and it was
+productive of nothing but alms, large or small, isolated and unmethodic,
+given with a wrong bias, and thus almost inevitably
+with evil results. Out of this could spring no vigorous co-operative
+charity. Charity&mdash;not relief&mdash;indeed seemed to have left
+the world. The larger issues were overlooked. Then the property
+of the hospitals and the gilds was wantonly confiscated, though
+the poor had already lost that share in the revenues of the church
+to which at one time they were admitted to have a just claim.
+A new beginning had to be made. The obligations of charity had
+to be revived. A new organization of charitable relief had to
+be created, and that with an empty exchequer and after a vast
+waste of charitable resources. There were signs of a new congregational
+and parochial energy, yet the task could not be
+entrusted to the religious bodies, divided and disunited as they
+were. In their stead it could be imposed only on some authority
+which represented the general community, such as municipalities;
+and in spite of the centralization of the government there seemed
+some hope of creating a system of relief in connexion with them.
+They were tried, and, very naturally, failed. In the poverty of
+the time it seemed that the poor could be relieved only by a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page880" id="page880"></a>880</span>
+compulsory rate, and the administration of statutory relief
+naturally devolved on the central government&mdash;the only vigorous
+administrative body left in the country. The government might
+indeed have adopted the alternative of letting the industrial
+difficulties of the country work themselves out, but they had
+inherited a policy of minute legislative control, and they continued
+it. Revising previous statutes, they enacted the Poor Law,
+which still remains on the statute book. It could be no remedy
+for social offences against charity and the community. But in
+part at least it was successful. It helped to conceal the failure
+to find a remedy.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Part VI.&mdash;After the Reformation</p>
+
+<p>During the Reformation, which extended, it should be understood,
+from the middle of the 14th century to the reign of James I.,
+the groundwork of the theory of charity was being
+recast. The old system and the narrow theory on which
+<span class="sidenote">The Reformation theory of charity.</span>
+it had come to depend were discredited. The recoil
+is startling. To a very large extent charitable administration
+had been in the hands of men and women who, as
+an indispensable condition to their participation in it, took
+the vows of obedience, chastity and &ldquo;wilful&rdquo; poverty. Now
+this was all entirely set aside. It was felt (see <i>Homilies on Faith
+and Good Works, &amp;c.</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1547) that socially and morally the
+method had been a failure. The vow of obedience, it was argued,
+led to a general disregard of the duties of civic and family life.
+Those who bound themselves by it were outside the state and
+did not serve it. In regard to chastity the <i>Homily</i> states the
+common opinion: &ldquo;How the profession of chastity was kept,
+it is more honesty to pass over in silence and let the world judge
+of what is well known.&rdquo; As to wilful poverty, the regulars, it
+is urged, were not poor, but rich, for they were in possession of
+much wealth. Their property, it is true, was held <i>in communi</i>,
+and not personally, but nevertheless it was practically theirs,
+and they used it for their personal enjoyment; and &ldquo;for all
+their riches they might never help father nor mother, nor others
+that were indeed very needy and poor, without the license of
+their father abbot&rdquo; or other head. This was the negative position.
+The positive was found in the doctrine of justification&mdash;the central
+point in the discussions of the time, a plant from the garden of
+St Augustine. Justification was the personal conviction of a
+lively (or living) faith, and was defined as &ldquo;a true trust and
+confidence of the mercy of God through our Lord Jesus Christ,
+and a stedfast hope of all good things to be received at His hands.&rdquo;
+Without this justification there could be no good works. They
+were the signs of a lively faith and grew out of it. Apart from
+it, what seemed to be &ldquo;good works&rdquo; were of the nature of sin,
+phantom acts productive of nothing, &ldquo;birds that were lost,
+unreal.&rdquo; So were the works of pagans and heretics. The
+relation of almsgiving to religion was thus entirely altered. The
+personal reward here or hereafter to the actor was eliminated.
+The deed was good only in the same sense in which the doer was
+good; it had in itself no merit. This was a great gain, quite
+apart from any question as to the sufficiency or insufficiency of
+the Protestant scheme of salvation. The deed, it was realized,
+was only the outcome of the doer, the expression of himself,
+what he was as a whole, neither better nor worse. Logically
+this led to the discipline of the intelligence and the emotions,
+and undoubtedly &ldquo;justification&rdquo; to very many was only consistent
+with such discipline and implied it. Thus under a new
+guise the old position of charity reasserted itself. But there were
+other differences.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The relation of charity to prayer, fasting, almsgiving and penance
+was altsred. The prayerful contemplation of the Christ was preserved
+in the mysticism of Protestantism; but it was dissociated
+from the &ldquo;historic Christ,&rdquo; from the fervent idealization of whom
+St Francis drew his inspiration and his active charitable impulse.
+The tradition did not die out, however. It remained with many,
+notably with George Herbert, of whom it made, not unlike St Francis,
+a poet as well as a practical parish priest; but the absence of it
+indicated in much post-Reformation endeavour a want, if not of
+devotion, yet of intensity of feeling which may in part account for
+the fact that sectarianism in relief has since proved itself stronger
+than charity, instead of yielding to charity as its superior and its
+organizer. Fasting was parted from prayer and almsgiving. It
+was &ldquo;a thing not of its own proper nature good as the love of father
+or mother or neighbour, but according to its end.&rdquo; Almsgiving also
+as a &ldquo;work&rdquo; disappeared and with it a whole series of inducements
+that from the standpoint of the pecuniary and material supply of
+relief had long been active. It was no wonder that the preachers
+advocated it in vain, and reproached their hearers with their diminished
+bounty to the poor; the old personal incentive had gone, and
+could only gradually be superseded by the spontaneous activity of
+personal religion very slowly wedding itself to true views of social
+duty and purpose. Penance, once so closely related to almsgiving,
+passed out of sight. Charity, the love of God and our neighbour, had
+two offices, it was said, &ldquo;to cherish good and harmless men&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;to correct and punish vice without regard to persons.&rdquo; Correction
+as a means of discipline takes the place of penance, and it becomes
+judicial, regulating and controlling church membership by the
+authority of the church, a congregation, minister or elder; or dealing
+with laziness or ill-doing through the municipality or state, in
+connexion with what now first appear, not prisons, but houses of
+correction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The religious life was to be democratic&mdash;not in religious
+bodies, but in the whole people; and in a new sense&mdash;in relation
+to family and social life&mdash;it was to be moral. That was the
+significance of the Reformation for charity.</p>
+
+<p>Consistently with this movement of religious activity towards
+a complete fulfilment of the duties of civic life, the older classical
+social theory, fostered by the Renaissance, assumed a
+new influence&mdash;the great conception of the state as a
+<span class="sidenote">The organization of municipal relief.</span>
+community bound together by charity and friendship,
+&ldquo;We be not born to ourselves,&rdquo; it was said, &ldquo;but
+partly to the use of our country, of our parents, of our
+kinsfolk, and partly of our friends and neighbours; and therefore
+all good virtues are grafted on us naturally, whose effects be
+to do good to others, when it showeth forth the image of God
+in man, whose property is ever to do good to others&rdquo; (Lamond,
+p. 14). Economic theory also changed. Instead of the medieval
+opinion of the &ldquo;theologian or social preacher,&rdquo; that &ldquo;trade
+could only be defended on the ground that honestly conducted
+it made no profit&rdquo; (Green, ii. 71), we have a recognition of the
+advantages resulting from exchange, and individual interests,
+it is argued, are not necessarily inconsistent with those of the
+state, but are, on the contrary, a source of solid good to the whole
+community.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Municipal laws for the suppression of the mendicity of the able-bodied
+and the organization of relief on behalf of the infirm were
+common in England and on the continent (Colmar, 1362; Nuremberg,
+1478; Strassburg, 1523; London, 1514). Vives (Ehrle, <i>Beitrage
+zur Geschichte und Reform der Armenpflege</i>, p. 26), a Spaniard, who
+had been at the court of Henry VIII., in a book translated into
+several languages and widely read, seems to have summed up the
+thought of the time in regard to the management of the poor.
+He divided them into three classes: those in hospitals and poor-houses,
+the public homeless beggars and the poor at home. He
+would have a census taken of the number of each class in the town,
+and information obtained as to the causes of their distress. Then
+he would establish a central organization of relief under the magistrates.
+Work was to be supplied for all, while begging was strictly
+forbidden. Non-settled poor who were able-bodied were to be sent
+to their homes. Able-bodied settled poor who knew no craft were
+to be put on some public work&mdash;the undeserving being set to hard
+labour. For others work was to be found, or they were to be assisted
+to become self-supporting. The hospitals provided with medical
+advice and necessaries were to be classified to meet the needs of the
+sick, the blind and lunatics. The poor living at home were to work
+with a view to their self-support. What they earned, if insufficient,
+might be supplemented. If a citizen found a case of distress he was
+not to help it, but to send it for inquiry to the magistrate. Children
+were to be taught. Private relief was to be obtained from the rich.
+The funds of endowed charities were to be the chief source of income;
+if more was wanted, bequests and church collections would suffice.
+The scheme was put in force in Yprès in 1524. The Sorbonne
+approved it, and similar plans were adopted in Paris and elsewhere.
+It is in outline the scheme of London municipal charity promoted
+by Edward VI., by which the poor were classified, St Bartholomew&rsquo;s
+and St Thomas&rsquo;s hospitals appropriated for the sick, Christ&rsquo;s hospital
+for the children of the poor, and Bridewell for the correction of the
+able-bodied. Less the institutional arrangements and plus the
+compulsory rate, the methods are those of the Poor Relief Act of
+Queen Elizabeth of 1601. At first the attempt had been made to
+introduce state relief in reliance on voluntary alms (1 Mary 13,
+5 Eliz. 3, 1562-1563), subject to the right of assessment if alms were
+refused. But the position was anomalous. Charity is voluntary,
+and spontaneously meets the demands of distress. Such demands
+have always a tendency to increase with the supply. Hence the very
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page881" id="page881"></a>881</span>
+limitations of charitable finance are in the nature of a safeguard.
+At most economic trouble can only be assuaged by relief, and it can
+only be met or prevented by economic and social reforms. If a
+compulsory rate be not enforced, as in Scotland and formerly in
+some parishes in England, a voluntary rate may be made in supplementation
+of the local charities. In Scotland, where the compulsory
+clauses of the Poor Relief Act of James I. were not put in force, the
+country weathered the storm without them, and the compulsory
+rate, which was extended throughout the country by the Poor Act of
+1844, came in very slowly in the 18th and 19th centuries. In
+France (1566) a similar act was passed and set aside. If a compulsory
+rate be enforced, it is inevitable that the resources of charity,
+unless kept apart from the poor-law and administered on different
+lines from it, will diminish, and at the same time, as has happened
+often in the case of endowed charities, the interest in charitable
+administration will lapse, while the charges for poor-law relief,
+drawn without much scruple from the taxation of the community,
+will mount to millions either to meet increasing demands or to provide
+more elaborate institutional accommodation. The principle
+once adopted, it was enacted (1572-1573) that the aged and infirm
+should be cared for by the overseers of the poor, a new authority;
+and in 1601 the duplicate acts were passed, that for the relief of
+the poor (43 Eliz. 2), and that for the furtherance and protection
+of endowed charities. Thus the poor were brought into the dependence
+of a legally recognized class, endowed with a claim for relief,
+on the fulfilment of which, after a time, they could without difficulty
+insist if they were so minded. The civic authority had indeed taken
+over the alms of the parish, and an <i>eleemosyna civica</i> had taken the
+place of the <i>annona civica</i>. It was a similar system under a different
+name.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A phrase of Robert Cecil&rsquo;s (1st earl of Salisbury) indicates the
+minute domestic character of the Elizabethan legislation (D&rsquo;Ewes,
+674). The question (1601) was the repeal of a statute
+of tillage. Cecil says: &ldquo;If in Edward I.&rsquo;s time a
+<span class="sidenote">Poor Relief Acts and statutory serfdom.</span>
+law was made for the maintenance of the fry of fish,
+and in Henry VII.&rsquo;s for the preservation of the eggs
+of wild fowl, shall we now throw away a law of more
+consequence and import? If we debar tillage, we give scope
+to the depopulating. And then, if the poor being thrust out of
+their houses go to dwell with others, straight we catch them
+with the statute of inmates; if they wander abroad, they are
+within the danger of the statute of the poor to be whipt. So by
+this undo this statute, and you endanger many thousands.&rdquo;
+A strong central government, a local authority appointed directly
+by the government, and a network of legislation controlled the
+whole movement of economic life. On this reliance was placed
+to meet economic difficulties. The local authorities were the
+justices of the peace; and they had to carry out the statutes
+for this purpose, to assess the wages of artisans and labourers,
+and to enforce the payment of the wages they had fixed; to
+ensure that suitable provision was made for the relief of the poor
+at the expense of rates which they also fixed; and to suppress
+vagabondage. Since 23 Edw. III. there had been labour statutes,
+and in 1563 a new statute was passed, an &ldquo;Act containing divers
+orders for Artificers, Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and
+Apprentices&rdquo; (5 Eliz. c. 4). It recognized and upheld a social
+classification. On the one hand there was the gentleman or
+owner of property to which the act was not to apply; and on
+the other the artisan and labouring class. This class in turn was
+subdivided, and the justices were to assess their wages annually
+according to &ldquo;the plenty and scarcity of the time and other
+circumstances.&rdquo; Persons between the ages of twelve and sixty,
+who were not apprentices or engaged in certain specified employments,
+were compelled to serve in husbandry by the year &ldquo;with
+any person that keepeth husbandry.&rdquo; The length of the day&rsquo;s
+work and the conditions of apprenticeship were fixed. The
+assessed rate of wages was enforceable by fine and imprisonment,
+and refusal to be apprenticed by imprisonment. Thus there
+was created a life control over labour with an industrial settlement
+and a wage fixed by the justices annually. There are
+differences of opinion in regard to the extent to which this act
+was enforced; and the evidence on the point is comparatively
+scanty. It was enforced throughout the century in which it
+was passed, and it probably continued in force generally until
+the Restoration, while subsequently it was put in operation to
+meet special emergencies, such as times of distress when some
+settlement of wages seemed desirable (cf. Rogers, v. 611;
+Hewins, <i>English Trade and Finance</i>, p. 82; Cunningham, <i>Growth
+of English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times</i>, i. 168). It
+was not repealed till 1814.</p>
+
+<p>From 1585 to 1622 there was, it is said, a slight increase in
+labourers&rsquo; wages, which fluctuated from 5s. <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d. to 5s. 8 ¼d. a
+week, with a declining standard of comfort and at times great
+distress. Then there was a marked increase of wage till 1662
+and &ldquo;a very marked improvement; the rate of increase being
+very nearly double that of the earlier periods,&rdquo; and reaching
+9s., &ldquo;as the highest weekly rate for the whole period.&rdquo; Then
+from 1662 to 1702 there was &ldquo;a slight improvement&rdquo; (Hewins,
+p. 89). It would seem indeed that the stir of the times between
+1622 and 1662 may have caused a great demand for labour.
+But with the Restoration, when the assessment system was
+falling into desuetude, came the Poor Relief Act of 1662 (13 &amp;
+14 Car. II. cap. 62), which brought in the law of settlement, and
+a settlement for relief of a very strict nature was added to the
+industrial settlement of the Artificers and Labourers Act. Thus,
+if the influence of that act, which had so long controlled labour,
+was waning, its place was now taken by an act which, though it
+had nothing to do with the assessment of wage, yet so settled the
+labourer within the bounds of his parish that he had practically
+to rely, if not upon a wage fixed by the justices, yet upon a
+customary wage limited and restricted as a result of the law of
+settlement. And the assessment by the justices, in so far as it
+may have continued, would therefore be of little or no consequence.
+Settlement also, like the Artificers and Labourers Act,
+would prevent the country labourer from passing to the towns,
+or the townsmen passing to other towns. At least they would
+do so at the risk of forfeiting their right to relief if they lost their
+settlement without acquiring a new one. Hence the industrial
+control, though under another name and other conditions,
+remained in force to a large extent in practice.</p>
+
+<p>By the Artificers and Labourers Act then, in conjunction with
+other measures, the labouring classes were finally committed to
+a new bondage, when they had freed themselves from the serfdom
+of feudalism, and when the control exercised over them by the
+gild and municipality was relaxed. The statute was so enforced
+that to earn a year&rsquo;s livelihood would have taken a labourer not
+52 weeks, but sometimes two years, or 58 weeks, or 80 weeks,
+or 72 weeks; sometimes, however, less&mdash;48 or 35. It followed
+that on such a system the country could only with the utmost
+good fortune free itself from the economic difficulties of the
+century, and that the need of a poor-law was felt the more as
+these difficulties persisted. A voluntary or a municipal system
+could not suffice, even as a palliative, while such statutes as
+these were in force to render labour immobile and unprogressive.
+Also, while wages were fixed by statute or order, whether chiefly
+in the interest of the employers or not, obviously any shortage
+on the wages had to be made good by the community. The
+community, by fixing the wages to be earned in a livelihood,
+made itself responsible for their sufficiency. And it is suggestive
+to find that in the year in which the Artificers and Labourers Act
+(1563) was passed, the act for the enforcement of assessments
+of poor-rate (5 Eliz. cap. 3) was also enacted. The Law of
+Settlement, to which we have referred, passed in the reign of
+Charles II., was due, it is said, to a migration of labourers
+southward from counties where less favourable statutory wages
+prevailed; but it was, in fact, only a corollary of the Artificers
+and Labourers Act of 1563 and the Poor Relief Act of 1601.
+These laws, it may be said, were the means of making the English
+labourer, until the poor-law reform of 1834, a settled but landless
+serf, supported by a fixed wage and a state bounty. By the poor-law
+it was possible to continue this state of things till, in consequence
+of an absolute economic breakdown, there was no
+alternative but reform.</p>
+
+<p>The philanthropic nature of the poor-law is indicated by its
+antecedents: once enacted, its bounties became a right; its
+philanthropy disappeared in a quasi-legal claim. Its object was
+to relieve the poor by home industries, apprentice children, and
+provide necessary relief to the poor unable to work. The act was
+commonly interpreted so as to include the whole of that indefinite
+class, the &ldquo;poor&rdquo;; by a better and more rigid interpretation it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page882" id="page882"></a>882</span>
+was, at least in the 19th century, held to apply only to the &ldquo;destitute,&rdquo;
+that is, to those who required &ldquo;necessary relief&rdquo;&mdash;according
+to the actual wording of the statute. The economic fallacy
+of home industries founded on rate-supplied capital early declared
+itself, and the method could only have continued as long as it did
+because it formed part of a general system of industrial control.
+When in the 18th century workhouses were established, the same
+industrial fallacy, as records show, repeated itself under new
+conditions. Within the parish it resulted in the farmer paying
+the labourer as small a wage as possible, and leaving the parish
+to provide whatever he might require in addition during his
+working life and in his old age. Thus, indeed, a gigantic experiment
+in civic employment was made for at least two centuries on
+a vast scale throughout the country&mdash;and failed. As was natural,
+the lack of economic independence reacted on the morals of
+the people. With pauperism came want of energy, idleness and
+a disregard for chastity and the obligations of marriage. The law,
+it is true, recognized the mutual obligations of parents and
+grandparents, children and grandchildren; but in the general poverty
+which it was itself a means of perpetuating such obligations
+became practically obsolete, while at all times they are difficult
+to enforce. Still, the fact that they were recognized implies a
+great advance in charitable thought. The act, passed at first
+from year to year, was very slowly put in force. Even before it
+was passed the poor-rate first assessed under the act of 1563 was
+felt to be &ldquo;a greater tax than some subsidies,&rdquo; and in the time
+of Charles II. it amounted to a third of the revenue of England
+and Wales (Rogers, v. 81).</p>
+
+<p>The service of villein and cottar was, as we have now seen, in
+part superseded by what we have called a statutory wage-control,
+founded on a basis of wage supplemented by relief, provided by a
+rate-supported poor-law. But it follows that with the decay of
+this system the poor-law itself should have disappeared, or
+should have taken some new and very limited form. Unfortunately,
+as in Roman times, state relief proved to be a popular and
+vigorous parasite that outlived the tree on which it was rooted:
+assessments of wage under the Statute of Labourers fell into
+disuse after the Restoration, it is said, and the statute was
+finally repealed in 1814, and sixty years later the act against
+illegal combinations of working men; but the serfdom of the
+poor-law, the <i>eleemosyna civica</i>, remained, to work the gravest
+evil to the labouring classes, and even after the reform of 1834
+greatly impeded the recovery of their independence. Nevertheless,
+by a new law of state alms for the aged, or by statutory
+outdoor relief with, as some would wish, a regulated wage, it is
+now proposed to bring them once again under a thraldom similar
+to that from which they have so slowly emancipated themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The policy adopted by Queen Elizabeth for the relief of the
+poor (1601) included a scheme for the reorganization of voluntary
+charity as well as plans for the extension of rate-aided
+relief. During the century, as we have seen, endeavours
+<span class="sidenote">The endowed charities.</span>
+had been made to create a system of voluntary charity.
+This it was proposed to safeguard and promote concurrently
+with the extension of the poor-rate. Accordingly, in
+the poor-law it was arranged that the overseers, the new civic
+authority, and the churchwardens, the old parochial and charitable
+authority, should act in conjunction, and, subject to magisterial
+approval, together &ldquo;raise weekly or otherwise&rdquo; the
+necessary means &ldquo;by taxation of every inhabitant.&rdquo; The old
+charitable organization was based on endowment, and the
+churchwarden was responsible for the administration of many such
+endowments. What was not available from these and other
+sources was to be raised &ldquo;by taxation.&rdquo; The object of the new
+act was to encourage charitable gifts.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the 18th century, when the administration
+of poor relief fell into confusion, many charities were lost, or were
+in danger of being lost, and many were mismanaged. In 1786
+and 1788 a committee of the House of Commons reported on the
+subject. In 1818, chiefly through the instrumentality of Lord
+Brougham, a commission of inquiry on educational charities was
+appointed, and in 1819 another commission to investigate (with
+some exceptions) all the charities for the poor in England and
+Wales. These and subsequent commissions continued their
+inquiries till 1835, when a select committee of the House of
+Commons made a strong report, advocating the establishment
+of a permanent and independent board, to inquire, to compel
+the production of accounts, to secure the safe custody of charity
+property, to adapt it to new uses on cy-près lines, &amp;c. A commission
+followed in 1849, and eventually in 1853 the first
+Charitable Trusts Act was passed, under which &ldquo;The Charity
+Commissioners of England and Wales&rdquo; were appointed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are details of importance:&mdash;(1) <i>Definition.</i>&mdash;The
+definition of the act of 1601 (Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz. 4) still holds
+good. It enumerates as charitable objects all that was once called
+&ldquo;alms&rdquo;: (a) &ldquo;The relief of aged, impotent and poor people&rdquo;&mdash;the
+normal poor; &ldquo;the maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers
+and mariners&rdquo;&mdash;the poor chiefly by reason of war, sometime a class
+of privileged mendicants; (b) education, &ldquo;schools of learning, free
+schools and scholars in universities&rdquo;; and then (c) a group of
+objects which include general civic and religious purposes, and the
+charities of gilds and corporations; &ldquo;the repair of bridges, ports,
+havens, causeways, churches, sea-banks and highways; the education
+and preferment of orphans; the relief, stock, or maintenance for
+houses of correction; marriages of poor maids, supportation, aid,
+and help of young tradesmen, handicraftsmen, and persons decayed&rdquo;;
+and there follows (d) &ldquo;the relief or redemption of prisoners
+or captives&rdquo;; and, lastly, (e) &ldquo;the aid and ease of any poor
+inhabitants concerning payment of fifteens&rdquo; (the property-tax of Tudor
+times), setting out of soldiers, and other taxes. The definition might
+be illustrated by the charitable bequests of the next 60, or indeed
+225, years. It is a fair summary of them. (2) <i>Charitable Gifts.</i>&mdash;A
+public trust and a charitable trust are, as this definition shows,
+synonymous. It is a trust which relates to public charities, and
+is not held for the benefit of private persons, <i>e.g.</i> relations, but for
+the common good, and, subject to the instructions of the founder,
+by trustees responsible to the community. Gifts for charitable
+purposes, other than those affected by the law of mortmain, have
+always been viewed with favour. &ldquo;Where a charitable bequest is
+capable of two constructions, one of which would make it void and
+the other would make it effectual, the latter will be adopted by the
+court&rdquo; (Tudor&rsquo;s <i>Charitable Trusts</i>, ed. 1906, by Bristowe, Hunt and
+Burdett, p. 167). Gifts to the poor, or widows, or orphans, indefinitely,
+or in a particular parish, were valid under the act, or for
+any purpose or institution for the aid of the &ldquo;poor.&rdquo; Thus practically
+the act covered the same field as the poor-law, though afterwards
+it was decided that, &ldquo;as a rule, persons receiving parochial
+relief were not entitled to the benefit of a charity intended for the
+poor&rdquo; (Tudor, p. 167). (3) <i>Religious Differences.</i>&mdash;In the
+administration of charities which are for the poor the broadest view is
+taken of religious differences. (4) <i>Superstitious Uses.</i>&mdash;The
+superstitious use is one that has for its object the propagation of the
+rights of a religion not tolerated by the law (Tudor, p. 4). Consequently,
+so far as charities were held or left subject to such rights, they
+were illegal, or became legal only as toleration was extended. Thus
+by degrees, since the Toleration Act of 1688, all charities to
+dissenters have become legal&mdash;that is, trusts for schools, places for
+religious instruction, education and charitable purposes generally. But
+bequests for masses for the soul of the donor, or for monastic orders,
+are still void. (5) <i>Administration.</i>&mdash;The duty of administering
+charitable trusts falls upon trustees or corporations, and under the
+term &ldquo;eleemosynary corporations&rdquo; are included endowed hospitals
+and colleges. Under schemes of the Charity Commissioners, where
+charities have been remodelled, besides trustees elected by corporations,
+there are now usually appointed <i>ex-officio</i> trustees who represent
+some office or institution of importance in connexion with the
+charity. (6) <i>Jurisdiction by Chancery and Charity Commission.</i>&mdash;The
+Court of Chancery has jurisdiction over charities, under the old
+principle that &ldquo;charities are trusts of a public nature, in regard to
+which no one is entitled by an immediate and peculiar interest to
+prefer a complaint for compelling the performance by the trustees
+of their obligations.&rdquo; The court, accordingly, represents the crown
+as <i>parens patriae</i>. Now, by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853, and
+subsequent acts, a charity commission has been formed which is
+entrusted with large powers, formerly enforced only by the Court
+of Chancery. (7) <i>Jurisdiction by Visitor.</i>&mdash;A further jurisdiction
+is by the &ldquo;visitor,&rdquo; a right inherent in the founder of any eleemosynary
+corporation, and his heirs, or those whom he appoints, or in
+their default, the king. The object of the visitor is &ldquo;to prevent all
+perverting of the charity, or to compose differences among members
+of the corporation.&rdquo; Formerly the bishop&rsquo;s ordinary was the
+recognized visitor (2 Henry V. I, 1414) of hospitals, apart from the
+founder. Subsequently his power was limited (14 Eliz. c. 5, 1572)
+to hospitals for which the founders had appointed no visitors.
+Then (1601) by the Charitable Uses Act commissions were issued
+for inquiry by county juries. Now, apart from the duty of visitors,
+inquiry is conducted by the charity commissioners and the assistant
+commissioners. By subsequent acts (see below) ecclesiastical and
+eleemosynary charities have been still further separated and defined.
+(8) <i>Advice.</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Trustees, or other persons concerned in the management
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page883" id="page883"></a>883</span>
+of a charity, may apply to the charity commissioners for their
+opinion, advice or direction; and any person acting under such
+advice is indemnified, unless he has been guilty of misrepresentation
+in obtaining it.&rdquo; (9) <i>Limitation of Charity Commissioners&rsquo; Powers,</i>&mdash;The
+commissioners cannot, however, make any order with respect
+to any charity of which the gross annual income amounts to £50 or
+upwards, except on the application (in writing) of the trustees or a
+majority of them. Their powers are thus very limited, except when
+put in motion by the trustees. If a parish is divided they can
+apportion the charities if the gross income does not exceed £20.
+(10) <i>General Powers of the Charity Commission.</i>&mdash;Subject to the
+limitation of £50, &amp;c., the charity commissioners have power (Charitable
+Trusts Act 1860) to make orders for the appointment or
+removal of trustees, or of any officer, and for the transfer, payment
+and vesting of any real or personal estate, or &ldquo;for the establishment
+of any scheme for the administration&rdquo; of the charity, (11) <i>Schemes
+and Remodelling of Charities.</i>&mdash;Under this power charities are remodelled,
+and small and miscellaneous charities put into one fund
+and applied to new purposes. The cy-près doctrine is applied, by
+which if a testator leaves directions that are only indefinite, or if the
+objects for which a charity was founded are obsolete, the charity is
+applied to some purpose, as far as possible, in accordance with
+the charitable intention of the founder. This doctrine probably
+received its widest application in the City of London Parochial
+Charities Act of 1883. Under other acts doles have been applied to
+education and to allotments. About 380 schemes are issued in the
+course of a year. (12) <i>Objects adopted in remodelling Charities.</i>&mdash;In
+the remodelling of charities for the general benefit of the poor
+some one or more of thirteen objects are usually included in the
+scheme. These are subscriptions to a medical charity, to a provident
+club or coal or clothing society, to a friendly society; for nurses, for
+annuities, for outfit for service, &amp;c.; for emigration; for recreation
+grounds, clubs, reading-rooms, museums, lectures; for temporary
+relief to a limited amount in each year; for clothes fuel, tools,
+medical aid, food, &amp;c., or in money &ldquo;in cases of unexpected loss or
+sudden destitution&rdquo;; for pensions. (13) <i>Parochial Charities.</i>&mdash;By
+the Local Government Act of 1892, local ecclesiastical charities, <i>i.e.</i>
+endowments for &ldquo;any spiritual purpose that is a legal purpose&rdquo; (for
+spiritual persons, church and other buildings, for spiritual uses, &amp;c.),
+are separated from parochial charities, &ldquo;the benefits of which are,
+or the separate distribution of the benefits of which is, confined to
+inhabitants of a single parish, or of a single ancient ecclesiastical
+parish, or not more than five neighbouring parishes.&rdquo; These
+charities, since the Local Government Act 1894, are under the
+supervision of the parish councils, who appoint trustees for their
+management in lieu of the former overseer or vestry trustees, or,
+under certain conditions, &ldquo;additional trustees.&rdquo; The accounts
+have to be submitted to the parish meeting, and the names of the
+beneficiaries of dole charities published. (14) <i>Official Trustees.</i>&mdash;There
+is also &ldquo;an official trustee of charity lands,&rdquo; who as &ldquo;bare
+trustee&rdquo; may hold the land or stock of the charity managed by
+the trustees or administrators. In 1905 the stock transferred to
+the official trustees amounted to £24,820,945. (15) <i>Audit</i>.&mdash;The
+charity commissioners have no power of audit, but the trustees
+of every charity have to prepare a statement of accounts annually,
+and transmit it to the commission. The accounts have to be &ldquo;certified
+under the hand of one or more of the trustees and by the auditor
+of the charity.&rdquo; (16) <i>Taxation</i>.&mdash;In the case of rents and profits of
+lands, &amp;c., belonging to hospitals or almshouses, or vested in trustees
+for charitable purposes, allowances are made in diminution of income-tax
+(56 Vict. 35 § 61). From the inhabited house duty any hospital
+charity school, or house provided for the reception or relief of
+poor persons, is exempted (House Tax Act 1808). Also there is an
+exemption from the land-tax in regard to land rents, &amp;c., in possession
+of hospitals before 1693. (17) <i>The Digest.</i>&mdash;A digest of
+endowed charities in England and Wales was compiled in the years
+1861 to 1876. A new digest of reports and financial particulars
+has since been completed.</p>
+
+<p>The income of endowed charities in 1876 was returned at £2,198,463.
+It is now, no doubt, considerably larger than it was in 1876. Partial
+returns show that at least a million a year is now available in England
+and Wales for the assistance of the aged poor and for doles. Between
+the poor-law, which, as it is at present administered, is a permanent
+endowment provided from the rates for the support of a class of
+permanent &ldquo;poor,&rdquo; and endowed charities, which are funds available
+for the poor of successive generations, there is no great difference.
+But in their resources and administration the difference is marked.
+Local endowed charities were constantly founded after Queen
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s time till about 1830, and the poor-rate was at first supplementary
+of the local charities. When corn and fuel were dear and
+clothes very expensive, what now seem trivial endowments for food,
+fuel, coal and clothes were important assets in the thrifty management
+of a parish. But when the poor were recognized as a class of
+dependants entitled by law to relief from the community, the rate
+increased out of all proportion to the charities. A distinction then
+made itself felt between the &ldquo;parish&rdquo; poor and the &ldquo;second&rdquo;
+poor, or the poor who were not relieved from the rates, and relief
+from the rates altogether overshadowed the charitable aid. Charitable
+endowments were ignored, ill-administered, and often were
+lost. After 1834 the poor-law was brought under the control of the
+central government. Poor relief was placed in the hands of boards
+of guardians in unions of parishes. The method of co-operation
+between poor-law and charity suggested by the acts of Queen
+Elizabeth was set aside, and, as a responsible partner in the public
+work of relief, charity was disestablished. In the parishes the
+endowed charities remained in general a disorganized medley of
+separate trusts, jealously guarded by incompetent administrators.
+To give unity to this mass of units, so long as the principles of charity
+are misunderstood or ignored, has proved an almost impossible and
+certainly an unpopular task. So far as it has been achieved, it has
+been accomplished by the piecemeal legislation of schemes cautiously
+elaborated to meet local prejudices. Active reform has been resented,
+and politicians have often accentuated this resentment. In 1894 a
+select committee was appointed to inquire whether it was desirable
+to take measures to bring the action of the Charity Commission
+more directly under the control of parliament, but no serious grievances
+were substantiated. The committees&rsquo; reports are of interest,
+however, as an indication of the initial difficulties of all charitable
+work, the general ignorance that prevails in regard to the elementary
+conditions that govern it, the common disregard of these principles,
+and the absence of any accepted theory or constructive policy that
+should regulate its development and its administration.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the Poor-Law Act of 1601 the history of the voluntary
+parochial charities in a town parish is marked by their decreasing
+amount and utility, as poor-law relief and pauperism
+increased. The act, it would seem, was not adopted
+<span class="sidenote">Charity in the parish after 1601.</span>
+with much alacrity by the local authorities. From
+1625 to 1646 there were many years of plague and
+sickness, but in St Giles&rsquo;s, London, as late as 1649, the amount
+raised by the &ldquo;collectors&rdquo; (or overseers) was only £176. They
+disbursed this to &ldquo;the visited poor&rdquo; as &ldquo;pensions.&rdquo; In 1665
+an extra levy of £600 is mentioned. In the accounts of St
+Martin&rsquo;s-in-the-Fields, where, as in St Giles&rsquo;s, gifts were received,
+the change wrought by another half-century (1714) is apparent.
+The sources of charitable relief are similar to those in all the
+Protestant churches&mdash;English, Scottish or continental: church
+collections and offertories; correctional fines, such as composition
+for bastards and conviction money for swearers; and
+besides these, income from annuities and legacies, the parish
+estate, the royal bounty, and &ldquo;petitions to persons of quality.&rdquo;
+In all £2041 was collected, but, so far as relief was concerned,
+the parish relied not on it, but on the poor-rate, which produced
+£3765. All this was collected and disbursed on their own
+authority by collectors, to orphans, &ldquo;pensioners&rdquo; or the &ldquo;known
+or standing&rdquo; poor, or to casual poor (£1818), including nurse
+children and bastards. The begging poor were numerous and
+the infant death-rate enormous, and each year three-fourths
+of those christened were &ldquo;inhumanly suffered to die by the
+barbarity of nurses.&rdquo; The whole administration was uncharitable,
+injurious to the community and the family, and inhuman
+to the child. If one may judge from later accounts of other
+parishes even up to 1834, usually it remained the same, purposeless
+and unintelligent; and it can hardly be denied that, generally
+speaking, only since the middle of the 19th century has any
+serious attention been paid to the charitable side of parochial
+work. Parallel to the parochial movement of the poor-law in
+England, in France (about 1617) were established the <i>bureaux
+de bienfaisance</i>, at first entirely voluntary institutions, then
+recognized by the state, and during the Revolution made the
+central administration for relief in the communes.</p>
+
+<p>In the 17th century in England, as in France, opinion favoured
+the establishment of large hospitals or <i>maisons Dieu</i> for the
+reception of the poor of different classes. In France
+throughout the century there was a continuous struggle
+<span class="sidenote">Charitable movements after 1601.</span>
+with mendicancy, and the hospitals were used as
+places into which offenders were summarily driven.
+A new humanity was, however, beginning its protest. The pitiful
+condition of abandoned children attracted sympathy in both
+countries. St Vincent de Paul established homes for the <i>enfants
+trouvés</i>, followed in England by the establishment of the Foundling
+hospital (1739). In both countries the method was applied
+inconsiderately and pushed to excess, and it affected family
+life most injuriously. Grants from parliament supported the
+foundling movement in England, and homes were opened in
+many parts of the country. The demand soon became overwhelming;
+the mortality was enormous, and the cost so large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page884" id="page884"></a>884</span>
+that it outstripped all financial expedients. The lesson of the
+experiment is the same as that of the poor-law catastrophe
+before 1834; only, instead of the able-bodied poor of another
+age, infants were made the object of a compassionate but
+undiscerning philanthropy. With widespread relief there came
+widespread abandonment of duty and economic bankruptcy.
+Had the poor-rates instead of charitable relief been used in the
+same way, the moral injury would have been as great, but the
+annual draft from the rates would have concealed the moral
+and postponed the economic disaster. To amend the evil, changes
+were made by which the relation between child and mother was
+kept alive, and a personal application on her part was required;
+the character of the mother and her circumstances were investigated,
+and assistance was only given when it would be &ldquo;the
+means of replacing the mother in the course of virtue and the
+way of an honest livelihood.&rdquo; General reforms were also made,
+especially through the instrumentality of Jonas Hanway, to
+check infant mortality, and metropolitan parishes were required
+to provide for their children outside London. A kindred movement
+led to the establishment of penitentiaries (1758), of lock
+hospitals and lying-in hospitals (1749-1752).</p>
+
+<p>In Queen Anne&rsquo;s reign there was a new educational movement,
+&ldquo;the charity school&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;to teach poor children the alphabet
+and the principles of religion,&rdquo; followed by the Sunday-school
+movement (1780), and about the same time (1788) by &ldquo;the
+school of industry&rdquo;&mdash;to employ children and teach them to be
+industrious. In 1844 the Ragged School Union was established,
+and until the Education Act of 1870 continued its voluntary
+educational work. As an outcome of these movements,
+through the efforts of Miss Mary Carpenter and many others,
+in 1854-1855 industrial and reformatory schools were established,
+to prevent crime and reform child criminals. The orphanage
+movement, beginning in 1758, when the Orphan Working Home
+was established, has been continued to the present day on a vastly
+extended scale. In 1772 a society for the discharge of persons
+imprisoned for small debts was established, and in 1773 Howard
+began his prison reforms. This raised the standard of work in
+institutional charities generally. After the civil wars the old
+hospital foundations of St Bartholomew and St Thomas, municipalized
+by Edward VI., became endowed charities partly supported
+by voluntary contributions. The same fate befell Christ&rsquo;s
+Hospital, in connexion with which the voting system, the admission
+of candidates by the vote of the whole body of subscribers&mdash;that
+peculiarly English invention&mdash;first makes its appearance.</p>
+
+<p>A new interest in hospitals sprang up at the end of the 17th
+century. St Thomas&rsquo;s was rebuilt (1693) and St Bartholomew&rsquo;s
+(1739); Guy&rsquo;s was founded in 1724, and on the system of free
+&ldquo;letters&rdquo; obtainable in exchange for donations, voluntary
+hospitals and infirmaries were established in London (1733 and
+later) and in most of the large towns. Towards the end of
+the 18th century the dispensary movement was developed&mdash;a
+system of local dispensaries with fairly definite districts and home
+visiting, a substitute for attendance at a hospital, where &ldquo;hospital
+fever&rdquo; was dreaded, and an alternative to what was then
+a very ill-administered system of poor-law medical relief. After
+1840 the provident dispensary was introduced, in order that the
+patients by small contributions in the time of health might
+provide for illness without having to meet large doctors&rsquo; bills,
+and the doctor might receive some sufficient remuneration for
+his attendance on poor patients. This movement was largely
+extended after 1860. Three hospital funds for collecting contributions
+for hospitals and making them grants, a movement
+that originated in Birmingham in 1859, were established in
+London in 1873 and 1897.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Since 1868 the poor-law medical system of Great Britain has been
+immensely improved and extended, while at the same time the
+number of persons in receipt of free medical relief in most of the large
+towns has greatly increased. The following figures refer to London:
+at hospitals, 97 in number, in-patients (1904) during the year,
+118,536; out-patients and casualty cases, 1,858,800; patients at
+free, part-pay, or provident dispensaries, about 280,000; orders
+issued for attendance at poor-law dispensaries and at home, 114,158.
+The number of beds in poor-law infirmaries (1904) was 16,976.
+There are in London 12 general hospitals with, 18 without, medical
+schools, and 67 special hospitals. Thus the population in receipt
+of public and voluntary medical relief is very large, indeed altogether
+excessive.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each religious movement has brought with it its several
+charities. The Society of Friends, the Wesleyans, the Baptists
+have large charities. With the extension of the High Church
+movement there have been established many sisterhoods which
+support penitentiaries, convalescent homes and hospitals, schools,
+missions, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The magnitude of this accumulating provision of charitable relief
+is evident, though it cannot be summed up in any single total.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of the 19th century anti-mendicity societies
+were established; and later, about 1869, in England and Scotland
+a movement began for the organization of charitable relief,
+in connexion with which there are now societies and committees
+in most of the larger towns in Great Britain, in the colonies, and
+in the United States of America. More recently the movement
+for the establishment of settlements in poor districts, initiated
+by Canon Barnett at Toynbee Hall&mdash;&ldquo;to educate citizens in the
+knowledge of one another, and to provide them with teaching and
+recreation&rdquo;&mdash;has spread to many towns in England and America.</p>
+
+<p>These notes of charitable movements suggest an altogether
+new development of thought. On behalf of the charity school
+of Queen Anne&rsquo;s time were preached very formal
+sermons, which showed but little sympathy with child
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of thought in 18th and 19th centuries.</span>
+life. After the first half of the century a new humanism
+with which we connect the name of Rousseau, slowly
+superseded this formal beneficence. Rousseau made
+the world open its eyes and see nature in the child,
+the family and the community. He analysed social life, intent
+on explaining it and discovering on what its well-being
+depended; and he stimulated that desire to meet definite social
+needs which is apparent in the charities of the century. Little
+as it may appear to be so at first sight, it was a period of
+charitable reformation. Law revised the religious conception
+of charity, though he was himself so strangely devoid of social
+instinct that, like some of his successors, he linked the utmost
+earnestness in belief to that form of almsgiving which most
+effectually fosters beggardom. Howard introduced the era of
+inspection, the ardent apostle of a new social sagacity; and
+Bentham, no less sagacious, propounded opinions, plans and
+suggestions which, perhaps it may be said, in due course moulded
+the principles and methods of the poor-law of 1834. In the
+broader sense the turn of thought is religious, for while usually
+stress is laid on the religious scepticism of the century, the
+deeper, fervent, conscientious and evangelical charity in which
+Nonconformists, and especially &ldquo;the Friends,&rdquo; took so large a
+part, is often forgotten. Sometimes, indeed, as often happens
+now, the feeling of charity passed into the merest sentimentality.
+This is evident, for instance, from so ill-considered a measure as
+Pitt&rsquo;s Bill for the relief of the poor. On the other hand, during
+the 18th century the poor-law was the object of constant criticism,
+though so long as the labour statutes and the old law of settlement
+were in force, and the relief of the labouring population
+as state &ldquo;poor&rdquo; prevailed, it was impossible to reform it.
+Indeed, the criticism itself was generally vitiated by a tacit
+acceptance of &ldquo;the poor&rdquo; as a class, a permanent and irrevocable
+charge on the funds of the community; and at the end of the
+18th century, when the labour statutes were abrogated, but
+the conditions under which poor relief was administered remained
+the same, serfdom in its later stage, the serfdom of the poor-law,
+asserted itself in its extremest form in times of dearth and
+difficulty during the Napoleonic War. In 1802-1803 it was
+calculated (Marshall&rsquo;s <i>Digest</i>) that 28% of the population were
+in receipt of permanent or occasional relief. Those in receipt
+of the former numbered 734,817, including children&mdash;so real
+had this serfdom of the poor become.</p>
+
+<p>In 1832 the expenditure on pauperism in England and Wales
+was £7,036,968. In the early years of the 19th century the
+mendicity societies, established in some of the larger towns, were
+a sign of the general discontent with existing methods of administration.
+The Society for Bettering the Condition of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page885" id="page885"></a>885</span>
+Poor&mdash;representing a group of men such as Patrick Colquhoun,
+Sir I. Bernard, Dr Lettsom, Dr Haygarth, James Neald, Count
+Rumford and others&mdash;took a more positive line and issued
+many useful publications (1796). After 1833 the very atmosphere
+of thought seems changed. There was a general desire to be quit
+of the serfdom of pauperism. The Poor-law Amendment Act
+was passed in 1834, and since then male able-bodied pauperism
+has dwindled to a minimum. The bad years of 1860-1870
+revived the problem in England and Scotland, and the old spirit
+of reform for a time prevailed. Improved administration working
+with economic progress effected still further reductions of
+pauperism, till on the 1st of January 1905 (exclusive of lunatics
+in county asylums and casual paupers) the mean number of
+paupers stood at 764,589, or 22.6 per thousand of the population,
+instead of 41.8 per thousand as in 1859 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Poor-law</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Charity organization societies were formed after 1869, with
+the object of &ldquo;improving the condition of the poor,&rdquo; or, in other
+words, to promote independence by an ordered and co-operative
+charity; and the Association for Befriending Young Servants,
+and workhouse aid committees, in order to prevent relapse into
+pauperism on the part of those who as children or young women
+received relief from the poor-law. The Local Government Board
+adopted a restricted out-door relief policy, and a new interest
+was felt in all the chief problems of local administration. The
+movement was general. The results of the Elberfeld system
+of municipal relief administered by unpaid almoners, each
+dealing with but one or two cases, influenced thought both in
+England and America. The experience gained by Mr Joseph
+Tuckerman of Boston of the utility of registering applications
+for relief, and the teaching of Miss Octavia Hill, led to the foundation
+of the system of friendly visiting and associated charity at
+Boston (1880) and elsewhere. Since that time the influence of
+Arnold Toynbee and the investigations of Charles Booth have led
+to a better appreciation of the conditions of labour; and to some
+extent, in London and elsewhere, the spirit of charity has assumed
+the form of a new devotion to the duties of citizenship. But
+perhaps, in regard to charity in Great Britain, the most important
+change has been the revival of the teaching of Dr Chalmers (1780-1847),
+who (1819) introduced a system of parochial charity at
+St John&rsquo;s, Glasgow, on independent lines, consistent with the best
+traditions of the Scottish church. In the development of the
+theory of charitable relief on the economic side this has been a
+main factor. His view, which he tested by experience, may be
+summed up as follows: Society is a growing, self-supporting
+organism. It has within it, as between family and family,
+neighbour and neighbour, master and employee, endless links of
+sympathy and self-support. Poverty is not an absolute, but a
+relative term. Naturally the members of one class help one
+another; the poor help the poor. There is thus a large invisible
+fund available and constantly used by those who, by their
+proximity to one another, know best how to help. The philanthropist
+is an alien to this life around him. Moved by a sense of
+contrast between his own lot, as he understands it, and the lot of
+those about him, whom he but little understands, he concludes
+that he should relieve them. But his gift, unless it be given in
+such a way as to promote this self-support, instead of weakening
+it, is really injurious. In the first place, by his interference he
+puts a check on the charitable resources of another class and
+lessens their social energy. What he gives they do not give,
+though they might do so. But next, he does more harm than this.
+He stimulates expectation, so that by a false arithmetic his gift of
+a few shillings seems to those who receive it and to those who
+hear of it a possible source of help in any difficulty. To them it
+represents a large command of means; and where one has
+received what, though it be little, is yet, relative to wage, a large
+sum to be acquired without labour, many will seek more, and
+with that object will waste their time and be put off their work,
+or even be tempted to lie and cheat. So social energy is diverted
+from its proper use. Alms thus given weakens social ties,
+diminishes the natural relief funds of mutual help, and beggars
+a neighbour instead of benefiting him. By this argument a
+clear and well-defined purpose is placed before charity. Charity
+becomes a science based on social principles and observation.
+Not to give alms, but to keep alive the saving health of the
+family, becomes its problem: relief becomes altogether subordinate
+to this, and institutions or societies are serviceable or the
+reverse according as they serve or fail to serve this purpose.
+Not poverty, but distress is the plea for help; not almsgiving,
+but charity the means. To charity is given a definite social aim,
+and a desire to use consistently with this aim every method that
+increasing knowledge and trained ability can devise.</p>
+
+<p>Under such influences as these, joined with better economic
+conditions, a great reform has been made. The poor-law, however,
+remains&mdash;the modern <i>eleemosyna civica</i>. It now, indeed,
+absorbs a proportionately lesser amount of the largely increased
+national income, but, excluding the maintenance of lunatics, it
+costs Great Britain more than twelve millions a year; and among
+the lower classes of the poor, directly or indirectly, it serves as a
+bounty on dependence and is a permanent obstacle to thrift and
+self-reliance. The number of those who are within the circle
+of its more immediate attraction is now perhaps, in different
+parts of the country or different districts in a town, not more
+than, say, 20% of the population. Upon that population the
+statistics of a day census would show a pauperism not of 2.63, the
+percentage of the mean day pauperism on the population in 1908,
+but of 13.15%; and the percentage would be much greater&mdash;twice
+as large, perhaps&mdash;if the total number of those who in some
+way received poor relief in the course of a year were taken into
+account. The English poor-law is thus among the lower classes,
+those most tempted to dependence&mdash;say some six or seven millions
+of the people&mdash;a very potent influence definitely antagonistic
+to the good development of family life, unless it be limited to very
+narrow proportions; as, for instance, to restricted indoor or
+institutional relief for the sick, for the aged and infirm, who in
+extreme old age require special care and nursing, and for the
+afflicted, for whom no sufficient charitable provision is procurable.
+As ample experience shows, only on these conditions can poor-law
+relief be justified from the point of view of charity and the
+common good. In marked contrast to this opinion is the English
+movement for Old Age pensions, which came to its first fruition in
+1908&mdash;a huge charity started on the credit of the state, the
+extension of which might ultimately involve a cost comparable
+with that of the army or the navy. Schemes of the kind have
+been adopted in the Australasian colonies with limitations and
+safeguards; and they seem likely to develop into a new type of
+poor-relief organization for the aged and infirm (Report: Royal
+Commission on Old Age Pensions, Commonwealth of Australia,
+1906). In England, partly to meet the demand for better state
+provision for the aged, the Local Government Board in 1900 urged
+the boards of guardians to give more adequate outdoor relief to
+aged deserving people, and laid no stress on the test of destitution,
+or, in other words, the limitation of relief to what was
+actually &ldquo;necessary,&rdquo; the neglect of which has led to new difficulties.
+History has proved that demoralization results from the
+wholesale relief whether of the mass of the citizens, or of the
+able-bodied, or of the children, and the proposal to limit the
+endowment to the aged makes no substantial difference. The
+social results must be similar; but social forces work slowly,
+and usually only the unanswerable argument of financial bankruptcy
+suffices to convert a people habituated to dependence,
+though the inward decay of vitality and character may long
+before be manifest. Ultimately the distribution of pensions by
+way of out-door relief, corrupting a far more independent people,
+is calculated to work a far greater injury than the <i>annona civica</i>.
+Such an endowment of old age might indeed be justified as part of
+a system of regulated labour, which, as in earlier times, could not
+be enforced without some such extraneous help, but it could not
+be justified otherwise. It is naturally associated, therefore, with
+socialistic proposals for the regulation of wage.</p>
+
+<p>In the light of the principles of charity, which we have considered
+historically, we have now to turn to two questions:
+charity and economics, and charity and socialism.</p>
+
+<p>The object of charity is to render to our neighbour the services
+and duties of goodwill, friendship and love. To prevent distress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page886" id="page886"></a>886</span>
+charity has for its further object to preserve and develop the
+manhood and womanhood of individuals and their self-maintenance
+<span class="sidenote">The economics of charity.</span>
+in and through the family; and any form of
+state intervention is approved or disapproved by the
+same standard. By self-maintenance is meant self-support
+throughout life in its ordinary contingencies&mdash;sickness,
+widowhood, old age, &amp;c. Political economy we
+would define as the science of exchange and exchange value.
+Here it has to be considered in relation to the purposes of charity.
+By way of illustration we take, accordingly, three points:
+distribution and use, supplementation of wage, and the standard
+of well-being or comfort in relation to wage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) <i>Distribution and Use.</i>&mdash;Economy in the Greek sense begins at
+this point&mdash;the administration and the use of means and resources.
+Political economy generally ignores this part of the problem. Yet
+from the point of view of charity it is cardinal to the whole issue.
+The distribution of wage may or may not be largely influenced by
+trades unions; but the variation of wage, as is generally the case,
+by the increase or decrease of a few pence is of less importance than
+its use. Comparing a careful and an unthrifty family, the difference
+in use may amount to as much as a third on the total wage. Mere
+abstention from alcohol may make, in a normal family, a difference
+of 6s. in a wage of 25s. On the other hand, membership of a friendly
+society is at a time of sickness equivalent to the command of a large
+sum of money, for the common stock of capital is by that means
+placed at the disposal of each individual who has a share in it.
+Further, even a small amount saved may place the holder in a
+position to get a better market for his labour; he can wait when
+another man cannot. Rent may be high, but by co-operation that
+too may be reduced. Other points are obvious and need not be
+mentioned. It is evident that while the amount of wage is important,
+still more important is its use. In use it has a large
+expansive value. (2) <i>Supplementation of Wage.</i>&mdash;The exchange
+between skill and wage must be free if it is to be valid. The less the
+skill the greater is the temptation to philanthropists to supplement
+the lesser wage; and the more important is non-supplementation,
+for the skilled can usually look after their own interests in the
+market, while the less skilled, because their labour is less marketable,
+have to make the greater effort to avoid dependence. But the dole
+of endowed charities, outdoor relief, and any constant giving, tend
+to reduce wage, and thus to deprive the recipients of some part of the
+means of independence. The employer is pressed by competition
+himself, and in return he presses for profit through a reduced wage,
+if circumstances make it possible for the workman to take it. And
+thus a few individuals may lower the wages of a large class of poorly
+skilled or unskilled hands. In these conditions unionism, even if it
+were likely to be advantageous, is not feasible. Unionism can only
+create a coherent unit of workers where there is a limited market
+and a definite saleable skill. Except for the time, insufficient wage
+will not be remedied in the individual case by supplementation in
+any form&mdash;doles, clothes, or other kinds of relief; and in that case,
+too, the relief will probably produce lessened energy after a short
+time, or in other words lessened ability to live. An insufficient wage
+may be prevented by increasing the skill of the worker, who will
+then have the advantage of a better series of economic exchanges,
+but hardly otherwise. If the supplementation be not immediate,
+but postponed, as in the case of old-age pensions, its effect will be
+similar. To the extent of the prospective adventitious gain the
+attraction to the friendly society and to mutual help and saving will
+grow less. Necessity has been the inventor of these; and where
+wage is small, a little that would otherwise be saved is quickly spent
+if the necessity for saving it is removed. Only necessity schools
+most men, especially the weak, to whom it makes most difference
+ultimately, whether they are thrifty or whether or not they save for
+the future in any way. (3) <i>The Standard of Well-being or Comfort
+in Relation to Wage.</i>&mdash;With an increase of income there has to be
+an increase in the power to use income intelligently. Whatever is
+not so used reacts on the family to its undoing. Constantly when
+the wife can earn a few shillings a week, the husband will every week
+idle for two or three days; so also if the husband finds that in a few
+days he can earn enough to meet what he considers to be his requirements
+for the week. In these circumstances the standard of well-being
+falls below the standard of wage; the wage is in excess of the
+energy and intelligence necessary to its economic use, and in these
+cases ultimately pauperism often ensues. The family is demoralized.
+Thus, with a view to the prevention of distress in good times, when
+there is the less poverty there is the more need of charity, rightly
+understood; for charity would strive to promote the right use of
+wage, as the best means of preventing distress and preserving the
+economic well-being of the family.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The theory of charity separates it entirely from socialism,
+as that word is commonly used. Strictly socialism means, in
+questions affecting the community, a dominant regard for the
+common or social good in so far as it is contrary to private or
+<span class="sidenote">Charity and socialism.</span>
+individual advantage. But even so the antithesis is misleading,
+for the two need not be inconsistent. On the contrary, the
+common good is really and ultimately only individual good (not
+advantage) harmonized to a common end. The issue,
+indeed, is that of old Greek days, and the conditions
+of a settlement of it are not substantially different.
+Using modern terms one may say that charity is
+&ldquo;interventionist.&rdquo; It has sought to transform the world by the
+transformation of the will and the inward life in the individual
+and in society. It would intensify the spirit and feeling of
+membership in society and would aim at improving social conditions,
+as science makes clear what the lines of reform should
+be. So it has constantly intervened in all kinds of ways, and,
+in the 19th century for instance, it has initiated many movements
+afterwards taken up by public authorities&mdash;such as prison
+reform, industrial schools, child protection, housing, food
+reform, &amp;c., and it has been a friendly ally in many reforms that
+affect industry very closely, as, for instance, in the introduction
+of the factory acts. But it has never aimed at recasting society
+itself on a new economic plan, as does socialism. Socialism
+indeed offers the people a new state of social security. It
+recognizes that the <i>annona civica</i> and the old poor-law may have
+been bad, but it would meet the objection made against them by
+insisting on the gradual creation of a new industrial society
+in which wage would be regulated and all would be supported,
+some by wage in adult life, some by allowance in old age, and
+others by maintenance in childhood. Accordingly for it all
+schemes for the state maintenance of school children, old age
+pensions, or state provision for the unemployed are, like municipal
+trading, steps towards a final stage, in which none shall want
+because all shall be supported by society or be dependent on it
+industrially. To charity this position seems to exclude the ethical
+element in life and to treat the people primarily or chiefly as
+human animals. It seems also to exclude the motives for energy
+and endeavour that come from self-maintenance. Against it,
+on the other hand, socialism would urge, that only by close
+regulation and penalty will the lowest classes be improved, and
+that only the society that maintains them can control them.
+Charity from its experience doubts the possibility of such control
+without a fatal loss of initiative on the part of those controlled,
+and it believes both that there is constant improvement on the
+present conditions of society and that there will be constantly
+more as science grows and its conclusions are put in force.
+Thus charity and socialism, in the usual meaning of the word,
+imply ultimately two quite different theories of social life.
+The one would re-found society industrially, the other would
+develop it and allow it to develop.</p>
+
+<p>The springs of charity lie in sympathy and religion, and, one
+would now add, in science. To organize it is to give to it the
+&ldquo;ordered nature&rdquo; of an organic whole, to give it a
+definite social purpose, and to associate the members
+<span class="sidenote">The organization of charity.</span>
+of the community for the fulfilment of that purpose.
+This in turn depends on the recognition of common
+principles, the adoption of a common method, self-discipline
+and training, and co-operation. In a mass of people there may
+be a large variation in motives coincident with much unity in
+action. Thus there may be acceptance of a common social
+purpose in charity, while in one the impulse is similar to that
+which moved St Francis or George Herbert, in another to that
+which moved Howard or Dr Chalmers, or a modern poor-law
+reformer like Sir G. Nicholls or E. Denison. Accepting, then,
+the principles of charity, we pass to the method in relation to
+assistance and relief. Details may vary, but on the following
+points there is general agreement among students and workers:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(1) <i>The Committee or Conference.</i>&mdash;There are usually two kinds
+of local relief: the public or poor-law relief, and relief connected
+with religious agencies. Besides, there is the relief of endowments,
+societies and charitable persons. Therefore, as a condition precedent
+to all organization, there must be some local centre of association
+for information and common help. A town should be divided for
+this purpose into manageable areas coincident with parishes or
+poor-law divisions, or other districts. Subject to an acceptance of
+general principles, those engaged in charity should be members of a
+local conference or committee, or allied to it. The committee would
+thus be the rallying-point of a large and somewhat loosely knit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page887" id="page887"></a>887</span>
+association of friends and workers. (2) <i>Inquiry, Aid and Registration</i>.&mdash;The
+object of inquiry is to ascertain the actual causes of distress
+or dependence, and to carry on the work there must usually be a
+staff of several honorary and one or two paid workers. Two methods
+may be adopted: to inquire in regard to applications for help with
+a view to forming some plan of material help or friendly aid, or both,
+which will lead to the ultimate self-support of the family and its
+members, and, under certain conditions, in the case of the aged or
+sick, to their continuous or their sufficient help; or to ascertain
+the facts partly at once, partly by degrees, and then to form and
+carry out some plan of help, or continue to befriend the family in
+need of help, in the hope of bringing them to conditions of self-support,
+leaving the work of relief entirely to other agencies. The
+committee in neither case should be a relief committee&mdash;itself a
+direct source of relief. On the former method it has usually no relief
+fund, but it raises from relations, employers, charities and charitable
+persons the relief required, according to the plan of help agreed
+upon, unless, indeed, it is better not to relieve the case, or to leave
+it to the poor-law. The committee thus makes itself responsible
+for endeavouring to the best of its ability to raise the necessary
+relief, and acts as trustee for those who co-operate without it, in
+such a way as to keep intact and to give play to all the natural
+obligations that lie within the inner circles of a self-supporting
+community. On the latter method the work of relief is left to general
+charity, or to private persons, or to the poor-law; and the effort is
+made to help the family to self-support by a friendly visitor. This
+procedure is that adopted by the associated charities in Boston,
+Mass., and other similar societies in America and elsewhere. It is
+akin also to that adopted in the municipal system of relief in
+Elberfeld&mdash;which has become with many variations in detail the standard
+method of poor relief in Germany. The method of associated help,
+combined with personal work, represents the usual practice of
+charity organization societies. <i>Mutatis mutandis</i>, the plan can be
+adopted on the simplest scale in parochial or other relief committees,
+subject to the safeguards of sufficient training and settled method.
+The inquiry should cover the following points: names and address,
+and ages of family, previous addresses, past employment and wages,
+present income, rent and liabilities, membership of friendly or other
+society, and savings, relations, relief (if any) from any source.
+These points should be verified, and reference should be made to the
+clergy, the poor-law authorities, and others, to ascertain if they
+know the applicant. The result should be to show how the applicant
+has been living, and what are the sources of possible help, and also
+what is his character. The problem, however, is not whether the
+person is &ldquo;deserving&rdquo; or &ldquo;undeserving,&rdquo; but whether, granted the
+facts, the distress can be stayed and self-support attained. If the
+help can be given privately from within the circle of the family, so
+much the better. Often it may be best to advise, but not to interfere.
+In some cases but little help may be necessary; in others
+again the friendly relation between applicant and friend may last
+for months and even years. Usually in charitable work the question
+of the kind of relief available&mdash;money, tickets, clothes, &amp;c.&mdash;governs
+the decision how the case should be assisted. But this is quite
+wrong: the opposite is the true rule. The wants of the case, rightly
+understood, should govern the decision as to what charity should
+do and what it should provide. Cases are overwhelming in number,
+as at the out-patient and casualty departments of a hospital, where
+the admissions are made without inquiry, and subject practically
+to no restrictions; but when there is inquiry, and each case is
+seriously considered and aided with a view to self-support, the
+numbers will seldom be overwhelming. On this plan appeal is made
+to the strength of the applicant, and requires an effort on his part.
+Indiscriminate relief, on the other hand, attracts the applicant by
+an appeal to his weakness, and it requires of him no effort. Hence,
+apart even from the differentiating effect of inquiry, one method
+makes applicants, the other limits their number, although on the
+latter plan much more strenuous endeavours be made to assist the
+lesser number of claimants. For the routine work of the office an
+extremely simple system of records with card index, &amp;c., has been
+devised. In some cities, particularly in the United States of America,
+there is a central registration of cases, notified by individual charities,
+poor-relief authorities and private persons. The system of charity
+organization or associated charity, it will be seen, allows of the
+utmost variety of treatment, according to the difficulties in each
+instance and the remedies available, and the utmost scope for personal
+work. (3) <i>Training.</i>&mdash;If charitable work is an art, those who
+undertake it must needs be trained both in practice and method
+and in judgment. It requires, too, that self-discipline which blends
+intelligence with emotion, and so endows emotion with strength
+and purpose. In times of distress a reserve of trained workers is
+of the utmost service. At all times they do more and produce,
+socially, better results; but when there is general distress of any
+kind they do not lose their heads like new recruits, but prevent
+at least some of the mischief that comes of the panic which often
+takes possession of a community, when distress is apprehended,
+and leads to the wildest distribution of relief. Also trained workers
+make the most useful poor-law guardians, trustees of charities,
+secretaries of charitable societies and district visitors. All clergy
+and ministers and all medical men who have to be engaged in the
+administration of medical relief should learn the art of charity.
+Poor-law guardians are usually elected on political or general grounds,
+and have no special knowledge of good methods of charity; and
+trustees are seldom appointed on the score of their qualifications
+on this head. To provide the necessary education in charity there
+should be competent helpers and teachers at charity organization
+committees and elsewhere, and an alliance for this purpose should
+be formed between them and professors and teachers of moral science
+and economics and the &ldquo;settlements.&rdquo; Those who study social
+problems in connexion with what a doctor would call &ldquo;cases&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;practice&rdquo; see the limits and the falsity of schemes that on paper
+seem logical enough. This puts a check on the influence of
+scheme-building and that literary sensationalism which makes capital out
+of social conditions. (4) <i>Co-operation.</i>&mdash;Organization in charity
+depends on extensive co-operation, and ultimately on the acceptance
+of common views. This comes but slowly. But with much tribulation
+the goal may be reached, if in case after case the effort is made
+to provide friendly help through charities and private persons,&mdash;unless,
+as may well be, it should seem best not to interfere, but to
+leave the applicant to apply to the administrators of public relief.
+Experience of what is right and wrong in charity is thus gained on
+both sides. Many sources may have to be utilized for aid of different
+kinds even in a single case, and for the prevention of distress
+co-operation with members of friendly societies and with co-operative
+and thrift agencies is indispensable.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Where there is accord between charity and the poor-law pauperism
+may be largely reduced. The poor-law in most countries has
+at its disposal certain institutional relief and out-door
+allowances, but it has no means of devising plans of
+<span class="sidenote">The poor law.</span>
+help which may prevent application to the rates or
+&ldquo;take&rdquo; people &ldquo;off the rates.&rdquo; Thus a widow in the first days
+of widowhood applies and receives an allowance according to
+the number of her children. Helped at the outset by charity on
+some definite plan, she may become self-supporting; and if her
+family be large one or two of her children may be placed in schools
+by the guardians, while she maintains the remaining children
+and herself. As far as possible there should be a division of
+labour between the poor-law and charity. Except where some
+plan such as that just mentioned is adopted, one or the other
+should take whole charge of the case relieved. There should be
+no supplementation of poor-law relief by charity. This will
+weaken the strength and dissipate the resources of charity without
+adding to the efficiency of the poor-law. Unless the guardians
+adopt a restrictive out-door relief policy, there is no scope for
+any useful division of labour between them and charity; for the
+many cases which, taken in time, charity might save from
+pauperism, they will draw into chronic dependence by their
+allowances a very much larger number. But if there is a
+restrictive out-door policy, so far as relief is necessary, charity
+may undertake to meet on its own lines distress which the poor-law
+would otherwise have met by allowances, and, subject to
+the assistance of urgent cases, poor-law relief may thus by
+degrees become institutional only. Then, in the main, natural
+social forces would come into play, and dependence on any form
+of <i>annona civica</i> would cease.</p>
+
+<p>Open-handed hospitality always creates mendicants. This is
+what the hospitals offer in the out-patient and casualty
+departments, and they have created a class of hospital
+mendicants. The cases are quickly dealt with, without
+<span class="sidenote">Hospitals.</span>
+inquiry and without regard to home conditions. The medical
+man in the hospital does not co-operate with any fellow-workers
+outside the hospital. Where his physic or advice ceases to
+operate his usefulness ceases. He regards no conditions of
+morality. In a large number of cases drink or vice is the cause
+of application, and the cure of the patient is dependent on moral
+conditions; but he returns home, drinks and may beat his wife,
+and then on another visit to the hospital he will again be
+physicked and so on. The man is not even referred to the poor-law
+infirmary for relief. Nor are conditions of home sanitation
+regarded. One cause of constant sickness is thus entirely
+overlooked, while drugs, otherwise unnecessary, are constantly
+given at the hospital. The hospitals are thus large isolated
+relief stations which are creating a new kind of pauperism.
+So far as the patients can pay&mdash;and many can do so&mdash;the
+general practitioners, to whom they would otherwise go, are
+deprived of their gains. Still worse is it when the hospital itself
+charges a fee in its out-patient department. The relief is then
+claimed even more absolutely as a right, and the general
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page888" id="page888"></a>888</span>
+practitioners are still further injured. The doctors, as a medical
+staff, are not only medical men, but whether they recognize the fact
+or not, they are also almsgivers or almoners; what they give is
+relief. Yet few or none of them have ever been trained for that
+work, and consequently they do not realize how very advantageous,
+even for the cure of their own patients, would be a thorough
+treatment of each case both at the hospital and outside it. Nor
+can they understand how their methods at present protract
+sickness and promote habitual dependence. Were this side of
+their work studied by them in any way they would be the first,
+probably, to press upon the governors of their hospitals the
+necessity for a change. Unfortunately, at present the governors
+are themselves untrained, and to finance the hospital and to
+make it a good institution is their sole object. Hospitals, however,
+are, after all, only a part of the general administration of
+charity, though as they are now managed they have seldom any
+systematic connexion with that administration. Nor is there
+any co-ordination between the several hospitals and dispensaries.
+If one rightly refuses further treatment to certain applicants,
+they have only to wander to some other hospital, there to be
+admitted with little or no scrutiny. For usually out-patients
+and casualty patients are not even registered, nor can they be
+identified if they apply again. Practically they come and go at
+will. The definite limitation of cases, according to some standard
+of effectual work, association with general charity, trained
+almonership and inquiry, and a just regard for the interests of
+general practitioners, are stepping-stones to reform. In towns
+where medical charities are numerous a representative board
+would promote mutual help and organization.</p>
+
+<p>Like the poor-law, endowed charities may be permanent
+institutions established to meet what should be passing and
+decreasing needs (cf. the arguments in <i>The State and
+Charity</i>, by T. Mackay). Administered as they usually
+<span class="sidenote">Endowed charities.</span>
+are in isolation&mdash;apart from the living voluntary
+charities of the generation, and consisting often of small trusts
+difficult to utilize satisfactorily, they tend to create a permanent
+demand which they meet by fixed quantities of relief. Also, as
+a rule, they make no systematic inquiries with a view to the
+verification of the statements of the applicants, for they have no
+staff for these purposes; nor have they the assistance of almoners
+or friendly visitors. Nor does the relief which they give form
+part of any plan of help in conjunction with other aid from
+without; nor is the administration subject to frequent inspection,
+as in the case of the poor-law. All these conditions have led to
+a want of progress in the actual administration of endowed
+charities, in regard to which it is often very difficult to prevent
+the exercise of an undue patronage. But there is no reason why
+these charities should not become a responsible part of the
+country&rsquo;s administration, aiding it to reduce outdoor pauperism.
+It was never intended that the poor-law should extinguish the
+endowed charities, still less, as statistics now prove, that where
+endowments abound the rate of pauperism should be considerably
+above the average of the rest of the country. This shows that
+these charities often foster pauperism instead of preventing it.
+As a step to reform, the publication of an annual register of
+endowed charities in England and Wales is greatly needed. The
+consolidating schemes of the charity commissioners have done
+much good; still more may be done in some counties by extending
+to the county the benefits of the charities of well-endowed towns,
+as has been accomplished by the extension of the eleemosynary
+endowments of the city of London to the metropolitan police
+area. Nor, again, until quite lately, and that as yet only in a few
+schemes, has the principle been adopted that pensions or other
+relief should be given only in supplementation of the relief of
+relations, former employers and friends, and not in substitution
+of it. This, coupled with good methods of inquiry and supervision,
+has proved very beneficial. Hitherto, however, to a large
+extent, endowed charities, it must be admitted, have tended to
+weaken the family and to pauperize.</p>
+
+<p>In many places funds are raised for the relief of school children
+by the supply of meals during the winter and spring; and an act
+has now been passed in England (1906) enabling the cost to be
+put upon the rates. Usually a very large number of children
+<span class="sidenote">Relief to children at school.</span>
+are said to be underfed, but inquiry shows that such statements
+may be taken as altogether excessive. They
+are sometimes based on information drawn from the
+children at school; or sometimes on general deductions;
+they are seldom founded on any systematic and
+competent inquiry at the homes. When this has been made,
+the numbers dwindle to very small proportions. Teachers of
+experience have noted the effect of the meals in weakening
+the independence of the family. While they are forthcoming
+women sometimes give up cooking meals at home, use their money
+for other things, and tell the child he can get his meal at school.
+Great temptations are put before a parent to neglect her family,
+and very much distress is due to this. The meals&mdash;just at a
+time when, owing to the age of her children, the mother&rsquo;s care
+is most needed, and just in those families where the temptation
+is greatest, and where the family instinct should be strengthened&mdash;stimulate
+this neglect. Considered from the point of view
+of meeting by eleemosynary provision a normal economic
+demand for food, intervention can only have one result. The
+demand must continue to outstrip the supply, so long as there are
+resources available on the one side, and until on the other side
+the desire of the social class that is chiefly exposed to the temptations
+of dependence in relation to such relief has been satisfied.
+If the provision be made from the resources of local or general
+taxation the largeness of the fund available will allow practically
+of an unlimited expansion of the supply of food. If the provision
+be made from voluntary sources, in some measure limited therefore
+and less certain, this very fact will tend to circumscribe
+demand and limit the offer of relief. It is indeed the problem
+of poor-law relief in 1832 over again. The relief provided by
+local taxation practically unlimited will create a mass of constant
+claimants, with a kind of assumed right to aid based on the
+payment of rates; while voluntary relief, whatever its short-comings,
+will be less injurious because it is less amply endowed.
+In Paris the municipal subvention for meals rose from 545,900
+francs in 1892 to 1,000,000 in 1904. Between 1894 and 1904 there
+was an increase of 9% in the school population; and an increase
+of 28% in the municipal grant. In that period the contributions
+from the local school funds (<i>caisses des écoles</i>) decreased
+36%; while the voluntary contributions otherwise received
+were insignificant; and the payments for meals increased 2%.</p>
+
+<p>The subject has been lately considered from a somewhat
+different standpoint (cf. the reports of the Scottish Royal Commission
+on Physical Education, 1903; of the Inter-departmental
+committees on Physical Deterioration, 1905, and on Medical
+Inspection and the Feeding of School Children, 1905; also the
+report of the special committee of the Charity Organization
+Society on &ldquo;the assistance of school children,&rdquo; 1893). After
+careful investigations medical officers especially have drawn
+attention to the low physical condition of children in schools
+in the poorer parts of large English towns, their low stature,
+their physical defects, the improper food supplied to them at
+home, their uncleanliness, and their want of decent bringing-up,
+and sometimes their want of food. Other inquiries have shown
+that, as women more usually become breadwinners their children
+receive less attention, and the home and its duties are neglected,
+while in the lowest sections of the poorer classes social irresponsibility
+reaches its maximum. Cheap but often quite improper
+food is provided, and infant mortality, which is largely preventable,
+remains as high as ever, though adult life is longer. This
+with a marked decrease in the birth-rate in recent years, has,
+it may be said, opened out a new field for charitable effort and
+social work. Science is at each revision of the problem making
+its task more definite. Actually the mere demand for meals
+stands for less; the reform of home conditions for more. So it
+was hoped that instead of making school meals a charge on
+taxation, as parliament has done, it would be content to leave
+it a voluntary charge, while the medical inspection of elementary
+Schools will be made universal; representative relief committees
+formed for schools or groups of schools; the cases of want or
+distress among the school children dealt with individually in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page889" id="page889"></a>889</span>
+connexion with their families, and, where necessary, day schools
+established on the lines of day industrial schools.</p>
+
+<p>At a time of exceptional distress the following suggestions
+founded on much English experience may be of service (cf.
+Report of special committee of the Charity Organization
+Society on the best means of dealing with exceptional
+<span class="sidenote">Exceptional distress.</span>
+distress, 1886).    Usually at such a time proposals are
+made to establish special funds, and to provide employment
+to men and women out of work.    But it is best, if possible
+and as long as possible, to rely on existing agencies, and to
+strengthen them.    Round them there are usually workers more
+or less trained.    A new fund usually draws to it new people, many
+of whom may not have had any special experience at all.    If a
+new fund is inevitable, it is best that it should make its grants
+to existing agencies after consultation with them.    In any case,
+a clear policy should be adopted, and people should keep their
+heads.    The exaggeration of feeling at a time of apprehended or
+actual distress is sometimes extraordinary, and the unwise action
+which it prompts is often a cause of continuing pauperism afterwards.
+Where there is public or poor-law relief the following
+plan may be adopted:&mdash;In any large town there are usually
+different recognized poor-law, charitable or other areas.    The
+local people already at work in these areas should be formed
+into local committees.    In each case a quick inquiry should be
+made, and the relieving officer communicated with, some central
+facts verified, and the home visited.    Roughly, cases may be
+divided into three classes: the irresponsible casual labouring
+class, a middle class of men with decent homes, who have made
+no provision for the future, and are not members of either friendly
+society or trades union; and a third class, who have made some
+provision.    These usually are affected last of all; at all hazards
+they should be kept from receiving public relief, and should be
+helped, as far as possible, privately and personally.    If there
+are public works, the second class might be referred to them; if
+there are not, probably some should be left to the poor-law, some
+assisted in the same way as members of class three.    Much would
+turn upon the family and the home.    The first class should be
+left to the poor-law.    If there is no poor-law system at work they
+should be put on public works.    Working men of independent
+position, not the creatures of any political club, but such as are
+respected members of a friendly society, or are otherwise well
+qualified for the task, should be called into consultation.    The
+relief should be settled according to the requirements of each case,
+but if the pressure is great, at first at least it may be necessary
+to make grants according to some generally sufficient scale.  There
+should be as constant a revision of cases as time permits.    Great
+care should be taken to stop the relief as soon as possible, and to do
+nothing to make it the stepping-stone to permanent dependence.</p>
+
+<p>If employment be provided it should be work within the skill
+of all; it should be fairly remunerated, so that at least the
+scantiness of the pay may not be an excuse for neglect; and it
+should be paid for according to measured or piece work.    The
+discipline should be strict, though due regard should be paid
+at first to those unaccustomed to digging or earthwork.    In
+England and Wales the guardians have power to open labour
+yards.    These, like charities which provide work, tend to attract
+and keep in employment a low class of labourer or workman,
+who finds it pays him to use the institution as a convenience.
+It is best, therefore, to avoid the opening of a labour yard
+if possible.    If it is opened, the discipline should be very strict,
+and when there is laziness or insubordination, relief in the workhouse
+should at once be offered.    The relief furnished to men
+employed in a labour yard, of which in England at least half has
+to be given ih kind, should, it has been said, be dealt out from
+day to day.    This leads to the men giving up the work sooner
+than they otherwise would.    They have less to spend.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain a great change has taken place in regard
+to the provision of employment in connexion with the state.
+Since about 1890 there has been a feeling that men in
+distress from want of employment should not be dealt
+<span class="sidenote">Unemployment.</span>
+with by the poor-law. A circular letter issued by the
+Local Government Board in 1886, and subsequently in 1895,
+coincided with this feeling. It was addressed to town councils
+and other local authorities, asking them to provide work (1)
+which will not involve the stigma of pauperism, (2) which all
+can perform whatever may have been their previous avocations,
+and (3) which does not compete with that of other labourers
+at present in employment. This circular led to the vestries and
+subsequently the borough councils in many districts becoming
+partially recognized relief authorities for the unemployed,
+concurrently with the poor-law. Much confusion resulted.
+The local authorities had seldom any suitable organization for
+the investigation of applications. It was difficult to supply
+work on the terms required; and the work was often ill-done
+and costly. Also it was found that the same set of people would
+apply year after year, unskilled labourers usually out of work
+part of the winter, or men habitually &ldquo;unemployed.&rdquo; As on
+other occasions when public work was provided, very few of the
+applicants were found to be artisans, or members of trades
+unions or of friendly societies. In 1904 Mr Long, then president
+of the Local Government Board, proposed that local voluntary
+distress committees should be established in London consisting
+of poor-law guardians and town councillors and others, more or
+less supervised by a central committee and ultimately by the
+Local Government Board. This organization was set on foot
+and large sums were subscribed for its work. The report on
+the results of the movement was somewhat doubtful (Report,
+London Unemployed Fund, 1904-1905, p. 101, &amp;c.), but in 1905
+the Unemployed Workmen&rsquo;s Act was passed, and in London
+and elsewhere distress committees like the voluntary committees
+of the previous year were established by statute. It was enacted
+that for establishment expenses, emigration and removal, labour
+exchanges, and the acquisition of land a halfpenny rate might
+be levied, but that the rate would not be available for the remuneration
+of men employed. For this purpose (1905-1906)
+a large charitable fund was raised. A training farm at Hollesley
+Bay was acquired, and it was hoped to train Londoners there
+to become fit for agricultural work. It is impossible to judge this
+experiment properly, on the evidence available up to 1908.
+But one or two points are important: (1) something very like
+the &ldquo;right to labour&rdquo; has been granted by the legislature;
+(2) this has been done apart from the conditions required by the
+poor-laws and orders of the Local Government Board on poor
+relief and without imposing disfranchisement on the men
+employed; (3) a labour rate has not been levied, but a rate has
+been levied in aid of the provision of employment; (4) if the line
+of development that the act suggests were to be followed (as the
+renewed Labour agitation in 1908-1909 made probable) it must
+tend to create a class of &ldquo;unemployed,&rdquo; unskilled labourers
+of varying grades of industry who may become the dependent
+and state-supported proletariat of modern urban life. Thus,
+unless the administration be extremely rigorous, once more
+will a kind of serfdom be established, to be, as some would say,
+taken over hereafter by the socialist state.</p>
+
+<p>In some of the English colonies Homeric hospitality still
+prevails, but by degrees the station-house or some refuge is
+established in the towns as they grow more populous.
+Finally, some system of labour in exchange for relief
+<span class="sidenote">Vagrancy.</span>
+is evolved. At first this is voluntary, afterwards it is officially
+recognized, and finally it may become part of the system of
+public relief. As bad years come, these changes are made step
+by step. In England the vagrant or wayfarer is tolerated and
+discouraged, but not kept employed. He should be under greater
+pressure to maintain himself, it is thought. The provision made
+for him in different parts of the country is far from uniform, and
+now, usually, at least in the larger towns, after he has had a bath
+and food, he is admitted to a separate room or cell in a casual
+ward. Before he leaves he has to do a task of work, and, subject
+to the discretion of the master, he is detained two nights. This
+plan has reduced vagrancy, and if it were universally adopted
+clean accommodation would everywhere be provided for the
+vagrant without the attractions of a common or &ldquo;associated&rdquo;
+ward; and probably vagrancy would diminish still further. It
+seems almost needless to say that, in these circumstances at any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page890" id="page890"></a>890</span>
+rate, casual alms should not be given to vagrants. They know
+much better how to provide for themselves than the almsgiver
+imagines, for vagrancy is in the main a mode of life not the result
+of any casual difficulty. Vagrancy and criminality are also nearly
+allied. The magistrate, therefore, rather than the almsgiver,
+should usually interfere; and, as a rule, where the magistrates
+are strict, vagrancy in a county diminishes. An inter-departmental
+committee (1906) taking generally this line, reported
+in favour of vagrants being placed entirely under police control,
+and it recommended a system of wayfarers&rsquo; tickets for men on
+the roads who are not habitual vagrants, and the committal
+of men likely to become habitual vagrants to certified labour
+colonies for not less than six months. Still undoubtedly vagrancy
+has its economic side. In a bad year the number of tramps is
+increased by the addition of unskilled and irresponsible labourers,
+who are soonest discharged when work is slack. As a part-voluntary
+system under official recognition the German <i>Arbeiter-colonien</i>
+are of interest. This in a measure has led to the introduction
+of labour homes in England, the justification of which should
+be that they recruit the energy of the men who find their way to
+them, and enable them to earn a living which they could not do
+otherwise. In a small percentage of cases their result may be
+achieved. Charitable refuges or philanthropic common lodging-houses,
+usually established in districts where this class already
+congregate, only aggravate the difficulty. They give additional
+attractions to a vagrant and casual life, and make it more
+endurable. They also make a comfortable avoidance of the
+responsibilities of family life comparatively easy, and in so far
+as they do this they are clearly injurious to the community.</p>
+
+<p>The English colonists of the New England states and Pennsylvania
+introduced the disciplinary religious and relief system of
+Protestantism and the Elizabethan poor-law. To
+the former reference has already been made. With an
+<span class="sidenote">American conditions and methods.</span>
+appreciation of the fact that the cause of distress is
+not usually poverty, but weakness of character and
+want of judgment, and that relief is in itself no remedy, those
+who have inherited the old Puritan traditions have, in the light
+of toleration and a larger social experience, organized the
+method of friendly visiting, the object of which is illustrated by
+the motto, &ldquo;Not alms, but a friend.&rdquo; To the friendship of
+charity is thus given a disciplinary force, capable of immense
+expansion and usefulness, if the friendship on the side of those
+who would help is sincere and guided by practical knowledge
+and sagacity, and if on the side of those in distress there is
+awakened a reciprocal regard and a willingness to change their
+way of life by degrees. Visiting by &ldquo;districts&rdquo; is set aside, for
+&ldquo;friendliness&rdquo; is not a quality easily diffused over a wide area.
+To be real it must be limited as time and ability allow. Consequently,
+a friendly visitor usually befriends but one or two,
+or in any case only a few, families. The friendly visitor is the
+outcome of the movement for &ldquo;associated charities,&rdquo; but in
+America charity organization societies have also adopted the
+term, and to a certain extent the method. Between the two
+movements there is the closest affinity. The registration of
+applicants for relief is much more complete in American cities
+than in England, where the plan meets with comparatively little
+support. At the office of the associated charities in Boston there
+is a central and practically a complete register of all the applications
+made to the public authority for poor relief, to the associated
+charities, and to many other voluntary bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The Elizabethan poor-law system, with the machinery of
+overseers, poor-houses and out-door relief, is still maintained
+in New England, New York state and Pennsylvania, but with
+many modifications, especially in New York. A chief factor in
+these changes has been immigration. While the County or town
+remained the administrative area for local poor relief, the large
+number of immigrant and &ldquo;unsettled&rdquo; poor, and the business
+connected with their removal from the state, entailed the establishment
+of a secondary or state system of administration and
+aid, with special classes of institutions to which the counties
+or towns could send their poor, as, for instance, state reform
+schools, farms, almshouses, &amp;c. For the oversight of these
+institutions, and often of prisons also and lunatic asylums, in
+many states there have been established state boards of &ldquo;charity
+or corrections and charity.&rdquo; The members of these boards are
+selected by the state for a term of years, and give their services
+honorarily. There are state boards in Massachusetts, New York,
+Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin,
+Iowa, Colorado, North Carolina and elsewhere. There is also a
+district board of charities in the district of Columbia. These
+boards publish most useful and detailed reports. Besides the state
+board there is sometimes also, as in New York, a State Charities
+Aid Association, whose members, in the counties in which they
+reside, have a legal right of entry to visit and inspect any public
+or charitable institution owned by the state, and any county and
+other poor-house. A large association of visitors accustomed
+to inspect and report on institutions has thus been created.
+Further, the counties and towns in New York state, for instance,
+and Massachusetts, and the almshouse districts in Pennsylvania,
+are under boards of supervision. Usually the overseers give out-door
+relief, and the pauperism of some areas is as high as that
+in some English unions, 3, 4 and 5%. On the whole population
+of the United States, however, and of individual states, consisting
+to a great extent of comparatively young and energetic immigrants,
+the pauperism is insignificant. In Massachusetts &ldquo;it
+has been the general policy of the state to order the removal
+to the state almshouse of unsettled residents of the several cities
+and towns in need of temporary aid, thus avoiding some of the
+abuses incident to out-door relief.&rdquo; In New York state, in the
+city of New York, including Brooklyn, the distribution of out-door
+relief by the department of charities is forbidden, except
+for purposes of transportation and for the adult blind. Most
+counties in the state have an almshouse, and the county superintendents
+and overseers of the poor &ldquo;furnish necessary relief to
+such of the county poor as may require only temporary assistance,
+or are so disabled that they cannot be safely removed to the
+almshouse.&rdquo; Public attention is in many cases being drawn
+to the inutility and injury of out-door relief.</p>
+
+<p>In some states and cities the system of subsidizing voluntary
+institutions is in full force, and it is in force also in many English
+colonies. At first sight it has the advantage of providing relief
+for public purposes without the creation of a new staff or establishment.
+There is thus an apparent economy. But the evils
+are many. Political partisanship and favour may influence the
+amount and disposition of the grants. The grants act as a
+bounty on the establishment and continuance of charitable
+institutions, homes for children, hospitals, &amp;c., but not on the
+expansion of the voluntary charitable funds and efforts that
+should maintain them; and thus charitable homes exist in which
+charity in its truer sense may have little part, but in which the
+chief motive of the administration may be to support sectarian
+interests by public subsidies. Claimants for relief have little
+scruple in turning such institutions to their own account; and
+the institutions, being financially irresponsible, are not in these
+circumstances scrupulous on their side to prevent a misdirection
+of their bounties. &ldquo;Parents unload their children upon the
+community more recklessly when they know that such children
+will be provided for in private orphan asylums and protectories,
+where the religious training that the parents prefer will be given
+them&rdquo; (Amos G. Warner, in <i>International Congress: Charities
+and Correction</i>, 1893). Past history in New York city illustrates
+the same evil. The admission was entirely in the hands of the
+managers. They admitted; the city paid. In New York city
+the population between 1870 and 1890 increased about 80%;
+the subsidies for prisoners and public paupers increased by 43%,
+but those for paupers in private institutions increased from
+$334,828 to $1,845,872, or about 461%. The total was at that
+time $3,794,972; in 1898 it was rather less, $3,132,786. The
+alternative to this system is either the establishment of state or
+municipal institutions, and possibly in special cases payments
+to voluntary homes for the maintenance of inmates admitted at
+the request of a state authority, as at certified and other homes in
+England, with grants made conditional on the work being conducted
+on specified lines, and subject to a certain increasing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page891" id="page891"></a>891</span>
+amount of voluntary financial support; or a close general and
+financial inspection of charitable institutions&mdash;the method of
+reform adopted in New York; or payment for only those inmates
+who are sent by public authorities and admitted on their request.</p>
+
+<p>The enormous extent to which children&rsquo;s aid societies have
+been increased in the United States, sometimes with the help of
+considerable public grants, suggests the greatest need for caution
+from the point of the preservation of the family as the central
+element of social strength in the community. The problem of
+charity in relation to medical relief in the large towns of the
+United States is similar to that of England; its difficulties are
+alike.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;As good translations of the classics become accessible
+it is easy for the general reader or student to combine a
+study of the principles of charity in relation to the community with
+a study of history. Thus, and in connexion with special investigations
+and the conditions of practical charity, social economics
+may best be studied. In N. Masterman, <i>Chalmers on Charity</i> (1900);
+T. Mackay, <i>Methods of Social Reform</i> (1896); B. Bosanquet and
+others, <i>Some Aspects of the Social Problem</i> (1894); and C.S. Loch,
+<i>Methods of Social Advance</i> (1904), this point of view is generally
+assumed. Special investigations of importance may be found in the
+reports of medical officers of health. See Report of Committee on
+Physical Deterioration referred to above, and, for instance, Dr Newsholme&rsquo;s
+<i>Vital Statistics</i> and Charles Booth&rsquo;s <i>Labour and Life in
+London</i>. For the history of charity there is no good single work.
+On details there are many good articles in Daremberg&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary
+of Classical Antiquities</i>, and similar works. <i>Modern Methods of
+Charity</i>, by C.H. Henderson and others (1904), supplies much
+general information in regard to poor relief and charity in different
+countries. Apart from books and official documents mentioned
+in the text as indicating the present state of charitable and public
+relief, or as aids to practical work, the following may be of service.
+England:&mdash;<i>Annual Charities&rsquo; Register and Digest, with Introduction
+on &ldquo;How to help Cases of Distress&rdquo;</i>; the <i>Charity Organization
+Review; Occasional Papers</i> (3 vols.), published by the London
+Charity Organization Society (1896-1906); <i>Reports of Proceedings
+of Conferences of Poor-Law Guardians; The Strength of the People</i>,
+by Helen Bosanquet; <i>Homes of the London Poor</i> and <i>Our Common
+Land</i>, by Miss Octavia Hill; <i>The Queen&rsquo;s Poor</i>, by M. Loane. United
+States of America:&mdash;<i>The Proceedings of the International Conference
+on Charities and Correction</i> (1894), and the proceedings of the annual
+conferences; <i>Friendly Visiting among the Poor</i>, by Mary E. Richmond
+(1899); <i>American Charities</i>, by Amos G. Warner (1908);
+<i>The Practice of Charity</i>, by E.T. Devine; <i>Handworterbuch der
+Staatswissenschaften</i>, by Dr J. Conrad, &amp;c., vol. ii.; <i>Das Armenwesen
+in den Vereinigten Staaten von America</i>, by Dr Francis G. Peabody
+(1897); the <i>Charities Review</i>, published monthly by the New York
+Charity Organization Society; the Papers and Reports of the Boston
+and Baltimore societies. France:&mdash;<i>La Bibliographie charitable</i>, by
+Camille Granier (1891); <i>La Charité avant et depuis 1789</i>, by P.
+Hubert Valleroux; Fascicules of the <i>Conseil supérieur de l&rsquo;assistance
+publique, Revue d&rsquo;assistance</i>, published by the <i>Société Internationale
+pour l&rsquo;étude des questions d&rsquo;assistance</i>. Germany:&mdash;Reports and Proceedings
+of the <i>Deutsche Vereine für Armenpflege und Wohltätigkeit;
+Die Armenpflege</i>, a practical handbook, by Dr E. Münsterberg (1897).
+Austria:&mdash;<i>Österreichs Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen, 1848-1898</i>, by Dr
+Ernest Mischler (1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. S. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARIVARI,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> a French term of uncertain origin, but probably
+onomatopoeic, for a mock serenade &ldquo;rough music,&rdquo; made by
+beating on kettles, fire-irons, tea-trays or what not. The
+charivari was anciently in France a regular wedding custom, all
+bridal couples being thus serenaded. Later it was reserved for
+ill-assorted and unpopular marriages, for widows or widowers
+who remarried too soon, and generally as a mockery for all who
+were unpopular. At the beginning of the 17th century, wedding
+charivaris were forbidden by the Council of Tours under pain of
+excommunication, but the custom still lingers in rural districts.
+The French of Louisiana and Canada introduced the charivari
+into America, where it became known under the corrupted name
+of &ldquo;shivaree.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARKHARI,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of
+Central India. Area, 745 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 123,594; estimated
+revenue £33,000. It is surrounded on all sides by other states of
+Central India, except near Charkhari town, where it meets the
+United Provinces. It was founded by Bijai Bahadur (vikramaditya),
+a <i>sanad</i> being granted him in 1804 and another in 1811.
+The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the Bundela
+clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the independence
+of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. In 1857 Raja
+Ratan Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a <i>khilat</i> and
+a perpetual <i>jagir</i> of £1300 a year in recognition of his services
+during the Mutiny. The town of Charkhari (locally <i>Maharajnagar</i>)
+is 40 m. W. of Banda; pop. (1901) 11,718.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLATAN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (Ital. <i>ciarlatano</i>, from <i>ciarlare</i>, to chatter),
+originally one who &ldquo;patters&rdquo; to a crowd to sell his wares, like a
+&ldquo;cheap-jack&rdquo; or &ldquo;quack&rdquo; doctor&mdash;&ldquo;quack&rdquo; being similarly
+derived from the noise made by a duck; so an impostor who
+pretends to have some special skill or knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMAGNE<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles the Great</span>] (c. 742-814), Roman
+emperor, and king of the Franks, was the elder son of Pippin the
+Short, king of the Franks, and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of
+Charibert, count of Laon. The place of his birth is unknown and
+its date uncertain, although some authorities give it as the 2nd of
+April 742; doubts have been cast upon his legitimacy, and it is
+just possible that the marriage of Pippin and Bertha took place
+subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When Pippin was
+crowned king of the Franks at St Denis on the 28th of July 754
+by Pope Stephen II., Charles, and his brother Carloman were
+anointed by the pope as a sign of their kingly rank. The rough
+surroundings of the Frankish court were unfavourable to the
+acquisition of learning, and Charles grew up almost ignorant of
+letters, but hardy in body and skilled in the use of weapons.</p>
+
+<p>In 761 he accompanied his father on a campaign in Aquitaine,
+and in 763 undertook the government of several counties. In
+768 Pippin divided his dominions between his two sons, and on his
+death soon afterwards Charles became the ruler of the northern
+portion of the Frankish kingdom, and was crowned at Noyon on
+the 9th of October 768. Bad feeling had existed for some time
+between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles early in 769
+was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother
+refused to afford him any assistance. This rebellion, however,
+was easily crushed, its leader, the Aquitainian duke Hunold, was
+made prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the
+Frankish kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a
+temporary reconciliation between her sons, overcame the repugnance
+with which Pope Stephen III. regarded an alliance
+between Frank and Lombard, and brought about a marriage
+between Charles and a daughter of Desiderius, king of the
+Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a union, probably
+of an irregular nature, with a Frankish lady named Himiltrude,
+who had borne him a son Pippin, the &ldquo;Hunchback.&rdquo; The peace
+with the Lombards, in which the Bavarians as allies of Desiderius
+joined, was, however, soon broken. Charles thereupon repudiated
+his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and married in
+771 a princess of the Alamanni named Hildegarde. Carloman
+died in December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at
+Corbeny as sole king of the Franks. Carloman&rsquo;s widow Gerberga
+had fled to the protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her
+cause and requested the new pope, Adrian I., to recognize her two
+sons as the lawful Frankish kings. Adrian, between whom and
+the Lombards other causes of quarrel existed, refused to assent
+to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded the papal territories
+he appealed to the Frankish king for help. Charles, who
+was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign, expostulated
+with Desiderius; but when such mild measures
+proved useless he led his forces across the Alps in 773. Gerberga
+and her children were delivered up and disappear from history;
+the siege of Pavia was undertaken; and at Easter 774 the king
+left the seat of war and visited Rome, where he was received with
+great respect.</p>
+
+<p>During his stay in the city Charles renewed the donation which
+his father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This
+transaction has given rise to much discussion as to its trustworthiness
+and the extent of its operation. Our only authority,
+a passage in the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>, describes the gift as including
+the whole of Italy and Corsica, except the lands north of the Po,
+Calabria and the city of Naples. The vast extent of this donation,
+which, moreover, included territories not owning Charles&rsquo;s
+authority, and the fact that the king did not execute, or
+apparently attempt to execute, its provisions, has caused many
+scholars to look upon the passage as a forgery; but the better
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page892" id="page892"></a>892</span>
+opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a
+genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The
+area of the grant may have been enlarged by later interpolations;
+or it may have dealt with property rather than with
+sovereignty, and have only referred to estates claimed by the
+pope in the territories named; or it is possible that Charles may
+have actually intended to establish an extensive papal kingdom
+in Italy, but was released from his promise by Adrian when the
+pope saw no chance of its fulfilment. Another supposition is that the
+author of the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i> gives the papal interpretation
+of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in ambiguous
+terms; and this view is supported by the history of the
+subsequent controversy between king and pope.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to the scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the
+capitulation of Pavia in June 774, and the capture of Desiderius,
+who was sent into a monastery. He now took the title &ldquo;king of
+the Lombards,&rdquo; to which he added the dignity of &ldquo;Patrician of
+the Romans,&rdquo; which had been granted to his father. Adalgis,
+the son of Desiderius, who was residing at Constantinople, hoped
+the emperor Leo IV. would assist him in recovering his father&rsquo;s
+kingdom; but a coalition formed for this purpose was ineffectual,
+and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of Friuli, was easily
+crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was visited at Paderborn
+by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid against
+Abd-ar-Rahman, the caliph of Cordova, and promised some Spanish
+cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his
+influence Charles marched into Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna,
+but meeting with some checks decided to return. As the Frankish
+forces were defiling through the passes of the Pyrenees they were
+attacked by the Wascones (probably Basques), and the rear-guard
+of the army was almost annihilated. It was useless to
+attempt to avenge this disaster, which occurred on the 15th of
+August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly as he came;
+the incident has passed from the domain of history into that of
+legend and romance, being associated by tradition with the pass
+of Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland, or Roland,
+margrave of the Breton march, whose death gave rise to the
+<i>Chanson de Roland</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland, Legend of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where
+Frankish counts were set over various districts, and where
+Hildebrand, duke of Spoleto, appears to have recognized his
+overlordship. In 780 he was again in the peninsula, and at
+Mantua issued an important <i>capitulary</i> which increased the
+authority of the Lombard bishops, relieved freemen who under
+stress of famine had sold themselves into servitude, and
+condemned abuses of the system of vassalage. At the same time
+commerce was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized
+tolls and by an improvement of the coinage; while the sale of
+arms to hostile peoples, and the trade in Christian slaves were
+forbidden. Proceeding to Rome, the king appears to have
+come to some arrangement with Adrian about the donation of
+774. At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde,
+was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian,
+and his youngest son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine;
+but no mention was made at the time of his eldest son Charles,
+who was doubtless intended to be king of the Franks. In 783
+the king, having lost his wife Hildegarde, married Fastrada,
+the daughter of a Frankish count named Radolf; and in the
+same year his mother Bertha died. The emperor Constantine VI.
+was at this time exhibiting some interest in Italian affairs, and
+Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so Charles
+sought to avert danger from this quarter by consenting in 781 to
+a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude.
+In 786 the entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of
+Arichis II., duke of Benevento, a son-in-law of Desiderius, called
+the king again into Italy. Arichis submitted without a struggle,
+though the basis of Frankish authority in his duchy was far from
+secure; but in conjunction with Adalgis he sought aid from
+Constantinople. His plans were ended by his death in 787, and
+although the empress Irene, the real ruler of the eastern empire,
+broke off the projected marriage between her son and Rothrude,
+she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis,
+whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit
+Charles had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrangement
+soon arose between king and pope over the claim of Charles
+to confirm the election to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and it
+was accentuated by Adrian&rsquo;s objection to the establishment by
+Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of Benevento, in succession to
+his father Arichis.</p>
+
+<p>These journeys and campaigns, however, were but interludes
+in the long and stubborn struggle between Charles and the Saxons,
+which began in 772 and ended in 804 with the incorporation of
+Saxony in the Carolingian empire (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saxony</a></span>). This contest,
+in which the king himself took a very active part, brought the
+Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe dwelling east of the
+Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A similar sequence
+of events took place in southern Germany. Tassilo III., duke of
+the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a line of
+conduct inconsistent with his allegiance to Charles, was deposed
+in 788 and his duchy placed under the rule of Gerold, a
+brother-in-law of Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bavaria</a></span>). Having thus taken upon himself the control of
+Bavaria, Charles felt himself responsible for protecting its
+eastern frontier, which had long been menaced by the Avars,
+a people inhabiting the region now known as Hungary. He
+accordingly ravaged their country in 791 at the head of an army
+containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors,
+which penetrated as far as the Raab; and he spent the following
+year in Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them,
+the conduct of which, however, he was compelled by further
+trouble in Saxony to entrust to his son king Pippin, and to Eric,
+margrave of Friuli. These deputies succeeded in 795 and 796
+in taking possession of the vast treasures of the Avars, which
+were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to churches,
+courtiers and friends. A conspiracy against Charles, which his
+friend and biographer Einhard alleges was provoked by the
+cruelties of Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty
+in 792, and its leader, the king&rsquo;s illegitimate son Pippin, was
+confined in a monastery till his death in 811. Fastrada died in
+August 794, when Charles took for his fourth wife an Alamannian
+lady named Liutgarde.</p>
+
+<p>The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical
+affairs was shown at the synod of Frankfort, over which he
+presided in 794. It was on his initiative that this synod
+condemned the heresy of <i>adoptianism</i> and the worship of images,
+which had been restored in 787 by the second council of Nicaea;
+and at the same time that council was declared to have been
+superfluous. This policy caused a further breach with Pope
+Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor,
+Leo III., in notifying his elevation to the king, sent him the keys
+of St Peter&rsquo;s grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles
+to send an envoy to receive his oath of fidelity. There is no
+doubt that Leo recognized Charles as sovereign of Rome. He
+was the first pope to date his acts according to the years of the
+Frankish monarchy, and a mosaic of the time in the Lateran
+palace represents St Peter bestowing the banners upon Charles
+as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued by
+the pope bears witness to the same idea. Leo soon had occasion
+to invoke the aid of his protector. In 799, after he had been
+attacked and maltreated in the streets of Rome during a procession,
+he escaped to the king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him
+back to Italy escorted by some of his most trusted servants.
+Taking the same journey himself shortly afterwards, the king
+reached Rome in 800 for the purpose (as he declared) of restoring
+discipline in the church. His authority was undisputed; and
+after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain charges made
+against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his leading
+opponents.</p>
+
+<p>The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding
+Christmas Day, when Charles on rising from prayer in St Peter&rsquo;s
+was crowned by Leo and proclaimed emperor and <i>augustus</i>
+amid the acclamations of the crowd. This act can hardly have
+been unpremeditated, and some doubt has been cast upon the
+statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that he would not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page893" id="page893"></a>893</span>
+have entered the building had he known of the intention of Leo.
+He accepted the dignity at any rate without demur, and there
+seems little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining,
+this title had previously been discussed. His policy had been
+steadily leading up to this position, which was rather the
+emblem of the power he already held than an extension of the
+area of his authority. It is probable therefore that Charles
+either considered the coronation premature, as he was hoping
+to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that,
+from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope
+to crown the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the
+evidence tends to show that it was the time or manner of the
+act rather than the act itself which aroused his temporary
+displeasure. Contemporary accounts lay stress upon the fact
+that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople being under
+the rule of Irene, it seemed good to Leo and his counsellors and
+the &ldquo;rest of the Christian people&rdquo; to choose Charles, already
+ruler of Rome, to fill the vacant office. However doubtful such
+conjectures concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that
+immediately after his coronation Charles sought to establish
+friendly relations with Constantinople, and even suggested a
+marriage between himself and Irene, as he had again become a
+widower in 800. The deposition and death of the empress foiled
+this plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between the
+two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led
+to an arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor,
+Nicephorus I. The death of Nicephorus and the accession of
+Michael I. did not interfere with the relations, and in 812 an
+embassy from Constantinople arrived at Aix-la-Chapelle, when
+Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return agreed to
+cede Venice and Dalmatia to Michael.</p>
+
+<p>Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused
+the emperor to alter somewhat his manner of life. No longer
+leading his armies in person he entrusted the direction of
+campaigns in various parts of his empire to his sons and other
+lieutenants, and from his favourite residence at Aix watched their
+progress with a keen and sustained interest. In 802 he ordered
+that a new oath of fidelity to him as emperor should be taken by
+all his subjects over twelve years of age. In 804 he was visited
+by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with gifts. Before
+his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into communications
+with the caliph of Bagdad, Harun-al-Rashid, probably in
+order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received
+an embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the
+patriarch of Jerusalem sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre;
+and in 807 Harun not only sent further gifts, but appears to
+have confirmed the emperor&rsquo;s rights in Jerusalem, which, however,
+probably amounted to no more than an undefined protectorate
+over the Christians in that part of the world. While thus
+extending his influence even into Asia, there was scarcely any
+part of Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself
+felt. He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles,
+but he continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that
+country. In 798 he had concluded an alliance with Alphonso II.,
+king of the Asturias, and a series of campaigns mainly under the
+leadership of King Louis resulted in the establishment of the
+&ldquo;Spanish march,&rdquo; a district between the Pyrenees and the Ebro
+stretching from Pampeluna to Barcelona, as a defence against
+the Saracens. In 799 the Balearic Islands had been handed over
+to Charles, and a long warfare was carried on both by sea and
+land between Frank and Saracen until 810, when peace was made
+between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy
+was equally the scene of continuous fighting. Grimoald of Benevento
+rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice
+and Dalmatia was disputed by the two empires; and Istria
+was brought into subjection.</p>
+
+<p>With England the emperor had already entered into relations,
+and at one time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles
+and a daughter of Offa, king of the Mercians. English exiles
+were welcomed at his court; he was mainly instrumental in
+restoring Eardwulf to the throne of Northumbria in 809; and
+Einhard includes the Scots within the sphere of his influence.
+In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves completely
+under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 805
+and 806 had met with some success, and about the same time
+the land of the Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western extremity
+of the continent the Breton nobles had done homage
+to Charles at Tours in 800. Thus the emperor&rsquo;s dominions now
+stretched from the Eider to the Ebro, and from the Atlantic to
+the Elbe, the Saale and the Raab, and they also included the
+greater part of Italy; while even beyond these bounds he exercised
+an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 806 Charles
+arranged a division of his territories among his three legitimate
+sons, but this arrangement came to nothing owing to the death
+of Pippin in 810, and of the younger Charles in the following
+year. Charles then named his remaining son Louis as his successor;
+and at his father&rsquo;s command Louis took the crown from
+the altar and placed it upon his own head. This ceremony took
+place at Aix on the 11th of September 813. In 808 the Frankish
+authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod
+(Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts
+and spoke boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To ward off
+these attacks Charles took a warm interest in the building of a
+fleet, which he reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had
+been killed, and his successor Hemming made peace with the
+emperor.</p>
+
+<p>In 811 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated
+the possibility of abdication. The bulk of his possessions were
+left to the twenty-one metropolitan churches of his dominions,
+and the remainder to his children, his servants and the poor.
+In his last years he passed most of his days at Aix, though
+he had sufficient energy to take the field for a short time during
+the Danish War. Early in 814 he was attacked by a fever which
+he sought to subdue by fasting; but pleurisy supervened, and
+after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of January
+814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of
+St Mary at Aix. In the year 1000 his tomb was opened by the
+emperor Otto III., but the account that Otto found the body
+upright upon a throne with a golden crown on the head and holding
+a golden sceptre in the hands, is generally regarded as legendary.
+The tomb was again opened by the emperor Frederick I.
+in 1165, when the remains were removed from a marble sarcophagus
+and placed in a wooden coffin. Fifty years later they were
+transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid
+shrine, in which the relics are still exhibited once in every six
+years. The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may
+still be seen at Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in
+the imperial treasury at Vienna. In 1165 Charles was canonized
+by the antipope Paschal III. at the instance of the emperor
+Frederick I., and Louis XI. of France gave strict orders that the
+feast of the saint should be observed.</p>
+
+<p>The personal appearance of Charles is thus described by
+Einhard:&mdash;&ldquo;Big and robust in frame, he was tall, but not
+excessively so, measuring about seven of his own feet in height.
+His eyes were large and lustrous, his nose rather long and
+his countenance bright and cheerful.&rdquo; He had a commanding
+presence, a clear but somewhat feeble voice, and in later life
+became rather corpulent. His health was uniformly good, owing
+perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to
+his love for hunting and swimming. He was an affectionate
+father, and loved to pass his time in the company of his children,
+to whose education he paid the closest attention. His sons were
+trained for war and the chase, and his daughters instructed in the
+spinning of wool and other feminine arts. His ideas of sexual
+morality were primitive. Many concubines are spoken of, he
+had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his daughters
+were very loose. He was a regular observer of religious rites,
+took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church,
+and was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and
+without. He reformed the Frankish liturgy, and brought singers
+from Rome to improve the services of the church. He had
+considerable knowledge of theology, took a prominent part in the
+theological controversies of the time, and was responsible for the
+addition of the clause <i>filioque</i> to the Nicene Creed. The most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page894" id="page894"></a>894</span>
+attractive feature of his character, however, was his love of
+learning. In addition to his native tongue he could read Latin and
+understood Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard
+gives an account of his futile efforts to learn this art in later life.
+He loved the reading of histories and astronomy, and by questioning
+travellers gained some knowledge of distant parts of the
+earth. He attended lectures on grammar, and his favourite
+work was St Augustine&rsquo;s <i>De civitate Dei</i>. He caused Frankish
+sagas to be collected, began a grammar of his native tongue, and
+spent some of his last hours in correcting a text of the Vulgate.
+He delighted in the society of scholars&mdash;Alcuin, Angilbert, Paul
+the Lombard, Peter of Pisa and others, and in this company the
+trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known
+simply as David. Under his patronage Alcuin organized the
+school of the palace, where the royal children were taught in the
+company of others, and founded a school at Tours which became
+the model for many other establishments. Charles was unwearying
+in his efforts to improve the education of clergy and
+laity, and in 789 ordered that schools should be established in
+every diocese. The atmosphere of these schools was strictly
+ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were
+often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of
+Charles will not be doubted when one considers the rude condition
+of Frankish society half a century before. The main work
+of the Carolingian renaissance was to restore Latin to its
+position as a literary language, and to reintroduce a correct
+system of spelling and an improved handwriting. The
+manuscripts of the time are accurate and artistic, copies of
+valuable books were made and by careful collation the texts
+were purified.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was not a great warrior. His victories were won rather
+by the power of organization, which he possessed in a marked
+degree, and he was eager to seize ideas and prompt in their
+execution. He erected a stone bridge with wooden piers across
+the Rhine at Mainz, and began a canal between the Altmühl and
+the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the Danube, but this work
+was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite residence),
+Nijmwegen and Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary
+at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned
+with columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He
+loved the simple dress and manners of the Franks, and on two
+occasions only did he assume the more stately attire of a Roman
+noble. The administrative system of Charles in church and
+state was largely personal, and he brought to the work an untiring
+industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He admonished
+the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and
+work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations
+of church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries,
+was lavish in his gifts to ecclesiastical foundations, and chose
+bishops and abbots for administrative work. As the real
+founder of the ecclesiastical state, he must be held mainly
+responsible for the evils which resulted from the policy of
+the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the secular
+authority.</p>
+
+<p>In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed
+counts over districts smaller than the former duchies, and
+supervised their government by means of <i>missi dominici</i>,
+officials responsible to himself alone. Marches were formed on all the
+borders of the empire, and the exigencies of military service
+led to the growth of a system of land-tenure which contained
+the germ of feudalism. The assemblies of the people gradually
+changed their character under his rule. No longer did the nation
+come together to direct and govern, but the emperor summoned
+his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in
+commerce and agriculture, Charles issued various regulations
+for the organization of the one and the improvement of the other.
+He introduced a new system of weights and measures, which he
+ordered should be used throughout his kingdom, and took steps
+to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous lawgiver. Without
+abolishing the customary law of the German tribes, which is
+said to have been committed to writing by his orders, he
+added to it by means of <i>capitularies</i>, and thus introduced
+certain Christian principles and customs, and some degree of
+uniformity.</p>
+
+<p>The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell
+on western Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors
+was to restore it to its pristine position and influence, while
+many of the French rulers made its re-establishment the goal of
+their policy. Otto the Great to a considerable extent succeeded;
+Louis XIV. referred frequently to the empire of Charlemagne;
+and Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and predecessor.
+The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting. In spite of his
+own wonderful genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his
+lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism
+was present, and there was no real bond of union between the
+different races that acknowledged his authority. All the vigilance
+of the emperor could not restrain the dishonesty and the
+cupidity of his servants, and no sooner was the strong hand of
+their ruler removed than they began to acquire territorial power
+for themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The chief authorities for the life and times of
+Charlemagne are Einhard&rsquo;s <i>Vita Karoli Magni</i>,
+the <i>Annales Laurissenses majores</i>,
+the <i>Annales Fuldenses</i>, and other annals,
+which are published in the <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>.
+<i>Scriptores</i>, Band i. and ii., edited by G.H. Pertz
+(Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).
+For the capitularies see <i>Capitularia regum Francorum</i>,
+edited by A. Boretius in the <i>Monumenta. Leges</i>.
+Many of the songs of the period appear in the <i>Poetae Latini
+aevi Carolini</i>, edited by E. Dümmler (Berlin, 1881-1884). The
+<i>Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum</i>, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffé
+(Berlin, 1864-1873), contains some of the emperor&rsquo;s correspondence,
+and Hincmar&rsquo;s <i>De ordine palatii</i>, edited by M. Prou
+(Paris, 1884), is also valuable.</p>
+
+<p>The best modern authorities are S. Abel and B. Simson, <i>Jahrbücher
+des fränkischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen</i> (Leipzig, 1883-1888);
+G. Richter and H. Kohl, <i>Annalen des fränkischen Reichs im Zeitalter
+der Karolinger</i> (Halle, 1885-1887);
+E. Mühlbacher, <i>Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolingern</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1886);
+H. Brosien, <i>Karl der Grosse</i> (Leipzig and Prague, 1885);
+J.I. Mombert, <i>History of Charles the Great</i> (London, 1888);
+M. Lipp, <i>Das fränkische Grenzsystem unter Karl dem Grossen</i>
+(Breslau, 1892);
+J. von Döllinger, <i>Das Kaiserthum Karls des Grossen
+und seiner Nachfolger</i> (Munich, 1864);
+F. von Wyss, <i>Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber</i> (Zürich, 1869);
+Th. Sickel, <i>Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger</i>
+(Vienna, 1867);
+E. Dümmler in the <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, Band xv.;
+Th. Lindner, <i>Die Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen</i>
+(Aix-la-Chapelle, 1893);
+J.A. Ketterer, <i>Karl der Grosse und die Kirche</i>
+(Munich and Leipzig, 1898);
+and J.B. Mullinger, <i>The Schools of Charles the Great and the
+Restoration of Education in the 9th century</i> (London, 1877).</p>
+
+<p>The work of the monk of St Gall is found in the <i>Monumenta</i>, Band
+ii.; an edition of the <i>Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi</i>,
+edited by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition
+of the <i>Kaiserchronik</i>, edited by E. Schröder (Hanover, 1892).
+See also P. Clemen, <i>Die Porträtdarstellung Karls des Grossen</i>
+(Aix-la-Chapelle, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">The Charlemagne Legends</p>
+
+<p>Innumerable legends soon gathered round the memory of the
+great emperor. He was represented as a warrior performing
+superhuman feats, as a ruler dispensing perfect justice, and even
+as a martyr suffering for the faith. It was confidently believed
+towards the close of the 10th century that he had made a
+pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and, like many other great rulers, it
+was reported that he was only sleeping to awake in the hour of
+his country&rsquo;s need. We know from Einhard (<i>Vita Karoli</i>, cap.
+xxix.) that the Frankish heroic ballads were drawn up in writing
+by Charlemagne&rsquo;s order, and it may be accepted as certain
+that he was himself the subject of many such during his lifetime.
+The legendary element crept even into the Latin panegyrics
+produced by the court poets. Before the end of the 9th century
+a monk of St Gall drew up a chronicle <i>De gestis Karoli Magni</i>,
+which was based partly on oral tradition, received from an old
+soldier named Adalbert, who had served in Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+army. This recital contains various fabulous incidents. The
+author relates a conversation between Otkar the Frank (Ogier
+the Dane) and the Lombard king Desiderius (Didier) on the walls
+of Pavia in view of Charlemagne&rsquo;s advancing army. To Didier&rsquo;s
+repeated question &ldquo;Is this the emperor?&rdquo; Otkar continues
+to answer &ldquo;Not yet,&rdquo; adding at last &ldquo;When thou shalt see
+the fields bristling with an iron harvest, and the Po and the
+Ticino swollen with sea-floods, inundating the walls of the city
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page895" id="page895"></a>895</span>
+with iron billows, then shall Karl be nigh at hand.&rdquo; This episode,
+which bears the marks of popular heroic poetry, may well be the
+substance of a lost Carolingian <i>cantilena</i>.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The legendary Charlemagne and his warriors were endowed
+with the great deeds of earlier kings and heroes of the Frankish
+kingdom, for the romancers were not troubled by considerations
+of chronology. National traditions extending over centuries were
+grouped round Charlemagne, his father Pippin, and his son Louis.
+The history of Charles Martel especially was absorbed in the
+Charlemagne legend. But if Charles&rsquo;s name was associated
+with the heroism of his predecessors he was credited with equal
+readiness with the weaknesses of his successors. In the earlier
+<i>chansons de geste</i> he is invariably a majestic figure and represents
+within limitations the grandeur of the historic Charles. But in
+the histories of the wars with his vassals he is often little more
+than a tyrannical dotard, who is made to submit to gross insult.
+This picture of affairs is drawn from later times, and the sympathies
+of the poet are generally with the rebels against the
+monarchy. Historical tradition was already dim when the
+hypothetical and much discussed <i>cantilenae</i>, which may be taken
+to have formed the repository of the national legends from the
+8th to the 10th century, were succeeded in the 11th and the
+early l2th centuries by the <i>chansons de geste</i>. The early poems
+of the cycle sometimes contain curious information on the
+Frankish methods in war, in council and in judicial procedure,
+which had no parallels in contemporary institutions. The account
+in the <i>Chanson de Roland</i> of the trial of Ganelon after the
+battle of Roncesvalles must have been adopted almost intact from
+earlier poets, and provides a striking example of the value of the
+<i>chansons de geste</i> to the historian of manners and customs.
+In general, however, the trouvère depicted the feeling and
+manners of his own time.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne&rsquo;s wars in Italy, Spain and Saxony formed part
+of the common epic material, and there are references to his
+wars against the Slavs; but especially he remained in the popular
+mind as the great champion of Christianity against the creed
+of Mahomet, and even his Norman and Saxon enemies became
+Saracens in current legend. He is the Christian emperor directly
+inspired by angels; his sword Joyeuse contained the point
+of the lance used in the Passion; his standard was Romaine, the
+banner of St Peter, which, as the oriflamme of Saint Denis, was
+later to be borne in battle before the kings of France; and in
+1164 Charles was canonized at the desire of the emperor Frederick
+I. Barbarossa by the anti-pope Pascal III. This gave him no
+real claim to saintship, but his festival was observed in some
+places until comparatively recent times. Charlemagne was
+endowed with the good and bad qualities of the epic king, and
+as in the case of Agamemnon and Arthur, his exploits paled
+beside those of his chief warriors. These were not originally
+known as the twelve peers<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> famous in later Carolingian romance.
+The twelve peers were in the first instance the companions in
+arms of Roland in the Teutonic sense.<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The idea of the paladins
+forming an association corresponding to the Arthurian Round
+Table first appears in the romance of <i>Fierabras</i>. The lists of
+them are very various, but all include the names of Roland and
+Oliver. The chief heroes who fought Charlemagne&rsquo;s battles
+were Roland; Ganelon, afterwards the traitor; Turpin, the
+fighting archbishop of Reims; Duke Naimes of Bavaria, the
+wise counsellor who is always on the side of justice; Ogier
+the Dane, the hero of a whole series of romances; and Guillaume
+of Toulouse, the defender of Narbonne. Gradually most of the
+<i>chansons de geste</i> were attached to the name of Charlemagne,
+whose poetical history falls into three cycles:&mdash;the <i>geste du roi</i>,
+relating his wars and the personal history of himself and his
+family; the southern cycle, of which Guillaume de Toulouse is
+the central figure; and the feudal epic, dealing with the revolts
+of the barons against the emperor, the rebels being invariably
+connected by the trouverès with the family of Doon de Mayence (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The earliest poems of the cycle are naturally the closest to
+historical truth. The central point of the <i>geste du roi</i> is the
+11th-century <i>Chanson de Roland</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland, Legend of</a></span>), one of
+the greatest of medieval poems. Strangely enough the defeat
+of Roncesvalles, which so deeply impressed the popular mind,
+has not a corresponding importance in real history. But it
+chanced to find as its exponent a poet whose genius established
+a model for his successors, and definitely fixed the type of later
+heroic poems. The other early <i>chansons</i> to which reference is
+made in <i>Roland&mdash;Aspremont, Enfances Ogier, Guiteclin, Balan</i>,
+relating to Charlemagne&rsquo;s wars in Italy and Saxony&mdash;are not
+preserved in their original form, and only the first in an early
+recension. <i>Basin</i> or <i>Carl el Élégast</i> (preserved in Dutch and
+Icelandic), the <i>Voyage de Charlemagne à Jerusalem</i> and <i>Le
+Couronnement Looys</i> also belong to the heroic period. The purely
+fictitious and romantic tales added to the personal history of
+Charlemagne and his warriors in the 13th century are inferior
+in manner, and belong to the decadence of romance. The old
+tales, very much distorted in the 15th-century prose versions,
+were to undergo still further degradation in 18th-century compilations.</p>
+
+<p>According to <i>Berte aus grans piés</i>, in the 13th-century
+<i>remaniement</i> of the Brabantine trouvère Adenès li Rois, Charlemagne
+was the son of Pippin and of Berte, the daughter of Flore and
+Blanchefleur, king and queen of Hungary. The tale bears marks
+of high antiquity, and presents one of the few incidents in the
+French cycle which may be referred to a mythic origin. On the
+night of Berte&rsquo;s marriage a slave, Margiste, is substituted for
+her, and reigns in her place for nine years, at the expiration of
+which Blanchefleur exposes the deception; whereupon Berte is
+restored from her refuge in the forest to her rightful place as
+queen. <i>Mainet</i> (12th century) and the kindred poems in German
+and Italian are perhaps based on the adventures of Charles
+Martel, who after his father&rsquo;s death had to flee to the Ardennes.
+They relate that, after the death of his parents, Charles was
+driven by the machinations of the two sons of Margiste to take
+refuge in Spain, where he accomplished his <i>enfances</i> (youthful
+exploits) with the Mussulman king Galafre under the feigned
+name of Mainet. He delivered Rome from the besieging Saracens,
+and returned to France in triumph. But his wife Galienne,
+daughter of Galafre, whom he had converted to the Christian
+faith, died on her way to rejoin him. Charlemagne then made
+an expedition to Italy (<i>Enfances Ogier</i> in the Venetian
+<i>Charlemagne</i>, and the first part of the <i>Chevalerie Ogier de
+Dannemarche</i> by Raimbert of Paris, 12th century) to raise the siege
+of Rome, which was besieged by the Saracen emir Corsuble. He crossed
+the Alps under the guidance of a white hart, miraculously sent
+to assist the passage of the army. <i>Aspremont</i> (12th century)
+describes a fictitious campaign against the Saracen King Agolant
+in Calabria, and is chiefly devoted to the <i>enfances</i> of Roland.
+The wars of Charlemagne with his vassals are described in
+<i>Girart de Roussillon, Renaus de Montauban</i>, recounting the deeds
+of the four sons of Aymon, <i>Huon de Bordeaux</i>, and in the latter
+part of the <i>Chevalerie Ogier</i>, which belong properly to the cycle
+connected with Doon of Mayence.</p>
+
+<p>The account of the pilgrimage of Charlemagne and his twelve
+paladins to the Holy Sepulchre must in its first form have been
+earlier than the Crusades, as the patriarch asks the emperor to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page896" id="page896"></a>896</span>
+free Spain, not the Holy Land, from the Saracens. The legend
+probably originated in a desire to authenticate the relics in the
+abbey of Saint Denis, supposed to have been brought to Aix by
+Charlemagne, and is preserved in a 12th-century romance, <i>Le
+Voyage de Charlemagne à Jerusalem et à Constantinople</i>.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> This
+journey forms the subject of a window in the cathedral of
+Chartres, and there was originally a similar one at Saint-Denis.
+On the way home Charles and his paladins visited the emperor
+Hugon at Constantinople, where they indulged in a series of
+<i>gabs</i> which they were made to carry out. <i>Galien</i>, a favourite
+15th-century romance, was attached to this episode, for Galien
+was the son of the amours of Oliver with Jacqueline, Hugon&rsquo;s
+daughter. The traditions of Charlemagne&rsquo;s fights with the
+Norsemen (Norois, Noreins) are preserved in <i>Aiquin</i> (12th
+century), which describes the emperor&rsquo;s reconquest of Armorica
+from the &ldquo;Saracen&rdquo; king Aiquin, and a disaster at Cézembre
+as terrible in its way as those of Roncesvalles and Aliscans. <i>La
+destruction de Rome</i> is a 13th-century version of the older <i>chanson</i>
+of the emir Balan, who collected an army in Spain and sailed to
+Rome. The defenders were overpowered and the city destroyed
+before the advent of Charlemagne, who, however, avenged the
+disaster by a great battle in Spain. The romance of <i>Fierabras</i>
+(13th century) was one of the most popular in the 15th century,
+and by later additions came to have pretensions to be a complete
+history of Charlemagne. The first part represents an episode
+in Spain three years before Roncesvalles, in which Oliver defeats
+the Saracen giant Fierabras in single combat, and converts him.
+The hero of the second part is Gui de Bourgogne, who recovers
+the relics of the Passion, lost in the siege of Rome. <i>Otinel</i> (13th
+century) is also pure fiction. <i>L&rsquo;Entrée en Espagne</i>, preserved in
+a 14th-century Italian compilation, relates the beginning of the
+Spanish War, the siege of Pampeluna, and the legendary combat
+of Roland with Ferragus. Charlemagne&rsquo;s march on Saragossa,
+and the capture of Huesca, Barcelona and Girone, gave rise to
+<i>La Prise de Pampelune</i> (14th century, based on a lost <i>chanson</i>);
+and <i>Gui de Bourgogne</i> (12th century) tells how the children of the
+barons, after appointing Guy as king of France, set out to find
+and rescue their fathers, who are represented as having been
+fighting in Spain for twenty-seven years. The <i>Chanson de Roland</i>
+relates the historic defeat of Roncesvalles on the 15th of August
+778, and forms the very crown of the whole Carolingian legend.
+The two 13th-century romances, <i>Gaidon</i>, by Herbert Leduc
+de Dammartin, and <i>Anséis de Carthage</i>, contain a purely fictitious
+account of the end of the war in Spain, and of the establishment
+of a Frankish kingdom under the rule of Anséis. Charlemagne
+was recalled from Spain by the news of the outbreak of the
+Saxons. The contest between Charlemagne and Widukind
+(<i>Guiteclin</i>) offered abundant epic material. Unfortunately the
+original <i>Guiteclin</i> is lost, but the legend is preserved in <i>Les
+Saisnes</i> (c. 1300) of Jehan Bodel, which is largely occupied by
+the loves of Baudouin and Sibille, the wife of Guiteclin. The
+adventures of Blanchefleur, wife of Charlemagne, form a variation
+of the common tale of the innocent wife falsely accused, and are told
+in <i>Macaire</i> and in the extant fragments of <i>La Reine Sibille</i>
+(14th century). After the conquest of the Saracens and the
+Saxons, the defeat of the Northmen, and the suppression of the
+feudal revolts, the emperor abdicated in favour of his son Louis
+(<i>Le Couronnement Looys</i>, 12th century). Charles&rsquo;s harangue to his
+son is in the best tradition of epic romance. The memory of
+Roncesvalles haunts him on his death-bed, and at the moment
+of death he has a vision of Roland.</p>
+
+<p>The mythic element is practically lacking in the French
+legends, but in Germany some part of the Odin myth was
+associated with Charles&rsquo;s name. The constellation of the Great
+Bear, generally associated with Odin, is Karlswagen in German,
+and Charles&rsquo;s Wain in English. According to tradition in Hesse,
+he awaits resurrection, probably symbolic of the triumph of the
+sun over winter, within the Gudensberg (Hill of Odin). Bavarian
+tradition asserts that he is seated in the Untersberg in a chair,
+as in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle. His white beard goes on growing,
+and when it has thrice encircled the stone table before him
+the end of the world will come; or, according to another version,
+Charles will arise and after fighting a great battle on the plain
+of Wals will reign over a new Germany. There were medieval
+chroniclers who did not fear to assert that Charles rose from
+the dead to take part in the Crusades. In the MS. <i>Annales S.
+Stephani Frisingenses</i> (15th century), which formerly belonged
+to the abbey of Weihenstephan, and is now at Munich, the
+childhood of Charlemagne is practically the same as that of many
+mythic heroes. This work, generally known as the chronicle
+of Weihenstephan, gives among other legends a curious history
+of the emperor&rsquo;s passion for a dead woman, caused by a charm
+given to Charles by a serpent to whom he had rendered justice.
+The charm was finally dropped into a well at Aix, which
+thenceforward became Charles&rsquo;s favourite residence. The story of
+Roland&rsquo;s birth from the union of Charles with his sister Gilles,
+also found in German and Scandinavian versions, has abundant
+parallels in mythology, and was probably transferred from
+mythology to Charlemagne.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin chronicle, wrongly ascribed to Turpin (Tilpinus),
+bishop of Reims from 753 to 800, was in reality later than
+the earlier poems of the French cycle, and the first properly
+authenticated mention of it is in 1165. Its primary object
+was to authenticate the relics of St James at Compostella.
+Alberic Trium Fontium, a monk of the Cistercian monastery of
+Trois Fontanes in the diocese of Châlons, embodied much
+poetical fiction in his chronicle (c. 1249). A large section of the
+<i>Chronique rimée</i> (c. 1243) of Philippe Mousket is devoted to
+Charlemagne&rsquo;s exploits. At the beginning of the 14th century
+Girard of Amiens made a dull compilation known as <i>Charlemagne</i>
+from the <i>chansons de gests</i>, authentic history and the pseudo-Turpin.
+<i>La Conqueste que fit le grand roi Charlemaigne es Espaignes</i>
+(pr. 1486) is the same work as the prose compilation of <i>Fierabras</i>
+(pr. 1478), and Caxton&rsquo;s <i>Lyf of Charles the Grete</i> (1485).</p>
+
+<p>The Charlemagne legend was fully developed in Italy, where it
+was to have later a great poetic development at the hands of
+Boiardo, Ariosto and Tasso. There are two important Italian
+compilations, MS. XIII. of the library of St Mark, Venice
+(c. 1200), and the <i>Reali di Francia</i> (c. 1400) of a Florentine
+writer, Andrea da Barberino (b. 1370), edited by G. Vandelli
+(Bologna, 1892). The six books of this work are rivalled in
+importance by the ten branches of the Norse <i>Karlamagnus saga</i>,
+written under the reign of Haakon V. This forms a consecutive
+legendary history of Charles, and is apparently based on earlier
+versions of the French Charlemagne poems than those which
+we possess. It thus furnishes a guide to the older forms of
+stories, and moreover preserves the substance of others which
+have not survived in their French form. A popular abridgment,
+the <i>Keiser Karl Magnus Krönike</i> (pr. Malmõ, 1534), drawn up
+in Danish, serves in some cases to complete the earlier work.
+The 2000 lines of the German <i>Kaiserchronik</i> on the history of
+Charlemagne belong to the first half of the 12th century, and
+were perhaps the work of Conrad, the poet of the <i>Ruolantes
+Liet</i>. The German poet known as the Stricker used the
+same sources as the author of the chronicle of Weihenstephan
+for his <i>Karl</i> (c. 1230). The earliest important Spanish
+version was the <i>Chronica Hispaniae</i> (c. 1284) of Rodrigo de
+Toledo.</p>
+
+<p>The French and Norman-French chansons circulated as freely
+in England as in France, and it was therefore not until the period
+of decadence that English versions were made. The English
+metrical romances of Charlemagne are:&mdash;<i>Rowlandes Song</i> (15th
+century); <i>The Taill of Rauf Coilyear</i> (c. 1475, pr. by R.
+Lekpreuik, St Andrews, 1472), apparently original; <i>Sir Ferumbras</i>
+(c. 1380) and the <i>Sowdone of Babylone</i> (c. 1400) from an early
+version of <i>Fierabras</i>; a fragmentary <i>Roland and Vernagu</i>
+(Ferragus); two versions of <i>Otuel</i> (Otinel); and a <i>Sege of
+Melayne</i> (c. 1390), forming a prologue to Otinel unknown in French.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page897" id="page897"></a>897</span> </p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The most important works on the Charlemagne
+cycle of romance are:&mdash;G. Paris, <i>Hist. poétique de Charlemagne</i>
+(Paris, 1865; reprint, with additional notes by Paris and P. Meyer, 1905);
+L. Gautier, <i>Les Épopées françaises</i> (Paris, 4 vols. new ed.,
+1878, 1892, 1880, 1882) and the supplementary <i>Bibliographie des
+chansons de geste</i> (1897). The third volume of the <i>Épopées françaises</i>
+contains an analysis and full particulars of the <i>chansons de geste</i>
+immediately connected with the history of Charlemagne. See also
+G. Rauschen, <i>Die Legende Karls des Grossen im 11ten und 12ten
+Jahrhundert</i> (Leipzig, 1890); Kristoffer Nyrop, <i>Den oldfranske
+Heldedigtning</i> (Copenhagen, 1883; Ital. trans. Turin, 1886);
+Pio Rajna, <i>Le Origini dell&rsquo; epopea francese</i> (Florence, 1884);
+G.T. Graesse, &ldquo;Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters,&rdquo; in his
+<i>Litterärgeschichte</i> (Dresden, 1842);
+<i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vol. xxii., 1852);
+H.L. Ward, <i>Catalogue of Romances in the Dept. of MSS.
+in the British Museum</i> (1883), vol. i. pp. 546-689; E. Muntz,
+<i>La Légende de Charlemagne dans l&rsquo;art du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1885);
+and for the German legend, vol. iii. of H.F. Massmann&rsquo;s edition of the
+<i>Kaiserchronik</i> (Quedlinburg, 1849-1854).
+<i>The English Charlemagne Romances</i> were edited (extra series) for the
+Early Eng. Text Soc. by Sidney J. Herrtage, Emil Hausknecht, Octavia
+Richardson and Sidney Lee (1879-1881), the romance of <i>Duke Huon of
+Bordeaux</i> containing a general account of the cycle by Sidney Lee;
+the <i>Karlamagnussaga</i>, by C.R. Unger (Christiania, 1860), see also
+G. Paris in <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Charles</i> (1864-1865).  For individual
+<i>chansons</i> see <i>Anséis de Carthage</i>, ed. J. Alton (Tubingen, 1892);
+<i>Aiquin</i>, ed. F. Jouon des Longrais (Nantes, 1880);
+<i>Aspremont</i>, ed. F. Guessard and L. Gautier (Paris, 1885); <i>Basin</i>,
+or <i>Charles et Élégast</i> or <i>Le Couronnement de Charles</i>, preserved
+only in foreign versions (see Paris, <i>Hist. Poét.</i> pp. 315, seq.);
+<i>Berta de li gran pié</i>, ed. A. Mussafia, in <i>Romania</i>
+(vols. iii. and iv., 1874-1875);
+<i>Berte aus grans piés</i>, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874);
+<i>Charlemagne</i>, by Girard d&rsquo;Amiens, detailed analysis in Paris,
+<i>Hist. Poét.</i> (Appendix iv.);
+<i>Couronnement Looys</i>, ed. E. Langlois (Le Puy, 1888);
+<i>Désier</i> (Desiderius or Didier), lost songs of the wars of Lombardy,
+some fragments of which are preserved in <i>Ogier le Danois; Destruction de
+Rome</i>, ed. G. Gröber in <i>Romania</i>(1873);
+A. Thomas, <i>Nouvelles recherches sur &ldquo;l&rsquo;entrée de Spagne</i>,&rdquo;
+in <i>Bibl. des écoles françaises de Rome</i> (Paris, 1882);
+<i>Fierabras</i>, ed. A. Kröber and G. Servois (Paris, 1860)
+in <i>Anciens poètes de la France</i>, and Provençal text, ed. I. Bekker
+(Berlin, 1829);
+<i>Galien</i>, ed. E. Stengel and K. Pfeil (Marburg, 1890);
+<i>Gaydon</i>, ed. F. Guessard and S. Luce (<i>Anciens poètes</i> ... 1862);
+<i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, ed. F. Guessard and H. Michelant (same series, 1859);
+<i>Mainet</i> (fragments only extant), ed. G. Paris, in <i>Romania</i> (1875);
+<i>Otinel</i>, ed Guessard and Michelant <i>(Anciens poètes</i>, 1859),
+and <i>Sir Otuel</i>, ed. S.J. Herrtage (<i>E.E.T.S.</i>, 1880);
+<i>Prise de Pampelune</i> (ed. A. Mussafia, Vienna, 1864);
+for the Carolingian romances relating to Roland, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roland</a></span>;
+<i>Les Saisnes</i>, ed. F. Michel (1839);
+<i>The Sege of Melaine</i>, introductory to Otinel, preserved in English
+only (ed. <i>E.E.T.S.</i>, 1880);
+<i>Simon de Pouille</i>, analysis in <i>Épop. fr.</i> (iii. pp. 346 sq.);
+<i>Voyage de C. à Jerusalem</i>, ed. E. Koschwitz (Heilbronn, 1879).
+For the chronicle of the Pseudo-Turpin, see an edition by Castets
+(Paris, 1881) for the &ldquo;Société des langues romanes,&rdquo; and the dissertation
+by G. Paris, <i>De Pseudo-Turpino</i> (Paris, 1865).
+The Spanish versions of Carolingian legends are studied by Milà y Fontanals
+in <i>De la poesia heroico-popular castellana</i> (Barcelona, 1874).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A remnant of the popular poetry contemporary with Charlemagne
+and written in the vernacular has been thought to be discernible
+under its Latin translation in the description of a siege
+during  Charlemagne&rsquo;s  war  against  the  Saracens,   known as  the
+&ldquo;Fragment from the Hague&rdquo; (Pertz, <i>Script.</i> iii. pp. 708-710).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The words <i>douze pairs</i> were anglicized in a variety of forms
+ranging from douzepers to dosepers. The word even occurred as a
+singular in the metrical romance of <i>Octavian</i>:&mdash;&ldquo;Ferst they sent
+out a doseper.&rdquo; At the beginning of the 13th century there existed a
+<i>cour des pairs</i> which exercised judicial functions and dated possibly
+from the 11th century, but their prerogatives at the beginning of the
+14th century appear to have been mainly ceremonial and decorative.
+In 1257 the twelve peers were the chiefs of the great feudal provinces,
+the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy and Aquitaine, the counts of
+Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders, and six spiritual peers, the
+archbishop of  Reims,  the bishops of   Laon,   Châlons-sur-Marne,
+Beauvais, Langres and Noyon. (See Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Par.&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See J. Flach, <i>Le Compagnonnage dans les chansons de geste</i> (Paris, 1891).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For clerical accounts of Charles&rsquo;s voyage to the Holy Land see the
+<i>Chronicon</i> (c. 968) of Benedict, a monk of St André, and
+<i>Descriptio qualiter Karolus Magnus clavum et coronam Domini ...
+detulerit</i>, by an 11th-century writer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1753-1838), French
+dramatic author, was born at Bourget (Seine) on the 30th of
+November 1753. Originally intended for the church, he turned
+first to being a lawyer&rsquo;s clerk and then a soldier. He served in
+the American War of Independence, and on returning to France
+(1783) began to employ his pen on economic subjects, and later
+in writing for the stage. He became the author of a large number
+of plays, poems and romances, among which may be mentioned
+the comedies <i>M. de Crac à Paris</i> (1793), <i>Le Souper des Jacobins</i>
+(1795)and <i>L&rsquo;Agioteur</i> (1796) and <i>Observations de quelques patriotes
+sur la nécessité de conserver les monuments de la littérature et des
+arts</i> (1794), an essay written in collaboration with M.M. Chardin
+and Renouard, which induced the Convention to protect books
+adorned with the coats of arms of their former owners and other
+treasures from destruction at the hands of the revolutionists.
+He died in Paris on the 6th of March 1838.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1728-1799),
+Irish statesman, son of the 3rd viscount Charlemont, was
+born in Dublin on the 18th of August 1728, and succeeded his
+father as 4th viscount in 1734. The title of Charlemont descended
+from Sir Toby Caulfeild (1565-1627) of Oxfordshire, England,
+who was given lands in Ireland, and created Baron Charlemont
+(the name of a fort on the Blackwater), for his services to King
+James I. in 1620, and the 1st viscount was the 5th baron (d. 1671),
+who was advanced by Charles II. Lord Charlemont is historically
+interesting for his political connexion with Flood and Grattan;
+he was a cultivated man with literary and artistic tastes, and both
+in Dublin and in London his amiable character gave him considerable
+social influence. For various early services in Ireland
+he was made an earl in 1763, but he disregarded court favours and
+cordially joined Grattan in 1780 in the assertion of Irish
+independence. He was president of the volunteer convention in
+Dublin in November 1783, having taken from the first a leading
+part in the embodiment of the volunteers; and he was a strong
+opponent of the proposals for the Union. He died on the 4th of
+August 1799; his eldest son, who succeeded him, being subsequently
+(1837) created an English baron.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Life</i>, by F. Hardy, appeared in 1810.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEROI<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (<i>Carolus Rex</i>), a town in the province of Hainaut,
+Belgium. Pop. (1904) 26,528. It was founded in 1666 on the
+site of a village called Charnoy by the Spanish governor Roderigo
+and named after his sovereign Charles II. of Spain. Charleroi
+is the centre of the iron industry of Belgium. It is connected by
+a canal with Brussels, and from its position on the Sambre enjoys
+facilities of communication by water with France as well as
+Belgium. It was ceded soon after its foundation to France by
+the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and Vauban fortified it. During
+the French occupation the town was considerably extended, and
+the fortifications were made so strong that Charleroi twice
+successfully resisted the strenuous attacks of William of Orange.
+In 1794 Charleroi again fell into the hands of the French, and on
+this occasion instead of fortifying they dismantled it. In 1816
+Charleroi was refortified under Wellington&rsquo;s direction, and it was
+finally dismantled in 1859. Some portions of the old ramparts
+are left near the railway station. There is an archaeological
+museum with a miscellaneous collection of Roman and Frank antiquities.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEROI,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a borough of Washington county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the Monongahela river, near the S.W. corner of the
+state, about 20 m. S. of Pittsburgh. Pop. (1900) 5930, (1749
+foreign-born); (1910) 9615. It is served by the Pennsylvania
+railway. The surrounding country has good farming land and
+large coal mines. In 1905 the borough ranked fifth among the
+cities of the United States in the manufacture of glass
+(plate-glass, lamp chimneys and bottles), its product (valued at
+$1,841,308) being 2.3% of that of the whole country. Charleroi
+was settled in 1890 and was incorporated in 1891.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (Fr. <i>Charles</i>; Span. <i>Carlos</i>; Ital. <i>Carlo</i>;
+Ger. <i>Karl</i>; derived from O.H.G. <i>Charal</i>, latinized as
+<i>Carolus</i>, meaning originally &ldquo;man&rdquo;: cf. Mod. Ger., <i>Kerl</i>,
+&ldquo;fellow,&rdquo; A.S. <i>ceorl</i>, Mod. Eng. &ldquo;churl&rdquo;), a masculine proper name.
+It has been borne by many European princes, notices of the more important
+of whom are given below in the following order: (1) Roman emperors,
+(2) kings of England, (3) other kings in the alphabetical order of their
+states, (4) other reigning princes in the same order,
+(5) non-reigning princes. Those princes who are known by a name in
+addition to Charles (Charles Albert, &amp;c.) will be found after the
+private individuals bearing Charles as a surname.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> called <span class="sc">The Bald</span> (823-877), Roman emperor
+and king of the West Franks, was the son of the emperor Louis
+the Pious and of his second wife Judith and was born in 823.
+The attempts made by his father to assign him a kingdom, first
+Alamannia (829), then the country between the Meuse and the
+Pyrenees (839), at the expense of his half-brothers Lothair and Louis
+led to a rising on the part of these two (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Louis I.</a></span>, the Pious).
+The death of the emperor in 840 was the signal for the outbreak
+of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his brother
+Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the emperor Lothair,
+and the two allies conquered him in the bloody victory of
+Fontenoy-en-Puisaye (25 June 841). In the following year, the two brothers
+confirmed their alliance by the celebrated oaths of Strassburg,
+made by Charles in the Teutonic language spoken by the subjects
+of Louis, and by Louis in the Romance tongue of Charles&rsquo;s
+subjects. The war was brought to an end by the treaty of
+Verdun (August 843), which gave to Charles the Bald the kingdom
+of the western Franks, which practically corresponded with what
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page898" id="page898"></a>898</span>
+is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Saône and the Rhone,
+with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the Ebro. The
+first years of his reign up to the death of Lothair I. (855) were
+comparatively peaceful, and during them was continued the
+system of &ldquo;confraternal government&rdquo; of the sons of Louis the
+Pious, who had various meetings with one another, at Coblenz
+(848), at Meersen (851), and at Attigny (854). In 858 Louis the
+German, summoned by the disaffected nobles, invaded the kingdom
+of Charles, who fled to Burgundy, and was only saved by
+the help of the bishops, and by the fidelity of the family of the
+Welfs, who were related to Judith. In 860 he in his turn tried to
+seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of Provence, but met
+with a repulse. On the death of Lothair II. in 869 he tried to
+seize his dominions, but by the treaty of Mersen (870) was compelled
+to share them with Louis the German. Besides this,
+Charles had to struggle against the incessant rebellions in Aquitaine,
+against the Bretons, whose revolt was led by their chief
+Nomenoé and Erispoé, and who inflicted on the king the defeats
+of Ballon (845) and Juvardeil (851), and especially against the
+Normans, who devastated the country in the north of Gaul, the
+valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to the borders of
+Aquitaine. Charles was several times compelled to purchase
+their retreat at a heavy price. He has been accused of being
+incapable of resisting them, but we must take into account the
+unwillingness of the nobles, who continually refused to join the
+royal army; moreover, the Frankish army does not seem to have
+been sufficiently accustomed to war to make any headway against
+the pirates. At any rate, Charles led various expeditions against
+the invaders, and tried to put a barrier in their way by having
+fortified bridges built over all the rivers. In 875, after the death
+of the emperor Louis II., Charles the Bald, supported by Pope
+John VIII., descended into Italy, receiving the royal crown at
+Pavia and the imperial crown at Rome (29th December). But
+Louis the German, who was also a candidate for the succession of
+Louis II., revenged himself for Charles&rsquo;s success by invading and
+devastating his dominions. Charles was recalled to Gaul, and
+after the death of Louis the German (28th August 876), in his
+turn made an attempt to seize his kingdom, but at Andernach
+met with a shameful defeat (8th October 876). In the meantime,
+John VIII., who was menaced by the Saracens, was continually
+urging him to come to Italy, and Charles, after having taken at
+Quierzy the necessary measures for safeguarding the government
+of his dominions in his absence, again crossed the Alps, but
+this expedition had been received with small enthusiasm by the
+nobles, and even by Boso, Charles&rsquo;s brother-in-law, who had been
+entrusted by him with the government of Lombardy, and they
+refused to come with their men to join the imperial army. At
+the same time Carlo man, son of Louis the German, entered
+northern Italy. Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his
+way back to Gaul, and died while crossing the pass of the Mont
+Cenis on the 5th or 6th of October 877. He was succeeded by his
+son Louis the Stammerer, the child of Ermentrude, daughter of a
+count of Orleans, whom he had married in 842, and who had died in
+869. In 870 he had married Richilde, who was descended from a
+noble family of Lorraine, but none of the children whom he had by
+her played a part of any importance. Charles seems to have been
+a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and
+conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against
+his unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors for preference
+from among the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens,
+who betrayed him, or of Hincmar of Reims. But his character
+and his reign have been judged very variously. The general
+tendency seems to have been to accept too easily the accounts
+of the chroniclers of the east Frankish kingdom, which are
+favourable to Louis the German, and to accuse Charles of
+cowardice and bad faith. He seems on the contrary not to have
+lacked activity or decision.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The most important authority for the history
+of Charles&rsquo;s reign is represented by the <i>Annales Bertiniani</i>, which
+were the work of Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, up to 861, then up
+to 882 of the celebrated Hincmar, archbishop of Reims. This
+prince&rsquo;s charters are to be found published in the collections of the
+<i>Académie des Inscriptions</i>, by M.M. Prou. The most complete
+history of the reign is found in E. Dümmler, <i>Geschichte des ostfrankischen
+Reiches</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1887-1888). See also J. Calmette,
+<i>La Diplomatie carolingienne du traité de Verdun à la mort de
+Charles le Chauve</i> (Paris, 1901), and F. Lot, &ldquo;Une Année du règne de
+Charles le Chauve,&rdquo; in <i>Le Moyen-Âge</i>, (1902) pp. 393-438.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Charles I., Roman emperor, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>; cf. under
+Charles I. of France below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> <span class="sc">The Fat</span><a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (832-888), Roman emperor and king
+of the West Franks, was the youngest of the three sons of Louis
+the German, and received from his father the kingdom of Swabia
+(Alamannia). After the death of his two brothers in succession,
+Carloman (881) and Louis the Young (882), he inherited the whole
+of his father&rsquo;s dominions. In 880 he had helped his two cousins
+in the west Frankish realm, Louis III. and Carloman, in their
+struggle with the usurper Boso of Provence, but abandoned
+them during the campaign in order to be crowned emperor at
+Rome by Pope John VIII. (February 881). On his return he led
+an expedition against the Norsemen of Friesland, who were
+entrenched in their camp at Elsloo, but instead of engaging with
+them he preferred to make terms and paid them tribute. In 884 the
+death of Carloman brought into his possession the west Frankish
+realm, and in 885 he got rid of his rival Hugh of Alsace, an
+illegitimate son of Lothair II., taking him prisoner by treachery
+and putting out his eyes. However, in spite of his six expeditions
+into Italy, he did not succeed in pacifying the country, nor in
+delivering it from the Saracens. He was equally unfortunate in
+Gaul and in Germany against the Norsemen, who in 886-887
+besieged Paris. The emperor appeared before the city with a
+large army (October 886), but contented himself by treating with
+them, buying the retreat of the invaders at the price of a heavy
+ransom, and his permission for them to ravage Burgundy without
+his interfering. On his return to Alamannia, however, the general
+discontent showed itself openly and a conspiracy was formed
+against him. He was first forced to dismiss his favourite, the
+chancellor Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. The dissolution of his
+marriage with the pious empress Richarde, in spite of her innocence
+as proved by the judicial examination, alienated his nobles
+still more from him. He was deposed by an assembly which met
+at Frankfort or at Tribur (November 887), and died in poverty
+at Neidingen on the Danube (18th January 888).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Dümmler, <i>Geschichte des ostfränkischen Reiches</i> vol. iii.
+(Leipzig 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This surname has only been applied to Charles since the 13th
+century.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1316-1378), Roman emperor and king of
+Bohemia, was the eldest son of John of Luxemburg, king of
+Bohemia, and Elizabeth, sister of Wenceslas III., the last
+Bohemian king of the Premyslides dynasty. He was born at
+Prague on the 14th of May 1316, and in 1323 went to the court
+of his uncle, Charles IV., king of France, and exchanged his
+baptismal name of Wenceslas for that of Charles. He remained
+for seven years in France, where he was well educated and learnt
+five languages; and there he married Blanche, sister of King
+Philip VI., the successor of Charles IV. In 1331 he gained some
+experience of warfare in Italy with his father; and on his return
+to Bohemia in 1333 he was made margrave of Moravia. Three
+years later he undertook the government of Tirol on behalf of his
+brother John Henry, and was soon actively concerned in a
+struggle for the possession of this county. In consequence of an
+alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI., the relentless
+enemy of the emperor Louis IV., Charles was chosen German king
+in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rense on the
+11th of July 1346. As he had previously promised to be subservient
+to Clement he made extensive concessions to the pope
+in 1347. Confirming the papacy in the possession of wide
+territories, he promised to annul the acts of Louis against
+Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend and
+protect the church. Meanwhile he had accompanied his father
+into France and had taken part in the battle of Crecy in August
+1346, when John was killed and Charles escaped wounded from
+the field. As king of Bohemia he returned to Germany, and
+after being crowned German king at Bonn on the 26th of
+November 1346, prepared to attack Louis. Hostilities were
+interrupted by the death of the emperor in October 1347, and
+Günther, count of Schwarzburg, who was chosen king by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page899" id="page899"></a>899</span>
+partisans of Louis, soon abandoned the struggle. Charles,
+having made good use of the difficulties of his opponents, was
+recrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 25th of July 1349, and was
+soon the undisputed ruler of Germany. Gifts or promises had
+won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a marriage
+alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and that of
+Rudolph II., count palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when
+Charles, who had become a widower in 1348, married his daughter
+Anna.</p>
+
+<p>In 1350 the king was visited at Prague by Cola di Rienzi, who
+urged him to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the
+citizens of Florence also implored his presence. Turning a deaf
+ear to these entreaties, Charles kept Rienzi in prison for a year,
+and then handed him as a prisoner to Clement at Avignon.
+Four years later, however, he crossed the Alps without an army,
+received the Lombard crown at Milan on the 6th of January
+1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on the
+5th of April in the same year. His sole object appears to have
+been to obtain the imperial crown in peace, and in accordance
+with a promise previously made to Pope Clement he only remained
+in the city for a few hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the
+Romans. Having virtually abandoned all the imperial rights
+in Italy, the emperor recrossed the Alps, pursued by the scornful
+words of Petrarch but laden with considerable wealth. On his
+return Charles was occupied with the administration of Germany,
+then just recovering from the Black Death, and in 1356 he
+promulgated the Golden Bull (<i>q.v.</i>) to regulate the election of
+the king. Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry,
+and erected the county of Luxemburg into a duchy for another,
+Wenceslas, he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other
+territories as compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian
+monarchy. To this end he purchased part of the upper Palatinate
+of the Rhine in 1353, and in 1367 annexed Lower Lusatia to
+Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various parts of
+Germany. On the death in 1363 of Meinhard, duke of Upper
+Bavaria and count of Tirol, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the
+sons of the emperor Louis IV., and Tirol by Rudolph IV., duke
+of Austria. Both claims were admitted by Charles on the
+understanding that if these families died out both territories
+should pass to the house of Luxemburg. About the same time
+he was promised the succession to the margraviate of Brandenburg,
+which he actually obtained for his son Wenceslas in 1373.
+He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian territory,
+partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna, daughter of
+Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. In 1365 Charles visited Pope
+Urban V. at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome;
+and on the same occasion was crowned king of Burgundy, or
+Arles, at Arles on the 4th of June 1365.</p>
+
+<p>His second journey to Italy took place in 1368, when he had
+a meeting with Urban at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at
+Siena, and left the country before the end of the year 1369.
+During his later years the emperor took little part in German
+affairs beyond securing the election of his son Wenceslas as king
+of the Romans in 1376, and negotiating a peace between the
+Swabian league and some nobles in 1378. After dividing his
+lands between his three sons, he died on the 29th of November
+1378 at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was
+erected to his memory in 1848.</p>
+
+<p>Charles, who according to the emperor Maximilian I. was
+the step-father of the Empire, but the father of Bohemia, brought
+the latter country to a high state of prosperity. He reformed
+the finances, caused roads to be made, provided for greater
+security to life and property, and introduced or encouraged
+various forms of industry. In 1348 he founded the university
+of Prague, and afterwards made this city the seat of an archbishop,
+and beautified it by the erection of several fine buildings.
+He was an accomplished diplomatist, possessed a penetrating
+intellect, and was capable of much trickery in order to gain his
+ends. By refusing to become entangled in Italian troubles and
+confining himself to Bohemia, he proved that he preferred the
+substance of power to its shadow. Apparently the most pliant
+of men, he had in reality great persistence of character, and if
+foiled in one set of plans readily turned round and reached his
+goal by a totally different path. He was superstitious and peace-loving,
+had few personal wants, and is described as a round-shouldered
+man of medium height, with black hair and beard,
+and sallow cheeks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His autobiography the &ldquo;Vita Caroli IV.,&rdquo; which deals with events
+down to the year 1346, and various other documents relating to his
+life and times, are published in the <i>Fontes rerum Germanicarum</i>,
+Band I., edited by J.F. Böhmer (Leipzig, 1885). For other documents
+relating to the time see <i>Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter
+Kaiser Karl IV.</i>, edited by J.F. Böhmer and A. Huber (Innsbruck,
+1889); <i>Acta Karoli IV. imperatoris inedita</i> (Innsbruck, 1891);
+E. Werunsky, <i>Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI.</i>
+(Innsbruck, 1885). See also E. Werunsky, <i>Geschichte Kaiser Karls
+IV. und seiner Zeit</i> (Innsbruck, 1880-1892); H. Friedjung,
+<i>Kaiser Karl IV. und sein Antheil am geistigen Leben seiner Zeit</i>
+(Vienna, 1876); A. Gottlob, <i>Karls IV. private und politische Beziehungen
+zu Frankreich</i> (Innsbruck, 1883); O. Winckelmann, <i>Die
+Beziehungen Kaiser Karls IV. zum Königreich Arelat</i> (Strassburg,
+1882); K. Palm, &ldquo;Zu Karls IV. Politik gegen Baiern,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte</i>, Band XV. (Göttingen, 1862-1866);
+Th. Lindner, &ldquo;Karl IV. und die Wittelsbacher,&rdquo; and S.
+Stienherz, &ldquo;Die Beziehungen Ludwigs I. von Ungarn zu Karl IV.,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Karl IV. und die österreichischen Freiheitsbriefe,&rdquo; in the
+<i>Mittheilungen des Instituts für österreichische Geschichtsforschung</i>
+(Innsbruck, 1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1500-1558), Roman emperor and (as <span class="sc">Charles I.</span>)
+king of Spain, was born at Ghent on the 24th of February 1500.
+His parents were Philip of Burgundy and Joanna, third child
+of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip died in 1506, and Charles
+succeeded to his Netherland possessions and the county of
+Burgundy (Franche Comté). His grandfather, the emperor
+Maximilian, as regent, appointed his daughter Margaret vice-regent,
+and under her strenuous guardianship Charles lived in
+the Netherlands until the estates declared him of age in 1515.
+In Castile, Ferdinand, king of Aragon, acted as regent for his
+daughter Joanna, whose intellect was already clouded. On the
+23rd of January 1516 Ferdinand died. Charles&rsquo;s visit to Spain
+was delayed until the autumn of 1517, and only in 1518 was he
+formally recognized as king conjointly with his mother, firstly
+by the cortes of Castile, and then by those of Aragon. Joanna
+lived to the very eve of her son&rsquo;s abdication, so that he was only
+for some months technically sole king of Spain. During this
+Spanish visit Maximilian died, and Charles succeeded to the
+inheritance of the Habsburgs, to which was shortly added the
+duchy of Württemberg. Maximilian had also intended that he
+should succeed as emperor. In spite of the formidable rivalry of
+Francis I. and the opposition of Pope Leo X., pecuniary corruption
+and national feeling combined to secure his election in 1519.
+Charles hurriedly left Spain, and after a visit to Henry VIII.
+and his aunt Catherine, was crowned at Aix on the 23rd of
+October 1520.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of Charles&rsquo;s reign consists in the complexity of
+interests caused by the unnatural aggregate of distinct territories
+and races. The crown of Castile brought with it the two recently
+conquered kingdoms of Navarre and Granada, together with
+the new colonies in America and scattered possessions in northern
+Africa. That of Aragon comprised the three distinct states of
+Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia, and in addition the kingdoms
+of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, each with a separate character
+and constitution of its own. No less than eight independent
+cortes or parliaments existed in this Spanish-Italian group,
+adding greatly to the intricacy of government. In the Netherland
+provinces again the tie was almost purely personal; there
+existed only the rudiments of a central administration and a
+common representative system, while the county of Burgundy
+had a history apart. Much the same was true of the Habsburg
+group of states, but Charles soon freed himself from direct
+responsibility for their government by making them over,
+together with Württemberg, to his brother Ferdinand. The
+Empire entailed serious liabilities on its ruler without furnishing
+any reliable assets: only through the cumbrous machinery of
+the diet could Charles tap the military and financial resources of
+Germany. His problem here was complicated by the growth of
+Lutheranism, which he had to face at his very first diet in 1521.
+In addition to such administrative difficulties Charles had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page900" id="page900"></a>900</span>
+inherited a quarrel with France, to which the rivalry of Francis I.
+for the Empire gave a personal character. Almost equally
+formidable was the advance of Sultan Suliman up the Danube,
+and the union of the Turkish naval power with that of the
+Barbary States of northern Africa. Against Lutheran Germany
+the Catholic emperor might hope to rely upon the pope, and
+against France on England. But the attitude of the popes was
+almost uniformly disagreeable, while from Henry VIII. and
+Edward VI. Charles met with more unpleasantness than favour.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of Charles himself is also that of the historian
+and reader of his reign. It is probably more instructive to treat
+it according to the emperor&rsquo;s several problems than in strict
+chronological order. Yet an attempt to distinguish the several
+periods of his career may serve as a useful introduction. The two
+best dividing lines are, perhaps, the coronation as emperor at
+Bologna in 1530, and the peace of Crépy in 1544. Until his visit
+to Italy (1529) Charles remained in the background of the
+European stage, except for his momentous meeting with Luther
+at the diet of Worms (1521). This meeting in itself forms a
+subdivision. Previously to this, during his nominal rule in the
+Netherlands, his visit to Spain, and his candidature for the
+Empire, he seemed, as it was said, spell-bound under the ferule
+of his minister Chièvres. Almost every report represented him
+as colourless, reserved and weak. His dependence on his Flemish
+counsellors provoked the rising in Castile, the feebleness of his
+government the social war in Aragon. The religious question
+first gave him a living interest, and at this moment Chièvres died.
+Aleander, the papal nuncio at Worms, now recognized that public
+opinion had been wrong in its estimate of Charles. Never again
+was he under tutelage. The necessity, however, of residence in
+Spain prevented his taking a personal part in the great fight with
+Francis I. for Italy. He could claim no credit for the capture of
+his rival at Pavia. When his army sacked Rome and held Pope
+Clement VII. prisoner, he could not have known where this
+army was. And when later the French overran Naples, and
+all but deprived him of his hold on Italy, he had to instruct his
+generals that they must shift for themselves. The world had
+become afraid of him, but knew little of his character. In the
+second main division of his career Charles changed all this.
+No monarch until Napoleon was so widely seen in Europe and in
+Africa. Complexity of problems is the characteristic of this
+period. At the head of his army Charles forced the Turks backwards
+down the Danube (1532). He personally conquered Tunis
+(1535), and was only prevented by &ldquo;act of God&rdquo; from winning
+Algiers (1541). The invasion of Provence in 1536 was headed by
+the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of Ghent (1540).
+In his last war with Francis (1542-44) he journeyed from Spain to
+the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his
+knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace
+of Crépy (1544). In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augsburg
+(1530) onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences,
+which, as he hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.</p>
+
+<p>Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness
+with Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole
+energies to the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving
+impossible, he led the army which received the submission of the
+Lutheran states, and then captured the elector of Saxony at
+Mühlberg, after which the other leader, Philip of Hesse, capitulated.
+The Armed Diet of 1548 was the high-water mark of
+Charles&rsquo;s power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he published the
+Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with the
+church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses.
+During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight,
+his power was ebbing. In 1552 he was flying over the Brenner
+from Maurice of Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had
+made. Once again the old complications had arisen. His old
+enemy&rsquo;s son, Henry II., had attacked him indirectly in Piedmont
+and Parma, and then directly in Germany in alliance with
+Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and
+in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight
+gave Charles new spirit, and he once more led an army through
+Germany against the French, only to be checked by the duke of
+Guise&rsquo;s defence of Metz. Henceforth the waves of his fortune
+plashed to and fro until his abdication without much ostensible
+loss or gain.</p>
+
+<p>Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius,
+and he was by nature conservative. Consequently he never
+sought to impose any new or common principles of administration
+on his several states. He took them as he found them, and
+at most, as in the Netherlands, improved upon what he found.
+So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may be called
+opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating
+Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have
+frequently repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life
+laughingly denied the imputation, and facts are in favour of his
+denial. When Francis I. was in his power he made no attempt to
+dismember France, in spite of his pledges to his allies Henry VIII.
+and the duke of Bourbon. He did, indeed, demand the duchy
+of Burgundy, because he believed this to have been unrighteously
+stolen by Louis XI. from his grandmother when a helpless girl.
+The claim was not pressed, and at the height of his fortunes in
+1548 he advised his son never to surrender it, but also never to
+make it a cause of war. When Clement VII. was his prisoner, he
+was vehemently urged to overthrow the temporal power, to
+restore imperial dominion in Italy, at least to make the papacy
+harmless for the future. In reply he restored his enemy to the
+whole of his dominions, even reimposing him by force on the
+Florentine republic. To the end of his life his conscience was
+sensitive as to Ferdinand&rsquo;s expulsion of the house of Albret from
+Spanish Navarre, though this was essential to the safety of Spain.
+Though always at war he was essentially a lover of peace, and all
+his wars were virtually defensive. &ldquo;Not greedy of territory,&rdquo;
+wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, &ldquo;but most greedy of peace
+and quiet.&rdquo; For peace he made sacrifices which angered his
+hot-headed brother Ferdinand. He would not aid in expelling the
+sultan&rsquo;s puppet Zapolya from Ferdinand&rsquo;s kingdom of Hungary,
+and he suffered the restoration of the ruffianly duke of Württemberg,
+to the grave prejudice of German Catholicism. In spite of
+his protests, Henry VIII. with impunity ill-treated his aunt
+Catherine, and the feeble government of Edward VI. bullied his
+cousin Mary, who had been his fiancée. No serious efforts were
+made to restore his brother-in-law, Christian II., to the throne of
+Denmark, and he advised his son Philip to make friends with the
+usurper. After the defeat of the Lutheran powers in 1547 he did
+not gain a palm&rsquo;s breadth of territory for himself. He resisted
+Ferdinand&rsquo;s claim for Wurttemberg, which the duke had deserved
+to forfeit; he disliked his acceptance of the voluntary surrender
+of the city of Constance; he would not have it said that he had
+gone to war for the benefit of the house of Habsburg.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, Charles V.&rsquo;s policy was not merely negative.
+He enlarged upon the old Habsburg practice of marriage as a
+means of alliance of influence. Previously to his election as
+emperor, his sister Isabella was married to Christian II. of
+Denmark, and the marriages of Mary and Ferdinand with the
+king of Hungary and his sister had been arranged. Before he was
+twenty Charles himself had been engaged some ten times with a
+view to political combinations. Naturally, therefore, he regarded
+his near relations as diplomatic assets. The federative system
+was equally familiar; Germany, the Netherlands, and even Spain,
+were in a measure federations. Combining these two principles, he
+would within his more immediate spheres of influence strengthen
+existing federations by intermarriage, while he hoped that the
+same means would convert the jarring powers of Europe into a
+happy family. He made it a condition of the treaty of Madrid
+(1526) that Francis I. should marry his sister Eleanor, Manuel of
+Portugal&rsquo;s widow, in the hope, not that she would be an ally or a
+spy within the enemy&rsquo;s camp, but an instrument of peace. His
+son&rsquo;s marriage with Mary Tudor would not only salve the rubs
+with England, but give such absolute security to the Netherlands
+that France would shrink from war. The personal union of all
+the Iberian kingdoms under a single ruler had long been an aim of
+Spanish statecraft. So Charles had married his sister Eleanor,
+much against her will, to the old king Manuel, and then his sister
+Catherine to his successor. The empress was a Portuguese
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page901" id="page901"></a>901</span>
+infanta, and Philip&rsquo;s first wife was another. It is thus small
+wonder that, within a quarter of a century of Charles&rsquo;s death,
+Philip became king of Portugal.</p>
+
+<p>In the wars with Francis I. Italy was the stake. In spite of his
+success Charles for long made no direct conquests. He would
+convert the peninsula into a federation mainly matrimonial.
+Savoy, the important buffer state, was detached from France by
+the marriage of the somewhat feeble duke to Charles&rsquo;s capable
+and devoted sister-in-law, Beatrice of Portugal. Milan,
+conquered from France, was granted to Francesco Sforza, heir
+of the old dynasty, and even after his treason was restored to
+him. In the vain hope of offspring Charles sacrificed his niece,
+Christina of Denmark, to the valetudinarian duke. In the long
+negotiations for a Habsburg-Valois dynasty which followed
+Francesco&rsquo;s death, Charles was probably sincere. He insisted
+that his daughter or niece should marry the third rather than the
+second son of Francis I., in order, apart from other reasons, to
+run less risk of the duchy falling under French dominion. The
+final investiture of Philip was forced upon him, and does not
+represent his saner policy. The Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga
+of Mantua, the papal house of Farnese, were all attached by
+Habsburg marriages. The republics of Genoa and Siena were
+drawn into the circle through the agency of their chief noble
+families, the Doria and Piccolomini; while Charles behaved
+with scrupulous moderation towards Venice in spite of her active
+hostility before and after the League of Cognac. Occasional
+acts of violence there were, such as the participation in the
+murder of Pierluigi Farnese, and the measures which provoked
+the rebellion of Siena. These were due to the difficulty of
+controlling the imperial agents from a distance, and in part to
+the faults of the victim prince and republic. On the whole, the
+loose federation of viceroyalties and principalities harmonized
+with Italian interests and traditions. The alternative was not
+Italian independence, but French domination. At any rate,
+Charles&rsquo;s structure was so durable that the French met with no
+real success in Italy until the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>Germany offered a fine field for a creative intellect, since the
+evils of her disintegration stood confessed. On the other hand,
+princes and towns were so jealous of an increase of central
+authority that Charles, at least until his victory over the League
+of Schmalkalden, had little effective power. Owing to his wars
+with French and Turks he was rarely in Germany, and his visits
+were very short. His problem was infinitely complicated by the
+union of Lutheranism and princely independence. He fell back
+on the old policy of Maximilian, and strove to create a party by
+personal alliances and intermarriage. In this he met with some
+success. The friendship of the electors of Brandenburg, whether
+Catholic or Protestant, was unbroken. In the war of Schmalkalden
+half the Protestant princes were on Charles&rsquo;s side or
+friendly neutrals. At the critical moment which preceded this,
+the lately rebellious duke of Cleves and the heir of Bavaria
+were secured through the agency of two of Ferdinand&rsquo;s invaluable
+daughters. The relations, indeed, between the two old enemies,
+Austria and Bavaria, were permanently improved. The elector
+palatine, whose love affairs with his sister Eleanor Charles as a
+boy had roughly broken, received in compensation a Danish
+niece. Her sister, widow of Francesco Sforza, was utilized to
+gain a hold upon the French dynasty which ruled Lorraine.
+More than once there were proposals for winning the hostile
+house of Saxony by matrimonial means. After his victory over
+the League of Schmalkalden, Charles perhaps had really a chance
+of making the imperial power a reality. But he lacked either
+courage or imagination, contenting himself with proposals for
+voluntary association on the lines of the defunct Swabian
+League, and dropping even these when public opinion was against
+them. Now, too, he made his great mistake in attempting to
+foist Philip upon the Empire as Ferdinand&rsquo;s successor. Gossip
+reported that Ferdinand himself was to be set aside, and careless
+historians have given currency to this. Such an idea was
+impossible. Charles wished Philip to succeed Ferdinand, while he
+ultimately conceded that Ferdinand&rsquo;s son Maximilian should
+follow Philip, and even in his lifetime exercise the practical
+power in Germany. This scheme irritated Ferdinand and his
+popular and ambitious son at the critical moment when it was
+essential that the Habsburgs should hold together against
+princely malcontents. Philip was imprudently introduced to
+Germany, which had also just received a foretaste of the unpleasant
+characteristics of Spanish troops. Yet the person rather
+than the policy was, perhaps, at fault. It was natural that the
+quasi-hereditary succession should revert to the elder line.
+France proved her recuperative power by the occupation of
+Savoy and of Metz, Toul and Verdun, the military keys of
+Lorraine. The separation of the Empire and Spain left two
+weakened powers not always at accord, and neither of them
+permanently able to cope on equal terms with France. Nevertheless,
+this scheme did contribute in no small measure to the
+failure of Charles in Germany. The main cause was, of course,
+the religious schism, but his treatment of this requires separate
+consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of Charles&rsquo;s government, its mingled
+conservatism and adaptability, are best seen in Spain and the
+Netherlands, with which he was in closer personal contact than
+with Italy and Germany. In Spain, when once he knew the
+country, he never repeated the mistakes which on his first visit
+caused the rising of the communes. The cortes of Castile were
+regularly summoned, and though he would allow no encroachment
+on the crown&rsquo;s prerogatives, he was equally scrupulous
+in respecting their constitutional rights. They became, perhaps,
+during the reign slightly more dependent on the crown. This
+has been ascribed to the system of gratuities which in later reigns
+became a scandal, but was not introduced by Charles, and as
+yet amounted to little more than the payment of members&rsquo;
+expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased owing to the
+greater control which had gradually been exercised over the
+composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the
+deputies for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to
+the power and wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than
+the crown had conquered the communes, and in the past they
+rather than the towns had been the enemies of monarchy. He
+earnestly warned his son against giving them administrative
+power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his sanctimonious
+and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions:
+in foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was
+Spain&rsquo;s best soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into
+collision with the nobles as a class. They usually attended only
+on ceremonial occasions, since they were exempted from direct
+taxation, which was the main function of the cortes. Now,
+however, they were summoned, because Charles was bent upon
+a scheme of indirect taxation which would have affected all
+classes. They offered an uncompromising opposition, and Charles
+somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon
+them again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental
+councils was further developed, so that it may be said that the
+bureaucratic element was slightly increasing just as the parliamentary
+element was on the wane. The evils of this tendency
+were as yet scarcely apparent owing to Charles&rsquo;s personal intervention
+in all departments. The councils presented their reports
+through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles heard their
+advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon
+Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers:
+let him hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he
+was well served by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed.
+After the death of the Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on
+Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella for Netherland and German
+affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for Spanish, while the
+younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to 1555 these
+were the only ministers of high importance. Above all, Charles
+never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised
+any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret
+and his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortunate.
+Charles was never quite popular in Spain, but the empress
+whom he married at his people&rsquo;s request was much beloved.
+Complaints were made of his absenteeism, but until 1543 he
+spent the greater portion of his reign in Spain, or on expeditions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page902" id="page902"></a>902</span>
+such as those against Tunis and Algiers which were distinctively
+in Spanish interests. Spaniards disliked his Netherland and
+German connexions, but without the vigorous blows which these
+enabled him to strike at France, it is improbable that Spain
+could have retained her hold on Italy, or her monopoly of
+commerce with the Indies. The wars with Francis I. were, in
+spite of the rival candidature for the Empire, Spanish wars
+entailed by Ferdinand&rsquo;s retention of Roussillon, his annexation
+of Navarre, his summary eviction of the French from Naples.
+The Netherlands had become convinced on commercial grounds
+of the wisdom of peace with France, and the German interest in
+Milan was not sufficiently active to be a standing cause of war.
+Charles and Francis had inherited the hostility of Ferdinand and
+Louis XII.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Charles was in America the age of conquest and
+organization. Upon his accession the settlements upon the
+mainland were insignificant; by 1556 conquest was practically
+complete, and civil and ecclesiastical government firmly established.
+Actual expansion was the work of great adventurers
+starting on their own impulse from the older colonies. To
+Charles fell the task of encouraging such ventures, of controlling
+the conquerors, of settling the relations between colonists and
+natives, which involved those between the colonists and the
+missionary colonial church. He must arrest depopulation,
+provide for the labour market, regulate oceanic trade, and check
+military preponderance by civil and ecclesiastical organization.
+In America Charles took an unceasing interest; he had a boundless
+belief in its possibilities, and a determination to safeguard
+the interests of the crown. Cortes, Alvarado and the brothers
+Pizarro were brought into close personal communication with
+the emperor. If he bestowed on Cortes the confidence which the
+loyal conqueror deserved, he showed the sternest determination
+in crushing the rebellious and autonomous instincts of Almagro
+and the Pizarros. But for this, Peru and Chile must have become
+independent almost as soon as they were conquered. Throughout
+he strove to protect the natives, to prevent actual slavery, and
+the consequent raids upon the natives. Legislation was not,
+indeed, always consistent, because the claims of the colonists
+could not always be resisted, but on the whole he gave earnest
+support to the missionaries, who upheld the cause of the natives
+against the military, and sometimes the civil and ecclesiastical
+elements. His humane care for his native subjects may well be
+studied in the instructions sent to Philip from Germany in 1548,
+when Charles was at the summit of his power.    If Charles had
+had his will, he would have opened the colonial trade to the whole
+of his wide possessions. The Castilians, however, jealously confined
+it to the city of Seville, artificially fostering the indolence
+of the colonists to maintain the agricultural and manufacturing
+monopoly of Castile, and by extreme protective measures
+forcing them to live on smuggled goods from other countries.
+Charles did actually attempt to cure the exclusive interest of
+the colonists in mineral wealth by the establishment of peasant
+and artisan colonies. If in many respects he failed, yet the
+organization of Spanish America and the survival of the native
+races were perhaps the most permanent results of his reign. It
+is a proof of the complexity of his interests that the march of the
+Turk upon Vienna and of the French on Naples delayed until
+the following reign the foundation of Spain&rsquo;s eastern empire.
+Charles carefully organized the expedition of Magellan, which
+sailed for the Moluccas and discovered the Philippines. Unfortunately,
+his straits for money in 1529 compelled him to
+mortgage to Portugal his disputed claim to the Moluccas, and the
+Philippines consequently dropped out of sight.</p>
+
+<p>If in the administration of Spain Charles did little more than
+mark time, in the Netherlands advance was rapid. Of the seven
+northern provinces he added five, containing more than half the
+area of the later United Provinces. In the south he freed
+Flanders and Artois from French suzerainty, annexed Tournai
+and Cambrai, and closed the natural line of French advance
+through the great bishopric of Liége by a line of fortresses across
+its western frontier. Much was done to convert the aggregate
+of jarring provinces into a harmonious unity by means of common
+principles of law and finance, and by the creation of a national
+army. While every province had its own assembly, there were
+at Charles&rsquo;s accession only the rudiments of estates general
+for the Netherlands at large. At the close of the reign the
+common parliamentary system was in full swing, and was fast
+converting the loosely knit provinces into a state. By these
+means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of supply,
+but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could
+recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip
+II. all patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of
+his father as the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process
+of consolidation was infinitely difficult, and conflicts between
+local and central authorities were frequent. That they were
+safely tided over was due to Charles&rsquo;s moderation and his legal
+mind, which prompted him to draw back when his case was bad.
+The harshest act of his life was the punishment of the rebellion
+of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy in other
+quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the other
+members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere
+local quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.</p>
+
+<p>In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with
+which he regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the
+growth of large estates through primogeniture; he gave the
+nobles the provincial governorships, the great court offices, the
+command of the professional cavalry. In the Order of the Golden
+Fleece and the long established presence of the court at Brussels,
+he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The nobility
+were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces.
+Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part
+of the Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly
+liable to papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers.
+Thus the usual conflict between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction
+was peculiarly acute. To remedy this dualism of
+authority and the consequent moral and religious abuses,
+Charles early designed the creation of a national diocesan
+system, and this was a darling project throughout his life.
+He was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or
+Lutheran, attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent
+on the crown, with nomination and institution in his hands,
+and with reasonable control over taxation and jurisdiction.
+The papacy unfortunately thwarted him, and the scheme,
+which under Charles would have been carried with national
+assent, and created a national church, took the appearance under
+Philip of alien domination.</p>
+
+<p>If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands
+territorial prince, and thus his interests might easily be at
+disaccord with those of the Empire. Consequently, just as he had
+shaken off French suzerainty from Flanders and Artois, so he
+loosened the tie of the other provinces to Germany. In 1548
+they were declared free and sovereign principalities not subject
+to imperial laws, and all the territories were incorporated in the
+Burgundian circle. It was, indeed, agreed that they should
+contribute to imperial taxation, and in return receive imperial
+protection. But this soon became a dead letter, and the Netherlands
+were really severed from the Empire, save for the nominal
+feudal tie in the case of some provinces. Thus some writers have
+dated their independence from Charles&rsquo;s convention of 1548
+rather than from the peace of Westphalia, a century later.
+Having converted his heterogeneous territories into a self-sufficient
+state, Charles often contemplated the formation of a
+middle kingdom between France and Germany. At the last
+moment he spoiled his own work by granting the Netherlands to
+Philip. It was indeed hard to set aside the order of inheritance,
+and the commercial interests of the provinces were closely bound
+with Spain, and with England, whose queen Philip had married.
+Under any other ruler than Philip the breach might not have
+come so early. Yet it must be regretted that Charles had not
+the courage of his convictions, and that he lost the opportunity
+of completing the new nation which he had faithfully laboured to
+create.</p>
+
+<p>Charles V. is in the eyes of many the very picture of a Catholic
+zealot. Popular opinion is probably mainly based upon the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page903" id="page903"></a>903</span>
+letters written from Yuste in 1558, when two hot-beds of heresy
+had been discovered in Spain herself, and on the contemporary
+codicil to his will. These were, perhaps, really in part responsible
+for the later persecution. Yet the circumstances were far from
+being typical of the emperor&rsquo;s career. Death was very near
+him; devotional exercises were his main occupation. The
+letters, moreover, were cries of warning, and not edicts. Charles
+was not then the responsible authority. There is a long step
+between a violent letter and a violent act. Few men would
+care to have their lives judged by letters written in the last
+extremities of gout. Less pardonable was the earlier persecution
+of the Valencian Moriscoes in 1525-1526. They had fought for
+their landlords in the cause of order, had been forcibly converted
+by the revolutionaries, and on the suppression of revolution had
+naturally relapsed. But for this momentary conversion the
+Inquisition would have had no hold upon them. The edict of
+persecution was cruel and unnecessary, and all expert opinion in
+Valencia was against it. It was not, however, actually enforced
+until after the victory of Pavia. It seems likely that Charles
+in a fit of religious exaltation regarded the persecution as a
+sacrificial thank-offering for his miraculous preservation. It is
+characteristic that, when in the following year he was brought
+into personal contact with the Moors of Granada, he allowed
+them to buy themselves off from the more obnoxious measures
+of the Inquisition. Henceforth the reign was marked by extreme
+leniency. Spain enjoyed a long lull in the activity of her Inquisition.
+At Naples in 1547 a rumour that the Spanish
+Inquisition was to be introduced to check the growth of heresy
+in influential quarters produced a dangerous revolt. The
+briefs were, however, issued by Paul III., no friend of Charles,
+and when a Neapolitan deputation visited the emperor he disclaimed
+any intention of making innovations. Of a different
+type to all the above was the persecution in the Netherlands.
+Here it was deliberate, chronic, and on an ascending scale.
+It is not a sufficient explanation that heresy also was persistent,
+ubiquitous and increasing, for this was also the case in Germany
+where Charles&rsquo;s methods were neither uniform nor drastic. But
+in the Netherlands the heretics were his immediate subjects,
+and as in every other state, Catholic or Lutheran, they must
+conform to their prince&rsquo;s religion. But there was more than this.
+After the suppression of the German peasant revolt in 1525
+many of the refugees found shelter in the teeming Netherland
+cities, and heresy took the form, not of Lutheranism, but of
+Anabaptism, which was believed to be perilous to society and
+the state. The government put down Anabaptism, as a modern
+government might stamp out Anarchism. The edicts were,
+indeed, directed against heresy in general, and were as harsh
+as they could be&mdash;at least on paper. Yet when Charles was
+assured that they were embarrassing foreign trade he let it be
+understood that they should not affect the foreign mercantile
+communities. Prudential considerations proved frequently a
+drag upon religious zeal.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of Charles to heresy must be judged in the main
+by his treatment of German Lutheranism. Here he had to deal,
+not with drawing-room imprudences nor hole-and-corner conventicles,
+not with oriental survivals nor millenary aspirations,
+but with organized churches protected by their princes, supported
+by revenues filched from his own church and stiffened by formulae
+as rigid as those of Catholicism. The length and stubbornness of
+the conflict will serve to show that Charles&rsquo;s religious conservatism
+had a measure of elasticity, that he was not a bigot and
+nothing more. It should be remembered that all his principal
+ministers were inclined to be Erasmian or indifferent, that one of
+his favourite confessors, Loaysa, advised compromise, and that
+several intimate members of his court and chapel were, after his
+death, victims of the Inquisition. The two more obvious courses
+towards the restoration of Catholic unity were force and reconciliation,
+in other words, a religious war or a general council.
+Neither of these was a simple remedy. The latter was impossible
+without papal concurrence, inoperative without the assistance of
+the European powers, and merely irritant without the adhesion
+of the Lutherans. It was most improbable that the papacy, the
+powers and the Lutherans would combine in a measure so
+palpably advantageous to the emperor. Force was hopeless
+save in the absence of war with France and the Turk, and of
+papal hostility in Italian territorial politics. Charles must obtain
+subsidies from ecclesiastical sources, and the support of all German
+Catholics, especially of the traditional rival, Bavaria. Even so
+the Protestants would probably be the stronger, and therefore
+they must be divided by utilizing any religious split, any class
+distinction, any personal or traditional dislikes, or else by bribery.
+Force and reconciliation seeming equally difficult, could an
+alternative be found in toleration? The experiment might take
+the form either of individual toleration, or of toleration for the
+Lutheran states. The former would be equally objectionable
+to Lutheran and Catholic princes as loosening their grip upon
+their subjects. Territorial toleration might seem equally
+obnoxious to the emperor, for its recognition would strengthen
+the anti-imperial particularism so closely associated with
+Lutheranism. If Charles could find no permanent specific, he
+must apply a provisional palliative. It was absolutely necessary
+to patch, if not to cure, because Germany must be pulled together
+to resist French and Turks. Such palliatives were two&mdash;suspension
+and comprehension. Suspension deferred the execution of
+penalties incurred by heresy, either for a term of years, or until
+a council should decide. Thus it recognized the divorce of the
+two religions, but limited it by time. Comprehension instead of
+recognizing the divorce would strive to conceal the breach. It
+was a domestic remedy, German and national, not European and
+papal. To become permanent it must receive the sanction of
+pope and council, for the Roman emperor could not set up a
+church of Germany. Yet the formula adopted might conceivably
+be found to fall within the four corners of the faith, and so
+obviate the necessity alike of force or council. Such were the
+conditions of the emperor&rsquo;s task, and such the methods which he
+actually pursued. He would advance now on one line, now on
+another, now on two or three concurrently, but he never definitely
+abandoned any. This fusion of obstinacy and versatility
+was a marked feature of his character.</p>
+
+<p>Suspension was of course often accidental and involuntary.
+The two chief stages of Lutheran growth naturally corresponded
+with the periods, each of nine years, when Charles was absent.
+Deliberate suspension was usually a consequence of the failure
+of comprehension. Thus at Augsburg in 1530 the wide gulf
+between the Lutheran confession and the Catholic confutation
+led to the definite suspensive treaty granted to the Lutherans at
+Nuremberg (1532). Charles dared not employ the alternative
+of force, because he needed their aid for the Turkish war. In
+1541, after a series of religious conferences, he personally presented
+a compromise in the so-called Book of Regensburg, which was
+rejected by both parties. He then proposed that the articles
+agreed upon should be compulsory, while on others toleration
+should be exercised until a national council should decide. Never
+before nor after did he go so far upon the path of toleration, or so
+nearly accept a national settlement. He was then burning to set
+sail for Algiers. His last formal suspensive measure was that of
+Spires (Speyer) in 1544, when he was marching against Francis.
+He promised a free and general council to be held in Germany,
+and, as a preparation, a national religious congress. The
+Lutherans were privately assured that a measure of comprehension
+should be concluded with or without papal approval.
+Meanwhile all edicts against heresy were suspended. No wonder
+that Charles afterwards confessed that he could scarcely reconcile
+these concessions with his conscience, but he won Lutheran aid
+for his campaign. The peace of Crépy gave all the conditions
+required for the employment of force. He had peace with French
+and Turk, he won the active support of the pope, he had deeply
+divided the Lutherans and reconciled Bavaria. Finding that the
+Lutherans would not accept the council summoned by the pope to
+Trent, he resorted to force, and force succeeded. At the Armed
+Diet of 1548 reunion seemed within reach. But Paul III. in direct
+opposition to Charles&rsquo;s wish had withdrawn the council from
+Trent to Bologna. Charles could not force Lutherans to submit
+to a council which he did not himself recognize, and he could not
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page904" id="page904"></a>904</span>
+bring himself to national schism. Thus, falling back upon his old
+palliatives, he issued the Interim and the accompanying Reform
+of the Clergy, pending a final settlement by a satisfactory general
+council. These measures pleased neither party, and Charles at
+the very height of his power had failed. He was conscious of
+failure, and made few attempts even to enforce the Interim.
+Henceforward political complications gathered round him anew.
+The only remedy was toleration in some form, independent of
+the papacy and limitless in time. To this Charles could never
+assent. His ideal was shattered, but it was a great ideal,
+and the patience, the moderation, even at times the adroitness
+with which he had striven towards it, proved him to be no
+bigot.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of abdication had long been present with Charles.
+After his failure to eject the French from Metz he had not shrunk
+from a wearisome campaign against Henry II., and he was now
+tired out. His mother&rsquo;s death removed an obstacle, for there
+could now be no question as to his son&rsquo;s succession to the Spanish
+kingdoms. Religious settlement in Germany could no longer be
+postponed, and he shrank from the responsibility; the hand that
+should rend the seamless raiment of God&rsquo;s church must not be
+his. To Ferdinand he gave his full authority as emperor, although
+at his brother&rsquo;s earnest request formal abdication was delayed
+until 1558. In the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels on
+the 25th of October 1555 he formally resigned to Philip the
+sovereignty of his beloved Netherlands. Turning from his son to
+the representatives of the estates he said, &ldquo;Gentlemen, you must
+not be astonished if, old and feeble as I am in all my members,
+and also from the love I bear you, I shed some tears.&rdquo; In the
+Netherlands at least the love was reciprocal, and tears were
+infectious among the thousand deputies who listened to their
+sovereign&rsquo;s last speech. On the 16th of January 1556, Charles
+resigned his Spanish kingdoms and that of Sicily, and shortly
+afterwards his county of Burgundy. On the 17th of September
+he sailed from Flushing on the last of his many voyages, an
+English fleet from Portland bearing him company down the
+Channel. In February 1557 he was installed in the home which he
+had chosen at Yuste in Estremadura.</p>
+
+<p>The excellent books which have been written upon the
+emperor&rsquo;s retirement have inspired an interest out of all proportion
+to its real significance. His little house was attached to
+the monastery, but was not within it. He was neither an ascetic
+nor a recluse. Gastronomic indiscretions still entailed their
+inevitable penalties. Society was not confined to interchange of
+civilities with the brethren. His relations, his chief friends, his
+official historians, all found their way to Yuste. Couriers brought
+news of Philip&rsquo;s war and peace with Pope Paul IV., of the victories
+of Saint Quentin and Gravelines, of the French capture of Calais,
+of the danger of Oran. As head of the family he intervened in the
+delicate relations with the closely allied house of Portugal: he
+even negotiated with the house of Navarre for reparation for the
+wrong done by his grandfather Ferdinand, which appeared to
+weigh upon his conscience. Above all he was shocked by the
+discovery that Spain, his own court, and his very chapel were
+infected with heresy. His violent letters to his son and daughter
+recommending immediate persecution, his profession of regret at
+having kept his word when Luther was in his power, have weighed
+too heavily on his reputation. The feverish phrases of religious
+exaltation due to broken health and unnatural retirement cannot
+balance the deliberate humanity and honour of wholesome
+manhood. Apart from such occasional moments of excitement,
+the emperor&rsquo;s last years passed tranquilly enough. At first he
+would shoot pigeons in the monastery woods, and till his last
+illness tended his garden and his animal pets, or watched the
+operations of Torriani, maker of clocks and mechanical toys.
+After an illness of three weeks the call came in the early hours of
+the feast of St Matthew, who, as his chaplain said, had for Christ&rsquo;s
+sake forsaken wealth even as Charles had forsaken empire. The
+dying man clasped his wife&rsquo;s crucifix to his breast till his fingers
+lost their hold. The archbishop held it before his eyes, and with
+the cry of &ldquo;<i>Ay Jesus!</i>&rdquo; died, in the words of his faithul squire
+D. Luis de Quijada, &ldquo;the chief of men that had ever been or
+would ever be.&rdquo; Posterity need not agree, but no great man can
+boast a more honest panegyric.</p>
+
+<p>In character Charles stands high among contemporary princes.
+It consists of pairs of contrasts, but the better side is usually
+stronger than the worse. Steadfast honesty of purpose was
+occasionally warped by self-interest, or rather he was apt to
+think that his own course must needs be that of righteousness.
+Self-control would give way, but very rarely, to squalls of passion.
+Obstinacy and irresolution were fairly balanced, the former
+generally bearing upon ends, the latter upon means. His own
+ideals were constant, but he could gradually assimilate the views
+of others, and could bend to argument and circumstance; yet
+even here he had a habit of harking back to earlier schemes
+which he had seemed to have definitely abandoned. Intercourse
+with different nationalities taught him a certain versatility; he
+was dignified with Spaniards, familiar with Flemings, while the
+material Italians were pleased with his good sense. His sympathies
+were neither wide nor quick, but he was a most faithful
+friend, and the most considerate of masters. For all who sought
+him his courtesy and patience were unfailing. At his abdication
+he dwelt with reasonable pride upon his labours and his journeyings.
+Few monarchs have lived a more strenuous life. Yet his
+industry was broken by fits of indolence, which were probably due
+to health. In his prime his confessor warned him against this
+defect, and it caused, indeed, the last great disaster of his life.
+Fortunately he was conscious of his obstinacy, his irresolution
+and his indolence. He would accept admonition from the chapter
+of the Golden Fleece, would comment on his failings as a warning
+to his son. When Cardinal Contarini politely assured him that
+to hold fast to good opinions is not obstinacy but firmness,
+the emperor replied, &ldquo;Ah! but I sometimes stick to bad ones.&rdquo;
+Charles was not cruel, indeed the character of his reign was
+peculiarly merciful. But he was somewhat unforgiving. He
+especially resented any slight upon his honour, and his unwise
+severity to Philip of Hesse was probably due to the unfounded
+accusation that he had imprisoned him in violation of his pledge.
+The excesses of his troops in Italy, in Guelders and on the
+Austrian frontiers caused him acute pain, although he called himself
+&ldquo;hard to weep.&rdquo; No great nobleman, statesman or financier
+was executed at Charles&rsquo;s order. He was proud of his generalship,
+classing himself with Alva and Montmorenci as the best of his
+day. Yet his failures nearly balanced his successes. It is true
+that in his most important campaign, that against the League
+of Schmalkalden, the main credit must be ascribed to his well-judged
+audacity at the opening, and his dogged persistency at
+the close. As a soldier he must rank very high. It was said
+that his being emperor lost to Spain the best light horseman of
+her army. At every crisis he was admirably cool, setting a truly
+royal example to his men. His mettle was displayed when he
+was attacked on the burning sands of Tunis, when his troops
+were driven in panic from Algiers, when in spite of physical
+suffering he forded the Elbe at Mühlberg, and when he was
+bombarded by the vastly superior Lutheran artillery under the
+walls of Ingolstadt. When blamed for exposing himself on this
+last occasion, &ldquo;I could not help it,&rdquo; he apologized; &ldquo;we were
+short of hands, 1 could not set a bad example.&rdquo; Nevertheless
+he was by nature timid. Just before this very action he had a
+fit of trembling, and he was afraid of mice and spiders. The
+force of his example was not confined to the field. Melanchthon
+wrote from Augsburg in 1530 that he was a model of continence,
+temperance and moderation, that the old domestic discipline
+was now only preserved in the imperial household. He tenderly
+loved his wife, whom he had married for pecuniary and diplomatic
+reasons. Of his two well-known illegitimate children, Margaret
+was born before he married, and Don John long after his wife&rsquo;s
+death, but he felt this latter to be a child of shame. His sobriety
+was frequently contrasted with the universal drunkenness of the
+German and Flemish nobles, which he earnestly condemned.
+But on his appetite he could place no control, in spite of the
+ruinous effects of his gluttony upon his health. In dress, in his
+household, and in his stable he was simple and economical.
+He loved children, flowers, animals and birds. Professional
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page905" id="page905"></a>905</span>
+jesters amused him, and he was not above a joke himself. Maps
+and mechanical inventions greatly interested him, and in later
+life he became fond of reading. He takes his place indeed among
+authors, for he dictated the commentaries on his own career.
+Of music he possessed a really fine knowledge, and his high
+appreciation of Titian proves the purity of his feeling for art.
+The little collection of books and pictures which he carried to
+Yuste is an index of his tastes. Charles was undeniably plain.
+He confessed that he was by nature ugly, but that as artists
+usually painted him uglier than he was, strangers on seeing him
+were agreeably disappointed. The protruding lower jaw and
+the thin pale face were redeemed by the fine open brow and
+the bright speaking eyes. He was, moreover, well made, and
+in youth had an incomparable leg. Above all no man could
+doubt his dignity; Charles was every inch an emperor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;<i>Commentaries de Charles-quint</i>, ed. by Baron
+Kervyn de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1862); <i>Memoirs</i> written by Charles
+in 1550, and treating somewhat fully of the years 1543-1548;
+W. Robertson, <i>History of the Emperor Charles V.</i> (latest ed., London,
+1887), an English classic, which needs supplementing by later authorities;
+F.A. Mignet, <i>Rivalité de François I et de Charles-quint</i>
+(2 vols., Paris, 1875); E. Armstrong, <i>The Emperor Charles V.</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1902), to which reference may be made for monographs
+and collections of documents bearing on the reign; H. Baumgarten,
+<i>Geschichte Karls V.</i> (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885-1893), very full but
+extending only to 1539; G. de Leva, <i>Storia documentata di Carlo V.
+in correlazione all&rsquo; Italia</i> (5 vols., Venice, 1862-1894), a general
+history of the reign, though with special reference to its Italian aspects,
+and extending to 1552; article by L.P. Gachard in <i>Biographie
+nationale</i>, vol. iii., 1872, an excellent compressed account. The
+life of Charles V. at Yuste may be studied in L.P. Gachard&rsquo;s <i>Retraite
+et mort de Charles-quint au monastère de Yuste</i> (Brussels, 1854-1855),
+and in Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell&rsquo;s <i>The Cloister Life of the Emperor
+Charles V.</i> (London, 4 editions from 1852); also in W.H. Prescott&rsquo;s
+edition of Robertson&rsquo;s <i>History</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Ar.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VI.<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1685-1740), Roman emperor, was born on the
+1st of October 1685 at Vienna. He was the second son of the
+emperor Leopold I. by his third marriage with Eleanore, daughter
+of Philip William of Neuburg, elector palatine of the Rhine.
+When the Spanish branch of the house of Habsburg became
+extinct in 1700, he was put forward as the lawful heir in opposition
+to Philip V., the Bourbon to whom the Spanish dominions
+had been left by the will of Charles II. of Spain. He was
+proclaimed at Vienna on the 19th of September 1703, and made
+his way to Spain by the Low Countries, England and Lisbon,
+remaining in Spain till 1711, mostly in Catalonia, where the
+Habsburg party was strong. Although he had a certain tenacity of
+purpose, which he showed in later life, he displayed none of the
+qualities required in a prince who had to gain his throne by the
+sword (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spanish Succession, War of</a></span>). He was so afraid of
+appearing to be ruled by a favourite that he would not take
+good advice, but was easily earwigged by flatterers who played
+on his weakness for appearing independent. In 1708 he was married
+at Barcelona to Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
+(1691-1750), a Lutheran princess who was persuaded
+to accept Roman Catholicism by the assurances of
+Protestant divines and of the philosopher Leibnitz, that she
+could always give an Evangelical meaning to Catholic ceremonies.
+On the death of his elder brother Joseph I. on the 17th of April
+1711, Charles inherited the hereditary possessions of the house
+of Habsburg, and their claims on the Empire. The death of
+Joseph without male issue had been foreseen, and Charles had
+at one time been prepared to give up Spain and the Indies on
+condition that he was allowed to retain Naples, Sicily and the
+Milanese. But when the case arose, his natural obstinacy led
+him to declare that he would not think of surrendering any of
+the rights of his family. It was with great difficulty that he
+was persuaded to leave Spain, months after the death of his
+brother (on the 27th of September 1711). Only the emphatic
+refusal of the European powers to tolerate the reconstruction
+of the empire of Charles V. forced him to give a sullen submission
+to necessity. He abandoned Spain and was crowned emperor
+in December 1711, but for a long time he would not recognize
+Philip V. It is to his honour that he was very reluctant to
+desert the Catalans who had fought for his cause. Some of their
+chiefs followed him to Vienna, and their advice had an unfortunate
+influence on his mind. They almost succeeded in
+arousing his suspicions of the loyalty of Prince Eugene at the
+very moment when the prince&rsquo;s splendid victories over the Turks
+had led to the peace of Passarowitz on the 28th of July 1718, and
+a great extension of the Austrian dominions eastward. Charles
+showed an enlightened, though not always successful, interest
+in the commercial prosperity of his subjects, but from the date
+of his return to Germany till his death his ruling passion was to
+secure his inheritance against dismemberment. As early as
+1713 he had begun to prepare the &ldquo;Pragmatic Sanction&rdquo;
+which was to regulate the succession. An only son, born on the
+13th of April 1716, died in infancy, and it became the object of
+his policy to obtain the recognition of his daughter Maria Theresa
+as his heiress. He made great concessions to obtain his aim,
+and embarked on complicated diplomatic negotiations. His
+last days were embittered by a disastrous war with Turkey, in
+which he lost almost all he had gained by the peace of Passarowitz.
+He died at Vienna on the 20th of October 1740, and
+with him expired the male line of his house. Charles VI. was
+an admirable representative of the tenacious ambition of the
+Habsburgs, and of their belief in their own &ldquo;august greatness&rdquo;
+and boundless rights.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the personal character of Charles VI. see A. von Arneth,
+<i>Geschichte Maria Theresias</i> (Vienna, 1863-1879). Dr Franz Krones,
+R. v. Marchland, <i>Grundriss der dsterreichischen Geschichte</i> (Vienna,
+1882), gives a very copious bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VII.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1697-1745), Roman emperor, known also as
+Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, was the son of the elector
+Maximilian Emanuel and his second wife, Theresa Cunigunda,
+daughter of John Sobieski, king of Poland. He was born on the
+6th of August 1697. His father having taken the side of Louis
+XIV. of France in the War of the Spanish Succession (<i>q.v.</i>),
+Bavaria was occupied by the allies. Charles and his brother
+Clement, afterwards archbishop of Cologne, were carried prisoners
+to Vienna, and were educated by the Jesuits under the name of
+the counts of Wittelsbach. When his father was restored to his
+electorate, Charles was released, and in 1717 he led the Bavarian
+contingent of the imperial army which served under Prince
+Eugene against the Turks, and is said to have distinguished
+himself at Belgrade. On the 25th of September 1722 he was
+betrothed to Maria Amelia, the younger of the two orphan
+daughters of the emperor Joseph I. Her uncle Charles VI.
+insisted that the Bavarian house should recognize the Pragmatic
+Sanction which established his daughter Maria Theresa as heiress
+of the Habsburg dominions. They did so, but with secret protests
+and mental reservations of their rights, which were designed to
+render the recognition valueless. The electors of Bavaria had
+claims on the possessions of the Habsburgs under the will of
+the emperor Ferdinand I., who died in 1564.</p>
+
+<p>Charles succeeded his father on the 26th of February 1726.
+As a ruler of Bavaria, he showed a vague disposition to improve
+the condition of his subjects, but his profuse habits and his efforts
+to rival the splendour of the French court crippled his finances.
+His policy was one of much duplicity, for he was constantly
+endeavouring to keep on good terms with the emperor while
+slipping out of his obligation to accept the Pragmatic Sanction
+and intriguing to secure French support for his claims whenever
+Charles VI. should die. On hearing of the emperor&rsquo;s last illness,
+he ordered his agent at Vienna to renew his claim to the Austrian
+inheritance. The claim was advanced immediately after the
+death of Charles VI. on the 20th of October 1740. Charles Albert
+now entered into the league against Maria Theresa, to the great
+misfortune of himself and his subjects. By the help of her enemies
+he was elected emperor in opposition to her husband Francis,
+grand duke of Tuscany, on the 24th of January 1742, under the
+title of Charles VII., and was crowned at Frankfort-on-Main
+on the 12th of February. But as his army had been neglected,
+he was utterly unable to resist the Austrian troops. While he was
+being crowned his hereditary dominions in Bavaria were being
+overrun. He described himself as attacked by stone and gout,
+ill, without money or land, and in distress comparable to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page906" id="page906"></a>906</span>
+sorrows of Job. During the War of the Austrian Succession
+(<i>q.v.</i>) he was a mere puppet in the hands of the anti-Austrian
+coalition, and was often in want of mere necessaries. In the
+changes of the war he was able to re-enter his capital, Munich,
+in 1743, but had immediately afterwards to take flight again.
+He was restored by Frederick the Great in October 1744, but died
+worn out at Munich on the 20th of January 1745.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. von Arneth, <i>Geschichte Maria Theresias</i> (Vienna, 1863-1879);
+and P.T. Heigel. <i>Der österreichische Erbfolgestreit und die
+Kaiserwahl Karls VII.</i> (Munich, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1600-1649), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
+second son of James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at
+Dunfermline on the 19th of November 1600. At his baptism he
+was created duke of Albany, and on the 16th of January 1605
+duke of York. In 1612, by the death of his elder brother Henry,
+he became heir-apparent, and was created prince of Wales on the
+3rd of November 1616. In 1620 he took up warmly the cause
+of his sister the queen of Bohemia, and in 1621 he defended Bacon,
+using his influence to prevent the chancellor&rsquo;s degradation from
+the peerage. The prince&rsquo;s marriage with the infanta Maria,
+daughter of Philip III. of Spain, had been for some time the
+subject of negotiation, James desiring to obtain through Spanish
+support the restitution of his son-in-law, Frederick, to the
+Palatinate; and in 1623 Charles was persuaded by Buckingham,
+who now obtained a complete ascendancy over him in opposition
+to wiser advisers and the king&rsquo;s own wishes, to make a secret
+expedition himself to Spain, put an end to all formalities, and
+bring home his mistress himself: &ldquo;a gallant and brave thing
+for his Highness.&rdquo; &ldquo;Steenie&rdquo; and &ldquo;Baby Charles,&rdquo; as James
+called them, started on the 17th of February, arriving at Paris
+on the 21st and at Madrid on the 7th of March, where they
+assumed the unromantic names of Mr Smith, and Mr Brown.
+They found the Spanish court by no means enthusiastic for the
+marriage<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and the princess herself averse. The prince&rsquo;s immediate
+conversion was expected, and a complete religious
+tolerance for the Roman Catholics in England demanded. James
+engaged to allow the infanta the right of public worship and to
+use his influence to modify the law, but Charles himself went
+much further. He promised the alteration of the penal laws
+within three years, conceded the education of the children to
+the mother till the age of twelve, and undertook to listen to the
+infanta&rsquo;s priests in matters of religion, signing the marriage
+contract on the 25th of July 1623. The Spanish, however, did
+not trust to words, and Charles was informed that his wife could
+only follow him to England when these promises were executed.
+Moreover, they had no intention whatever of aiding the Protestant
+Frederick. Meanwhile Buckingham, incensed at the failure of
+the expedition, had quarrelled with the grandees, and Charles
+left Madrid, landing at Portsmouth on the 5th of October, to the
+joy of the people, to whom the proposed alliance was odious.
+He now with Buckingham urged James to make war on Spain,
+and in December 1624 signed a marriage treaty with Henrietta
+Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. In April Charles had
+declared solemnly to the parliament that in case of his marriage
+to a Roman Catholic princess no concessions should be granted to
+recusants, but these were in September 1624 deliberately promised
+by James and Charles in a secret article, the first instance of the
+duplicity and deception practised by Charles in dealing with the
+parliament and the nation. The French on their side promised
+to assist in Mansfeld&rsquo;s expedition for the recovery of the
+Palatinate, but Louis in October refused to allow the men to pass
+through France; and the army, without pay or provisions,
+dwindled away in Holland to nothing.</p>
+
+<p>On the 27th of March 1625 Charles I. succeeded to the throne
+by the death of his father, and on the 1st of May he was married
+by proxy to Henrietta Maria. He received her at Canterbury
+on the 13th of June, and on the 18th his first parliament
+assembled. On the day of his marriage Charles had given directions
+that the prosecutions of the Roman Catholics should cease,
+but he now declared his intention of enforcing the laws against
+them, and demanded subsidies for carrying on the war against
+Spain. The Commons, however, responded coldly. Charles had
+lent ships to Louis XIII. to be used against the Protestants at
+La Rochelle, and the Commons were not aware of the subterfuges
+and fictitious delays intended to prevent their employment.
+The Protestant feelings of the Commons were also aroused by the
+king&rsquo;s support of the royal chaplain, Richard Montagu, who had
+repudiated Calvinistic doctrine. They only voted small sums,
+and sent up a petition on the state of religion and reflecting upon
+Buckingham, whom they deemed responsible for the failure of
+Mansfeld&rsquo;s expedition, at the same time demanding counsellors in
+whom they could trust. Parliament was accordingly dissolved
+by Charles on the 12th of August. He hoped that greater success
+abroad would persuade the Commons to be more generous.
+On the 8th of September 1625 he made the treaty of Southampton
+with the Dutch against Spain, and sent an expedition to Cadiz
+under Sir Edward Cecil, which, however, was a failure. In order to
+make himself independent of parliament he attempted to raise
+money on the crown jewels in Holland, and to diminish the
+opposition in the Commons he excluded the chief leaders by
+appointing them sheriffs. When the second parliament met,
+however, on the 6th of February 1626, the opposition, led by Sir
+John Eliot, was more determined than before, and their attack
+was concentrated upon Buckingham. On the 29th of March,
+Charles, calling the Commons into his presence, accused them of
+leading him into the war and of taking advantage of his difficulties
+to &ldquo;make their own game.&rdquo; &ldquo;I pray you not to be deceived,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;it is not a parliamentary way, nor &rsquo;tis not a way to deal
+with a king. Remember that parliaments are altogether in my
+power for their calling, sitting, and dissolution; therefore as I
+find the fruits of them good or evil, they are to continue or not to
+be.&rdquo; Charles, however, was worsted in several collisions with the
+two houses, with a consequent loss of influence. He was obliged
+by the peers to set at liberty Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel,
+whom he had put into the Tower, and to send a summons to the
+earl of Bristol, whom he had attempted to exclude from parliament,
+while the Commons compelled him, with a threat of doing
+no business, to liberate Eliot and Digges, the managers of Buckingham&rsquo;s
+impeachment, whom he had imprisoned. Finally in June
+the Commons answered Charles&rsquo;s demand for money by a remonstrance
+asking for Buckingham&rsquo;s dismissal, which they
+decided must precede the grant of supply. They claimed responsible
+ministers, while Charles considered himself the executive
+and the sole and unfettered judge of the necessities of the state.
+Accordingly on the 15th Charles dissolved the parliament.</p>
+
+<p>The king was now in great need of money. He was at war
+with Spain and had promised to pay £30,000 a month to Christian
+IV. of Denmark in support of the Protestant campaign in
+Germany. To these necessities was now added a war with
+France. Charles had never kept his promise concerning the
+recusants; disputes arose in consequence with his wife, and on
+the 31st of July 1626 he ordered all her French attendants to be
+expelled from Whitehall and sent back to France. At the same
+time several French ships carrying contraband goods to the
+Spanish Netherlands were seized by English warships. On the
+27th of June 1627 Buckingham with a large expedition sailed to
+the Isle of Ré to relieve La Rochelle, then besieged by the forces
+of Louis XIII. Though the success of the French Protestants was
+an object much desired in England, Buckingham&rsquo;s unpopularity
+prevented support being given to the expedition, and the duke
+returned to Plymouth on the 11th of November completely
+defeated. Meanwhile Charles had endeavoured to get the money
+refused to him by parliament by means of a forced loan, dismissing
+Chief Justice Crewe for declining to support its legality,
+and imprisoning several of the leaders of the opposition for refusing
+to subscribe to it. These summary measures, however,
+only brought a small sum into the treasury. On the 2nd of
+January 1628 Charles ordered the release of all the persons
+imprisoned, and on the 17th of March summoned his third
+parliament.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of relieving the king&rsquo;s necessities the Commons immediately
+proceeded to discuss the constitutional position and
+to formulate the Petition of Right, forbidding taxation without
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page907" id="page907"></a>907</span>
+consent of parliament, arbitrary and illegal imprisonment,
+compulsory billeting in private houses, and martial law. Charles,
+on the 1st of May, first demanded that they should &ldquo;rest on his
+royal word and promise.&rdquo; He obtained an opinion from the
+judges that the acceptance of the petition would not absolutely
+preclude in certain cases imprisonments without showing cause,
+and after a futile endeavour to avoid an acceptance by returning
+an ambiguous answer which only exasperated the Commons, he
+gave his consent on the 7th of June in the full and usual form.
+Charles now obtained his subsidies, but no real settlement was
+reached, and his relations with the parliament remained as
+unfriendly as before. They proceeded to remonstrate against his
+government and against his support of Buckingham, and denied
+his right to tonnage and poundage. Accordingly, on the 26th of
+June they were prorogued. New disasters befell Charles, in the
+assassination of Buckingham and in the failure of the fresh
+expedition sent to Ré. In January 1629 the parliament reassembled,
+irritated by the exaction of the duties and seizure of
+goods during the interval, and suspicious of &ldquo;innovations in
+religion,&rdquo; the king having forbidden the clergy to continue
+the controversy concerning Calvinistic and Arminian doctrines,
+the latter of which the parliament desired to suppress. While
+they were discussing these matters, on the 2nd of March 1629,
+the king ordered them to adjourn, but amidst a scene of great
+excitement the speaker, Sir John Finch, was held down in his
+chair and the doors were locked, whilst resolutions against innovations
+in religion and declaring those who levied or paid tonnage and
+poundage enemies to their country were passed. Parliament was
+immediately dissolved, and Charles imprisoned nine members,
+leaders of the opposition, Eliot, Holles, Strode, Selden, Valentine,
+Coryton, Heyman, Hobart and Long, his vengeance being especially
+shown in the case of Eliot, the most formidable of his
+opponents, who died in the Tower of consumption after long
+years of close and unhealthy confinement, and whose corpse even
+Charles refused to give up to his family.</p>
+
+<p>For eleven years Charles ruled without parliaments and with
+some success. There seemed no reason to think that &ldquo;that
+noise,&rdquo; to use Laud&rsquo;s expression concerning parliaments, would
+ever be heard again by those then living. A revenue of about
+£618,000 was obtained by enforcing the payment of tonnage and
+poundage, and while avoiding the taxes, loans, and benevolences
+forbidden by the petition of right, by monopolies, fines for
+knighthood, and for pretended encroachments on the royal
+domains and forests, which enabled the king to meet expenditure
+at home. In Ireland, Charles, in order to get money, had granted
+the Graces in 1628, conceding security of titles of more than
+sixty years&rsquo; standing, and a more moderate oath of allegiance for
+the Roman Catholics, together with the renunciation of the shilling
+fine for non-attendance at church. He continued, however, to
+make various attempts to get estates into his possession on the
+pretext of invalid title, and on the 12th of May 1635 the city of
+London estates were sequestered. Charles here destroyed one of
+the most valuable settlements in Ireland founded by James I.
+in the interests of national defence, and at the same time extinguished
+the historic loyalty of the city of London, which
+henceforth steadily favoured the parliamentary cause. In 1633
+Wentworth had been sent to Ireland to establish a medieval
+monarchy and get money, and his success in organization seemed
+great enough to justify the attempt to extend the system to
+England. Charles at the same time restricted his foreign policy
+to scarcely more than a wish for the recovery of the Palatinate, to
+further which he engaged in a series of numerous and mutually
+destructive negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus and with
+Spain, finally making peace with Spain on the 5th of November
+1630, an agreement which was followed on the 2nd of January
+1631 by a further secret treaty, the two kings binding themselves
+to make war on the Dutch and partition their territories. A
+notable feature of this agreement was that while in Charles&rsquo;s
+portion Roman Catholicism was to be tolerated, there was no
+guarantee for the security of Protestantism in the territory to be
+ceded to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In 1634 Charles levied ship-money from the seaport towns for
+the increase of the navy, and in 1635 the tax was extended to
+the inland counties, which aroused considerable opposition. In
+February 1637 Charles obtained an opinion in favour of his claims
+from the judges, and in 1638 the great Hampden case was decided
+in his favour. The apparent success, however, of Charles was
+imperilled by the general and growing resentment aroused by his
+exactions and whole policy, and this again was small compared
+with the fears excited by the king&rsquo;s attitude towards religion and
+Protestantism. He supported zealously Laud&rsquo;s rigid Anglican
+orthodoxy, his compulsory introduction of unwelcome ritual, and
+his narrow, intolerant and despotic policy, which was marked by
+several savage prosecutions and sentences in the Star Chamber,
+drove numbers of moderate Protestants out of the Church into
+Presbyterianism, and created an intense feeling of hostility to the
+government throughout the country. Charles further increased
+the popular fears on the subject of religion by his welcome given to
+Panzani, the pope&rsquo;s agent, in 1634, who endeavoured unsuccessfully
+to reconcile the two churches, and afterwards to George
+Conn, papal agent at the court of Henrietta Maria, while the
+favour shown by the king to these was contrasted with the severe
+sentences passed upon the Puritans.</p>
+
+<p>The same imprudent neglect of the national sentiment was
+pursued in Scotland. Charles had already made powerful
+enemies there by a declaration announcing the arbitrary revocation
+of former church estates to the crown. On the 18th of June
+1633 he was crowned at Edinburgh with full Anglican ceremonial,
+which lost him the hearts of numbers of his Scottish subjects and
+aroused hostility to his government in parliament. After his
+return to England he gave further offence by ordering the use
+of the surplice, by his appointment of Archbishop Spotiswood
+as chancellor of Scotland, and by introducing other bishops into
+the privy council. In 1636 the new <i>Book of Canons</i> was issued
+by the king&rsquo;s authority, ordering the communion table to be
+placed at the east end, enjoining confession, and declaring
+excommunicate any who should presume to attack the new
+prayer-book. The latter was ordered to be used on the 18th of
+October 1636, but it did not arrive in Scotland till May 1637.
+It was intensely disliked both as &ldquo;popish&rdquo; and as English.
+A riot followed its first use in St Giles&rsquo; cathedral on the 23rd of
+July, and Charles&rsquo;s order to enforce it on the 10th of September
+was met by fresh disturbances and by the establishment of
+the &ldquo;Tables,&rdquo; national committees which now became the real
+though informal government of Scotland. In 1638 the national
+covenant was drawn up, binding those that signed it to defend
+their religion to the death, and was taken by large numbers
+with enthusiasm all over the country. Charles now drew back,
+promised to enforce the canons and prayer-book only in a &ldquo;fair
+and legal way,&rdquo; and sent the marquis of Hamilton as a mediator.
+The latter, however, a weak and incapable man, desirous of
+popularity with all parties, and unfaithful to the king&rsquo;s interests,
+yielded everything, without obtaining the return of Charles&rsquo;s
+subjects to their allegiance. The assembly met at Glasgow on
+the 21st of November, and in spite of Hamilton&rsquo;s opposition
+immediately proceeded to judge the bishops. On the 28th
+Hamilton dissolved it, but it continued to sit, deposed the bishops
+and re-established Presbyterianism. The rebellion had now
+begun, and an appeal to arms alone could decide the quarrel
+between Charles and his subjects. On the 28th of May 1639
+he arrived at Berwick with a small and ill-trained force, thus
+beginning what is known as the first Bishops&rsquo; War; but being
+confronted by the Scottish army at Duns Law, he was compelled
+to sign the treaty of Berwick on the 18th of June, which provided
+for the disbandment of both armies and the restitution to the
+king of the royal castles, referring all questions to a general
+assembly and a parliament. When the assembly met it abolished
+episcopacy, but Charles, who on the 3rd of August had returned
+to Whitehall, refused his consent to this and to other measures
+proposed by the Scottish parliament. His extreme financial
+necessities, and the prospect of renewed hostilities with the Scots,
+now moved Charles, at the instigation of Strafford, who in
+September had left Ireland to become the king&rsquo;s chief adviser,
+to turn again to parliament for assistance as the last resource,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page908" id="page908"></a>908</span>
+and on the 13th of April 1640 the Short Parliament assembled.
+But on its discussing grievances before granting supplies and
+finally refusing subsidies till peace was made with the Scots, it
+was dissolved on the 5th of May. Charles returned once more
+to measures of repression, and on the 10th imprisoned some of
+the London aldermen who refused to lend money. He prepared
+for war, scraping together what money he could and obtaining
+a grant through Strafford from Ireland. His position, however,
+was hopeless; his forces were totally undisciplined, and the
+Scots were supported by the parliamentary opposition in England.
+On the 20th of August the Scots crossed the Tweed, beginning
+the so-called second Bishops&rsquo; War, defeated the king&rsquo;s army
+at Newburn on the 28th, and subsequently occupied Newcastle
+and Durham. Charles at this juncture, on the 24th of September,
+summoned a great council of the peers; and on the 21st of
+October a cessation of arms was agreed to by the treaty of Ripon,
+the Scots receiving £850 a day for the maintenance of the army,
+and further negotiations being transferred to London. On the
+3rd of November the king summoned the Long Parliament.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the final issue of Charles&rsquo;s attempt to govern without
+parliaments&mdash;Scotland in triumphant rebellion, Ireland only
+waiting for a signal to rise, and in England the parliament revived
+with almost irresistible strength, in spite of the king, by the force
+of circumstances alone. At this great crisis, which would indeed
+have taxed the resolution and resource of the most cool-headed
+and sagacious statesman, Charles failed signally. Two alternative
+courses were open to him, either of which still offered good
+chances of success. He might have taken his stand on the ancient
+and undoubted prerogative of the crown, resisted all encroachments
+on the executive by the parliament by legal and constitutional
+means, which were probably ample, and in case of
+necessity have appealed to the loyalty of the nation to support
+him in arms; or he might have waived his rights, and, acknowledging
+the mistakes of his past administration, have united
+with the parliament and created once more that union of interests
+and sentiment of the monarchy with the nation which had made
+England so powerful. Charles, however, pretended to do both
+simultaneously or by turns, and therefore accomplished neither.
+The illegally imprisoned members of the last parliament, now
+smarting with the sense of their wrongs, were set free to stimulate
+the violence of the opposition to the king in the new assembly.
+Of Charles&rsquo;s double statecraft, however, the series of incidents
+which terminated the career of the great Strafford form the most
+terrible example. Strafford had come to London in November,
+having been assured by Charles that he &ldquo;should not suffer in his
+person, honour or fortune,&rdquo; but was impeached and thrown into
+the Tower almost immediately. Charles took no steps to hinder
+the progress of the proceedings against him, but entered into
+schemes for saving him by bringing up an army to London, and
+this step exasperated Strafford&rsquo;s enemies and added new zeal to
+the prosecution. On the 23rd of April, after the passing of the
+attainder by the Commons, he repeated to Strafford his former
+assurances of protection. On the 1st of May he appealed to
+the Lords to spare his life and be satisfied with rendering him
+incapable of holding office. On the 2nd he made an attempt
+to seize the Tower by force. On the 10th, yielding to the
+queen&rsquo;s fears and to the mob surging round his palace, he signed
+his death-warrant. &ldquo;If my own person only were in danger,&rdquo; he
+declared to the council, &ldquo;I would gladly venture it to save my
+Lord Strafford&rsquo;s life; but seeing my wife, children, all my
+kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way unto it.&rdquo;
+On the 11th he sent to the peers a petition for Strafford&rsquo;s life,
+the force of which was completely annulled by the strange postscript:
+&ldquo;If he must die, it were a charity to reprieve him until
+Saturday.&rdquo; This tragic surrender of his great and devoted
+servant left an indelible stain upon the king&rsquo;s character, and he
+lived to repent it bitterly. One of his last admonitions to the
+prince of Wales was &ldquo;never to give way to the punishment
+of any for their faithful service to the crown.&rdquo; It was regarded
+by Charles as the cause of his own subsequent misfortunes,
+and on the scaffold the remembrance of it disturbed his own last
+moments. The surrender of Strafford was followed by another
+stupendous concession by Charles, the surrender of his right
+to dissolve the parliament without its own consent, and the parliament
+immediately proceeded, with Charles&rsquo;s consent, to sweep
+away the star-chamber, high commission and other extra-legal
+courts, and all extra-parliamentary taxation. Charles, however,
+did not remain long or consistently in the yielding mood. In
+June 1641 he engaged in a second army plot for bringing up the
+forces to London, and on the 10th of August he set out for
+Scotland in order to obtain the Scottish army against the
+parliament in England; this plan was obviously doomed to
+failure and was interrupted by another appeal to force, the so-called
+Incident, at which Charles was suspected (in all probability
+unjustly) of having connived, consisting in an attempt
+to kidnap and murder Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark, with whom
+he was negotiating. Charles had also apparently been intriguing
+with Irish Roman Catholic lords for military help in return
+for concessions, and he was suspected of complicity in the Irish
+rebellion which now broke out. He left Scotland more discredited
+than ever, having by his concessions made, to use
+Hyde&rsquo;s words, &ldquo;a perfect deed of gift of that kingdom,&rdquo; and
+without gaining any advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Charles returned to London on the 25th of November 1641 and
+was immediately confronted by the Grand Remonstrance
+(passed on the 22nd), in which, after reciting the chief points of the
+king&rsquo;s misgovernment, the parliament demanded the appointment
+of acceptable ministers and the constitution of an assembly
+of divines to settle the religious question. On the 2nd of January
+1642 Charles gave office to the opposition members Colepeper
+and Falkland, and at the same time Hyde left the opposition
+party to serve the king. Charles promised to take no serious
+step without their advice. Nevertheless, entirely without their
+knowledge, through the influence of the queen whose impeachment
+was intended, Charles on the 4th made the rash and fatal
+attempt to seize with an armed force the five members of the
+Commons, Pym, Hampden, Holies, Hesilrige and Strode, whom,
+together with Mandeville (afterwards earl of Manchester) in the
+Lords, he had impeached of high treason. No English sovereign
+ever had (or has since that time) penetrated into the House of
+Commons. So complete and flagrant a violation of parliamentary
+liberties, and an appeal so crude and glaring to brute force, could
+only be justified by complete success; but the court plans had
+been betrayed, and were known to the offending members, who,
+by order of the House, had taken refuge in the city before the
+king&rsquo;s arrival with the soldiers. Charles, on entering the House,
+found &ldquo;the birds flown,&rdquo; and returned baffled, having thrown
+away the last chance of a peaceful settlement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lenthall,
+William</a></span>). The next day Charles was equally unsuccessful in
+obtaining their surrender in the city. &ldquo;The king had the worst
+day in London yesterday,&rdquo; wrote a spectator of the scene, &ldquo;that
+ever he had, the people crying &lsquo;privilege of parliament&rsquo; by
+thousands and prayed God to turn the heart of the king, shutting
+up their shops and standing at their doors with swords and halberds.&rdquo;<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+On the 10th, amidst general manifestations of hostility,
+Charles left Whitehall to prepare for war, destined never to return
+till he was brought back by his victorious enemies to die.</p>
+
+<p>Several months followed spent in manoeuvres to obtain the
+control of the forces and in a paper war of controversy. On the
+23rd of April Charles was refused entry into Hull, and on the
+2nd of June the parliament sent to him the &ldquo;Nineteen Propositions,&rdquo;
+claiming the whole sovereignty and government for the
+parliament, including the choice of the ministers, the judges, and
+the control of the army, and the execution of the laws against the
+Roman Catholics. The military events of the war are described
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Great Rebellion</a></span>. On the 22nd of August the
+king set up his standard at Nottingham, and on the 23rd of
+October he fought the indecisive battle of Edgehill, occupying
+Oxford and advancing as far as Brentford. It seemed possible
+that the war might immediately be ended by Charles penetrating
+to the heart of the enemy&rsquo;s position and occupying London, but
+he drew back on the 13th of November before the parliamentary
+force at Turnham Green, and avoided a decisive contest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page909" id="page909"></a>909</span> </p>
+
+<p>Next year (1643) another campaign, for surrounding instead of
+penetrating into London, was projected. Newcastle and Hopton
+were to advance from the north and west, seize the north and
+south banks of the river below the city, destroy its commerce,
+and combine with Charles at Oxford. The royalist force, however,
+in spite of victories at Adwalton Moor (June 30th) and Roundway
+Down (July 13th), did not succeed in combining with Charles,
+Newcastle in the north being kept back by the Eastern Association
+and the presence of the enemy at Hull, and Hopton in the
+west being detained by their successful holding out at Plymouth.
+Being too weak to attempt anything alone against London,
+Charles marched to besiege Gloucester, Essex following him and
+relieving the place. Subsequently the rival forces fought the
+indecisive first battle of Newbury, and Charles failed in preventing
+the return of Essex to London. Meanwhile on the 1st of
+February the parliament had submitted proposals to Charles
+at Oxford, but the negotiations came to nothing, and Charles&rsquo;s
+unwise attempt at the same time to stir up a rising in his favour
+in the city, known as Waller&rsquo;s Plot, injured his cause considerably.
+He once more turned for help to Ireland, where the cessation of
+the campaign against the rebels was agreed upon on the 15th of
+September 1643, and several English regiments became thereby
+available for employment by the king in England. Charles also
+accepted the proposal for bringing over 2000 Irish. On the 22nd
+of January 1644 the king opened the rival parliament at Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of 1644 began far less favourably for Charles
+than the two last, principally owing to the alliance now made
+between the Scots and the parliament, the parliament taking the
+Solemn League and Covenant on the 25th of September 1643,
+and the Scottish army crossing the border on the 19th of January
+1644. No attempt was this year made against London, and
+Rupert was sent to Newcastle&rsquo;s succour in the north, where the
+great disaster of Marston Moor on the 2nd of July ruined Charles&rsquo;s
+last chances in that quarter. Meanwhile Charles himself had
+defeated Waller at Cropredy Bridge on the 29th of June, and he
+subsequently followed Essex to the west, compelling the surrender
+of Essex&rsquo;s infantry at Lostwithiel on the 2nd of September.
+With an ill-timed leniency he allowed the men to go free after
+giving up their stores and arms, and on his return towards
+Oxford he was confronted again by Essex&rsquo;s army at Newbury,
+combined now with that of Waller and of Manchester. Charles
+owed his escape here from complete annihilation only to
+Manchester&rsquo;s unwillingness to inflict a total defeat, and he was
+allowed to get away with his artillery to Oxford and to revictual
+Donnington Castle and Basing House.</p>
+
+<p>The negotiations carried on at Uxbridge during January and
+February 1645 failed to secure a settlement, and on the 14th of
+June the crushing defeat of the king&rsquo;s forces by the new model
+army at Naseby practically ended the civil war. Charles, however,
+refused to make peace on Rupert&rsquo;s advice, and considered
+it a point of honour &ldquo;neither to abandon God&rsquo;s cause, injure my
+successors, nor forsake my friends.&rdquo; His chief hope was to join
+Montrose in Scotland, but his march north was prevented by the
+parliamentary forces, and on the 24th of September he witnessed
+from the walls of Chester the rout of his followers at Rowton
+Heath. He now entered into a series of intrigues, mutually
+destructive, which, becoming known to the different parties,
+exasperated all and diminished still further the king&rsquo;s credit.
+One proposal was the levy of a foreign force to reduce the kingdom;
+another, the supply through the marquis of Ormonde of 10,000
+Irish. Correspondence relating to these schemes, fatally compromising
+as they were if Charles hoped ever to rule England
+again, was discovered by his enemies, including the Glamorgan
+treaty, which went much further than the instructions to
+Ormonde, but of which the full responsibility has never been
+really traced to Charles, who on the 29th of January 1646 disavowed
+his agent&rsquo;s proceedings. He simultaneously treated with
+the parliament, and promised toleration to the Roman Catholics
+if they and the pope would aid in the restoration of the monarchy
+and the church. Nor was this all. The parliamentary forces had
+been closing round Oxford. On the 27th of April the king left
+the city, and on the 5th of May gave himself up to the Scottish
+army at Newark, arriving on the 13th with them at Newcastle.
+On the 13th of July the parliament sent to Charles the
+&ldquo;Newcastle Propositions,&rdquo; which included the extreme demands
+of Charles&rsquo;s acceptance of the Covenants, the abolition of episcopacy
+and establishment of Presbyterianism, severer laws against the
+Roman Catholics and parliamentary control of the forces, with
+the withdrawal of the Irish Cessation, and a long list of royalists
+to be exempted from pardon. Charles returned no definite answer
+for several months. He imagined that he might now find support
+in Scottish royalism, encouraged by Montrose&rsquo;s series of brilliant
+victories, but these hopes were destroyed by the latter&rsquo;s defeat at
+Philiphaugh on the 3rd of September. The Scots insisted on the
+Covenant and on the permanent establishment of Presbyterianism,
+while Charles would only consent to a temporary maintenance
+for three years. Accordingly the Scots, in return for the payment
+of part of their army arrears by the parliament, marched home on
+the 30th of January 1647, leaving Charles behind, who under the
+care of the parliamentary commissioners was conducted to
+Holmby House. Thence on the 12th of May he sent his answer
+to the Newcastle Propositions, offering the militia to the parliament
+for ten years and the establishment of Presbyterianism for
+three, while a final settlement on religion was to be reached
+through an assembly of twenty divines at Westminster. But in
+the midst of the negotiation with the parliament Charles&rsquo;s person
+was seized, on the 3rd of June 1647, by Cornet Joyce under instructions
+of the army, which soon afterwards occupied London and
+overpowered the parliament, placing Charles at Hampton Court.</p>
+
+<p>If Charles could have remained firm to either one or the other
+faction, and have made concessions either to Presbyterianism
+or on the subject of the militia, he might even now have prevailed.
+But he had learned nothing by experience, and continued
+at this juncture his characteristic policy of intrigue and double-dealing,
+&ldquo;playing his game,&rdquo; to use his own words, negotiating
+with both parties at once, not with the object or wish to arrive
+at a settlement with either, but to augment their disputes, gain
+time and profit ultimately by their divisions. The &ldquo;Heads of the
+Proposals,&rdquo; submitted to Charles by the army on the 28th of
+July 1647, were terms conceived on a basis far broader and more
+statesmanlike than the Newcastle Propositions, and such as
+Charles might well have accepted. The proposals on religion
+anticipated the Toleration Act of 1689. There was no mention
+of episcopacy, and its existence was thereby indirectly admitted,
+but complete religious freedom for all Protestant denominations
+was provided, and the power of the church to inflict civil penalties
+abolished, while it was also suggested that dangers from Roman
+Catholics and Jesuits might be avoided by means other than
+enforcing attendance at church. The parliament was to dissolve
+itself and be succeeded by biennial assemblies elected on a reformed
+franchise, not to be dissolved without their own consent
+before 120 days, and not to sit more than 240 days in the two
+years. A council of state was to conduct the foreign policy
+of the state and conclude peace and war subject to the approval
+of parliament, and to control the militia for ten years, the commanders
+being appointed by parliament, as also the officers of
+state for ten years. No peer created since May the 21st, 1642,
+was to sit in parliament without consent of both Houses, and
+the judicial decisions of the House of Lords were to be ratified
+by the Commons. Only five persons were excepted from amnesty,
+but royalists were not to hold office for five years and
+not to sit in the Commons till the end of the second biennial
+parliament. Proposals for a series of reforms were also added.
+Charles, however, was at the same time negotiating with Lauderdale
+for an invasion of England by the Scots, and imagined he
+could win over Cromwell and Fairfax by &ldquo;proffers of advantage
+to themselves.&rdquo; The precious opportunity was therefore allowed
+to slip by. On the 9th of September he rejected the proposals
+of the parliament for the establishment of Presbyterianism.
+His hopes of gaining advantages by playing upon the differences
+of his opponents proved a complete failure. Fresh terms were
+drawn up by the army and parliament together on the 10th of
+November, but before these could be presented, Charles, on the
+11th, had escaped to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page910" id="page910"></a>910</span>
+Thence on the 16th he sent a message offering Presbyterianism
+for three years and the militia for his lifetime to the parliament,
+but insisting on the maintenance of episcopacy. On the 28th
+of December he refused his assent to the Four Bills, which demanded
+the militia for parliament for twenty years and practically
+for ever, annulled the honours recently granted by the
+king and his declarations against the Houses, and gave to parliament
+the right to adjourn to any place it wished. On the 3rd
+of January 1648 the Commons agreed to a resolution to address
+the king no further, in which they were joined by the Lords on
+the 15th.</p>
+
+<p>Charles had meanwhile taken a further fatal step which
+brought about his total destruction. On the 26th of December
+1647 he had signed at Carisbrooke with the Scottish commissioners
+the secret treaty called the &ldquo;Engagement,&rdquo; whereby
+the Scots undertook to invade England on his behalf and restore
+him to the throne on condition of the establishment of Presbyterianism
+for three years and the suppression of the sectarians.
+In consequence the second civil war broke out and the Scots
+invaded England under Hamilton. The royalist risings in
+England were soon suppressed, and Cromwell gained an easy
+and decisive victory over the Scots at Preston. Charles was
+now left alone to face his enemies, with the whole tale of his
+intrigues and deceptions unmasked and exposed. The last
+intrigue with the Scots was the most unpardonable in the eyes
+of his contemporaries, no less wicked and monstrous than his
+design to conquer England by the Irish soldiers; &ldquo;a more
+prodigious treason,&rdquo; said Cromwell, &ldquo;than any that had been
+perfected before; because the former quarrel was that Englishmen
+might rule over one another; this to vassalize us to a
+foreign nation.&rdquo; Cromwell, who up to this point had shown
+himself foremost in supporting the negotiations with the king,
+now spoke of the treaty of Newport, which he found the parliament
+in the act of negotiating on his return from Scotland, as
+&ldquo;this ruining hypocritical agreement.&rdquo; Charles had engaged
+in these negotiations only to gain time and find opportunity to
+escape. &ldquo;The great concession I made this day,&rdquo; he wrote on
+the 7th of October, &ldquo;was made merely in order to my escape.&rdquo;
+At the beginning he had stipulated that no concession from him
+should be valid unless an agreement were reached upon every
+point. He had now consented to most of the demands of the
+parliament, including the repudiation of the Irish Cessation, the
+surrender of the delinquents and the cession of the militia for
+twenty years, and of the offices of state to parliament, but
+remained firm in his refusal to abolish episcopacy, consenting
+only to Presbyterianism for three years. Charles&rsquo;s devotion to
+the church is undoubted. In April 1646, before his flight from
+Oxford, inspired perhaps by superstitious fears as to the origin
+of his misfortunes, he had delivered to Sheldon, afterwards
+archbishop of Canterbury, a written vow (now in the library of
+St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral) to restore all church lands held by the
+crown on his restoration to the throne; and almost his last
+injunction to the prince of Wales was that of fidelity to the
+national church. His present firmness, however, in its support
+was caused probably less by his devotion to it than by his desire
+to secure the failure of the whole treaty, and his attempts to
+escape naturally weakened the chances of success. Cromwell
+now supported the petitions of the army against the treaty. On
+the 16th of November the council of officers demanded the trial
+of the king, &ldquo;the capital and grand author of our troubles,&rdquo;
+and on the 27th of November the parliamentary commissioners
+returned from Newport without having secured Charles&rsquo;s
+consent. Charles was removed to Hurst Castle on the 1st of
+December, where he remained till the 19th, thence being taken
+to Windsor, where he arrived on the 23rd. On the 6th &ldquo;Pride&rsquo;s
+Purge&rdquo; had removed from the Commons all those who might
+show any favour to the king. On the 25th a last attempt by the
+council of officers to come to terms with him was repulsed. On
+the 1st of January the remnant of the Commons resolved that
+Charles was guilty of treason by &ldquo;levying war against the
+parliament and kingdom of England&rdquo;; on the 4th they declared
+their own power to make laws without the lords or the sovereign,
+and on the 6th established a &ldquo;high court of justice&rdquo; to try the
+king. On the 19th Charles was brought to St James&rsquo;s Palace,
+and on the next day his trial began in Westminster Hall, without
+the assistance of any of the judges, who all refused to take part
+in the proceedings. He laughed aloud at hearing himself called
+a traitor, and immediately demanded by what authority he was
+tried. He had been in treaty with the parliament in the Isle of
+Wight and taken thence by force; he saw no lords present.
+He was told by Bradshaw, the president of the court, that he
+was tried by the authority of the people of England, who had
+elected him king; Charles making the obvious reply that he was
+king by inheritance and not by election, that England had been
+for more than 1000 years an hereditary kingdom, and Bradshaw
+cutting short the discussion by adjourning the court. On the
+22nd Charles repeated his reasoning, adding, &ldquo;It is not my case
+alone; it is the freedom and liberty of the people of England,
+and do you pretend what you will, I stand more for their liberties,
+for if power without law may make laws ... I do not know
+what subject he is in England that can be sure of his life or
+anything that he calls his own.&rdquo; On the 23rd he again refused to
+plead. The court was adjourned, and there were several signs
+that the army in their prosecution of the king had not the nation
+at their back. While the soldiers had shouted &ldquo;Justice!
+justice!&rdquo; as the king passed through their ranks, the civilian
+spectators from the end of the hall had cried &ldquo;God save the
+king!&rdquo; There was considerable opposition and reluctance to
+proceed among the members of the court. On the 26th, however,
+the court decided unanimously upon his execution, and on the
+27th Charles was brought into court for the last time to hear
+his sentence. His request to be heard before the Lords and
+Commons was rejected, and his attempts to answer the charges
+of the president were silenced. Sentence was pronounced, and
+the king was removed by the soldiers, uttering his last broken
+protest: &ldquo;I am not suffered to speak. Expect what justice
+other people will have.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In these last hours Charles, who was probably weary of life,
+showed a remarkable dignity and self-possession, and a firm
+resignation supported by religious faith and by the absolute
+conviction of his own innocence, which, says Burnet, &ldquo;amazed
+all people and that so much the more because it was not natural
+to him. It was imputed to a very extraordinary measure of
+supernatural assistance....; it was owing to something
+within himself that he went through so many indignities with
+so much true greatness without disorder or any sort of affectation.&rdquo;
+Nothing in his life became Charles like the leaving it.
+&ldquo;He nothing common did or mean Upon that memorable scene.&rdquo;
+On the morning of the 29th of January he said his last sad
+farewell to his younger children, Elizabeth and Henry, duke
+of Gloucester. On the 30th at ten o&rsquo;clock he walked across
+from St James&rsquo;s to Whitehall, calling on his guard &ldquo;in a
+pleasant manner&rdquo; to walk apace, and at two he stepped upon
+the scaffold from a window, probably the middle one, of the
+Banqueting House (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>, Plate VI., fig. 75). He
+was separated from the people by large ranks of soldiers,
+and his last speech only reached Juxon and those with him
+on the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty
+and freedom of the people as much as any; &ldquo;but I must tell
+you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government.
+ ... It is not their having a share in the government;
+that is nothing appertaining unto them. A subject and a
+sovereign are clean different things.&rdquo; These, together with his
+declaration that he died a member of the Church of England,
+and the mysterious &ldquo;Remember,&rdquo; spoken to Juxon, were
+Charles&rsquo;s last words. &ldquo;It much discontents the citizens,&rdquo;
+wrote a spectator; &ldquo;ye manner of his deportment was very
+resolutely with some smiling countenances, intimating his
+willingness to be out of his troubles.&rdquo;<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> &ldquo;The blow I saw given,&rdquo;
+wrote another, Philip Henry, &ldquo;and can truly say with a sad
+heart, at the instant whereof, I remember well, there was such
+a grone by the Thousands then present as I never heard before
+and desire I may never hear again. There was according to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page911" id="page911"></a>911</span>
+order one Troop immediately marching fromwards Charing-Cross
+to Westminster and another fromwards Westminster to Charing-Cross,
+purposely to masker&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> to overpower) &ldquo;the people
+and to disperse and scatter them, so that I had much adoe
+amongst the rest to escape home without hurt.&rdquo;<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Amidst such scenes of violence was at last effected the destruction
+of Charles. &ldquo;It is lawful,&rdquo; wrote Milton, &ldquo;and hath been
+held so through all ages for any one who have the power to call
+to account a Tyrant or wicked King and after due conviction to
+depose and put him to death.&rdquo;<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> But here (it might well be
+contended) there had been no &ldquo;due conviction.&rdquo; The execution
+had been the act of the king&rsquo;s personal enemies, of &ldquo;only some
+fifty or sixty governing Englishmen with Oliver Cromwell in the
+midst of them&rdquo; an act technically illegal, morally unjustifiable
+because the supposed crimes of Charles had been condoned by
+the later negotiations with him, and indefensible on the ground of
+public expediency, for the king&rsquo;s death proved a far greater
+obstacle to the re-establishment of settled government than his
+life could have been. The result was an extraordinary revulsion
+of feeling in favour of Charles and the monarchy, in which the
+incidents of his misgovernment were completely forgotten. He
+soon became in the popular veneration a martyr and a saint.
+His fate was compared with the Crucifixion, and his trials and
+sufferings to those of the Saviour. Handkerchiefs dipped in his
+blood wrought &ldquo;miracles,&rdquo; and the <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, published
+on the day of his funeral, presented to the public a touching
+if not a genuine portrait of the unfortunate sovereign. At the
+Restoration the anniversary of his death was ordered to be kept
+as a day of fasting and humiliation, and the service appointed
+for use on the occasion was only removed from the prayer-book
+in 1859. The same conception of Charles as a martyr for religion
+appeals still to many, and has been stimulated by modern
+writers. &ldquo;Had Charles been willing to abandon the church and
+give up episcopacy,&rdquo; says Bishop Creighton, &ldquo;he might have
+saved his throne and his life. But on this point Charles stood
+firm, for this he died and by dying saved it for the future.&rdquo;<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+Gladstone, Keble, Newman write in the same strain. &ldquo;It was
+for the Church,&rdquo; says Gladstone, &ldquo;that Charles shed his blood
+upon the scaffold.&rdquo;<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> &ldquo;I rest,&rdquo; says Newman, &ldquo;on the scenes
+of past years, from the Upper Room in Acts to the Court of
+Carisbrooke and Uxbridge.&rdquo; The injustice and violence of the
+king&rsquo;s death, however, the pathetic dignity of his last days, and
+the many noble traits in his character, cannot blind us to the
+real causes of his downfall and destruction, and a sober judgment
+cannot allow that Charles was really a martyr either for the
+church or for the popular liberties.</p>
+
+<p>The constitutional struggle between the crown and parliament
+had not been initiated by Charles I. It was in full existence in
+the reign of James I., and distinct traces appear towards the
+latter part of that of Elizabeth. Charles, therefore, in some
+degree inherited a situation for which he was not responsible,
+nor can he be justly blamed, according to the ideas of kingship
+which then prevailed, for defending the prerogatives of the
+crown as precious and sacred personal possessions which it was
+his duty to hand down intact to his successors. Neither will
+his persistence in refusing to yield up the control of the executive
+to the parliament or the army, or his zeal in defending the
+national church, be altogether censured. In the event the parliament
+proved quite incapable of governing, an army uncontrolled
+by the sovereign was shown to constitute a more grievous
+tyranny than Charles&rsquo;s most arbitrary rule, and the downfall
+of the church seen to make room only for a sectarian despotism
+as intolerable as the Laudian. The natural inference might be
+that both conceptions of government had much to support
+them, that they were bound sooner or later to come into collision,
+and that the actual individuals in the drama, including the king
+himself, were rather the victims of the greatness of events than
+real actors in the scene, still less the controllers of their own
+and the national destiny. A closer insight, however, shows that
+biographical more than abstract historical elements determined
+the actual course and issue of the Rebellion. The great constitutional
+and religious points of dispute between the king and
+parliament, though doubtless involving principles vital to the
+national interests, would not alone have sufficed to destroy
+Charles. Monarchy was too much venerated, was too deeply
+rooted in the national life, to be hastily and easily extirpated;
+the perils of removing the foundation of all government, law
+and order were too obvious not to be shunned at almost all costs.
+Still less can the crowning tragedy of the king&rsquo;s death find its
+real explanation or justification in these disputes and antagonisms.
+The real cause was the complete discredit into which
+Charles had brought himself and the monarchy. The ordinary
+routine of daily life and of business cannot continue without
+some degree of mutual confidence between the individuals
+brought into contact, far less could relations be maintained by
+subjects with a king endowed with the enormous powers then
+attached to the kingship, and with whom agreements, promises,
+negotiations were merely subterfuges and prevarications. We
+have seen the series of unhappy falsehoods and deceptions
+which constituted Charles&rsquo;s statecraft, beginning with the
+fraud concerning the concessions to the Roman Catholics at his
+marriage, the evasions with which he met the Petition of Right,
+the abandonment of Strafford, the simultaneous negotiation
+with, and betrayal of, all parties. Strafford&rsquo;s reported words
+on hearing of his desertion by Charles, &ldquo;Put not your trust in
+princes,&rdquo; re-echo through the whole of Charles&rsquo;s reign. It was
+the degradation and dishonour of the kingship, and the personal
+loss of credit which Charles suffered through these transactions&mdash;which
+never appear to have caused him a moment&rsquo;s regret or
+uneasiness, but the fatal consequences of which were seen only
+too clearly by men like Hyde and Falkland&mdash;that were the real
+causes of the rebellion and of the king&rsquo;s execution. The constitutional
+and religious grievances were the outward and
+visible sign of the corroding suspicions which slowly consumed
+the national loyalty. In themselves there was nothing incapable
+of settlement either through the spirit of union which existed
+between Elizabeth and her subjects, or by the principle of
+compromise which formed the basis of the constitutional settlement
+in 1688. The bond of union between his people and
+himself Charles had, however, early broken, and compromise
+is only possible between parties both of whom can acknowledge
+to some extent the force of the other&rsquo;s position, which can trust
+one another, and which are sincere in their endeavour to reach
+agreement. Thus on Charles himself chiefly falls the responsibility
+for the catastrophe.</p>
+
+<p>His character and motives fill a large place in English history,
+but they have never been fully understood and possibly were
+largely due to physical causes. His weakness as a child was so
+extreme that his life was despaired of. He outgrew physical
+defects, and as a young man excelled in horsemanship and in
+the sports of the times, but always retained an impediment of
+speech. At the time of his accession his reserve and reticence
+were especially noticed. Buckingham was the only person who
+ever enjoyed his friendship, and after his death Charles placed
+entire confidence in no man. This isolation was the cause of an
+ignorance of men and of the world, and of an incapacity to
+appreciate the ideas, principles and motives of others, while it
+prepared at the same time a fertile soil for receiving those
+exalted conceptions of kingship, of divine right and prerogative,
+which came into vogue at this period, together with those
+exaggerated ideas of his own personal supremacy and importance
+to which minds not quite normal are always especially inclined.
+His character was marked by a weakness which shirked and
+postponed the settlement of difficulties, by a meanness and
+ingratitude even when dealing with his most devoted followers,
+by an obstinacy which only feigned compliance and by an untruthfulness
+which differed widely from his son&rsquo;s unblushing deceit,
+which found always some reservation or excuse, but which while
+more scrupulous was also more dangerous and insidious because
+employed continually as a principle of conduct. Yet Charles, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page912" id="page912"></a>912</span>
+spite of his failings, had many fine qualities. Clarendon, who was
+fully conscious of them, who does not venture to call him a good
+king, and allows that &ldquo;his kingly virtues had some mixture and
+alloy that hindered them from shining in full lustre,&rdquo; declares
+that &ldquo;he was if ever any, the most worthy of the title of an
+Honest Man, so great a lover of justice that no temptation could
+dispose him to a wrongful action except that it was disguised to
+him that he believed it just,&rdquo; &ldquo;the worthiest of gentlemen, the
+best master, the best friend, the best husband, the best father
+and the best Christian that the age in which he lived produced.&rdquo;
+With all its deplorable mistakes and failings Charles I.&rsquo;s reign
+belongs to a sphere infinitely superior to that of his unscrupulous,
+corrupt, selfish but more successful son. His private life was without
+a blemish. Immediately on his accession he had suppressed
+the disorder which had existed in the household of James I.,
+and let it be known that whoever had business with him
+&ldquo;must never approach him by backstairs or private doors.&rdquo;<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+He maintained a strict sobriety in food and dress. He had a
+fine artistic sense, and Milton reprehends him for having made
+Shakespeare &ldquo;the closest companion of his solitudes.&rdquo; &ldquo;Monsieur
+le Prince de Galles,&rdquo; wrote Rubens in 1625, &ldquo;est le prince
+le plus amateur de la peinture qui soit au monde.&rdquo; He succeeded
+in bringing together during twenty years an unrivalled collection,
+of which a great part was dispersed at his death. He showed
+a noble insensibility to flattery. He was deeply and sincerely
+religious. He wished to do right, and was conscious of the purity
+of his motives. Those who came into contact with him, even
+the most bitter of his opponents, were impressed with his goodness.
+The great tragedy of his life, to be read in his well-known,
+dignified, but weak and unhappy features, and to be followed
+in his inexplicable and mysterious choice of baneful instruments,
+such as Rupert, Laud, Hamilton, Glamorgan, Henrietta Maria&mdash;all
+in their several ways working out his destruction&mdash;seems
+to have been inspired by a fateful insanity or infirmity of mind or
+will, recalling the great Greek dramas in which the poets depicted
+frenzied mortals rushing into their own destruction, impelled
+by the unseen and superior powers.</p>
+
+<p>The king&rsquo;s body, after being embalmed, was buried by the
+few followers who remained with him to the last, hastily and
+without any funeral service, which was forbidden by the authorities,
+in the tomb of Henry VIII., in St George&rsquo;s Chapel, Windsor,
+where his coffin was identified and opened in 1813. An &ldquo;account
+of what appeared&rdquo; was published by Sir Henry Halford, and
+a bone abstracted on the occasion was replaced in the vault by
+the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) in 1888. Charles I.
+left, besides three children who died in infancy, Charles (afterwards
+Charles II.); James (afterwards James II.); Henry, duke
+of Gloucester (1639-1660); Mary (1631-1660), who married
+William of Orange; Elizabeth (1635-1650); and Henrietta,
+duchess of Orleans (1644-1670).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The leading authority for the life and reign of
+Charles I. is the <i>History of England</i> (1883) and <i>History of the Great
+Civil War</i> (1893), by S.R. Gardiner, with the references there given.
+Among recent works may be mentioned <i>Memoirs of the Martyr
+King</i>, by A. Fea (1905); <i>Life of Charles I, 1600-1625</i>, by E.B.
+Chancellor (1886); <i>The Visits of Charles I. to Newcastle</i>, by C.S.
+Terry (1898); <i>Charles I.</i>, by Sir J. Skelton, valuable for its illustrations
+(1898); <i>The Manner of the Coronation of King Charles I.</i>,
+ed. by C. Wordsworth (Henry Bradshaw Soc., 1892); <i>The Picture
+Gallery of Charles I.</i>, by C. Phillips (1896). See also <i>Calendars of
+State Papers</i>, <i>Irish</i> and <i>Domestic Series</i>; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. Series</i>,
+esp. <i>MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin, F.J. Savile Foljambe, Lord Montagu
+of Beaulieu, Duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, Marquis of Ormonde,
+Earl Cowper (Coke MSS.), Earl of Lonsdale</i> (note-books of parliaments
+of 1626 and 1628), <i>Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House,
+Duke of Portland</i>, 11th Rep. app. pt. vi., <i>Duke of Hamilton</i>, pt. i.,
+<i>Salvetti Correspondence</i>, 10th Rep. pt. vi., <i>Lord Braye</i>; <i>Add. MSS.</i>
+Brit. Mus., 33,596 fols. 21-32 (keys to ciphers), 34,171, 35,297;
+<i>Notes and Queries</i>, ser. vi., vii., viii., ix. indexes; <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i>
+ii. 687 (&ldquo;Charles and Glamorgan&rdquo; by S.R. Gardiner), vii. 176;
+<i>Cornhill Mag.</i> vol. 75, January 1897, &ldquo;Execution of Charles,&rdquo; by
+C.H. Firth.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11 Rep. app. Pt. iv. 21.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Lord Montagu of Beaulieu</i>, 141.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 7th ser., viii. 326.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Letters and Diaries of P. Henry</i> (1882), 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Lectures on Archbishop Laud</i> (1895), p. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Remarks on the Royal Supremacy</i> (1850), p. 57.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Salvetti&rsquo;s Corresp. in <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 11th Rep. app. pt. i. p. 6.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1630-1685), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
+second son of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born
+on the 29th of May 1630 at St James&rsquo;s Palace, and was brought
+up under the care successively of the countess of Dorset, William
+Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, and the marquess of Hertford.
+He accompanied the king during the campaigns of the Civil War,
+and sat in the parliament at Oxford, but on the 4th of March 1645
+he was sent by Charles I. to the west, accompanied by Hyde and
+others who formed his council. Owing, however, to the mutual
+jealousies and misconduct of Goring and Grenville, and the
+prince&rsquo;s own disregard and contempt of the council, his presence
+was in no way advantageous, and could not prevent the final
+overthrow of the king&rsquo;s forces in 1646. He retired (17th of
+February) to Pendennis Castle at Falmouth, and on the approach
+of Fairfax (2nd of March) to Scilly, where he remained with
+Hyde till the 16th of April. Thence he fled to Jersey, and
+finally refusing all the overtures from the parliament, and in
+opposition to the counsels of Hyde, who desired the prince to
+remain on English territory, he repaired to the queen at Paris,
+where he remained for two years. He is described at this time
+by Mme de Motteville as &ldquo;well-made, with a swarthy complexion
+agreeing well with his fine black eyes, a large ugly mouth, a
+graceful and dignified carriage and a fine figure&rdquo;; and according
+to the description circulated later for his capture after the battle
+of Worcester, he was over six feet tall. He received instruction
+in mathematics from Hobbes, and was early initiated into all
+the vices of the age by Buckingham and Percy. In July 1648
+the prince joined the royalist fleet and blockaded the Thames
+with a fleet of eleven ships, returning to Holland, where he
+received the news of the final royalist defeats and afterwards of
+the execution of his father. On the 14th of January 1649 he
+had forwarded to the council a signed <i>carte blanche</i>, granting any
+conditions provided his father&rsquo;s life were spared. He immediately
+assumed the title of king, and was proclaimed in Scotland
+(5th of February) and in some parts of Ireland. On the 17th of
+September, after a visit to his mother at St Germain, Charles
+went to Jersey and issued a declaration proclaiming his rights;
+but, owing to the arrival of the fleet at Portsmouth, he was
+obliged, on the 13th of February 1650, to return again to Breda.
+The projected invasion of Ireland was delayed through want of
+funds till it was too late; Hyde&rsquo;s mission to Spain, in the midst
+of Cromwell&rsquo;s&rsquo; successes, brought no assistance, and Charles now
+turned to Scotland for aid. Employing the same unscrupulous
+and treacherous methods which had proved so fatal to his father,
+he simultaneously supported and encouraged the expedition of
+Montrose and the royalists, and negotiated with the covenanters.
+On the 1st of May he signed the first draft of a treaty at Breda
+with the latter, in which he accepted the Solemn League and
+Covenant, conceded the control of public and church affairs to
+the parliament and the kirk, and undertook to establish Presbyterianism
+in the three kingdoms. He also signed privately a
+paper repudiating Ormonde and the loyal Irish, and recalling
+the commissions granted to them. In acting thus he did not
+scruple to desert his own royalist followers, and to repudiate
+and abandon the great and noble Montrose, whose heroic efforts
+he was apparently merely using in order to extort better terms
+from the covenanters, and who, having been captured on the 4th
+of May, was executed on the 21st in spite of some attempts by
+Charles to procure for him an indemnity.</p>
+
+<p>Thus perjured and disgraced the young king embarked for
+Scotland on the 2nd of June; on the 11th when off Heligoland
+he signed the treaty, and on the 23rd, on his arrival at Speymouth,
+before landing, he swore to both the covenants. He proceeded
+to Falkland near Perth and passed through Aberdeen, where
+he saw the mutilated arm of Montrose suspended over the
+city gate. He was compelled to dismiss all his followers except
+Buckingham, and to submit to interminable sermons, which
+generally contained violent invectives against his parents and
+himself. To Argyll he promised the payment of £40,000 at his
+restoration, doubtless the sum owing as arrears of the Scottish
+army unpaid when Charles I. was surrendered to the English
+at Newcastle, and entered into negotiations for marrying his
+daughter. In August he was forced to sign a further declaration,
+confessing his own wickedness in dealing with the Irish, his father&rsquo;s
+blood-guiltiness, his mother&rsquo;s idolatry, and his abhorrence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page913" id="page913"></a>913</span>
+of prelacy, besides ratifying his allegiance to the covenants
+and to Presbyterianism. At the same time he declared himself
+secretly to King, dean of Tuam, &ldquo;a true child of the Church of
+England,&rdquo; &ldquo;a true Cavalier,&rdquo; and avowed that &ldquo;what concerns
+Ireland is in no ways binding&rdquo;; while to the Roman Catholics
+in England he promised concessions and expressed his goodwill
+towards their church to Pope Innocent X. His attempt, called
+&ldquo;The Start,&rdquo; on the 4th of October 1650, to escape from the
+faction at Perth and to join Huntly and the royalists in the
+north failed, and he was overtaken and compelled to return.
+On the 1st of January 1651 he was crowned at Scone, when he
+was forced to repeat his oaths to both the covenants.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Cromwell had advanced and had defeated the
+Presbyterians at Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, subsequently
+occupying Edinburgh. This defeat was not wholly
+unwelcome to Charles in the circumstances; in the following
+summer, during Cromwell&rsquo;s advance to the north, he shook off
+the Presbyterian influence, and on the 31st of July 1651 marched
+south into England with an army of about 10,000 commanded
+by David Leslie. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, joined
+by the earl of Derby in Lancashire, evaded the troops of Lambert
+and Harrison in Cheshire, marched through Shropshire, meeting
+with a rebuff at Shrewsbury, and entered Worcester with a
+small, tired and dispirited force of only 16,000 men (22nd of
+August). Here the decisive battle, which ruined his hopes, and
+in which Charles distinguished himself by conspicuous courage
+and fortitude, was fought on the 3rd of September. After leading
+an unsuccessful cavalry charge against the enemy he fled, about
+6 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, accompanied by Buckingham, Derby, Wilmot, Lauderdale
+and others, towards Kidderminster, taking refuge at Whiteladies,
+about 25 m. from Worcester, where he separated himself
+from all his followers except Wilmot, concealing himself in the
+famous oak during the 6th of September, moving subsequently
+to Boscobel, to Moseley and Bentley Hall, and thence, disguised
+as Miss Lane&rsquo;s attendant, to Abbots Leigh near Bristol, to Trent
+in Somersetshire, and finally to the George Inn at Brighton,
+having been recognized during the forty-one days of his wanderings
+by about fifty persons, none of whom, in spite of the reward
+of £1000 offered for his capture, or of the death penalty threatened
+for aiding his concealment, had betrayed him.</p>
+
+<p>He set sail from Shoreham on the 15th of October 1651, and
+landed at Fécamp in Normandy the next day. He resided
+at Paris at St Germain till June 1654, in inactivity, unable to
+make any further effort, and living with difficulty on a grant
+from Louis XIV. of 600 livres a month. Various missions to
+foreign powers met with failure; he was excluded from Holland
+by the treaty made with England in April 1654, and he anticipated
+his expulsion from France, owing to the new relations of
+friendship established with Cromwell, by quitting the country
+in July. He visited his sister, the princess of Orange, at Spa, and
+went to Aix-la-Chapelle, thence finally proceeding in November
+to Cologne, where he was hospitably received. The conclusion
+of Cromwell&rsquo;s treaty with France in October 1655, and the
+war between England and Spain, gave hope of aid from the
+latter power. In April 1656 Charles went to Bruges, and on the
+7th of February 1658 to Brussels, where he signed a treaty with
+Don John of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by
+which he received an allowance in place of his French pension
+and undertook to assemble all his subjects in France in aid of
+the Spanish against the French. This plan, however, came to
+nothing; projected risings in England were betrayed, and by
+the capture of Dunkirk in June 1658, after the battle of the
+Dunes, by the French and Cromwell&rsquo;s Ironsides, the Spanish
+cause in Flanders was ruined.</p>
+
+<p>As long as Cromwell lived there appeared little hope of the
+restoration of the monarchy, and Charles and Hyde had been
+aware of the plots for his assassination, which had aroused no
+disapproval. By the protector&rsquo;s death on the 3rd of September
+1658 the scene was wholly changed, and amidst the consequent
+confusion of factions the cry for the restoration of the monarchy
+grew daily in strength. The premature royalist rising, however,
+in August 1659 was defeated, and Charles, who had awaited
+the result on the coast of Brittany, proceeded to Fuenterrabia
+on the Spanish frontier, where Mazarin and Luis de Haro were
+negotiating the treaty of the Pyrenees, to induce both powers to
+support his cause; but the failure of the attempt in England
+ensured the rejection of his request, and he returned to
+Brussels in December, visiting his mother at Paris on the way.
+Events had meanwhile developed fast in favour of a restoration.
+Charles, by Hyde&rsquo;s advice, had not interfered in the movement,
+and had avoided inconvenient concessions to the various factions
+by referring all to a &ldquo;free parliament.&rdquo; He left Brussels for
+Breda, and issued in April 1660, together with the letters to the
+council, the officers of the army and the houses of parliament
+and the city, the declaration of an amnesty for all except those
+specially excluded afterwards by parliament, which referred to
+parliament the settlement of estates and promised a liberty to
+tender consciences in matters of religion not contrary to the
+peace of the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>On the 8th of May Charles II. was proclaimed king in Westminster
+Hall and elsewhere in London. On the 24th he sailed
+from the Hague, landing on the 26th at Dover, where he was met
+by Monk, whom he saluted as father, and by the mayor, from
+whom he accepted a &ldquo;very rich bible,&rdquo; &ldquo;the thing that he
+loved above all things in the world.&rdquo; He reached London on
+the 29th, his thirtieth birthday, arriving with the procession,
+amidst general rejoicings and &ldquo;through a lane of happy faces,&rdquo;
+at seven in the evening at Whitehall, where the houses of
+parliament awaited his coming, to offer in the name of the
+nation their congratulations and allegiance.</p>
+
+<p>No event in the history of England had been attended with
+more lively and general rejoicing than Charles&rsquo;s restoration, and
+none was destined to cause greater subsequent disappointment
+and disillusion. Indolent, sensual and dissipated by nature,
+Charles&rsquo;s vices had greatly increased during his exile abroad,
+and were now, with the great turn of fortune which gave him
+full opportunity to indulge them, to surpass all the bounds of
+decency and control. A long residence till the age of thirty
+abroad, together with his French blood, had made him politically
+more of a foreigner than an Englishman, and he returned to
+England ignorant of the English constitution, a Roman Catholic
+and a secret adversary of the national religion, and untouched
+by the sentiment of England&rsquo;s greatness or of patriotism. Pure
+selfishness was the basis of his policy both in domestic and
+foreign affairs. Abroad the great national interests were eagerly
+sacrificed for the sake of a pension, and at home his personal
+ease and pleasure alone decided every measure, and the fate of
+every minister and subject. During his exile he had surrounded
+himself with young men of the same spirit as himself, such as
+Buckingham and Bennet, who, without having any claim to
+statesmanship, inattentive to business, neglectful of the national
+interests and national prejudices, became Charles&rsquo;s chief advisers.
+With them, as with their master, public office was only desirable
+as a means of procuring enjoyment, for which an absolute
+monarchy provided the most favourable conditions. Such
+persons were now, accordingly, destined to supplant the older
+and responsible ministers of the type of Clarendon and Ormonde,
+men of high character and patriotism, who followed definite lines
+of policy, while at the same time the younger men of ability and
+standing were shut out from office.</p>
+
+<p>The first period of Charles II.&rsquo;s reign (1660-1667) was that of
+the administration of Lord Clarendon, the principal author of the
+Restoration settlement. The king was granted the large revenue
+of £1,300,000. The naval and military forces were disbanded,
+but Charles managed to retain under the name of guards three
+regiments, which remained the nucleus of a standing army. The
+settlement of estates on a legal basis provided ill for a large
+number of the king&rsquo;s adherents who had impoverished themselves
+in his cause. The king&rsquo;s honour was directly involved in their
+compensation and, except for the gratification of a few individuals,
+was tarnished by his neglect to afford them relief. Charles used
+his influence to carry through parliament the act of indemnity,
+and the execution of some of the regicides was a measure not more
+severe than was to be expected in the times and circumstances;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page914" id="page914"></a>914</span>
+but that of Sir Henry Vane, who was not a regicide and whose life
+Charles had promised the parliament to spare in case of his condemnation,
+was brought about by Charles&rsquo;s personal insistence
+in revenge for the victim&rsquo;s high bearing during his trial, and was
+an act of gross cruelty and perfidy. Charles was in favour of
+religious toleration, and a declaration issued by him in October
+1660 aroused great hopes; but he made little effort to conciliate
+the Presbyterians or to effect a settlement through the Savoy
+conference, and his real object was to gain power over all the
+factions and to free his co-religionists, the Roman Catholics, in
+favour of whom he issued his first declaration of indulgence (26th
+of December 1662), the bill to give effect to it being opposed by
+Clarendon and defeated in the Lords, and being replied to by the
+passing of further acts against religious liberty. Meanwhile the
+plot of Venner and of the Fifth Monarchy men had been suppressed
+in January 1661, and the king was crowned on the 23rd of April.
+The convention parliament had been dissolved on the 29th of
+December 1660, and Charles&rsquo;s first parliament, the Long Parliament
+of the Restoration, which met on the 8th of May 1661 and
+continued till January 1679, declared the command of the forces
+inherent in the crown, repudiated the taking up of arms against
+the king, and repealed in 1664 the Triennial Act, adding only a
+provision that there should not be intermission of parliaments for
+more than three years. In Ireland the church was re-established,
+and a new settlement of land introduced by the Act of Settlement
+1661 and the Act of Explanation 1665. The island was
+excluded from the benefit of the Navigation Laws, and in 1666 the
+importation of cattle and horses into England was forbidden. In
+Scotland episcopacy was set up, the covenant to which Charles
+had taken so many solemn oaths burnt by the common hangman,
+and Argyll brought to the scaffold, while the kingdom was given
+over to the savage and corrupt administration of Lauderdale.
+On the 21st of May 1662, in pursuance of the pro-French and anti-Spanish
+policy, Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter
+of John IV. of Portugal, by which alliance England obtained
+Tangier and Bombay. She brought him no children, and her
+attractions for Charles were inferior to those of his mistress, Lady
+Castlemaine, whom she was compelled to receive as a lady of her
+bedchamber. In February 1665 the ill-omened war with Holland
+was declared, during the progress of which it became apparent
+how greatly the condition of the national services and the state
+of administration had deteriorated since the Commonwealth,
+and to what extent England was isolated and abandoned abroad,
+Michael de Ruyter, on the 13th of June 1667, carrying out his
+celebrated attack on Chatham and burning several warships.
+The disgrace was unprecedented. Charles did not show himself
+and it was reported that he had abdicated, but to allay the popular
+panic it was given out &ldquo;that he was very cheerful that night at
+supper with his mistresses.&rdquo; The treaty of Breda with Holland
+(21st of July 1667) removed the danger, but not the ignominy,
+and Charles showed the real baseness of his character when he
+joined in the popular outcry against Clarendon, the upright and
+devoted adherent of his father and himself during twenty-five
+years of misfortune, and drove him into poverty and exile in his
+old age, recalling ominously Charles I.&rsquo;s betrayal of Strafford.</p>
+
+<p>To Clarendon now succeeded the ministry of Buckingham
+and Arlington, who with Lauderdale, Ashley (afterwards Lord
+Shaftesbury) and Clifford, constituted the so-called Cabal ministry
+in 1672. With these advisers Charles entered into those schemes
+so antagonistic to the national interests which have disgraced
+his reign. His plan was to render himself independent of parliament
+and of the nation by binding himself to France and the
+French policy of aggrandizement, and receiving a French pension
+with the secret intention as well of introducing the Roman
+Catholic religion again into England. In 1661 under Clarendon&rsquo;s
+rule, the evil precedent had been admitted of receiving money
+from France, in 1662 Dunkirk had been sold to Louis, and in
+February 1667 during the Dutch war a secret alliance had been
+made with Louis, Charles promising him a free hand in the
+Netherlands and Louis undertaking to support Charles&rsquo;s designs
+&ldquo;in or out of the kingdom.&rdquo; In January 1668 Sir W. Temple
+had made with Sweden and Holland the Triple Alliance against
+the encroachments and aggrandizement of France, but this
+national policy was soon upset by the king&rsquo;s own secret plans.
+In 1668 the conversion of his brother James to Romanism became
+known to Charles. Already in 1662 the king had sent Sir Richard
+Bellings to Rome to arrange the terms of England&rsquo;s conversion,
+and now in 1668 he was in correspondence with Oliva, the general
+of the Jesuits in Rome, through James de la Cloche, the eldest
+of his natural sons, of whom he had become the father when
+scarcely sixteen during his residence at Jersey. On the 25th of
+January 1669, at a secret meeting between the two royal brothers,
+with Arlington, Clifford and Arundell of Wardour, it was determined
+to announce to Louis XIV. the projected conversion of
+Charles and the realm, and subsequent negotiations terminated
+in the two secret treaties of Dover. The first, signed only, among
+the ministers, by Arlington and Clifford, the rest not being
+initiated, on the 20th of May 1670, provided for the return of
+England to Rome and the joint attack of France and
+England upon Holland, England&rsquo;s ally, together with Charles&rsquo;s
+support of the Bourbon claims to the throne of Spain, while
+Charles received a pension of £200,000 a year. In the second,
+signed by Arlington, Buckingham, Lauderdale and Ashley on the
+31st of December 1670, nothing was said about the conversion, and
+the pension provided for that purpose was added to the military
+subsidy, neither of these treaties being communicated to parliament
+or to the nation. An immediate gain to Charles was the
+acquisition of another mistress in the person of Louise de
+Kéroualle, the so-called &ldquo;Madam Carwell,&rdquo; who had accompanied
+the duchess of Orleans, the king&rsquo;s sister, to Dover, at the time of
+the negotiations, and who joined Charles&rsquo;s seraglio, being created
+duchess of Portsmouth, and acting as the agent of the French
+alliance throughout the reign.</p>
+
+<p>On the 24th of October 1670, at the very time that these
+treaties were in progress, Charles opened parliament and obtained
+a vote of £800,000 on the plea of supporting the Triple Alliance.
+Parliament was prorogued in April 1671, not assembling again
+till February 1673, and on the 2nd of January 1672 was announced
+the &ldquo;stop of the exchequer,&rdquo; or national bankruptcy, one of
+the most blameworthy and unscrupulous acts of the reign, by
+which the payments from the exchequer ceased, and large
+numbers of persons who had lent to the government were thus
+ruined. On the reassembling of parliament on the 4th of
+February 1673 a strong opposition was shown to the Cabal
+ministry which had been constituted at the end of 1672. The
+Dutch War, declared on the 17th of March 1672, though the commercial
+and naval jealousies of Holland had certainly not disappeared
+in England, was unpopular because of the alliance with
+France and the attack upon Protestantism, while the king&rsquo;s
+second declaration of indulgence (15th of March 1672) aroused
+still further antagonism, was declared illegal by the parliament,
+and was followed up by the Test Act, which obliged James and
+Clifford to resign their offices. In February 1674 the war with
+Holland was closed by the treaty of London or of Westminster,
+though Charles still gave Louis a free hand in his aggressive
+policy towards the Netherlands, and the Cabal was driven
+from office. Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) now became
+chief minister; but, though in reality a strong supporter of the
+national policy, he could not hope to keep his place without
+acquiescence in the king&rsquo;s schemes. In November 1675 Charles
+again prorogued parliament, and did not summon it again till
+February 1677, when it was almost immediately prorogued.
+On the 17th of February 1676, with Danby&rsquo;s knowledge, Charles
+concluded a further treaty with Louis by which he undertook to
+subordinate entirely his foreign policy to that of France, and
+received an annual pension of £100,000. On the other hand,
+Danby succeeded in effecting the marriage (4th of November
+1677) between William of Orange and the princess Mary, which
+proved the most important political event in the whole reign.
+Louis revenged himself by intriguing with the Opposition and
+by turning his streams of gold in that direction, and a further
+treaty with France for the annual payment to Charles of £300,000
+and the dismissal of his parliament, concluded on the 17th of
+May 1678, was not executed. Louis made peace with Holland
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page915" id="page915"></a>915</span>
+at Nijmwegen on the 10th of August, and punished Danby by
+disclosing his secret negotiations, thus causing the minister&rsquo;s
+fall and impeachment. To save Danby Charles now prorogued
+the parliament on the 30th of December, dissolving it on the 24th
+of January 1679.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the &ldquo;Popish Plot,&rdquo; the creation of a band of
+impostors encouraged by Shaftesbury and the most violent
+and unscrupulous of the extreme Protestant party in order
+to exclude James from the throne, had thrown the whole
+country into a panic. Charles&rsquo;s conduct in this conjuncture
+was highly characteristic and was marked by his usual cynical
+selfishness. He carefully refrained from incurring suspicion
+and unpopularity by opposing the general outcry, and though
+he saw through the imposture from the beginning he made no
+attempt to moderate the popular frenzy or to save the life of any
+of the victims, his co-religionists, not even intervening in the
+case of Lord Stafford, and allowing Titus Oates to be lodged
+at Whitehall with a pension. His policy was to take advantage
+of the violence of the faction, to &ldquo;give them line enough,&rdquo;
+to use his own words, to encourage it rather than repress it,
+with the expectation of procuring finally a strong royalist reaction.
+In his resistance to the great movement for the exclusion
+of James from the succession, Charles was aided by moderate
+men such as Halifax, who desired only a restriction of James&rsquo;s
+powers, and still more by the violence of the extreme exclusionists
+themselves, who headed by Shaftesbury brought about their
+own downfall and that of their cause by their support of the
+legitimacy and claims of Charles&rsquo;s natural son, the duke of
+Monmouth. In 1679 Charles denied, in council, his supposed
+marriage with Lucy Walter, Monmouth&rsquo;s mother, his declarations
+being published in 1680 to refute the legend of the black box
+which was supposed to contain the contract of marriage, and
+told Burnet he would rather see him hanged than legitimize him.
+He deprived him of his general&rsquo;s commission in consequence
+of his quasi-royal progresses about the country, and in December
+on Monmouth&rsquo;s return to England he was forbidden to appear at
+court. In February 1679 the king had consented to order James
+to go abroad, and even approved of the attempt of the primate
+and the bishop of Winchester to convert him to Protestantism.
+To weaken the opposition to his government Charles accepted
+Sir W Temple&rsquo;s new scheme of governing by a council which included
+the leaders of the Opposition, and which might have become
+a rival to the parliament, but this was an immediate failure.
+In May 1679 he prorogued the new parliament which had
+attainted Danby, and in July dissolved it, while in October he
+prorogued another parliament of the same mind till January and
+finally till October 1680, having resolved &ldquo;to wait till this violence
+should wear off.&rdquo; He even made overtures to Shaftesbury in
+November 1679, but the latter insisted on the departure of both
+the queen and James. All attempts at compromise failed, and
+on the assembling of the parliament in October 1680 the Exclusion
+Bill passed the Commons, being, however, thrown out in the Lords
+through the influence of Halifax. Charles dissolved the parliament
+in January 1681, declaring that he would never give his
+consent to the Exclusion Bill, and summoned another at Oxford,
+which met there on the 21st of March 1681, Shaftesbury&rsquo;s faction
+arriving accompanied by armed bands. Charles expressed his
+willingness to consent to the handing over of the administration
+to the control of a Protestant, in the case of a Roman Catholic
+sovereign, but the Opposition insisted on Charles&rsquo;s nomination
+of Monmouth as his successor, and the parliament was accordingly
+once more (28th of March) dissolved by Charles, while a royal
+proclamation ordered to be read in all the churches proclaimed
+the ill-deeds of the parliament and the king&rsquo;s affection for the
+Protestant religion.</p>
+
+<p>Charles&rsquo;s tenacity and clever tact were now rewarded. A
+great popular reaction ensued in favour of the monarchy, and
+a large number of loyal addresses were sent in, most of them
+condemning the Exclusion Bill. Shaftesbury was imprisoned,
+and though the Middlesex jury threw out his indictment and
+he was liberated, he never recovered his power, and in October
+1682 left England for ever. The Exclusion Bill and the limitation
+of James&rsquo;s powers were no more heard of, and full liberty was
+granted to the king to pursue the retrograde and arbitrary policy
+to which his disposition naturally inclined. In Scotland James
+set up a tyrannical administration of the worst type. The royal
+enmity towards William of Orange was increased by a visit of
+the latter to England in July. No more parliaments were called,
+and Charles subsisted on his permanent revenue and his French
+pensions. He continued the policy of double-dealing and
+treachery, deceiving his ministers as at the treaty of Dover,
+by pretending to support Holland and Spain while he was
+secretly engaged to Louis to betray them. On the 22nd of March
+1681 he entered into a compact with Louis whereby he undertook
+to desert his allies and offer no resistance to French aggressions.
+In August he joined with Spain and Holland in a manifesto
+against France, while secretly for a million livres he engaged
+himself to Louis, and in 1682 he proposed himself as arbitrator
+with the intention of treacherously handing over Luxemburg
+to France, an offer which was rejected owing to Spanish suspicions
+of collusion. In the event, Charles&rsquo;s duplicity enabled Louis to
+seize Strassburg in 1681 and Luxemburg in 1684. The government
+at home was carried on principally by Rochester, Sunderland
+and Godolphin, while Guilford was lord chancellor and
+Jeffreys lord chief justice. The laws against the Nonconformists
+were strictly enforced. In order to obtain servile parliaments and
+also obsequious juries, who with the co-operation of judges of the
+stamp of Jeffreys could be depended upon to carry out the wishes
+of the court, the borough charters were confiscated, the charter
+of the city of London being forfeited on the 12th of June 1683.</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of Charles, now greatly increased, was raised
+to national enthusiasm by the discovery of the Rye House plot
+in 1683, said to be a scheme to assassinate Charles and James
+at an isolated house on the high road near Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire
+as they returned from Newmarket to London, among
+those implicated being Algernon Sidney, Lord Russell and
+Monmouth, the two former paying the death penalty and
+Monmouth being finally banished to the Hague. The administration
+became more and more despotic, and Tangier was abandoned
+in order to reduce expenses and to increase the forces at home
+for overawing opposition. The first preliminary steps were now
+taken for the reintroduction of the Roman Catholic religion.
+Danby and those confined on account of participation in the
+popish plot were liberated, and Titus Oates thrown into prison.
+A scheme was announced for withdrawing the control of the army
+in Ireland from Rochester, the lord-lieutenant, and placing it in
+the king&rsquo;s own hands, and the commission to which the king had
+delegated ecclesiastical patronage was revoked. In May 1684
+the office of lord high admiral, in spite of the Test Act, was again
+given to James, who had now returned from Scotland. To all
+appearances the same policy afterwards pursued so recklessly
+and disastrously by James was now cautiously initiated by
+Charles, who, however, not being inspired by the same religious
+zeal as his brother, and not desiring &ldquo;to go on his travels again,&rdquo;
+would probably have drawn back prudently before his throne
+was endangered. The developments of this movement were,
+however, now interrupted by the death of Charles after a short
+illness on the 6th of February 1685. He was buried on the 17th
+in Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel in Westminster Abbey with funeral
+ceremonies criticized by contemporaries as mean and wanting
+in respect, but the scantiness of which was probably owing to
+the fact that he had died a Roman Catholic.</p>
+
+<p>On his death-bed Charles had at length declared himself an
+adherent of that religion and had received the last rites according
+to the Romanist usage. There appears to be no trustworthy
+record of his formal conversion, assigned to various times and
+various agencies. As a youth, says Clarendon, &ldquo;the ill-bred
+familiarity of the Scotch divines had given him a distaste&rdquo; for
+Presbyterianism, which he indeed declared &ldquo;no religion for
+gentlemen,&rdquo; and the mean figure which the fallen national
+church made in exile repelled him at the same time that he was
+attracted by the &ldquo;genteel part of the Catholic religion.&rdquo; With
+Charles religion was not the serious matter it was with James,
+and was largely regarded from the political aspect and from that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page916" id="page916"></a>916</span>
+of ease and personal convenience. Presbyterianism constituted
+a dangerous encroachment on the royal prerogative; the national
+church and the cavalier party were indeed the natural supporters
+of the authority of the crown, but on the other hand they refused
+to countenance the dependence upon France; Roman Catholicism
+at that moment was the obvious medium of governing
+without parliaments, of French pensions and of reigning without
+trouble, and was naturally the faith of Charles&rsquo;s choice. Of the
+two papers in defence of the Roman Catholic religion in Charles&rsquo;s
+own hand, published by James, Halifax says &ldquo;though neither
+his temper nor education made him very fit to be an author,
+yet in this case ... he might write it all himself and yet not
+one word of it his own....&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Of his amours and mistresses the same shrewd observer of
+human character, who was also well acquainted with the king,
+declares &ldquo;that his inclinations to love were the effects of health
+and a good constitution with as little mixture of the <i>seraphic</i>
+part as ever man had.... I am apt to think his stayed as much
+as any man&rsquo;s ever did in the <i>lower</i> region.&rdquo; His health was the
+one subject to which he gave unremitting attention, and his fine
+constitution and devotion to all kinds of sport and physical
+exercise kept off the effects of uncontrolled debauchery for
+thirty years. In later years the society of his mistresses seems
+to have been chiefly acceptable as a means to avoid business
+and petitioners, and in the case of the duchess of Portsmouth
+was the price paid for ease and the continuance of the French
+pensions. His ministers he never scrupled to sacrifice to his ease.
+The love of ease exercised an entire sovereignty in his thoughts.
+&ldquo;The motive of his giving bounties was rather to make men
+less uneasy to him than more easy to themselves.&rdquo; He would
+rob his own treasury and take bribes to press a measure through
+the council. He had a natural affability, but too general to be
+much valued, and he was fickle and deceitful. Neither gratitude
+nor revenge moved him, and good or ill services left little impression
+on his mind. Halifax, however, concludes by desiring
+to moderate the roughness of his picture by emphasizing the
+excellence of his intellect and memory and his mechanical talent,
+by deprecating a too censorious judgment and by dwelling upon
+the disadvantages of his bringing up, the difficulties and temptations
+of his position, and on the fact that his vices were those
+common to human frailty. His capacity for king-craft, knowledge
+of the world, and easy address enabled him to surmount
+difficulties and dangers which would have proved fatal to his
+father or to his brother. &ldquo;It was a common saying that he
+could send away a person better pleased at receiving nothing
+than those in the good king his father&rsquo;s time that had requests
+granted them,&rdquo;<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and his good-humoured tact and familiarity
+compensated for and concealed his ingratitude and perfidy and
+preserved his popularity. He had good taste in art and literature,
+was fond of chemistry and science, and the Royal Society was
+founded in his reign. According to Evelyn he was &ldquo;débonnaire
+and easy of access, naturally kind-hearted and possessed an
+excellent temper,&rdquo; virtues which covered a multitude of sins.</p>
+
+<p>These small traits of amiability, however, which pleased his
+contemporaries, cannot disguise for us the broad lines of Charles&rsquo;s
+career and character. How far the extraordinary corruption
+of private morals which has gained for the restoration period
+so unenviable a notoriety was owing to the king&rsquo;s own example
+of flagrant debauchery, how far to the natural reaction from an
+artificial Puritanism, is uncertain, but it is incontestable that
+Charles&rsquo;s cynical selfishness was the chief cause of the degradation
+of public life which marks his reign, and of the disgraceful and
+unscrupulous betrayal of the national interests which raised
+France to a threatening predominance and imperilled the very
+existence of Britain for generations. The reign of his predecessor
+Charles I., and even of that of his successor James II., with
+their mistaken principles and ideals, have a saving dignity
+wholly wanting in that of Charles II., and the administration
+of Cromwell, in spite of the popularity of the restoration, was
+soon regretted. &ldquo;A lazy Prince,&rdquo; writes Pepys, &ldquo;no Council,
+no money, no reputation at home or abroad. It is strange
+how ... everybody do nowadays reflect upon Oliver and
+commend him, what brave things he did and made all the
+neighbour princes fear him; while here a prince, come in with
+all the love and prayers and good liking of his people ... hath
+lost all so soon....&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Charles II. had no children by his queen. By his numerous
+mistresses he had a large illegitimate progeny. By Barbara
+Villiers, Mrs Palmer, afterwards countess of Castlemaine and
+duchess of Cleveland, mistress <i>en titre</i> till she was superseded by
+the duchess of Portsmouth, he had Charles Fitzroy, duke of
+Southampton and Cleveland, Henry Fitzroy, duke of Grafton,
+George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, Anne, countess of
+Sussex, Charlotte, countess of Lichfield, and Barbara, a nun;
+by Louise de Kéroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, Charles Lennox,
+duke of Richmond; by Lucy Walter, James, duke of Monmouth
+and Buccleuch, and a daughter; by Nell Gwyn, Charles Beauclerk,
+duke of St Albans, and James Beauclerk; by Catherine
+Peg, Charles Fitz Charles, earl of Plymouth; by Lady Shannon,
+Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth; by Mary Davis, Mary Tudor,
+countess of Derwentwater.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See the article in the <i>Dict, of Nat. Biog.</i> by A.W.
+Ward (1887), with authorities there given; <i>Charles II.</i>, by O. Airy
+(1904); <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, by H.C. Foxcroft, and esp. Halifax&rsquo;s
+<i>Character of Charles II.</i> printed in the appendix (1898); <i>The Essex
+Papers</i> (Camden Soc., 1890); <i>Despatches of W. Perwich</i> (Royal
+Hist. Soc. Pubtns., 1903); <i>History of England, of the Civil War</i> and
+<i>of the Commonwealth</i>, by S.R. Gardiner; <i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, by A.
+Lang, vol. iii. (1904); Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>Hist, of England</i>, vol. i.; <i>Notes
+which passed at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and
+the Earl of Clarendon</i> (Roxburghe Club, 1896); <i>A French Ambassador
+at the Court of Charles II.</i>, by J.J. Jusserand (1902); <i>The Story of
+Nell Gwyn and the Sayings of Charles II.</i>, by P. Cunningham, ed.
+by H.B. Wheatley (1892); for his adventures and period of exile
+see <i>Memoiren der Herzogin Sophie</i>, ed. by A. Köcher (1879); &ldquo;Briefe
+der Elisabeth Stuart,&rdquo; by A. Wendland (<i>Litterarischer Verein
+in Stuttgart</i>, No. 228); Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Mlle de
+Montpensier and Mme de Motteville; <i>The King in Exile</i>, by E.
+Scott (1905); Scottish History Pubtns. vols. 17 (<i>Charles II. in Scotland</i>,
+by S.R. Gardiner, 1894) and 18 (<i>Scotland and the Commonwealth,
+1651-1653</i>, ed. by C.H. Firth, 1895); <i>Charles II. in the
+Channel Islands</i>, by S.E. Hoskins (1854) i <i>Boscobel</i>, by T. Blount,
+&amp;c., ed. by C.G. Thomas (1894); <i>The Flight of the King</i> (1897) and
+<i>After Worcester Fight</i> (1904), by A. Fea; <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, (January
+1894); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> xix. (1904) 363; <i>Revue historique</i>, xxviii.
+and xxix.; <i>Art Journal</i> (1889), p. 178 (&ldquo;Boscobel and Whiteladies,&rdquo;
+by J. Penderel-Brodhurst); <i>England under Charles II.</i>, by W.F.
+Taylor (1889), a collection of passages from contemporary writers;
+and R. Crawfurd, <i>The Last Days of Charles II.</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Mem. of Thomas, earl of Ailesbury</i>, p. 95.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> and <span class="bold">II</span>., kings of France. By the French, Charles
+the Great, Roman emperor and king of the Franks, is reckoned the
+first of the series of French kings named Charles (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charlemagne</a></span>).
+Similarly the emperor Charles II. the Bald (<i>q.v.</i>) is
+reckoned as Charles II. of France. In some enumerations the
+emperor Charles III. the Fat (<i>q.v.</i>) is reckoned as Charles II. of
+France, Charlemagne not being included in the list, and Charles
+the Bald being styled Charles I.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> the Simple (879-929), king of France, was a
+posthumous son of Louis the Stammerer and of his second wife
+Adelaide. On the deposition of Charles the Fat in 887 he was
+excluded from the throne by his youth; but during the reign of
+Odo, who had succeeded Charles, he succeeded in gaining the
+recognition of a certain number of notables and in securing his
+coronation at Reims on the 28th of January 893. He now
+obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced Odo to cede
+part of Neustria. In 898, by the death of his rival (Jan. 1), he
+obtained possession of the whole kingdom. His most important
+act was the treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Normans in
+911. Some of them were baptized; the territory which was
+afterwards known as the duchy of Normandy was ceded to them;
+but the story of the marriage of their chief Rollo with a sister of
+the king, related by the chronicler Dudo of Saint Quentin, is
+very doubtful. The same year Charles, on the invitation of the
+barons, took possession of the kingdom of Lotharingia. In 920
+the barons, jealous of the growth of the royal authority and
+discontented with the favour shown by the king to his counsellor
+Hagano, rebelled, and in 922 elected Robert, brother of King
+Odo, in place of Charles. Robert was killed in the battle of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page917" id="page917"></a>917</span>
+Soissons, but the victory remained with his party, who elected
+Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king. In his extremity Charles
+trusted himself to Herbert, count of Vermandois, who deceived
+him, and threw him into confinement at Château-Thierry and
+afterwards at Péronne. In the latter town he died on the 7th
+of October 929. In 907 he had married Frederona, sister of
+Bovo, bishop of Chalons. After her death he married Eadgyfu
+(Odgiva), daughter of Edward the Elder, king of the English, who
+was the mother of Louis IV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Eckel, <i>Charles le Simple</i> (Paris, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1294-1328), king of France, called <span class="sc">The Fair</span>,
+was the third and youngest son of Philip IV. and Jeanne of
+Navarre. In 1316 he was created count of La Marche, and
+succeeded his brother Philip V. as king of France and Navarre
+early in 1322. He followed the policy of his predecessors in
+enforcing the royal authority over the nobles, but the machinery
+of a centralized government strong enough to hold nobility
+in check increased the royal expenditure, to meet which Charles
+had recourse to doubtful financial expedients. At the beginning
+of his reign he ordered a recast of the coinage, with serious
+results to commerce; civil officials were deprived of offices,
+which had been conferred free, but were now put up to auction;
+duties were imposed on exported merchandise and on goods
+brought into Paris; the practice of exacting heavy fines was
+encouraged by making the salaries of the magistrates dependent
+on them; and on the pretext of a crusade to free Armenia from
+the Turks, Charles obtained from the pope a tithe levied on the
+clergy, the proceeds of which he kept for his own use; he also
+confiscated the property of the Lombard bankers who had been
+invited to France by his father at a time of financial crisis. The
+history of the assemblies summoned by Charles IV. is obscure,
+but in 1326, on the outbreak of war with England, an assembly
+of prelates and barons met at Meaux. Commissioners were
+afterwards despatched to the provinces to state the position of
+affairs and to receive complaints. The king justified his failure
+to summon the estates on the ground of the expense incurred
+by provincial deputies. The external politics of his reign were
+not marked by any striking events. He maintained excellent
+relations with Pope John XXII., who made overtures to him,
+indirectly, offering his support in case of his candidature for the
+imperial crown. Charles tried to form a party in Italy in support
+of the pope against the emperor Louis IV. of Bavaria, but
+failed. A treaty with the English which secured the district
+of Agenais for France was followed by a feudal war in Guienne.
+Isabella, Charles&rsquo;s sister and the wife of Edward II., was sent
+to France to negotiate, and with her brother&rsquo;s help arranged the
+final conspiracy against her husband. Charles&rsquo;s first wife was
+Blanche, daughter of Otto IV., count of Burgundy, and of
+Matilda (Mahaut), countess of Artois, to whom he was married
+in 1307. In May 1314, by order of King Philip IV., she was
+arrested and imprisoned in the Château-Gaillard with her sister-in-law
+Marguerite, daughter of Robert II., duke of Burgundy,
+and wife of Louis Hutin, on the charge of adultery with two
+gentlemen of the royal household, Philippe and Gautier d&rsquo;Aunai.
+Jeanne, sister of Marguerite and wife of Philip the Tall, was
+also arrested for not having denounced the culprits, and imprisoned
+at Dourdan. The two knights were put to the torture
+and executed, and their goods confiscated. It is impossible
+to say how far the charges were true. Tradition has involved
+and obscured the story, which is the origin of the legend of the
+<i>tour de Nesle</i> made famous by the drama of A. Dumas the elder.
+Marguerite died shortly in prison; Jeanne was declared innocent
+by the parlement and returned to her husband. Blanche was
+still in prison when Charles became king. He induced Pope
+John XXII. to declare the marriage null, on the ground that
+Blanche&rsquo;s mother had been his godmother. Blanche died in
+1326, still in confinement, though at the last in the abbey of
+Maubuisson.</p>
+
+<p>In 1322, freed from his first marriage, Charles married his
+cousin Mary of Luxemburg, daughter of the emperor Henry VII.,
+and upon her death, two years later, Jeanne, daughter of Louis,
+count of Evreux. Charles IV. died at Vincennes on the 1st of
+February 1328. He left no issue by his first two wives to succeed
+him, and daughters only by Jeanne of Evreux. He was the last
+of the direct line of Capetians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. d&rsquo;Herbomey, &ldquo;Notes et documents pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire
+des rois fils de Philippe le Bel,&rdquo; in <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i> (lix.
+pp. 479 seq. and 689 seq.); de Bréquigny, &ldquo;Mémoire sur les
+différends entre la France et l&rsquo;Angleterre sous le règne de Charles
+le Bel,&rdquo; in <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Acad. des Inscriptions</i> (xli. pp. 641-692);
+H. Lot, &ldquo;Projets de crusade sous Charles le Bel et sous Philippe de
+Valois&rdquo; (<i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i>, xx. pp. 503-509); &ldquo;Chronique
+parisienne anonyme de 1316 à 1339 ...&rdquo; ed. Hellot in <i>Mém. de
+la soc. de l&rsquo;hist. de Paris</i> (xi., 1884, pp. 1-207).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1337-1380), king of France, called <span class="sc">The Wise</span>,
+was born at the château of Vincennes on the 21st of January
+1337, the son of John II. and Bonne of Luxemburg. In 1349
+he became dauphin of the Viennois by purchase from Humbert
+II., and in 1355 he was created duke of Normandy. At the battle
+of Poitiers (1356) his father ordered him to leave the field when
+the battle turned against the French, and he was thus saved
+from the imprisonment that overtook his father. After arranging
+for the government of Normandy he proceeded to Paris, where
+he took the title of lieutenant of the kingdom. During the years
+of John II.&rsquo;s imprisonment in England Charles was virtually
+king of France. He summoned the states-general of northern
+France (Langue d&rsquo;oïl) to Paris in October 1356 to obtain men and
+money to carry on the war. But under the leadership of Étienne
+Marcel, provost of the Parisian merchants and president of the
+third estate, and Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, president of the
+clergy, a partisan of Charles of Navarre, the states refused any
+&ldquo;aid&rdquo; except on conditions which Charles declined to accept.
+They demanded the dismissal of a number of the royal ministers;
+the establishment of a commission elected from the three estates
+to regulate the dauphin&rsquo;s administration, and of another board
+to act as council of war; also the release of Charles the Bad,
+king of Navarre, who had been imprisoned by King John. The
+estates of Languedoc, summoned to Toulouse, also made protests
+against misgovernment, but they agreed to raise a war-levy on
+terms to which the dauphin acceded. Charles sought the
+alliance of his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., to whom he did
+homage at Metz as dauphin of the Viennois, and he was also made
+imperial vicar of Dauphiné, thus acknowledging the imperial
+jurisdiction. But he gained small material advantage from
+these proceedings. The states-general were again convoked
+in February 1357. Their demands were more moderate than
+in the preceding year, but they nominated members to replace
+certain obnoxious persons on the royal council, demanded the
+right to assemble without the royal summons, and certain
+administrative reforms. In return they promised to raise and
+finance an army of 30,000 men, but the money&mdash;a tithe levied
+on the annual revenues of the clergy and nobility&mdash;voted for
+this object was not to pass through the dauphin&rsquo;s hands. Charles
+appeared to consent, but the agreement was annulled by letters
+from King John, announcing at the same time the conclusion
+of a two years&rsquo; truce, and the reformers failed to secure their
+ends. Charles had escaped from their power by leaving Paris,
+but he returned for a new meeting of the estates in the autumn
+of 1357.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Charles of Navarre had been released by his partisans,
+and allying himself with Marcel had become a popular
+hero in Paris. The dauphin was obliged to receive him and to
+undergo an apparent reconciliation. In Paris Étienne Marcel
+was supreme. He forced his way into the dauphin&rsquo;s palace
+(February 1358), and Charles&rsquo;s servant, Jean de Conflans,
+marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of
+Normandy, were murdered before his eyes. Charles was powerless
+openly to resent these outrages, but he obtained from the
+provincial assemblies the money refused him by the states-general,
+and deferred his vengeance until the dissensions of his
+enemies should offer him an opportunity. Charles of Navarre,
+now in league with the English and master of lower Normandy
+and of the approaches to Paris, returned to the immediate
+neighbourhood of the city, and Marcel found himself driven to
+avowed co-operation with the dauphin&rsquo;s enemies, the English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page918" id="page918"></a>918</span>
+and the Navarrese. Charles had been compelled in March to
+take the title of regent to prevent the possibility of further intervention
+from King John. In defiance of a recent ordinance
+prohibiting provincial assemblies, he presided over the estates
+of Picardy and Artois, and then over those of Champagne.
+The states-general of 1358 were summoned to Compiègne instead
+of Paris, and granted a large aid. The condition of northern
+France was rendered more desperate by the outbreak (May-June
+1358) of the peasant revolt known as the Jacquerie, which
+was repressed with a barbarity far exceeding the excesses of the
+rebels. Within the walls of Paris Jean Maillart had formed a
+royalist party; Marcel was assassinated (31st July 1358), and
+the dauphin entered Paris in the following month. A reaction
+in Charles&rsquo;s favour had set in, and from the estates of 1359 he
+regained the authority he had lost. It was with their full concurrence
+that he restored their honours to the officials who had
+been dismissed by the estates of 1356 and 1357. They supported
+him in repudiating the treaty of London (1359), which King John
+had signed in anxiety for his personal freedom, and voted money
+unconditionally for the continuation of the war. From this time
+the estates were only once convoked by Charles, who contented
+himself thenceforward by appeals to the assembly of notables
+or to the provincial bodies. Charles of Navarre was now at open
+war with the regent; Edward III. landed at Calais in October;
+and a great part of the country was exposed to double depredations
+from the English and the Navarrese troops. In the scarcity
+of money Charles had recourse to the debasement of the coinage,
+which suffered no less than twenty-two variations in the two years
+before the treaty of Brétigny. This disastrous financial expedient
+was made good later, the coinage being established on a firm
+basis during the last sixteen years of Charles&rsquo;s reign in accordance
+with the principles of Nicolas Oresme. On the conclusion of
+peace King John was restored to France, but, being unable to
+raise his ransom, he returned in 1364 to England, where he died
+in April, leaving the crown to Charles, who was crowned at
+Reims on the 19th of May.</p>
+
+<p>The new king found an able servant in Bertrand du Guesclin,
+who won a victory over the Navarrese troops at Cocherel and
+took prisoner their best general, Jean de Grailli, captal of Buch.
+The establishment of Charles&rsquo;s brother, Philip the Bold, in the
+duchy of Burgundy, though it constituted in the event a serious
+menace to the monarchy, put an end to the king of Navarre&rsquo;s
+ambitions in that direction. A treaty of peace between the two
+kings was signed in 1365, by which Charles of Navarre gave up
+Mantes, Meulan and the county of Longueville in exchange for
+Montpellier. Negotiations were renewed in 1370 when Charles
+of Navarre did homage for his French possessions, though he
+was then considering an offensive and defensive alliance with
+Edward III. Du Guesclin undertook to free France from the
+depredations of the &ldquo;free companies,&rdquo; mercenary soldiers put
+out of employment by the cessation of the war. An attempt
+to send them on a crusade against the Turks failed, and Du
+Guesclin led them to Spain to put Henry of Trastamara on the
+throne of Castile. By the marriage of his brother Philip the
+Bold with Margaret of Flanders, Charles detached the Flemings
+from the English alliance, and as soon as he had restored
+something like order in the internal affairs of the kingdom he
+provoked a quarrel with the English. The text of the treaty of
+Brétigny presented technical difficulties of which Charles was
+not slow to avail himself. The English power in Guienne was
+weakened by the disastrous Spanish expedition of the Black
+Prince, whom Charles summoned before the parlement of Paris
+in January 1369 to answer the charges preferred against him
+by his subjects, thus expressly repudiating the English supremacy
+in Guienne. War was renewed in May after a meeting of
+the states-general. Between 1371 and 1373 Poitou and Saintonge
+were reconquered by Du Guesclin, and soon the English
+had to abandon all their territory north of the Garonne. John
+IV. of Brittany (Jean de Montfort) had won his duchy with
+English help by the defeat of Charles of Blois, the French
+nominee, at Auray in 1364. His sympathies remained English,
+but he was now (1373) obliged to take refuge in England, and
+later in Flanders, while the English only retained a footing in
+two or three coast towns. Charles&rsquo;s generals avoided pitched
+battles, and contented themselves with defensive and guerrilla
+tactics, with the result that in 1380 only Bayonne, Bordeaux,
+Brest and Calais were still in English hands.</p>
+
+<p>Charles had in 1378 obtained proof of Charles of Navarre&rsquo;s
+treasonable designs. He seized the Norman towns held by the
+Navarrese, while Henry of Trastamara invaded Navarre, and
+imposed conditions of peace which rendered his lifelong enemy
+at last powerless. A premature attempt to amalgamate the
+duchy of Brittany with the French crown failed. Charles summoned
+the duke to Paris in 1378, and on his non-appearance
+committed one of his rare errors of policy by confiscating his
+duchy. But the Bretons rose to defend their independence, and
+recalled their duke. The matter was still unsettled when Charles
+died at Vincennes on the 16th of September 1380. His health,
+always delicate, had been further weakened, according to
+popular report, by a slow poison prepared for him by the king
+of Navarre. His wife, Jeanne of Bourbon, died in 1378, and
+the succession devolved on their elder son Charles, a boy of
+twelve. Their younger son was Louis, duke of Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>Personally Charles was no soldier. He owed the signal successes
+of his reign partly to his skilful choice of advisers and
+administrators, to his chancellors Jean and Guillaume de Dormans
+and Pierre d&rsquo;Orgemont, to Hugues Aubriot, provost of
+Paris, Bureau de la Riviere and others; partly to a singular
+coolness and subtlety in the exercise of a not over-scrupulous
+diplomacy, which made him a dangerous enemy. He had learnt
+prudence and self-restraint in the troubled times of the regency,
+and did not lose his moderation in success. He modelled his
+private life on that of his predecessor Saint Louis, but was no
+fanatic in religion, for he refused his support to the violent
+methods of the Inquisition in southern France, and allowed the
+Jews to return to the country, at the same time confirming their
+privileges. His support of the schismatic pope Clement VII.
+at Avignon was doubtless due to political considerations, as
+favouring the independence of the Gallican church. Charles V.
+was a student of astrology, medicine, law and philosophy, and
+collected a large and valuable library at the Louvre. He
+gathered round him a group of distinguished writers and thinkers,
+among whom were Raoul de Presles, Philippe de Mézières,
+Nicolas Oresme and others. The ideas of these men were applied
+by him to the practical work of administration, though he confined
+himself chiefly to the consolidation and improvement of
+existing institutions. The power of the nobility was lessened
+by restrictions which, without prohibiting private wars, made
+them practically impossible. The feudal fortresses were regularly
+inspected by the central authority, and the nobles themselves
+became in many cases paid officers of the king. Charles
+established a merchant marine and a formidable navy, which
+under Jean de Vienne threatened the English coast between
+1377 and 1380. The states-general were silenced and the royal
+prerogative increased; the royal domains were extended, and
+the wealth of the crown was augmented; additions were made
+to the revenue by the sale of municipal charters and patents;
+and taxation became heavier, since Charles set no limits to the
+gratification of his tastes either in the collection of jewels and
+precious objects, of books, or of his love of building, examples
+of which are the renovation of the Louvre and the erection of
+the palace of Saint Paul in Paris.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the chronicles of Froissart, and of Pierre d&rsquo;Orgemont (<i>Grandes
+Chroniques de Saint Denis</i>, Paris, vol. vi, 1838); Christine de Pisan,
+<i>Le Livre des fais et bonnes moeurs du sage roy Charles V</i>, written in
+1404, ed. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. ii. (1836); L. Delisle, <i>Mandements
+et actes divers de Charles V</i> (1886); letters of Charles V. from
+the English archives in Champollion-Figeac, <i>Lettres de rois et de
+reines</i>, ii. pp. 167 seq.; the anonymous <i>Songe du vergier</i> or <i>Somnium
+viridarii</i>, written in 1376 and giving the political ideas of Charles V.
+and his advisers; &ldquo;Relation de la mort de Charles V&rdquo; in Haureau,
+<i>Notices et extraits</i>, xxxi. pp. 278-284; Ch. Benoist, <i>La Politique du roi
+Charles V</i> (1874); S. Luce, <i>La France pendant la guerre de cent ans</i>;
+G. Clément Simon, <i>La Rupture du traité de Brétigny</i> (1898); A. Vuitry,
+<i>Êtudes sur le régime financier de la France</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1883); and
+R. Delachenal, <i>Histoire de Charles V</i> (Paris, 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page919" id="page919"></a>919</span> </p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VI.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (1368-1422), king of France, son of Charles V.
+and Jeanne of Bourbon, was born in Paris on the 3rd of December
+1368. He received the appanage of Dauphiné at his birth, and
+was thus the first of the princes of France to bear the title of
+dauphin from infancy. Charles V. had entrusted his education
+to Philippe de Mézières, and had fixed his majority at fourteen.
+He succeeded to the throne in 1380, at the age of twelve, and
+the royal authority was divided between his paternal uncles,
+Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke of Berry, Philip the Bold, duke
+of Burgundy, and his mother&rsquo;s brother, Louis II., duke of Bourbon.
+In accordance with an ordinance of the late king the duke of
+Anjou became regent, while the guardianship of the young king,
+together with the control of Paris and Normandy, passed to the
+dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon, who were to be assisted by
+certain of the councillors of Charles V. The duke of Berry,
+excluded by this arrangement, was compensated by the government
+of Languedoc and Guienne. Anjou held the regency for
+a few months only, until the king&rsquo;s coronation in November 1380.
+He enriched himself from the estate of Charles V. and by excessive
+exactions, before he set out in 1382 for Italy to effect the
+conquest of Naples. Considerable discontent existed in the south
+of France at the time of the death of Charles V., and when the
+duke of Anjou re-imposed certain taxes which the late king had
+remitted at the end of his reign, there were revolts at Puy and
+Montpellier. Paris, Rouen, the cities of Flanders, with Amiens,
+Orleans, Reims and other French towns, also rose (1382) in revolt
+against their masters. The <i>Maillotins</i>, as the Parisian insurgents
+were named from the weapon they used, gained the upper
+hand in Paris, and were able temporarily to make terms, but
+the commune of Rouen was abolished, and the <i>Tuchins</i>, as
+the marauders in Languedoc were called, were pitilessly hunted
+down. Charles VI. marched to the help of the count of Flanders
+against the insurgents headed by Philip van Artevelde, and
+gained a complete victory at Roosebeke (November 27th, 1382).
+Strengthened by this success the king, on his return to Paris
+in the following January, exacted vengeance on the citizens by
+fines, executions and the suppression of the privileges of the city.
+The help sent by the English to the Flemish cities resulted
+in a second Flemish campaign. In 1385 Jean de Vienne made
+an unsuccessful descent on the Scottish coast, and Charles
+equipped a fleet at Sluys for the invasion of England, but
+a series of delays ended in the destruction of the ships by the
+English.</p>
+
+<p>In 1385 Charles VI. married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen II.,
+duke of Bavaria, her name being gallicized as Isabeau. Three
+years later, with the help of his brother, Louis of Orleans, duke
+of Touraine, he threw off the tutelage of his uncles, whom he
+replaced by Bureau de la Rivière and others among his father&rsquo;s
+counsellors, nicknamed by the royal princes the <i>marmousets</i>
+because of their humble origin. Two years later he deprived
+the duke of Berry of the government of Languedoc. The opening
+years of Charles VI.&rsquo;s effective rule promised well, but excess in
+gaiety of all kinds undermined his constitution, and in 1392 he
+had an attack of madness at Le Mans, when on his way to
+Brittany to force from John V. the surrender of his cousin
+Pierre de Craon, who had tried to assassinate the constable
+Olivier de Clisson in the streets of Paris. Other attacks followed,
+and it became evident that Charles was unable permanently to
+sustain the royal authority. Clisson, Bureau de la Rivière,
+Jean de Mercier, and the other <i>marmousets</i> were driven from
+office, and the royal dukes regained their power. The rivalries
+between the most powerful of these&mdash;the duke of Burgundy,
+who during the king&rsquo;s attacks of madness practically ruled the
+country, and the duke of Orleans&mdash;were a constant menace to
+peace. In 1306 peace with England seemed assured by the
+marriage of Richard II. with Charles VI.&rsquo;s daughter Isabella,
+but the Lancastrian revolution of 1399 destroyed the diplomatic
+advantages gained by this union. In France the country was
+disturbed by the papal schism. At an assembly of the clergy
+held in Paris in 1398 it was resolved to refuse to recognize the
+authority of Benedict XIII., who succeeded Clement VII. as
+schismatic pope at Avignon. The question became a party
+one; Benedict was supported by Louis of Orleans, while Philip
+the Bold and the university of Paris opposed him. Obedience
+to Benedict&rsquo;s authority was resumed in 1403, only to be withdrawn
+again in 1408, when the king declared himself the guardian
+and protector of the French church, which was indeed for a
+time self-governing. Edicts further extending the royal power
+in ecclesiastical affairs were even issued in 1418, after the schism
+was at an end.</p>
+
+<p>The king&rsquo;s intelligence became yearly feebler, and in 1404
+the death of Philip the Bold aggravated the position of affairs.
+The new duke, John the Fearless, did not immediately replace his
+father in general affairs, and the influence of the duke of Orleans
+increased. Queen Isabeau, who had generally supported the
+Burgundian party, was now practically separated from her
+husband, whose madness had become pronounced. She was
+replaced by a young Burgundian lady, Odette de Champdivers,
+called by her contemporaries <i>la petite reine</i>, who rescued the king
+from the state of neglect into which he had fallen. Isabeau of
+Bavaria was freely accused of intrigue with the duke of Orleans.
+She was from time to time regent of France, and as her policy
+was directed by personal considerations and by her love of
+splendour she further added to the general distress. The relations
+between John the Fearless and the duke of Orleans became more
+embittered, and on the 23rd of November 1407 Orleans was
+murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of his rival.
+The young duke Charles of Orleans married the daughter of the
+Gascon count Bernard VII. of Armagnac, and presently formed
+alliances with the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, and
+others who formed the party known as the Armagnacs (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Armagnac</a></span>), against the Burgundians who had gained the upper
+hand in the royal council. In 1411 John the Fearless contracted
+an alliance with Henry IV. of England, and civil war began in
+the autumn, but in 1412 the Armagnacs in their turn sought
+English aid, and, by promising the sovereignty of Aquitaine
+to the English king, gave John the opportunity of posing as
+defender of France. In Paris the Burgundians were hand
+in hand with the corporation of the butchers, who were the
+leaders of the Parisian populace. The malcontents, who took
+their name from one of their number, Caboche, penetrated into
+the palace of the dauphin Louis, and demanded the surrender
+of the unpopular members of his household. A royal ordinance,
+promising reforms in administration, was promulgated on the
+27th of May 1413, and some of the royal advisers were executed.
+The king and the dauphin, powerless in the hands of Duke
+John and the Parisians, appealed secretly to the Armagnac
+princes for deliverance. They entered Paris in September; the
+ordinance extracted by the Cabochiens was rescinded; and
+numbers of the insurgents were banished the city.</p>
+
+<p>In the next year Henry V. of England, after concluding an
+alliance with Burgundy, resumed the pretensions of Edward III.
+to the crown of France, and in 1415 followed the disastrous
+battle of Agincourt. The two elder sons of Charles VI., Louis,
+duke of Guienne, and John, duke of Touraine, died in 1415 and
+1417, and Charles, count of Ponthieu, became heir apparent.
+Paris was governed by Bernard of Armagnac, constable of
+France, who expelled all suspected of Burgundian sympathies
+and treated Paris like a conquered city. Queen Isabeau was
+imprisoned at Tours, but escaped to Burgundy. The capture
+of Paris by the Burgundians on the 20th of May 1418 was
+followed by a series of horrible massacres of the Armagnacs;
+and in July Duke John and Isabeau, who assumed the title
+of regent, entered Paris. Meanwhile Henry V. had completed
+the conquest of Normandy. The murder of John the Fearless in
+1419 under the eyes of the dauphin Charles threw the Burgundians
+definitely into the arms of the English, and his successor
+Philip the Good, in concert with Queen Isabeau, concluded
+(1420) the treaty of Troyes with Henry V., who became master
+of France. Charles VI. had long been of no account in the
+government, and the state of neglect in which he existed at
+Senlis induced Henry V. to undertake the re-organization of
+his household. He came to Paris in September 1422, and died
+on the 21st of October.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page920" id="page920"></a>920</span> </p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authorities for the reign of Charles VI. are:&mdash;<i>Chronica
+Caroli VI.</i>, written by a monk of Saint Denis, commissioned officially
+to write the history of his time, edited by C. Bellaguet with a French
+translation (6 vols., 1839-1852); Jean Juvenal des Ursins, <i>Chronique</i>,
+printed by D. Godefroy in <i>Histoire de Charles VI</i> (1653), chiefly an
+abridgment of the monk of St Denis&rsquo;s narrative; a fragment of the
+<i>Grandes Chroniques de Saint Denis</i> covering the years 1381 to 1383
+(ed. J. Pichon 1864); correspondence of Charles VI. printed by
+Champollion-Figeac in <i>Lettres de rois</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Choix de pièces
+inédites rel. au règne de Charles VI</i> (2 vols., 1863-1864), edited by
+L. Douët d&rsquo;Arcq for the Société de l&rsquo;Histoire de France; J. Froissart,
+<i>Chroniques</i>; Enguerrand de Monstrelet, <i>Chroniques</i>, covering the
+first half of the 15th century (Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1809); <i>Chronique
+des quatre premiers Valois</i>, by an unknown author, ed. S. Luce (1862).
+See also E. Lavisse, <i>Hist, de France</i>, iv. 267 seq.; E. Petit,
+&ldquo;Séjours de Charles VI,&rdquo; <i>Bull. du com. des travaux hist.</i> (1893);
+Vallet de Viriville, &ldquo;Isabeau de Bavière,&rdquo; <i>Revue française</i> (1858-1859);
+M. Thibaut, <i>Isabeau de Bavière</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VII.<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1403-1461), king of France, fifth son of
+Charles VI. and Isabeau of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the
+22nd of February 1403. The count of Ponthieu, as he was
+called in his boyhood, was betrothed in 1413 to Mary of Anjou,
+daughter of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of Sicily, and
+spent the next two years at the Angevin court. He received
+the duchy of Touraine in 1416, and in the next year the death
+of his brother John made him dauphin of France. He became
+lieutenant-general of the kingdom in 1417, and made active
+efforts to combat the complaisance of his mother. He assumed
+the title of regent in December 1418, but his authority in northern
+France was paralysed in 1419 by the murder of John the Fearless,
+duke of Burgundy, in his presence at Montereau. Although the
+deed was not apparently premeditated, as the English and
+Burgundians declared, it ruined Charles&rsquo;s cause for the time.
+He was disinherited by the treaty of Troyes in 1420, and at the
+time of his father&rsquo;s death in 1422 had retired to Mehun-sur-Yèvre,
+near Bourges, which had been the nominal seat of government
+since 1418. He was recognized as king in Touraine, Berry and
+Poitou, in Languedoc and other provinces of southern France;
+but the English power in the north was presently increased by
+the provinces of Champagne and Maine, as the result of the
+victories of Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424). The Armagnac
+administrators who had been driven out of Paris by the duke
+of Bedford gathered round the young king, nicknamed the
+&ldquo;king of Bourges,&rdquo; but he was weak in body and mind, and was
+under the domination of Jean Louvet and Tanguy du Chastel,
+the instigators of the murder of John the Fearless, and other
+discredited partisans. The power of these favourites was shaken
+by the influence of the queen&rsquo;s mother, Yolande of Aragon,
+duchess of Anjou. She sought the alliance of John V., duke of
+Brittany, who, however, vacillated throughout his life between
+the English and French alliance, concerned chiefly to maintain
+the independence of his duchy. His brother, Arthur of Brittany,
+earl of Richmond (comte de Richemont), was reconciled with the
+king, and became constable in 1425, with the avowed intention
+of making peace between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy.
+Richemont caused the assassination of Charles&rsquo;s favourites
+Pierre de Giac and Le Camus de Beaulieu, and imposed one of
+his own choosing, Georges de la Trémoille, an adventurer who
+rapidly usurped the constable&rsquo;s power. For five years (1427-1432)
+a private war between these two exhausted the Armagnac
+forces, and central France returned to anarchy.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Bedford had established settled government
+throughout the north of France, and in 1428 he advanced to
+the siege of Orleans. For the movement which was to lead to
+the deliverance of France from the English invaders, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joan
+of Arc</a></span>. The siege of Orleans was raised by her efforts on the
+8th of May 1429, and two months later Charles VII. was crowned
+at Reims. Charles&rsquo;s intimate counsellors, La Trémoille and
+Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, saw their profits
+menaced by the triumphs of Joan of Arc, and accordingly the
+court put every difficulty in the way of her military career, and
+received the news of her capture before Compiègne (1430) with
+indifference. No measures were taken for her deliverance or her
+ransom, and Normandy and the Isle of France remained in
+English hands. Fifteen years of anarchy and civil war intervened
+before peace was restored. Bands of armed men fighting for
+their own hand traversed the country, and in the ten years
+between 1434 and 1444 the provinces were terrorized by these
+<i>écorcheurs</i>, who, with the decline of discipline in the English army,
+were also recruited from the ranks of the invaders. The duke of
+Bedford died in 1435, and in the same year Philip the Good of
+Burgundy concluded a treaty with Charles VII. at Arras, after
+fruitless negotiations for an English treaty. From this time
+Charles&rsquo;s policy was strengthened. La Trémoille had been
+assassinated in 1433 by the constable&rsquo;s orders, with the connivance
+of Yolande of Aragon. For his former favourites were
+substituted energetic advisers, his brother-in-law Charles of
+Anjou, Dunois (the famous bastard of Orleans), Pierre de Brézé,
+Richemont and others. Richemont entered Paris on the 13th
+of April 1436, and in the next five years the finance of the
+country was re-established on a settled basis. Charles himself
+commanded the troops who captured Pontoise in 1441, and in
+the next year he made a successful expedition in the south.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the princes of the blood and the great nobles
+resented the ascendancy of councillors and soldiers drawn from
+the smaller nobility and the <i>bourgeoisie</i>. They made a formidable
+league against the crown in 1440 which included Charles I.,
+duke of Bourbon, John II., duke of Alençon, John IV. of
+Armagnac, and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The revolt
+broke out in Poitou in 1440 and was known as the <i>Praguerie</i>.
+Charles VII. repressed the rising, and showed great skill with
+the rebel nobles, finally buying them over individually by considerable
+concessions. In 1444 a truce was concluded with
+England at Tours, and Charles proceeded to organize a regular
+army. The central authority was gradually made effective, and
+a definite system of payment, by removing the original cause of
+brigandage, and the establishment of a strict discipline learnt
+perhaps from the English troops, gradually stamped out the most
+serious of the many evils under which the country had suffered.
+Pierre Bessonneau, and the brothers Gaspard and Jean Bureau
+created a considerable force of artillery. Domestic troubles in
+their own country weakened the English in France. The conquest
+of Normandy was completed by the battle of Formigny
+(15th of April 1450). Guienne was conquered in 1451 by Duncis,
+but not subdued, and another expedition was necessary in 1453,
+when Talbot was defeated and slain at Castillon. Meanwhile
+in 1450 Charles VII. had resolved on the rehabilitation of Joan
+of Arc, thus rendering a tardy recognition of her services. This
+was granted in 1456 by the Holy See. The only foothold retained
+by the English on French ground was Calais. In its earlier
+stages the deliverance of France from the English had been the
+work of the people themselves. The change which made Charles
+take an active part in public affairs is said to have been largely
+due to the influence of Agnes Sorel, who became his mistress in
+1444 and died in 1450. She was the first to play a public and
+political rôle as mistress of a king of France, and may be said to
+have established a tradition. Pierre de Brézé, who had had a
+large share in the repression of the Praguerie, obtained through
+her a dominating influence over the king, and he inspired the
+monarch himself and the whole administration with new vigour.
+Charles and René of Anjou retired from court, and the greater
+part of the members of the king&rsquo;s council were drawn from the
+bourgeois classes. The most famous of all these was Jacques
+Coeur (<i>q.v.</i>). It was by the zeal of these councillors that Charles
+obtained the surname of &ldquo;The Well-Served.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Charles VII. continued his father&rsquo;s general policy in church
+matters. He desired to lessen the power of the Holy See in
+France and to preserve as far as possible the liberties of the
+Gallican church. With the council of Constance (1414-1418)
+the great schism was practically healed. Charles, while careful
+to protest against its renewal, supported the anti-papal contentions
+of the French members of the council of Basel (1431-1449),
+and in 1438 he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction at
+Bourges, by which the patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was
+removed from the Holy See, while certain interventions of the
+royal power were admitted. Bishops and abbots were to be
+elected, in accordance with ancient custom, by their clergy.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page921" id="page921"></a>921</span>
+After the English had evacuated French territory Charles still
+had to cope with feudal revolt, and with the hostility of the
+dauphin, who was in open revolt in 1446, and for the next ten
+years ruled like an independent sovereign in Dauphiné. He took
+refuge in 1457 with Charles&rsquo;s most formidable enemy, Philip
+of Burgundy. Charles VII. nevertheless found means to prevent
+Philip from attaining his ambitions in Lorraine and in Germany.
+But the dauphin succeeded in embarrassing his father&rsquo;s policy
+at home and abroad, and had his own party in the court itself.
+Charles VII. died at Mehun-sur-Yévre on the 22nd of July 1461.
+He believed that he was poisoned by his son, who cannot, however,
+be accused of anything more than an eager expectation
+of his death.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The history of the reign of Charles VII. has been
+written by two modern historians,&mdash;Vallet de Viriville, <i>Histoire de
+Charles VII ... et de son époque</i> (Paris, 3 vols., 1862-1865), and
+G. du Fresne de Beaucourt, <i>Hist, de Charles VII</i> (Paris, 6 vols.,
+1881-1891). There is abundant contemporary material. The
+herald, Jacques le Bouvier or Berry (b. 1386), whose <i>Chronicques du
+feu roi Charles VII</i> was first printed in 1528 as the work of Alain
+Chartier, was an eye-witness of many of the events he described.
+His <i>Recouvrement de Normandie</i>, with other material on the same
+subject, was edited for the &ldquo;Rolls&rdquo; series (<i>Chronicles and Memorials</i>)
+by Joseph Stevenson in 1863. The <i>Histoire de Charles VII</i> by Jean
+Chartier, historiographer-royal from 1437, was included in the
+<i>Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis</i>, and was first printed under
+Chartier&rsquo;s name by Denis Godefroy, together with other contemporary
+narratives, in 1661. It was re-edited by Vallet de Viriville (Paris,
+3 vols., 1858-1859). With these must be considered the Burgundian
+chroniclers Enguerrand de Monstrelet, whose chronicle (ed. L. Douët
+d&rsquo;Arcq; Paris, 6 vols., 1857-1862) covers the years 1400-1444, and
+Georges Chastellain, the existing fragments of whose chronicle are
+published in his <i>&OElig;uvres</i> (ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove; Brussels,
+8 vols., 1863-1866). For a detailed bibliography and an account
+of printed and MS. documents see du Fresne de Beaucourt, already
+cited, also A. Molinier, <i>Manuel de bibliographie historique</i>, iv.
+240-306.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES VIII.<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1470-1498), king of France, was the only son
+of Louis XI. During the whole of his childhood Charles lived far
+from his father at the château of Amboise, which was throughout
+his life his favourite residence. On the death of Louis XI in 1483
+Charles, a lad of thirteen, was of age, but was absolutely incapable
+of governing. Until 1492 he abandoned the government to his
+sister Anne of Beaujeu. In 1491 he married Anne, duchess of
+Brittany, who was already betrothed to Maximilian of Austria.
+Urged by his favourite, Étienne de Vesc, he then, at the age of
+twenty-two, threw off the yoke of the Beaujeus, and at the same
+time discarded their wise and able policy. But he was a thoroughly
+worthless man with a weak and ill-balanced intellect. He had a
+romantic imagination and conceived vast projects. He proposed
+at first to claim the rights of the house of Anjou, to which Louis
+XI. had succeeded, on the kingdom of Naples, and to use this as a
+stepping-stone to the capture of Constantinople from the Turks
+and his own coronation as emperor of the East. He sacrificed
+everything to this adventurous policy, signed disastrous treaties
+to keep his hands free, and set out for Italy in 1494. The ceremonial
+side of the expedition being in his eyes the most important,
+he allowed himself to be intoxicated by his easy triumph and
+duped by the Italians. On the 12th of May 1495 he entered
+Naples in great pomp, clothed in the imperial insignia. A general
+coalition was, however, formed against him, and he was forced
+to return precipitately to France. It cannot be denied that he
+showed bravery at the battle of Fornovo (the 5th of July 1495).
+He was preparing a fresh expedition to Italy, when he died on the
+8th of April 1498, from the results of an accident, at the château
+of Amboise.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Histoire de Charles VIII, roy de France</i>, by G. de Jaligny,
+André de la Vigne, &amp;c., edited by Godefroy (Paris, 1684); De
+Cherrier, <i>Histoire de Charles VIII</i> (Paris, 1868); H. Fr. Delaborde,
+<i>Expédition de Charles VIII en Italie</i> (Paris, 1888). For a complete
+bibliography see H. Hauser, <i>Les Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France,
+1494-1610</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1906); and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>,
+vol. v. part i., by H. Lemonnier (Paris, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IX.<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1550-1574), king of France, was the third son
+of Henry II. and Catherine de&rsquo; Medici. At first he bore the title of
+duke of Orleans. He became king in 1560 by the death of his
+brother Francis II., but as he was only ten years old the power
+was in the hands of the queen-mother, Catherine. Charles seems
+to have been a youth of good parts, lively and agreeable, but he
+had a weak, passionate and fantastic nature. His education had
+spoiled him. He was left to his whims&mdash;even the strangest&mdash;and
+to his taste for violent exercises; and the excesses to which he
+gave himself up ruined his health. Proclaimed of age on the 17th
+of August 1563, he continued to be absorbed in his fantasies and
+his hunting, and submitted docilely to the authority of his mother.
+In 1570 he was married to Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of
+Maximilian II. It was about this time that he dreamed of making
+a figure in the world. The successes of his brother, the duke of
+Anjou, at Jarnac and Moncontour had already caused him some
+jealousy. When Coligny came to court, he received him very
+warmly, and seemed at first to accept the idea of an intervention
+in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. For the upshot of this
+adventure see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">St Bartholomew, Massacre of</a></span>.
+Charles was in these circumstances no hypocrite, but weak,
+hesitating and ill-balanced. Moreover, the terrible events in
+which he had played a part transformed his character. He
+became melancholy, severe and taciturn. &ldquo;It is feared,&rdquo; said the
+Venetian ambassador, &ldquo;that he may become cruel.&rdquo; Undermined
+by fever, at the age of twenty he had the appearance of an
+old man, and night and day he was haunted with nightmares.
+He died on the 30th of May 1574. By his mistress, Marie
+Touchet, he had one son, Charles, duke of Angoulême. Charles
+IX. had a sincere love of letters, himself practised poetry, was the
+patron of Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiad, and granted
+privileges to the first academy founded by Antoine de Baïf
+(afterwards the Académie du Palais). He left a work on hunting,
+<i>Traité de la chasse royale</i>, which was published in 1625, and
+reprinted in 1859.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;The principal sources are the contemporary
+memoirs and chronicles of T.A. d&rsquo;Aubigné, Brantôme, Castelnau,
+Haton, la Place, Montluc, la Noue, l&rsquo;Estoile, Ste Foy, de Thou,
+Tavannes, &amp;c.; the published correspondence of Catherine de&rsquo;
+Medici, Marguerite de Valois, and the Venetian ambassadors;
+and Calendars of State Papers, &amp;c. See also Abel Desjardins,
+<i>Charles IX, deux années de règne</i> (Paris, 1873); de la Ferrière, <i>Le
+XVIe siècle et les Valois</i> (Paris, 1879); H. Mariéjol, <i>La Réforme et la
+Ligue</i> (Paris, 1904), in vol. v. of the <i>Histoire de France</i>, by E. Lavisse,
+which contains a bibliography for the reign.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES X.<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1757-1836), king of France from 1824 to 1830,
+was the fourth child of the dauphin, son of Louis XV. and of
+Marie Josephe of Saxony, and consequently brother of Louis XVI.
+He was known before his accession as Charles Philippe, count of
+Artois. At the age of sixteen he married Marie Thérèse of
+Savoy, sister-in-law of his brother, the count of Provence (Louis
+XVIII.). His youth was passed in scandalous dissipation, which
+drew upon himself and his coterie the detestation of the people of
+Paris. Although lacking military tastes, he joined the French
+army at the siege of Gibraltar in 1772, merely for distraction.
+In a few years he had incurred a debt of 56 million francs, a burden
+assumed by the impoverished state. Prior to the Revolution he
+took only a minor part in politics, but when it broke out he soon
+became, with the queen, the chief of the reactionary party at
+court. In July 1789 he left France, became leader of the <i>émigrés</i>,
+and visited several of the courts of Europe in the interest of the
+royalist cause. After the execution of Louis XVI. he received
+from his brother, the count of Provence, the title of lieutenant-general
+of the realm, and, on the death of Louis XVII., that of
+&ldquo;Monsieur.&rdquo; In 1795 he attempted to aid the royalist rising of
+La Vendée, landing at the island of Yeu. But he refused to
+advance farther and to put himself resolutely at the head of his
+party, although warmly acclaimed by it, and courage failing him,
+he returned to England, settling first in London, then in Holyrood
+Palace at Edinburgh and afterwards at Hartwell. There he
+remained until 1813, returning to France in February 1814,
+and entering Paris in April, in the track of the Allies.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of his brother, Louis XVIII., he was the
+leader of the ultra-royalists, the party of extreme reaction. On
+succeeding to the throne in September 1824 the dignity of his
+address and his affable condescension won him a passing popularity.
+But his coronation at Reims, with all the gorgeous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page922" id="page922"></a>922</span>
+ceremonial of the old régime, proclaimed his intention of ruling,
+as the Most Christian King, by divine right. His first acts,
+indeed, allayed the worst alarms of the Liberals; but it was soon
+apparent that the weight of the crown would be consistently
+thrown into the scale of the reactionary forces. The <i>émigrés</i> were
+awarded a milliard as compensation for their confiscated lands;
+and Gallicans and Liberals alike were offended by measures
+which threw increased power into the hands of the Jesuits and
+Ultramontanes. In a few months there were disquieting signs of
+the growing unpopularity of the king. The royal princesses were
+insulted in the streets; and on the 29th of April 1825 Charles,
+when reviewing the National Guard, was met with cries from
+the ranks of &ldquo;Down with the ministers!&rdquo; His reply was, next
+day, a decree disbanding the citizen army.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till 1829, when the result of the elections had proved
+the futility of Villèle&rsquo;s policy of repression, that Charles consented
+unwillingly to try a policy of compromise. It was, however, too
+late. Villèle&rsquo;s successor was the vicomte de Martignac, who took
+Decazes for his model; and in the speech from the throne Charles
+declared that the happiness of France depended on &ldquo;the sincere
+union of the royal authority with the liberties consecrated by the
+charter.&rdquo; But Charles had none of the patience and commonsense
+which had enabled Louis XVIII. to play with decency the
+part of a constitutional king. &ldquo;I would rather hew wood,&rdquo; he
+exclaimed, &ldquo;than be a king under the conditions of the king
+of England&rdquo;; and when the Liberal opposition obstructed all
+the measures proposed by a ministry not selected from the
+parliamentary majority, he lost patience. &ldquo;I told you,&rdquo;
+he said, &ldquo;that there was no coming to terms with these men.&rdquo;
+Martignac was dismissed; and Prince Jules de Polignac, the
+very incarnation of clericalism and reaction, was called to the
+helm of state.</p>
+
+<p>The inevitable result was obvious to all the world. &ldquo;There
+is no such thing as political experience,&rdquo; wrote Wellington,
+certainly no friend of Liberalism; &ldquo;with the warning of James II.
+before him, Charles X. was setting up a government by priests,
+through priests, for priests.&rdquo; A formidable agitation sprang
+up in France, which only served to make the king more obstinate.
+In opening the session of 1830 he declared that he would &ldquo;find
+the power&rdquo; to overcome the obstacles placed in his path by
+&ldquo;culpable manoeuvres.&rdquo; The reply of the chambers was a
+protest against &ldquo;the unjust distrust of the sentiment and reason
+of France&rdquo;; whereupon they were first prorogued, and on the
+16th of May dissolved. The result of the new elections was
+what might have been foreseen: a large increase in the Opposition;
+and Charles, on the advice of his ministers, determined
+on a virtual suspension of the constitution. On the 25th of
+July were issued the famous &ldquo;four ordinances&rdquo; which were the
+immediate cause of the revolution that followed.</p>
+
+<p>With singular fatuity Charles had taken no precautions in view
+of a violent outbreak. Marshal Marmont, who commanded the
+scattered troops in Paris, had received no orders, beyond a jesting
+command from the duke of Angoulême to place them under arms
+&ldquo;as some windows might be broken.&rdquo; At the beginning of the
+revolution Charles was at St Cloud, whence on the news of the
+fighting he withdrew first to Versailles and then to Rambouillet.
+So little did he understand the seriousness of the situation that,
+when the laconic message &ldquo;All is over!&rdquo; was brought to him,
+he believed that the insurrection had been suppressed. On
+realizing the truth he hastily abdicated in favour of his grandson,
+the duke of Bordeaux (comte de Chambord), and appointed
+Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom
+(July 30th). But, on the news of Louis Philippe&rsquo;s acceptance
+of the crown, he gave up the contest and began a dignified
+retreat to the sea-coast, followed by his suite, and surrounded
+by the infantry, cavalry and artillery of the guard. Beyond
+sending a corps of observation to follow his movements, the new
+government did nothing to arrest his escape. At Maintenon
+Charles took leave of the bulk of his troops, and proceeding with
+an escort of some 1200 men to Cherbourg, took ship there for
+England on the 16th of August. For a time he returned to Holyrood
+Palace at Edinburgh, which was again placed at his disposal.
+He died at Goritz, whither he had gone for his health,
+on the 6th of November 1836.</p>
+
+<p>The best that can be said of Charles X. is that, if he did not
+know how to rule, he knew how to cease to rule. The dignity
+of his exit was more worthy of the ancient splendour of the royal
+house of France than the theatrical humility of Louis Philippe&rsquo;s
+entrance. But Charles was an impossible monarch for the 19th
+century, or perhaps for any other century. He was a typical
+Bourbon, unable either to learn or to forget; and the closing
+years of his life he spent in religious austerities, intended to
+expiate, not his failure to grasp a great opportunity, but the
+comparatively venial excesses of his youth.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Achille de Vaulabelle, <i>Chute de l&rsquo;empire: histoire des deux
+restaurations</i> (Paris, 1847-1857); Louis de Vielcastel, <i>Hist. de la
+restauration</i> (Paris, 1860-1878); Alphonse de Lamartine, <i>Hist. de la
+restauration</i> (Paris, 1851-1852); Louis Blanc, <i>Hist. de dix ans,
+1830-1840</i> (5 vols., 1842-1844); G.I. de Montbel, <i>Derniére Époque
+de l&rsquo;hist. de Charles X</i> (5th ed., Paris, 1840); Théodore Anne,
+<i>Mémoires, souvenirs, et anecdotes sur l&rsquo;interieur du palais de Charles X
+et les évènements de 1815 à 1830</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1831); ib., <i>Journal
+de Saint-Cloud a Cherbourg</i>; Védrenne, <i>Vie de Charles X</i> (3 vols.,
+Paris, 1879); Petit, <i>Charles X</i> (Paris, 1886); Villeneuve, <i>Charles X
+et Louis XIX en exil. Mémoires inédits</i> (Paris, 1889); Imbert de
+Saint-Amand, <i>La Cour de Charles X</i> (Paris, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  This, at any rate, represents the general verdict of history.
+It is interesting, however, to note that so liberal-minded and shrewd
+a critic of men as King Leopold I. of the Belgians formed a different
+estimate. In a letter of the 18th of November 1836 addressed to
+Princess (afterwards Queen) Victoria he writes:&mdash;&ldquo;History will
+state that Louis XVIII. was a most liberal monarch, reigning with
+great mildness and justice to his end, but that his brother, from his
+despotic and harsh disposition, upset all the other had done, and lost
+the throne. Louis XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man, shackled
+by no principle, very proud and false. Charles X. an honest man,
+a kind friend, an honourable master, sincere in his opinions, and
+inclined to do everything that is right. That teaches us what we
+ought to believe in history as it is compiled according to ostensible
+events and results known to the generality of people.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1288-1342), king of Hungary, the son of Charles
+Martell of Naples, and Clemencia, daughter of the emperor
+Rudolph, was known as Charles Robert previously to being
+enthroned king of Hungary in 1309. He claimed the Hungarian
+crown, as the grandson of Stephen V., under the banner of the
+pope, and in August 1300 proceeded from Naples to Dalmatia
+to make good his claim. He was crowned at Esztergom after
+the death of the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1301), but was forced
+the same year to surrender the crown to Wenceslaus II. of
+Bohemia (1289-1306). His failure only made Pope Boniface
+VIII. still more zealous on his behalf, and at the diet of Pressburg
+(1304) his Magyar adherents induced him to attempt to recover
+the crown of St Stephen from the Czechs. But in the meantime
+(1305) Wenceslaus transferred his rights to Duke Otto of Bavaria,
+who in his turn was taken prisoner by the Hungarian rebels.
+Charles&rsquo;s prospects now improved, and he was enthroned at Buda
+on the 15th of June 1309, though his installation was not regarded
+as valid till he was crowned with the sacred crown (which
+was at last recovered from the robber-barons) at Székesfehérvár
+on the 27th of August 1310. For the next three years Charles
+had to contend with rebellion after rebellion, and it was only
+after his great victory over all the elements of rapine and disorder
+at Rozgony (June 15, 1312) that he was really master in his
+own land. His foreign policy aimed at the aggrandizement of
+his family, but his plans were prudent as well as ambitious, and
+Hungary benefited by them greatly. His most successful
+achievement was the union with Poland for mutual defence
+against the Habsburgs and the Czechs. This was accomplished
+by the convention of Trencsén (1335), confirmed the same year
+at the brilliant congress of Visegrád, where all the princes of
+central Europe met to compose their differences and were
+splendidly entertained during the months of October and
+November. The immediate result of the congress was a combined
+attack by the Magyars and Poles upon the emperor Louis and
+his ally Albert of Austria, which resulted in favour of Charles
+in 1337. Charles&rsquo;s desire to unite the kingdoms of Hungary
+and Naples under the eldest son Louis was frustrated by Venice
+and the pope, from fear lest Hungary might become the dominant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page923" id="page923"></a>923</span>
+Adriatic power. He was, however, more than compensated for
+this disappointment by his compact (1339) with his ally and
+brother-in-law, Casimir of Poland, whereby it was agreed that
+Louis should succeed to the Polish throne on the death of the
+childless Casimir. For an account of the numerous important
+reforms effected by Charles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hungary</a></span>: <i>History</i>. A statesman
+of the first rank, he not only raised Hungary once more to
+the rank of a great power, but enriched and civilized her. In
+character he was pious, courtly and valiant, popular alike with
+the nobility and the middle classes, whose increasing welfare
+he did so much to promote, and much beloved by the clergy.
+His court was famous throughout Europe as a school of chivalry.</p>
+
+<p>Charles was married thrice. His first wife was Maria, daughter
+of Duke Casimir of Teschen, whom he wedded in 1306. On her
+death in 1318 he married Beatrice, daughter of the emperor
+Henry VII. On her decease two years later he gave his hand
+to Elizabeth, daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, king of Poland.
+Five sons were the fruit of these marriages, of whom three,
+Louis, Andrew and Stephen, survived him. He died on the 16th
+of July 1342, and was laid beside the high altar at Székesfehérvár,
+the ancient burial-place of the Arpads.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Béla Kerékgyartó, <i>The Hungarian Royal Court under the
+House of Anjou</i> (Hung.) (Budapest, 1881); <i>Rationes Collectorum
+Pontif. in Hungaria</i> (Budapest, 1887); <i>Diplomas of the Angevin
+Period</i>, edited by Imre Nagy (Hung. and Lat.), vols. i.-iii. (Budapest,
+1878, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1226-1285), king of Naples and Sicily and
+count of Anjou, was the seventh child of Louis VIII. of France
+and Blanche of Castile. Louis died a few months after Charles&rsquo;s
+birth and was succeeded by his son Louis IX. (St Louis), and on
+the death in 1232 of the third son John, count of Anjou and
+Maine, those fiefs were conferred on Charles. In 1246 he married
+Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Raymond Bérenger V., the
+last count of Provence, and after defeating James I. of Aragon
+and other rivals with the help of his brother the French king,
+he took possession of his new county. In 1248 he accompanied
+Louis in the crusade to Egypt, but on the defeat of the Crusaders
+he was taken prisoner with his brother. Shortly afterwards
+he was ransomed, and returned to Provence in 1250. During
+his absence several towns had asserted their independence; but
+he succeeded in subduing them without much difficulty and
+gradually suppressed their communal liberties. Charles&rsquo;s
+ambition aimed at wider fields, and when Margaret, countess of
+Flanders, asked help of the French court against the German
+king William of Holland, by whom she had been defeated, he
+gladly accepted her offer of the county of Hainaut in exchange
+for his assistance (1253); this arrangement was, however,
+rescinded by Louis of France, who returned from captivity in
+1254, and Charles gave up Hainaut for an immense sum of
+money. He extended his influence by the subjugation of Marseilles
+in 1257, then one of the most important maritime cities
+of the world, and two years later several communes of Piedmont
+recognized Charles&rsquo;s suzerainty. In 1262 Pope Urban IV.
+determined to destroy the power of the Hohenstaufen in Italy,
+and offered the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, in consideration
+of a yearly tribute, to Charles of Anjou, in opposition to Manfred,
+the bastard son of the late emperor Frederick II. The next year
+Charles succeeded in getting himself elected senator of Rome,
+which gave him an advantage in dealing with the pope. After
+long negotiations he accepted the Sicilian and Neapolitan
+crowns, and in 1264 he sent a first expedition of Provençals to
+Italy; he also collected a large army and navy in Provence
+and France with the help of King Louis, and by an alliance with
+the cities of Lombardy was able to send part of his force overland.
+Pope Clement IV. confirmed the Sicilian agreement on conditions
+even more favourable to Charles, who sailed in 1265, and conferred
+on the expedition all the privileges of a crusade. After
+narrowly escaping capture by Manfred&rsquo;s fleet he reached Rome
+safely, where he was crowned king of the Two Sicilies. The land
+army arrived soon afterwards, and on the 26th of February 1266
+Charles encountered Manfred at Benevento, where after a hard-fought
+battle Manfred was defeated and killed, and the whole
+kingdom was soon in Charles&rsquo;s possession. Then Conradin,
+Frederick&rsquo;s grandson and last legitimate descendant of the
+Hohenstaufen, came into Italy, where he found many partisans
+among the Ghibellines of Lombardy and Tuscany, and among
+Manfred&rsquo;s former adherents in the south. He gathered a large
+army consisting partly of Germans and Saracens, but was totally
+defeated by Charles at Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268);
+taken prisoner, he was tried as a rebel and executed at Naples.
+Charles, in a spirit of the most vindictive cruelty, had large
+numbers of Conradin&rsquo;s barons put to death and their estates
+confiscated, and the whole population of several towns massacred.</p>
+
+<p>He was now one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe,
+for besides ruling over Provence and Anjou and the kingdom
+of the Two Sicilies, he was imperial vicar of Tuscany, lord of
+many cities of Lombardy and Piedmont, and as the pope&rsquo;s
+favourite practically arbiter of the papal states, especially during
+the interregnum between the death of Clement IV. (1268) and
+the election of Gregory X. (1272). But his ambition was by no
+means satisfied, and he even aspired to the crown of the East
+Roman empire. In 1272 he took part with Louis IX. in a
+crusade to north Africa, where the French king died of fever,
+and Charles, after defeating the soldan of Tunis, returned to
+Sicily. The election of Rudolph of Habsburg as German king
+after a long interregnum, and that of Nicholas III. to the Holy
+See (1277), diminished Charles&rsquo;s power, for the new pope set
+himself to compose the difference between Guelphs and Ghibellines
+in the Italian cities, but at his death Charles secured the
+election of his henchman Martin IV. (1281), who recommenced
+persecuting the Ghibellines, excommunicated the Greek emperor,
+Michael Palaeologus, proclaimed a crusade against the Greeks,
+filled every appointment in the papal states with Charles&rsquo;s
+vassals, and reappointed the Angevin king senator of Rome.
+But the cruelty of the French rulers of Sicily drove the people
+of the island to despair, and a Neapolitan nobleman, Giovanni da
+Procida, organized the rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vespers, Sicilian</a></span>), in which the French in Sicily were all
+massacred or expelled (1282). Charles determined to subjugate
+the island and sailed with his fleet for Messina. The city held
+out until Peter III. of Aragon, whose wife Constance was a
+daughter of Manfred, arrived in Sicily, and a Sicilian-Catalan
+fleet under the Calabrese admiral, Ruggiero di Lauria, completely
+destroyed that of Charles. &ldquo;If thou art determined, O God,
+to destroy me,&rdquo; the unhappy Angevin exclaimed, &ldquo;let my fall
+be gradual!&rdquo; He was forced to abandon all attempts at
+reconquest, but proposed to decide the question by single
+combat between himself and Peter, to take place at Bordeaux
+under English protection. The Aragonese accepted, but fearing
+treachery, as the French army was in the neighbourhood, he
+failed to appear on the appointed day. In the meanwhile
+Ruggiero di Lauria appeared before Naples and destroyed
+another Angevin fleet commanded by Charles&rsquo;s son, who was
+taken prisoner (May 1284). Charles came to Naples with a new
+fleet from Provence, and was preparing to invade Sicily again,
+when he contracted a fever and died at Foggia on the 7th of
+January 1285. He was undoubtedly an extremely able soldier
+and a skilful statesman, and much of his legislation shows a
+real political sense; but his inordinate ambition, his oppressive
+methods of government and taxation, and his cruelty created
+enemies on all sides, and led to the collapse of the edifice of
+dominion which he had raised.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (1250-1309), king of Naples and Sicily, son of
+Charles I., had been captured by Ruggiero di Lauria in the naval
+battle at Naples in 1284, and when his father died he was still a
+prisoner in the hands of Peter of Aragon. In 1288 King Edward I.
+of England had mediated to make peace, and Charles was
+liberated on the understanding that he was to retain Naples
+alone, Sicily being left to the Aragonese; Charles was also to
+induce his cousin Charles of Valois to renounce for twenty
+thousand pounds of silver the kingdom of Aragon which had
+been given to him by Pope Martin IV. to punish Peter for having
+invaded Sicily, but which the Valois had never effectively
+occupied. The Angevin king was thereupon set free, leaving
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page924" id="page924"></a>924</span>
+three of his sons and sixty Provençal nobles as hostages, promising
+to pay 30,000 marks and to return a prisoner if the conditions
+were not fulfilled within three years. He went to Rieti, where
+the new pope Nicholas IV. immediately absolved him from all
+the conditions he had sworn to observe, crowned him king of
+the Two Sicilies (1289), and excommunicated Alphonso, while
+Charles of Valois, in alliance with Castile, prepared to take
+possession of Aragon. Alphonso III, the Aragonese king, being
+hard pressed, had to promise to withdraw the troops he had
+sent to help his brother James in Sicily, to renounce all rights
+over the island, and pay a tribute to the Holy See. But Alphonso
+died childless in 1291 before the treaty could be carried out, and
+James took possession of Aragon, leaving the government of
+Sicily to the third brother Frederick. The new pope Boniface
+VIII., elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King
+Charles, mediated between the latter and James, and a most
+dishonourable treaty was signed: James was to marry Charles&rsquo;s
+daughter Bianca and was promised the investiture by the pope
+of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to leave the Angevin a free
+hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the Sicilians resisted. An
+attempt was made to bribe Frederick into consenting to this
+arrangement, but being backed up by his people he refused, and
+was afterwards crowned king of Sicily. The war was fought with
+great fury on land and sea, but Charles, although aided by the
+pope, by Charles of Valois, and by James II. of Aragon, was
+unable to conquer the island, and his son the prince of Taranto
+was taken prisoner at the battle of La Falconara in 1299.    Peace
+was at last made in 1302 at Caltabellotta, Charles II. giving up
+all rights to Sicily and agreeing to the marriage of his daughter
+Leonora to King Frederick; the treaty was ratified by the
+pope in 1303. Charles spent his last years quietly in Naples,
+which city he improved and embellished. He died in August
+1309, and was succeeded by his son Robert.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;A. de Saint-Priest, <i>Histoire de la conquête de
+Naples par Charles d&rsquo;Anjou</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1847-1849), is still of use
+for the documents from the archives of Barcelona, but it needs to
+be collated with more recent works; S. de Sismondi, in vol. ii. of
+his <i>Histoire des republiques italiennes</i> (Brussels, 1838), gives a good
+general sketch of the reigns of Charles I. and II., but is occasionally
+inaccurate as to details; the best authority on the early life of
+Charles I. is R. Sternfeld, <i>Karl von Anjou als Graf von Provence
+</i> (Berlin, 1888); Charles&rsquo;s connexion with north Italy is dealt with in
+Merkel&rsquo;s <i>La Dominazione di Carlo d&rsquo;Angio in Piemonte e in Lombardia
+</i> (Turin, 1891), while the R. Deputazione di Storia Patria Toscana
+has recently published a <i>Codice diplomatico delle relazioni di Carlo
+d&rsquo;Angio con la Toscana</i>; the contents of the Angevin archives at
+Naples have been published by Durrien, <i>Archives angevines de Naples</i>
+(Toulouse, 1866-1867). M. Amari&rsquo;s <i>La Guerra del Vespro Siciliano</i>
+(8th ed., Florence, 1876) is a valuable history, but the author is too
+bitterly prejudiced against the French to be quite impartial; his
+work should be compared with L. Cadier&rsquo;s <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;administration
+du royaume de Sicile sous Charles I et Charles II d&rsquo;Anjou</i> (Paris,
+1891, <i>Bibl. des écoles françaises d&rsquo;Athenes et de Rome,</i> fasc. 59), which
+contains many documents, and tends somewhat to rehabilitate the
+Angevin rule.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1332-1387), called <span class="sc">The Bad</span>, king of Navarre
+and count of Evreux, was a son of Jeanne II., queen of Navarre,
+by her marriage with Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343). Having
+become king of Navarre on Jeanne&rsquo;s death in 1349, he suppressed
+a rising at Pampeluna with much cruelty, and by this and
+similar actions thoroughly earned his surname of &ldquo;The Bad.&rdquo; In
+1352 he married Jeanne (d. 1393), a daughter of John II., king of
+France, a union which made his relationship to the French crown
+still more complicated. Through his mother he was a grandson of
+Louis X. and through his father a great-grandson of Philip III.,
+having thus a better claim to the throne of France than Edward
+III. of England; and, moreover, he held lands under the suzerainty
+of the French king, whose son-in-law he now became. Charles
+was a man of great ability, possessing popular manners and considerable
+eloquence, but he was singularly unscrupulous, a quality
+which was revealed during the years in which he played an important
+part in the internal affairs of France. Trouble soon arose
+between King John and his son-in-law. The promised dowry had
+not been paid, and the county of Angoulême, which had formerly
+belonged to Jeanne of Navarre, was now in the possession of the
+French king&rsquo;s favourite, the constable Charles la Cerda. In
+January 1354 the constable was assassinated by order of Charles,
+and preparations for war were begun. The king of Navarre, who
+defended this deed, had, however, many friends in France and was
+in communication with Edward III.; and consequently John was
+forced to make a treaty at Mantes and to compensate him for the
+loss of Angoulême by a large grant of lands, chiefly in Normandy.
+This peace did not last long, and in 1355 John was compelled to
+confirm the treaty of Mantes. Returning to Normandy, Charles
+was partly responsible for some unrest in the duchy, and in April
+1356 he was treacherously seized by the French king at Rouen,
+remaining in captivity until November 1357, when John, after
+his defeat at Poitiers, was a prisoner in England. Charles was
+regarded with much favour in France, and the states-general
+demanded his release, which, however, was effected by a surprise.
+Owing to his popularity he was considered by Étienne Marcel
+and his party as a suitable rival to the dauphin, afterwards King
+Charles V., and on entering Paris he was well received and
+delivered an eloquent harangue to the Parisians. Subsequently
+peace was made with the dauphin, who promised to restore to
+Charles his confiscated estates. This peace was not enduring, and
+as his lands were not given back Charles had some ground for
+complaint. War again broke out, quickly followed by a new
+treaty, after which the king of Navarre took part in suppressing
+the peasant rising known as the <i>Jacquerie</i>. Answering the entreaties
+of Marcel he returned to Paris on June 1358, and became
+captain-general of the city, which was soon besieged by the
+dauphin. This position, however, did not prevent him from
+negotiating both with the dauphin and with the English; terms
+were soon arranged with the former, and Charles, having lost
+much of his popularity, left Paris just before the murder of
+Marcel in July 1358. He continued his alternate policy of war
+and peace, meanwhile adding if possible by his depredations to
+the misery of France, until the conclusion of the treaty of
+Brétigny in May 1360 deprived him of the alliance of the English,
+and compelled him to make peace with King John in the following
+October. A new cause of trouble arose when the duchy of
+Burgundy was left without a ruler in November 1361, and was
+claimed by Charles; but, lacking both allies and money, he was
+unable to prevent the French king from seizing Burgundy, while
+he himself returned to Navarre.</p>
+
+<p>In his own kingdom Charles took some steps to reform the
+financial and judicial administration and so to increase his
+revenue; but he was soon occupied once more with foreign
+entanglements, and in July 1362, in alliance with Peter the Cruel,
+king of Castile, he invaded Aragon, deserting his new ally soon
+afterwards for Peter IV., king of Aragon. Meanwhile the war
+with the dauphin had been renewed. Still hankering after
+Burgundy, Charles saw his French estates again seized; but after
+some desultory warfare, chiefly in Normandy, peace was made
+in March 1365, and he returned to his work of interference in the
+politics of the Spanish kingdoms. In turn he made treaties with
+the kings of Castile and Aragon, who were at war with each
+other; promising to assist Peter the Cruel to regain his throne,
+from which he had been driven in 1366 by his half-brother Henry
+of Trastamara, and then assuring Henry and his ally Peter of
+Aragon that he would aid them to retain Castile. He continued
+this treacherous policy when Edward the Black Prince advanced
+to succour Peter the Cruel; then signed a treaty with Edward
+of England, and then in 1371 allied himself with Charles V. of
+France. His next important move was to offer his assistance to
+Richard II. of England for an attack upon France. About this
+time serious charges were brought against him. Accused of
+attempting to poison the king of France and other prominent
+persons, and of other crimes, his French estates were seized by
+order of Charles V., and soon afterwards Navarre was invaded by
+the Castilians. Won over by the surrender of Cherbourg in July
+1378, the English under John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, came
+to his aid; but a heavy price had to be paid for the neutrality
+of the king of Castile. After the death of Charles V. in 1380, the
+king of Navarre did not interfere in the internal affairs of France,
+although he endeavoured vainly again to obtain aid from Richard
+II., and to regain Cherbourg. His lands in France were handed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page925" id="page925"></a>925</span>
+over to his eldest son Charles, who governed them with the consent
+of the new king Charles VI. Charles died on the 1st of January
+1387, and many stories are current regarding the manner of his
+death. Froissart relates that he was burned to death through his
+bedclothes catching fire; Secousse says that he died in peace
+with many signs of contrition; another story says he died of
+leprosy; and a popular legend tells how he expired by a divine
+judgment through the burning of the clothes steeped in sulphur
+and spirits in which he had been wrapped as a cure for a loathsome
+disease caused by his debauchery. He had three sons and
+four daughters, and was succeeded by his eldest son Charles; one
+of his daughters, Jeanne, became the wife of Henry IV. of
+England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Jean Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
+(Paris, 1869-1897); D.F. Secousse, <i>Mémoires pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire
+de Charles II, roi de Navarre</i> (Paris, 1755-1768); E. Meyer, <i>Charles
+II, roi de Navarre et la Normandie au XIVe siècle</i> (Paris, 1898);
+F.T. Perrens, <i>Étienne Marcel</i> (Paris, 1874); R. Delachenal, <i>Premières
+negotiations de Charles le Mauvais avec les Anglais</i> (Paris, 1900);
+and E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1361-1425), called <span class="sc">The Noble</span>, king of Navarre
+and count of Evreux, was the eldest son of Charles II. the Bad,
+king of Navarre, by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of John
+II., king of France, and was married in 1375 to Leonora (d. 1415),
+daughter of Henry II., king of Castile. Having passed much of
+his early life in France, he became king of Navarre on the death of
+Charles II. in January 1387, and his reign was a period of peace
+and order, thus contrasting sharply with the long and calamitous
+reign of his father. In 1393 he regained Cherbourg, which had
+been handed over by Charles II. to Richard II. of England, and
+in 1403 he came to an arrangement with the representatives of
+Charles VI. of France concerning the extensive lands which he
+claimed in that country. Cherbourg was given to the French
+king; certain exchanges of land were made; and in the following
+year Charles III. surrendered the county of Evreux, and was
+created duke of Nemours and made a peer of France. After this
+his only interference in the internal affairs of France was when he
+sought to make peace between the rival factions in that country.
+Charles sought to improve the condition of Navarre by making
+canals and rendering the rivers navigable, and in other ways.
+He died at Olite on the 8th of September 1425 and was buried at
+Pampeluna. After the death of his two sons in 1402 the king
+decreed that his kingdom should pass to his daughter Blanche
+(d. 1441), who took for her second husband John, afterwards
+John II., king of Aragon; and the cortes of Navarre swore to
+recognize Charles (<i>q.v.</i>), prince of Viana, her son by this marriage,
+as king after his mother&rsquo;s death.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Karl Eitel Zephyrin Ludwig</span>; in Rum.
+<span class="sc">Carol</span>), king of Rumania (1839-&emsp;&emsp;), second son of Prince Karl
+Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was born on the 20th of
+April 1839. He was educated at Dresden (1850-1856), and
+passed through his university course at Bonn. Entering the
+Prussian army in 1857, he won considerable distinction in the
+Danish war of 1864, and received instruction in strategy from
+General von Moltke. He afterwards travelled in France, Italy,
+Spain and Algeria. He was a captain in the 2nd regiment of
+Prussian Dragoon Guards when he was elected <i>hospodar</i> or
+prince of Rumania on the 20th of April 1866, after the compulsory
+abdication of Prince Alexander John Cuza. Regarded at first
+with distrust by Turkey, Russia and Austria, he succeeded in
+gaining general recognition in six months; but he had to contend
+for ten years with fierce party struggles between the
+Conservatives and the Liberals.</p>
+
+<p>During this period, however, Charles displayed great tact in
+his dealings with both parties, and kept his country in the path
+of administrative and economic reform, organizing the army,
+developing the railways, and establishing commercial relations
+with foreign powers. The sympathy of Rumania with France
+in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and the consequent interruption
+of certain commercial undertakings, led to a hostile
+movement against Prince Charles, which, being fostered by
+Russia, made him resolve to abdicate; and it was with difficulty
+that he was persuaded to remain. In the Russo-Turkish War
+of 1877-78 he joined the Russians before Plevna (<i>q.v.</i>), and
+being placed in command of the combined Russian and
+Rumanian forces, forced Osman Pasha to surrender. As a consequence
+of the prince&rsquo;s vigorous action the independence of
+Rumania, which had been proclaimed in May 1877, was confirmed
+by various treaties in 1878, and recognized by Great
+Britain, France and Germany in 1880. On the 26th of March
+1881 he was proclaimed king of Rumania, and, with his consort,
+was crowned on the 22nd of May following. From that time he
+pursued a successful career in home and foreign policy, and
+greatly improved the financial and military position of his
+country; while his appreciation of the fine arts was shown by
+his formation of an important collection of paintings of all
+schools in his palaces at Sinaïa and Bucharest. For a detailed
+account of his reign, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rumania</a></span>. On the 1st of November
+1869 he married Princess Elizabeth (<i>q.v.</i>), a daughter of Prince
+Hermann of Wied, widely known under her literary name of
+&ldquo;Carmen Sylva.&rdquo; As the only child of the marriage, a daughter,
+died in 1874, the succession was finally settled upon the king&rsquo;s
+nephew, Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who
+was created prince of Rumania on the 18th of March 1889,
+and married, on the 10th of January 1893, Princess Marie,
+daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg, their children being
+Prince Carol (b. 1893) and Princess Elizabeth (b. 1894).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The official life of King Charles, mainly his own composition,
+<i>Aus dem Leben Konig Karls von Rumänien</i> (Stuttgart, 1894-1900,
+4 vols.), deals mainly with political history. See for an account of
+his domestic life, M. Kremnitz, <i>König Karl von Rumänien. Ein
+Lebensbild</i> (Breslau, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1661-1700), king of Spain, known among
+Spanish kings as &ldquo;The Desired&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Bewitched,&rdquo; was the
+son of Philip IV. by his second marriage with Maria, daughter
+of the emperor Ferdinand III., his niece. He was born on the
+11th of November 1661, and was the only surviving son of his
+father&rsquo;s two marriages&mdash;a child of old age and disease, in
+whom the constant intermarriages of the Habsburgs had developed
+the family type to deformity. His birth was greeted
+with joy by the Spaniards, who feared the dispute as to the
+succession which must have ensued if Philip IV. left no male
+issue. The boy was so feeble that till the age of five or six he
+was fed only from the breast of a nurse. For years afterwards
+it was not thought safe to allow him to walk. That he might not
+be overtaxed he was left entirely uneducated, and his indolence
+was indulged to such an extent that he was not even expected
+to be clean. When his brother, the younger Don John of Austria,
+a natural son of Philip IV., obtained power by exiling the queen
+mother from court he insisted that at least the king&rsquo;s hair should
+be combed. Charles made the malicious remark that nothing
+was safe from Don John&mdash;not even vermin. The king was then
+fifteen, and, according to Spanish law, of age. But he never
+became a man in body or mind. The personages who ruled in
+his name arranged a marriage for him with Maria Louisa of
+Orleans. The French princess, a lively young woman of no
+sense, died in the stifling atmosphere of the Spanish court, and
+from the attendance of Spanish doctors. Again his advisers
+arranged a marriage with Maria Ana of Neuburg. The Bavarian
+wife stood the strain and survived him. Both marriages were
+merely political&mdash;the first a victory for the French, and the
+second for the Austrian party. France and Austria were alike
+preparing for the day when the Spanish succession would have
+to be fought for. The king was a mere puppet in the hands of
+each alternately. By natural instinct he hated the French, but
+there was no room in his nearly imbecile mind for more than
+childish superstition, insane pride of birth, and an interest in
+court etiquette. The only touch of manhood was a taste for
+shooting which he occasionally indulged in the preserves of the
+Escorial. In his later days he suffered much pain, and was driven
+wild by the conflict between his wish to transmit his inheritance
+to &ldquo;the illustrious house of Austria,&rdquo; his own kin, and the belief
+instilled into him by the partisans of the French claimant that
+only the power of Louis XIV. could avert the dismemberment
+of the empire. A silly fanatic made the discovery that the king
+was bewitched, and his confessor Froilan Diaz supported the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page926" id="page926"></a>926</span>
+belief. The king was exorcised, and the exorcists of the kingdom
+were called upon to put stringent questions to the devils
+they cast out. The Inquisition interfered, and the dying king
+was driven mad among them. Very near his end he had the
+lugubrious curiosity to cause the coffins of his embalmed ancestors
+to be opened at the Escorial. The sight of the body of
+his first wife, at whom he also insisted on looking, provoked a
+passion of tears and despair. Under severe pressure from the
+cardinal archbishop of Toledo, Portocarrero, he finally made a
+will in favour of Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.,
+and died on the 1st of November 1700, after a lifetime of senile
+decay.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best picture of Charles II. is to be found in <i>Les Mémoires de la
+tour d&rsquo;Espagne</i> of the Marquis de Villars (London, 1861), and the
+<i>Letters</i> of the Marquise de Villars (Paris, 1868).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1716-1788), king of Spain, born on the 20th
+January 1716, was the first son of the second marriage of Philip
+V. with Elizabeth Farnese of Parma. It was his good fortune
+to be sent to rule as duke of Parma by right of his mother at the
+age of sixteen, and thus came under more intelligent influence
+than he could have found in Spain. In 1734 he made himself
+master of Naples and Sicily by arms. Charles had, however, no
+military tastes, seldom wore uniform, and could with difficulty
+be persuaded to witness a review. The peremptory action of
+the British admiral commanding in the Mediterranean at the
+approach of the War of the Austrian Succession, who forced
+him to promise to observe neutrality under a threat to bombard
+Naples, made a deep impression on his mind. It gave him a
+feeling of hostility to England which in after-times influenced
+his policy.</p>
+
+<p>As king of the Two Sicilies Charles began there the work
+of internal reform which he afterwards continued in Spain.
+Foreign ministers who dealt with him agreed that he had no great
+natural ability, but he was honestly desirous to do his duty as
+king, and he showed good judgment in his choice of ministers.
+The chief minister in Naples, Tanucci, had a considerable influence
+over him. On the death of his half-brother Ferdinand VI.
+he became king of Spain, and resigned the Two Sicilies to his
+third son Ferdinand. As king of Spain his foreign policy was
+disastrous. His strong family feeling and his detestation of
+England, which was unchecked after the death of his wife, Maria
+Amelia, daughter of Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, led him
+into the Family Compact with France. Spain was entangled in
+the close of the Seven Years&rsquo; War, to her great loss. In 1770 he
+almost ran into another war over the barren Falkland Islands.
+In 1779 he was, somewhat reluctantly, led to join France and
+the American insurgents against England, though he well knew
+that the independence of the English colonies must have a
+ruinous influence on his own American dominions. For his army
+he did practically nothing, and for his fleet very little except
+build fine ships without taking measures to train officers and
+men.</p>
+
+<p>But his internal government was on the whole beneficial to the
+country. He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give
+up emptying their slops out of the windows, and when they
+objected he said they were like children who cried when their
+faces were washed. In 1766 his attempt to force the Madrileños
+to adopt the French dress led to a riot during which he did not
+display much personal courage. For a long time after it he
+remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands
+of his minister Aranda. All his reforms were not of this formal
+kind. Charles was a thorough despot of the benevolent order,
+and had been deeply offended by the real or suspected share of
+the Jesuits in the riot of 1766. He therefore consented to the
+expulsion of the order, and was then the main advocate for its
+suppression. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and the recollection
+of some disputes with the pope he had had when king of Naples,
+turned him towards a general policy of restriction of the overgrown
+power of the church. The number of the idle clergy, and
+more particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the
+Inquisition, though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the
+meantime much antiquated legislation which tended to restrict
+trade and industry was abolished; roads, canals and drainage
+works were carried out. Many of his paternal ventures led to
+little more than waste of money, or the creation of hotbeds of
+jobbery. Yet on the whole the country prospered. The result
+was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised
+did at least work steadily at his task of government. His
+example was not without effect on some at least of the nobles.
+In his domestic life King Charles was regular, and was a considerate
+master, though he had a somewhat caustic tongue
+and took a rather cynical view of mankind. He was passionately
+fond of hunting. During his later years he had some trouble
+with his eldest son and his daughter-in-law. If Charles had lived
+to see the beginning of the French Revolution he would probably
+have been frightened into reaction. As he died on the 14th of
+December 1788 he left the reputation of a philanthropic and
+&ldquo;philosophic&rdquo; king. In spite of his hostility to the Jesuits, his
+dislike of friars in general, and his jealousy of the Inquisition,
+he was a very sincere Roman Catholic, and showed much zeal in
+endeavouring to persuade the pope to proclaim the Immaculate
+Conception as a dogma necessary to salvation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Reign of Charles III.</i>, by M. Danvila y Collado (6 vols.),
+in the <i>Historia General de España de la Real Academia de la Historia
+</i> (Madrid, 1892, &amp;c.); and F. Rousseau, <i>Règne de Charles III
+d&rsquo;Espagne</i> (Paris, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1748-1819), king of Spain, second son of Charles
+III. and his wife Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born at Portici
+on the 11th of November 1748, while his father was king of the
+Two Sicilies. The elder brother was set aside as imbecile and
+epileptic. Charles had inherited a great frame and immense
+physical strength from the Saxon line of his mother. When
+young he was fond of wrestling with the strongest countrymen
+he could find. In character he was not malignant, but he was
+intellectually torpid, and of a credulity which almost passes
+belief. His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, his first cousin, a
+thoroughly coarse and vicious woman, ruled him completely,
+though he was capable of obstinacy at times. During his father&rsquo;s
+lifetime he was led by her into court intrigues which aimed
+at driving the king&rsquo;s favourite minister, Floridablanca, from
+office, and replacing him by Aranda, the chief of the &ldquo;Aragonese&rdquo;
+party. After he succeeded to the throne in 1788 his one serious
+occupation was hunting. Affairs were left to be directed by his
+wife and her lover Godoy (<i>q.v.</i>). For Godoy the king had an
+unaffected liking, and the lifelong favour he showed him is almost
+pathetic. When terrified by the French Revolution he turned
+to the Inquisition to help him against the party which would have
+carried the reforming policy of Charles III. much further. But
+he was too slothful to have more than a passive part in the
+direction of his own government. He simply obeyed the impulse
+given him by the queen and Godoy. If he ever knew his wife&rsquo;s
+real character he thought it more consistent with his dignity
+to shut his eyes. For he had a profound belief in his divine right
+and the sanctity of his person. If he understood that his kingdom
+was treated as a mere dependence by France, he also thought
+it due to his &ldquo;face&rdquo; to make believe that he was a powerful
+monarch. Royalty never wore a more silly aspect than in the
+person of Charles IV., and it is highly credible that he never
+knew what his wife was, or what was the position of his kingdom.
+When he was told that his son Ferdinand was appealing to the
+emperor Napoleon against Godoy, he took the side of the favourite.
+When the populace rose at Aranjuez in 1808 he abdicated to save
+the minister. He took refuge in France, and when he and
+Ferdinand were both prisoners of Napoleon&rsquo;s, he was with
+difficulty restrained from assaulting his son. Then he abdicated
+in favour of Napoleon, handing over his people like a herd of
+cattle. He accepted a pension from the French emperor and
+spent the rest of his life between his wife and Godoy. He died
+at Rome on the 20th of January 1819, probably without having
+once suspected that he had done anything unbecoming a king
+by divine right and a gentleman.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV.</i>, by General Gomez de
+Arteche (3 vols.), in the <i>Historia General de España de la Real
+Academia de la Historia</i> (Madrid, 1892, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page927" id="page927"></a>927</span> </p>
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IX.<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1550-1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest
+son of Gustavus Vasa and Margareto Lejonhufrud. By his
+father&rsquo;s will he got, by way of appanage, the duchy of Södermanland,
+which included the provinces of Neriké and Vermland;
+but he did not come into actual possession of them till after the
+fall of Eric XIV. (1569). In 1568 he was the real leader of the
+rebellion against Eric, but took no part in the designs of his
+brother John against the unhappy king after his deposition.
+Indeed, Charles&rsquo;s relations with John III. were always more or
+less strained. He had no sympathy with John&rsquo;s high-church
+tendencies on the one hand, and he sturdily resisted all the king&rsquo;s
+endeavours to restrict his authority as duke of Södermanland
+(Sudermania) on the other. The nobility and the majority of
+the <i>Riksdag</i> supported John, however, in his endeavours to unify
+the realm, and Charles had consequently (1587) to resign his
+pretensions to autonomy within his duchy; but, fanatical
+Calvinist as he was, on the religious question he was immovable.
+The matter came to a crisis on the death of John III. (1592).
+The heir to the throne was John&rsquo;s eldest son, Sigismund, already
+king of Poland and a devoted Catholic. The fear lest Sigismund
+might re-catholicize the land alarmed the Protestant majority
+in Sweden, and Charles came forward as their champion, and also
+as the defender of the Vasa dynasty against foreign interference.
+It was due entirely to him that Sigismund was forced to confirm
+the resolutions of the council of Upsala, thereby recognizing
+the fact that Sweden was essentially a Protestant state (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). In the ensuing years Charles&rsquo;s task was
+extraordinarily difficult. He had steadily to oppose Sigismund&rsquo;s
+reactionary tendencies; he had also to curb the nobility, which
+he did with cruel rigour. Necessity compelled him to work
+rather with the people than the gentry; hence it was that the
+<i>Riksdag</i> assumed under his government a power and an importance
+which it had never possessed before. In 1595 the
+<i>Riksdag</i> of Söderköping elected Charles regent, and his attempt
+to force Klas Flemming, governor of Finland, to submit to his
+authority, rather than to that of the king, provoked a civil war.
+Technically Charles was, without doubt, guilty of high treason,
+and the considerable minority of all classes which adhered to
+Sigismund on his landing in Sweden in 1598 indisputably behaved
+like loyal subjects. But Sigismund was both an alien and a
+heretic to the majority of the Swedish nation, and his formal
+deposition by the <i>Riksdag</i> in 1599 was, in effect, a natural vindication
+and legitimation of Charles&rsquo;s position. Finally, the diet of
+Linköping (Feb. 24, 1600) declared that Sigismund and his
+posterity had forfeited the Swedish throne, and, passing over
+duke John, the second son of John III., a youth of ten, recognized
+duke Charles as their sovereign under the title of Charles IX.</p>
+
+<p>Charles&rsquo;s short reign was an uninterrupted warfare. The hostility
+of Poland and the break up of Russia involved him in two
+overseas contests for the possession of Livonia and Ingria,
+while his pretensions to Lapland brought upon him a war with
+Denmark in the last year of his reign. In all these struggles
+he was more or less unsuccessful, owing partly to the fact that
+he had to do with superior generals (<i>e.g.</i> Chodkiewicz and
+Christian IV.) and partly to sheer ill-luck. Compared with his
+foreign policy, the domestic policy of Charles IX. was comparatively
+unimportant. It aimed at confirming and supplementing
+what had already been done during his regency. Not
+till the 6th of March 1604, after Duke John had formally
+renounced his rights to the throne, did Charles IX. begin to style
+himself king. The first deed in which the title appears is dated
+the 20th of March 1604; but he was not crowned till the 15th of
+March 1607. Four and a half years later Charles IX. died at
+Nyköping (Oct. 30, 1611). As a ruler he is the link between
+his great father and his still greater son. He consolidated the
+work of Gustavus Vasa, the creation of a great Protestant state:
+he prepared the way for the erection of the Protestant empire
+of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish historians have been excusably
+indulgent to the father of their greatest ruler. Indisputably
+Charles was cruel, ungenerous and vindictive; yet he seems,
+at all hazards, strenuously to have endeavoured to do his duty
+during a period of political and religious transition, and, despite
+his violence and brutality, possessed many of the qualities of a
+wise and courageous statesman. By his first wife Marie, daughter
+of the elector palatine Louis VI., he had six children, of whom
+only one daughter, Catherine, survived; by his second wife,
+Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp,
+he had five children, including Gustavus Adolphus and Charles
+Philip, duke of Finland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i>, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1878); Robert Nisbet
+Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905), caps. 5-7.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES X.<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Gustavus</span>] (1622-1660), king of
+Sweden, son of John Casimir, count palatine of Zweibrücken,
+and Catherine, sister of Gustavus Adolphus, was born at Nyköping
+Castle on the 8th of November 1622. He learnt the art of
+war under the great Lennart Torstensson, being present at the
+second battle of Breitenfeld and at Jankowitz. From 1646
+to 1648 he frequented the Swedish court. It was supposed that
+he would marry the queen regnant, Christina, but her unsurmountable
+objection to wedlock put an end to these anticipations,
+and to compensate her cousin for a broken half-promise she
+declared him (1649) her successor, despite the opposition of the
+senate headed by the venerable Axel Oxenstjerna. In 1648 he
+was appointed generalissimo of the Swedish forces in Germany.
+The conclusion of the treaties of Westphalia prevented him from
+winning the military laurels he so ardently desired, but as the
+Swedish plenipotentiary at the executive congress of Nuremberg,
+he had unrivalled opportunities of learning diplomacy, in which
+science he speedily became a past-master. As the recognized
+heir to the throne, his position on his return to Sweden was not
+without danger, for the growing discontent with the queen
+turned the eyes of thousands to him as a possible deliverer.
+He therefore withdrew to the isle of Öland till the abdication of
+Christina (June 5, 1654) called him to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of his reign was devoted to the healing of
+domestic discords, and the rallying of all the forces of the nation
+round his standard for a new policy of conquest. He contracted
+a political marriage (Oct. 24, 1654) with Hedwig Leonora, the
+daughter of Frederick III., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by way of
+securing a future ally against Denmark. The two great pressing
+national questions, war and the restitution of the alienated crown
+lands, were duly considered at the <i>Riksdag</i> which assembled
+at Stockholm in March 1655. The war question was decided in
+three days by a secret committee presided over by the king, who
+easily persuaded the delegates that a war with Poland was
+necessary and might prove very advantageous; but the consideration
+of the question of the subsidies due to the crown
+for military purposes was postponed to the following <i>Riksdag</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>). On the 10th of July Charles quitted
+Sweden to engage in his Polish adventure. By the time war was
+declared he had at his disposal 50,000 men and 50 warships.
+Hostilities had already begun with the occupation of Dünaburg
+(Dvinsk) in Polish Livonia by the Swedes (July 1, 1655), and
+the Polish army encamped among the marshes of the Netze
+concluded a convention (July 25) whereby the palatinates of
+Posen and Kalisz placed themselves under the protection of the
+Swedish king. Thereupon the Swedes entered Warsaw without
+opposition and occupied the whole of Great Poland. The Polish
+king, John Casimir, fled to Silesia. Meanwhile Charles pressed
+on towards Cracow, which was captured after a two months&rsquo;
+siege. The fall of Cracow extinguished the last hope of the
+boldest Pole; but before the end of the year an extraordinary
+reaction began in Poland itself. On the 18th of October the
+Swedes invested the fortress-monastery of Czenstochowa, but
+the place was heroically defended; and after a seventy days&rsquo;
+siege the besiegers were compelled to retire with great loss.</p>
+
+<p>This astounding success elicited an outburst of popular
+enthusiasm which gave the war a national and religious character.
+The tactlessness of Charles, the rapacity of his generals, the
+barbarity of his mercenaries, his refusal to legalize his position
+by summoning the Polish diet, his negotiations for the partition
+of the very state he affected to befriend, awoke the long slumbering
+public spirit of the country. In the beginning of 1656 John
+Casimir returned from exile and the Polish army was reorganized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page928" id="page928"></a>928</span>
+and increased. By this time Charles had discovered that it
+was easier to defeat the Poles than to conquer Poland. His
+chief object, the conquest of Prussia, was still unaccomplished,
+and a new foe arose in the elector of Brandenburg, alarmed by
+the ambition of the Swedish king. Charles forced the elector,
+indeed, at the point of the sword to become his ally and
+vassal (treaty of Königsberg, Jan. 17, 1656); but the Polish
+national rising now imperatively demanded his presence in the
+south. For weeks he scoured the interminable snow-covered
+plains of Poland in pursuit of the Polish guerillas, penetrating
+as far south as Jaroslau in Galicia, by which time he had lost
+two-thirds of his 15,000 men with no apparent result. His
+retreat from Jaroslau to Warsaw, with the fragments of his host,
+amidst three converging armies, in a marshy forest region,
+intersected in every direction by well-guarded rivers, was one
+of his most brilliant achievements. But his necessities were
+overwhelming. On the 21st of June Warsaw was retaken by
+the Poles, and four days later Charles was obliged to purchase
+the assistance of Frederick William by the treaty of Marienburg.
+On July 18-20 the combined Swedes and Brandenburgers,
+18,000 strong, after a three days&rsquo; battle, defeated John Casimir&rsquo;s
+army of 100,000 at Warsaw and reoccupied the Polish capital;
+but this brilliant feat of arms was altogether useless, and when
+the suspicious attitude of Frederick William compelled the
+Swedish king at last to open negotiations with the Poles, they
+refused the terms offered, the war was resumed, and Charles
+concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with the elector
+of Brandenburg (treaty of Labiau, Nov. 20) whereby it was
+agreed that Frederick William and his heirs should henceforth
+possess the full sovereignty of East Prussia.</p>
+
+<p>This was an essential modification of Charles&rsquo;s Baltic policy;
+but the alliance of the elector had now become indispensable
+on almost any terms. So serious, indeed, were the difficulties
+of Charles X. in Poland that it was with extreme satisfaction
+that he received the tidings of the Danish declaration of war
+(June 1, 1657). The hostile action of Denmark enabled him
+honourably to emerge from the inglorious Polish imbroglio, and
+he was certain of the zealous support of his own people. He had
+learnt from Torstensson that Denmark was most vulnerable
+if attacked from the south, and, imitating the strategy of his
+master, he fell upon her with a velocity which paralysed resistance.
+At the end of June 1657, at the head of 8000 seasoned
+veterans, he broke up from Bromberg in Prussia and reached
+the borders of Holstein on the 18th of July. The Danish army
+at once dispersed and the duchy of Bremen was recovered by
+the Swedes, who in the early autumn swarmed over Jutland and
+firmly established themselves in the duchies. But the fortress
+of Fredriksodde (Fredericia) held Charles&rsquo;s little army at bay
+from mid-August to mid-October, while the fleet of Denmark,
+after a stubborn two days&rsquo; battle, compelled the Swedish fleet
+to abandon its projected attack on the Danish islands. The
+position of the Swedish king had now become critical. In July
+an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Denmark
+and Poland. Still more ominously, the elector of Brandenburg,
+perceiving Sweden to be in difficulties, joined the league
+against her and compelled Charles to accept the proffered
+mediation of Cromwell and Mazarin. The negotiations foundered,
+however, upon the refusal of Sweden to refer the points in
+dispute to a general peace-congress, and Charles was still further
+encouraged by the capture of Fredriksodde (Oct. 23-24),
+whereupon he began to make preparations for conveying his
+troops over to Fünen in transport vessels. But soon another
+and cheaper expedient presented itself. In the middle of
+December 1657 began the great frost which was to be so fatal
+to Denmark. In a few weeks the cold had grown so intense that
+even the freezing of an arm of the sea with so rapid a current as
+the Little Belt became a conceivable possibility; and henceforth
+meteorological observations formed an essential part of
+the strategy of the Swedes. On the 28th of January 1658,
+Charles X. arrived at Haderslev (Hadersleben) in South Jutland,
+when it was estimated that in a couple of days the ice of the
+Little Belt would be firm enough to bear even the passage of a
+mail-clad host. The cold during the night of the 29th of January
+was most severe; and early in the morning of the 30th the
+Swedish king gave the order to start, the horsemen dismounting
+where the ice was weakest, and cautiously leading their horses
+as far apart as possible, when they swung into their saddles
+again, closed their ranks and made a dash for the shore. The
+Danish troops lining the opposite coast were quickly overpowered,
+and the whole of Fünen was won with the loss of only
+two companies of cavalry, which disappeared under the ice
+while fighting with the Danish left wing. Pursuing his irresistible
+march, Charles X., with his eyes fixed steadily on Copenhagen,
+resolved to cross the frozen Great Belt also. After some hesitation,
+he accepted the advice of his chief engineer officer Eric
+Dahlberg, who acted as pioneer throughout and chose the more
+circuitous route from Svendborg, by the islands of Langeland,
+Laaland and Falster, in preference to the direct route from
+Nyborg to Korsör, which would have been across a broad,
+almost uninterrupted expanse of ice. Yet this second adventure
+was not embarked upon without much anxious consideration.
+A council of war, which met at two o&rsquo;clock in the morning to
+consider the practicability of Dahlberg&rsquo;s proposal, at once
+dismissed it as criminally hazardous. Even the king wavered
+for an instant; but, Dahlberg persisting in his opinion, Charles
+overruled the objections of the commanders. On the night of
+the 5th of February the transit began, the cavalry leading the
+way through the snow-covered ice, which quickly thawed
+beneath the horses&rsquo; hoofs so that the infantry which followed
+after had to wade through half an ell of sludge, fearing every
+moment lest the rotting ice should break beneath their feet.
+At three o&rsquo;clock in the afternoon, Dahlberg leading the way,
+the army reached Grimsted in Laaland without losing a man
+On the 8th of February Charles reached Falster. On the 11th
+he stood safely on the soil of Sjaelland (Zealand). Not without
+reason did the medal struck to commemorate &ldquo;the glorious
+transit of the Baltic Sea&rdquo; bear the haughty inscription: <i>Natura
+hoc debuit uni.</i> An exploit unique in history had been achieved.
+The crushing effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
+Danish government found expression in the treaties of Taastrup
+(Feb. 18) and Roskilde (Feb. 26, 1658), whereby Denmark
+sacrificed nearly half her territory to save the rest (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But even this was not enough for the
+conqueror. Military ambition and greed of conquest moved
+Charles X. to what, divested of all its pomp and circumstance,
+was an outrageous act of political brigandage. At a council held
+at Gottorp (July 7), Charles X. resolved to wipe from the map
+of Europe an inconvenient rival, and without any warning, in
+defiance of all international equity, let loose his veterans upon
+Denmark a second time. For the details of this second struggle,
+with the concomitant diplomatic intervention of the western
+powers, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>. Only
+after great hesitation would Charles X. consent to reopen
+negotiations with Denmark direct, at the same time proposing
+to exercise pressure upon the enemy by a simultaneous winter
+campaign in Norway. Such an enterprise necessitated fresh
+subsidies from his already impoverished people, and obliged
+him in December 1659 to cross over to Sweden to meet the
+estates, whom he had summoned to Gothenburg. The lower
+estates murmured at the imposition of fresh burdens; and
+Charles had need of all his adroitness to persuade them that his
+demands were reasonable and necessary. At the very beginning
+of the <i>Riksdag</i>, in January 1660, it was noticed that the king
+was ill; but he spared himself as little in the council-chamber
+as in the battle-field, till death suddenly overtook him on the
+night of the 13th of February 1660, in his thirty-eighth year.
+The abrupt cessation of such an inexhaustible fount of enterprise
+and energy was a distinct loss to Sweden; and signs are not
+wanting that, in his latter years, Charles had begun to feel the
+need and value of repose. Had he lived long enough to overcome
+his martial ardour, and develop and organize the empire he
+helped to create, Sweden might perhaps have remained a great
+power to this day. Even so she owes her natural frontiers in
+the Scandinavian peninsula to Charles X.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page929" id="page929"></a>929</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881);
+Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885); E. Haumant, <i>La Guerre du
+nord et la paix d&rsquo;Oliva</i> (Paris, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia
+</i>(Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, <i>The Diplomatic Relations
+between Cromwell and Charles X.</i> (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XI.<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of
+Charles X., and Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born
+in the palace at Stockholm, on the 24th of November 1655.
+His father, who died when the child was in his fourth year,
+left the care of his education to the regents whom he had appointed.
+So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when,
+at the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority,
+he was ignorant of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost
+illiterate.    Yet those nearest to him had great hopes of him.
+He was known to be truthful, upright and God-fearing; if he
+had neglected his studies it was to devote himself to manly
+sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his favourite pastime,
+bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most splendid
+courage.    It was the general disaster produced by the speculative
+policy of his former guardians which first called forth his sterling
+qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood.    With
+indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the
+difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle
+with sloth,  corruption and incompetence.    Amidst universal
+anarchy, the young king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced,
+ill-served, snatching at every expedient, worked day
+and night in his newly-formed camp in Scania (Skåne) to arm
+the nation for its mortal struggle.    The victory of Fyllebro
+(Aug.   17,   1676),  when  Charles and his commander-in-chief
+S.G. Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam
+of good luck, and on the 4th of December, on the tableland
+of Helgonabäck, near Lund, the young Swedish monarch defeated
+Christian V. of Denmark, who also commanded his army in
+person.    After a ferocious contest, the Danes were practically
+annihilated.    The battle of Lund was, relatively to the number
+engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times.
+More than half the combatants  (8357, of whom 3000 were
+Swedes) actually perished on the battle-field.    All the Swedish
+commanders showed remarkable ability, but the chief glory
+of the day indisputably belongs to Charles XI. This great victory
+restored to the Swedes their self-confidence and prestige.    In
+the following year, Charles with 9000 men routed 12,000 Danes
+near Malmõ (July 15, 1678).    This proved to be the last pitched
+battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to attack
+their once more invincible enemy in the open field.    In 1679 Louis
+XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI,
+who bitterly resented &ldquo;the insufferable tutelage&rdquo; of the French
+king, was forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least
+left his empire practically intact.    Charles devoted the rest of his
+life to the gigantic task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a
+<i>reduktion</i>, or recovery of alienated crown lands, a process which
+involved the examination of every title deed in the kingdom,
+and resulted in the complete readjustment of the finances.
+But vast as it was, the <i>reduktion</i> represents only a tithe of Charles
+XI.&rsquo;s immense activity.   The constructive part of his administration
+was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial.    Here,
+too, everything was due to his personal initiative.    Finance,
+commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial
+procedure, church government, education, even art and science&mdash;everything,
+in short&mdash;emerged recast from his shaping hand.
+Charles XI. died on the 5th of April 1697, in his forty-first year.
+By his beloved consort Ulrica Leonora of Denmark, from the
+shock of whose death in July 1693 he never recovered, he had
+seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son Charles,
+and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and
+Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the
+Swedish throne.    After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus
+Charles XI. was, perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden.
+His modest, homespun figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by
+the brilliant and colossal shapes of his heroic father and his
+meteoric son; yet in reality Charles XI. is far worthier of
+admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII.   He was in
+an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden
+in ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations
+of a new order of things which, in its essential features,
+has endured to the present day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881);
+Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885);
+Robert Nisbet Bain, <i>Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905);
+O. Sjõgren, <i>Karl den Elfte och Svenska Folket</i> (Stockholm, 1897);
+S. Jacobsen, <i>Den nordiske Kriegs Krönicke, 1675-1679</i> (Copenhagen, 1897);
+J.A. de Mesmes d&rsquo;Avaux, <i>Négociations du comte d&rsquo;Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698</i>
+(Utrecht, 1882, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XII.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1682-1718), king of Sweden, the only surviving
+son of Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III.
+of Denmark, was born on the 17th of June 1682. He was carefully
+educated by excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his
+parents. His natural parts were excellent; and a strong bias
+in the direction of abstract thought, and mathematics in particular,
+was noticeable at an early date. His memory was astonishing.
+He could translate Latin into Swedish or German, or Swedish
+or German into Latin at sight. Charles XI. personally supervised
+his son&rsquo;s physical training. He was taught to ride before he was
+four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only
+eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew
+older his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops,
+inspecting studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the
+lad was gradually initiated into all the <i>minutiae</i> of administration.
+The influence of Charles XI. over his son was, indeed, far greater
+than is commonly supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles
+XII.&rsquo;s character which is otherwise inexplicable, for instance
+his precocious reserve and taciturnity, his dislike of everything
+French, and his inordinate contempt for purely diplomatic
+methods. On the whole, his early training was admirable; but
+the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of gradually
+gaining experience under his guardians. At the <i>Riksdag</i> assembled
+at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of the
+regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate
+acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared
+that he could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and
+would take over the government of the realm &ldquo;in God&rsquo;s name.&rdquo;
+The subsequent coronation was marked by portentous novelties,
+the most significant of which was the king&rsquo;s omission to take
+the usual coronation oath, which omission was interpreted to
+mean that he considered himself under no obligation to his
+subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however,
+still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict
+principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to countenance
+torture as an instrument of judicial investigation, on the
+ground that &ldquo;confessions so extorted give no sure criteria for
+forming a judgment,&rdquo; showed him to be more humane as well
+as more enlightened than the majority of his council, which had
+defended the contrary opinion. His intense application to affairs
+is noted by the English minister, John Robinson (1650-1723),
+who informed his court that there was every prospect of a happy
+reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did
+not injure his health by too much work.</p>
+
+<p>The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold
+Patkul, which resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War
+(1699), abruptly put an end to Charles XII.&rsquo;s political apprenticeship,
+and forced into his hand the sword he was never again to
+relinquish. The young king resolved to attack the nearest
+of his three enemies&mdash;Denmark&mdash;first. The timidity of the
+Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlõve, and the daring of Charles,
+who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the
+passage of the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous
+<i>flinterend</i>, hitherto reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the
+Swedish king to effect a landing at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand),
+a few miles north of Copenhagen (Aug. 4, 1700). He now
+hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty years before,
+had vainly attempted&mdash;the destruction of the Danish-Norwegian
+monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once prudential
+considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war
+was terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page930" id="page930"></a>930</span>
+Frederick IV. conceded full sovereignty to Charles&rsquo;s ally and
+kinsman the duke of Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity
+of 200,000 rix-dollars and solemnly engaging to commit no
+hostilities against Sweden in future. From Sjaelland Charles
+now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th of October
+he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving Riga,
+but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn
+northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13th
+of November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared
+the effect on untried troops of a week&rsquo;s march through a wasted
+land, along boggy roads guarded by no fewer than three formidable
+passes which a little engineering skill could easily have
+made impregnable. Fortunately, the two first passes were
+unoccupied; and the third, Pyhäjoggi, was captured by Charles,
+who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight.
+On the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a
+village about 9 m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach
+to the beleaguered fortress, and early on the following morning
+it advanced in battle array. The attack on the Russian fortified
+camp began at two o&rsquo;clock in the afternoon, in the midst of a
+violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the whole position was in
+the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was annihilated.
+The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost Charles
+less than 2000 men.</p>
+
+<p>After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His
+best advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-stricken
+Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them
+and live at their expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering
+discontent caused by the reforms of Peter the Great, and so
+disable Russia for some time to come. But Charles&rsquo;s determination
+promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus prevailed
+over every other consideration. It is easy from the vantage-point
+of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting
+the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the
+18th century his decision was natural enough. The real question
+was, which of the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles
+had many reasons to think the civilized and martial Saxons far
+more formidable than the imbecile Muscovites. Charles also
+rightly felt that he could never trust the treacherous Augustus
+to remain quiet, even if he made peace with him. To leave
+such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of Russia
+would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view
+Charles&rsquo;s whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long
+and so loudly&mdash;the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the
+Polish throne&mdash;takes quite another complexion: it was a policy
+not of overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.</p>
+
+<p>First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July
+1701), subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and
+converting it into a Swedish governor-generalship. In January
+1702 Charles established himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and,
+after issuing a proclamation declaring that &ldquo;the elector of
+Saxony&rdquo; had forfeited the Polish crown, set out for Warsaw,
+which he reached on the 14th of May. The cardinal-primate
+was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for the
+purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted
+Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the
+combined Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later,
+captured the fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous
+audacity. Thus, within four months of the opening of the
+campaign, the Polish capital and the coronation city were both
+in the possession of the Swedes. After Klissow, Augustus made
+every effort to put an end to the war, but Charles would not even
+consider his offers. By this time, too, he had conceived a passion
+for the perils and adventures of warfare. His character was
+hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous
+expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views.
+Such commands as &ldquo;ravage, singe, and burn all about, and
+reduce the whole district to a wilderness!&rdquo;  &ldquo;sweat contributions
+well out of them!&rdquo; &ldquo;rather let the innocent suffer than
+the guilty escape!&rdquo; became painfully frequent in the mouth
+of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being
+naturally cruel.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles&rsquo;s victory
+at Pultusk (April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied
+him eight months but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of
+July 1704, with the assistance of a bribing fund, Charles&rsquo;s
+ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard Horn, succeeded
+in forcing through the election of Charles&rsquo;s candidate to the
+Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned
+however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the
+Saxons had again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn
+of 1705 to the spring of 1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing
+the Russian auxiliary army under Ogilvie through the forests
+of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he recrossed the Vistula
+and established himself in Saxony, where his presence in the
+heart of Europe, at the very crisis of the war of the Spanish
+Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies,
+in particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought
+the Swedes. Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague
+to the castle of Altranstädt near Leipzig, where Charles had
+fixed his headquarters, &ldquo;to endeavour to penetrate the designs&rdquo;
+of the king of Sweden. He soon convinced himself that western
+Europe had nothing to fear from Charles, and that no bribes
+were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany to
+Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was
+forced to sign the peace of Altranstädt, whereby he resigned the
+Polish throne and renounced every anti-Swedish alliance.
+Charles&rsquo;s departure from Saxony was delayed for twelve months
+by a quarrel with the emperor. The court of Vienna had treated
+the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity, in direct
+contravention of the treaty of Osnabrück, of which Sweden was
+one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and
+complete restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared
+for war. But the allies interfered in Charles&rsquo;s favour, lest he
+might be tempted to aid France, and induced the emperor to
+satisfy all the Swedish king&rsquo;s demands, the maritime Powers
+at the same time agreeing to guarantee the provisions of the
+peace of Altranstädt.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious
+arms against the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he
+evacuated Saxony at the head of the largest host he ever commanded,
+consisting of 24,000 horse and 20,000 foot. Delayed
+during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy arrival of
+reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707
+that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year&rsquo;s Day
+1708 he crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous
+condition. On the 4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the
+Russian army, 6 m. long, which barred his progress on the Wabis,
+near Holowczyn, and compelled it to retreat. The victory of
+Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last pitched battle won
+by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper. The
+Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder
+running short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured
+bullocks. The Russians slowly retired before the invader,
+burning and destroying everything in his path. On the 20th of
+December it was plain to Charles himself that Moscow was
+inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was intolerable to him,
+so he determined to march southwards instead of northwards
+as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those of the
+hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had
+100,000 horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal.
+Short of falling back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable
+in the circumstances, but it was rendered abortive by Peter&rsquo;s
+destruction of Mazepa&rsquo;s capital Baturin, so that when Mazepa
+joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of November 1708, it was as a
+ruined man with little more than 1300 personal attendants (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mazepa-Koledinsky</a></span>). A still more serious blow was the
+destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to
+Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of
+loaded wagons, was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at
+Lyesna after a two days&rsquo; battle against fourfold odds (October).
+The very elements now began to fight against the perishing but
+still unconquered host. The winter of 1708 was the severest
+that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of November
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page931" id="page931"></a>931</span>
+firewood would not ignite in the open air, and the soldiers
+warmed themselves over big bonfires of straw. By the time the
+army reached the little Ukrainian fortress of Hadjacz in January
+1709, wine and spirits froze into solid masses of ice; birds on
+the wing fell dead; saliva congealed on its passage from the
+mouth to the ground. &ldquo;Nevertheless,&rdquo; says an eye-witness,
+&ldquo;though earth, sea and sky were against us, the king&rsquo;s orders
+had to be obeyed and the daily march made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Never had Charles XII. seemed so superhuman as during
+these awful days. It is not too much to say that his imperturbable
+equanimity, his serene <i>bonhomie</i> kept the host together.
+The frost broke at the end of February 1709, and then the spring
+floods put an end to all active operations till May, when Charles
+began the siege of the fortress of Poltava, which he wished to
+make a base for subsequent operations while awaiting reinforcements
+from Sweden and Poland. On the 7th of June a bullet
+wound put Charles <i>hors de combat</i>, whereupon Peter threw the
+greater part of his forces over the river Vorskla, which separated
+the two armies (June 19-25). On the 26th of June Charles held
+a council of war, at which it was resolved to attack the Russians
+in their entrenchments on the following day. The Swedes
+joyfully accepted the chances of battle and, advancing with
+irresistible <i>élan</i>, were, at first, successful on both wings.
+Then one or two tactical blunders were committed; and the tsar,
+taking courage, enveloped the little band in a vast semicircle
+bristling with the most modern guns, which fired five times to
+the Swedes&rsquo; once, and swept away the guards before they
+could draw their swords. The Swedish infantry was well nigh
+annihilated, while the 14,000 cavalry, exhausted and demoralized,
+surrendered two days later at Perevolochna on Dnieper. Charles
+himself with 1500 horsemen took refuge in Turkish territory.</p>
+
+<p>For the first time in his life Charles was now obliged to have
+recourse to diplomacy; and his pen proved almost as formidable
+as his sword. He procured the dismissal of four Russo-phil
+grand-viziers in succession, and between 1710 and 1712 induced
+the Porte to declare war against the tsar three times. But after
+November 1712 the Porte had no more money to spare; and,
+the tsar making a show of submission, the sultan began to regard
+Charles as a troublesome guest. On the 1st of February 1713
+he was attacked by the Turks in his camp at Bender, and made
+prisoner after a contest which reads more like an extravagant
+episode from some heroic folk-tale than an incident of sober
+18th-century history. Charles lingered on in Turkey fifteen
+months longer, in the hope of obtaining a cavalry escort
+sufficiently strong to enable him to restore his credit in Poland.
+Disappointed of this last hope, and moved by the despairing
+appeals of his sister Ulrica and the senate to return to Sweden
+while there was still a Sweden to return to, he quitted Demotika
+on the 20th of September 1714, and attended by a single squire
+arrived unexpectedly at midnight, on the 11th of November,
+at Stralsund, which, excepting Wismar, was now all that remained
+to him on German soil.</p>
+
+<p>For the diplomatic events of these critical years see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>. Here it need only be said that Sweden, during the
+course of the Great Northern War, had innumerable opportunities
+of obtaining an honourable and even advantageous peace, but
+they all foundered oh the dogged refusal of Charles to consent
+to the smallest concession to his despoilers. Even now he would
+listen to no offers of compromise, and after defending Stralsund
+with desperate courage till it was a mere rubbish heap, returned
+to Sweden after an absence of 14 years. Here he collected
+another army of 20,000 men, with which he so strongly entrenched
+himself on the Scanian coast in 1716 that his combined enemies
+shrank from attacking him, whereupon he assumed the offensive
+by attacking Norway in 1717, and again in 1718, in order to
+conquer sufficient territory to enable him to extort better terms
+from his enemies. It was during this second adventure that he
+met his death. On the 11th of December, when the Swedish
+approaches had come within 280 paces of the fortress of Fredriksten,
+which the Swedes were closely besieging, Charles looked
+over the parapet of the foremost trench, and was shot through
+the head by a bullet from the fortress.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Charles XII., <i>Die eigenhändigen Briefe König Karls XII.</i>
+(Berlin, 1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, <i>Sveriges Historia under
+Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset</i> (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert
+Nisbet Bain, <i>Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire</i>
+(London and Oxford, 1895); <i>Bidrag til den Store Nordishe Krigs
+Historie</i> (Copenhagen, 1899-1900); G. Syveton, <i>Louis XIV et
+Charles XII</i> (Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, <i>Historia ablegationis
+D. Krmann ad regem Sueciae Carolum XII.</i> (Budapest, 1894);
+Oscar II., <i>Några bidrag till Sveriges Krigshistoria åren 1711-1713</i>
+(Stockholm, 1892); Martin Weibull, <i>Sveriges Storhedstid</i> (Stockholm,
+1881).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XIII.<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway,
+the second son of Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and
+Louisa Ulrica, sister of Frederick the Great, was born at Stockholm
+on the 7th of October 1748. In 1772 he co-operated in the
+revolutionary plans of his brother Gustavus III. (<i>q.v.</i>). On the
+outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788 he served with
+distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the battles of
+Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the
+latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the
+unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral
+Liljehorn. On the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke
+of Sudermania, acted as regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real
+ruler of the country was the narrow-minded and vindictive
+Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (<i>q.v.</i>), whose mischievous influence
+over him was supreme. These four years were perhaps the most
+miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of lead
+succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be
+briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and
+ruthless despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November
+1796), the duke became a mere cipher in politics till the 13th of
+March 1809, when those who had dethroned Gustavus IV.
+appointed him regent, and finally elected him king. But by this
+time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Charles
+XIV.</a></span>) took over the government as soon as he landed in Sweden
+(1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of
+Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth
+Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), but their only child,
+Carl Adolf, duke of Vermland, died in infancy (1798). Charles
+XIII., who for eight years had been king only in title, died on
+the 5th of February 1818.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Sveriges Historia</i> vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884); <i>Drottning Hedwig
+Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar</i> (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet
+Bain, <i>Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries</i> (London, 1895);
+<i>ib. Scandinavia</i> (Cambridge, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XIV.<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1763-1844), king of Sweden and Norway,
+born at Pau on the 26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri
+Bernadotte (1711-1780), procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean
+(1725-1809). The family name was originally Deu Pouey,
+but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning of the 17th
+century. Bernadotte&rsquo;s christian names were Jean Baptiste;
+he added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French
+army on the 3rd of September 1780, and first saw service in
+Corsica. On the outbreak of the Revolution his eminent military
+qualities brought him speedy promotion. In 1794 we find him
+as brigadier attached to the army of the Sambre et Meuse, and
+after Jourdan&rsquo;s victory at Fleurus he was appointed a general
+of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he contributed,
+more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the French
+army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles.
+In 1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+army in Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the
+Tagliamento, and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna,
+but was compelled to quit his post owing to the disturbances
+caused by his hoisting the tricolor over the embassy. On the
+16th of August 1798 he married Désirée Clary (1777-1860),
+the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September
+he was war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability.
+About this time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he
+declined to help Napoleon in the preparations for the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>
+of November 1799, he accepted employment from the Consulate,
+and from April 1800 till the 18th of August 1801 commanded
+the army in La Vendée. On the introduction of the empire he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page932" id="page932"></a>932</span>
+was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and, from
+June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the
+recently-occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte
+with an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great
+movement which resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm.
+He was rewarded for his services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805)
+by the principality of Ponte Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the
+campaign against Prussia, the same year, was severely reproached
+by Napoleon for not participating with his army corps in the
+battles of Jena and Auerstädt, though close at hand. In 1808,
+as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the
+expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan
+came to nought because of the want of transports and the
+defection of the Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria,
+Bernadotte led the Saxon contingent at the battle of Wagram,
+on which occasion, on his own initiative he issued an order of
+the day, attributing the victory principally to the valour of his
+Saxons, which Napoleon at once disavowed.</p>
+
+<p>Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris,
+where the council of ministers entrusted him with the defence
+of the Netherlands against the English. In 1810 he was about
+to enter upon his new post of governor of Rome when he was,
+unexpectedly, elected successor to the Swedish throne, partly
+because a large part of the Swedish army, in view of future
+complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a soldier,
+and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden,
+owing to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners
+during the late war with Denmark. The matter was decided
+by one of the Swedish couriers, Baron Karl Otto Mörner,
+who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the succession to
+the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated
+Mörner&rsquo;s offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an
+absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Mörner that he
+would not refuse the honour if he were duly elected. Although
+the Swedish government, amazed at Mörner&rsquo;s effrontery, at once
+placed him under arrest on his return to Sweden, the candidature
+of Bernadotte gradually gained favour there, and, on the 21st
+of August 1810, he was elected crown-prince.</p>
+
+<p>On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry
+into Stockholm, and on the 5th he received the homage of the
+estates and was adopted by Charles XIII. under the name of
+Charles John. The new crown-prince was very soon the most
+popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The infirmity
+of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state placed
+the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs,
+entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the
+acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous
+ways (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>), and made him a very tricky ally
+during the struggle with Napoleon in 1813. Great Britain and
+Prussia very properly insisted that Charles John&rsquo;s first duty
+was to them, the former power rigorously protesting against
+the expenditure of her subsidies on the nefarious Norwegian
+adventure before the common enemy had been crushed. After
+the defeats of Lützen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-prince
+who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference
+of Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign
+which began after the expiration of the truce of Pläswitz.
+Though undoubtedly sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just
+displeasure of the allies, Charles John, as commander-in-chief
+of the northern army, successfully defended the approaches to
+Berlin against Oudinot in August and against Ney in September;
+but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at all
+hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events
+which led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sweden</a></span>: <i>History</i>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Norway</a></span>: <i>History</i>. As unional king, Charles XIV.
+(who succeeded to that title in 1818 on the death of Charles XIII.)
+was popular in both countries. Though his ultra-conservative
+views were detested, and as far as possible opposed (especially
+after 1823), his dynasty was never in serious danger, and Swedes
+and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch with a European
+reputation. It is true that the <i>Riksdag</i> of 1840 meditated
+compelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his jubilee
+was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at
+Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of
+uninterrupted peace, and the great material development of the
+two kingdoms during the first half of the 19th century was
+largely due to his energy and foresight.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.E. Sars, <i>Norges politiske historia</i> (Christiania, 1899);
+Yngvar Nielsen, <i>Carl Johan som han virkelig var</i> (Christiania, 1897);
+Johan Almén, <i>Ätten Bernadotte</i> (Stockholm, 1893);
+C. Schefer, <i>Bernadotte roi</i> (Paris, 1899); G.R. Lagerhjelm,
+<i>Napoleon och Carl Johan under Kriget i Tyskland, 1813</i>
+(Stockholm, 1891).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES XV.<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway,
+eldest son of Oscar I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine
+Beauharnais of Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826.
+On the 19th of June 1850 he married Louisa, daughter of Prince
+Frederick of the Netherlands. He became regent on the 25th
+of September 1857, and king on the death of his father (8th of
+July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles&rsquo;s brusque and downright
+manners had led many to regard his future accession with some
+apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of
+Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense
+of the word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and
+far-reaching reforms. Sweden&rsquo;s existing communal law (1862),
+ecclesiastical law (1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted
+appropriately enough under the direction of a king whose motto
+was: &ldquo;Build up the land upon the laws!&rdquo; Charles XV. also
+materially assisted De Geer (<i>q.v.</i>) to carry through his memorable
+reform of the constitution in 1863. Charles was a warm advocate
+of &ldquo;Scandinavianism&rdquo; and the political solidarity of the three
+northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII.,
+it is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on
+the eve of the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were
+perhaps misleading and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the
+unpreparedness of the Swedish army and the difficulties of the
+situation, Charles was forced to observe a strict neutrality.
+He died at Malmö on the 18th of September 1872. Charles XV.
+was highly gifted in many directions. He attained to some
+eminence as a painter, and his <i>Digte</i> show him to have been
+a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina
+Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of Denmark.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg, <i>Carl XV., som enskild man, konung
+och konstnär</i> (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, <i>Det norske og
+svenske Kongehus fra 1818</i> (Christiania, 1883).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (c. 1319-1364), duke of Brittany, known as
+<span class="sc">Charles of Blois</span> and <span class="sc">Charles of Châtillon</span>, was the son of
+Guy of Châtillon, count of Blois (d. 1342), and of Marguerite of
+Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In 1337 he married Jeanne
+of Penthièvre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of Brittany, count of
+Penthièvre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the succession
+of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of
+Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-l&rsquo;Amaury,
+and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed
+the succession. Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI.,
+captured John of Montfort, who was supported by King Edward III.
+at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of Flanders at Hennebont,
+and took Quimper and Guérande (1344). But next year his
+partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was
+himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was
+not liberated until 1356, when he continued the war against the
+young John of Montfort, and perished in the battle of Auray, on
+the 29th of September 1364. Charles bore a high reputation for
+piety, and was believed to have performed miracles. The
+Roman Church has canonized him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Siméon Luce, <i>Histoire de Bertrand du Gueselin el de son
+époque</i> (Paris, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> called <span class="sc">The Bold</span> (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy,
+son of Philip the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was
+born at Dijon on the 10th of November 1433. In his father&rsquo;s
+lifetime he bore the title of count of Charolais. He was brought
+up under the direction of the seigneur d&rsquo;Auxy, and early showed
+great application to study and also to warlike exercises. Although
+he was on familiar terms with the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.),
+when the latter was a refugee at the court of Burgundy, he could
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page933" id="page933"></a>933</span>
+not but view with chagrin the repurchase by the king of France
+of the towns on the Somme, which had been temporarily ceded
+to Philip the Good by the treaty of Arras; and when his father&rsquo;s
+failing health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of
+government (which Philip abandoned to him completely by an
+act of the 12th of April 1465), he entered upon his lifelong
+struggle against Louis XI., and became one of the principal
+leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant bravery
+at the battle of Montlhéry (16th of July 1465), where he was
+wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the
+king from re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive
+victory. He succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the
+treaty of Conflans (1466), by which the king restored to him
+the towns on the Somme, and promised him the hand of his infant
+daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry. In the meanwhile
+the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of Ponthieu.
+The revolt of Liége and Dinant intervened to divert his attention
+from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles
+took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and
+succeeded in treating at the same time with the Liégeois. After
+the death of Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Liégeois
+renewed hostilities, but Charles defeated them at St Trond, and
+made a victorious entry into Liége, which he dismantled and
+deprived of some of its privileges.</p>
+
+<p>Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and
+anxious to settle various questions relating to the execution of
+the treaty of Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles
+and placed himself in his hands at Péronne. In the course of the
+negotiations the duke was informed of a fresh revolt of the
+Liégeois secretly fomented by Louis. After deliberating for four
+days how to deal with his adversary, who had thus maladroitly
+placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect
+the parole he had given and to treat with Louis (October 1468),
+at the same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt.
+The town was carried by assault and the inhabitants were
+massacred, Louis not having the courage to intervene on behalf
+of his ancient allies. At the expiry of the one year&rsquo;s truce which
+followed the treaty of Péronne, the king accused Charles of
+treason, cited him to appear before the parlement, and seized
+some of the towns on the Somme (1471). The duke retaliated by
+invading France with a large army, taking possession of Nesle
+and massacring its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an
+attack on Beauvais, and had to content himself with ravaging
+the country as far as Rouen, eventually retiring without having
+attained any useful result.</p>
+
+<p>Other matters, moreover, engaged his attention. Relinquishing,
+if not the stately magnificence, at least the gay and
+wasteful profusion which had characterized the court of Burgundy
+under the preceding duke, he had bent all his efforts
+towards the development of his military and political power.
+Since the beginning of his reign he had employed himself in
+reorganizing his army and the administration of his territories.
+While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he had endeavoured
+to establish a system of rigid discipline among his
+troops, which he had strengthened by taking into his pay
+foreign mercenaries, particularly Englishmen and Italians, and by
+developing his artillery. Furthermore, he had lost no opportunity
+of extending his power. In 1469 the archduke of Austria,
+Sigismund, had sold him the county of Ferrette, and the landgraviate
+of Alsace and some other towns, reserving to himself the
+right to repurchase. In 1472-1473 Charles bought the reversion
+of the duchy of Gelderland from its old duke, Arnold, whom
+he had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content
+with being &ldquo;the grand duke of the West,&rdquo; he conceived the
+project of forming a kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself
+as independent sovereign, and even persuaded the emperor
+Frederick to assent to crown him king at Trier. The ceremony,
+however, did not take place owing to the emperor&rsquo;s precipitate
+flight by night (September 1473), occasioned by his displeasure
+at the duke&rsquo;s attitude. In the following year Charles involved
+himself in a series of difficulties and struggles which ultimately
+brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively
+with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his
+possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss,
+who supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against
+the tyranny of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who
+was condemned and executed by the rebels in May 1474); and
+finally, with René of Lorraine, with whom he disputed the
+succession of Lorraine, the possession of which had united the
+two principal portions of Charles&rsquo;s territories&mdash;Flanders and the
+duchy and county of Burgundy. All these enemies, incited
+and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in joining
+forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first
+rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop
+of Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months
+(July 1474-June 1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the
+Rhine, but was compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial
+army to raise the siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded
+his brother-in-law, Edward IV. of England, to undertake
+against Louis was stopped by the treaty of Picquigny (29th of
+August 1475). He was more successful in Lorraine, where he
+seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he marched
+against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson
+in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was
+attacked before Granson by the confederate army and suffered
+a shamful defeat, being compelled to fly with a handful of
+attendants, and leaving his artillery and an immense booty
+in the hands of the allies (February 1476). He succeeded in
+raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he attacked
+Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted
+by the cavalry of René of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the
+6th of October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by
+René. Making a last effort, Charles formed a new army and
+arrived in the depth of winter before the walls of Nancy. Having
+lost many of his troops through the severe cold, it was with only
+a few thousand men that he met the joint forces of the Lorrainers
+and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of the town (6th of
+January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his mutilated
+body being discovered some days afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last representative
+of the feudal spirit&mdash;a man who possessed no other
+quality than a blind bravery&mdash;and accordingly has often been
+contrasted with his rival Louis XI. as representing modern
+politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide knowledge and
+culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals; and
+although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he
+had the secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never
+refused him their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice
+married&mdash;to Catherine (d, 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of
+France, by whom he had one daughter, Mary, afterwards the
+wife of the Emperor Maximilian I.; to Isabella (d. 1465), daughter
+of Charles I., duke of Bourbon; and to Margaret of York, sister
+of Edward IV. of England, whom he married in 1468.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold
+are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of
+the latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of
+the <i>Mémoires</i> of Philippe de Comines, and of the <i>Mémoires</i> and other
+writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources
+de l&rsquo;histoire de France,</i> tome iv. (1904), and the compendious bibliography
+in U. Chevalier&rsquo;s <i>Répertoire des sources historiques,</i> part iii.
+(1904). <i>Charles the Bold,</i> by J.F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a good English
+biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam&rsquo;s <i>Charles
+the Bold</i> (1908). For a general sketch of the relations between France
+and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France,</i> tome iv.
+(1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Po.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> called <span class="sc">The Good</span> (le Bon), or <span class="sc">The Dane</span> (c. 1084-1127),
+count of Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV.,
+king of Denmark, by Adela, daughter of Robert the Frisian,
+count of Flanders, was born about 1084. After the assassination
+of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in Flanders, taking
+with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother and
+grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great
+services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII.,
+counts of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle
+in 1119, and, having no issue, left by will the succession to
+his countship to Charles the Dane. Charles did not secure his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page934" id="page934"></a>934</span>
+heritage without a civil war, but he was speedily victorious and
+made his position secure by treating his opponents with great
+clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the welfare
+of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of
+Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He
+well deserved the surname of <i>Le Bon</i>, by which he is known to
+posterity. He refused the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on
+the death of Baldwin, and declined to be nominated as a
+candidate for the imperial crown in succession to the emperor
+Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St Donat at
+Bruges on the 2nd of March 1127.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Perneel, <i>Histoire du règne de Charles le Bon, précedé d&rsquo;un
+résumé de l&rsquo;histoire de Flandres</i> (Brussels, 1830).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES I.<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a
+younger son of the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently
+a member of the Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the
+duchy of Burgundy owing to the opposition of his brother, King
+Lothair, he went to the court of his maternal uncle, the emperor
+Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977 received from the emperor
+Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His authority in Lorraine
+was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle with Lothair,
+and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort to secure
+the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful
+candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes
+and had captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously
+seized by Adalberon, bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh.
+Imprisoned with his wife and children at Orleans, Charles did
+not long survive his humiliation. His eldest son Otto, duke of
+Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (d. 1431), duke of Lorraine, called <span class="sc">The Bold</span>,
+is sometimes referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I.,
+he succeeded his father in 1390; but he neglected his duchy
+and passed his life in warfare. He died on the 25th of January
+1431, leaving two daughters, one of whom, Isabella (d. 1453),
+married René I. of Anjou (1409-1450), king of Naples, who
+succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES III.<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> or <span class="bold">II.</span> (1543-1608), called <span class="sc">The Great</span>, duke of
+Lorraine, was a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a
+descendant of René of Anjou. He was only an infant when he
+became duke, and was brought up at the court of Henry II. of
+France, marrying Henry&rsquo;s daughter Claude in 1559. He took
+part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the
+League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises,
+although he was a possible candidate for the French crown in
+1589. The duke, who was an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died
+at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608. He had three sons: Henry
+(d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in turn dukes of
+Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and Strassburg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES IV.<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> or <span class="bold">III.</span> (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a
+son of Duke Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604.
+He became duke on the abdication of his father in 1624, and
+obtained the duchy of Bar through his marriage with his cousin
+Nicole (d. 1657), daughter of Duke Henry. Mixing in the tortuous
+politics of his time, he was in continual conflict with the crown
+of France, and spent much of his time in assisting her enemies
+and in losing and regaining his duchies (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lorraine</a></span>). He lived
+an adventurous life, and in the intervals between his several
+struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II. at
+Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in
+England; and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia
+in 1648 entered the service of Spain. He died on the 18th of
+September 1675, leaving by his second wife, Beatrix de Cusance
+(d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count of Vaudemont (1642-1723).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES V.<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="bold">IV.</span> (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew
+of Duke Charles IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in
+1664 received a colonelcy in the emperor&rsquo;s army. In the same
+year he fought with distinction at the battle of St Gotthard, in
+which he captured a standard from the Turks. He was a candidate
+for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In 1670 the
+emperor made him general of horse, and during the following
+years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks
+and subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was
+wounded. In the same year he was again a candidate for the
+Polish crown, but was unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to
+be associated with him in his greatest feat of arms, being elected.
+In 1675, on the death of Charles IV., he rode with a cavalry corps
+into the duchy of Lorraine, then occupied by the French, and
+secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops to himself; a little
+after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of the imperial
+army on the Rhine, and was made a field marshal. The chief
+success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg,
+after a long and arduous siege. The war continued without
+decisive result for some time, and the fate of the duchy, which
+was still occupied by the French, was the subject of endless
+diplomacy. At the general peace Charles had to accept the hard
+conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he never entered into
+effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he married the
+widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for
+nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish
+invasion of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose
+their will on Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the
+head of a weak imperial army the duke offered the best resistance
+he could to the advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had
+to fall back, contesting every position, and the Turks finally
+invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683). At this critical moment
+other powers came to the assistance of Austria, reinforcements
+poured into Charles&rsquo;s camp, and John Sobieski, king of Poland,
+brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over
+80,000 men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning
+of the 12th of September they moved forward to the attack.
+By nightfall the Turks were in complete disorder, Vienna was
+relieved, and the danger was at an end. Soon the victors took
+the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom of Hungary.
+The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles
+continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen
+(Buda) resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of
+1685 Neuhaüsel was taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now
+reinforced by German auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen.
+All attempts to relieve the place were repulsed, and Ofen was
+stormed on the 2nd of September. In the following campaign
+the Austrians won a decisive victory on the famous battle-ground
+of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took the field
+on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of
+his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign,
+but Charles in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly
+at Wels on the 18th of April 1690.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-1729), at the peace of
+Ryswick in 1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had
+been dispossessed by France, and was the father of Francis
+Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who became the husband of Maria
+Theresa (<i>q.v.</i>), and of Charles (Karl Alexander), a distinguished
+Austrian commander in the wars with Frederick the Great.
+The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to Stanislaus Leczynski,
+the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis receiving instead
+the grand-duchy of Tuscany.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES II.<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Louis de Bourbon</span>] (1799-1883),
+duke of Parma, succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess
+of Lucca, as duke of Lucca in 1824. He introduced economy
+into the administration, increased the schools, and in 1832 as
+a reaction against the bigotry of the priests and monks with
+which his mother had surrounded him, he became a Protestant.
+He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the
+Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected
+of being a Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities
+soon made him the laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned
+to the Catholic Church and made Thomas Ward, an English
+groom, his prime minister, a man not without ability and tact.
+Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal ideas, and in 1847
+declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by Pius IX.
+The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised
+them by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the
+duke, in spite of the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions.
+A few weeks later he retired to Modena, selling his life-interest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page935" id="page935"></a>935</span>
+in the duchy to Tuscany. On the 17th of October Maria Louisa
+of Austria, duchess of Parma, died, and Charles Louis succeeded
+to her throne by the terms of the Florence treaty, assuming the
+style of Charles II. His administration of Parma was characterized
+by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased taxation,
+and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
+Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there
+were riots in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his
+readiness to throw in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and
+Leopold of Tuscany, repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised
+a constitution. Then he again changed his mind, abdicated in
+April, and left Parma in the hands of a provisional government,
+whereupon the people voted for union with Piedmont. After
+the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August 1848)
+the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II.
+issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the
+provisional government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again
+in 1849, Parma was evacuated, but reoccupied by General
+d&rsquo;Aspre in April.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was
+succeeded by his son <span class="sc">Charles III.</span> (1823-1854), who, protected
+by Austrian troops, placed Parma under martial law, inflicted
+heavy penalties on the members of the late provisional government,
+closed the university, and instituted a regular policy of
+persecution. A violent ruler, a drunkard and a libertine, he was
+assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death his
+widow Maria Louisa, sister of the comte de Chambord, became
+regent, during the minority of his son Robert. The duchess
+introduced some sort of order into the administration, seemed
+inclined to rule more mildly and dismissed some of her husband&rsquo;s
+more obnoxious ministers, but the riots of the Mazzinians in
+July 1854 were repressed with ruthless severity, and the rest
+of her reign was characterized by political trials, executions
+and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists replied with
+assassinations.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Massei, <i>Storia civile di Lucca</i>, vol. ii. (Lucca, 1878);
+Anon., <i>Y Borboni di Parma ... del 1847 al 1859</i> (Parma, 1860);
+N. Bianchi, <i>Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia</i> (Turin, 1865, &amp;c.);
+C. Tivaroni, <i>L&rsquo;Italia sotto il dominio austriaco</i>, ii. 96-101,
+i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and <i>L&rsquo;Italia degli Italiani</i>, i. 126-143 (Turin,
+1895) by the same; S. Lottici and G. Sitti, <i>Bibliografia generale per
+la storia parmense</i> (Parma, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl Ludwig</span>] (1771-1847), archduke of Austria
+and duke of Teschen, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was
+born at Florence (his father being then grand-duke of Tuscany)
+on the 5th of September 1771. His youth was spent in Tuscany,
+at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his
+career of military service in the war of the French Revolution.
+He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the campaign of
+1793 distinguished himself at the action of Aldenhoven and the
+battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became <i>Statthalter</i> in
+Belgium and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal,
+which promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister.
+In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high
+commands, and he was present at Fleurus. In 1795 he served
+on the Rhine, and in the following year was entrusted with the
+chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct
+of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked
+him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At
+first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally
+marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau; falling
+upon Jourdan he beat him in the battles of Amberg and Würzburg,
+and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then
+turned upon Moreau&rsquo;s army, which he defeated and forced out
+of Germany. For this campaign, one of the most brilliant in
+modern history, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>. In 1797
+he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte
+in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched
+Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he
+was once more opposed to Jourdan, whom he defeated in the
+battles of Osterach and Stokach, following up his success by
+invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna in the (first)
+battle of Zürich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove
+the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however,
+forced him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to
+undertake the task of checking Moreau&rsquo;s advance on Vienna.
+The result of the battle of Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed
+the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice
+of Steyer. His popularity was now such that the diet of
+Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his
+honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but
+Charles refused both distinctions.</p>
+
+<p>In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles
+commanded what was intended to be the main army, in Italy,
+but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations,
+and the defeats sustained on the Danube neutralized the success
+obtained by the archduke over Masséna in the desperately fought
+battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace began his active
+work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field
+in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field
+marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War,
+and supported by the prestige of being the only general who
+had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated
+a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete
+methods of the 18th century, the chief characteristics of the
+new order being the adoption of the &ldquo;nation in arms&rdquo; principle
+and of the French war organization and tactics. The new army
+was surprised in the process of transition by the war of 1809, in
+which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved a far
+more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now
+heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic
+Campaigns</a></span>) it succumbed only after a desperate struggle.
+Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg,
+Landshut and Eckmühl; but, after the evacuation of
+Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of Aspern-Essling
+(<i>q.v.</i>) and soon afterwards fought the still more desperate battle
+of Wagram (<i>q.v.</i>), at the close of which the Austrians were defeated
+but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss
+of over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign
+the archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent
+the rest of his life in retirement, except a short time in 1815,
+when he was governor of Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the
+duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke Charles married, in 1815,
+Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d. 1829). He had four
+sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (<i>q.v.</i>) became one
+of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters,
+the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna
+on the 30th of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected
+to his memory in Vienna, 1860.</p>
+
+<p>The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his
+strategical works, he displayed in practice only when the situation
+seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced
+him in favour of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same
+time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive
+strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether
+in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or
+in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to
+that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only excepted. The
+campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained
+defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical
+superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the
+condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks&rsquo;
+inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable
+criticism. As a military writer, his position in the
+evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines
+had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless they cannot
+but be considered as antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the
+importance of &ldquo;strategic points&rdquo; are the chief features of his
+system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be
+gathered from the prescription that &ldquo;this principle is <i>never</i> to
+be departed from.&rdquo; Again and again he repeats the advice that
+nothing should be hazarded unless one&rsquo;s army is <i>completely</i> secure,
+a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in
+1796. &ldquo;Strategic points,&rdquo; he says (not the defeat of the enemy&rsquo;s
+army), &ldquo;decide the fate of one&rsquo;s own country, and must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page936" id="page936"></a>936</span>
+constantly remain the general&rsquo;s main solicitude&rdquo;&mdash;a maxim which
+was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809.
+The editor of the archduke&rsquo;s work is able to make but a feeble
+defence against Clausewitz&rsquo;s reproach that Charles attached
+more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In
+his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve
+in battle is designed to &ldquo;cover a retreat.&rdquo; The baneful influence
+of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance
+of Königgrätz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a &ldquo;strategic point,&rdquo;
+which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian
+armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign
+of 1859, and in the &ldquo;almost unintelligible&rdquo; battle of
+Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of
+the archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in
+military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed,
+along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made
+him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the
+archduke William in the <i>Ausgewahlte Schriften weiland Sr. K.
+Hoheit Erzh. Carl v. Österreich</i> (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and
+Leipzig), which includes the <i>Grundsatze der Kriegskunst für die
+Generale</i> (1806), <i>Grundsatze der Strategie erlautert durch die Darstellung
+des Feldzugs 1796</i> (1814), <i>Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799</i> (1819)&mdash;the
+two latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and
+papers &ldquo;on the higher art of war,&rdquo; &ldquo;on practical training in the
+field,&rdquo; &amp;c. See, besides the histories of the period, C. von
+B(inder)-K(rieglstein), <i>Geist und Stoff im Kriege</i> (Vienna, 1895); Caemmerer,
+<i>Development of Strategical Science</i> (English transl.), ch. iv.; M. Edler
+v. Angeli, <i>Erzherzog Carl v. Österr.</i> (Vienna and Leipzig, 1896);
+Duller, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i> (Vienna, 1845); Schneidawind, <i>Karl,
+Erzherzog v. Österr. und die österr. Armee</i> (Vienna, 1840); <i>Das Buch
+vom Erzh. Carl</i> (1848); Thielen, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i> (1858);
+Wolf, <i>Erzh. Carl</i> (1860); H. von Zeissberg, <i>Erzh. Karl v. Österr.</i>
+(Vienna, 1895); M. von Angeli, <i>Erzh. Karl als Feldherr und Organisator</i>
+(Vienna, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (1525-1574), cardinal of Lorraine, French statesman,
+was the second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise,
+and brother of Francis, duke of Guise. He was archbishop of
+Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547. At first he was called the
+cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death of his uncle John,
+cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style of cardinal of
+Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he was,
+like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples.
+He had, said Brantôme, &ldquo;a soul exceeding smirched,&rdquo; and, he
+adds, &ldquo;by nature he was exceeding craven.&rdquo; Together with
+his brother, Duke Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-powerful
+during the reigns of Henry II. and Francis II.; in
+1558 and 1559 he was one of the negotiators of the treaty of
+Cateau-Cambrésis; he fought and pitilessly persecuted the
+reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke the
+crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived
+him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the
+Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was
+commissioned to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1562 he went to the
+council of Trent, where he at first defended the rights of the
+Gallican Church against the pretensions of the pope; but after
+the assassination of his brother, he approached the court of
+Rome, and on his return to France he endeavoured, but without
+success, to obtain the promulgation of the decrees of the council
+(1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up arms, he held
+for some time the first place in the king&rsquo;s council, but Catherine
+de&rsquo; Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he had
+to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by
+negotiating at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry
+of Navarre with Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th
+of December 1574, at the beginning of the reign of Henry III.
+An orator of talent, he left several harangues or sermons, among
+them being <i>Oraison prononcée au Colloque de Poissy</i> (Paris, 1562)
+and <i>Oratio habita in Concil. Trident.</i> (<i>Concil. Trident. Orationes</i>,
+Louvain, 1567).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliothèque
+Nationale, Paris. See also René de Bouillé, <i>Histoire des ducs de
+Guise</i> (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, <i>Les Guises et leur époque</i> (Paris,
+1877); Guillemin, <i>Le Cardinal de Lorraine</i> (1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl Alexander</span>] (1712-1780), prince of Lorraine,
+was the youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and
+grandson of Charles V., duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous
+general. He was born at Lunéville on the 12th of December
+1712, and educated for a military career. After his elder brother
+Francis, the duke, had exchanged Lorraine for Tuscany and
+married Maria Theresa, Charles became an Austrian officer,
+and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738 against the
+Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Austrian Succession, War of the</a></span>), the queen made her
+brother-in-law a field marshal, though he was not yet thirty
+years old, and in 1742 Charles encountered Frederick the Great
+for the first time at the battle of Chotusitz (May 17th). The
+victory of the Prussians on that field was far from decisive, and
+Charles drew off his forces in good order. His conduct of the
+successful campaign of 1743 against the French and Bavarians
+heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744,
+Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them
+jointly governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very
+soon the war broke out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the
+Austrian army on the Rhine, won great renown by his brilliant
+crossing of the Rhine. Once more a Lorraine prince at the head
+of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and drove the French
+before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the Silesian
+war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and the
+French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to
+Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field
+marshal Traun, he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close
+of his victorious campaign he received the news that his wife,
+to whom he was deeply attached, had died in childbirth on the
+16th of December 1744 at Brussels. He took the field again in
+1745 in Silesia, but this time without the advice of Traun, and
+he was twice severely defeated by Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg
+and at Soor. Subsequently, as commander-in-chief in the Low
+Countries he received, at Roucoux, a heavy defeat at the hands
+of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian Netherlands
+during the peace of 1749-1756 was marked by many reforms,
+and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless
+activity on their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War (<i>q.v.</i>), Maria Theresa called Charles again to the
+supreme command in the field. The campaign of 1757 opened
+with Frederick&rsquo;s great victory of Prague, and Prince Charles was
+shut up with his army in that fortress. In the victory of the
+relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part. Nevertheless
+the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a
+defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him,
+and great enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory,
+which seemed to be the final blow to Frederick. But soon afterwards
+the king of Prussia routed the French at Rossbach, and,
+swiftly returning to Silesia, he inflicted on Charles the complete
+and crushing defeat of Leuthen (December 5, 1757). A mere
+remnant of the Austrian army reassembled after the pursuit,
+and Charles was relieved of his command. He received, however,
+from the hands of the empress the grand cross, of the newly
+founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince
+Charles acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned
+to Brussels, where, during the remainder of his life, he continued
+to govern in the same liberal spirit as before. The affection of
+the people for the prince was displayed during his dangerous
+illness in 1765, and in 1775 the estates of Brabant erected a
+statue in his honour at Brussels. He died on the 4th of July
+1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried with his Lorraine
+ancestors at Nancy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> (1270-1325), count of Valois, of Maine, and of
+Anjou, third son of Philip III., king of France, surnamed the
+Bold, and of Isabella of Aragon, was born on the 12th of March
+1270. By his father&rsquo;s will he inherited the four lordships of
+Crépy, La Ferté-Milon, Pierrefonds and Béthisy, which together
+formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin IV., having
+excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that
+kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place
+his son on this throne, and died on the return of the expedition.
+In 1290 Charles married Margaret, daughter of Charles II.,
+king of Naples, and renounced his pretensions to Aragon. In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page937" id="page937"></a>937</span>
+1294, at the beginning of the hostilities against England, he
+invaded Guienne and took La Réole and Saint-Sever. During
+the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Béthune and Dam,
+received the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King
+Philip IV., the Fair, to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pévèle, on the
+18th of August 1304. Asked by Boniface VIII. for his aid
+against the Ghibellines, he crossed the Alps in June 1301, entered
+Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame, king of Sicily, to
+reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of Aragon, but
+was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife
+Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay, a granddaughter of
+Baldwin II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried
+to assert his rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished
+to get him elected emperor; but Clement V. quashed his candidature
+in favour of Henry of Luxemburg, afterwards the
+emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles headed the party
+of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed the
+ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV.,
+the Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at
+Perray (Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His
+second wife had died in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married
+a third wife, Mahaut de Châtillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip,
+his eldest son, ascended the French throne in 1328, and from
+him sprang the royal house of Valois.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Joseph Petit, <i>Charles de Valois</i> (Paris, 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called
+Charles IV. king of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards
+John II., king of Aragon, by his marriage with Blanche, daughter
+and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre. Both his grandfather
+Charles and his mother, who ruled over Navarre from 1425
+to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose right
+had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche
+died in 1441 her husband John seized the government to the
+exclusion of his son. The ill-feeling between father and son
+was increased when in 1447 John took for his second wife Joanna
+Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who soon bore him a son,
+afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who regarded her
+stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in
+the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452
+Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated
+and taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the
+kingly title until after his father&rsquo;s death, the prince, again
+unsuccessful in an appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with
+Alphonso V., king of Aragon, Naples and Sicily. In 1458
+Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon, while Charles
+was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined these
+proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned
+to Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess,
+he was then thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans
+rose in his favour. This insurrection soon became general and
+John was obliged to yield. He released his son, and recognized
+him as perpetual governor of Catalonia, and heir to the kingdom.
+Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of September 1461, the
+prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion that he had
+been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and
+amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated
+the <i>Ethics</i> of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at
+Saragossa in 1509, and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre,
+<i>Crónica de los reyes de Navarra</i>, an edition which, edited by
+J. Yangues y Miranda, was published at Pampeluna in 1843.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, <i>Anales del reyno de Navarra</i>,
+tome iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M.J. Quintana, <i>Vidas de españoles
+célebres</i> (Paris, 1827); and G. Desdevises du Dézert, <i>Carlos d&rsquo;Aragon</i>
+(Paris, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, ELIZABETH<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (1828-1896), English author, was
+born at Tavistock on the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of
+John Rundle, M.P. Some of her youthful poems won the praise
+of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript. In 1851 she married
+Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written to order
+for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, <i>The
+Chronicles of the Schönberg-Cotta Family</i>, was published in 1862,
+and was translated into most of the European languages, into
+Arabic, and into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all
+some fifty books, the majority of a semi-religious character.
+She took an active part in the work of various charitable institutions,
+and among her friends and correspondents were Dean
+Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley, Jowett and Pusey.
+She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CÉSAR<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (1746-1823),
+French mathematician and physicist, was born at Beaugency,
+Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746. After spending some
+years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he turned to scientific
+pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by his skilful and
+elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was the
+first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aeronautics</a></span>), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac&rsquo;s
+law of the dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account
+is sometimes known by his name. In 1785 he was elected to
+the Academy of Sciences, and subsequently he became professor
+of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. He died in
+Paris on the 7th of April 1823. His published papers are chiefly
+concerned with mathematical topics.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES, THOMAS<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (1755-1814), Welsh Nonconformist
+divine, was born of humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish
+of Llanfihangel Abercywyn, near St Clears, Carmarthenshire,
+on the 14th of October 1755. He was educated for the Anglican
+ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at Jesus College,
+Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the
+evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon
+in 1778 on the title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and
+Sparkford, Somerset; and took priest&rsquo;s orders in 1780. He
+afterwards added to his charge at Sparkford, Lovington, South
+Barrow and North Barrow, and in September 1782 was presented
+to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev. John
+Hughes, Coln St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though
+the contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his
+curacies in June 1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on
+August 20th) Sarah Jones of Bala, the orphan of a flourishing
+shopkeeper. He had early fallen under the influence of the
+great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of seventeen
+had been &ldquo;converted&rdquo; by a sermon of Daniel Rowland&rsquo;s. This
+was enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh
+clergy, and being denied the privilege of preaching for nothing
+at two churches, he helped his old Oxford friend John Mayor,
+now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire, from October until January
+11th, 1784. On the 25th of January he took charge of Llan yn
+Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to continue
+there more than three months. Three influential people, among
+them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners
+against him, and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His
+preaching, his catechizing of the children after evensong, and
+his connexion with the Bala Methodists&mdash;his wife&rsquo;s step-father
+being a Methodist preacher&mdash;gave great offence. After a fortnight
+more at Shawbury, he wrote to John Newton and another
+clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of England
+denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services.
+His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late.
+By September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his
+rector at Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying
+him on a tour in Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching
+at the Bont Uchel Association; so that he joined the Methodists
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calvinistic Methodists</a></span>) in 1784.</p>
+
+<p>Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced
+leisure to gather the poor children of Bala into his house for instruction,
+and so thickly did they come that he had to adjourn
+with them to the chapel. This was the origin of the Welsh
+Circulating Schools, which he developed on the lines adopted by
+Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of Llanddowror. First
+one man was trained for the work by himself, then he was sent
+to a district for six months, where, (for £8 a year) he taught gratis
+the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and
+Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses
+were met by collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist
+Societies, and as the funds increased masters were multiplied,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page938" id="page938"></a>938</span>
+until in 1786 Charles had seven masters to whom he paid £10 per
+annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789, fifteen; in 1794, twenty.
+By this time the salary had been increased to £12; in 1801 it was
+£14. He had learnt of Raikes&rsquo;s Sunday Schools before he left
+the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on
+foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same,
+he gave six days&rsquo; tuition for every one given by them, and many
+people not only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but
+thought the children forgot in the six days what they learnt on
+the one. But Sunday Schools were first adopted by Charles to
+meet the case of young people in service who could not attend
+during the week, and even in that form much opposition was
+shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form of
+Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1787. Wilberforce,
+Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were
+among the philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798
+the Sunday School Society (established 1785) extended its
+operations to Wales, making him its agent, and Sunday Schools
+grew rapidly in number and favour. A powerful revival broke
+out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his account of it in letters
+to correspondents, sent without his knowledge to magazines,
+kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh bibles
+was Charles&rsquo;s greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and
+Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for
+the Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when
+the stock became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was
+brought out by the Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies
+of the 10,000 issued; the Sunday School Society got 3000 testaments
+printed, and most of them passed into his hands in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and
+much fear for his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester,
+died, leaving him director and one of three trustees over his
+chapel at Boughton; and this added much to his anxiety. The
+Welsh causes at Manchester and London, too, gave him much
+uneasiness, and burdened him with great responsibilities at this
+juncture. In November 1802 he went to London, and on the 7th
+of December he sat at a committee meeting of the Religious
+Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph
+Tarn&mdash;a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society
+committees&mdash;introduced the subject of a regular supply of
+bibles for Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the
+committee, and so forcibly did he impress them, that it was there
+and then decided to move in the matter of a general dispersion
+of the bible. When he visited London a year later, his friends
+were ready to discuss the name of a new Society, and the sole object
+of which should be to supply bibles. Charles returned to Wales
+on the 30th of January 1804, and the British and Foreign Bible
+Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March the 7th.
+The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on the
+6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807&mdash;both being
+edited by Charles.</p>
+
+<p>Between 1805 and 1811 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in
+four volumes, which still remains the standard work of its kind in
+Welsh. Three editions of his Welsh catechism were published
+for the use of his schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English
+catechism for the use of schools in Lady Huntingdon&rsquo;s Connexion
+was drawn up by him in 1797; his shorter catechism in Welsh
+appeared in 1799, and passed through several editions, in Welsh
+and English, before 1807, when his <i>Instructor</i> (still the Connexional
+catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December 1801 six
+numbers of a Welsh magazine called <i>Trysorfa Ysprydol</i>
+(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and
+himself; in March 1809 the first number of the second volume
+appeared, and the twelfth and last in November 1813.</p>
+
+<p>The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr
+David Bogue, the Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to
+Ireland in August 1807, to report on the state of Protestant
+religion in the country. Their report is still extant, and among
+the movements initiated as a result of their visit was the Circulating
+School system. In 1810, owing to the growth of Methodism
+and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in the
+movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence
+was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From
+1811 to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing
+auxiliary Bible Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some
+friends in Edinburgh to establish charity schools in the Highlands,
+and the Gaelic School Society (1811) was his idea. His last
+work was a corrected edition of the Welsh Bible issued in small
+pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher he was in great request,
+though possessing but few of the qualities of the popular preacher.
+All his work received very small remuneration; the family was
+maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs Charles&mdash;a
+keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of
+October 1814. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed
+as one of the makers of modern Wales.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. E. J.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES ALBERT<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Carlo Alberto</span>] (1798-1849), king of
+Sardinia (Piedmont), son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano
+and Princess Albertine of Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of
+October 1798, a few days before the French occupied Piedmont
+and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel to take refuge
+in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano adhered
+to the French Republican régime, they soon fell under suspicion
+and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and
+his widow married a Count de Montléart and for some years led
+a wandering existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son
+and giving him mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of
+J.J. Rousseau, now under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King
+Charles Emmanuel abdicated in favour of his brother Victor
+Emmanuel I.; the latter&rsquo;s only son being dead, his brother
+Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him Charles Albert.
+On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court returned
+to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for
+Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him
+from it in favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he
+regarded him as an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary
+upbringing. Charles Albert was summoned to Turin,
+given tutors to instruct him in legitimist principles, and on the
+1st of October 1817 married the archduchess Maria Theresa of
+Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820, gave birth to Victor
+Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary,
+and had made a clean sweep of all French institutions.
+But there were strong Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian
+tendencies among the younger nobles and army officers, and the
+Carbonari and other revolutionary societies had made much
+progress.</p>
+
+<p>Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable
+manners had endeared him to all, and who had many friends
+among the Liberals and Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary
+movement was set on foot, and vague plans of combined risings
+all over Italy and a war with Austria were talked of. Charles
+Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never actually became
+a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after the
+outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading
+conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre
+di Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a
+military rising was ready and that they counted on his help
+(2nd March 1821). He induced them to delay the outbreak
+and informed the king, requesting him, however, not to punish
+anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria mutinied,
+and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents,
+the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at
+once abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter,
+pressed by the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers,
+granted the constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who
+was now king, of the occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then
+at Modena, repudiated the regent&rsquo;s acts, accepted Austrian
+military assistance, with which the rising was easily quelled,
+and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The young prince found
+himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while the Liberals
+looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the Conservatives he
+was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of Verona
+(1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to induce
+Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert&rsquo;s rights of succession.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page939" id="page939"></a>939</span>
+But the king was piqued by Austria&rsquo;s interference, and as both
+the grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported
+him, Charles Albert&rsquo;s claims were respected. France having
+decided to intervene in the Spanish revolution on the side of
+autocracy, Charles Albert asked permission to join the duc
+d&rsquo;Angoulême&rsquo;s expedition. The king granted it and the young
+prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such gallantry
+at the storming of the Trocadero (1st of September 1823) that
+the French soldiers proclaimed him the &ldquo;first Grenadier of
+France.&rdquo; But it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking
+binding himself, as soon as he ascended the throne, to place
+himself under the tutelage of a council composed of the higher
+clergy and the knights of the Annunziata, and to maintain the
+existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, <i>Cesare Alfieri</i>, xi. 77,
+Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin and forgiven.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 1831) Charles
+Albert succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army,
+with an empty treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval
+laws. His first task was to set his house in order; he reorganized
+the finances, created the army, and started Piedmont on a path
+which if not liberalism was at least progress. &ldquo;He was,&rdquo; wrote
+his reactionary minister, Count della Margherita, &ldquo;hostile to
+Austria from the depths of his soul and full of illusions as to the
+possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on her.... As
+for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them, and
+was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim.&rdquo;
+In 1833 a conspiracy of the <i>Giovane Italia</i> Society, organized by
+Mazzini, was discovered, and a number of its members punished
+with ruthless severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who
+appeared to be a Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all
+Italy were turned on him as the heaven-born leader who was to
+rescue the country from the foreigner. This to some extent
+reconciled the king to the Liberal movement, for it accorded
+with his religious views. &ldquo;I confess,&rdquo; he wrote to the marquis of
+Villamarina, in 1847, &ldquo;that a war of national independence
+which should have for its object the defence of the pope would
+be the greatest happiness that could befall me.&rdquo; On the 30th of
+October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when
+risings broke out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further
+liberties were demanded, he was at last induced to grant the
+constitution (8th February).</p>
+
+<p>When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians
+reached Turin (19th of March) public opinion demanded that the
+Piedmontese should succour their struggling brothers; and
+after some hesitation the king declared war. But much time
+had been wasted and many precious opportunities lost. With
+an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000 men from
+other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after defeating
+the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito
+on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded,
+more time was wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the
+Austrian general, having received reinforcements, drove the
+centre of the extended Italian line back across the Mincio (23rd
+of July), and in the two days&rsquo; fighting at Custozza (24th and 25th
+of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to retreat, and to
+ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles Albert was
+badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans,
+and although he declared himself ready to die defending the
+city the municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation;
+the mob, urged on by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration
+against him at the Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in
+the night with difficulty and returned to Piedmont with his
+defeated <span class="correction" title="amended from armp">army</span>. The French Republic offered to intervene in
+the spring of 1848, but Charles Albert did not desire foreign aid,
+the more so as in this case it would have had to be paid for by
+the cession of Nice and Savoy. The revolutionary movement
+throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles Albert felt
+that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the
+Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last
+chance. On the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice
+and took the field again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave
+the chief command to the Polish general Chrzanowski. General
+Ramorino commanding the Lombard division proved unable
+to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino (20th of April),
+and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and defeated
+at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd. The Piedmontese fought
+with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain.
+After the battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded
+the occupation by Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the
+heir to the throne as a hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to
+be the obstacle to better conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in
+favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. That same night he
+departed alone and made his way to Oporto, where he retired
+into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of
+a hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an
+almost morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberalism,
+he was a confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble
+qualities: he was brave to the verge of foolhardiness, devoted
+to his country, and ready to risk his crown to free Italy from
+the foreigner. To him the people of Italy owe a great debt, for
+if he failed in his object he at least materialized the idea of the
+Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the charges which the
+Republicans and demagogues brought against him were monstrously
+unjust.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Besides the general works on modern Italy, see
+the Marquis Costa de Beauregard&rsquo;s interesting volumes <i>La Jeunesse
+du roi Charles Albert</i> (Paris, 1899) and <i>Novare et Oporto</i> (1890), based
+on the king&rsquo;s letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful
+equerry, though the author&rsquo;s views are those of an old-fashioned
+Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi&rsquo;s
+<i>Il Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto</i> (Bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating
+essay; Domenico Perrero, <i>Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia</i> (Turin, 1889);
+L. Cappelletti, <i>Storia di Carlo Alberto</i> (Rome, 1891); Nicomede
+Bianchi, <i>Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia</i> (8 vols., Turin,
+1865, &amp;c.), a most important work of a general character, and the
+same author&rsquo;s <i>Scritti e lettere di Carlo Alberto</i> (Rome, 1879) and his
+<i>Storia della monarchia piemontese</i> (Turin, 1877); Count S. della
+Margherita, <i>Memorandum storico-politico</i> (Turin, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES AUGUSTUS<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Karl August</span>] (1757-1828), grand-duke
+of Saxe-Weimar, son of Constantine, duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,
+and Anna Amalia of Brunswick, was born on the 3rd
+of September 1757. His father died when he was only nine
+months old, and the boy was brought up under the regency and
+supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but masterful
+temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Görz,
+a German nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more
+humane element was introduced into his training when, in 1771,
+Wieland was appointed his tutor. In 1774 the poet Karl Ludwig
+von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor to the young Prince
+Constantine; and in the same year the two princes set out,
+with Count Görz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel
+introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning
+of a momentous friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned
+to Weimar, and the same year came of age and married Princess
+Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon
+Goethe to Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the
+privy council. &ldquo;People of discernment,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;congratulate
+me on possessing this man. His intellect, his genius is known.
+It makes no difference if the world is offended because I have
+made Dr Goethe a member of my most important <i>collegium</i>
+without his having passed through the stages of minor official
+professor and councillor of state.&rdquo; To the undiscerning, the
+beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent.
+With Goethe the &ldquo;storm and stress&rdquo; spirit descended upon
+Weimar, and the stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in
+a riot of youthful exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker,
+but also a good sportsman; and the revels of the court were
+alternated with break-neck rides across country, ending in nights
+spent round the camp fire under the stars. Karl August, however,
+had more serious tastes. He was interested in literature, in art,
+in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery, praised his judgment
+in painting; biologists found in him an expert in anatomy. Nor
+did he neglect the government of his little state. His reforms
+were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page940" id="page940"></a>940</span>
+&ldquo;enlightened despots&rdquo; of the 18th century; for from the first
+he had realized that the powers of the prince to play &ldquo;earthly
+providence&rdquo; were strictly limited. His aim, then, was to
+educate his people to work out their own political and social
+salvation, the object of education being in his view, as he explained
+later to the dismay of Metternich and his school, to help
+men to &ldquo;independence of judgment.&rdquo; To this end Herder was
+summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and
+it is little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the
+university of Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar
+became the intellectual centre of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the
+character of Karl August gave him an influence out of all proportion
+to his position as a sovereign prince. He had early faced
+the problem presented by the decay of the Empire, and began
+to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of the emperor
+Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of Germany
+into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the
+arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment
+of the league of princes (<i>Furstenbund</i>) in 1785, by which,
+under the leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph&rsquo;s intrigues
+were frustrated. He was, however, under no illusion as to the
+power of Austria, and he wisely refused the offer of the Hungarian
+crown, made to him in 1787 by Prussia at the instance
+of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark that he had no
+desire to be another &ldquo;Winter King.&rdquo; In 1788 Karl August took
+service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command
+of a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the
+cannonade of Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz
+and the battles of Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern
+(October 28-30). After this, dissatisfied with the attitude of the
+powers, he resigned; but rejoined on the accession of his friend
+King Frederick William III. to the Prussian throne. The
+disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the 14th of
+October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and
+Karl August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was
+forced to join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time
+till after the Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought
+under the French flag in all Napoleon&rsquo;s wars. In 1813, however,
+he joined the Grand Alliance, and at the beginning of 1814 took
+the command of a corps of 30,000 men operating in the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person,
+and protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers
+in confining their debates to the &ldquo;rights of the princes&rdquo; to the
+exclusion of the &ldquo;rights of the people.&rdquo; His services in the war
+of liberation were rewarded with an extension of territory and
+the title of grand-duke; but his liberal attitude had already
+made him suspect, and his subsequent action brought him still
+further into antagonism to the reactionary powers. He was
+the first of the German princes to grant a liberal constitution to
+his state under Article XIII. of the Act of Confederation (May 5,
+1816); and his concession of full liberty to the press made
+Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation against
+the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously
+&ldquo;der grosse Bursche&rdquo; for his patronage of the &ldquo;revolutionary&rdquo;
+<i>Burschenschaften</i>; and the celebrated &ldquo;festival&rdquo; held at the
+Wartburg by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest
+of political demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath
+of the great powers. Karl August, against his better judgment,
+was compelled to yield to the remonstrances of Prussia, Austria
+and Russia; the liberty of the press was again restricted in the
+grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good understanding between
+the grand-duke and his people, the régime of the Carlsbad
+Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other
+German states.</p>
+
+<p>Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his contemporaries
+of the most various types his personality made a great
+impression. Karl von Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed
+the coadjutorship of Mainz to the duke&rsquo;s friendship, said that
+he had never met a prince &ldquo;with so much understanding,
+character, frankness and true-heartedness&rdquo;; the Milanese, when
+he visited their city, called him the &ldquo;uomo principe&rdquo;; and
+Goethe himself said of him &ldquo;he had the gift of discriminating
+intellects and characters and setting each one in his place. He
+was inspired by the noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and
+with his whole soul desired only what was best. There was in
+him something of the divine. He would gladly have wrought
+the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was greater than
+his surroundings,... Everywhere he himself saw and judged,
+and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself.&rdquo;
+He left two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was
+succeeded, and Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1792-1862), a
+distinguished soldier, who, after the congress of Vienna, became
+colonel of a regiment in the service of the king of the Netherlands,
+distinguished himself as commander of the Dutch troops in the
+Belgian campaign of 1830, and from 1847 to 1850 held the command
+of the forces in the Dutch East Indies. Bernhard&rsquo;s son,
+William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar
+(1823-1902), entered the British army, served with
+much distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the
+1st Life Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted
+a morganatic marriage with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox
+(d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of Richmond and Gordon,
+who in Germany received the title of countess of Dornburg, but
+was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal
+decree in 1866. Karl August&rsquo;s only daughter, Caroline, married
+Frederick Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
+and was the mother of Helene (1814-1858), wife of
+Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of King Louis Philippe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Karl August&rsquo;s correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols.
+at Weimar in 1863. See the biography by von Wegele in the <i>Allgem.
+deutsche Biographie.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES EDWARD<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Charles Edward Louis Philip
+Casimir Stuart</span>] (1720-1788), English prince, called the
+&ldquo;Young Pretender&rdquo; and also the &ldquo;Young Chevalier,&rdquo; was
+born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson
+of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the &ldquo;Old
+Pretender,&rdquo; by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth
+prince of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites
+during his father&rsquo;s lifetime. The young prince was educated at
+his father&rsquo;s miniature court in Rome, with James Murray,
+Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for his governor, and under various
+tutors, amongst whom were the learned Chevalier Ramsay,
+Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abbé Légoux. He quickly became
+conversant with the English, French and Italian languages,
+but all his extant letters written in English appear singularly
+ill-spelt and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria,
+afterwards duke of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don
+Carlos in his struggle for the crown of Naples, passed through
+Rome. He offered to take Charles on his expedition, and the
+boy of thirteen, having been appointed general of artillery by
+Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the successful
+siege of Gaeta.</p>
+
+<p>The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were
+eagerly reported by the English ambassador at Florence and
+by the spy, John Walton, at Rome, was now introduced by his
+father and the pope to the highest Italian society, which he
+fascinated by the frankness of his manner and the grace and
+dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son
+on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as
+a prince and man of the world might be completed. The distinction
+with which he was received on his journey, the royal
+honours paid to him in Venice, and the jealous interference of
+the English ambassador in regard to his reception by the grand-duke
+of Tuscany, show how great was the respect in which the
+exiled house was held at this period by foreign Catholic powers,
+as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to its fortunes.
+The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in his
+attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea
+of rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind
+from abroad was one which it was left for Charles Edward to
+endeavour to realize. Of all the European nations France was
+the one on which Jacobite hopes mainly rested, and the warm
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page941" id="page941"></a>941</span>
+sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had succeeded Fleury
+as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted in a
+definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed simultaneously
+with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was
+secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron
+under Admiral Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France.
+Transports containing 7000 troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe,
+accompanied by the young prince, were in readiness to set sail
+for England. A severe storm effected, however, a complete
+disaster without any actual engagement taking place.</p>
+
+<p>The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a
+crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France
+for over a year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had
+at Rome already made the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of
+John Murray of Broughton; at Paris he had seen many supporters
+of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in every European
+court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue; and
+he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and
+other actual work connected with the promotion of his own and
+his father&rsquo;s interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends,
+on the 13th of July 1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on
+board the small brig &ldquo;La Doutelle,&rdquo; which was accompanied
+by a French man-of-war, the &ldquo;Elisabeth,&rdquo; laden with arms and
+ammunition. The latter fell in with an English man-of-war, the
+&ldquo;Lion,&rdquo; and had to return to France; Charles escaped during
+the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of August off
+Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however, but
+a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again
+and arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of
+Inverness-shire.</p>
+
+<p>The Macdonalds of Clanranald and Kinloch Moidart, along
+with other chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from
+the rashness of an unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the
+enthusiasm and charm of his manner, and Charles landed on
+Scottish soil in the company of the &ldquo;Seven Men of Moidart&rdquo;
+who had come with him from France. Everywhere, however,
+he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence
+he wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of
+Cameron of Lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion.
+With secrecy and speed communications were entered into with
+the known leaders of the Highland clans, and on the 19th of
+August, in the valley of Glenfinnan, the standard of James III.
+and VIII. was raised in the midst of a motley but increasing
+crowd. On the same day Sir John Cope at the head of 1500 men
+left Edinburgh in search of Charles; but, fearing an attack in
+the Pass of Corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to
+Inverness, and Charles thus had the undefended south country
+before him. In the beginning of September he entered Perth,
+having gained numerous accessions to his forces on his march.
+Crossing the Forth unopposed at the Fords of Frew and passing
+through Stirling and Linlithgow, he arrived within a few miles
+of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th of September a
+body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of Colonel Gardiner
+in what was known as the &ldquo;Canter of Coltbrig.&rdquo; His success
+was still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the
+city, a few of Cameron&rsquo;s Highlanders having on the following
+morning, by a happy ruse, forced their way through the Canon-gate.
+On the 18th he publicly proclaimed James VIII. of Scotland
+at the Market Cross and occupied Holyrood.</p>
+
+<p>Cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea
+to Dunbar. On the 20th Charles met and defeated him at
+Prestonpans, and returned to prosecute the siege of Edinburgh
+Castle, which, however, he raised on General Guest&rsquo;s threatening
+to lay the city in ruins. In the beginning of November Charles
+left Edinburgh, never to return. He was at the head of at least
+6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the
+desertion of Highlanders, whose traditions had led them to
+consider war merely as a raid and an immediate return with
+plunder. Having passed through Kelso, on the 9th of November
+he laid siege to Carlisle, which capitulated in a week. Manchester
+received the prince with a warm welcome and with 150 recruits
+under Francis Towneley. On the 4th of December he had reached
+Derby and was within ten days&rsquo; march of London, where the
+inhabitants were terror-struck and a commercial panic immediately
+ensued. Two armies under English leadership were now
+in the field against him, one under Marshal Wade, whom he
+had evaded by entering England by the west, and the other
+under William, duke of Cumberland, who had returned from the
+continent. London was not to be supposed helpless in such an
+emergency; Manchester, Glasgow and Dumfries, rid of his
+presence, had risen against him, and Charles paused. There was
+division among his advisers and desertion among his men, and
+on the 6th of December he reluctantly was forced to begin his
+retreat northward. Closely pursued by Cumberland, he marched
+by way of Carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest
+Stirling Castle. At Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, he
+defeated General Hawley, who had marched from Edinburgh
+to intercept his retreat. A fortnight later, however, Charles
+raised the siege of Stirling, and after a weary though successful
+march rested his troops at Inverness. Having taken Forts
+George and Augustus, and after varying success against the
+supporters of the government in the north, he at last prepared
+to face the duke of Cumberland, who had passed the early spring
+at Aberdeen. On the 8th of April the duke marched thence to
+meet Charles, whose little army, exhausted with a futile night
+march, half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely
+worsted at Culloden on the 16th of April 1746.</p>
+
+<p>This decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of Charles Edward
+and the house of Stuart. Accompanied by the faithful Ned
+Burke and a few other followers, Charles at last gained the wild
+western coast. Hunted hither and thither, he wandered on foot
+or cruised restlessly in open boats among the many barren isles of
+the Scottish shore, enduring the greatest hardships with marvellous
+courage and cheerfulness. Charles, upon whose head a reward
+£30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five
+months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the
+government. Disguised in female attire and aided by a passport
+obtained by the devoted Flora Macdonald, he passed through
+Skye and parted from his gallant conductress at Portree. Towards
+the end of July he took refuge in the cave of Coiraghoth
+in the Braes of Glenmoriston, and in August he joined Lochiel
+and Cluny Macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding until
+the news was brought that two French ships were in waiting
+for him at the place of his first arrival in Scotland&mdash;Lochnanuagh.
+He embarked with speed and sailed for France, reaching the
+little port of Roscoff, near Morlaix, on the 29th of September
+1746. He was warmly welcomed by Louis XV., and ere long
+he was again vigorously intriguing in Paris, and even in Madrid.
+So far as political assistance was concerned, his efforts proved
+fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and idol of
+the people of Paris. So enraged was he with his brother
+Henry&rsquo;s acceptance of a cardinal&rsquo;s hat in July 1747, that he
+deliberately broke off communication with his father in Rome
+(who had approved the step), nor did he ever see him again.
+The enmity of the British government to Charles Edward made
+peace with France an impossibility so long as she continued to
+harbour the young prince. A condition of the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle,
+concluded in October 1748, was that every member
+of the house of Stuart should be expelled the French dominions.
+Charles had forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an
+indignant protest against its injustice, and a declaration that he
+would not be bound by its provisions. But his indignation and
+persistent refusal to comply with the request that he should
+voluntarily leave France had to be met at last with force: he
+was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at Vincennes, and on
+the 17th of December conducted to the French border. He
+lingered at Avignon; but the French, compelled to hard
+measures by the English, refused to be satisfied; and Pope
+Benedict XIV., alarmed by the threat of a bombardment of
+Civita Vecchia, advised the prince to withdraw. Charles quietly
+disappeared; for years Europe watched for him in vain. It is
+now established, almost with certainty, that he returned to
+the neighbourhood of Paris; and it is supposed that his residence
+was known to the French ministers, who, however, firmly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page942" id="page942"></a>942</span>
+proclaimed their ignorance. In 1750, and again, it is thought,
+in 1754, he was in London, hatching futile plots and risking his
+safety for his hopeless cause, and even abjuring the Roman
+Catholic faith in order to further his political interests.</p>
+
+<p>During the next ten years of his life Charles Edward&rsquo;s illicit
+connexion with Miss Clementina Walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom
+he had first met at Bannockburn House while conducting the
+siege of Stirling, his imperious fretful temper, his drunken habits
+and debauched life, could no longer be concealed. He wandered
+over Europe in disguise, alienating the friends and crushing the
+hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning to Rome at the
+death of his father, he was treated by Pope Clement XIII. with
+coldness, and his title as heir to the British throne was openly
+repudiated by all the great Catholic powers. It was probably
+through the influence of the French court, still intriguing against
+England, that the marriage between Charles (now self-styled
+count of Albany) and Princess Louise of Stolberg was arranged
+in 1772. The union proved childless and unhappy, and in 1780
+the countess fled for refuge from her husband&rsquo;s drunken violence
+to a convent in Florence, where Charles had been residing since
+1774. Later, the countess of Albany (<i>q.v.</i>) threw herself on the
+protection of her brother-in-law Henry, Cardinal York, at Rome,
+and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was
+finally brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices
+of King Gustavus III. of Sweden. Charles, lonely, ill, and
+evidently near death, now summoned to Florence his natural
+daughter, Charlotte Stuart, the child of Clementina Walkinshaw,
+born at Liége in October 1753 and hitherto neglected by the
+prince. Charlotte Stuart, who was declared legitimate and
+created duchess of Albany, tended her father for the remaining
+years of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two
+Stuart brothers, so that in 1785 Charles returned to Rome, where
+he died in the old Palazzo Muti on the 30th of January 1788.
+He was buried in his brother&rsquo;s cathedral church at Frascati, but
+in 1807 his remains were removed to the <i>Grotte Vaticane</i> of
+St Peter&rsquo;s. His daughter Charlotte survived her father less than
+two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in November 1789, at
+the early age of thirty-six.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A.C. Ewald, <i>Life and Times of Charles Stuart, the Young
+Pretender</i> (2 vols., 1875); C.S. Terry, <i>Life of the Young Pretender,
+</i> and <i>The Rising of 1745; with Bibliography of Jacobite History 1689&mdash;1788</i>
+(Scott. Hist. fr. Contemp. Writers, iii.) (1900); Earl Stanhope,
+<i>History of England</i> (1836) and <i>Decline of the Last Stuarts</i> (1854);
+Bishop R. Forbes, <i>The Lyon in Mourning</i> (1895-1896); Andrew
+Lang, <i>Pickle, the Spy</i> (1897), and <i>Prince Charles Edward</i> (1900);
+R. Chambers, <i>History of the Rebellion in Scotland,</i> &amp;c.  &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. M. V.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES EMMANUEL I.<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Carlo Emanuele</span>] (1562-1630),
+duke of Savoy, succeeded his father, Emmanuel Philibert,
+in 1580. He continued the latter&rsquo;s policy of profiting by the
+rivalry of France and Spain in order to round off and extend
+his dominions. His three chief objects were the conquest of
+Geneva, of Saluzzo and of Monferrato. Saluzzo he succeeded
+in wresting from France in 1588. He intervened in the French
+religious wars, and also fought with Bern and other Swiss
+cantons, and on the murder of Henry III. of France in 1580 he
+aspired to the French throne on the strength of the claims of his
+wife Catherine, sister of Henry of Navarre, afterwards King
+Henry IV. In 1590 he sent an expedition to Provence in the
+interests of the Catholic League, and followed it himself later,
+but the peace of 1593, by which Henry of Navarre was recognized
+as king of France, put an end to his ambitions. In the war
+between France and Spain Charles sided with the latter, with
+varying success. Finally, by the peace of Lyons (1601), he gave
+up all territories beyond the Rhone, but his possession of Saluzzo
+was confirmed. He now meditated a further enterprise against
+Geneva; but his attempt to capture the city by treachery and
+with the help of Spain (the famous <i>escalade</i>) in 1602 failed completely.
+The next few years were filled with negotiations and
+intrigues with Spain and France which did not lead to any
+particular result, but on the death in 1612 of Duke Francesco
+Gonzaga of Mantua, who was lord of Monferrato, Charles Emmanuel
+made a successful <i>coup de main</i> on that district. This
+arrayed the Venetians, Tuscany, the Empire and Spain against
+him, and he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. The
+Spaniards invaded the duchy from Lombardy, and although the
+duke was defeated several times he fought bravely, gained some
+successes, and the terms of the peace of 1618 left him more or
+less in the <i>status quo ante.</i> We next find Charles Emmanuel
+aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without success.
+In 1628 he was in alliance with Spain in the war against France;
+the French invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by
+Spain, was overrun by their armies. The duke fought desperately,
+but was taken ill at Savigliano and died in 1630. He was
+succeeded by his son Victor Amedeo I., while his third son
+Tommaso founded the line of Savoy-Carignano from which the
+present royal house of Italy is descended. Charles Emmanuel
+achieved a great reputation as a statesman and warrior, and
+increased the prestige of Savoy, but he was too shifty and ingenious,
+and his schemes ended in disaster.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Ricotti, <i>Storia della monarchia piemontese</i>, vols. iii. and iv.
+(Florence, 1865); T. Raulich, <i>Storia di Carlo Emanuele I.</i> (Milan,
+1896-1902); G. Curti, <i>Carlo Emanuele I. secondo; più recenti studii</i>
+(Milan, 1894).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLES MARTEL<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span><a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (<i>c.</i> 688-741), Frankish ruler, was a
+natural son of Pippin II., mayor of the palace, and Chalpaïda.
+Charles was baptized by St Rigobert, bishop of Reims. At the
+death of his father in 714, Pippin&rsquo;s widow Plectrude claimed the
+government in Austrasia and Neustria in the name of her grandchildren,
+and had Charles thrown into prison. But the Neustrians
+threw off the Austrasian yoke and entered into an offensive
+alliance with the Frisians and Saxons. In the general anarchy
+Charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the Neustrians at
+Amblève, south of Liége, in 716, and at Vincy, near Cambrai, in
+717, and forced them to come to terms. In Austrasia he wrested
+the power from Plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the
+palace, thus prejudicing the interests of his nephews. According
+to the Frankish custom he proclaimed a king in Austrasia in the
+person of the young Clotaire IV., but in reality Charles was the
+sole master&mdash;the entry in the annals for the year 717 being
+&ldquo;Carolus regnare coepit.&rdquo; Once in possession of Austrasia,
+Charles sought to extend his dominion over Neustria also. In
+719 he defeated Ragenfrid, the Neustrian mayor of the palace,
+at Soissons, and forced him to retreat to Angers. Ragenfrid
+died in 731, and from that time Charles had no competitor in
+the western kingdom. He obliged the inhabitants of Burgundy
+to submit, and disposed of the Burgundian bishoprics and countships
+to his <i>leudes</i>. In Aquitaine Duke Odo (Eudes) exercised
+independent authority, but in 719 Charles forced him to recognize
+the suzerainty of northern France, at least nominally. After
+the alliance between Charles and Odo on the field of Poitiers,
+the mayor of the palace left Aquitaine to Odo&rsquo;s son Hunald,
+who paid homage to him. Besides establishing a certain unity
+in Gaul, Charles saved it from a very great peril. In 711 the
+Arabs had conquered Spain. In 720 they crossed the Pyrenees,
+seized Narbonensis, a dependency of the kingdom of the Visigoths,
+and advanced on Gaul. By his able policy Odo succeeded
+in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali, Abdur
+Rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the
+attack, reached Poitiers, and advanced on Tours, the holy town
+of Gaul. In October 732&mdash;just 100 years after the death of
+Mahomet&mdash;Charles gained a brilliant victory over Abdur
+Rahman, who was called back to Africa by the revolts of the
+Berbers and had to give up the struggle. This was the last of
+the great Arab invasions of Europe. After his victory Charles
+took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest Narbonensis from
+the Mussulmans. Although he was not successful in his attempt
+to recover Narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of Agde,
+Béziers and Maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at
+Nîmes. He subdued also the Germanic tribes; annexed Frisia,
+where Christianity was beginning to make progress; put an end
+to the duchy of Alemannia; intervened in the internal affairs
+of the dukes of Bavaria; made expeditions into Saxony; and
+in 738 compelled some of the Saxon tribes to pay him tribute.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page943" id="page943"></a>943</span>
+He also gave St Boniface a safe conduct for his missions in
+Thuringia, Alemannia and Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>During the government of Charles Martel important changes
+appear to have been made in the internal administration. Under
+him began the great assemblies of nobles known as the <i>champs
+de Mars</i>. To attach his <i>leudes</i> Charles had to give them church
+lands as <i>precarium</i>, and this had a very great influence in the
+development of the feudal system. It was from the <i>precarium</i>,
+or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal fief originated. Vassalage,
+too, acquired a greater consistency at this period, and its
+rules began to crystallize. Under Charles occurred the first
+attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the Franks.
+Pope Gregory III., menaced by the Lombards, invoked the aid
+of Charles (739), sent him a deputation with the keys of the
+Holy Sepulchre and the chains of St Peter, and offered to break
+with the emperor and Constantinople, and to give Charles the
+Roman consulate (<i>ut a partibus imperatoris recederet et Romanum
+consulatum Carolo sanciret</i>). This proposal, though unsuccessful,
+was the starting-point of a new papal policy. Since the death of
+Theuderich IV. in 737 there had been no king of the Franks.
+In 741 Charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as
+though he were himself master of the realm. To the elder,
+Carloman, he gave Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia, with
+suzerainty over Bavaria; the younger, Pippin, received Neustria,
+Burgundy and Provence. Shortly after this division of the
+kingdom Charles died at Quierzy on the 22nd of October 741,
+and was buried at St Denis. The characters of Charles Martel
+and his grandson Charlemagne offer many striking points of
+resemblance. Both were men of courage and activity, and the
+two men are often confused in the <i>chansons de geste</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Breysig, <i>Jahrbücher d. fränk. Reichs, 714&mdash;741; die Zeit
+Karl Martells</i> (Leipzig, 1869); A.A. Beugnot, &ldquo;Sur la spoliation des
+biens du clergé attribuée à Charles Martel,&rdquo; in the <i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Acad.
+des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres</i>, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853); Ulysse Chevalier,
+<i>Bio-bibliographie</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Pf.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Or &ldquo;The Hammer.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Coles county,
+Illinois, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 45 m. W.
+of Terre Haute, Indiana. Pop. (1900) 5488; (1910) 5884. It
+is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis, and
+the Toledo, St Louis &amp; Western railways, and by interurban
+electric lines. It is the seat of the Eastern Illinois state normal
+school (opened in 1899). The city is situated in an important
+broom-corn raising district, and has broom factories, a tile
+factory and planing mills. The water-works are owned and
+operated by the municipality. Charleston was settled about
+1835, was incorporated in 1839, and was reincorporated in 1865.
+One of the Lincoln-Douglas debates was held here in 1858.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the largest city of South Carolina, U.S.A.,
+the county-seat of Charleston county, a port of entry, and an
+important South Atlantic seaport, on a narrow peninsula
+formed by the Cooper river on the E. and the Ashley on the W.
+and S.W., and within sight of the ocean about 7 m. distant.
+Pop. (1890) 54,955; (1900) 55,807, of whom 31,522 were of negro
+descent and 2592 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 58,833.
+It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern railways,
+the Clyde Steamship Line to New York, Boston and Jacksonville,
+the Baltimore &amp; Carolina Steamship Co. to Baltimore and
+Georgetown, and a branch of the North German Lloyd Steamship
+Co., which brings immigrants from Europe direct to the Southern
+states; there are freight boat lines to ports in the West Indies,
+Central America and other foreign countries.</p>
+
+<p>The city extends over 3.76 sq. m. of surface, nowhere rising
+more than 8 or 10 ft. above the rivers, and has about 9 m. of
+water front. In the middle of the harbour, on a small island
+near its entrance, is the famous Fort Sumter; a little to the
+north-east, on Sullivan&rsquo;s Island, is the scarcely less historic
+Fort Moultrie, as well as extensive modern fortifications; on
+James Island, opposite, is Fort Johnson, now the United States
+Quarantine Station, and farther up, on the other islands, are
+Fort Ripley and Castle Pinckney (now the United States buoy
+station). Viewed from any of these forts, Charleston&rsquo;s spires
+and public buildings seem to rise out of the sea. The streets
+are shaded with the live oak and the linden, and are ornamented
+with the palmetto; and the quaint specimens of colonial architecture,
+numerous pillared porticoes, spacious verandas&mdash;both
+upper and lower&mdash;and flower gardens made beautiful with
+magnolias, palmettoes, azaleas, jessamines, camelias and roses,
+give the city a peculiarly picturesque character.</p>
+
+<p>King Street, running north and south through the middle
+of the peninsula, and Market Street, crossing it about 1 m. from
+its lower end, are lined with stores, shops or stalls; on Broad
+Street are many of the office buildings and banks; the wholesale
+houses are for the most part on Meeting Street, the first thoroughfare
+east of King; nearly all of the wharves are on the east side;
+the finest residences are at the lower end of the peninsula on
+East Battery and South Battery, on Meeting Street below
+Broad, on Legare Street, on Broad Street and on Rutledge
+Avenue to the west of King. At the south-east corner of Broad
+and Meeting streets is Saint Michael&rsquo;s (built in 1752-1761),
+the oldest church edifice in the city, and a fine specimen of colonial
+ecclesiastical architecture; in its tower is an excellent chime
+of eight bells. Beneath the vestry room lie the remains of
+Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and in the churchyard are the
+graves of John Rutledge, James Louis Petigru (1789-1863), and
+Robert Young Hayne. At the intersection of the same streets
+are also the massive United States post office building (Italian
+Renaissance in style), with walls of granite; the county court
+house, the city hall and Washington Square&mdash;in which stand a
+statue of William Pitt (one arm of which was broken off by a
+cannon shot during the British bombardment in 1780), and a
+monument to the memory of Henry Timrod (1829-1867), the
+poet. At the foot of Broad Street is the Colonial Exchange
+in which the South Carolina convention organized a new government
+during the War of Independence; and at the foot of
+Market Street is the large modern custom house of white marble,
+built in the Roman-Corinthian style. Saint Philip&rsquo;s church,
+with admirable architectural proportions, has a steeple nearly
+200 ft. in height, from which a beacon light shines for the guidance
+of mariners far out at sea. In the west cemetery of this church
+are the tombs of John C. Calhoun, and of Robert James Turnbull
+(1775-1833), who was prominent locally as a nullifier and under
+the name of &ldquo;Brutus&rdquo; wrote ably on behalf of nullification,
+free trade and state&rsquo;s rights. The French Protestant Church,
+though small, is an attractive specimen of Gothic architecture;
+and the Unitarian, which is in the Perpendicular style and is
+modelled after the chapel of Edward VI. in Westminster, has
+a beautiful fan-tracery ceiling.</p>
+
+<p>Of the few small city squares, gardens or parks, the White
+Point Garden at the lower end of the peninsula is most frequented;
+it is shaded with beautiful live oaks, is adorned with palmettoes
+and commands a fine view of the harbour. About 1½ m. north
+of this on Meeting Street is Marion Square, with a tall graceful
+monument to the memory of John C. Calhoun on the south
+side, and the South Carolina Military Academy along the north
+border. The largest park in Charleston is Hampton Park,
+named in honour of General Wade Hampton. It is situated in
+the north-west part of the city and is beautifully laid out. The
+Isle of Palms, to the north of Sullivan&rsquo;s Island, has a large
+pavilion and a wide sandy beach with a fine surf for bathing,
+and is the most popular resort for visitors. The Magnolia
+Gardens are about 8 m. up the Ashley. Twenty-two miles
+beyond is the town of Summerville (pop. in 1900, 2420), a
+health resort in the pine lands, with one of the largest tea farms
+in the country. Magnolia Cemetery, the principal burial-place,
+is a short distance north of the city limits; in it are the graves
+of William Washington (1732-1810) and Hugh Swinton Legaré.
+Charleston was the home of the Pinckneys, the Rutledges, the
+Gadsdens, the Laurenses, and, in a later generation, of W.G.
+Simms. A trace of the early social organization of the brilliant
+colonial town remains in the St Cecilia Society, first formed in
+1737 as an amateur concert society.</p>
+
+<p>Charleston has an excellent system of public schools. Foremost
+among the educational institutions is the college of Charleston,
+chartered in 1785 and again in 1791, and opened in 1790;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page944" id="page944"></a>944</span>
+it is supported by the city and by funds of its own, ranks high
+within the state, and has a large and well-equipped museum of
+natural history, probably founded as early as 1777 and transferred
+to the college in 1850. Here, too, are the Medical College of
+the state of South Carolina, which includes a department of
+pharmacy; the South Carolina Military Academy (opened in
+1843), which is a branch of the University of South Carolina;
+the Porter Military Academy (Protestant Episcopal), the
+Confederate home school for young women, the Charleston
+University School, and the Avery Normal Institute (Congregationalist)
+for coloured students. In the Charleston library
+(about 25,000 volumes), founded in 1748, are important collections
+of rare books and manuscripts; the rooms of the South
+Carolina Historical Society are in the same building. The
+Charleston <i>News and Courier</i>, published first as the <i>Courier</i> in
+1803 and combined with the <i>Daily News</i> (1865) in 1873, is one of
+the most influential newspapers in the South. The charitable
+institutions of the city include the Roper hospital, the Charleston
+Orphan Asylum (founded in 1792), the William Euston
+home for the aged, and a home for the widows of Confederate
+soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>In 1878 the United States government began the construction
+of jetties to remove the bar at the entrance to Charleston harbour,
+which was otherwise deep and spacious and well protected, and
+by means of these jetties the bar has been so far removed as to
+admit vessels drawing about 30 ft. of water. The result has been
+not only the promotion of the city&rsquo;s commerce, but the removal
+of the United States naval station and navy yard from Port
+Royal to what was formerly Chicora Park on the left bank of the
+Cooper river, a short distance above the city limits. The city&rsquo;s
+commerce consists largely in the export of cotton,<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> rice, fertilizers,
+fruits, lumber and naval stores; the value of its exports,
+$10,794,000 in 1897, decreased to $2,196,596 in 1907 ($3,164,089
+in 1908), while that of the import trade ($1,255,483 in 1897)
+increased to $3,840,585 in 1907 ($3,323,844 in 1908). The
+principal industries are the preparation of fertilizers&mdash;largely
+from the extensive beds of phosphate rock along the banks of
+the Ashley river and from cotton-seed meal&mdash;cotton compressing,
+rice cleaning, canning oysters, fruits and vegetables, and the
+manufacture of cotton bagging, of lumber, of cooperage goods,
+clothing and carriages and wagons. Between 1880 and 1890
+the industrial development of the city was very rapid, the
+manufactures in 1890 showing an increase of 229.6% over those
+of 1880; the increase between 1890 and 1900 was only 6.2%.
+In 1900 the total value of the city&rsquo;s manufactures, 16.3%
+(in value) of the product of the entire state, was $9,562,387, the
+value of the fertilizer product alone, much the most important,
+being $3,697,090.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;The first English settlement in South Carolina,
+established at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley
+river in 1670, was named Charles Town in honour of Charles II.
+The location proving undesirable, a new Charles Town on the
+site of the present city was begun about 1672, and the seat of
+government was removed to it in 1680. The name Charles Town
+became Charlestown about 1719 and Charleston in 1783. Among
+the early settlers were English Churchmen, New England
+Congregationalists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Dutch and
+German Lutherans, Huguenots (especially in 1680-1688) from
+France and Switzerland, and a few Quakers; later the French
+element of the population was augmented by settlers from
+Acadia (1755) and from San Domingo (1793). Although it
+soon became the largest and the wealthiest settlement south of
+Philadelphia, Charleston did not receive a charter until 1783,
+and did not have even a township government. Local ordinances
+were passed by the provincial legislature and enforced
+partly by provincial officials and partly by the church wardens.
+It was, however, the political and social centre of the province,
+being not only the headquarters of the governor, council and
+colonial officials, but also the only place at which courts of
+justice were held until the complaints of the Up Country people
+led to the establishment of circuit courts in 1772. After the
+American War of Independence it continued to be the capital
+of South Carolina until 1790. The charter of 1783, though
+frequently amended and altered, is still in force. By an act of
+the state legislature passed in 1837 the terms &ldquo;mayor&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;alderman&rdquo; superseded the older terms &ldquo;intendant&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;wardens.&rdquo; The city was the heart of the nullification movement
+of 1832-1833; and in St Andrew&rsquo;s Hall, in Broad Street,
+on the 20th of December 1860, a convention called by the state
+legislature passed an ordinance of secession from the Union.</p>
+
+<p>Charleston has several times been attacked by naval forces
+and has suffered from many storms. Hurricane and epidemic
+together devastated the town both in 1699 and in 1854; the
+older and more thickly settled part of the town was burnt in
+1740, and a hurricane did great damage in 1752. In 1706,
+during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined fleet of
+Spanish and French under Captain Le Feboure was repulsed
+by the forces of Governor Nathaniel Johnson (d. 1713) and
+Colonel William Rhett (1666-1721). During the War of Independence
+Charleston withstood the attack of Sir Peter Parker
+and Sir Henry Clinton in 1776, and that of General Augustus
+Prevost in 1779, but shortly afterwards became the objective
+of a more formidable attack by Sir Henry Clinton, the
+commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In the
+later years of the contest the British turned their attention to
+the reduction of the colonies in the south, and the prominent
+point and best base of operations in that section was the city
+of Charleston, which was occupied in the latter part of 1779
+by an American force under General Benjamin Lincoln. In
+December of that year Sir Henry Clinton embarked from New
+York with 8000 British troops and proceeded to invest Charleston
+by land. He entrenched himself west of the city between the
+Cooper and Ashley rivers, which bound it north and south, and
+thus hemmed Lincoln in a <i>cul-de-sac</i>. The latter made the mistake
+of attempting to defend the city with an inferior force.
+Delays had occurred in the British operations and Clinton was
+not prepared to summon the Americans to surrender until the
+10th of April 1780. Lincoln refused, and Clinton advanced his
+trenches to the third parallel, rendering his enemy&rsquo;s works
+untenable. On the 12th of May Lincoln capitulated. About
+2000 American Continentals were made prisoners, and an equal
+number of militia and armed citizens. This success was regarded
+by the British as an offset against the loss of Burgoyne&rsquo;s army
+in 1777, and Charleston at once became the base of active
+operations in the Carolinas, which Clinton left Cornwallis to
+conduct. Thenceforward Charleston was under military rule
+until evacuated by the British on the 14th of December 1782.</p>
+
+<p>The bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter (garrisoned
+by Federal troops) by the South Carolinians, on the 12th and
+13th of April 1861, marked the actual beginning of the American
+Civil War.  From 1862 onwards Charleston was more or less
+under siege by the Federal naval and military forces until 1865.
+The Confederates repulsed a naval attack made by the Federals
+under Admiral S.F. Du Pont in April 1863, and a land attack
+under General Q.A. Gillmore in June of the same year. They
+were compelled to evacuate the city on the 17th of February
+1865, after having burned a considerable amount of cotton and
+other supplies to prevent them from falling into the hands of the
+enemy. After the Civil War the wealth and the population
+steadily increased, in spite of the destruction wrought by the
+earthquake of 31st August 1886 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earthquake</a></span>). In that
+catastrophe 27 persons were killed, many more were injured
+and died subsequently, 90% of the buildings were injured, and
+property to the value of more than $5,000,000 was destroyed.
+The South Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition, held
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page945" id="page945"></a>945</span>
+here from the 1st of December 1901 to the 1st of June 1902,
+called the attention of investors to the resources of the city and
+state, but was not successful financially, and Congress appropriated
+$160,000 to make good the deficit.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Much information concerning Charleston may be obtained in A.S.
+Salley&rsquo;s <i>A Guide and Historical Sketch of Charleston</i> (Charleston, 1903),
+and in Mrs St Julien Ravenel&rsquo;s <i>Charleston; The Place and the People</i>
+(New York, 1906). The best history of Charleston is William A.
+Courtenay&rsquo;s <i>Charleston, S.C.: The Centennial of Incorporation</i>
+(Charleston, 1884). There is also a good sketch by Yates Snowden in
+L.P. Powell&rsquo;s <i>Historic Towns of the Southern States</i> (New York, 1900).
+For the earthquake see the account by Carl McKinley in the <i>Charleston
+Year-Book</i> for 1886. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">South Carolina</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  At an early date cotton became an important article in Charleston&rsquo;s
+commerce; some was shipped so early as 1747. At the
+outbreak of the Civil War Charleston was one of the three most
+important cotton-shipping ports in the United States, being exceeded
+in importance only by New Orleans and New York.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a>  The special census of 1905 dealt only with the factory product,
+that of 1905 ($6,007,094) showing an increase of 5.1% over that of
+1900 ($5,713,315). In 1905 the (factory) fertilizer product of
+Charleston was $1,291,859, which represented more than 35% of
+the (factory) fertilizer product of the whole state.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTON,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> the capital of West Virginia, U.S.A., and the
+county-seat of Kanawha county, situated near the centre of the
+state, on the N. bank of the Kanawha river, at the mouth of
+the Elk river, about 200 m. E. of Cincinnati, Ohio, and about
+130 m. S.W. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 6742; (1900) 11,099,
+of whom 1787 were negroes, and 353 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 22,996. It is served by the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, the
+Toledo &amp; Ohio Central, the Coal &amp; Coke, and the Kanawha &amp;
+West Virginia (39 m. to Blakeley) railways, and by several river
+transportation lines on the Kanawha river (navigable throughout
+the year by means of movable locks) connecting with Ohio and
+Mississippi river ports. The city is attractively built on high
+level land, above the river; in addition to a fine customs house,
+court house and high school, it contains the West Virginia state
+capitol, erected in 1880. The libraries include the state law
+library, with 14,000 volumes in 1908, and the library of the
+state Department of Archives and History, with about 11,000
+volumes. Charleston is in the midst of a region rich in bituminous
+coal, the shipment of which by river and rail constitutes
+one of its principal industries. Oil wells in the vicinity also
+furnish an important product for export, and there are iron and
+salt mines near. An ample supply of natural gas is utilized by
+its manufacturing establishments; and among its manufactures
+are axes, lumber, foundry and machine shop products, furniture,
+boilers, woollen goods, glass and chemical fire-engines. The value
+of the city&rsquo;s factory products increased from $1,261,815 in 1900
+to $2,728,074 in 1905, or 116.2%, a greater rate of increase
+than that of any other city (with 8000 or more inhabitants)
+in the state during this period. The first permanent white
+settlement at Charleston was made soon after the close of the
+War of Independence; it was one of the places through which
+the streams of immigrants entered the Ohio Valley, and it
+became of considerable importance as a centre of transfer and
+shipment, but it was not until the development of the coal-mining
+region that it became industrially important. Charleston
+was incorporated in 1794, and was chartered as a city in 1870.
+Since the latter year it has been the seat of government of West
+Virginia, with the exception of the decade 1875-1885, when
+Wheeling was the capital.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLESTOWN,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> formerly a separate city of Middlesex
+county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., but since 1874 a part of the city
+of Boston, with which it had long before been in many respects
+practically one. It is situated on a small peninsula on Boston
+harbour, between the mouths of the Mystic and Charles rivers;
+the first bridge across the Charles, built in 1786, connected
+Charlestown and Boston. A United States navy yard (1800),
+occupying about 87 acres, and the Massachusetts state prison
+(1805) are here; the old burying-ground contains the grave of
+John Harvard and that of Thomas Beecher, the first American
+member of the famous Beecher family; and there is a soldiers&rsquo;
+and sailors&rsquo; monument (1872), designed by Martin Milmore.
+Charlestown was founded in 1628 or 1629, being the oldest part
+of Boston, and soon rose into importance; it was organized
+as a township in 1630, and was chartered as a city in 1847.
+Within its limits was fought, on the 17th of June 1775, the battle
+of Bunker Hill (<i>q.v.</i>), when Charlestown was almost completely
+destroyed by the British. The Bunker Hill Monument commemorates
+the battle; and the navy yard at Moulton&rsquo;s Point
+was the landing-place of the attacking British troops. Little
+was done toward the rebuilding of Charlestown until 1783.
+The original territory of the township was very large, and from
+parts of it were formed Woburn (1642), Malden (1649), Stoneham
+(1725), and Somerville (1842); other parts were annexed to
+Cambridge, to Medford and to Arlington. S.F.B. Morse, the
+inventor of the electric telegraph, was born here; and Charlestown
+was the birthplace and home of Nathaniel Gorham (1738-1796),
+a member of the Continental Congress in 1782-1783 and
+1785-1787, and its president in 1786; and was the home of
+Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), a well-known civil engineer; of
+Samuel Dexter (1761-1816), an eminent lawyer, secretary of
+war and for a short time secretary of the treasury in the cabinet
+of President John Adams; and of Oliver Holden (1765-1831), a
+composer of hymn-tunes, including &ldquo;Coronation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See R. Frothingham, <i>History of Charlestown</i>  (Boston, 1845),
+covering 1629-1775; J.F. Hunnewell, <i>A Century of Town Life ...
+1775-1887</i> (Boston, 1888); and Timothy T. Sawyer, <i>Old Charlestown</i>
+(1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1792-1845), French designer
+and painter, more especially of military subjects, was
+born in Paris on the 20th of December 1792. He was the son of a
+dragoon in the Republican army, whose death in the ranks left
+the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances. Madame
+Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme
+Napoleonist, managed to give her boy a moderate education at
+the Lycée Napoléon, and was repaid by his lifelong affection.
+His first employment was in a Parisian mairie, where he had to
+register recruits: he served in the National Guard in 1814,
+fought bravely at the Barrière de Clichy, and, being thus unacceptable
+to the Bourbon party, was dismissed from the mairie
+in 1816. He then, having from a very early age had a propensity
+for drawing, entered the atelier of the distinguished painter
+Baron Gros, and soon began issuing the first of those lithographed
+designs which eventually brought him renown. His &ldquo;Grenadier
+de Waterloo,&rdquo; 1817, with the motto &ldquo;La Garde meurt et ne se
+rend pas&rdquo; (a famous phrase frequently attributed to Cambronne,
+but which he never uttered, and which cannot, perhaps, be traced
+farther than to this lithograph by Charlet), was particularly
+popular. It was only towards 1822, however, that he began to
+be successful in a professional sense. Lithographs (about 2000
+altogether), water-colours, sepia-drawings, numerous oil sketches,
+and a few etchings followed one another rapidly; there were
+also three exhibited oil pictures, the first of which was especially
+admired&mdash;&ldquo;Episode in the Campaign of Russia&rdquo; (1836), the
+&ldquo;Passage of the Rhine by Moreau&rdquo; (1837), &ldquo;Wounded Soldiers
+Halting in a Ravine&rdquo; (1843). Besides the military subjects in
+which he peculiarly delighted, and which found an energetic
+response in the popular heart, and kept alive a feeling of regret
+for the recent past of the French nation and discontent with
+the present,&mdash;a feeling which increased upon the artist himself
+towards the close of his career,&mdash;Charlet designed many subjects
+of town life and peasant life, the ways of children, &amp;c., with much
+wit and whim in the descriptive mottoes. One of the most
+famous sets is the &ldquo;Vie civile, politique, et militaire du Caporal
+Valentin,&rdquo; 50 lithographs, dating from 1838 to 1842. In 1838
+his health began to fail owing to an affection of the chest. He
+died in Paris on the 30th of October 1845. Charlet was an uncommonly
+tall man, with an expressive face, bantering and good
+natured; his character corresponded, full of boyish fun and
+high spirits, with manly independence, and a vein of religious
+feeling, and he was a hearty favourite among his intimates, one
+of whom was the painter Géricault. Charlet married in 1824, and
+two sons survived him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Charlet was published in 1856 by a military friend, De la
+Combe.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVILLE,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a town of north-eastern France, in the
+department of Ardennes, 151 m. N.E. of Paris on the Eastern
+railway. Pop. (1906) 19,693. Charleville is situated within
+a bend of the Meuse on its left bank, opposite Mézières, with
+which it is united by a suspension bridge. The town was founded
+in 1606 by Charles III. (Gonzaga), duke of Nevers, afterwards
+duke of Mantua, and is laid out on a uniform plan. Its central
+and most interesting portion is the Place Ducale, a large square
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page946" id="page946"></a>946</span>
+surrounded by old houses with high-pitched roofs, the porches
+being arranged so as to form a continuous arcade; in the centre
+there is a fountain surmounted by a statue of the duke Charles.
+A handsome church in the Romanesque style and the other public
+buildings date from the 19th century. An old mill, standing on
+the bank of the river, dates from the early years of the
+town&rsquo;s existence. On the right bank of the Meuse is Mont
+Olympe, with the ruins of a fortress dismantled under Louis XIV.
+Charleville, which shares with Mézières the administrative
+institutions of the department of Ardennes, has tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of
+trade-arbitrators and lycées and training colleges for both sexes.
+Its chief industries are metal-founding and the manufacture of
+nails, anvils, tools and other iron goods, and brush-making;
+leather-working and sugar-refining, and the making of bricks and
+clay pipes are also carried on.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANÇOIS XAVIER DE<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (1682-1761),
+French Jesuit traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin on
+the 29th of October 1682. At the age of sixteen he entered the
+Society of Jesus; and at the age of twenty-three was sent to
+Canada, where he remained for four years as professor at Quebec.
+He then returned and became professor of belles lettres at home,
+and travelled on the errands of his society in various countries.
+In 1720-1722, under orders from the regent, he visited America
+for the second time, and went along the Great Lakes and down
+the Mississippi. In later years (1733-1755) he was one of the
+directors of the <i>Journal de Trévoux</i>. He died at La Flèche on
+the 1st of February 1761. His works, enumerated in the <i>Bibliographie
+des Prèrs de la Compagnie de Jesus</i> (by Carlos Sommervogel),
+fall into two groups. The first contains his <i>Histoire de
+l&rsquo;établissement, du progrès et de la décadence du Christianisme
+dans l&rsquo;empire du Japon</i> (Rouen, 1715; English trans. <i>History
+of the Church of Japan</i>, 1715), and his <i>Histoire et description
+générale du Japon</i> (1736), a compilation chiefly from Kämpfer.
+The second group includes his historical work on America:
+<i>Histoire de l&rsquo;Isle Espagnole ou de Saint Domingue</i> (1730), based
+on manuscript memoirs of P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers and original
+sources; <i>Histoire de Paraguay</i> (1756); <i>Vie de la Mère Marie
+de l&rsquo;Incarnation, institutrice et première supérieure des Urselines
+de la Nouvelle-France</i> (1724); <i>Histoire et description générale
+de la Nouvelle-France</i> (1744; in English 1769; tr. J.G.
+Shea, 1866-1872), a work of capital importance for Canadian
+history.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLEVOIX,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Charlevoix
+county, Michigan, U.S.A., 16 m. E.S.E. of Petoskey, on Lake
+Michigan and Pine Lake, which are connected by Pine river and
+Round Lake. Pop. (1890) 1496; (1900) 2079; (1904) 2395;
+(1910) 2420. It is on the main line of the Père Marquette
+railway, and during the summer season is served by lake steamers.
+The village is best known as a summer resort; it is built on bluffs
+and on a series of terraces rising from Round and Pine lakes and
+affording extensive views; and there are a number of attractive
+summer residences. Charlevoix is an important hardwood
+lumber port, and the principal industries are the manufacture
+of lumber and of cement; fishing (especially for lake trout and
+white fish); the raising of sugar beets; and the manufacture
+of rustic and fancy wood-work. Charlevoix was settled about
+1866, and was incorporated as a village in 1879.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTE,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Mecklenburg
+county, North Carolina, U.S.A., situated on Sugar Creek, in
+the south-west part of the state, about 175 m. south-west of
+Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 11,557; (1900) 18,091, of whom 7151
+were negroes; (1910 census) 34,014. It is served by the
+Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways. Among the
+public buildings are a fine city hall, court-house, Federal and
+Young Men&rsquo;s Christian Association buildings, and a Carnegie
+library; several hospitals: St Peter&rsquo;s (Episcopal) for whites,
+Good Samaritan (Episcopal) for negroes, Mercy General (Roman
+Catholic) and a Presbyterian. The city is the seat of Elizabeth
+College and Conservatory of Music (1897), a non-sectarian
+institution for women, of the Presbyterian College for women,
+and of Biddle University (Presbyterian) for negroes, established
+in 1867. There is a United States assay office, established as a
+branch mint in 1837, during the days of North Carolina&rsquo;s great
+importance as a gold producing state, and closed from 1861 to
+1869. The city has large cotton, clothing, and knitting mills,
+and manufactories of cotton-seed oil, tools, machinery, fertilizers
+and furniture. The total value of its factory products was
+$4,849,630 in 1905. There are large electric power plants in
+and near the city. Printing and publishing are of some importance:
+Charlotte is the publication headquarters of the
+African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; and several textile
+trade journals and two medical periodicals are published here.
+The water-works are owned by the municipality. Charlotte
+was settled about 1750 and was incorporated in 1768. Here
+in May 1775 was adopted the &ldquo;Mecklenburg Declaration of
+Independence&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">North Carolina</a></span>), and in honour of its
+signers there is a monument in front of the court-house. Charlotte
+was occupied in September 1780 by Cornwallis, who left it after
+learning of the battle of King&rsquo;s Mountain, and subsequently
+it became the principal base and rendezvous of General Greene.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTENBURG,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the kingdom
+of Prussia, on the Spree, lying immediately west of Berlin,
+of which it forms practically the entire western suburb. The
+earlier name of the town was Lietzenburg. Pop. (1890) 76,859;
+(1900) 189,290; (1905) 237,231. It is governed by a council
+of 94 members. The central part of the town is connected with
+Berlin by a magnificent avenue, the Charlottenburger Chaussee,
+which runs from the Brandenburger Tor through the whole
+length of the Tiergarten. Although retaining its own municipal
+government, Charlottenburg, together with the adjacent suburban
+towns of Schoneberg and Rixdorf, was included in 1900 in the
+police district of the capital. The Schloss, built in 1696 for
+the electress Sophie Charlotte, queen of the elector Frederick,
+afterwards King Frederick I., after whom the town was named,
+contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. In the
+grounds stands a granite mausoleum, the work of Karl Friedrich
+Schinkel, with beautiful white marble recumbent statues of
+Frederick William III. and his queen Louise by Christian
+Daniel Rauch, and also those of the emperor William I. and
+the empress Augusta by Erdmann Encke. It was in the Schloss
+that the emperor Frederick III. took over the reins of government
+in 1888, and here he resided for nearly the whole of his
+three months&rsquo; reign. The town contains an equestrian statue
+of Frederick. Of public buildings, the famous technical academy
+and the Kaiser Wilhelm memorial church are referred to in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berlin</a></span>. In Charlottenburg is the Physikalisch-technische
+Reichsanstalt, a state institution for the carrying out of scientific
+experiments and measurements, and for testing instruments of
+precision, materials, &amp;c. It was established in 1886 with money
+provided by Ernst Werner Siemens. In addition to the famous
+royal porcelain manufactory, Charlottenburg has many flourishing
+industries, notably iron-works grouped along the banks of
+the Spree. Its main thoroughfares are laid out on a spacious
+plan, while there are many quiet streets containing pretty villas.
+See F. Schultz, <i>Chronik von Charlottenburg</i> (Charlottenburg, 1888).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTESVILLE,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Albemarle
+county, Virginia, U.S.A., picturesquely situated on the Rivanna
+river, 96 m. (by rail) N.W. of Richmond in the beautiful Piedmont
+region. Pop. (1890) 5591; (1900) 6449 (2613 being negroes);
+(1910) 6765. The city is served by the Chesapeake &amp; Ohio, and the
+Southern railways, and is best known as the seat of the University
+of Virginia (<i>q.v.</i>), which was founded by Thomas Jefferson. Here
+are also the Rawlings Institute for girls, founded as the Albemarle
+Female Institute in 1857, and a University school. Monticello,
+Jefferson&rsquo;s home, is still standing about 2 m. south-east of the
+city on a fine hill, called Little Mountain until Jefferson Italianised
+the name. The south pavilion of the present house is the
+original brick building, one and a half storeys high, first occupied
+by Jefferson in 1770. He was buried near the house, which was
+sold by his daughter some years after his death. George Rogers
+Clark was born near Monticello. Charlottesville is a trade
+centre for the surrounding country; among its manufactures
+are woollen goods, overalls, agricultural implements and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page947" id="page947"></a>947</span>
+cigars and tobacco. The city owns its water-supply system
+and owns and operates its gas plant; an electric plant, privately
+owned, lights the streets and many houses. The site of the city
+was a part of the Castle Hill estate of Thomas Walker (1715-1794),
+an intimate friend of George Washington. The act
+establishing the town of Charlottesville was passed by the
+Assembly of Virginia in November 1762, when the name Charlottesville
+(in honour of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III.) first
+appeared. In 1779-1780 about 4000 of Burgoyne&rsquo;s troops,
+surrendered under the &ldquo;Convention&rdquo; of Saratoga, were
+quartered here; in October 1780 part of them were sent to
+Lancaster, Pa., and later the rest were sent north. In June
+1781 Tarleton raided Charlottesville and the vicinity, nearly
+captured Thomas Jefferson, and destroyed the public records
+and some arms and ammunition. In 1888 Charlottesville was
+chartered as a city administratively independent of the county.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARLOTTETOWN,<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> a city of Canada, the capital of Prince
+Edward Island, situated in Queen&rsquo;s county, on Hillsborough
+river. Pop. (1901) 12,080. It has a good harbour, and the
+river is navigable by large vessels for several miles. The export
+trade of the island centres here, and the city has regular communication
+by steamer with the chief American and Canadian ports.
+Besides the government buildings and the court-house, it
+contains numerous churches, the Prince of Wales College,
+supported by the province, the Roman Catholic college of St
+Dunstan&rsquo;s and a normal school; among its manufactures are
+woollen goods, lumber, canned goods, and foundry products.
+The head office and workshops of the Prince Edward Island
+railway are situated here. The town was founded in 1750 by the
+French under the name of Port la Joie, but under British rule
+changed its name in honour of the queen of George III.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARM<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (through the Fr. from the Lat. <i>carmen</i>, a song), an
+incantation, verses sung with supposed magical results, hence
+anything possessing powers of bringing good luck or averting
+evil, particularly articles worn with that purpose, such as an
+amulet. It is thus used of small trinkets attached to bracelets
+or chains. The word is also used, figuratively, of fascinating
+qualities of feature, voice or character.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DÉSIRÉ<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;), French
+traveller and archaeologist, was born in Fleurie (Rhône), on the
+2nd of May 1828. He studied at the Lycée Charlemagne, in
+1850 became a teacher in New Orleans, Louisiana, and there
+became acquainted with John Lloyd Stephens&rsquo;s books of travel
+in Yucatan. He travelled in Mexico, under a commission from
+the French ministry of education, in 1857-1861; in Madagascar
+in 1863; in South America, particularly Chile and Argentina, in
+1875; and in Java and Australia in 1878. In 1880-1883 he
+again visited the ruined cities of Mexico. Pierre Lorillard of
+New York contributed to defray the expense of this expedition,
+and Charnay named a great ruined city near the Guatemalan
+boundary line Ville Lorillard in his honour. Charnay went to
+Yucatan in 1886. The more important of his publications are
+<i>Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage</i> (1863), being his
+personal report on the expedition of 1857-61, of which the
+official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc&rsquo;s <i>Cités et ruines
+americaines: Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal
+</i> (1863), vol. 19 of <i>Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les
+Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i> (1885; English translation,
+<i>The Ancient Cities of the New World,</i> 1887, by Mmes. Gonino
+and Conant); a romance, <i>Une Princesse indienne avant la
+conquête</i> (1888); <i>À travers les forêts vierges</i> (1890); and <i>Manuscrit
+Ramirez: Histoire de I&rsquo;origine des Indiens qui habitent la
+Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions</i> (1903). He translated
+Cortez&rsquo;s letters into French, under the title <i>Lettres de Fernand
+Cortes à Charles-quint sur la découverte et la conquête du Mexique</i>
+(1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and considered
+the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because
+of observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration,
+Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNEL HOUSE<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>carnarium</i>), a place for depositing
+the bones which might be thrown up in digging graves.
+Sometimes, as at Gloucester, Hythe and Ripon, it was a portion
+of the crypt; sometimes, as at Old St Paul&rsquo;s and Worcester
+(both now destroyed), it was a separate building in the churchyard;
+sometimes chantry chapels were attached to these buildings.
+Viollet-le-Duc has given two very curious examples of
+such <i>ossuaires</i> (as the French call them)&mdash;one from Fleurance
+(Gers), the other from Faouët (Finistère).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCK, JOB<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (d. 1693), English founder of Calcutta,
+went out to India in 1655 or 1656, apparently not in the East
+India Company&rsquo;s service, but soon joined it. He was stationed
+at Cossimbazar, and subsequently at Patna. In 1685 he became
+chief agent at Hugli. Being besieged there by the Mogul viceroy
+of Bengal, he put the company&rsquo;s goods and servants on board
+his light vessels and dropped down the river 27 m. to the village
+of Sutanati, a place well chosen for the purpose of defence, which
+occupied the site of what is now Calcutta. It was only, however,
+at the third attempt that Charnock finally settled down at this
+spot, and the selection of the future capital of India was entirely
+due to his stubborn resolution. He was a silent morose man, not
+popular among his contemporaries, but &ldquo;always a faithfull Man
+to the Company.&rdquo; He is said to have married a Hindu widow.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCK<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Chernock</span>), <span class="bold">ROBERT</span> (c.1663-1696), English
+conspirator, belonged to a Warwickshire family, and was educated
+at Magdalen College, Oxford, becoming a fellow of his
+college and a Roman Catholic priest. When in 1687 the dispute
+arose between James II. and the fellows of Magdalen over the
+election of a president Charnock favoured the first royal nominee,
+Anthony Farmer, and also the succeeding one, Samuel Parker,
+bishop of Oxford. Almost alone among the fellows he was not
+driven out in November 1687, and he became dean and then
+vice-president of the college under the new regime, but was
+expelled in October 1688. Residing at the court of the Stuarts
+in France, or conspiring in England, Charnock and Sir George
+Barclay appear to have arranged the details of the unsuccessful
+attempt to kill William III. near Turnham Green in February
+1696, Barclay escaped, but Charnock was arrested, was tried
+and found guilty, and was hanged on the 18th of March 1696.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNOCKITE,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a series of foliated igneous rocks of wide
+distribution and great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar
+and Africa. The name was given by Dr T.H. Holland from the
+fact that the tombstone of Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta,
+is made of a block of this rock. The charnockite series includes
+rocks of many different types, some being acid and rich in quartz
+and microcline, others basic and full of pyroxene and olivine, while
+there are also intermediate varieties corresponding mineralogically
+to norites, quartz-norites and diorites. A special
+feature, recurring in many members of the group, is the presence
+of strongly pleochroic, reddish or green hypersthene. Many of
+the minerals of these rocks are &ldquo;schillerized,&rdquo; as they contain
+minute platy or rod-shaped enclosures, disposed parallel to
+certain crystallographic planes or axes. The reflection of light
+from the surfaces of these enclosures gives the minerals often
+a peculiar appearance, <i>e.g.</i> the quartz is blue and opalescent, the
+felspar has a milky shimmer like moonshine, the hypersthene has
+a bronzy metalloidal gleam. Very often the different rock types
+occur in close association as one set forms bands alternating with
+another set, or veins traversing it, and where one facies appears the
+others also usually are found. The term charnockite consequently
+is not the name of a rock, but of an assemblage of rock
+types, connected in their origin because arising by differentiation
+of the same parent magma. The banded structure which these
+rocks commonly present in the field is only in a small measure due
+to crushing, but is to a large extent original, and has been produced
+by fluxion in a viscous crystallizing intrusive magma, together
+with differentiation or segregation of the mass into bands of different
+chemical and mineralogical composition. There have also
+been, of course, earth movements acting on the solid rock at a
+later time and injection of dikes both parallel to and across the
+primary foliation. In fact, the history of the structures of the
+charnockite series is the history of the most primitive gneisses
+in all parts of the world, for which we cannot pretend to have
+as yet any thoroughly satisfactory explanations to offer. A
+striking fact is the very wide distribution of rocks of this group
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page948" id="page948"></a>948</span>
+in the southern hemisphere; but they also, or rocks very similar
+to them, occur in Norway, France, Germany, Scotland and
+North America, though in these countries they have been mostly
+described as pyroxene granulites, pyroxene gneisses, anorthosites,
+&amp;c. They are usually regarded as being of Archean age (pre-Cambrian),
+and in most cases this can be definitely proved,
+though not in all. It is astonishing to find that in spite of their
+great age their minerals are often in excellent preservation. In
+India they form the Nilgiri Hills, the Shevaroys and part of the
+Western Ghats, extending southward to Cape Comorin and reappearing
+in Ceylon. Although they are certainly for the most
+part igneous gneisses (or orthogneisses), rocks occur along with
+them, such as marbles, scapolite limestones, and corundum rocks,
+which were probably of sedimentary origin.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARNWOOD FOREST,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> an upland tract in the N.-W. of
+Leicestershire, England. It is undulating, rocky, picturesque,
+and in great part barren, though there are some extensive tracts
+of woodland; its elevation is generally 600 ft. and upwards, the
+area exceeding this height being about 6100 acres. The loftiest
+point, Bardon Hill, is 912 ft. On its western flank lies a coalfield,
+with Coalville and other mining towns, and granite and hone-stones
+are worked.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHAROLLES,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a town of east-central France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Saône-et-Loire, situated
+at the confluence of the Semence and the Arconce, 39 m. W.N.W.
+of Mâcon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3228. It has
+a sub-prefecture, tribunals of primary instance and commerce,
+and a communal college. There are stone quarries in the vicinity;
+the town manufactures pottery, and is the centre for trade in the
+famous breed of Charolais cattle and in agricultural products.
+The ruins of the castle of the counts of Charolais occupy the
+summit of a hill in the immediate vicinity of the town. Charolles
+was the capital of Charolais, an old division of France, which
+from the early 14th century gave the title of count to its possessors.
+In 1327 the countship passed by marriage to the house of
+Armagnac, and in 1390 it was sold to Philip of Burgundy. After
+the death of Charles the Bold, who in his youth had borne the
+title of count of Charolais, it was seized by Louis XI. of France,
+but in 1493 it was ceded by Charles VIII. to Maximilian of
+Austria, the representative of the Burgundian family. Ultimately
+passing to the Spanish kings, it became for a considerable
+period an object of dispute between France and Spain, until at
+length in 1684 it was assigned to the great Condé, a creditor of
+the king of Spain. It was united to the French crown in 1771.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARON,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> in Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and Nyx
+(Night). It was his duty to ferry over the Styx (or Acheron)
+those souls of the deceased who had duly received the rites of
+burial, in payment for which service he received an obol, which
+was placed in the mouth of the corpse. It was only exceptionally
+that he carried living passengers (<i>Aeneid</i>, vi. 295 ff). As
+ferryman of the dead he is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod,
+and in this character is probably of Egyptian origin. He is
+represented as a morose and grisly old man in a black sailor&rsquo;s
+cape. By the Etruscans he was also supposed to be a kind of
+executioner of the powers of the nether world, who, armed with
+an enormous hammer, was associated with Mars in the slaughter
+of battle. Finally he came to be regarded as the image of death
+and the world below. As such he survives in the Charos or
+Charontas of the modern Greeks&mdash;a black bird which darts down
+upon its prey, or a winged horseman who fastens his victims to
+the saddle and bears them away to the realms of the dead.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.A. Ambrosch, <i>De Charonte Etrusco</i> (1837), a learned and
+exhaustive monograph; B. Schmidt, <i>Volksleben der Neugriechen
+</i> (1871), i. 222-251; O. Waser, <i>Charon, Charun, Charos, mythologisch-archaologische
+Monographie</i> (1898); S. Rocco, &ldquo;Sull&rsquo; origine del
+Mito di Caronte,&rdquo; in <i>Rivista di storia antica,</i> ii. (1897), who considers
+Charon to be an old name for the sun-god Helios embarking during
+the night for the East.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARONDAS,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a celebrated lawgiver of Catina in Sicily.
+His date is uncertain. Some make him a pupil of Pythagoras
+(c. 580-504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>); but all that can be said is that he was earlier
+than Anaxilaus of Rhegium (494-476), since his laws were in
+use amongst the Rhegians until they were abolished by that
+tyrant. His laws, originally written in verse, were adopted by
+the other Chalcidic colonies in Sicily and Italy. According to
+Aristotle there was nothing special about these laws, except
+that Charondas introduced actions for perjury; but he speaks
+highly of the precision with which they were drawn up (<i>Politics,
+</i> ii. 12). The story that Charondas killed himself because he
+entered the public assembly wearing a sword, which was a
+violation of his own law, is also told of Diocles and Zaleucus
+(Diod. Sic. xii. 11-19). The fragments of laws attributed to him
+by Stobaeus and Diodorus are of late (neo-Pythagorean) origin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bentley, <i>On Phalaris</i>, which (according to B. Niese <i>s.v.</i> in
+Pauly, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>) contains what is even now the best account
+of Charondas; A. Holm, <i>Geschichte Siciliens</i>, i.; F.D. Gerlach,
+<i>Zaleukos, Charondas, und Pythagoras</i> (1858); also art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARPENTIER, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1620-1702), French archaeologist
+and man of letters, was born in Paris on the 15th of
+February 1620. He was intended for the bar, but was employed
+by Colbert, who had determined on the foundation of a French
+East India Company, to draw up an explanatory account of the
+project for Louis XIV. Charpentier regarded as absurd the use
+of Latin in monumental inscriptions, and to him was entrusted
+the task of supplying the paintings of Lebrun in the Versailles
+Gallery with appropriate legends. His verses were so indifferent
+that they had to be replaced by others, the work of Racine and
+Boileau, both enemies of his. Charpentier in his <i>Excellence de la
+langue française</i> (1683) had anticipated Perrault in the famous
+academical dispute concerning the relative merit of the ancients
+and moderns. He is credited with a share in the production of
+the magnificent series of medals that commemorate the principal
+events of the age of Louis XIV. Charpentier, who was
+long in receipt of a pension of 1200 livres from Colbert, was
+erudite and ingenious, but he was always heavy and commonplace.
+His other works include a <i>Vie de Socrate</i> (1650), a translation
+of the <i>Cyropaedia</i> of Xenophon (1658), and the <i>Traité de
+la peinture parlante</i> (1684).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARRIÈRE, AGNÈS ISABELLE ÉMILIE DE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1740-1805),
+Swiss author, was Dutch by birth, her maiden name being
+van Tuyll van Seeroskerken van Zuylen. She married in 1771
+her brother&rsquo;s tutor, M. de Charrière, and settled with him at
+Colombier, near Lausanne. She made her name by the publication
+of her <i>Lettres neuchâteloises</i> (Amsterdam, 1784), offering a
+simple and attractive picture of French manners. This, with
+<i>Caliste, ou lettres écrites de Lausanne</i> (2 vols. Geneva, 1785-1788),
+was analysed and highly praised by Sainte-Beuve in his <i>Portraits
+de femmes</i> and in vol. in of his <i>Portraits littéraires.</i> She wrote
+a number of other novels, and some political tracts; but is
+perhaps best remembered by her liaison with Benjamin Constant
+between 1787 and 1796.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Her letters to Constant were printed in the <i>Revue suisse</i> (April
+1844), her <i>Lettres-Mémoires</i> by E.H. Gaullieur in the same review
+in 1857, and all the available material is utilized in a monograph
+on her and her work by P. Godet, <i>Madame de Charrière et ses amis</i>
+(2 vols., Geneva, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARRON, PIERRE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1541-1603), French philosopher, born
+in Paris, was one of the twenty-five children of a bookseller.
+After studying law he practised at Paris as an advocate, but,
+having met with no great success, entered the church, and soon
+gained the highest popularity as a preacher, rising to the dignity
+of canon, and being appointed preacher in ordinary to Marguerite,
+wife of Henry IV. of Navarre. About 1588, he determined to
+fulfil a vow which he had once made to enter a cloister; but
+being rejected by the Carthusians and the Celestines, he held
+himself absolved, and continued to follow his old profession.
+He delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year
+passed to Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with
+Montaigne. At the death of Montaigne, in 1592, Charron was
+requested in his will to bear the Montaigne arms.</p>
+
+<p>In 1594 Charron published (at first anonymously, afterwards
+under the name of &ldquo;Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy
+Faith,&rdquo; and also, in 1594, in his own name) <i>Les Trois Verités</i>, in
+which by methodical and orthodox arguments, he seeks to prove
+that there is a God and a true religion, that the true religion is
+the Christian, and that the true church is the Roman Catholic.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page949" id="page949"></a>949</span>
+The last book (which is three-fourths of the whole work) is
+chiefly an answer to the famous Protestant work entitled <i>Le
+Traité de l&rsquo;Église</i> by Du Plessis Mornay; and in the second
+edition (1595) there is an elaborate reply to an attack made on
+the third <i>Vérité</i> by a Protestant writer. <i>Les Trois Vérités</i> ran
+through several editions, and obtained for its author the favour
+of the bishop of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and
+theological canon. It also led to his being chosen deputy to the
+general assembly of the clergy, of which body he became chief
+secretary. It was followed in 1600 by <i>Discours chrestiens</i>, a
+book of sermons, similar in tone, half of which treat of the
+Eucharist. In 1601 Charron published at Bordeaux his third
+and most remarkable work&mdash;the famous <i>De la sagesse</i>, a complete
+popular system of moral philosophy. Usually, and so far
+correctly, it is coupled with the Essays of Montaigne, to which
+the author is under very extensive obligations. There is, however,
+distinct individuality in the book. It is specially interesting
+from the time when it appeared, and the man by whom it was
+written. Conspicuous as a champion of orthodoxy against
+atheists, Jews and Protestants&mdash;without resigning this position,
+and still upholding practical orthodoxy&mdash;Charron suddenly
+stood forth as the representative of the most complete intellectual
+scepticism. The <i>De la sagesse</i>, which represented a considerable
+advance on the standpoint of the <i>Trois Vérités</i>, brought upon its
+author the most violent attacks, the chief being by the Jesuit
+François Garasse (1585-1631), who described him as a &ldquo;brutal
+atheist.&rdquo; It received, however, the warm support of Henry IV.
+and of the president Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622). A second
+edition was soon called for. In 1603, notwithstanding much
+opposition, it began to appear; but only a few pages had been
+printed when Charron died suddenly in the street of apoplexy.
+His death was regarded as a judgment for his impiety.</p>
+
+<p>Charron&rsquo;s psychology is sensationalist. With sense all our
+knowledge commences, and into sense all may be resolved.
+The soul, located in the ventricles of the brain, is affected by the
+temperament of the individual; the dry temperament produces
+acute intelligence; the moist, memory; the hot, imagination.
+Dividing the intelligent soul into these three faculties, he shows&mdash;after
+the manner which Francis Bacon subsequently adopted&mdash;what
+branches of science correspond with each. With regard
+to the nature of the soul he merely quotes opinions. The
+belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs,
+but the most feebly supported by reason. As to man&rsquo;s power
+of attaining truth his scepticism is decided; and he plainly
+declares that none of our faculties enable us to distinguish
+truth from error. In comparing man with the lower animals,
+Charron insists that there are no breaks in nature. The latter
+have reason; nay, they have virtue; and, though inferior in
+some respects, in others they are superior. The estimate formed
+of man is not, indeed, flattering. His most essential qualities
+are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, presumption. Upon this
+view of human nature and the human lot Charron founds his
+moral system. Equally sceptical with Montaigne, and decidedly
+more cynical, he is distinguished by a deeper and sterner tone.
+Man comes into the world to endure; let him endure then, and
+that in silence. Our compassion should be like that of
+God, who succours the suffering without sharing in their pain.
+Avoid vulgar errors; cherish universal sympathy. Let no passion
+or attachment become too powerful for restraint. Follow
+the customs and laws which surround you. Morality has no
+connexion with religion. Reason is the ultimate criterion.</p>
+
+<p>Special interest attaches to Charron&rsquo;s treatment of religion.
+He insists on the diversities in religions; he dwells also on what
+would indicate a common origin. All grow from small beginnings
+and increase by a sort of popular contagion; all teach that God
+is to be appeased by prayers, presents, vows, but especially, and
+most irrationally, by human suffering. Each is said by its
+devotees to have been given by inspiration. In fact, however,
+a man is a Christian, Jew, or Mahommedan, before he knows he
+is a man. One religion is built upon another. But while he
+openly declares religion to be &ldquo;strange to common sense,&rdquo;
+the practical result at which Charron arrives is that one is not
+to sit in judgment on his faith, but to be &ldquo;simple and obedient,&rdquo;
+and to allow himself to be led by public authority. This is one
+rule of wisdom with regard to religion; and another equally
+important is to avoid superstition, which he boldly defines as
+the belief that God is like a hard judge who, eager to find fault,
+narrowly examines our slightest act, that He is revengeful and
+hard to appease, and that therefore He must be flattered and
+importuned, and won over by pain and sacrifice. True piety,
+which is the first of duties, is, on the other hand, the knowledge
+of God and of one&rsquo;s self, the latter knowledge being necessary
+to the former. It is the abasing of man, the exalting of God,&mdash;the
+belief that what He sends is all good, and that all the bad is
+from ourselves. It leads to spiritual worship; for external
+ceremony is merely for our advantage, not for His glory. Charron
+is thus the founder of modern secularism. His political views
+are neither original nor independent. He pours much hackneyed
+scorn on the common herd, declares the sovereign to be the
+source of law, and asserts that popular freedom is dangerous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A summary and defence of the <i>Sagesse</i>, written shortly before his
+death, appeared in 1606. In 1604 his friend Michel de la Rochemaillet
+prefixed to an edition of the <i>Sagesse</i> a Life, which depicts
+Charron as a most amiable man of purest character. His complete
+works, with this Life, were published in 1635. An excellent
+abridgment of the <i>Sagesse</i> is given in Tennemann&rsquo;s <i>Philosophie</i>,
+vol. ix.; an edition with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820.</p>
+
+<p>See Liebscher, <i>Charron u. sein Werk, De la sagesse</i> (Leipzig, 1890);
+H.T. Buckle, <i>Introd. to History of Civilization in England</i>, vol. ii. 19;
+Abbé Lezat, <i>De la prédication sous Henri IV.</i> c. vi.; J.M. Robertson,
+<i>Short History of Free Thought</i> (London, 1906), vol. ii. p. 19; J.
+Owen, <i>Skeptics of the French Renaissance</i> (1893); Lecky, <i>Rationalism
+in Europe</i> (1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARRUA,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a tribe of South American Indians, wild and
+warlike, formerly ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil.
+They were dark and heavily built, fought on horses and used
+the bolas or weighted lasso. They were always at war with
+the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by them in
+1516. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern
+Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHART<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>carta, charta,</i> a map). A chart is a marine
+map intended specially for the use of seamen (for history, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Map</a></span>), though the word is also used loosely for other varieties
+of graphical representation. The marine or nautical chart is
+constructed for the purpose of ascertaining the position of a
+ship with reference to the land, of finding the direction in which
+she has to steer, the distance to sail or steam, and the hidden
+dangers to avoid. The surface of the sea on charts is studded
+with numerous small figures. These are known as the <i>soundings</i>,
+indicating in fathoms or in feet (as shown upon the title of the
+chart), at low water of ordinary spring tides, the least depth of
+water through which the ship may be sailing. Charts show the
+nature of the unseen bottom of the sea&mdash;with the irregularities
+in its character in the shape of hidden rocks or sand-banks, and
+give information of the greatest importance to the mariner.
+No matter how well the land maybe surveyed or finely delineated,
+unless the soundings are shown a chart is of little use.</p>
+
+<p>The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued
+by the hydrographic office. This department of the admiralty
+was established under Earl Spencer by an order in council in
+1795, consisting of the hydrographer, one assistant and a
+draughtsman. The first hydrographer was Alexander Dalrymple,
+a gentleman in the East India Company&rsquo;s civil service. From
+this small beginning arose the important department which is
+now the main source of the supply of hydrographical information
+to the whole of the maritime world. The charts prepared by the
+officers and draughtsmen of the hydrographic office, and published
+by order of the lords commissioners of the admiralty, are
+compiled chiefly from the labours of British naval officers employed
+in the surveying service; and also from valuable contributions
+received from time to time from officers of the royal
+navy and mercantile marine. In addition to the work of British
+sailors, the labours of other nations have been collected and
+utilized. Charts of the coasts of Europe have naturally been
+taken from the surveys made by the various nations, and in
+charts of other quarters of the world considerable assistance has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page950" id="page950"></a>950</span>
+been received from the labours of French, Spanish, Dutch and
+American surveyors. Important work is done by the Hydrographic
+Office of the American navy, and the U.S. Coast and
+Geodetic Survey. The admiralty charts are published with
+the view of meeting the wants of the sailor in all parts of the
+world. They may be classed under five heads, viz. ocean, general,
+and coast charts, harbour plans and physical charts; for
+instance, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, approaches to
+Plymouth, Plymouth Sound and wind and current charts. The
+harbour plans and coast sheets are constructed on the simple
+principles of plane trigonometry by the surveying officers. (See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Surveying</a></span>: <i>Nautical</i>.) That important feature, the depth of
+the sea, is obtained by the ordinary sounding line or wire; all
+soundings are reduced to low water of ordinary spring tides.
+The times and heights of the tides, with the direction and velocity
+of the tidal streams, are also ascertained. These MS. charts
+are forwarded to the admiralty, and form the foundation of the
+hydrography of the world. The ocean and general charts are
+compiled and drawn at the hydrographic office, and as originals,
+existing charts, latest surveys and maps, have to be consulted,
+their compilation requires considerable experience and is a painstaking
+work, for the compiler has to decide what to omit, what
+to insert, and to arrange the necessary names in such a manner
+that while full information is given, the features of the coast are
+not interfered with. As a very slight error in the position of a
+light or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might lead to grave disaster,
+every symbol on the admiralty chart has been delineated with
+great care and consideration, and no pains are spared in the
+effort to lay before the public the labours of the nautical surveyors
+and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world;
+reducing their various styles into a comprehensive system
+furnishing the intelligent seaman with an intelligible guide,
+which common industry will soon enable him to appreciate and
+take full advantage of.</p>
+
+<p>As certain abbreviations are used in the charts, attention is
+called to the &ldquo;signs and abbreviations adopted in the charts
+published by the admiralty.&rdquo; Certain parts of the world are still
+unsurveyed, or not surveyed in sufficient detail for the requirements
+that steamships now demand. Charts of these localities
+are therefore drawn in a light hair-line and unfinished manner, so
+that the experienced seaman sees at a glance that less trust is to
+be reposed upon charts drawn in this manner. The charts given
+to the public are only correct up to the time of their actual
+publication. They have to be kept up to date. Recent publications
+by foreign governments, newly reported dangers, changes
+in character or position of lights and buoys, are as soon as
+practicable inserted on the charts and due notice given of
+such insertions in the admiralty &ldquo;Notices to Mariners.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The charts are supplemented by the <i>Admiralty Pilots</i>, or books
+of sailing directions, with tide tables, and lists of lighthouses, light
+vessels, &amp;c., for the coasts to which a ship may be bound. The
+physical charts are the continuation of the work so ably begun by
+Maury of the United States and FitzRoy of the British navy,
+and give the sailor a good general idea of the world&rsquo;s ocean winds
+and currents at the different periods of the year; the probable
+tracks and seasons of the tropical revolving or cyclonic storms; the
+coastal winds; the extent or months of the rainy seasons; localities
+and times where ice may be fallen in with; and, lastly, the direction
+and force of the stream and drift currents of the oceans. </p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTER<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (Lat. <i>charta, carta,</i> from Gr. <span class="grk" title="chartês">&#967;&#940;&#961;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>, originally for
+<i>papyrus</i>, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and
+from this material to the document, in O. Eng. <i>boc</i>, book), a
+written instrument, contract or convention by which cessions
+of sales of property or of rights and privileges are confirmed and
+held, and which may be produced by the grantees in proof of
+lawful possession. The use of the word for any written document
+is obsolete in England, but is preserved in France, <i>e.g.</i> the
+École des Chartes at Paris. In feudal times charters of privileges
+were granted, not only by the crown, but by mesne lords both
+lay and ecclesiastical, as well to communities, such as boroughs,
+gilds and religious foundations, as to individuals. In modern
+usage grants by charter have become all but obsolete, though in
+England this form is still used in the incorporation by the crown
+of such societies as the British Academy.</p>
+
+<p>The grant of the Great Charter by King John in 1215 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Magna Carta</a></span>), which guaranteed the preservation of English
+liberties, led to a special association of the word with
+constitutional privileges, and so in modern times it has been
+applied to constitutions granted by sovereigns to their subjects, in
+contradistinction to those based on &ldquo;the will of the people.&rdquo;
+Such was the Charter (<i>Charte</i>) granted by Louis XVIII. to
+France in 1814. In Portugal the constitution granted by Dom
+Pedro in 1826 was called by the French party the &ldquo;Charter,&rdquo;
+while that devised by the Cortes in 1821 was known as the
+&ldquo;Constitution.&rdquo; Magna Carta also suggested to the English
+radicals in 1838 the name &ldquo;People&rsquo;s Charter,&rdquo; which they gave
+to their published programme of reforms (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chartism</a></span>). This
+association of the idea of liberty with the word charter led to its
+figurative use in the sense of freedom or licence. This is,
+however, rare; the most common use being in the phrase &ldquo;chartered
+libertine&rdquo; (Shakespeare, <i>Henry V.</i> Act i. Sc. 1) from the
+derivative verb &ldquo;to charter,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> to grant a charter. The common
+colloquialism &ldquo;to charter,&rdquo; in the sense of to take, or hire, is
+derived from the special use of &ldquo;to charter&rdquo; as to hire (a ship)
+by charter-party.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTERED COMPANIES.<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> A chartered company is a
+trading corporation enjoying certain rights and privileges, and
+bound by certain obligations under a special charter granted to
+it by the sovereign authority of the state, such charter defining
+and limiting those rights, privileges and obligations, and the
+localities in which they are to be exercised. Such companies
+existed in early times, but have undergone changes and
+modifications in accordance with the developments which have taken
+place in the economic history of the states where they have
+existed. In Great Britain the first trading charters were granted,
+not to English companies, which were then non-existent, but
+to branches of the Hanseatic League (<i>q.v.</i>), and it was not till
+1597 that England was finally relieved from the presence of a
+foreign chartered company. In that year Queen Elizabeth closed
+the steel-yard where Teutons had been established for 700 years.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of all English trading companies is to be sought
+in the Merchants of the Staple. They lingered on into the 18th
+century, but only as a name, for their business was solely to
+export English products which, as English manufactures grew,
+were wanted at home. Of all early English chartered companies,
+the &ldquo;Merchant Adventurers&rdquo; conducted its operations the most
+widely. Itself a development of very early trading gilds, at the
+height of its prosperity it employed as many as 50,000 persons in
+the Netherlands, and the enormous influence it was able to
+exercise undoubtedly saved Antwerp from the institution of the
+Inquisition within its walls in the time of Charles V. In the reign
+of Elizabeth British trade with the Netherlands reached in one
+year 12,000,000 ducats, and in that of James I. the company&rsquo;s
+yearly commerce with Germany and the Netherlands was as much
+as £1,000,000. Hamburg afterwards was its principal depot, and
+it became known as the &ldquo;Hamburg Company.&rdquo; In the &ldquo;Merchant
+Adventurers&rsquo;&rdquo; enterprises is to be seen the germ of the
+trading companies which had so remarkable a development in the
+16th and 17th centuries. These old regulated trade gilds passed
+gradually into joint-stock associations, which were capable of far
+greater extension, both as to the number of members and amount
+of stock, each member being only accountable for the amount of
+his own stock, and being able to transfer it at will to any other
+person.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the age of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts that
+the chartered company, in the modern sense of the term, had
+its rise. The discovery of the New World, and the opening out
+of fresh trading routes to the Indies, gave an extraordinary
+impulse to shipping, commerce and industrial enterprise throughout
+western Europe. The English, French and Dutch governments
+were ready to assist trade by the granting of charters to
+trading associations. It is to the &ldquo;Russia Company,&rdquo; which
+received its first charter in 1554, that Great Britain owed its
+first intercourse with an empire then almost unknown. The
+first recorded instance of a purely chartered company annexing
+territory is to be found in the action of this company in setting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page951" id="page951"></a>951</span>
+up a cross at Spitzbergen in 1613 with King James&rsquo;s arms upon it.
+Among other associations trading to the continent of Europe,
+receiving charters at this time, were the Turkey Company
+(Levant Co.) and the Eastland Company. Both the Russia
+and Turkey Companies had an important effect upon British
+relations with those empires. They maintained British influence
+in those countries, and even paid the expenses of the embassies
+which were sent out by the English government to their courts.
+The Russia Company carried on a large trade with Persia through
+Russian territory; but from various causes their business
+gradually declined, though the Turkey Company existed in
+name until 1825.</p>
+
+<p>The chartered companies which were formed during this period
+for trade with the Indies and the New World have had a more
+wide-reaching influence in history. The extraordinary career
+of the East India Company (<i>q.v.</i>) is dealt with elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Charters were given to companies trading to Guinea, Morocco,
+Guiana and the Canaries, but none of these enjoyed a very long
+or prosperous existence, principally owing to the difficulties
+caused by foreign competition. It is when we turn to North
+America that the importance of the chartered company, as a
+colonizing rather than a trading agency, is seen in its full
+development. The &ldquo;Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company,&rdquo; which still exists as a
+commercial concern, is dealt with under its own heading, but
+most of the thirteen British North American colonies were in
+their inception chartered companies very much in the modern
+acceptation of the term. The history of these companies will
+be found under the heading of the different colonies of which
+they were the origin. It is necessary, however, to bear in mind
+that two classes of charters are to be found in force among the
+early American colonies: (1) Those granted to trading associations,
+which were often useful when the colony was first founded,
+but which formed a serious obstacle to its progress when the
+country had become settled and was looking forward to
+commercial expansion; the existence of these charters then often
+led to serious conflicts between the grantees of the charter and
+the colonies; ultimately elective assemblies everywhere
+superseded control of trading companies. (2) The second class of
+charters were those granted to the settlers themselves, to protect
+them against the oppressions of the crown and the provincial
+governors. These were highly prized by the colonists.</p>
+
+<p>In France and Holland, no less than in England, the institution
+of chartered companies became a settled principle of the
+governments of those countries during the whole of the period in
+question. In France from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 of such
+companies came into existence, but after 1770, when the great
+<i>Compagnie des Indes orientales</i> went into liquidation, they were
+almost abandoned, and finally perished in the general sweeping
+away of privileges which followed on the outbreak of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>If we inquire into the economic ideas which induced the
+granting of charters to these earlier companies and animated
+their promoters, we shall find that they were entirely consistent
+with the general principles of government at the time and what
+were then held to be sound commercial views. Under the old
+régime everything was a matter of monopoly and privilege, and
+to this state of things the constitution of the old companies
+corresponded, the sovereign rights accorded to them being also
+quite in accordance with the views of the time. It would have
+been thought impossible then that private individuals could
+have found the funds or maintained the magnitude of such
+enterprises. It was only this necessity which induced statesmen
+like Colbert to countenance them, and Montesquieu took the
+same view (<i>Esprit des lois</i>, t. xx. c. 10). John de Witt&rsquo;s view
+was that such companies were not useful for colonization properly
+so called, because they want quick returns to pay their dividends.
+So, even in France and Holland, opinion was by no means
+settled as to their utility. In England historic protests were
+made against such monopolies, but the chartered companies
+were less exclusive in England than in either France or Holland,
+the governors of provinces almost always allowing strangers to
+trade on receiving some pecuniary inducement. French commercial
+companies were more privileged, exclusive and artificial
+than those in Holland and England. Those of Holland may be
+said to have been national enterprises. French companies
+rested more than did their rivals on false principles; they were
+more fettered by the royal power, and had less initiative of their
+own, and therefore had less chance of surviving. As an example
+of the kind of rules which prevented the growth of the French
+companies, it may be pointed out that no Protestants were
+allowed to take part in them. State subventions, rather than
+commerce or colonization, were often their object; but that has
+been a characteristic of French colonial enterprise at all times.</p>
+
+<p>Such companies, however, under the old commercial system
+could hardly have come into existence without exclusive privileges.
+Their existence might have been prolonged had the
+whole people in time been allowed the chance of participating
+in them.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up the causes of failure of the old chartered companies,
+they are to be attributed to (1) bad administration; (2) want
+of capital and credit; (3) bad economic organization; (4)
+distribution of dividends made prematurely or fictitiously.
+But those survived the longest which extended the most widely
+their privileges to outsiders. According to contemporary protests,
+they had a most injurious effect on the commerce of the
+countries where they had their rise. They were monopolies,
+and therefore, of course, obnoxious; and it is undoubted that
+the colonies they founded only became prosperous when they
+had escaped from their yoke.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that they contributed
+in no small degree to the commercial progress of their
+own states. They gave colonies to the mother country, and an
+impulse to the development of its fleet. In the case of England
+and Holland, the enterprise of the companies saved them from
+suffering from the monopolies of Spain and Portugal, and the wars
+of the English, and those of the Dutch in the Indies with Spain
+and Portugal, were paid for by the companies. They furnished
+the mother country with luxuries which, by the 18th century,
+had become necessaries. They offered a career for the younger
+sons of good families, and sometimes greatly assisted large and
+useful enterprises.</p>
+
+<p>During the last twenty years of the 19th century there was a
+great revival of the system of chartered companies in Great
+Britain. It is a feature of the general growth of interest in
+colonial expansion and commercial development which has
+made itself felt almost universally among European nations.
+Great Britain, however, alone has succeeded in establishing
+such companies as have materially contributed to the growth
+of her empire. These companies succeed or fail for reasons
+different from those which affected the chartered companies
+of former days, though there are points in common. Apart
+from causes inherent in the particular case of each company,
+which necessitates their being examined separately, recent
+experience leads us to lay down certain general principles
+regarding them. The modern companies are not like those of
+the 16th and 17th centuries. They are not privileged in the
+sense that those companies were. They are not monopolists;
+they have only a limited sovereignty, always being subject to
+the control of the home government. It is true that they have
+certain advantages given them, for without these advantages
+no capital would risk itself in the lands where they carry on their
+operations. They often have very heavy corresponding obligations,
+as will be seen in the case of one (the East Africa) where
+the obligations were too onerous for the company to discharge,
+though they were inseparable from its position. The charters
+of modern companies differ in two points strongly from those of
+the old: they contain clauses prohibiting any monopoly of
+trade, and they generally confer some special political rights
+directly under the control of the secretary of state. The political
+freedom of the old companies was much greater. In these
+charters state control has been made a distinguishing feature.
+It is to be exercised in almost all directions in which the companies
+may come into contact with matters political. Of course, it is
+inevitable in all disputes of the companies with foreign powers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page952" id="page952"></a>952</span>
+and is extended over all decrees of the company regarding the
+administration of its territories, the taxation of natives, and
+mining regulations. In all cases of dispute between the companies
+and the natives the secretary of state is <i>ex officio</i> the
+judge, and to the secretary of state (in the case of the South
+Africa Company) the accounts of administration have to be
+submitted for his approbation. It is deserving of notice that the
+British character of the company is insisted upon in each case
+in the charter which calls it into life. The crown always retains
+complete control over the company by reserving to itself the
+power of revoking the charter in case of the neglect of its stipulations.
+Special clauses were inserted in the charters of the British
+East Africa and South Africa Companies enabling the government
+to forfeit their charters if they did not promote the objects
+alleged as reasons for demanding a charter. This bound them
+still more strongly; and in the case of the South Africa Company
+the duration of the charter was fixed at twenty-five years.</p>
+
+<p>The chartered company of these days is therefore very strongly
+fixed within limits imposed by law on its political action. As a
+whole, however, very remarkable results have been achieved.
+This may be attributed in no small degree to the personality of
+the men who have had the supreme direction at home and abroad,
+and who have, by their social position and personal qualities,
+acquired the confidence of the public. With the exception of the
+Royal Niger Company, it would be incorrect to say that they
+have been financially successful, but in the domain of government
+generally it may be said that they have added vast territories to
+the British empire (in Africa about 1,700,000 sq. m.), and in these
+territories they have acted as a civilizing force. They have made
+roads, opened facilities for trade, enforced peace, and laid at all
+events the foundation of settled administration. It is not too
+much to say that they have often acted unselfishly for the benefit
+of the mother country and even humanity. We may instance the
+anti-slavery and anti-alcohol campaigns which have been carried
+on, the latter certainly being against the immediate pecuniary
+interests of the companies themselves. It must, of course, be
+recognized that to a certain extent this has been done under the
+influence of the home government. The occupation of Uganda
+certainly, and of the Nigerian territory and Rhodesia probably,
+will prove to have been rather for the benefit of posterity
+than of the companies which effected it. In the two cases where
+the companies have been bought out by the state, they
+have had no compensation for much that they have expended.
+In fact, it would have been impossible to take into account
+actual expenditure day by day, and the cost of wars. To use the
+expression of Sir William Mackinnon, the shareholders have
+been compelled in some cases to &ldquo;take out their dividends in
+philanthropy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The existence of such companies to-day is justified in certain
+political and economic conditions only. It may be highly desirable
+for the government to occupy certain territories, but political
+exigencies at home will not permit it to incur the expenditure, or
+international relations may make such an undertaking inexpedient
+at the time. In such a case the formation of a chartered
+company may be the best way out of the difficulty. But it has
+been demonstrated again and again that, directly, the company&rsquo;s
+interests begin to clash with those of foreign powers, the home
+government must assume a protectorate over its territories in
+order to simplify the situation and save perhaps disastrous
+collisions. So long as the political relations of such a company
+are with savages or semi-savages, it may be left free to act, but
+directly it becomes involved with a civilized power the state has
+(if it wishes to retain the territory) to acquire by purchase the
+political rights of the company, and it is obviously much easier to
+induce a popular assembly to grant money for the purpose of
+maintaining rights already existing than to acquire new ones.
+With the strict system of government supervision enforced by
+modern charters it is not easy for the state to be involved against
+its will in foreign complications. Economically such companies
+are also justifiable up to a certain point. When there is no other
+means of entering into commercial relations with remote and
+savage races save by enterprise of such magnitude that private
+individuals could not incur the risk involved, then a company
+may be well entrusted with special privileges for the purpose, as
+an inventor is accorded a certain protection by law by means of a
+patent which enables him to bring out his invention at a profit if
+there is anything in it. But such privileges should not be continued
+longer than is necessary for the purpose of reasonably
+recompensing the adventurers. A successful company, even
+when it has lost monopoly or privileges, has, by its command of
+capital and general resources, established so strong a position that
+private individuals or new companies can rarely compete with it
+successfully. That this is so is clearly shown in the case of the
+Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Company as at present constituted. In colonizing
+new lands these companies often act successfully. They have
+proved more potent than the direct action of governments.
+This may be seen in Africa, where France and England have of
+late acquired vast areas, but have developed them with very
+different results, acting from the opposite principles of private
+and state promotion of colonization. Apart from national
+characteristics, the individual has far more to gain under the
+British system of private enterprise. A strong point in favour of
+some of the British companies has been that their undertakings
+have been practically extensions of existing British colonies
+rather than entirely isolated ventures. But a chartered company
+can never be anything but a transition stage of colonization;
+sooner or later the state must take the lead. A company may act
+beneficially so long as a country is undeveloped, but as soon as it
+becomes even semi-civilized its conflicts with private interests
+become so frequent and serious that its authority has to make
+way for that of the central government.</p>
+
+<p>The companies which have been formed in France during
+recent years do not yet afford material for profitable study, for
+they have been subject to so much vexatious interference from
+home owing to lack of a fixed system of control sanctioned by
+government, that they have not been able, like the British, to
+develop along their own lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borneo</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nigeria</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brit. East Africa</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>; &amp;c.
+The following works deal with the subject of chartered companies
+generally: Bonnassieux, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce</i> (Paris,
+1892); Chailly-Bert, <i>Les Compagnies de colonisation sous l&rsquo;ancien
+régime</i> (Paris, 1898); Cawston and Keane, <i>The Early Chartered
+Companies</i> (London, 1896); W. Cunningham, <i>A History of British
+Industry and Commerce</i> (Cambridge, 1890, 1892); Egerton, <i>A Short
+History of British Colonial Policy</i> (London, 1897); J. Scott Keltie,
+<i>The Partition of Africa</i> (London, 1895); Leroy-Beaulieu, <i>De la
+colonisation chez les peuples modernes</i> (Paris, 1898); <i>Les Nouvelles
+Sociétés anglo-saxonnes</i> (Paris, 1897); MacDonald, <i>Select Charters
+illustrative of American History, 1606-1775</i> (New York, 1899);
+B.P. Poore, <i>Federal and State Constitutions,</i> &amp;c (Washington,
+1877; a more complete collection of American colonial charters);
+H.L. Osgood, <i>American Colonies in the 17th Cent.</i> (1904-7);
+Carton de Wiart, <i>Les Grandes Compagnies coloniales anglaises au 19me
+siècle</i> (Paris, 1899). Also see articles &ldquo;Compagnies de Charte,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Colonies,&rdquo; &ldquo;Privilege,&rdquo; in <i>Nouveau Dictionnaire d&rsquo;économie politique
+</i> (Paris, 1892); and article &ldquo;Companies, Chartered,&rdquo; in <i>Encyclopaedia
+of the Laws of England,</i> edited by A. Wood Renton (London,
+1907-1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. B. Du.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTERHOUSE.<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> This name is an English corruption of
+the French <i>maison chartreuse</i>, a religious house of the Carthusian
+order. As such it occurs not uncommonly in England, in various
+places (<i>e.g.</i> Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton)
+where the Carthusians were established. It is most familiar,
+however, in its application to the Charterhouse, London. On
+a site near the old city wall, west of the modern thoroughfare
+of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in 1371 by
+Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its
+dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands.
+In 1558, while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied
+by Queen Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation,
+and James I. held court here on his first entrance into London.
+The Charterhouse was then in the hands of Thomas Howard,
+earl of Suffolk, but in May 1611 it came into those of Thomas
+Sutton (1532-1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He acquired a
+fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had
+leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to
+London, he carried on a commercial career. In the year of his
+death, which took place on the 12th of December 1611, he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page953" id="page953"></a>953</span>
+endowed a hospital on the site of the Charterhouse, calling it the
+hospital of King James; and in his will he bequeathed moneys
+to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and school. The will
+was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the foundation was
+finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male pensioners
+(&ldquo;gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have borne
+arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck,
+or servants in household to the King or Queen&rsquo;s Majesty&rdquo;), and
+to educate forty boys. The school developed beyond the original
+intentions of its founder, and now ranks among the most eminent
+public schools in England. In 1872 it was removed, during the
+headmastership (1863-1897) of the Rev. William Haig-Brown
+(d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in Surrey, which were
+opened on the 18th of June in that year. The number of foundation
+scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not now
+distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate
+house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving
+the former title of the scholars. The land on which the old
+school buildings stood in London was sold for new buildings
+to accommodate the Merchant Taylors&rsquo; school, but the pensioners
+still occupy their picturesque home, themselves picturesque
+figures in the black gowns designed for them under the foundation.
+The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a panelled
+chapel, in which is the founder&rsquo;s tomb, a fine dining-hall,
+governors&rsquo; room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old
+library, and the beautiful great staircase.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTER-PARTY<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (Lat. <i>charta partita</i>, a legal paper or
+instrument, &ldquo;divided,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> written in duplicate so that each
+party retains half), a written, or partly written and partly
+printed, contract between merchant and shipowner, by which
+a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of goods on a specified
+voyage, or for a definite period. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affreightment</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTERS TOWERS,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a mining town of Devonport county,
+Queensland, Australia, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and
+820 m. direct N.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of an important
+gold-field, the reefs of which improve at the lower
+depths, the deepest shaft on the field being 2558 ft. below the
+surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An abundant
+water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m.
+distant. The population of the town in 1901 was 5523; but
+within a 5 m. radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became
+a municipality in 1877.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTIER, ALAIN<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (c. 1392-c. 1430), French poet and political
+writer, was born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged
+to a family marked by considerable ability. His eldest brother
+Guillaume became bishop of Paris; and Thomas became notary
+to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St Denis, whose history
+of Charles VII. is printed in vol. iii. of <i>Les Grands Chroniques de
+Saint-Denis</i> (1477), was not, as is sometimes stated, also a
+brother of the poet  Alain studied, as his elder brother had done,
+at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the <i>Livre des
+quatre dames</i>, written after the battle of Agincourt. This was
+followed by the <i>Débat du réveille-matin</i>, <i>La Belle Dame sans
+merci</i>, and others. None of these poems show any very patriotic
+feeling, though Chartier&rsquo;s prose is evidence that he was not
+indifferent to the misfortunes of his country. He followed the
+fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., acting in the
+triple capacity of clerk, notary and financial secretary. In 1422
+he wrote the famous <i>Quadrilogue-invectif</i>. The interlocutors
+in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of the
+state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the
+sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to
+his country by maintaining that the cause of France, though
+desperate to all appearance, was not yet lost if the contending
+factions could lay aside their differences in the face of the common
+enemy. In 1424 Chartier was sent on an embassy to Germany,
+and three years later he accompanied to Scotland the mission
+sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of Scotland, then
+not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI.
+In 1429 he wrote the <i>Livre d&rsquo;espérance</i>, which contains a fierce
+attack on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a
+diatribe on the courtiers of Charles VII. entitled <i>Le Curial</i>,
+translated into English (<i>Here foloweth the copy of a lettre
+whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to his brother</i>) by Caxton
+about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed about 1430.
+A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says, however,
+that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in the
+city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for
+Alain described himself as a <i>simple clerc</i> and certainly died long
+before 1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret
+of Scotland on <i>la précieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis
+tant de bons mots et vertueuses paroles</i> is mythical, for Margaret
+did not come to France till 1436, after the poet&rsquo;s death; but the
+story, first told by Guillaume Bouchet in his <i>Annales d&rsquo;Aquitaine</i>
+(1524), is interesting, if only as a proof of the high degree of
+estimation in which the ugliest man of his day was held. Jean
+de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has recorded
+how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required
+daily to learn by heart passages of his <i>Bréviaire des nobles</i>.
+John Lydgate studied him affectionately. His <i>Belle Dame sans
+merci</i> was translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about
+1640, with an introduction of his own; and Clément Marot and
+Octavien de Saint-Gelais, writing fifty years after his death,
+find many fair words for the old poet, their master and predecessor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mancel, <i>Alain Chartier, étude bibliographique et littéraire</i>, 8vo
+(Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay&rsquo;s <i>Étude sur Alain Chartier</i> (1876), with
+considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by
+A. Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville,
+&ldquo;Essais critiques sur les historiens originaux du règne de Charles
+VIII,&rdquo; in the <i>Bibl. de l&rsquo;École des Chartes</i> (July-August 1857).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTISM,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name given to a movement for political
+reform in England, from the so-called &ldquo;People&rsquo;s Charter&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;National Charter,&rdquo; the document in which in 1838 the scheme
+of reforms was embodied. The movement itself may be traced
+to the latter years of the 18th century. Checked for a while by
+the reaction due to the excesses of the French Revolution, it
+received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that followed
+the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the introduction
+of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed,
+not only against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against
+the political movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the
+spokesman in the House of Commons, which demanded manhood
+suffrage, the ballot, annual parliaments, the abolition of
+the property qualification for members of parliament and their
+payment. The movement was checked for a while by the
+Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though
+the middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and
+political grievances of the labouring population remained unredressed.
+Two separate movements now developed: one
+socialistic, associated with the name of Robert Owen; the other
+radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of the &ldquo;masses&rdquo; as the
+first step to the amelioration of their condition. The latter was
+represented in the Working Men&rsquo;s Association, by which in 1838
+the &ldquo;People&rsquo;s Charter&rdquo; was drawn up. It embodied exactly
+the same programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned
+above, with the addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.</p>
+
+<p>In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the
+principal leader of which was Feargus O&rsquo;Connor, whose irresponsible
+and erratic oratory produced a vast effect. Monster
+meetings were held, at which seditious language was occasionally
+used, and slight collisions with the military took place. Petitions
+of enormous size, signed in great part with fictitious names, were
+presented to parliament; and a great many newspapers were
+started, of which the <i>Northern Star</i>, conducted by Feargus
+O&rsquo;Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a
+Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack
+on Newport, Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders,
+John Frost and two others, were seized, were found guilty of high
+treason, and were condemned to death. The sentence, however,
+was changed to one of transportation, and Frost spent over
+fourteen years in Van Diemen&rsquo;s Land. In 1854 he was pardoned,
+and from 1856 until his death on the 29th of July 1877 he lived
+in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was still further
+organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the National
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page954" id="page954"></a>954</span>
+Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the
+head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have numbered
+40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made
+towards a coalition with the more moderate radicals, but these
+failed; and a land scheme was started by O&rsquo;Connor, which
+prospered for a few years. In 1844 the uncompromising spirit
+of some of the leaders was well illustrated by their hostile attitude
+towards the Anti-Corn-Law League. O&rsquo;Connor, especially,
+entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in
+which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season
+of great suffering among the working classes, and under the
+influence of the revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the
+Chartist movement was discovered and the prevalent discontent
+became known. Early in March disturbances occurred in
+Glasgow which required the intervention of the military, while
+in the manufacturing districts all over the west of Scotland the
+operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main movement
+succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and
+in Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was
+a real and widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort
+to decided measures.</p>
+
+<p>The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was
+London. An enormous gathering of half a million was announced
+for the 10th of April on Kennington Common, from which they
+were to march to the Houses of Parliament to present a petition
+signed by nearly six million names, in order by this imposing
+display of numbers to secure the enactment of the six points.
+Probably some of the more violent members of the party thought
+to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their own
+hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm,
+and the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to
+prevent a rising. The procession was forbidden. The military
+were called out under the command of the duke of Wellington,
+and by him concealed near the bridges and other points where the
+procession might attempt to force its way. Even the Bank of
+England and other public buildings were put in a state of defence,
+and special constables, to the number, it is said, of 170,000, were
+enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the emperor
+of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both sides
+the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant affair.
+Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on Kennington
+Common, and their leaders, Feargus O&rsquo;Connor and
+Ernest Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving
+the authorities by conducting the procession to the Houses of
+Parliament. The monster petition was duly presented, and
+scrutinized, with the result that the number of signatures was
+found to have been grossly exaggerated, and that the most
+unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to. Thereafter
+the movement specially called Chartism soon died out.
+It became merged, so far as its political programme is concerned,
+with the advancing radicalism of the general democratic
+movement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTRES,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a city of north-western France, capital of the
+department of Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway
+to Le Mans. Pop. (1906) 19,433. Chartres is built on the
+left bank of the Eure, on a hill crowned by its famous cathedral,
+the spires of which are a landmark in the surrounding country.
+To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain of Beauce, &ldquo;the
+granary of France,&rdquo; of which the town is the commercial centre.
+The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches,
+is crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is
+fringed in places by remains of the old fortifications, of which
+the Porte Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers,
+is the most complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the
+old town contrast with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle
+it and divide it from the suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant
+park, lies to the north-west, and squares and open spaces are
+numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>:
+<i>Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cathedral</a></span>),
+one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in the
+11th century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church
+destroyed by fire. In 1194 another conflagration laid waste
+the new building then hardly completed; but clergy and people
+set zealously to work, and the main part of the present structure
+was finished by 1240. Though there have been numerous minor
+additions and alterations since that time, the general character
+of the cathedral is unimpaired. The upper woodwork was consumed
+by fire in 1836, but the rest of the building was saved.
+The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained glass of the 13th
+century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are all unique
+from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned for
+the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That
+to the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 13th
+century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than
+that of the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till
+the 16th century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its
+choir measures 150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is
+121 ft. The abbey church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 13th
+century, contains, besides some fine stained glass, twelve representations
+of the apostles in enamel, executed about 1547 by
+Léonard Limosin. Of the other churches of Chartres the chief
+are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and St Martin-au-Val
+(12th century). The hôtel de ville, a building of the 17th
+century, containing a museum and library, an older hôtel de
+ville of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance
+houses, are of interest. There is a statue of General F.S.
+Marceau-Desgraviers (b. 1769), a native of the town.</p>
+
+<p>The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes,
+and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
+of commerce, training colleges, a lycée for boys, a communal
+college for girls, and a branch of the Bank of France. Its trade
+is carried on chiefly on market-days, when the peasants of the
+Beauce bring their crops and live-stock to be sold and make
+their purchases. The game-pies and other delicacies of Chartres
+are well known, and the industries also include flour-milling,
+brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture, dyeing,
+and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites,
+hosiery, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and
+by the Romans was called <i>Autricum</i>, from the river <i>Autura</i>
+(Eure), and afterwards <i>civitas Carnutum</i>. It was burnt by the
+Normans in 858, and unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911.
+In 1417 it fell into the hands of the English, from whom it was
+recovered in 1432. It was attacked unsuccessfully by the
+Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by Henry IV., who
+was crowned there three years afterwards. In the Franco-German
+War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October 1870,
+and continued during the rest of the campaign an important
+centre of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief
+town of the district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship
+which was held by the counts of Blois and Champagne and afterwards
+by the house of Châtillon, a member of which in 1286 sold
+it to the crown. It was raised to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by
+Francis I. After the time of Louis XIV. the title of duke of
+Chartres was hereditary in the family of Orleans.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See M.T. Bulteau, <i>Monographie de la cathédrale de Chartres</i> (1887);
+A. Pierval, <i>Chartres, sa cathédrale, ses monuments</i> (1896); H.J.L.J.
+Massé, <i>Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTREUSE,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> a liqueur, so called from having been made
+at the famous Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at
+Grenoble (see below). In consequence of the Associations Law,
+the Chartreux monks left France in 1904, and now continue the
+manufacture of this liqueur in Spain. There are two main varieties
+of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The green contains
+about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are other
+differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the
+flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are
+jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced
+by means of a distillation process.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> the mother house of the very
+severe order of Carthusian monks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carthusians</a></span>). It is
+situated in the French department of the Isère, about 12½ m.
+N. of Grenoble, at a height of 3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart
+of a group of limestone mountains, and not far from the source
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page955" id="page955"></a>955</span>
+of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement here was founded
+by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the small
+village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St
+Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was
+built between 1132 and 1137, but the actual buildings date only
+from about 1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The
+convent stands in a very picturesque position in a large meadow,
+sloping to the S.W., and watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers
+Mort. On the north, fine forests extend to the Col de la Ruchère,
+and on the west rise well-wooded heights, while on the east
+tower white limestone ridges, culminating in the Grand Som
+(6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the early Carthusian
+monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from 1160 to
+1181, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian
+house at Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of
+Lincoln, and before his death in 1200 had built the angel choir
+and other portions of the wonderful cathedral there.</p>
+
+<p>The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du
+Pont, a village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built
+by the monks&mdash;it is connected by steam tramways with Voiron
+(for Grenoble) and St Béron (for Chambéry). Among the other
+routes may be mentioned those from Grenoble by Le Sappey, or
+by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chambéry by the Col de
+Couz and the village of Les Échelles. St Laurent is about 5½ m.
+from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and
+soon reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from <i>forata via</i>,
+as about 1510 the road was first pierced hence towards the
+convent. Here are iron forges, and here was formerly the chief
+centre of the manufacture of the famed Chartreuse liqueur.
+Beyond, the road enters the &ldquo;Désert&rdquo; and passes through most
+delightful scenery. Some way farther the Guiers Mort is crossed
+by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older bridge of Parant
+being still visible higher up the stream. Here begins the splendid
+carriage road, constructed by M.E. Viaud between 1854 and
+1856. It soon passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette
+or Aiguillette, beyond which formerly women were not allowed
+to penetrate. After passing through four tunnels the road bends
+north (leaving the Guiers Mort which flows past St Pierre de
+Chartreuse), and the valley soon opens to form the upland hollow
+in which are the buildings of the convent. These are not very
+striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the cross-surmounted
+turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief features. But
+the situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were
+formerly lodged in the old infirmary, close to the main gate,
+which is now a hôtel. Within the conventual buildings are four
+halls formerly used for the reception of the priors of the various
+branch houses in France, Italy, Burgundy and Germany. The
+very plain and unadorned chapel dates from the 15th century,
+but the cloisters, around which cluster the thirty-six small houses
+for the fully professed monks, are of later date. The library contained
+before the Revolution a very fine collection of books and
+MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.</p>
+
+<p>The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in
+1816, but then they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings
+and the forests around, though both one and the other were due
+to the industry of their predecessors. They were again expelled
+in 1904, and are dispersed in various houses in England, at
+Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain). It is at the last-named
+spot that the various pharmaceutical preparations are
+now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold only
+since about 1840)&mdash;the <i>Elixir</i>, the <i>Boule d&rsquo;acier</i> (a mineral paste
+or salve), and the celebrated <i>liqueur</i>. The magnificent revenues
+derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the
+monks to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the
+neighbouring villages, which owe to this source their churches,
+schools, hospitals, &amp;c., &amp;c., built and maintained at the expense
+of the monks.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>La Grande Chartreuse par un Chartreux</i> (Grenoble, 1898);
+H. Ferrand, <i>Guide à la Grande Chartreuse</i> (1889); and <i>Les Montagnes
+de la Chartreuse</i> (1899)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHARWOMAN,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> one who is hired to do occasional household
+work. &ldquo;Char&rdquo; or &ldquo;chare,&rdquo; which forms the first part of the
+word, is common, in many forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning
+a &ldquo;turn,&rdquo; and, in this original sense, is seen in &ldquo;ajar,&rdquo; properly
+&ldquo;on char,&rdquo; of a door &ldquo;on the turn&rdquo; in the act of closing. It is
+thus applied to a &ldquo;turn of work,&rdquo; an odd job, and is so used, in
+the form &ldquo;chore,&rdquo; in America, and in dialects of the south-west
+of England.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1808-1873), American statesman
+and jurist, was born in Cornish township, New Hampshire,
+on the 13th of January 1808. His father died in 1817, and the
+son passed several years (1820-1824) in Ohio with his uncle,
+Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost pioneer of the
+Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop of
+Ohio (1819-1831), and after 1835 bishop of Illinois. He graduated
+at Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under
+William Wirt, attorney-general of the United States, in
+Washington, D.C., was admitted to the bar in 1829, and removed
+to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he soon gained a position of
+prominence at the bar, and published an annotated edition,
+which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At a time
+when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by
+Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by
+James G. Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the
+anti-slavery movement, and became recognized as the leader of
+the political reformers as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionists.
+To the cause he freely gave his services as a lawyer, and was
+particularly conspicuous as counsel for fugitive slaves seized
+in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the Fugitive Slave Law
+of 1793&mdash;indeed, he came to be known as the &ldquo;attorney-general
+of fugitive slaves.&rdquo; His argument (1847) in the famous Van
+Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted
+particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the
+kind the judgment was against him. In brief he contended that
+slavery was &ldquo;local, not national,&rdquo; that it could exist only by
+virtue of positive State Law, that the Federal government was
+not empowered by the Constitution to create slavery anywhere,
+and that &ldquo;when a slave leaves the jurisdiction of a state he
+ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and
+leaves behind him the law which made him a slave.&rdquo; In 1841 he
+abandoned the Whig party, with which he had previously been
+affiliated, and for seven years was the undisputed leader of the
+Liberty party in Ohio; he was remarkably skilful in drafting
+platforms and addresses, and it was he who prepared the national
+Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty address of 1845.
+Realizing in time that a third party movement could not succeed,
+he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the
+Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats
+of New York to form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous
+Free-Soil platform, and it was largely through his influence that
+Van Buren was nominated for the presidency. His object, however,
+was not to establish a permanent new party organization,
+but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern Democrats to force
+them to adopt a policy opposed to the further extension of
+slavery.</p>
+
+<p>In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the
+result of a coalition between the Democrats and a small group
+of Free-Soilers in the state legislature; and for some years
+thereafter, except in 1852, when he rejoined the Free-Soilers,
+he classed himself as an Independent Democrat, though he
+was out of harmony with the leaders of the Democratic party.
+During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was pre-eminently
+the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one spoke
+more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850
+and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska
+legislation, and the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having
+convinced him of the futility of trying to influence the Democrats,
+he assumed the leadership in the North-west of the movement
+to form a new party to oppose the extension of slavery. The
+&ldquo;Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the
+People of the United States,&rdquo; written by Chase and Giddings,
+and published in the New York <i>Times</i> of the 24th of January
+1854, may be regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican
+party creed. He was the first Republican governor of Ohio,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page956" id="page956"></a>956</span>
+serving from 1855 to 1859. Although, with the exception of
+Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in the country,
+and had done more against slavery than any other Republican,
+he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in 1860,
+partly because his views on the question of protection were not
+orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because
+the old line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the
+Democrats in the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncompromising
+and conspicuous anti-slavery record, too, was against
+him from the point of view of &ldquo;availability.&rdquo; As secretary
+of the treasury in President Lincoln&rsquo;s cabinet in 1861-1864,
+during the first three years of the Civil War, he rendered services
+of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed two great
+changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a
+national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper
+currency. The former was Chase&rsquo;s own particular measure.
+He suggested the idea, worked out all of the important principles
+and many of the details, and induced Congress to accept them.
+The success of that system alone warrants his being placed in
+the first rank of American financiers. It not only secured an
+immediate market for government bonds, but it also provided
+a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic,
+is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest
+financial blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes,
+although he did not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push
+his opposition to the point of resigning.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps Chase&rsquo;s chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable
+desire for supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and
+also temperamental differences from the president, which led
+him to retire from the cabinet in June 1864. A few months
+later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed chief justice of the
+United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney, a position
+which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most important
+decisions were <i>Texas v. White</i> (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in
+which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an &ldquo;indestructible
+union composed of indestructible states,&rdquo; <i>Veazie
+Bank</i> v. <i>Fenno</i> (8 Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part
+of the banking legislation of the Civil War which imposed a
+tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and <i>Hepburn</i> v. <i>Griswold</i> (8
+Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain parts of the legal
+tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal tender
+decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges,
+1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared
+a very able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he
+gradually drifted back toward his old Democratic position, and
+made an unsuccessful effort to secure the nomination of the
+Democratic party for the presidency in 1872. He died in New
+York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of the ablest
+political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be
+placed in the front rank of American statesmen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The standard biography is A.B. Hart&rsquo;s <i>Salmon Portland Chase</i>
+in the &ldquo;American Statesmen Series&rdquo; (1899). Less philosophical,
+but containing a greater wealth of detail, is J.W. Shuckers&rsquo; <i>Life and
+Public Services of Salmon Portland Chase</i> (New York, 1874). R.B.
+Warden&rsquo;s <i>Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon
+Portland Chase</i> (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase&rsquo;s
+private life.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASE, SAMUEL<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in
+Somerset county, Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was
+admitted to the bar at Annapolis in 1761, and for more than
+twenty years was a member of the Maryland legislature. He
+took an active part in the resistance to the Stamp Act, and from
+1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the Continental
+Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was
+sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side
+of the revolting colonies, and after his return did much to
+persuade Maryland to advocate a formal separation of the
+thirteen colonies from Great Britain, he himself being one of
+those who signed the Declaration of Independence on the 2nd
+of August 1776. In this year he was also a member of the
+convention which framed the first constitution for the state of
+Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which
+ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there
+vigorously opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an
+ardent Federalist, he became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland
+general court, which position he resigned in 1796 for that of an
+associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.
+His radical Federalism, however, led him to continue active in
+politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity, on the
+bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His overbearing
+conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for
+treason, and of James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious
+libel in 1800, drove the lawyers for the defence from the court,
+and evoked the wrath of the Republicans, who were stirred to
+action by a political harangue on the evil tendencies of democracy
+which he delivered as a charge to a grand jury at Baltimore in
+1803. The House of Representatives adopted a resolution of
+impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804
+the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph,
+Joseph H. Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-1824),
+laid their articles of impeachment before the Senate.
+The trial, with frequent interruptions and delays, lasted from
+the 2nd of January to the 1st of March 1805. Judge Chase was
+defended by the ablest lawyers in the country, including Luther
+Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825), Philip Barton Key
+(1757-1815), Charles Lee (1758-1815), and Joseph Hopkinson
+(1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his
+conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of
+a Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making
+&ldquo;highly indecent, extra-judicial&rdquo; reflections upon the national
+administration, probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes.
+On only three articles was there a majority against Judge Chase,
+the largest, on article viii., being four short of the necessary
+two-thirds to convict. &ldquo;The case,&rdquo; says Henry Adams, &ldquo;proved
+impeachment to be an impracticable thing for partisan purposes,
+and it decided the permanence of those lines of constitutional
+development which were a reflection of the common law.&rdquo;
+Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it
+until his death on the 19th of June 1811.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Trial of Samuel Chase</i> (2 vols., Washington, 1805), reported
+by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in <i>The American
+Law Review</i>, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1899); and Henry Adams&rsquo;s
+<i>History of the United States</i>, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), American painter,
+was born at Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849.
+He was a pupil of B.F. Hays at Indianapolis, of J.O. Eaton in
+New York, and subsequently of A. Wagner and Piloty in Munich.
+In New York he established a school of his own, after teaching
+with success for some years at the Art Students&rsquo; League. A
+worker in all mediums&mdash;oils, water-colour, pastel and etching&mdash;painting
+with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life,
+he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering
+some of the most important men and women of his time. Mr
+Chase won many honours at home and abroad, became a member
+of the National Academy of Design, New York, and for ten years
+was president of the Society of American Artists. Among his
+important canvases are &ldquo;Ready for the Ride&rdquo; (Union League
+Club, N.Y.), &ldquo;The Apprentice,&rdquo; &ldquo;Court Jester,&rdquo; and portraits
+of the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and
+of Peter Cooper.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASE.<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1) (Fr. <i>chasse</i>, from Lat. <i>captare</i>, frequentative
+of <i>capere</i>, to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or
+sport (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hunting</a></span>). The word is used of the pursuit of anything,
+and also of the thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of
+a ship. A transferred meaning is that of park land reserved
+for the breeding and hunting of wild animals, in which sense it
+appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock Chase.
+It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (<i>q.v.</i>). (2) (Fr. <i>châsse</i>,
+Lat. <i>capsa</i>, a box, cf. <i>caisse</i>, and &ldquo;chest&rdquo;), an enclosure, such
+as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove
+cut to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the
+&ldquo;forme.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASING,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Enchasing</span>, the art of producing figures and
+ornamental patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic
+surfaces by means of steel tools or punches. It is practised
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page957" id="page957"></a>957</span>
+extensively for the ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith
+work, electro-plate and similar objects, being employed to
+produce bold flutings and bosses, and in another manner utilized
+for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work can be produced
+by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in the
+watch-cases chased by G.M. Moser, R.A. (1704-1783). The
+chaser first outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament,
+after which, if the work involves bold or high embossments,
+these are blocked out by a process termed &ldquo;snarling.&rdquo; The
+snarling iron is a long iron tool turned up at the end, and made so
+that when securely fastened in a vise the upturned end can reach
+and press against any portion of the interior of the vase or other
+object to be chased. The part to be raised being held firmly
+against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman
+gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow,
+which causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive
+stroke, and thus throw up the surface of the metal held against
+the tool. When the blocking out from the interior is finished,
+or when no such embossing is required, the object to be chased
+is filled with molten pitch, which is allowed to harden. It is
+then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and a multitude
+of small punches of different outline the whole details of the
+pattern, lined, smooth or &ldquo;matt,&rdquo; are worked out. Embossing
+and stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long
+since taken the place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper
+kinds of plated works. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embossing</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHÉMIEN PHILARÈTE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1798-1873),
+French critic and man of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure
+et Loir) on the 8th of October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques
+Michel Chasles (1754-1826), was a member of the Convention,
+and was one of those who voted the death of Louis XVI. He
+brought up his son according to the principles of Rousseau&rsquo;s
+<i>Émile</i>, and the boy, after a régime of outdoor life, followed by
+some years&rsquo; classical study, was apprenticed to a printer, so that
+he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master
+was involved in one of the plots of 1815, and Philarète suffered
+two months&rsquo; imprisonment. On his release he was sent to
+London, where he worked for the printer Valpy on editions of
+classical authors. He wrote articles for the English reviews,
+and on his return to France did much to popularize the study
+of English authors. He was also one of the earliest to draw
+attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature.
+He contributed to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, until he had a
+violent quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with François Buloz,
+who won his case. He became librarian of the Bibliothèque
+Mazarine, and from 1841 was professor of comparative literature
+at the Collège de France. During his active life he produced
+some fifty volumes of literary history and criticism, and of
+social history, much of which is extremely valuable. He died
+at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, Émile Chasles
+(b. 1827), was a philologist of some reputation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his best critical works is <i>Dix-huitième Siècle en Angleterre</i>
+... (1846), one of a series of 20 vols. of <i>Études de littérature comparée</i>
+(1846-1875), which he called later <i>Trente ans de critique</i>. An
+account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his <i>Maison de mon père</i>.
+His <i>Mémoires</i> (1876-1877) did not fulfil the expectations based on his
+brilliant talk.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (from the Fr., in full <i>chasse-café</i>, or &ldquo;coffee-chaser&rdquo;),
+a draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSÉ<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;chased&rdquo;), a gliding step in dancing, so
+called since one foot is brought up behind or chases the other.
+The <i>chassé croisé</i> is a double variety of the step.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANÇOIS,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1754-1833),
+French general and military engineer, was born at St
+Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of August 1754, of a noble
+family, and entered the French engineers in 1774. He was still
+a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution, becoming captain
+in 1791. His ability as a military engineer was recognized in
+the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he won
+distinction in various actions and was promoted successively
+<i>chef de bataillon</i> and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the
+siege of Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He
+there conducted the first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the
+positions and lines of advance of the army of Bonaparte. He
+was promoted general of brigade before the close of the campaign,
+and was subsequently employed in fortifying the new Rhine
+frontier of France. His work as chief of engineers in the army
+of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and after the battle
+of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon took
+the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again
+selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of
+1801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences
+of northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous
+Quadrilateral. His <i>chef-d&rsquo;oeuvre</i> was the great fortress of Alessandria
+on the Tanaro. In 1805 he remained in Italy with
+Masséna, but at the end of 1806 Napoleon, then engaged in the
+Polish campaign, called him to the <i>Grande Armée</i>, with which
+he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the sieges of
+Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic domination
+in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses,
+in particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again
+served in Italy. In 1810 Napoleon made him a councillor of
+state. His last campaign was that of 1812 in Russia. He
+retired from active service soon afterwards, though in 1814 he
+was occasionally engaged in the inspection and construction
+of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France and
+a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred
+Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber
+of peers against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics
+he belonged to the constitutional party. The king created him
+a marquis. Chasseloup&rsquo;s later years were employed chiefly in
+putting in order his manuscripts, a task which he had to abandon
+owing to the failure of his sight. His only published work was
+<i>Correspondence d&rsquo;un général français, &amp;c. sur divers sujets</i> (Paris,
+1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 1811, under the title <i>Correspondance
+de deux générals, &amp;c., essais sur quelques parties d&rsquo;artillerie
+et de fortification</i>). The most important of his papers are
+in manuscript in the Depôt of Fortifications, Paris.</p>
+
+<p>As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of advanced
+views, of the old bastioned system. He followed in many
+respects the engineer Bousmard, whose work was published in
+1797 and who fell, as a Prussian officer, in the defence of Danzig
+in 1807 against Chasseloup&rsquo;s own attack. His front was applied
+to Alessandria, as has been stated, and contains many elaborations
+of the bastion trace, with, in particular, masked flanks in
+the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the bastions. The
+bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The
+ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier
+after the example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard&rsquo;s, his
+own ravelin was a large and powerful work pushed out beyond
+the glacis.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSEPOT,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> officially &ldquo;fusil modèle 1866,&rdquo; a military breech-loading
+rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-German
+War of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor,
+Antoine Alphonse Chassepot (1833-1905), who, from 1857 onwards,
+had constructed various experimental forms of breech-loader,
+and it became the French service weapon in 1866. In
+the following year it made its first appearance on the battle-field
+at Mentana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted severe losses
+upon Garibaldi&rsquo;s troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very
+greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was
+closed by a bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and
+amongst the technical features of interest were the method of
+obturation, which was similar in principle to the de Bange
+obturator for heavy guns (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ordnance</a></span>), and the retention
+of the paper cartridge. The principal details of the chassepot
+are:&mdash;weight of rifle, 9 &#8468; 5 oz.; length with bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.;
+calibre, .433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386 grains; weight of
+charge (black powder), 86.4 grains; muzzle velocity, 1328 f.s.;
+sighted to 1312 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in
+1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles
+of the older model remaining in store were converted to take the
+same ammunition (fusil modèle 1866/74).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSÉSRIAU, THÉODORE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1819-1856), French painter,
+was born in the Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page958" id="page958"></a>958</span>
+at Rome, subsequently falling under the influence of Paul
+Delaroche. He was a well-known painter of portraits and historical
+pieces, his &ldquo;Tepidarium at Pompeii&rdquo; (1853) being now
+in the Louvre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASSIS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (Fr. <i>châssis</i>, a frame, from the Late. Lat. <i>capsum</i>, an
+enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived
+the word &ldquo;sash&rdquo;; also the movable traversing frame of a gun,
+and more particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of
+the wheels, frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage
+part rests.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1540-1563),
+French poet, was born in Dauphiné, a scion of the house of
+Bayard. His name is inseparably connected with Mary, queen
+of Scots. From the service of the Constable Montmorency,
+Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal
+Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in
+escort of Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal&rsquo;s train,
+but left for Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of
+recommendation to Mary from his old protector, Montmorency,
+and the <i>Regrets</i> addressed to the ex-queen of France by Pierre
+Ronsard, his master in the art of song. He undertook to transmit
+to the poet the service of plate with which Mary rewarded
+him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said to
+have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between
+them; she lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his
+person and conversation. The young man hid himself under her
+bed, where he was discovered by her maids of honour. Mary
+pardoned the offence, and the old familiar terms between them
+were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as again to violate her
+privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized, sentenced
+and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and
+consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master&rsquo;s
+noble <i>Hymne de la mort</i>, and turning at the instant of doom
+towards the palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress
+the famous farewell&mdash;&ldquo;Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me
+tues et que je ne puis cesser d&rsquo;aimer.&rdquo; This at least is the version
+of the <i>Mémoires</i> of Brantôme, who is, however, notoriously
+untrustworthy. But for his madness of love, it is possible that
+Chastelard would have left no shadow or shred of himself behind.
+As it is, his life and death are of interest as illustrating the wild
+days in which his lot was cast.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler,
+was a native of Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from
+the fact that his ancestors were burgraves or châtelains of the
+town; his parents, who belonged to illustrious Flemish families,
+were probably the Jean Chastellain and his wife Marie de Masmines
+mentioned in the town records in 1425 and 1432. A copy
+of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states that he died on
+the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he states
+that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect
+the details of events in that year, and since he was &ldquo;<i>écolier</i>&rdquo; at
+Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 1415
+than 1405. He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and
+probably elsewhere, winning the surname of <i>L&rsquo;adventureux</i>. In
+1434 he received a gift from Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy,
+for his military services, but on the conclusion of the peace of
+Arras in the next year he abandoned soldiering for diplomacy.
+The next ten years were spent in France, where he was connected
+with Georges de la Trémoille, and afterwards entered the household
+of Pierre de Brézé, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by
+whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy,
+in an attempt to establish better relations between Charles VII.
+and the duke. During these years Chastellain had ample opportunity
+of obtaining an intimate knowledge of French affairs, but
+on the further breach between the two princes, Chastellain left
+the French service to enter Philip&rsquo;s household. He was at first
+pantler, then carver, titles which are misleading as to the nature
+of his services, which were those of a diplomatist; and in 1457
+he became a member of the ducal council. He was continually
+employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing apparently
+to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the
+counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a considerable
+pension, on condition that the recipient should put in
+writing &ldquo;<i>choses nouvelles et morales</i>,&rdquo; and a chronicle of notable
+events. That is to say, he was appointed Burgundian historiographer
+with a recommendation to write also on other subjects
+not strictly within the scope of a chronicler. From this time
+he worked hard at his <i>Chronique</i>, with occasional interruptions
+in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or to visit the Burgundian
+court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards, by
+his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and
+redundant style may be fairly traced in some passages of the
+<i>Chronique</i>. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his
+house as a patron of literature, and showed special favour to
+Chastellain, who, after being constituted <i>indiciaire</i> or chronicler
+of the order of the Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of
+the order on the 2nd of May 1473. He died at Valenciennes
+on the 13th of February (according to the treasury accounts),
+or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph) 1475. He
+left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred
+and twenty livres for a copy of the <i>Chronique</i> intended for
+Charles V.&rsquo;s sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-third
+of the whole work, which extended from 1410 to 1474, is
+known to be in existence, but MSS. carried by the Habsburgs
+to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great
+reputation by his poems and occasional pieces now little considered.
+The unfinished state of his <i>Chronique</i> at the time of
+his death, coupled with political considerations, may possibly
+account for the fact that it remained unprinted during the
+century that followed his death, and his historical work was only
+disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and Brussels by the
+painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain was
+constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in
+negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and
+thus had personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt
+with in his history. A partisan element in writing of French
+affairs was inevitable in a Burgundian chronicle. This defect
+appears most strongly in his treatment of Joan of Arc; and the
+attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been dictated by the
+dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in Burgundy, of
+whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was not,
+however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart
+had been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception
+of the radical injustice of the English cause in France; and
+except in isolated instances where Burgundian interests were at
+stake, he did full justice to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among
+his most sympathetic portraits are those of his friend Pierre de
+Brézé and of Jacques C&oelig;ur. His French style, based partly
+on his Latin reading, has, together with its undeniable vigour
+and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and rhetorical
+quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere
+annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his
+own conclusions, in accordance with his political experience.
+The most interesting feature of his work is the skill with which
+he pictures the leading figures of his time. His &ldquo;characters&rdquo;
+are the fruit of acute and experienced observation, and abound
+in satirical traits, although the 42nd chapter of his second book,
+devoted expressly to portraiture, is headed &ldquo;<i>Comment Georges
+escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des princes de son temps.</i>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The known extant fragments of Chastellain&rsquo;s <i>Chroniques</i> with
+his other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the
+Brussels Academy in 1863-1866 (8 vols., Brussels) as <i>&OElig;uvres de
+Georges Chastellain</i>. This edition includes all that had been already
+published by Buchon in his <i>Collection de chroniques</i> and <i>Choix de
+chroniques</i> (material subsequently incorporated in the <i>Panthéon
+littéraire</i>), and portions printed by Renard in his <i>Trésor national</i>,
+vol. i. and by Quicherat in the <i>Procès de la Pucelle</i> vol. iv. Kervyn
+de Lettenhove&rsquo;s text includes the portions of the chronicle covering
+the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December
+1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463,
+and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes
+of minor pieces of considerable interest, especially <i>Le Temple de
+Boccace</i>, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the <i>Déprécation</i> for
+Pierre Brézé, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor
+works the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous,
+notably in the case of the <i>Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalain</i>, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page959" id="page959"></a>959</span>
+is the work of Lefèbvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece.
+In the allegorical <i>Oultré d&rsquo;amour</i> it has been thought a real romance
+between Brézé and a lady of the royal house is concealed.</p>
+
+<p>See A. Molinier, <i>Les Sources de l&rsquo;histoire de France</i>; as well as
+notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the <i>&OElig;uvres</i> and in the
+<i>Biographie nationale de Belgique</i>; and an article (three parts) by
+Vallet de Viriville in the <i>Journal des savants</i> (1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 380px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:327px; height:494px" src="images/img959.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="f80">From Braun&rsquo;s <i>Liturgische Gewandung</i>,
+by permission of the publisher, B. Herder.</span><br /><br />
+<span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Comparative shape and size of
+Chasubles as now in use in various countries.<br /><br />
+a, b, German.&emsp;c, Roman.&emsp;d, Spanish.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CHASUBLE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (Fr. <i>chasuble</i>, Ger. <i>Kasel</i>, Span. <i>casulla</i>; Late
+Lat. <i>casula</i>, a little house, hut, from <i>casa</i>), a liturgical vestment
+of the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by
+bishops and priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming
+with the alb (<i>q.v.</i>) the most essential part of the eucharistic
+vestments. Since it is only used at the Mass, or rarely for
+functions intimately connected with the sacrament of the altar,
+it may be regarded as the Mass vestment <i>par excellence</i>. The
+chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal vestment, and
+at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite, the
+bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back
+(<i>planeta plicata</i>), with the words, &ldquo;Take the sacerdotal robe,
+the symbol of love,&rdquo; &amp;c.; at the end of the ordination Mass the
+vestment is unrolled.
+The chasuble or
+<i>planeta</i> (as it is called
+in the Roman missal),
+according to the prevailing
+model in the
+Roman Catholic
+Church, is a scapular-like
+cloak, with a hole
+in the middle for the
+head, falling down
+over breast and back,
+and leaving the arms
+uncovered at the sides.
+Its shape and size,
+however, differ considerably
+in various
+countries (see fig. 1),
+while some churches&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
+those of certain
+monastic orders&mdash;have
+retained or reverted
+to the earlier
+&ldquo;Gothic&rdquo; forms to
+be described later.
+According to the decisions
+of the Congregation
+of Rites
+chasubles must not
+be of linen, cotton or
+woollen stuffs, but of silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen
+and cotton) and silk is allowed if the silk completely cover the
+other material on the outer side; spun glass thread, as a substitute
+for gold or silver thread, is also forbidden, owing to the
+possible danger to the priest&rsquo;s health through broken fragments
+falling into the chalice.</p>
+
+<p>The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the <span class="grk" title="phelonion">&#966;&#949;&#955;&#972;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, &amp;c.)
+in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman <i>paenula</i> or
+<i>planeta</i>, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the Graeco-Roman
+world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>). Though early used in the
+celebration of the liturgy it had for several centuries no specifically
+liturgical character, the first clear instances of its ritual
+use being in a letter of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the
+next in the twenty-eighth canon of the Council of Toledo (633).
+Much later than this, however, it was still an article of everyday
+clerical dress, and as such was prescribed by the German council
+convened by Carloman and presided over by St Boniface in 742.
+Amalarius of Metz, in his <i>De ecclesiasticis officiis</i> (ii. 19), tells us
+in 816 that the <i>casula</i> is the <i>generale indumentum sacrorum
+ducum</i> and &ldquo;is proper generally to all the clergy.&rdquo; It was not
+until the 11th century, when the cope (<i>q.v.</i>) had become established
+as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be
+reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating
+this process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting correspondence
+between Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and John
+of Avranches, archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a
+bishop wearing a chasuble at the consecration of a church,
+Lanfranc maintaining as an established principle that the
+vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th century,
+with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the chasuble
+became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating priest;
+though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier
+general use of the chasuble survive in the <i>planeta plicata</i> worn
+by deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other
+penitential seasons.</p>
+
+<p>At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other
+vestments by the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however,
+survived in the Lutheran churches; and though in those of
+Germany it is no longer worn, it still forms part of the liturgical
+costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical churches. In the
+Church of England, though it was prescribed alternatively with
+the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it was ultimately
+discarded, with the other &ldquo;Mass vestments,&rdquo; the cope
+being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion
+in cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however,
+during the last fifty years been widely revived in connexion with
+the reactionary movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation
+doctrine of the eucharist. The difficult question of its legality
+is discussed in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Form.</i>&mdash;The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which
+fell in loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4). Its obvious
+inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however,
+caused its gradual modification. The object of the change was
+primarily to leave the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful
+performance of the manual acts, and to this end a process of
+cutting away at the sides of the vestment began, which continued
+until the tent-shaped chasuble of the 12th century had developed
+in the 16th into the scapular-like vestment at present in use.
+This process was, moreover, hastened by the substitution of
+costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the simple
+stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed;
+for, as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be
+made smaller. For the extremely exiguous proportions of some
+chasubles actually in use, which have been robbed of all the
+beauty of form they ever possessed, less respectable motives
+have sometimes been responsible, viz. the desire of their makers
+to save on the materials. The most beautiful form of the chasuble
+is undoubtedly the &ldquo;Gothic&rdquo; (see the figure of Bishop Johannes
+of Lübeck in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>), which is the form most
+affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the
+English Church before the Reformation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decoration.</i>&mdash;Though <i>planetae</i> decorated with narrow orphreys
+are occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries,
+these vestments were until the 10th century generally quite
+plain, and even at the close of this century, when the custom of
+decorating the chasuble with orphreys had become common,
+there was no definite rule as to their disposition; sometimes
+they were merely embroidered borders to the neck-opening or
+hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less often a
+forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the
+shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery
+became ever more and more elaborate, and with this tendency
+the orphreys were broadened to allow of their being decorated
+with figures. About the middle of the 13th century, the cross
+with horizontal arms begins to appear on the back of the vestment,
+and by the 15th this had become the most usual form,
+though the forked cross also survived&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> in England, where
+it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the
+Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed
+both on the back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-armed
+cross, on the other hand, is placed only on the back, the
+front being decorated with a vertical strip extending to the
+lower hem (fig. 1, <i>b, d</i>). Sometimes the back of the chasuble has
+no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and in this case the front,
+besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal orphrey just below
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page960" id="page960"></a>960</span>
+the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter is the type
+used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in
+certain dioceses in South Germany and Switzerland, and of
+late years in the Roman Catholic churches in England, <i>e.g.</i>
+Westminster cathedral (see Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90">Plate I.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:449px; height:413px" src="images/img960a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:289px; height:412px" src="images/img960b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Chasuble of Pope Calixtus
+III. (15th century) preserved at
+Valencia.</td>
+
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Chasuble of Pope
+Pius V. (late 15th
+century) at S. Maria
+Maggiore at Rome.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">From a photograph by
+Father J.L. Braun in <i>Die
+liturg Gewandung</i>, by permission
+of the publisher,
+B. Herder.</td>
+
+<td class="tcl f90">From a photograph by
+Father J.L. Braun in <i>Die
+liturg Gewandung</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:589px; height:390px" src="images/img960c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;Chasuble dedicated by
+Stephen of Hungary (997-1038)
+and his wife Gisela, used
+as the Hungarian
+Coronation
+Robe.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">(From Braun,
+<i>Die liturg.
+Gewandung</i>.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:322px; height:480px" src="images/img960d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:413px; height:470px" src="images/img960e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop
+Bourne of Westminster.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;Modern English Chasuble, used at St Paul&rsquo;s Church,
+Knightsbridge, London.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2 noind f90">Plate II.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:746px; height:1122px" src="images/img960f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 7.&mdash;Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early
+16th century, the Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and Albert Museum.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious
+imitation of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, <i>Gesch. der
+liturg. Gewänder</i>, ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated
+is proper to archbishops. Father Braun, however, makes it
+quite clear that this was not the case, and gives proof that this
+decoration was not even originally conceived as a cross at all,
+citing early instances of its having been worn by laymen and
+even by non-Christians (p. 210). It was not until the 13th century
+that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated,
+and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century
+onward by the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it
+the figure of the crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion.
+This, however, did not represent any definite rule; and the
+orphreys of chasubles were decorated with a great variety of
+pictorial subjects, scriptural or drawn from the stories of the
+saints, while the rest of the vestment was either left plain or, if
+embroidered, most usually decorated with arabesque patterns
+of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true to its
+ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern
+Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conventional
+arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with
+the arms of the archbishop and his see.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Eastern Church.</i>&mdash;The original equivalent of the chasuble
+is the phelonion (<span class="grk" title="phelonion, phelonês, phainolion">&#966;&#949;&#955;&#972;&#957;&#953;&#959;&#957;, &#966;&#949;&#955;&#972;&#957;&#951;&#962;, &#966;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>, from <i>paenula</i>).
+It is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell
+chasuble; but, instead of being cut away at the sides, it is
+for convenience&rsquo; sake either gathered up or cut short in front.
+In the Armenian, Syrian, Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-shaped.
+There is some difference of opinion as to the derivation
+of the vestment in the latter case; the Five Bishops (Report to
+Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope, from the <i>birrus</i>,
+while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope, to be a
+modification of the <i>paenula</i>.<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The phelonion (Arm. <i>shurtshar</i>,
+Syr. <i>phaina</i>, Chald. <i>maaphra</i> or <i>phaina</i>, Copt, <i>burnos, felonion,
+kuklion</i>) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian,
+Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by
+the lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic
+vestment as in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions
+besides the liturgy, <i>e.g.</i> marriages, processions, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Until the 11th century the phelonion is always pictured as a
+perfectly plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose
+of decorating the patriarchal phelonion with a number of
+crosses, whence its name of <span class="grk" title="polystaurion">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#965;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#973;&#961;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>. By the 14th century
+the use of these polystauria had been extended to metropolitans
+and later still to all bishops. The purple or black phelonion,
+however, remained plain in all cases. The Greeks and Greek
+Melchite metropolitans now wear the <i>sakkos</i> instead of the
+phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and
+Italo-Greek churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion
+in the case of all bishops (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dalmatic</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Braun, S.J., <i>Die liturgische Gewandung</i> (Freiburg im
+Breisgau, 1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vestments</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a>  The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the
+following note:&mdash;&ldquo;That the Syrian <i>phaina</i> was formerly a closed
+mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the
+evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in <i>Die liturgische
+Gewandung</i>). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians are
+derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite; so that in this case also
+there can be no doubt that the <i>shurtshar</i> was originally closed. The
+Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian. Moreover, it would
+be further necessary to prove that the <i>birrus</i>, in contradistinction to
+the <i>paenula</i>, was always open in front; whereas, <i>per contra</i>, the
+<i>paenula</i>, both as worn by soldiers and in ordinary life, was, like the
+modern Arab <i>burnus</i>, often slit up the front to the neck. For the
+rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian <i>phaina</i> was still quite closed in
+the 13th century, and was only provided with a slit since that time,
+the same is very probable in the case of the Armenian chasuble.
+The absence of the hood might also be taken as additional proof of
+the derivation of the <i>phaina</i> from the <i>paenula</i>, but I should not lay
+particular stress upon it. The question is settled by the above-mentioned
+miniatures.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>castellum</i>, fortress, through O. Fr.
+<i>chastel, chasteau</i>), the French word for castle (<i>q.v.</i>). The development
+of the medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries,
+into houses arranged rather for residence than defence led to a
+corresponding widening of the meaning of the term <i>château</i>,
+which came to be applied to any seigniorial residence and so
+generally to all houses, especially country houses, of any pretensions
+(cf. the Ger. <i>Schloss</i>). The French distinguish the
+fortified castle from the residential mansion by describing the
+former as the <i>château fort</i>, the latter as the <i>château de plaisance</i>.
+The development of the one into the other is admirably illustrated
+by surviving buildings in France, especially in the <i>châteaux</i>
+scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in perfect
+preservation, is a fine type of the <i>château fort</i>, with its 10th-century
+keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois
+(1500-1540), Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux (1515-1560),
+Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the
+<i>château de plaisance</i> of the transition period, all retaining in
+greater or less degree some of the architectural characteristics
+of the medieval castle. Some description of these is given under
+their several headings. In English the word <i>château</i> is often
+used to translate foreign words (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Schloss</i>) meaning country
+house or mansion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the Loire châteaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, <i>Old Touraine</i>
+(1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANÇOIS RENÉ,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1768-1848),
+French author, youngest son of René Auguste de Chateaubriand,
+comte de Combourg,<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> was born at St Malo on the 4th of
+September 1768. He was a brilliant representative of the reaction
+against the ideas of the French Revolution, and the most conspicuous
+figure in French literature during the First Empire. His
+naturally poetical temperament was fostered in childhood by
+picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his morose father,
+the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his ancient family,
+the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered Breton
+district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the neighbouring
+ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile,<a name="fa2j" id="fa2j" href="#ft2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> a passionate-hearted
+girl, divided between her devotion to him and to religion.
+François received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean
+Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes
+he proceeded to the College of Dinan, and passed some years in
+desultory study in preparation for the priesthood. He finally
+decided, after a year&rsquo;s holiday at the family château of Combourg,
+that he had no vocation for the Church, and was on the point of
+proceeding to try his fortune in India when he received (1786) a
+commission in the army. After a short visit to Paris he joined
+his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the following year was
+presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure in order
+to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris (1787-1789)
+he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He
+met la Harpe, Évariste Parny, &ldquo;Pindare&rdquo; Lebrun, Nicolas
+Chamfort, Pierre Louis Ginguené, and others, of whom he has
+left portraits in his memoirs.</p>
+
+<p>Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its
+first stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover,
+his regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the
+party of reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased
+no one. These causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced
+him to take part in a romantic scheme for the discovery of the
+North-West Passage, in pursuance of which he departed for
+America in the spring of 1791. The passage was not found or
+even attempted, but the adventurer returned enriched with the&mdash;to
+him&mdash;more important discovery of his own powers and
+vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation
+of nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page961" id="page961"></a>961</span>
+derived from the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the
+western continent. That he actually lived among the Indians,
+however, is shown by Bedier to be doubtful, and the same critic
+has exposed the untrustworthiness of the autobiographical
+details of his American trip. His knowledge of America was
+mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.</p>
+
+<p>The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June
+1791 recalled him to France. In 1792 he married Mlle Céleste
+Buisson de Lavigne, a girl of seventeen, who brought him a
+small fortune. This enabled him to join the ranks of the emigrants,
+a course practically imposed on him by his birth and
+his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke of
+Brunswick&rsquo;s invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he
+was left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His
+brother succeeded in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent
+him to Jersey. The captain of the boat in which he travelled
+left him on the beach in Guernsey. He was once more rescued
+from death, this time by some fishermen. After spending some
+time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant uncle,
+the comte de Bédée, he made his way to London. In England
+he lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaintance
+with English literature and a practical acquaintance with
+poverty. His own account of this period has been exposed
+by A. le Braz, <i>Au pays d&rsquo;exil de Chateaubriand</i> (1909), and by
+E. Dick, <i>Revue d&rsquo;histoire littéraire de la France</i> (1908), i. From
+his English exile dates the <i>Natchez</i> (first printed in his <i>&OElig;uvres
+complètes</i>, 1826-1831), a prose epic designed to portray the
+life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes originally
+designed for this work, <i>Atala</i> and <i>René</i>, are among his most
+famous productions. Chateaubriand&rsquo;s first publication, however,
+was the <i>Essai historique, politique et moral sur les révolutions ...</i>
+(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but
+took care not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a
+mediator between royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-thinker
+in religion, and a philosopher imbued with the spirit of
+Rousseau. A great change in his views was, however, at hand,
+induced, according to his own statement, by a letter from his
+sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief his views
+had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release from
+the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished
+on the scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, Lucile and
+Julie, and his wife had been imprisoned at Rennes. Mme de
+Farcy did not long survive her imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>Chateaubriand&rsquo;s thoughts turned to religion, and on his
+return to France in 1800 the <i>Génie du christianisme</i> was already
+in an advanced state. Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile
+with Chateaubriand in London, and he now introduced him to
+the society of Mme de Staël, Mme Récamier, Benjamin Constant,
+Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand&rsquo;s favourite
+resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined
+to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the
+preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being
+written at her house at Savigny. <i>Atala, ou les amours de deux
+sauvages dans le désert</i>, used as an episode in the <i>Génie du christianisme</i>,
+appeared separately in 1801 and immediately made his
+reputation. Exquisite style, impassioned eloquence and glowing
+descriptions of nature gained indulgence for the incongruity
+between the rudeness of the personages and the refinement of
+the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending of prudery with
+sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece is a more
+emphatic and highly coloured <i>Paul et Virginie</i>; it has been
+justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and
+Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the
+author resumed his <i>Génie du christianisme, ou beautés de la
+religion chrétienne</i>, which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of
+Napoleon&rsquo;s re-establishment of the Catholic religion in France,
+for which it thus seemed almost to have prepared the way. No
+coincidence could have been more opportune, and Chateaubriand
+came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in
+the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in
+mind the admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the
+public would care very little for his erudition and very much
+for his eloquence. It is consequently an inefficient production
+from the point of view of serious argument. The considerations
+derived from natural theology are but commonplaces
+rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels
+between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters,
+are at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages,
+however, where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic
+liturgy and its accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance,
+are splendid instances of the effect produced by the accumulation
+and judicious distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass,
+and treated with the utmost refinement of detail. The work is
+a masterpiece of literary art, and its influence in French literature
+was immense. The <i>Éloa</i> of Alfred de Vigny, the <i>Harmonies</i> of
+Lamartine and even the <i>Légende des siècles</i> of Victor Hugo may
+be said to have been inspired by the <i>Génie du christianisme</i>.
+Its immediate effect was very considerable. It admirably subserved
+the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803
+appointed the writer <i>attaché</i> to the French legation at Rome,
+whither he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.</p>
+
+<p>When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his
+recall he was transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais.
+The murder of the duke of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took
+place before he took up this appointment. Chateaubriand, who
+was in Paris at the time, showed his courage and independence
+by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he gave great
+offence to Napoleon by an article in the <i>Mercure de France</i> (4th
+of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken
+to refer to the emperor. The <i>Mercure</i>, of which he had become
+proprietor, was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year
+amalgamated with the <i>Décade</i>. Chateaubriand states in his
+<i>Mémoires</i> that his life was threatened, but it is more than
+possible that he exaggerated the danger. Before this, in 1806,
+he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as he subsequently
+acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest
+of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz
+and Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the
+place and the meeting apparently suggested the romantic tale of
+<i>Le Dernier Abencérage</i>, which, for political reasons, remained
+unprinted until the publication of the <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> (1826-1831).
+The journey also produced <i>L&rsquo;Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem</i>
+... (3 vols., 1811), a record of travel distinguished by the
+writer&rsquo;s habitual picturesqueness; and inspired his prose epic,
+<i>Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion chrétienne</i> (2 vols., 1809).
+This work may be regarded as the argument of the <i>Génie du
+christianisme</i> thrown into an objective form. As in the <i>Epicurean</i>
+of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast
+between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose
+partly from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity,
+and partly because the heathen are the most interesting characters
+after all. <i>René</i> had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the
+<i>Génie du christianisme</i>, and was published separately at Leipzig
+without its author&rsquo;s consent in the same year. It was perhaps
+Chateaubriand&rsquo;s most characteristic production. The connecting
+link in European literature between <i>Werther</i> and <i>Childe
+Harold</i>, it paints the misery of a morbid and dissatisfied soul.
+The representation is mainly from the life. Chateaubriand betrayed
+amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile in the
+Amélie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his
+own early surroundings. With <i>Les Natchez</i> his career as an imaginative
+writer is closed. In 1831 he published his <i>Études ou
+discours historiques</i> ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the
+Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his
+antagonists when in opposition and to his friends when in office.
+His poetical receptivity and impressionableness rendered him
+no doubt honestly inconsistent with himself; his vanity and
+ambition, too morbidly acute to be restrained by the ties of party
+allegiance, made him dangerous and untrustworthy as a political
+associate. He was forbidden to deliver the address he had prepared
+(1811) for his reception to the Academy on M.J. Chénier
+on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it.
+From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page962" id="page962"></a>962</span>
+the Vallée-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay.
+His pamphlet <i>De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la nécessité de se
+rattier à nos princes légitimes</i>, published on the 31st of March
+1814, the day of the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as
+opportune in the moment of its appearance as the <i>Génie du
+christianisme</i>, and produced a hardly less signal effect. Louis
+XVIII. declared that it had been worth a hundred thousand
+men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior, accompanied
+him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time
+associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction.
+Political bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly
+drifted into liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in
+September 1816 for his pamphlet <i>De la monarchie selon la charte</i>.
+He had to sell his library and his house of the Vallée-aux-loups.</p>
+
+<p>After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand
+obtained the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was transferred
+to London (1822), and he also acted as French plenipotentiary
+at the Congress of Verona (1822). He here made
+himself mainly responsible for the iniquitous invasion of Spain&mdash;an
+expedition undertaken, as he himself admits, with the idea
+of restoring French prestige by a military parade. He next received
+the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by his
+desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the
+interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective
+pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome
+in 1827, under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at
+Prince Polignac&rsquo;s accession to office. On the downfall of the
+elder branch of the Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably
+fruitless protest from the tribune in defence of the principle of
+legitimacy. During the first half of Louis Philippe&rsquo;s reign he was
+still politically active with his pen, and published a <i>Mémoire sur
+la captivité de madame la duchesse de Berry</i> (1833) and other
+pamphlets in which he made himself the champion of the exiled
+dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect
+of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he relapsed
+into an attitude of complete discouragement. His <i>Congrès
+de Vérone</i> (1838), <i>Vie de Rancé</i> (1844), and his translation of
+Milton, <i>Le Paradis perdu de Milton</i> (1836), belong to the writings
+of these later days. He died on the 4th of July 1848, wholly
+exhausted and thoroughly discontented with himself and the
+world, but affectionately tended by his old friend Madame
+Récamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years
+of his life he had been engaged on his <i>Mémoires</i>, and his chief
+distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Récamier, at
+whose house he met the European celebrities. He was buried
+in the Grand Bé, an islet in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his
+death his memory was revived, and at the same time exposed
+to much adverse criticism, by the publication, with sundry
+mutilations as has been suspected, of his celebrated <i>Mémoires
+d&rsquo;outre-tombe</i> (12 vols., 1849-1850). These memoirs undoubtedly
+reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of his
+professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attachment,
+except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Récamier. Though
+the book must be read with the greatest caution, especially in
+regard to persons with whom Chateaubriand came into collision,
+it is perhaps now the most read of all his works.</p>
+
+<p>Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a
+great poet. Something of affectation or unreality commonly
+interferes with the enjoyment of his finest works. The <i>Génie
+du christianisme</i> is a brilliant piece of special pleading; <i>Atala</i>
+is marred by its unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human
+nature, <i>René</i> by the perversion of sentiment which solicits sympathy
+for a contemptible character. Chateaubriand is chiefly
+significant as marking the transition from the old classical to the
+modern romantic school. The fertility of ideas, vehemence of
+expression and luxury of natural description, which he shares
+with the romanticists, are controlled by a discipline learnt in the
+school of their predecessors. His palette, always brilliant, is
+never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an artist. He is
+also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings. Perhaps,
+however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is the
+peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a
+note of Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a
+familiar object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with &ldquo;the light
+that never was on sea or land.&rdquo; This incommunicable gift
+supplies an element of sincerity to Chateaubriand&rsquo;s writings
+which goes far to redeem the artificial effect of his calculated
+sophistry and set declamation. It is also fortunate for his fame
+that so large a part of his writings should directly or indirectly
+refer to himself, for on this theme he always writes well. Egotism
+was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity and the loftiness
+of his intellectual carriage his character presents little to
+admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of genuine
+poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of
+man and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with
+absorption in self and general sterility of heart.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;The <i>&OElig;uvres complétes</i> of Chateaubriand were
+printed in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in
+many later editions, notably in 1858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an
+introductory study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for
+Chateaubriand&rsquo;s biography is the <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;outre-tombe</i> (1849-1850),
+of which there is an English translation, <i>The Memoirs of ...
+Chateaubriand</i> (6 vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the
+admirable edition (4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Biré. This work
+should be supplemented by the <i>Souvenirs et correspondances tirés des
+papiers de Mme Récamier</i> (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant).
+See also Comte de Marcellus, <i>Chateaubriand et son temps</i> (1859);
+the same editor&rsquo;s <i>Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondance intime de
+Chateaubriand</i> (1858); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, <i>Chateaubriand et son
+groupe littéraire sous l&rsquo;empire</i> (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed.,
+3 vols., 1872); other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case
+a somewhat prejudiced critic, in the <i>Portraits contemporains</i>, vols.
+i. and ii.; <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vols. i., ii. and x.; <i>Nouveaux Lundis</i>,
+vol. iii.; <i>Premiers Lundis</i>, vol. iii.; A. Vinet, <i>Études sur la litt.
+française au XIXe siècle</i> (1849); M. de Lescure, <i>Chateaubriand</i>
+(1892) in the <i>Grands écrivains français</i>; Émile Faguet, <i>Études
+littéraires sur le XIXe siècle</i> (1887); and <i>Essai d&rsquo;une bio-bibliographie
+de Chateaubriand et de sa famille</i> (Vannes, 1896), by René Kerviler.
+Joseph Bedier, in <i>Études critiques</i> (1903), deals with the American
+writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was edited by
+Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Staël appeared
+in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (Oct. 1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler,
+<i>Essai d&rsquo;une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille</i> (Vannes,
+1895).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2j" id="ft2j" href="#fa2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a>  Her <i>&OElig;uvres</i> were edited in 1879, with a memoir, by Anatole
+France.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUBRIANT,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> a town of western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Loire-Inférieure, on the
+left bank of the Chère, 40 m. N.N.E. of Nantes by rail.
+Pop. (1906) 5969. Châteaubriant takes its name from a castle
+founded in the 11th century by Brient, count of Penthièvre,
+remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four towers,
+still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first half
+of the 16th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as
+the residence of Françoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of
+this the most beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right
+angles to the main building, and connecting it with a graceful
+pavilion. It is occupied by a small museum and some of the
+public offices. There is also an interesting Romanesque church
+dedicated to St Jean de Béré. Châteaubriant is the seat of a
+subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance. It is an important
+centre on the Ouest-État railway, and has trade in agricultural
+products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural implements
+and preserved angelica are carried on. In 1551 Henry II. signed
+an edict against the reformed religion at Châteaubriant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUDUN,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> a town of north central France, capital of
+an arrondissement in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m.
+S.S.W. of Chartres by rail. Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands
+on an eminence near the left bank of the Loire. The streets,
+which are straight and regular, radiate from a central square,
+a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after
+fires in 1723 and 1870. The château, the most remarkable
+building in the town, was built in great part by Jean, count of
+Dunois, and his descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and
+rebuilt in the 12th and 15th centuries, it consists of a principal
+wing with a fine staircase of the 16th century, and, at right angles,
+a smaller wing adjoined by a chapel. To the left of the courtyard
+thus formed rises a lofty keep of the 12th century. The fine
+apartments and huge kitchens of the château are in keeping with
+its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine dates from
+the 12th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it belonged
+are occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the
+hospital. The medieval churches of St Valérien and St Jean
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page963" id="page963"></a>963</span>
+and the ruined chapel of Notre-Dame du Champdé, of which the
+façade in the Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the
+cemetery, are other notable buildings. The public institutions
+include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
+Flour-milling, tanning and leather-dressing, and the manufacture
+of blankets, silver jewelry, nails and machinery are the
+prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain, wool and hemp.
+Châteaudun (<i>Castrodunum</i>), which dates from the Gallo-Roman
+period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship of
+Dunois.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-GONTIER,<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> a town of western France, capital of
+an arrondissement in the department of Mayenne, on the
+Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by road. Pop. (1906) 6871.
+Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the castle, dates
+from the 11th century. Château-Gontier is the seat of a subprefect
+and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college
+for boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-spinning,
+the manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an
+agricultural market. There are chalybeate springs close to the
+town. Château-Gontier owes its origin and its name to a castle
+erected in the first half of the 11th century by Gunther, the
+steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a farm belonging
+to the monks of St Aubin d&rsquo;Angers. On the extinction of the
+family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XI. to Philippe de
+Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the
+League. In 1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUNEUF, LA BELLE,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> the name popularly given to
+<span class="sc">Renée de Rieux</span>, daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de
+Châteauneuf, who was descended from one of the greatest
+families of Brittany. The dates both of her birth and death
+are not known. She was maid of honour to the queen-mother
+Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the duke
+of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke
+from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with
+Elizabeth of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Châteauneuf
+for Marie of Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find
+a husband for Renee de Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her
+an influence which the queen-mother feared, and matches were
+in turn suggested with the voivode of Transylvania, the earl of
+Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris, and with the count
+of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately, on the
+ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen,
+Louise of Lorraine-Vaudémont, Renée was banished from the
+court. She married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she
+stabbed in a fit of jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her
+husband being Philip Altoviti, who in 1586 was killed in a duel
+by the Grand Prior Henry of Angoulême, who was himself
+mortally wounded.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-RENAULT, FRANÇOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1637-1716), French admiral, was the fourth son
+of the third marquis of Château-Renault. The family was of
+Breton origin, but had been long settled near Blois. He entered
+the army in 1658, but in 1661 was transferred to the navy, which
+Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high level of strength. After
+a short apprenticeship he was made captain in 1666. His early
+services were mostly performed in cruises against the Barbary
+pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named <i>chef d&rsquo;escadre</i>, and he was
+promoted <i>lieutenant général des armées navales</i> in 1687. During
+the wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but
+he had been wounded in action with the pirates, and had been
+on a cruise to the West Indies. When war broke out between
+England and France after the revolution of 1688, he was in
+command at Brest, and was chosen to carry the troops and
+stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in Ireland.
+Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington,
+<i>q.v.</i>), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay,
+he executed his mission with success. Château-Renault commanded
+a squadron under Tourville at the battle of Beachy
+Head in 1690. He was with Tourville in the attack of the
+Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named grand cross of the
+order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in constant
+service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the
+financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings
+for fighting at sea during the rest of the war.</p>
+
+<p>On the death of Tourville in 1701 he was named to the vacant
+post of vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of
+the Spanish Succession he was named for the difficult task of
+protecting the Spanish ships which were to bring the treasure
+from America. It was a duty of extreme delicacy, for the
+Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner, and the French
+king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to one of
+his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to
+resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With
+the utmost difficulty Château-Renault was able to bring the
+galleons as far as Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt
+that a powerful English and Dutch armament was on the Spanish
+coast, and had to recognize that the Spanish officers would not
+consent to make for a French harbour or for Passages, which they
+thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen French and three
+Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve galleons, had
+anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles,
+some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of
+the Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing
+of the treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town,
+and the local militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he
+would probably be attacked, Château-Renault strove to protect
+his fleet by means of a boom. The order to land the treasure
+was delayed, and until it came from Madrid nothing could be
+done, since according to law it should have been landed at Cadiz,
+which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the
+order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the
+Gallician militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very
+large part, if not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen
+and the farmers whose carts had been commandeered for the
+service. But the bulk of the merchandise was on board of the
+galleons when the allied fleet appeared outside of the bay on the
+22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his colleagues
+resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops
+which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and
+had been beaten off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the
+sea side, and on the land side there were none. There was
+therefore nothing to offer a serious resistance to the allies when
+they landed soldiers. The fleet of twenty-four sail was steered
+at the boom and broke through it, while the troops turned the
+forts and had no difficulty in scattering the Gallician militia.
+In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the French and
+Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty
+gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done
+to the French and Spanish governments was great.</p>
+
+<p>Château-Renault suffered no loss of his master&rsquo;s favour by his
+failure to save the treasure. The king considered him free from
+blame, and must indeed have known that the admiral had been
+trusted with too many secrets to make it safe to inflict a public
+rebuke. The Spanish government declined to give him the rank
+of grandee which was to have been the reward for bringing home
+the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was made a marshal of France,
+and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of Brittany. The
+fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service performed
+by Château-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he
+inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 1716
+he died in Paris. He married in 1684 Marie-Anne-Renée de la
+Porte, daughter and heiress of the count of Crozon. His eldest
+son was killed at the battle of Malaga 1704, and another, also
+a naval officer, was killed by accident in 1708. A third son,
+who too was a naval officer, succeeded him in the title.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A life of Château-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-Maison.
+There is a French as well as an English account of the part
+played by him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy
+still continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XIV.
+see Léon Guerin, <i>Histoire maritime de la France</i> (1863), vols. iii., iv.;
+and his <i>Les Marins illustres</i> (1861). Also the naval history by
+Charles Bouzel de la Roncière.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span>
+<span class="sc">Duchesse de</span> (1717-1744), mistress of Louis XV. of France,
+was the fourth daughter of Louis, marquis de Nesle, a descendant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page964" id="page964"></a>964</span>
+of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the death of her husband,
+the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the attention of Louis
+XV.; and by the aid of the duc de Richelieu, who, dominated
+by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the state,
+she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress
+in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king,
+dragging him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance
+with Frederick II. of Prussia, in 1744. Her political rôle, however,
+has been exaggerated. Her triumph after the passing disgrace
+provoked by the king&rsquo;s illness at Metz did not last long, for she
+died on the 8th of December 1744.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, <i>La Duchesse de Châteauroux et ses s&oelig;urs</i>
+(Paris, 1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAUROUX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of central France, capital of the
+department of Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the
+Indre, 88 m. S. of Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway.
+Pop. (1906) 21,048. The old town, close to the river, forms a
+nucleus round which a newer and more extensive quarter,
+bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the suburbs of St
+Christophe and Déols (<i>q.v.</i>) lie on the right bank of the Indre.
+The principal buildings of Châteauroux are the handsome
+modern church of St André, in the Gothic style, and the Château
+Raoul, of the 14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms
+part of the prefecture. The hôtel de ville contains a library and
+a museum which possesses a collection of paintings of the
+Flemish school and some interesting souvenirs of Napoleon I.
+A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1773-1844) stands in one
+of the principal squares. Châteauroux is the seat of a prefect
+and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance and
+of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank
+of France, a chamber of commerce, a lycée, a college for girls
+and training colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for
+military clothing and other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory,
+occupy large numbers of the inhabitants. Wool-spinning,
+iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the manufacture of agricultural
+implements are also carried on. Trade is in wool, iron,
+grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle from
+which Châteauroux takes its name was founded about the
+middle of the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Déols, and
+during the middle ages was the seat of a seigniory, which was
+raised to the rank of countship in 1497, and in 1616, when it
+was held by Henry II., prince of Condé, to that of duchy. In
+1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis XV. in
+1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of
+Châteauroux.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTEAU-THIERRY,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital
+of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E.
+of Paris on the Eastern railway to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872.
+Château-Thierry is built on rising ground on the right bank of
+the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the suburb
+of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the
+memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 1621;
+his house is still preserved in the street that bears his name.
+On the top of a hill are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have
+been built by Charles Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV.,
+and is plainly the origin of the name of the town. The chief relic
+is a gateway flanked by massive round towers, known as the
+Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th century and the church
+of St Crépin of the same period are of some interest. The town
+is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance and
+a communal college. The distinctive industry is the manufacture
+of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in the
+white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and agricultural
+products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried
+in the vicinity. Château-Thierry was formerly the capital of the
+district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from
+Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421,
+by Charles V. in 1544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1591. During
+the wars of the Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the campaign
+of 1814 it suffered severely. On the 12th of February
+of the latter year the Russo-Prussian forces were beaten by
+Napoleon in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHÂTELAIN<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (Med. Lat. <i>castellanus</i>, from <i>castellum</i>, a castle),
+in France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan,
+<i>i.e.</i> the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal
+system, however, the title gained in France a special significance
+which it never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction
+of which the castle became the centre. The <i>châtelain</i> was
+originally, in Carolingian times, an official of the count; with
+the development of feudalism the office became a fief, and so
+ultimately hereditary. In this as in other respects the
+châtelain was the equivalent of the viscount (<i>q.v.</i>) sometimes
+the two titles were combined, but more usually in those provinces
+where there were châtelains there were no viscounts, and vice
+versa. The title châtelain continued also to be applied to the
+inferior officer, or <i>concierge châtelain</i>, who was merely a castellan
+in the English sense. The power and status of châtelains
+necessarily varied greatly at different periods and places.
+Usually their rank in the feudal hierarchy was equivalent to
+that of the simple <i>sire</i> (<i>dominus</i>), between the baron and the
+<i>chevalier</i>; but occasionally they were great nobles with an
+extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low Countries (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burgrave</a></span>).
+This variation was most marked in the cities, where in the struggle
+for power that of the châtelain depended on the success with
+which he could assert himself against his feudal superior, lay or
+ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the
+rising power of the communes. The <i>châtellenie</i> (<i>castellania</i>), or
+jurisdiction of the châtelain, as a territorial division for certain
+judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance
+of the title and office of the châtelain in France, and continued
+till the Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Achille Luchaire, <i>Manuel des institutions françaises</i> (Paris,
+1892); Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.</i> &ldquo;Castellanus.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CHATELAINE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Fr. <i>châtelaine</i>, the feminine form of <i>châtelain</i>,
+a keeper of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom
+of a châtelaine to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her
+girdle, the word is now applied to the collection of short chains,
+often worn by ladies, to which are attached various small
+articles of domestic and toilet use, as keys, penknife, needlecase,
+scissors, &amp;c.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
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+</body>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8
+       "Chariot" to "Chatelaine"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 14, 2010 [EBook #33427]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 5 SL 8 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) The following typographical error has been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE CHARLES ALBERT: "... made a savage demonstration against
+      him at the Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in the night with
+      difficulty and returned to Piedmont with his defeated army." 'army
+      amended from armp'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME V, SLICE VIII
+
+           Chariot to Chatelaine
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  CHARIOT                            CHARLES MARTEL
+  CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER       CHARLESTON (Illinois, U.S.A)
+  CHARITON                           CHARLESTON (South Carolina, U.S.A.)
+  CHARITY AND CHARITIES              CHARLESTON (West Virginia, U.S.A.)
+  CHARIVARI                          CHARLESTOWN
+  CHARKHARI                          CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT
+  CHARLATAN                          CHARLEVILLE
+  CHARLEMAGNE                        CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE
+  CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND           CHARLEVOIX
+  CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD        CHARLOTTE
+  CHARLEROI (town in Belgium)        CHARLOTTENBURG
+  CHARLEROI (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)   CHARLOTTESVILLE
+  CHARLES                            CHARLOTTETOWN
+  CHARLES II. (Roman emperor)        CHARM
+  CHARLES III. (Roman emperor)       CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DESIRE
+  CHARLES IV. (Roman emperor)        CHARNEL HOUSE
+  CHARLES V. (Roman emperor)         CHARNOCK, JOB
+  CHARLES VI. (Roman emperor)        CHARNOCK, ROBERT
+  CHARLES VII. (Roman emperor)       CHARNOCKITE
+  CHARLES I. (king of Great Britain) CHARNWOOD FOREST
+  CHARLES II. (king of G. Britain)   CHAROLLES
+  CHARLES I. and II. (of France)     CHARON
+  CHARLES III. (king of France)      CHARONDAS
+  CHARLES IV. (king of France)       CHARPENTIER, FRANCOIS
+  CHARLES V. (king of France)        CHARRIERE, AGNES ISABELLE EMILIE DE
+  CHARLES VI. (king of France)       CHARRON, PIERRE
+  CHARLES VII. (king of France)      CHARRUA
+  CHARLES VIII. (king of France)     CHART
+  CHARLES IX. (king of France)       CHARTER
+  CHARLES X. (king of France)        CHARTERED COMPANIES
+  CHARLES I. (king of Hungary)       CHARTERHOUSE
+  CHARLES I. (king of Naples)        CHARTER-PARTY
+  CHARLES II. (king of Naples)       CHARTERS TOWERS
+  CHARLES II. (king of Navarre)      CHARTIER, ALAIN
+  CHARLES III. (king of Navarre)     CHARTISM
+  CHARLES (king of Rumania)          CHARTRES
+  CHARLES II. (king of Spain)        CHARTREUSE
+  CHARLES III. (king of Spain)       CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE
+  CHARLES IV. (king of Spain)        CHARWOMAN
+  CHARLES IX. (king of Sweden)       CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND
+  CHARLES X. (king of Sweden)        CHASE, SAMUEL
+  CHARLES XI. (king of Sweden)       CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT
+  CHARLES XII. (king of Sweden)      CHASE
+  CHARLES XIII. (king of Sweden)     CHASING
+  CHARLES XIV. (king of Sweden)      CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHEMIEN PHILARETE
+  CHARLES XV. (king of Sweden)       CHASSE
+  CHARLES (duke of Brittany)         CHASSE
+  CHARLES (duke of Burgundy)         CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANCOIS
+  CHARLES (count of Flanders)        CHASSEPOT
+  CHARLES I. (duke of Lorraine)      CHASSESRIAU, THEODORE
+  CHARLES II. (duke of Lorraine)     CHASSIS
+  CHARLES III. or II. (duke of Lrn.) CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE
+  CHARLES IV. or III. (duke of Lrn.) CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES
+  CHARLES V. or IV. (duke of Lor.)   CHASUBLE
+  CHARLES II. (duke of Parma)        CHATEAU
+  CHARLES (archduke of Austria)      CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE
+  CHARLES (cardinal of Lorraine)     CHATEAUBRIANT
+  CHARLES (prince of Lorraine)       CHATEAUDUN
+  CHARLES (count of Valois)          CHATEAU-GONTIER
+  CHARLES (prince of Viana)          CHATEAUNEUF, LA BELLE
+  CHARLES, ELIZABETH                 CHATEAU-RENAULT, DE ROUSSELET
+  CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR   CHATEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE
+  CHARLES, THOMAS                    CHATEAUROUX
+  CHARLES ALBERT                     CHATEAU-THIERRY
+  CHARLES AUGUSTUS                   CHATELAIN
+  CHARLES EDWARD                     CHATELAINE
+  CHARLES EMMANUEL I.
+
+
+
+
+CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from _char_, a car), in
+antiquity, a conveyance (Gr. [Greek: arma], Lat. _currus_) used in
+battle, for the chase, in public processions and in games. The Greek
+chariot had two wheels, and was made to be drawn by two horses; if a
+third or, more commonly, two reserve horses were added, they were
+attached on each side of the main pair by a single trace fastened to the
+front of the chariot, as may be seen on two prize vases in the British
+Museum from the Panathenaic games at Athens. On the monuments there is
+no other sign of traces, from the want of which wheeling round must have
+been difficult. Immediately on the axle ([Greek: axon], _axis_), without
+springs of any kind, rested the basket or body ([Greek: diphros]) of the
+chariot, which consisted of a floor to stand on, and a semicircular
+guard round the front about half the height of the driver. It was
+entirely open at the back, so that the combatant might readily leap to
+the ground and up again as was necessary. There was no seat, and
+generally only room for the combatant and his charioteer to stand in.
+The pole ([Greek: rumos], _temo_) was probably attached to the middle of
+the axle, though it appears to spring from the front of the basket; at
+the end of the pole was the yoke ([Greek: zygon], _jugum_), which
+consisted of two small saddles fitting the necks of the horses, and
+fastened by broad bands round the chest. Besides this the harness of
+each horse consisted of a bridle and a pair of reins, mostly the same as
+in use now, made of leather and ornamented with studs of ivory or metal.
+The reins were passed through rings attached to the collar bands or
+yoke, and were long enough to be tied round the waist of the charioteer
+in case of his having to defend himself. The wheels and body of the
+chariot were usually of wood, strengthened in places with bronze or
+iron; the wheels had from four to eight spokes and tires of bronze or
+iron. This description applies generally to the chariots of all the
+nations of antiquity; the differences consisted chiefly in the
+mountings. The chariots of the Egyptians and Assyrians, with whom the
+bow was the principal arm of attack, were richly mounted with quivers
+full of arrows, while those of the Greeks, whose characteristic weapon
+was the spear, were plain except as regards mere decoration. Among the
+Persians, again, and more remarkably among the ancient Britons, there
+was a class of chariot having the wheels mounted with sharp,
+sickle-shaped blades, which cut to pieces whatever came in their way.
+This was probably an invention of the Persians; Cyrus the younger
+employed these chariots in large numbers. Among the Greeks and Romans,
+on the other hand, the chariot had passed out of use in war before
+historical times, and was retained only for races in the public games,
+or for processions, without undergoing any alteration apparently, its
+form continuing to correspond with the description of Homer, though it
+was lighter in build, having to carry only the charioteer. On two
+Panathenaic prize vases in the British Museum are figures of racing
+_bigae_, in which, contrary to the description given above, the driver
+is seated with his feet resting on a board hanging down in front close
+to the legs of his horses. The _biga_ itself consists of a seat resting
+on the axle, with a rail at each side to protect the driver from the
+wheels. The chariot was unsuited to the uneven soil of Greece and Italy,
+and it is not improbable that these nations had brought it with them as
+part of their original habits from their former seats in the East. In
+the remains of Egyptian and Assyrian art there are numerous
+representations of chariots, from which it may be seen with what
+richness they were sometimes ornamented. The "iron" chariots in use
+among the Jews appear to have been chariots strengthened or plated with
+metal, and no doubt were of the form above described, which prevailed
+generally among the other ancient nations. (See also CARRIAGE.)
+
+  The chief authorities are J.C. Ginzrot, _Die Wagen and Fahrwerke der
+  Griechen und Romer_ (1817); C.F. Grashof, _Uber das Fuhrwerk bei Homer
+  und Hesiod_ (1846); W. Leaf in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, v.; E.
+  Buchholz, _Die homerischen Realien_ (1871-1885); W. Helbig, _Das
+  homerische Epos aus den Denkmalern erlautert_ (1884), and the article
+  "Currus" in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des Antiquites_.
+
+
+
+
+CHARISIUS, FLAVIUS SOSIPATER, Latin grammarian, flourished about the
+middle of the 4th century A.D. He was probably an African by birth,
+summoned to Constantinople to take the place of Euanthius, a learned
+commentator on Terence. The _Ars Grammatica_ of Charisius, in five
+books, addressed to his son (not a Roman, as the preface shows), has
+come down to us in a mutilated condition, the beginning of the first,
+part of the fourth, and the greater part of the fifth book having been
+lost. The work, which is merely a compilation, is valuable as containing
+excerpts from the earlier writers on grammar, who are in many cases
+mentioned by name--Q. Remmius Palaemon, C. Julius Romanus, Cominianus.
+
+  The best edition is by H. Keil, _Grammatici Latini_, i. (1857); see
+  also article by G. Gotz in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. 2
+  (1899); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. trans.), S
+  419, I. 2; Frohde, in _Jahr. f. Philol._, 18 Suppl. (1892), 567-672.
+
+
+
+
+CHARITON, of Aphrodisias in Caria, the author of a Greek romance
+entitled _The Loves of Chaereas and Callirrhoe_, probably flourished in
+the 4th century A.D. The action of the story, which is to a certain
+extent historical, takes place during the time of the Peloponnesian War.
+Opinions differ as to the merits of the romance, which is an imitation
+of Xenophon of Ephesus and Heliodorus.
+
+  Editions by J.P. D'Orville (1783), G.A. Hirschig (1856) and R. Hercher
+  (1859); there is an (anonymous) English translation (1764); see also
+  E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARITY AND CHARITIES. The word "charity," or love, represents the
+principle of the good life. It stands for a mood or habit of mind and an
+endeavour. From it, as a habit of mind, springs the social and personal
+endeavour which in the widest sense we may call charity. The two
+correspond. Where the habit of mind has not been gained, the endeavour
+fluctuates and is relatively purposeless. In so far as it has been
+gained, the endeavour is founded on an intelligent scrutiny of social
+conditions and guided by a definite purpose. In the one case it is
+realized that some social theory must be found by us, if our action is
+to be right and consistent; in the other case no need of such a theory
+is felt. This article is based on the assumption that there are
+principles in charity or charitable work, and that these can be
+ascertained by a study of the development of social conditions, and
+their relation to prevalent social aims and religious or philosophic
+conceptions. It is assumed also that the charity of the religious life,
+if rightly understood, cannot be inconsistent with that of the social
+life.
+
+  Perhaps some closer definition of charity is necessary. The words that
+  signify goodwill towards the community and its members are primarily
+  words expressive of the affections of family life in the relations
+  existing between parents, and between parent and child. As will be
+  seen, the analogies underlying such phrases as "God the Father,"
+  "children of God," "brethren," have played a great part in the
+  development of charitable thought in pre-Christian as well as in
+  Christian days. The germ, if we may say so, of the words [Greek:
+  philia, agape], _amor_, love; _amicitia_, friendship, is the sexual or
+  the parental relation. With the realization of the larger life in man
+  the meaning of the word expands. _Caritas_, or charity, strikes
+  another note--high price, and thus dearness. It is charity, indeed,
+  expressed in mercantile metaphor; and it would seem that it was
+  associated in thought with the word [Greek: charis], which has also a
+  commercial meaning, but signifies as well favour, gratitude, grace,
+  kindness. Partly thus, perhaps, it assumed and suggested a nobler
+  conception; and sometimes, as, for instance, in English ecclesiastical
+  documents, it was spelt _charitas_. [Greek: Agape], which in the
+  Authorized Version of the Bible is translated charity, was used by St
+  Paul as a translation of the Hebrew word _hesed_, which in the Old
+  Testament is in the same version translated "mercy"--as in Hosea vi.
+  6, "I desired mercy, and not sacrifice." This word represents the
+  charity of kindness and goodness, as distinguished from almsgiving.
+  Almsgiving, _sedaqah_, is translated by the word [Greek: eleemosune]
+  in the Septuagint, and in the Authorized Version by the word
+  "righteousness." It represents the deed or the gift which is due--done
+  or made, not spontaneously, but under a sense of religious obligation.
+  In the earlier Christian period the word almsgiving has this meaning,
+  and was in that sense applied to a wide range of actions and
+  contracts, from a gift to a beggar at a church door to a grant and a
+  tenure of land. It also, in the word almoner, represented the
+  fulfilment of the religious obligation with the aid of an agent or
+  delegate. The words charity or love (_caritas_ or [Greek: agape]), on
+  the other hand, without losing the tone with which the thought of
+  parental or family love inspires them, assume a higher meaning. In
+  religious thought they imply an ideal life, as represented by such
+  expressions as "love (_agape_) of God." This on the one side; and on
+  the other an ideal social relation, in such words as "love of man."
+  Thus in the word "charity" religious and social associations meet; and
+  thus regarded the word means a disciplined and habitual mood in which
+  the mind is considerate of the welfare of others individually and
+  generally, and devises what is for their real good, and in which the
+  intelligence and the will strive to fulfil the mind's purpose. Charity
+  thus has no necessary relation to relief or alms. To give a lecture,
+  or to nurse a sick man who is not in want or "poor," may be equally a
+  deed of charity; though in fact charity concerns itself largely with
+  the classes usually called "the poor," and with problems of distress
+  and relief. Relief, however, is not an essential part of charity or
+  charitable work. It is one of many means at its disposal. If the world
+  were so poor that no one could make a gift, or so wealthy that no one
+  needed it, charity--the charity of life and of deeds--would remain.
+
+The history of charity is a history of many social and religious
+theories, influences and endeavours, that have left their mark alike
+upon the popular and the cultivated thought of the present day. The
+inconsistencies of charitable effort and argument may thus in part be
+accounted for. To understand the problem of charity we have therefore
+(1) to consider the stages of charitable thought--the primitive, pagan,
+Greek and Roman, Jewish and Christian elements, that make up the modern
+consciousness in regard to charity, and also the growth of the habit of
+"charity" as representing a gradually educated social instinct. (2) We
+have also to consider in their relation to charity the results of recent
+investigations of the conditions of social life. (3) At each stage we
+have to note the corresponding stage of practical administration in
+public relief and private effort--for the division between public or
+"poor-law" relief and charity which prevails in England is,
+comparatively speaking, a novelty, and, generally speaking, the work of
+charity can hardly be appreciated or understood if it be considered
+without reference to public relief. (4) As to the present day, we have
+to consider practical suggestions in regard to such subjects as charity
+and economic thought, charity organization, friendly visiting and
+almonership, co-operation with the poor-law, charity and thrift,
+parochial management, hospitals and medical relief, exceptional distress
+and the "unemployed," the utilization of endowments and their
+supervision, and their adaptation to new needs and emergencies. (5) We
+have also throughout to consider charitable help in relation to classes
+of dependants, who appear early in the history of the question--widows
+and orphans, the sick and the aged, vagrants and wayfarers.
+
+First in the series come the charities of the family and of hospitality;
+then the wider charities of religion, the charities of the community,
+and of individual donors and of mutual help. These gradually assumed
+importance in communities which consisted originally of self-supporting
+classes, within which widows and orphans, for instance, would be rather
+provided for, in accordance with recognized class obligations, than
+relieved. Then come habitual almsgiving, the charitable endowment, and
+the modern charitable institution and association. But throughout the
+test of progress or decadence appears to be the condition of the family.
+The family is the source, the home and the hearthstone of charity. It
+has been created but slowly, and there is naturally a constant tendency
+to break away from its obligations and to ignore and depreciate its
+utility. Yet the family, as we now have it, is itself the outcome of
+infinite thought working through social instinct, and has at each stage
+of its development indicated a general advance. To it, therefore,
+constant reference must be made.
+
+
+PART I.--PRIMITIVE CHARITY
+
+The study of early communities has brought to light the history of the
+development of the family. "Marriage in its lowest phases is by no means
+a matter of affection or companionship"; and only very slowly has the
+position of both parents been recognized as implying different but
+correlative responsibilities towards their child. Only very slowly,
+also, has the morality necessary to the making of the family been won.
+Charity at earlier stages is hardly recognized as a virtue, nor
+infanticide as an evil. Hospitality--the beginning of a larger social
+life--is non-existent. The self-support of the community is secured by
+marriage, and when relations fail marriage becomes a provision against
+poverty. Then by the tribal system is created another safeguard against
+want. But apart also from these methods of maintenance, at a very early
+stage there is charitable relief. The festivals of the solstices and
+equinoxes, and of the seasons, are the occasions for sacrifice and
+relief; and, as Christmas customs prove, the instinct to give help or
+alms at such festival periods still remains. Charity is concerned
+primarily with certain elemental forces of social life: the relation
+between these primitive instincts and impulses that still influence
+charity should not, therefore, be overlooked. The basis of social life
+is also the basis of charitable thought and action.
+
+  The savage is the civilized man in the rough. "The lowest races have,"
+  Lord Avebury writes, "no institution of marriage." Many have no word
+  for "dear" or "beloved." The child belongs to the tribe rather than to
+  the parent. In these circumstances a problem of charity such as the
+  following may arise:--"Am I to starve, while my sister has children
+  whom she can sell?" a question asked of Burton by a negro. From the
+  point of view of the tribe, an able-bodied man would be more valuable
+  than dependent children, and the relationship of the larger family of
+  brothers and sisters would be a truer claim to help than that of
+  mother and child. Subsequently the child is recognized as related, not
+  to the father, but to the mother, and there is "a kind of bond which
+  lasts for life between mother and child, although the father is a
+  stranger to it." Slowly only is the relative position of both parents,
+  with different but correlative responsibilities, recognized. The first
+  two steps of charity have then been made: the social value of the bond
+  between the mother, and then between the father, and the child has
+  been recognized. Until this point is reached the morality necessary to
+  the making of the family is wanting, and for a long time afterwards it
+  is hardly won. The virtue of chastity--the condition precedent to the
+  higher family life--is unrecognized. Indeed, the set of such religious
+  thought as there may be is against it. Abstract conceptions, even in
+  the nobler races, are lacking. The religion of life is vaguely
+  struggling with its animality, and that which it at last learns to
+  rule it at first worships. In these circumstances there is little
+  charity for the child and little for the stranger. "There is," Dr
+  Schweinfurth wrote in his _Heart of Africa_, "an utter want of
+  wholesome intercourse between race and race. For any member of a tribe
+  that speaks one dialect to cross the borders of a tribe that speaks
+  another is to make a venture at the hazard of his life." The religious
+  obligations that fostered and sanctified family life among the Greeks
+  and Romans and Jews are unknown. Much later in development comes
+  charity for the child, with the abhorrence of infanticide--against
+  which the Jewish-Christian charity of 2000 years ago uttered its most
+  vigorous protests. If the child belonged primarily to the tribe or
+  state, its maintenance or destruction was a common concern. This
+  motive influenced the Greeks, who are historically nearer the earlier
+  forms of social life than ourselves. For the common good they exposed
+  the deformed child; but also "where there were too many, for in our
+  state population has a limit," as Aristotle says, "the babe or unborn
+  child was destroyed." And so, to lighten their own responsibilities,
+  parents were wont to do in the slow years of the degradation of the
+  Roman empire, though the interest of the state then required a
+  contrary policy. The transition to our present feeling of
+  responsibility for child-life has been very gradual and uncertain,
+  through the middle ages and even till the 18th century. Strictly it
+  may be said that all penitentiaries and other similar institutions are
+  concrete protests on behalf of a better family life. The movement for
+  the care of children in the 18th century naturally and instinctively
+  allied itself with the penitentiary movement. The want of regard for
+  child-life, when the rearing of children becomes a source of economic
+  pressure, suggests why in earlier stages of civilization all that
+  charitable apparatus which we now think necessary for the assistance
+  of children is wanting, even if the need, so far as it does arise, is
+  not adequately met by the recognized obligations of the clan-family or
+  brotherhood.
+
+  In the case of barbarous races charity and self-support may be
+  considered from some other points of view. Self-support is secured in
+  two ways--by marriage and by slavery. "For a man or woman to be
+  unmarried after the age of thirty is unheard of" (T.H. Lewin, _Wild
+  Races of South-East India_). On the other hand, if any one is without
+  a father, mother or other relative, and destitute of the necessaries
+  of life, he may sell himself and become a slave. Thus slavery becomes
+  a provision for poverty when relations fail. The clan-family may serve
+  the same purpose. David Livingstone describes the formation of the
+  clan-family among the Bakuena. "Each man, by virtue of paternity, is
+  chief of his own children. They build huts round his.... Near the
+  centre of each circle of huts is a spot called a 'kotla,' with a
+  fireplace; here they work, eat, &c. A poor man attaches himself to the
+  'kotla' of a rich one, and is considered a child of the latter." Thus
+  the clan-family is also a poor-relief association.
+
+  Studies in folklore bring to light many relations between the charity
+  of the old world and that of our own day.
+
+
+  The early community.
+
+In regard to the charity of the early community, we may take the 8th
+century B.C. as the point of departure. The _Odyssey_ (about 800 B.C.)
+and Hesiod (about 700 B.C.) are roughly parallel with Amos (816-775),
+and represent two streams of thought that meet in the early Christian
+period. The period covered by the _Odyssey_ seems to merge into that of
+Hesiod. We take the former first, dealing with the clan-family and the
+phratry, which are together the self-maintaining unit of society, with
+the general relief of the poor, with hospitality, and with vagrancy. In
+Hesiod we find the customary law of charity in the earlier community
+definitely stated, and also indications of the normal methods of
+neighbourly help which were in force in country districts. First of the
+family and brotherhood, or phratry. The family (_Od_. viii. 582)
+included alike the wife's father and the daughter's husband. It was thus
+a clanlike family. Out of this was developed the phratry or brotherhood,
+in which were included alike noble families, peasants and craftsmen,
+united by a common worship and responsibilities and a common customary
+law (_themis_). Zeus, the god of social life, was worshipped by the
+phratry. He was the father of the law (_themis_). He was god of host and
+guest. Society was thus based on law, the brotherhood and the family.
+The irresponsible man, the man worthy of no respect or consideration,
+was one who belonged to no brotherhood, was subject to no customary law,
+and had no hearth or family. The phratry was, and became afterwards
+still more, "a natural gild." Outside the self-sustaining phratry was
+the stranger, including the wayfarer and the vagrant; and partly merged
+in these classes was the beggar, the recognized recipient of the alms of
+the community. To change one's abode and to travel was assumed to be a
+cause of reproach (_Il_. ix. 648). The "land-louper" was naturally
+suspected. On the other hand, a stranger's first thought in a new
+country was whether the inhabitants were wild or social ([Greek:
+dikaioi]), hospitable and God-fearing (_Od_. xiii. 201). Hospitality
+thus became the first public charity; Zeus sent all strangers and
+beggars, and it was against all law ([Greek: themis]) to slight them.
+Out of this feeling--a kind of glorified almsgiving--grew up the system
+of hospitality in Greek states and also in the Roman world. The host
+greeted the stranger (or the suppliant). An oath of friendship was taken
+by the stranger, who was then received with the greeting, Welcome
+([Greek: chaire]), and water was provided for ablution, and food and
+shelter. In the larger house there was a guests' table. In the hut he
+shared the peasant's meal. The custom bound alike the rich and the poor.
+On parting presents were given, usually food for the onward journey,
+sometimes costly gifts. The obligation was mutual, that the host should
+give hospitality, and that the guest should not abuse it. From early
+times tallies were exchanged between them as evidence of this formal
+relationship, which each could claim again of the other by the
+production of the token. And further, the relationship on either side
+became hereditary. Thus individuals and families and tribes remained
+linked in friendship and in the interchange of hospitalities.
+
+Under the same patronage of Zeus and the same laws of hospitality were
+vagrants and beggars. The vagrant and loafer are sketched in the
+_Odyssey_--the vagrant who lies glibly that he may get entertainment,
+and the loafer who prefers begging to work on a farm. These and the
+winter idlers, whom Hesiod pictures--a group known to modern
+life--prefer at that season to spend their time in the warmth of the
+village smithy, or at a house of common resort ([Greek: lesche])--a
+common lodging-house, we might say--where they would pass the night.
+Apparently, as in modern times, the vagrants had organized their own
+system of entertainment, and, supported by the public, were a class for
+whom it was worth while to cater. The local or public beggars formed a
+still more definite class. Their begging was a recognized means of
+maintenance; it was a part of the method of poor relief. Thus of
+Penelope it was said that, if Odysseus' tale were true, she would give
+him better clothes, and then he might beg his bread throughout the
+country-side. Feasts, too, and almsgiving were nearly allied, and feasts
+have always been one resource for the relief of the poor. Thus naturally
+the beggars frequented feasts, and were apparently a recognized and yet
+inevitable nuisance. They wore, as part of their dress, scrips or
+wallets in which they carried away the food they received, as later
+Roman clients carried away portions of food in baskets (_sportula_) from
+their patron's dinner. Odysseus, when he dresses up as a beggar, puts on
+a wallet as part of his costume. Thus we find a system of voluntary
+relief in force based on a recognition of the duty of almsgiving as
+complete and peremptory as that which we shall notice later among the
+Jews and the early Christians. We are concerned with country districts,
+and not with towns, and, as social conditions that are similar produce
+similar methods of administration, so we find here a general plan of
+relief similar to that which was in vogue in Scotland till the Scottish
+Poor Law Act of 1845.
+
+In Hesiod the fundamental conceptions of charity are more clearly
+expressed. He has, if not his ten, at least his four commandments, for
+disobedience to which Zeus will punish the offender. They are: Thou
+shalt do no evil to suppliant or guest; thou shalt not dishonour any
+woman of the family; thou shalt not sin against the orphan; thou shalt
+not be unkind to aged parents.
+
+  The laws of social life are thus duty to one's guest and duty to one's
+  family; and chastity has its true place in that relation, as the later
+  Greeks, who so often quote Hesiod (cf. the so-called _Economics_ of
+  Aristotle), fully realized. Also the family charities due to the
+  orphan, whose lot is deplored in the _Iliad_ (xxii. 490), and to the
+  aged are now clearly enunciated. But there is also in Hesiod the duty
+  to one's neighbour, not according to the "perfection" of "Cristes
+  lore," but according to a law of honourable reciprocity in act and
+  intent. "Love him who loves thee, and cleave to him who cleaveth to
+  thee: to him who would have given, give; to him who would not have
+  given, give not." The groundwork of Hesiod's charity outside the
+  family is neighbourly help (such as formed no small part of old
+  Scottish charity in the country districts); and he put his argument
+  thus: Competition, which is a kind of strife, "lies in the roots of
+  the world and in men." It is good, and rouses the idle "handless" man
+  to work. On one side are social duty ([Greek: dike]) and work, done
+  briskly at the right season of the year, which brings a full barn. On
+  the other side are unthrift and hunger, and relief with the disgrace
+  of begging; and the relief, when the family can do no more, must come
+  from neighbours, to whose house the beggar has to go with his wife and
+  children to ask for victual. Once they may be helped, or twice, and
+  then they will be refused. It is better, Hesiod tells his brother, to
+  work and so pay off his debts and avoid hunger (see _Erga_, 391, &c.,
+  and elsewhere). Here indeed is a problem of to-day as it appeared to
+  an early Greek. The alternatives before the idler--so far as his own
+  community is concerned--are labour with neighbourly help to a limited
+  extent, or hunger.
+
+  Hesiod was a farmer in Boeotia. Some 530 years afterwards a pupil of
+  Aristotle thus describes the district and its community of farmers.
+  "They are," he says, "well to do, but simple in their way of life.
+  They practise justice, good faith, and hospitality. To needy townsmen
+  and vagabonds they give freely of their substance; for meanness and
+  covetousness are unknown to them." The charitable method of Homeric
+  and Hesiodic days still continued.
+
+
+PART II.--CHARITY AMONG THE GREEKS
+
+  The Greek state.
+
+Society in a Greek state was divided into two parts, citizens and
+slaves. The citizens required leisure for education, war and government.
+The slaves were their ministers and servants to enable them to secure
+this leisure. We have therefore to consider, on the one hand, the
+position of the family and the clan-family, and the maintenance of the
+citizen from public funds and by public and private charities; and on
+the other hand the condition of the slaves, and the relation between
+slavery and charity.
+
+The slaves formed the larger part of the population. The census of
+Attica, made between 317 and 307 B.C., gives their numbers at 400,000
+out of a population of about 500,000; and even if this be considered
+excessive, the proportion of slaves to citizens would certainly be very
+large. The citizens with their wives and children formed some 12% of the
+community. Thus, apart from the resident aliens, returned in the census
+at 10,000, and their wives and children, we have two divisions of
+society: the citizens, with their own organization of relief and
+charities; and the slaves, permanently maintained by reason of their
+dependence on individual members of the civic class. Thus, there is no
+poverty but that of the poor citizens. Poverty is limited to them. The
+slaves--that is to say, the bulk of the labouring population--are
+provided for.
+
+From times relatively near to Hesiod's we may trace the growth and
+influence of the clan-family as the centre of customary charity within
+the community, the gradual increase of a class of poor either outside
+the clan-family or eventually independent of it, and the development of
+a new organization of relief introduced by the state to meet newer
+demands. We picture the early state as a group of families, each of
+which tends to form in time a separate group or clan. At each expansion
+from the family to the clan the members of the clan retain rights and
+have to fulfil duties which are the same as, or similar to, those which
+prevailed in the family. Thus, in Attica the clan-families (_genos_) and
+the brotherhoods (_phratria_) were "the only basis of legal rights and
+obligations over and above the natural family." The clan-family was "a
+natural guild," consisting of rich and poor members--the well-born or
+noble and the craftsman alike. Originally it would seem that the land
+was divided among the families of the clan by lot and was inalienable.
+Thus with the family was combined the means of supporting the family. On
+the other hand, every youth was registered in his phratry, and the
+phratry remained till the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.) a political,
+and even after that time a social, organization of importance.
+
+First, as to the family--the mother and wife, and the father. Already
+before the age of Plato and Xenophon (450-350 B.C.) we find that the
+family has suffered a slow decline. The wife, according to later Greek
+usage, was married as a child, hardly educated, and confined to the
+house, except at some festival or funeral. But with the decline came
+criticism and a nobler conception of family life. "First, then, come
+laws regarding the wife," writes the author of the so-called _Economics_
+of Aristotle, and the law, "thou shalt do no wrong; for, if we do no
+wrong, we shall not be wronged." This is the "common law," as the
+Pythagoreans say, "and it implies that we must not wrong the wife in the
+least, but treat her with the reverence due to a suppliant, or one taken
+from the altar." The sanctity of marriage is thus placed among the
+"commandments" of Hesiod, beside the duty towards the stranger and the
+orphan. These and other references to the Pythagoreans suggest that
+they, possibly in common with other mystics, preached the higher
+religion of marriage and social life, and thus inspired a deeper social
+feeling, which eventually allied itself with the Christian movement.
+
+Next, as to parents and children: the son was under an obligation to
+support his father, subject, after Solon's time, to the condition that
+he had taught him a trade; and after Solon's time the father had no
+claim for support from an illegitimate son. "The possession of
+children," it was said (Arist. _Econ._), "is not by nature for the
+public good only, but also for private advantage. For what the strong
+may gain by their toil for the weak, the weak in their old age receive
+from the strong... Thus is the nature of each, the man and the woman,
+prearranged by the Divine Being for a life in common." Honour to parents
+is "the first and greatest and oldest of all debts" (Plato, _Laws_,
+717). The child has to care for the parent in his old age. "Nemesis, the
+minister of justice ([Greek: dike]), is appointed to watch over all
+these things." And "if a man fail to adorn the sepulchre of his dead
+parents, the magistrates take note of it and inquire" (Xen. _Mem._ ii.
+14). The heightened conception of marriage implies a fuller
+interpretation of the mutual relations of parent and child as well; both
+become sacred.
+
+Then as to orphans. Before Solon's time (594 B.C.) the property of any
+member of the clan-family who died without children went to the clan;
+and after his time, when citizens were permitted to leave their property
+by will, the property of an intestate fell to the clan. This arrangement
+carried with it corresponding duties. Through the clan-family provision
+was made for orphans. Any member of the clan had the legal right to
+claim an orphan member in marriage; and, if the nearest agnate did not
+marry her, he had to give her a dowry proportionate to the amount of his
+own property. Later, there is evidence of a growing sense of
+responsibility in regard to orphans. Hippodamus (about 443 B.C.), in his
+scheme of the perfected state (Arist. _Pol._ 1268), suggested that there
+should be public magistrates to deal with the affairs of orphans (and
+strangers); and Plato, his contemporary, writes of the duty of the state
+and of the guardian towards them very fully. Orphans, he proposes
+(_Laws_, 927), should be placed under the care of public guardians. "Men
+should have a fear of the loneliness of orphans ... and of the souls of
+the departed, who by nature take a special care of their own
+children.... A man should love the unfortunate orphan (boy or girl) of
+whom he is guardian as if he were his own child; he should be as careful
+and diligent in the management of the orphan's property as of his
+own--or even more careful still."
+
+To relieve the poverty of citizens and to preserve the citizen-hood were
+objects of public policy and of charity. In Crete and Sparta the
+citizens were wholly supported out of the public resources. In Attica
+the system was different. The citizens were aided in various ways, in
+which, as often happens, legal or official and voluntary or private
+methods worked on parallel lines. The means were (1) legal enactment for
+release of debts; (2) emigration; (3) the supply of corn; (4) poor
+relief for the infirm, and relief for the children of those fallen in
+war; (5) emoluments; (6) voluntary public service, separate gifts and
+liberality; (7) loan societies.
+
+  (1) In 594 B.C. the labouring class in Attica were overwhelmed with
+  debts and mortgages, and their persons pledged as security. Only by a
+  sharp reform was it possible to preserve them from slavery. This Solon
+  effected. He annulled their obligations, abolished the pledge of the
+  person, and gave the labourers the franchise (but see under SOLON).
+  Besides the laws above mentioned, he gave power to the Areopagus to
+  inquire from what sources each man obtained the necessaries of life,
+  and to punish those who did not work. His action and that of his
+  successor, Peisistratus (560 B.C.), suggest that the class of poor
+  ([Greek: aporoi]) was increasing, and that by the efforts of these two
+  men the social decline of the people was avoided or at least
+  postponed. Peisistratus lent the poor money that they might maintain
+  themselves in husbandry. He wished, it is said (Arist. _Ath. Pol._
+  xvi.), to enable them to earn a moderate living, that they might be
+  occupied with their own affairs, instead of spending their time in the
+  city or neglecting their work in order to visit it. As rent for their
+  land they paid a tenth of the produce.
+
+  (2) Akin to this policy was that of emigration. Athenians, selected in
+  some instances from the two lowest political classes, emigrated,
+  though still retaining their rights of citizenship. In 570-565 B.C.
+  Salamis was annexed and divided into lots and settled, and later
+  Pericles settled more than 2750 citizens in the Chersonese and
+  elsewhere--practically a considerable section of the whole body of
+  citizens. "By this means," says Plutarch, "he relieved the state of
+  numerous idle agitators and assisted the necessitous." In other states
+  this expedient was frequently adopted.
+
+  (3) A third method was the supply of corn at reduced rates--a method
+  similar to that adopted, as we shall see, at Rome, Constantinople and
+  elsewhere. The maintenance of the mass of the people depended on the
+  corn fleets. There were public granaries, where large stores were laid
+  up at the public expense. A portion of all cargoes of corn was
+  retained at Athens and in other ways importation was promoted.
+  Exportation was forbidden. Public donations and distributions of corn
+  were frequent, and in times of scarcity rich citizens made large
+  contributions with that object. The distributions were made to adult
+  citizens of eighteen years of age and upwards whose names were on the
+  registers.
+
+  (4) In addition to this there was a system of public relief for those
+  who were unable to earn a livelihood on account of bodily defects and
+  infirmities. The qualification was a property test. The property of
+  the applicant had to be shown to be of a value of not more than three
+  minae (say L12). Socrates, it may be noted, adopts the same method of
+  estimating his comparative poverty (Xen. _Econ._ 2. 6), saying that
+  his goods would realize about five minae (or about twenty guineas).
+  The senate examined the case, and the ecclesia awarded the bounty,
+  which amounted to 1 or 2 obols a day, rather more than 1-1/2d. or
+  3d.--out-door relief, as we might say, amounting at most to about 1s.
+  9d. a week. There was also a fund for the maintenance of the children
+  of those who had fallen in war, up to the age of eighteen.
+
+  (5) But the main source of support was the receipt of emoluments for
+  various public services. This was not relief, though it produced in
+  the course of time the effect of relief. It was rather the Athenian
+  method of supporting a governing class of citizens.
+
+  The inner political history of Athens is the history of the extension
+  of the franchise to the lower classes of citizens, with the privileges
+  of holding office and receiving emoluments. In early times, either by
+  Solon (q.v.) or previously, the citizens were classified on the basis
+  of property. The rich retained the franchise and the right of holding
+  office; the middle classes obtained the franchise; the fourth or
+  lowest class gained neither. By the reforms of Cleisthenes (509 B.C.)
+  the clan-family and the phratry were set aside for the _deme_ or
+  parish, a geographical division superseding the social. Finally, about
+  478 B.C., when all had acquired the franchise, the right to hold
+  office also was obtained by the third class. These changes coincided
+  with a period of economic progress. The rate of interest was high,
+  usually 12%; and in trading and bottomry the returns were much higher.
+  A small capital at this interest soon produced comparative wealth; and
+  simultaneously prices were falling. Then came the reaction. "After the
+  Peloponnesian war" (432-404 B.C.), writes Professor Jebb, "the wealth
+  of the country ceased to grow, as population had ceased to grow about
+  50 years sooner. The rich went on accumulating: the poor, having no
+  means of enriching themselves by enterprise, were for the most part
+  occupied in watching for some chance of snatching a larger share of
+  the stationary total." Thus the poorer classes in a time of prosperity
+  had won the power which they were able to turn to their own account
+  afterwards. A period of economic pressure followed, coupled with a
+  decline in the population; no return to the land was feasible, nor was
+  emigration; the people had become town-folk inadaptable to new uses;
+  decreasing vitality and energy were marked by a new temper, the
+  "pauper" temper, unsettled, idle and grasping, and political power was
+  utilized to obtain relief. The relief was forthcoming, but it was of
+  no avail to stop the general decline. The state, it might almost be
+  said, in giving scope to the assertion of the spirit of dependence,
+  had ruined the self-regarding energy on which both family and state
+  alike depended. The emoluments were diverse. The number of citizens
+  was not large; the functions in which citizens could take part were
+  numerous; and when payment was forthcoming the poorer citizens pressed
+  in to exercise their rights (cf. Arist. _Pol._ 1293 a). All Athenian
+  citizens could attend the public assembly or _ecclesia_. Probably the
+  attendance at it varied from a few hundred to 5000 persons. In 395
+  B.C. the payment for attendance was fixed at 3 obols, or little more
+  than 4-1/2d. a day--for the system of payment had probably been
+  introduced a few years before (but see ECCLESIA and refs.). A juror or
+  _dicast_ would receive the same sum for attendance, and the courts or
+  juries often consisted of 500 persons. If the estimate (Bockh, _Public
+  Economy of Athens_, Eng. trans. pp. 109, 117) holds good that in the
+  age of Demosthenes (384-323 B.C.) the member of a poor family of four
+  free persons could live (including rent) on about 3.3d. or between 2
+  and 3 obols a day, the pay of the citizen attending the assembly or
+  the court would at least cover the expenses of subsistence. On the
+  other hand, it would be less than the pay of a day labourer, which was
+  probably about 4 obols or 6d. a day. In any case many citizens--they
+  numbered in all about 20,000--in return for their participation in
+  political duties would receive considerable pecuniary assistance.
+  Attending a great public festival also, the citizen would receive 2
+  obols or 3d. a day during the festival days; and there were besides
+  frequent public sacrifices, with the meal or feast which accompanied
+  them. But besides this there were confiscations of private property,
+  which produced a surplus revenue divisible among the poorer citizens.
+  (Some hold that there were confiscations in other Greek states, but
+  not in Athens.) In these circumstances it is not to be wondered that
+  men like Isocrates should regret that the influence of the Areopagus,
+  the old court of morals and justice in Athens, had disappeared, for it
+  "maintained a sort of censorial police over the lives and habits of
+  the citizens; and it professed to enforce a tutelary and paternal
+  discipline, beyond that which the strict letter of the law could mark
+  out, over the indolent, the prodigal, the undutiful, and the deserters
+  of old rite and custom."
+
+  (6) In addition to public emoluments and relief there was much private
+  liberality and charity. Many expensive public services were undertaken
+  honorarily by the citizens under a kind of civic compulsion. Thus in a
+  trial about 425 B.C. (Lysias, _Or._ 19. 57) a citizen submitted
+  evidence that his father expended more than L2000 during his life in
+  paying the expenses of choruses at festivals, fitting out seven
+  triremes for the navy, and meeting levies of income tax to meet
+  emergencies. Besides this he had helped poor citizens by portioning
+  their daughters and sisters, had ransomed some, and paid the funeral
+  expenses of others (cf. for other instances Plutarch's _Cimon_,
+  Theophrastus, _Eth._, and Xen. _Econ._).
+
+  (7) There were also mutual help societies ([Greek: eranoi]). Those for
+  relief would appear to have been loan societies (cf. Theoph. _Eth._),
+  one of whose members would beat up contributions to help a friend, who
+  would afterwards repay the advance.
+
+  The criticisms of Aristotle (384-321 B.C.) suggest the direction to
+  which he looked for reform. He (_Pol._ 1320 a) passes a very
+  unfavourable judgment on the distribution of public money to the
+  poorer citizens. The demagogues (he does not speak of Athens
+  particularly) distributed the surplus revenues to the poor, who
+  received them all at the same time; and then they were in want again.
+  It was only, he argued, like pouring water through a sieve. It were
+  better to see to it that the greater number were not so entirely
+  destitute, for the depravity of a democratic government was due to
+  this. The problem was to contrive how plenty ([Greek: euporia], not
+  poverty, [Greek: aporia]) should become permanent. His proposals are
+  adequate aid and voluntary charity. Public relief should, he urges, be
+  given in large amounts so as to help people to acquire small farms or
+  start in business, and the well-to-do ([Greek: euporoi]) should in the
+  meantime subscribe to pay the poor for their attendance at the public
+  assemblies. (This proves, indeed, how the payments had become poor
+  relief.) He mentions also how the Carthaginian notables divided the
+  destitute amongst them and gave them the means of setting to work, and
+  the Tarentines ([Greek: koina poiountes]) shared their property with
+  the poor. (The Rhodians also may be mentioned (Strabo xiv. c. 652),
+  amongst whom the well-to-do undertook the relief of the poor
+  voluntarily.) The later word for charitable distribution was a sharing
+  ([Greek: koinonia], Ep. Rom. xv. 26), which would seem to indicate
+  that after Aristotle's time popular thought had turned in that
+  direction. But the chief service rendered by Aristotle--a service
+  which covered indeed the whole ground of social progress--was to show
+  that unless the purpose of civil and social life was carefully
+  considered and clearly realized by those who desired to improve its
+  conditions, no change for the better could result from individual or
+  associated action.
+
+Two forms of charity have still to be mentioned: charity to the stranger
+and to the sick. It will be convenient to consider both in relation to
+the whole classical period.
+
+With the growth of towns the administration of hospitality was
+elaborated.
+
+
+    The stranger.
+
+  (1) There was hospitality between members of families bound by the
+  rites of host and guest. The guest received as a right only shelter
+  and fire. Usually he dined with the host the first day, and if
+  afterwards he was fed provisions were supplied to him. There were
+  large guest-chambers ([Greek: xenon]) or small guest-houses,
+  completely isolated on the right or left of the principal house; and
+  here the guest was lodged. (2) There were also, e.g. at Hierapolis
+  (Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Phrygia_, ii. 97), brotherhoods of hospitality
+  ([Greek: xenoi tekmereioi], bearers of the sign), which made
+  hospitality a duty, and had a common chest and Apollo as their
+  tutelary god. (3) There were inns or resting-places ([Greek:
+  katagogia]) for strangers at temples (Thuc. iii. 68; Plato, _Laws_,
+  953 A) and places of resort ([Greek: lesche]) at or near the temples
+  for the entertainment of strangers--for instance, at a temple of
+  Asclepius at Epidaurus (Pausanias ii. 174); and Pausanias argues that
+  they were common throughout the country. Probably also at the temples
+  hospitable provision was made for strangers. The evidence at present
+  is not perhaps sufficiently complete, but, so far as it goes, it tends
+  to the conclusion that in pre-Christian times hospitality was provided
+  to passers-by and strangers in the temple buildings, as later it was
+  furnished in the monasteries and churches. (4) There were also in
+  towns houses for strangers ([Greek: xenon]) provided at the public
+  cost. This was so at Megara; and in Crete strangers had a place at the
+  public meals and a dormitory. Xenophon suggested that it would be
+  profitable for the Athenian state to establish inns for traders
+  ([Greek: katagogia demusia]) at Athens. Thus, apart from the official
+  hospitality of the proxenus or "consul," who had charge of the affairs
+  of foreigners, and the hospitality which was shown to persons of
+  distinction by states or private individuals, there was in Greece a
+  large provision for strangers, wayfarers and vagrants based on the
+  charitable sentiment of hospitality. Among the Romans similar customs
+  of private and public hospitality prevailed; and throughout the empire
+  the older system was altered, probably very slowly. In Christian times
+  (cf. Ramsay above) Pagan temples were (about A.D. 408) utilized for
+  other purposes, including that of hospitality to strangers.
+
+
+  The sick.
+
+Round the temples, at first probably village temples, the organization
+of medical relief grew up. Primitive medicine is connected with dreams,
+worship, and liturgical "pollution," punishment and penitence, and an
+experimental practice. Finally, systematic observation and science (with
+no knowledge of chemistry and little of physiology) assert themselves,
+and a secular administration is created by the side of the older
+religious organization.
+
+  Sickness among primitive races is conceived to be a material substance
+  to be extracted, or an evil spirit to be driven away by incantation.
+  Religion and medicine are thus at the beginning almost one and the
+  same thing. In Anatolia, in the groups of villages (cf. Ramsay as
+  above, i. 101) under the theocratic government of a central [Greek:
+  ieron] or temple, the god Men Karou was the physician and saviour
+  ([Greek: soter] and [Greek: sozon]) of his people. Priests, prophets
+  and physicians were his ministers. He punished wrong-doing by diseases
+  which he taught the penitent to cure. So elsewhere pollution, physical
+  or moral, was chastened by disease and loss of property or children,
+  and further ills were avoided by sacrifice and expiation and public
+  warning. In the temple and out of this phase of thought grew up
+  schools of medicine, in whose practice dreams and religious ritual
+  retained a place. The newer gods, Asclepius and Apollo, succeeded the
+  older local divinities; and the "sons" of Asclepius became a
+  profession, and the temple with its adjacent buildings a kind of
+  hospital. There were many temples of Asclepius in Greece and
+  elsewhere, placed generally in high and salubrious positions. After
+  ablution the patient offered sacrifices, repeating himself the words
+  of the hymn that was chanted. Then, when night came on, he slept in
+  the temple. In the early dawn he was to dream "the heavenly dream"
+  which would suggest his cure; but if he did not dream, relations and
+  others--officials at the temple--might dream for him. At dawn the
+  priests or sons of Asclepius came into the temple and visited the
+  sick, so that, in a kind of drama, where reality and appearance seemed
+  to meet, the patients believed that they saw the god himself. The next
+  morning the prescription and treatment were settled. At hand in the
+  inn or guest-chambers of the temple the patient could remain, sleeping
+  again in the temple, if necessary, and carrying out the required
+  regimen. In the temple were votive tablets of cases, popular and
+  awe-inspiring, and records and prescriptions, which later found their
+  way into the medical works of Galen and others. At the temple of
+  Asclepius at Epidaurus was an inn ([Greek: katagogion]) with four
+  courts and colonnades, and in all 160 rooms. (Cf. Pausanias ii. 171;
+  and _Report, Archaeol. in Greece_, R.C. Bosanquet, 1899, 1900.)
+
+At three centres more particularly, Rhodes, Cnidos and Cos, were the
+medical schools of the Asclepiads. If one may judge from an inscription
+at Athens, priests of Asclepius attended the poor gratuitously. And
+years afterwards, in the 11th century, when there was a revival of
+medicine, we find (Daremberg, _La Medecine: histoire et doctrines_) at
+Salerno the Christian priest as doctor, a simple and less palatable
+pharmacy for the poor than for the rich, and gratuitous medical relief.
+
+Besides the temple schools and hospitals there was a secular
+organization of medical aid and relief. States appointed trained medical
+men as physicians, and provided for them medical establishments ([Greek:
+iatreia], "large houses with large doors full of light") for the
+reception of the sick, and for operations there were provided beds,
+instruments, medicines, &c. At these places also pupils were taught. A
+lower degree of medical establishment was to be found at the barbers'
+shops. Out-patients were seen at the _iatreia_. They were also visited
+at home. There were doctors' assistants and slave doctors. The latter,
+apparently, attended only slaves (Plato, _Laws_, 720); they do "a great
+service to the master of the house, who in this manner is relieved of
+the care of his slaves." It was a precept of Hippocrates that if a
+physician came to a town where there were sick poor, he should make it
+his first duty to attend to them; and the state physician attended
+gratuitously any one who applied to him. There were also travelling
+physicians going rounds to heal children and the poor. These methods
+continued, probably all of them, to Christian times.
+
+It has been argued that medical practice was introduced into Italy by
+the Greeks. But the evidence seems to show that there was a quite
+independent Latin tradition and school of medicine (Rene Brian,
+"Medecine dans le Latium et a Rome," _Rev. Archeol._, 1885). In Rome
+there were consulting-rooms and dispensaries, and houses in which the
+sick were received. Hospitals are mentioned by Roman writers in the 1st
+century A.D. There were infirmaries--detached buildings--for sick
+slaves; and in Rome, as at Athens, there were slaves skilled in
+medicine. In Rome also for each _regio_ there was a chief physician who
+attended to the poorer people.
+
+
+  Slavery.
+
+Slavery was so large a factor in pre-Christian and early Christian
+society that a word should be said on its relation to charity.
+Indirectly it was a cause of poverty and social degradation. Thus in the
+case of Athens, with the achievement of maritime supremacy the number of
+slaves increased greatly. Manual arts were despised as unbecoming to a
+citizen, and the slaves carried on the larger part of the agricultural
+and industrial work of the community; and for a time--until after the
+Peloponnesian War (404 B.C.)--slavery was an economic success. But by
+degrees the slave, it would seem, dispossessed the citizen and rendered
+him unfit for competition. The position of the free artisan thus became
+akin to that of the slave (Arist. _Pol._ 1260 a, &c.), and slavery
+became the industrial method of the country. Though Greeks, Romans, Jews
+and Christians spent money in ransoming individual slaves and also
+enfranchised many, no general abolition of slavery was possible. At
+last through economic changes the new status of _coloni_, who paid as
+rent part of the produce of the land they tilled, superseded the status
+of slavery (cf. above; the system turned to account by Peisistratus).
+But this result was only achieved much later, when a new society was
+being created, when the slaves from the slave prisons (_ergastula_) of
+Italy joined its invaders, and the slave-owner or master, as one may
+suppose, unable any longer to work the gangs, let them become _coloni_.
+
+In Greece the feeling towards the slave became constantly more humane.
+Real slavery, Aristotle said, was a cast of mind, not a condition of
+life. The slave was not to be ordered about, but to be commanded and
+persuaded like a child. The master was under the strongest obligation to
+promote his welfare. In Rome, on the other hand, slavery continued to
+the end a massive, brutal, industrial force--a standing danger to the
+state. But alike in Greece and Rome the influence of slavery on the
+family was pernicious. The pompous array of domestic slaves, the
+transfer of motherly duties to slave nurses, the loss of that homely
+education which for most people comes only from the practical details of
+life--all this in later Greece and Italy, and far into Christian times,
+prevented that permanent invigoration and reform of family life which
+Jewish and Christian influences might otherwise have produced.
+
+
+PART III.--CHARITY IN ROMAN TIMES
+
+The words that suggest most clearly the Roman attitude towards what we
+call charity are _liberalitas_, _beneficentia_ and _pietas_. The two
+former are almost synonymous (Cicero, _De Offic._ i. 7, 14). Liberality
+lays stress on the mood--that of the _liber_, the freeborn, and so in a
+sense the independent and superior; beneficence on the deed and its
+purpose (Seneca, _De Benef._ vi. 10). The conditions laid down by
+Cicero, following Panaetius the Stoic (185-112 B.C.) are three: not to
+do harm to him whom one would benefit, not to exceed one's means, and to
+have regard to merit. The character of the person whom we would benefit
+should be considered, his feelings towards us, the interest of the
+community, our social relations in life, and services rendered in the
+past. The utility of the deed or gift graded according to social
+relationship and estimated largely from the point of view of ultimate
+advantage to the doer or donor seems to predominate in the general
+thought of the book, though (cf. Aristotle, _Eth._ viii. 3) the idea
+culminates in the completeness of friendship where "all things are in
+common." _Pietas_ has the religious note which the other words lack,
+loving dutifulness to gods and home and country. Not "piety" only but
+"pity" derive from it: thus it comes near to our "charity." Both books,
+the _De Officiis_ and the _De Beneficiis_, represent a Roman and Stoical
+revision of the problem of charity and, as in Stoicism generally, there
+seems to be a half-conscious attempt to feel the way to a new social
+standpoint from this side.
+
+
+  Roman times.
+
+As from the point of view of charity the well-being of the community
+depends upon the vigour of the deep-laid elemental life within it, so in
+passing to Roman times we consider the family first. The Roman family
+was unique in its completeness, and by some of its conditions the world
+has long been bound. The father alone had independent authority (_sui
+juris_), and so long as he lived all who were under his power--his wife,
+his sons, and their wives and children, and his unmarried
+daughters--could not acquire any property of their own. Failing father
+or husband, the unmarried daughters were placed under the guardianship
+of the nearest male members of the family. Thus the family, in the
+narrower sense in which we commonly use the word, as meaning descendants
+of a common father or grandfather, was, as it were, a single point of
+growth in a larger organism, the _gens_, which consisted of all those
+who shared a common ancestry.
+
+  The wife, though in law the property of her husband, held a position
+  of honour and influence higher than that of the Greek wife, at least
+  in historic times. She seems to come nearer to the ideal of Xenophon:
+  "the good wife should be the mistress of everything within the house."
+  "A house of his own and the blessing of children appeared to the Roman
+  citizen as the end and essence of life" (Mommsen, _Hist. Rome_). The
+  obligation of the father to the sons was strongly felt. The family,
+  past, present and future, was conceived as one and indivisible. Each
+  succeeding generation had a right to the care of its predecessor in
+  mind, body and estate. The training of the sons was distinctly a home
+  and not a school training. Brought up by the father and constantly at
+  his side, they learnt spontaneously the habits and traditions of the
+  family. The home was their school. By their father they were
+  introduced into public life, and though still remaining under his
+  power during his lifetime, they became citizens, and their relation to
+  the state was direct. The nation was a nation of yeomen. Only
+  agriculture and warfare were considered honourable employments. The
+  father and sons worked outdoors on the farm, employing little or no
+  slave labour; the wife and daughters indoors at spinning and weaving.
+  The drudgery of the household was done by domestic slaves. The father
+  was the working head of a toiling household. Their chief gods were the
+  same as those of early Greece--Zeus-Diovis and Hestia-Vesta, the
+  goddess of the hearth and home. Out of this solid, compact family
+  Roman society was built, and so long as the family was strong
+  attachment to the service of the state was intense. The _res publica_,
+  the common weal, the phrase and the thought, meet one at every turn;
+  and never were citizens more patient and tenacious combatants on their
+  country's behalf. The men were soldiers in an unpaid militia and were
+  constantly engaged in wars with the rivals of Rome, leaving home and
+  family for their campaigns and returning to them in the winter. With a
+  hardness and closeness inconsistent with--indeed, opposed to--the
+  charitable spirit, they combined the strength of character and sense
+  of justice without which charity becomes sentimental and unsocial. In
+  the development of the family, and thus, indirectly, in the
+  development of charity, they stand for settled obligation and
+  unrelenting duty.
+
+Under the protection of the head of the family "in dependent freedom"
+lived the clients. They were in a middle position between the freemen
+and the slaves. The relation between patron and client lasted for
+several generations; and there were many clients. Their number increased
+as state after state was conquered, and they formed the _plebs_, in Rome
+the _plebs urbana_, the lower orders of the city.
+
+In relation to our subject the important factors are the family, the
+_plebs_ and slavery.
+
+Two processes were at work from an early date, before the first agrarian
+law (486 B.C.): the impoverishment of the _plebs_ and the increase of
+slavery. The former led to the _annona civica_, or the free supply of
+corn to the citizens, and to the _sportula_ or the organized food-supply
+for poor clients, and ultimately to the _alimentarii pueri_, the
+maintenance of children of citizens by voluntary and imperial bounty.
+The latter (slavery) was the standing witness that, as self-support was
+undermined, the task of relief became hopeless, and the impoverished
+citizen, as the generations passed, became in turn dependant, beggar,
+pauper and slave.
+
+The great patrician families--"an oligarchy of warriors and
+slaveholders"--did not themselves engage in trade, but, entering on
+large speculations, employed as their agents their clients, _libertini_
+or freedmen, and, later, their slaves. The constant wars, for which the
+soldiers of a local militia were eventually retained in permanent
+service, broke up the yeomanry and very greatly reduced their number.
+Whole families of citizens became impoverished, and their lands were in
+consequence sold to the large patrician families, members of which had
+acquired lucrative posts, or prospered in their speculations, and
+assumed possession of the larger part of the land, the _ager publicus_,
+acquired by the state through conquest. The city had always been the
+centre of the patrician families, the patron of the trading _libertini_
+and other dependants. To it now flocked as well the _metoeci_, the
+resident aliens from the conquered states, and the poorer citizens,
+landless and unable for social reasons to turn to trade. There was thus
+in Rome a growing multitude of aliens, dispossessed yeomen and dependent
+clients. Simultaneously slavery increased very largely after the second
+Punic War (202 B.C.). Every conquest brought slaves into the market, for
+whom ready purchasers were found. The slaves took the place of the
+freemen upon the old family estates, and the free country people became
+extinct. Husbandry gave place to shepherding. The estates were thrown
+into large domains (_latifundia_), managed by bailiffs and worked by
+slaves, often fettered or bound by chains, lodged in cells in houses of
+labour (_ergastula_), and sometimes cared for when ill in infirmaries
+(_valetudinaria_). In Crete and Sparta the slaves toiled that the mass
+of citizens might have means and leisure. In Rome the slave class was
+organized for private and not for common ends. In Athens the citizens
+were paid for their services; at Rome no offices were paid. Thus the
+citizen at Rome was, one might almost say, forced into a dependence on
+the public corn, for as the large properties swallowed up the smaller,
+and the slave dispossessed the citizen, a population grew up unfit for
+rural toil, disinclined to live by methods that pride considered sordid,
+unstable and pleasure-loving, and yet a serious political factor, as
+dependent on the rich for their enjoyments as they were on their patrons
+or the prefect of the corn in the city for their food.
+
+  It is estimated, from extremely difficult and uncertain data, that the
+  population of Rome in the time of Augustus was about 1,200,000 or
+  1,500,000. At that time the_ plebs urbana_ numbered 320,000. If this
+  be multiplied by three, to give a low average of dependants, wives and
+  children, this section of the population would number 960,000. The
+  remainder of the 1,500,000, 540,000, would consist of (a) slaves, and
+  (b) those, the comparatively few, who would be members of the great
+  clan-families (_gentes_). Proportionately to Attica this seems to
+  allow too small a population of slaves. But however this be, we may
+  picture the population of Rome as consisting chiefly of a few
+  patrician families ministered to by a very large number of slaves, and
+  a populace of needy citizens, in whose ranks it was profitable for an
+  outsider to find a place in order that he might participate in the
+  advantages of state maintenance.
+
+
+  The annona civica.
+
+In Rome the clan-family became the dominant political factor. As in
+England and elsewhere in the middle ages, and even in later times, the
+family, in these circumstances, assumes an influence which is out of
+harmony with the common good. The social advantage of the family lies in
+its self-maintenance, its home charities, and its moral and educational
+force, but if its separate interests are made supreme, it becomes
+uncharitable and unsocial. In Rome this was the line of development. The
+stronger clan-families crushed the weaker, and became the "oligarchy of
+warriors and slaveholders." In the same spirit they possessed themselves
+of the _ager publicus_. The land obtained by the Romans by right of
+conquest was public. It belonged to the state, and to a yeoman state it
+was the most valuable acquisition. At first part of it was sold and part
+was distributed to citizens without property and destitute (cf.
+Plutarch, _Tib. Gracchus_). At a very early date, however, the patrician
+families acquired possession of much of it and held it at a low rental,
+and thus the natural outlet for a conquering farmer race was monopolized
+by one class, the richer clan-families. This injustice was in part
+remedied by the establishment of colonies, in which the emigrant
+citizens received sufficient portions of land. But these colonies were
+comparatively few, and after each conquest the rich families made large
+purchases, while the smaller proprietors, whose services as soldiers
+were constantly required, were unable to attend to their lands or to
+retain possession of them. To prevent this (367 B.C.) the Licinian law
+was passed, by which ownership in land was limited to 500 _jugera_,
+about 312 acres. This law was ignored, however, and more than two
+centuries later the evil, the double evil of the dispossession of the
+citizen farmer and of slavery, reached a crisis. The slave war broke out
+(134 B.C.) and (133 B.C.) Tiberius Gracchus made his attempt to re-endow
+the Roman citizens with the lands which they had acquired by conquest.
+He undertook what was essentially a charitable or philanthropic
+movement, which was set on foot too late. He had passed through Tuscany,
+and seen with resentment and pity the deserted country where the foreign
+slaves and barbarians were now the only shepherds and cultivators. He
+had been brought up under the influence of Greek Stoical thought, with
+which, almost in spite of itself, there was always associated an element
+of pity. The problem which he desired to solve, though larger in scale,
+was essentially the same as that with which Solon and Peisistratus had
+dealt successfully. At bottom the issue lay between private property,
+considered as the basis of family life for the great bulk of the
+community, with personal independence, and pauperism, with the _annona_
+or slavery. In 133 B.C. Tiberius Gracchus became tribune. To expand
+society on the lines of private property, he proposed the enforcement of
+"the Licinian Rogations"; the rich were to give up all beyond their
+rightful 312 acres, and the remainder was to be distributed amongst the
+poor. The measure was carried by the use of arbitrary powers, and
+followed by the death of Tiberius at the hands of the patricians, the
+dominant clan-families. In 132 B.C. Caius Gracchus took up his brother's
+quarrel, and adopting, it would seem, a large scheme of political and
+social reform, proposed measures for emigration and for relief. The
+former failed; the latter apparently were acceptable to all parties, and
+continued in force long after C. Gracchus had been slain (121 B.C.).
+Already, at times, there had been sales of corn at cheap prices. Now, by
+the _lex frumentaria_ he gave the citizens--those who had the Roman
+franchise--the right to purchase corn every month from the public stores
+at rather more than half-price, 6-1/3 _asses_ or about 3.3d. the peck.
+This, the fatal alternative, was accepted, and henceforth there was no
+possibility of a reversion to better social conditions.
+
+The provisioning of Rome was, like that of Athens, a public service.
+There were public granaries (267 B.C.), and there was a quaestor to
+supervise the transit of the corn from Sicily and, later, from Spain and
+Africa, and an elaborate administration for collecting and conveying it.
+The _lex frumentaria_ of Caius was followed by the _lex Octavia_,
+restricting the monthly sale to citizens settled in Rome, and to 5
+_modii_ (1-1/4 bushels). According to Polybius, the amount required for
+the maintenance of a slave was 5 _modii_ a month, and of a soldier 4.
+Hence the allowance, if continued at this rate, was practically a
+maintenance. The _lex Clodia_ (58 B.C.) made the corn gratuitous to the
+_plebs urbana_.
+
+  Julius Caesar (5 B.C.) found the number of recipients to be 320,000,
+  and reduced them to 150,000. In Augustus's time they rose to 200,000.
+  There seems, however, to be some confusion as to the numbers. From the
+  _Ancyranum Monumentum_ it appears that the _plebs urbana_ who received
+  Augustus's dole of 60 _denarii_ (37s. 6d.) in his eighth consulship
+  numbered 320,000. And (Suet. _Caes._ 41) it seems likely that in
+  Caesar's time the lists of the recipients were settled by lot;
+  further, probably only those whose property was worth less than
+  400,000 _sesterces_ (L3541) were placed on the lists. It is probable,
+  therefore, that 320,000 represents a maximum, reduced for purposes of
+  administration to a smaller number (a) by a property test, and (b) by
+  some kind of scrutiny. The names of those certified to receive the
+  corn were exposed on bronze tablets. They were then called _aerarii_.
+  They had tickets (_tesserae_) for purposes of identification, and they
+  received the corn or bread in the time of the republic at the temple
+  of Ceres, and afterwards at steps in the several (14) regions or wards
+  of Rome. Hence the bread was called _panis gradilis_. In the middle of
+  the 2nd century there were state bakeries, and wheaten loaves were
+  baked for the people perhaps two or three times a week. In Aurelian's
+  time (A.D. 270) the flour was of the best, and the weight of the loaf
+  (one _uncia_) was doubled. To the gifts of bread were added pork, oil
+  and possibly wine; clothes also--white tunics with long sleeves--were
+  distributed. In the period after Constantine (cf. _Theod. Code_, xiv.
+  15) three classes received the bread--the palace people (_palatini_),
+  soldiers (_militares_), and the populace (_populares_). No
+  distribution was permitted except at the steps. Each class had its own
+  steps in the several wards. The bread at one step could not be
+  transferred to another step. Each class had its own supply. There were
+  arrangements for the exchange of stale loaves. Against
+  misappropriation there were (law of Valentinian and Valens) severe
+  penalties. If a public prosecutor (_actor_), a collector of the
+  revenue (_procurator_), or the slave of a senator obtained bread with
+  the cognizance of the clerk, or by bribery, the slave, if his master
+  was not a party to the offence, had to serve in the state bakehouse in
+  chains. If the master were involved, his house was confiscated. If
+  others who had not the right obtained the bread, they and their
+  property were placed at the service of the bakery (_pistrini exercitio
+  subjugari_). If they were poor (_pauperes_) they were enslaved, and
+  the delinquent client was to be put to death.
+
+The right to relief was dependent on the right of citizenship. Hence it
+became hereditary and passed from father to son. It was thus in the
+nature of a continuous endowed charity, like the well-known family
+charity of Smith, for instance, in which a large property was left to
+the testator's descendants, of whom it was said that as a result no
+Smith of that family could fail to be poor. But the _annona civica_ was
+an endowed charity, affecting not a single family, but the whole
+population. Later, when Constantinople was founded, the right to relief
+was attached to new houses as a premium on building operations. Thus it
+belonged not to persons only, but also to houses, and became a species
+of "immovable" property, passing to the purchaser of the house or
+property, as would the adscript slaves. The bread followed the house
+(_aedes sequantur annonae_). If, on the transfer of a house, bread
+claims were lost owing to the absence of claimants, they were
+transferred to the treasury (_fisci viribus vindicentur_). But the
+savage law of Valentinian, referred to above, shows to what lengths such
+a system was pushed. Early in its history the _annona civica_ attracted
+many to Rome in the hope of living there without working. For the 400
+years since the _lex Clodia_ was enacted constant injury had been done
+by it, and now (A.D. 364) people had to be kept off the civic bounty as
+if they were birds of prey, and the very poor man (_pauperrimus_), who
+had no civic title to the food, if he obtained it by fraud, was
+enslaved. Thus, in spite of the abundant state relief, there had grown
+up a class of the very poor, the Gentiles of the state, who were outside
+the sphere of its ministrations. The _annona civica_ was introduced not
+only into Constantinople, but also into Alexandria, with baleful
+results, and into Antioch. When Constantinople was founded the
+corn-ships of Africa sailed there instead of to Rome. On charitable
+relief, as we shall see, the _annona_ has had a long-continued and fatal
+influence.
+
+  1. If the government considers itself responsible for provisioning the
+  people it must fix the price of necessaries, and to meet distress or
+  popular clamour it will lower the price. It becomes thus a large
+  relief society for the supply of corn. In a time of distress, when the
+  corn laws were a matter of moment in England, a similar system was
+  adopted in the well-known Speenhamland scale (1795), by which a larger
+  or lesser allowance was given to a family according to its size and
+  the prevailing price of corn. A maintenance was thus provided for the
+  able-bodied and their families, at least in part, without any
+  equivalent in labour; though in England labour was demanded of the
+  applicant, and work was done more or less perfunctorily. In amount the
+  Roman dole seems to have been equivalent to the allowance provided for
+  a slave, but the citizen received it without having to do any labour
+  task. He received it as a statutory right. There could hardly be a
+  more effective method for degrading his manhood and denaturalizing his
+  family. He was also a voter, and the alms appealed to his weakness and
+  indolence; and the fear of displeasing him and losing his vote kept
+  him, socially, master of the situation, to his own ruin. If in England
+  now relief were given to able-bodied persons who retained their votes,
+  this evil would also attach to it.
+
+  2. The system obliged the hard-working to maintain the idlers, while
+  it continually increased their number. The needy teacher in Juvenal,
+  instead of a fee, is put off with a _tessera_, to which, not being a
+  citizen, he has no right. "The foreign reapers," it was said, "filled
+  Rome's belly and left Rome free for the stage and the circus." The
+  freeman had become a slave--"stupid and drowsy, to whom days of ease
+  had become habitual, the games, the circus, the theatre, dice,
+  eating-houses and brothels." Here are all the marks of a degraded
+  pauperism.
+
+  3. The system led the way to an ever more extensive slavery. The man
+  who could not live on his dole and other scrapings had the alternative
+  of becoming a slave. "Better have a good master than live so
+  distressfully"; and "If I were free I should live at my own risk; now
+  I live at yours," are the expressions suggestive of the natural
+  temptations of slavery in these conditions. The escaped slaves
+  returned to "their manger." The _annona_ did not prevent destitution.
+  It was a half-way house to slavery.
+
+  4. The effect on agriculture, and proportionally on commerce
+  generally, was ruinous. The largest corn-market, Rome, was withdrawn
+  from the trade--the market to which all the necessaries of life would
+  naturally have gravitated; and the supply of corn was placed in the
+  hands of producers at a few centres where it could be grown most
+  cheaply--Sicily, Spain and Africa. The Italian farmer had to turn his
+  attention to other produce--the cultivation of the olive and the vine,
+  and cattle and pig rearing. The greater the extension of the system
+  the more impossible was the regeneration of Rome. The Roman citizen
+  might well say that he was out of work, for, so far as the land was
+  concerned, the means of obtaining a living were placed out of his
+  reach. While not yet unfitted for the country by life in the town, he
+  at least could not "return to the land."
+
+  5. The method was the outcome of distress and political hopelessness.
+  Yet the rich also adopted it in distributing their private largess.
+  Cicero (_De Off._ ii. 16) writes as though he recognized its evil; but
+  though he expresses his disapprobation of the popular shows upon which
+  the _aediles_ spent large sums, he argues that something must be done
+  "if the people demand it, and if good men, though they do not wish it,
+  assent to it." Thus in a guarded manner he approves a distribution of
+  food--a free breakfast in the streets of Rome. One bad result of the
+  _annona_ was that it encouraged a special and ruinous form of
+  charitable munificence.
+
+
+  The sportula.
+
+The _sportula_ was a form of charity corresponding to the _annona
+civica_. Charity and poor relief run on parallel lines, and when the one
+is administered without discrimination, little discrimination will
+usually be exercised in the other. It was the charity of the patron of
+the chiefs of the clan-families to their clients. Between them it was
+natural that a relation, partly hospitable, partly charitable, should
+grow up. The clients who attended the patron at his house were invited
+to dine at his table. The patron, as Juvenal describes him, dined
+luxuriously and in solitary grandeur, while the guests put up with what
+they could get; or, as was usual under the empire, instead of the dinner
+(_coena recta_) a present of food was given at the outer vestibule of
+the house to clients who brought with them baskets (_sportula_) to carry
+off their food, or even charcoal stoves to keep it warm. There was
+endless trickery. The patron (or almoner who acted for him) tried to
+identify the applicant, fearing lest he might get the dole under a false
+name; and at each mansion was kept a list of persons, male and female,
+entitled to receive the allowance. "The pilferer grabs the dole"
+(_sportulam furunculus captat_) was a proverb. The _sportula_ was a
+charity sufficiently important for state regulation. Nero (A.D. 54)
+reduced it to a payment in money (100 _quadrantes_, about 1s.). Domitian
+(A.D. 81) restored the custom of giving food. Subsequently both
+practices--gifts in money and in food--appear to have been continued.
+
+In these conditions the Roman family steadily decayed. Its "old
+discipline" was neglected; and Tacitus (A.D. 75), in his dialogue on
+Oratory, wrote (c. xxviii.) what might be called its epitaph. Of the
+general decline the laws of Caesar and Augustus to encourage marriage
+and to reward the parents of large families are sufficient evidence.
+
+The destruction of the working-class family must have been finally
+achieved by the imperial control of the _collegia_.
+
+
+    The collegia.
+
+  In old Rome there were corporations of craftsmen for common worship,
+  and for the maintenance of the traditions of the craft. These
+  corporations were ruined by slave labour, and becoming secret
+  societies, in the time of Augustus were suppressed. Subsequently they
+  were reorganized, and gave scope for much friendliness. They often
+  existed in connexion with some great house, whose chief was their
+  patron and whose household gods they worshipped. The gilds of the
+  poor, or rather of the lower orders (_collegia tenuiorum_), consisted
+  of artisans and others, and slaves also, who paid monthly
+  contributions to a common fund to meet the expenses of worship, common
+  meals, and funerals. They were not in Italy, it would seem (J.P.
+  Waltzing, _Etudes histor. sur les corporations professionnelles chez
+  les Romains_, i. 145, 300), though they may have been in Asia Minor
+  and elsewhere, societies for mutual help generally. They were chiefly
+  funeral benefit societies. Under Severus (A.D. 192) the _collegia_
+  were extended and more closely organized as industrial bodies. They
+  were protected and controlled, as in England in the 15th century the
+  municipalities affected the cause of the craft gilds and ended by
+  controlling them. Industrial disorder was thus prevented; the
+  government were able to provide the supplies required in Rome and the
+  large cities with less risk and uncertainty; and the workmen employed
+  in trade, especially the carrying trade, became almost slaves. In the
+  2nd century, and until the invasions, there were three groups of
+  _collegia_: (1) those engaged in various state manufactures; (2) those
+  engaged in the provision trade; and (3) the free trades, which
+  gradually lapsed into a kind of slavery. If the members of these gilds
+  fled they were brought back by force. Parents had to keep to the trade
+  to which they belonged; their children had to succeed them in it. A
+  slave caste indeed had been formed of the once free workmen.
+
+
+  Pueri alimentarii.
+
+As a charitable protest against the destruction of children, in the
+midst of a broken family life, and increasing dependence and poverty, a
+special institution was founded (to use the Scottish word) for the
+"alimentation" of the children of citizens, at first by voluntary
+charity and afterwards by imperial bounty.
+
+  Nerva and Trajan adopted the plan. Pliny (_Ep._ vii. 18) refers to it.
+  There was a desire to give more lasting and certain help than an
+  allotment of food to parents. A list of children, whose names were on
+  the relief tables at Rome, was accordingly drawn up, and a special
+  service for their maintenance established. Two instances are recorded
+  in inscriptions--one at Veleia, one at Beneventum. The emperor lent
+  money for the purpose at a low percentage--2-1/2 or 5% as against the
+  usual 10 or 12. At Veleia his loan amounted to 1,044,000
+  _sesterces_--about L8156, and 51 of the local landed proprietors
+  mortgaged land, valued at 13 or 14 million _sesterces_, as security
+  for the debt. The interest on the emperor's money at 5% was paid into
+  the municipal treasury, and out of it the children were relieved. The
+  figures seem small; at Veleia 300 children were assisted, of whom 36
+  were girls. The annual interest at 5% amounted to nearly L408, which
+  divided among 300 gives about 27s. a head. The figures suggest that
+  the money served as a charitable supplementation of the citizens'
+  relief in direct aid of the children. Apparently the scheme was widely
+  adopted. Curators of high position were the patrons; procurators acted
+  as inspectors over large areas; and _quaestores alimentarii_ undertook
+  the local management. Antoninus Pius (A.D. 138), and Marcus Aurelius
+  (A.D. 160), and subsequently Severus (A.D. 192) established these
+  bursaries for children in the names of their wives. In the 3rd century
+  the system fell into disorder. There were large arrears of payments,
+  and in the military anarchy that ensued it came to an end. It is of
+  special interest, as indicating a new feeling of responsibility
+  towards children akin to the humane Stoicism of the Antonines, and an
+  attempt to found, apart from temples or _collegia_, what was in the
+  nature of a public endowed charity.
+
+
+PART IV.--JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN CHARITY
+
+With Christianity two elements came into fusion, the Jewish and the
+Greco-Roman. To trace this fusion and its results it is necessary to
+describe the Jewish system of charity, and to compare it with that of
+the early Christian church, to note the theory of love or friendship in
+Aristotle as representing Greek thought, and of charity in St Paul as
+representing Christian thought, and to mark the Roman influences which
+moulded the administration of Ambrose and Gregory and Western
+Christianity generally.
+
+
+  Hebrew charity.
+
+In the early history of the Hebrews we find the family, clan-family and
+tribe. With the Exodus (probably about 1390 B.C.) comes the law of Moses
+(cf. Kittel, _Hist. of the Hebrews_, Eng. trans. i. 244), the central
+and permanent element of Jewish thought. We may compare it to the
+"commandments" of Hesiod. There is the recognition of the family and its
+obligations: "Honour thy father and mother"; and honour included help
+and support. There is also the law essential to family unity: "Thou
+shalt not commit adultery"; and as to property there is imposed the
+regulation of desire: "Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house."
+Maimonides (A.D. 1135), true to the old conception of the family (x.
+16), calls the support of adult children, "after one is exempt from
+supporting them," and the support of a father or mother by a child,
+"great acts of charity; since kindred are entitled to the first
+consideration." To relief of the stranger the Decalogue makes no
+reference, but in the Hebraic laws it is constantly pressed; and the
+Levitical law (xix. 18) goes further. It first applies a new standard to
+social life: "Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself." This thought is
+the outcome of a deep ethical fervour--the element which the Jews
+brought into the work of charity. In Judges and Joshua, the "Homeric"
+books of the Old Testament, the Hebrews appear as a passionately fierce
+and cruel people. Subsequently against their oppression of the poor the
+prophets protested with a vehemence as great as the evil was intense;
+and their denunciations remained part of the national literature, a
+standing argument that life without charity is nothing worth. Thus
+schooled and afterwards tutored into discipline by the tribulation of
+the exile (587 B.C.), they turned their fierceness into a zeal, which,
+as their literature shows, was as fervent in ethics as it was in
+religion and ceremonial. In the services at the synagogues, which
+supplemented and afterwards took the place of the Temple, the
+Commandments were constantly repeated and the Law and the Prophets read;
+and as the Jews of the Dispersion increased in number, and especially
+after the destruction of Jerusalem, the synagogues became centres of
+social and charitable co-operation. Thus rightly would a Jewish rabbi
+say, "On three things the world is stayed: on the Thorah (or the law),
+and on worship, and on the bestowal of kindness." Also there was on the
+charitable side an indefinite power of expansion. Rigid in its
+ceremonial, there it was free. Within the nation, as the Prophets, and
+after the exile, as the Psalms show, there was the hope of a universal
+religion, and with it of a universally recognized charity. St Paul
+accentuated the prohibitive side of the law and protested against it;
+but, even while he was so doing, stimulated by the Jewish discipline, he
+was moving unfettered towards new conceptions of charity and
+life--charity as the central word of the Christian life, and life as a
+participation in a higher existence--the "body of Christ."
+
+To mark the line of development, we could compare--1. The family among
+the Jews and in the early Christian church; 2. The sources of relief and
+the tithe, the treatment of the poor and their aid, and the assistance
+of special classes of poor; 3. The care of strangers; and, lastly, we
+would consider the theory of almsgiving, friendship or love, and
+charity.
+
+1. As elsewhere, property is the basis of the family. Wife and children
+are the property of the father. But the wife is held in high respect. In
+the post-exilian period the virtuous wife is represented as laborious as
+a Roman matron, a "lady bountiful" to the poor, and to her husband wife
+and friend alike. Monogamy without concubinage is now the rule--is taken
+for granted as right. There is no "exposure of children." The slaves are
+kindly treated, as servants rather than slaves--though in Roman times
+and afterwards the Jews were great slave-traders. The household is not
+allowed to eat the bread of idleness. "Six days," it was said, "_must_
+[not _mayest_] thou work." "Labour, if poor; but find work, if rich."
+"Whoever does not teach his son business or work, teaches him robbery."
+In Job xxxi., a chapter which has been called "an inventory of late Old
+Testament morality," we find the family life developed side by side with
+the life of charity. In turn are mentioned the relief of the widow, the
+fatherless and the stranger--the classification of dependents in the
+Christian church; and the whole chapter is a justification of the homely
+charities of a good family. "The Jewish religion, more especially in the
+old and orthodox form, is essentially a family religion" (C.G.
+Montefiore, _Religion of Ancient Hebrews_).
+
+In the early documents of the Church the fifth commandment is made the
+basis of family life (cf. Eph. vi. 1; _Apost. Const._ ii. 32, iv. 11--if
+we take the first six books of the _Apost. Const._ as a composite
+production before A.D. 300, representing Judaeo-Christian or Eastern
+church thought). But two points are prominent. Duties are insisted on as
+reciprocal (cf. especially St Paul's Epistles), as, e.g. between husband
+and wife, parent and child, master and servant. Charity is mutual; the
+family is a circle of reciprocal duties and charities. This implies a
+principle of the greatest importance in relation to the social utility
+of charity. Further reference will be made to it later. Next the "thou
+shalt love thy neighbour" is translated from its position as one among
+many sayings to the chief place as a rule of life. In the _Didache_ or
+_Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (Jewish-Christian, c. 90-120 A.D.) the
+first commandment in "the way of life" is adapted from St Matthew's
+Gospel thus: "First, thou shalt love God who made thee; secondly, thy
+neighbour as thyself; and all things whatsoever thou wouldst not have
+done to thee, neither do thou to another." A principle is thus applied
+which touches all social relations in which the "self" can be made the
+standard of judgment. Of this also later. To touch on other points of
+comparison: the earlier documents seem to ring with a reiterated cry for
+a purer family life (cf. the second, the negative, group of commandments
+in the _Didache_, and the judgment of the apocalyptic writings, such as
+the Revelations of Peter, &c.); and, sharing the Jewish feeling, the
+riper conscience of the Christian community formulates and accepts the
+injunction to preserve infant life at every stage. It advocates, indeed,
+the Jewish purity of family life with a missionary fervour, and it makes
+of it a condition of church membership. The Jewish rule of labour is
+enforced (_Ap. Const._ ii. 63). If a stranger settle (_Didache_, xii. 3)
+among the brotherhood, "let him work and eat." And the father
+(_Constit._ iv. 11) is to teach the children "such trades as are
+agreeable and suitable to their need." And the charities to the widow,
+the fatherless, are organized on Jewish lines.
+
+2. The sources of relief among the Jews were the three gifts of corn:
+(1) the corners of the field (cf. Lev. xix. &c.), amounting to a
+sixtieth part of it; (2) the gleanings, a definite minimum dropped in
+the process of reaping (Maimonides, _Laws of the Hebrews relating to the
+Poor_, iv. 1); (3) corn overlooked and left behind. So it was with the
+grapes and with all crops that were harvested, as opposed, e.g. to
+figs, that were gathered from time to time. These gifts were divisible
+three times in the day, so as to suit the convenience of the poor (Maim.
+ii. 17), and the poor had a right to them. They are indeed a poor-rate
+paid in kind such as in early times would naturally spring up among an
+agricultural people. Another gift "out of the seed of the earth," is the
+tithe. In the post-exilian period the septenniad was in force. Each year
+a fiftieth part of the produce (Maim. vi. 2, and Deut. xviii. 4) was
+given to the priest (the class which in the Jewish state was supported
+by the community). Of the remainder one-tenth went to the Levite, and
+one-tenth in three years of the septennium was retained for pilgrimage
+to Jerusalem, in two given to the poor. In the seventh year "all things
+were in common." Supplementing these gifts were alms to all who asked;
+"and he who gave less than a tenth of his means was a man of evil eye"
+(Maim. vii. 5). All were to give alms, even the poor themselves who were
+in receipt of relief. Refusal might be punished with stripes at the hand
+of the Sanhedrim. At the Temple alms for distribution to the worthy poor
+were placed by worshippers in the cell of silence; and it is said that
+in Palestine at meal times the table was open to all comers. As the
+synagogues extended, and possibly after the fall of Jerusalem (A.D. 70),
+the collections of alms was further systematized. There were two
+collections. In each city alms of the box or chest (_kupha_) were
+collected for the poor of the city on each Sabbath eve (later, monthly
+or thrice a year), and distributed in money or food for seven days. Two
+collected, three distributed. Three others gathered and distributed
+daily alms of the basket (_tamchui_). These were for strangers and
+wayfarers--casual relief "for the poor of the whole world." In the
+Jewish synagogue community from early times the president (_parnass_)
+and treasurer were elected annually with seven heads of the congregation
+(see Abraham's _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 54), and sometimes
+special officers for the care of the poor. A staff of almoners was thus
+forthcoming. In addition to these collections were the _pruta_ given to
+the poor before prayers (Maim. x. 15), and moneys gathered to help
+particular cases (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 322) by circular letter. There
+were also gifts at marriages and funerals; and fines imposed for breach
+of the communal ordinances were reserved for the poor. The distinctive
+feature of the Jewish charity was the belief that "the poor would not
+cease out of the land," and that therefore on charitable grounds a
+permanent provision should be made for them--a poor-rate, in fact,
+subject to stripes and distraint, if necessary (Maim. vii. 10; and
+generally cf. articles on "Alms" and "Charity" in the _Jewish
+Encyclopaedia_).
+
+  If we compare this with the early church we find the following sources
+  of relief: (1) The Eucharistic offerings, some consumed at the time,
+  some carried home, some reserved for the absent (see Hatch, _Early
+  Church_, p. 40). The ministration, like the Eucharist, was connected
+  with the love feast, and was at first daily (Acts ii. 42, vi. 1, and
+  the _Didache_). (2) Freewill offerings and first-fruits and voluntary
+  tithes (_Ap. Con._ ii. 25) brought to the bishop and used for the
+  poor--orphans, widows, the afflicted and strangers in distress, and
+  for the clergy, deaconesses, &c. (3) Collections in churches on
+  Sundays and week-days, alms-boxes and gifts to the poor by worshippers
+  as they entered church; also collections for special purposes (cf. for
+  Christians at Jerusalem). Apart from "the corners," &c., the sources
+  of relief in the Christian and Jewish churches are the same. The
+  separate Jewish tithe for the poor, which (Maim. vi. II, 13) might be
+  used in part by the donor as personal charity, disappears. A voluntary
+  tithe remains, in part used for the poor. We do not hear of stripes
+  and distraint, but in both bodies there is a penitential system and
+  excommunication (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 52), and in both a settlement
+  of disputes within the body (Clem. _Hov_. iii. 67). In both, too,
+  there is the abundant alms provided in the belief of the permanence of
+  poverty and the duty of giving to all who ask. As to administration in
+  the early church (Acts vi. 3), we find seven deacons, the number of
+  the local Jewish council; and later there were in Rome seven
+  ecclesiastical relief districts, each in charge of a deacon. The
+  deacon acted as the minister of the bishop (_Ep._ Clem, to Jam. xii.),
+  reporting to him and giving as he dictated (_Ap. Con._ ii. 30, 31). He
+  at first combined disciplinary powers with charitable. The presbyters
+  also (Polycarp, _Ad Phil._ 6, A.D. 69-155), forming (Hatch, p. 69) a
+  kind of bishop's council, visited the sick, &c. The bishop was
+  president and treasurer. The bishop was thus the trustee of the poor.
+  By reason of the churches' care of orphans, responsibilities of
+  trusteeship also devolved on him. The temples were in pagan times
+  depositories of money. Probably the churches were also.
+
+3. Great stress is laid by the Jews on the duty of gentleness to the
+poor (Maim. x. 5). The woman was to have first attention (Maim. vi. 13).
+If the applicant was hungry he was to be fed, and then examined to learn
+whether he was a deceiver (Maim. vii. 6). Assistance was to be given
+according to the want--clothes, household things, a wife or a
+husband--and according to the poor man's station in life. For widows and
+orphans the "gleanings" were left. Both are the recognized objects of
+charity (Maim. x. 16,17). "The poor and the orphan were to be employed
+in domestic affairs in preference to servants." The dower was a constant
+form of help. The ransoming of slaves took precedence of relief to the
+poor. The highest degree of alms-deed (Maim. x. 7) was "to yield support
+to him who is cast down, either by means of gifts, or by loan, or by
+commerce, or by procuring for him traffic with others. Thus his hand
+becometh strengthened, exempt from the necessity of soliciting succour
+from any created being."
+
+If we compare the Christian methods we find but slight difference. The
+absoluteness of "Give to him that asketh" is in the _Didache_ checked by
+the "Woe to him that receives: for if any receives having need, he shall
+be guiltless, but he that has no need shall give account, ... and coming
+into distress ... he shall not come out thence till he hath paid the
+last farthing." It is the duty of the bishop to know who is most worthy
+of assistance (_Ap. Con._ ii. 3, 4); and "if any one is in want by
+gluttony, drunkenness, or idleness, he does not deserve assistance, or
+to be esteemed a member of the church." The widow assumes the position
+not only of a recipient of alms, but a church worker. Some were a
+private charge, some were maintained by the church. The recognized
+"widow" was maintained: she was to be sixty years of age (cf. 1 Tim, v.
+9 and _Ap. Con._ iii. 1), and was sometimes tempted to become a
+bedes-woman and gossipy pauper, if one may judge from the texts.
+Remarriage was not approved. Orphans were provided for by members of the
+churches. The virgins formed another class, as, contrary to the earlier
+feeling, marriage came to be held a state of lesser sanctity. They too
+seem to have been also, in part at least, church workers. Thus round the
+churches grew up new groups of recognized dependents; but the older
+theory of charity was broad and practical--akin to that of Maimonides.
+"Love all your brethren, performing to orphans the part of parents, to
+widows that of husbands, affording them sustenance with all kindliness,
+arranging marriages for those who are in their prime, and for those who
+are without a profession the means of necessary support through
+employment: giving work to the artificer and alms to the incapable"
+(_Ep._ Clem, to James viii.).
+
+4. The Jews in pre-Christian and Talmudic times supported the stranger
+or wayfarer by the distribution of food (_tamchui_); the strangers were
+lodged in private houses, and there were inns provided at which no money
+was taken (cf. _Jewish Life_, p. 314). Subsequently, besides these
+methods, special societies were formed "for the entertainment of the
+resident poor and of strangers." There were commendatory letters also.
+These conditions prevailed in the Christian church also. The
+_Xenodocheion_, coming by direct succession alike from Jewish and Greek
+precedents, was the first form of Christian hospital both for strangers
+and for members of the Christian churches. In the Christian community
+the endowment charity comes into existence in the 4th century, among the
+Jews not till the 13th. The charities of the synagogue without separate
+societies sufficed.
+
+
+  Greek, Jewish and Christian thought.
+
+We may now compare the conceptions of Jews and Christians on charity
+with those of the Greeks. There are two chief exponents of the diverse
+views--Aristotle and St Paul; for to simplify the issues we refer to
+them only. Thoughts such as Aristotle's, recast by the Stoic Panaetius
+(185-112 B.C.), and used by Cicero in his _De Officiis_, became in the
+hands of St Ambrose arguments for the direction of the clergy in the
+founding of the medieval church; and in the 13th century Aristotle
+reasserts his influence through such leaders of medieval thought as St
+Thomas Aquinas. St Paul's chapters on charity, not fully appreciated
+and understood, one is inclined to think, have perhaps more than any
+other words prevented an absolute lapse into the materialism of
+almsgiving. After him we think of St Francis, the greatest of a group of
+men who, seeking reality in life, revived charity; but to the theory of
+charity it might almost be said that since Aristotle and St Paul nothing
+has been added until we come to the economic and moral issues which Dr
+Chalmers explained and illustrated.
+
+The problem turns on the conception (1) of purpose, (2) of the self, and
+(3) of charity, love or friendship as an active force in social life. To
+the Greek, or at least to Greek philosophic thought, purpose was the
+measure of goodness. To have no purpose was, so far as the particular
+act was concerned, to be simply irrational; and the less definite the
+purpose the more irrational the act. This conception of purpose was the
+touchstone of family and social life, and of the civic life also. In no
+sphere could goodness be irrational. To say that it was without purpose
+was to say that it was without reality. So far as the actor was
+concerned, the main purpose of right action was the good of the soul
+([Greek: psyche]); and by the soul was meant the better self, "the
+ruling part" acting in harmony with every faculty and function of the
+man. With faculties constantly trained and developed, a higher life was
+gradually developed in the soul. We are thus, it might be said, what we
+become. The gates of the higher life are within us. The issue is whether
+we will open them and pass in.
+
+Consistent with this is the social purpose. Love or friendship is not
+conceived by Aristotle except in relation to social life. Society is
+based on an interchange of services. This interchange in one series of
+acts we call justice; in another friendship or love. A man cannot be
+just unless he has acquired a certain character or habit of mind; and
+hence no just man will act without knowledge, previous deliberation and
+definite purpose. So also will a friend fulfil these conditions in his
+acts of love or friendship. In the love existing between good men there
+is continuance and equality of service; but in the case of benefactor
+and benefited, in deeds of charity, in fact, there is no such equality.
+The satisfaction is on one side but often not on the other. (The dilemma
+is one that is pressed, though not satisfactorily, in Cicero and
+Seneca.) The reason for this will be found, Aristotle suggests, in the
+feeling of satisfaction which men experience in action. We realize
+ourselves in our deeds--throw ourselves into them, as people say; and
+this is happiness. What we make we like: it is part of us. On the other
+hand, in the person benefited there may be no corresponding action, and
+in so far as there is not, there is no exchange of service or the
+contentment that arises from it. The "self" of the recipient is not
+drawn out. On the contrary, he may be made worse, and feel the
+uneasiness and discontent that result from this. In truth, to complete
+Aristotle's argument, the good deed on one side, as it represents the
+best self of the benefactor, should on the other side draw out the best
+self of the person benefited. And where there is not ultimately this
+result, there is not effective friendship or charity, and consequently
+there is no personal or social satisfaction. The point may be pushed
+somewhat further. In recent developments of charitable work the term
+"friendly visitor" is applied to persons who endeavour to help families
+in distress on the lines of associated charity. It represents the work
+of charity in one definite light. So far as the relation is mutual, it
+cannot at the outset be said to exist. The charitable friend wishes to
+befriend another; but at first there may be no reciprocal feeling of
+friendship on the other's part--indeed, such a feeling may never be
+created. The effort to reciprocate kindness by becoming what the friend
+desires may be too painful to make. Or the two may be on different
+planes, one not really befriending, but giving without intelligence, the
+other not really endeavouring to change his nature, but receiving help
+solely with a view to immediate advantage. The would-be befriender may
+begin "despairing of no man," expecting nothing in return; but if, in
+fact, there is never any kind of return, the friendship actually fails
+of its purpose, and the "friend's" satisfaction is lost, except in that
+he may "have loved much." In any case, according to this theory
+friendship, love and charity represent the mood from which spring social
+acts, the value of which will depend on the knowledge, deliberation and
+purpose with which they are done, and accordingly as they acquire value
+on this account will they give lasting satisfaction to both parties.
+
+St Paul's position is different. He seems at first sight to ignore the
+state and social life. He lays stress on motive force rather than on
+purpose. He speaks as an outsider to the state, though technically a
+citizen. His mind assumes towards it the external Judaic position, as
+though he belonged to a society of settlers ([Greek: paroikoi]). Also,
+as he expects the millennium, social life and its needs are not
+uppermost in his thoughts. He considers charity in relation to a
+community of fellow-believers--drawn together in congregations. His
+theory springs from this social base, though it over-arches life itself.
+He is intent on creating a spiritual association. He conceives of the
+spirit ([Greek: pneuma]) as "an immaterial personality." It transcends
+the soul ([Greek: psyche]), and is the Christ life, the ideal and
+spiritual life. Christians participate in it, and they thus become part
+of "the body of Christ," which exists by virtue of love--love akin to
+the ideal life, [Greek: agape]. The word represents the love that is
+instinct with reverence, and not love [Greek: philia] which may have in
+it some quality of passion. This love is the life of "the body of
+Christ." Therefore no act done without it is a living act--but, on the
+contrary, must be dead--an act in which no part of the ideal life is
+blended. On the individual act or the purpose no stress is laid. It is
+assumed that love, because it is of this intense and exalted type, will
+find the true purpose in the particular act. And, when the expectation
+of the millennium passed away, the theory of this ideal charity remained
+as a motive force available for whatever new conditions, spiritual or
+social, might arise. Nevertheless, no sooner does this charity touch
+social conditions, than the necessity asserts itself of submitting to
+the limitations which knowledge, deliberation and purpose impose. This
+view had been depreciated or ignored by Christians, who have been
+content to rely upon the strength of their motives, or perhaps have not
+realized what the Greeks understood, that society was a natural organism
+(Arist. _Pol._ 1253A), which develops, fails or prospers in accordance
+with definite laws. Hence endless failure in spite of some success. For
+love, whether we idealize it as [Greek: agape] or consider it a social
+instinct as [Greek: philia], cannot be love at all unless it quickens
+the intelligence as much as it animates the will. It cannot, except by
+some confusion of thought, be held to justify the indulgence of emotion
+irrespective of moral and social results. Yet, though this fatal error
+may have dominated thought for a long time, it is hardly possible to
+attribute it to St Paul's theory of charity when the very practical
+nature of Judaism and early Christianity is considered. In his view the
+misunderstanding could not arise. And to create a world or "body" of men
+and women linked together by love, even though it be outside the normal
+life of the community, was to create a new form of religious
+organization, and to achieve for it (so far as it was achieved) what,
+_mutatis mutandis_, Aristotle held to be the indispensable condition of
+social life, friendship ([Greek: philia]), "the greatest good of
+states," for "Socrates and all the world declare," he wrote, that "the
+unity of the state" is "created by friendship" (Arist. _Pol._ ii. 1262
+b).
+
+  It should, however, be considered to what extent charity in the
+  Christian church was devoid of social purpose, (1) The Jewish
+  conceptions of charity passed, one might almost say, in their
+  completeness into the Christian church. Prayer, the petition and the
+  purging of the mind, fasting, the humiliation of the body, and alms,
+  as part of the same discipline, the submissive renunciation of
+  possessions--all these formed part of the discipline that was to
+  create the religious mood. Alms henceforth become a definite part of
+  the religious discipline and service. Humility and poverty hereafter
+  appear as yoked virtues, and many problems of charity are raised in
+  regard to them. The non-Christian no less than the Christian world
+  appreciated more and more the need of self-discipline ([Greek:
+  askesis]); and it seems as though in the first two centuries A.D.
+  those who may have thought of reinvigorating society searched for the
+  remedy rather in the preaching and practice of temperance than in the
+  application of ideas that were the outcome of the observation of
+  social or economic conditions. Having no object of this kind as its
+  mark, almsgiving took the place of charity, and, as Christianity
+  triumphed, the family life, instead of reviving, continued to decay,
+  while the virtues of the discipline of the body, considered apart from
+  social life, became an end in themselves, and it was desired rather to
+  annihilate instinct than to control it. Possibly this was a necessary
+  phase in a movement of progress, but however that be, charity, as St
+  Paul understood it, had in it no part. (2) But the evil went farther.
+  Jewish religious philosophy is not elaborated as a consistent whole by
+  any one writer. It is rather a miscellany of maxims; and again and
+  again, as in much religious thought, side issues assume the principal
+  place. The direct effect of the charitable act, or almsgiving, is
+  ignored. Many thoughts and motives are blended. The Jews spoke of the
+  poor as the means of the rich man's salvation. St Chrysostom
+  emphasizes this: "If there were no poor, the greater part of your sins
+  would not be removed: they are the healers of your wounds" (_Hom._
+  xiv., Timothy, &c., St Cyprian on works and alms). Alms are the
+  medicine of sin. And the same thought is worked into the penitential
+  system. Augustine speaks of "penance such as fasting, almsgiving and
+  prayer for breaches of the Decalogue" (Reichel, _Manual of Canon Law_,
+  p. 23); and many other references might be cited. "Pecuniary penances
+  (Ib. 154), in so far as they were relaxations of, or substitutes for,
+  bodily penances, were permitted because of the greater good thereby
+  accruing to others" (and in this case they were--A.D. 1284--legally
+  enforceable under English statute law). The penitential system takes
+  for granted that the almsgiving is good for others and puts a premium
+  on it, even though in fact it were done, not with any definite object,
+  but really for the good of the penitent. Thus almsgiving becomes
+  detached from charity on the one side and from social good on the
+  other. Still further is it vulgarized by another confusion of thought.
+  It is considered that the alms are paid to the credit of the giver,
+  and are realized as such by him in the after-world; or even that by
+  alms present prosperity may be obtained, or at least evil accident
+  avoided. Thus motives were blended, as indeed they now are, with the
+  result that the gift assumed a greater importance than the charity, by
+  which alone the gift should have been sanctified, and its actual
+  effect was habitually overlooked or treated as only partially
+  relevant.
+
+  (3) The Christian maxim of "loving ([Greek: agape]) one's neighbour as
+  one's self" sets a standard of charity. Its relations are idealized
+  according as the "self" is understood; and thus the good self becomes
+  the measure of charity. In this sense, the nobler the self the
+  completer the charity; and the charity of the best men, men who love
+  and understand their neighbours best, having regard to their chief
+  good, is the best, the most effectual charity. Further, if in what we
+  consider "best" we give but a lesser place to social purpose or even
+  allow it no place at all, our "self" will have no sufficient social
+  aim and our charity little or no social result. For this "self,"
+  however, religion has substituted not St Paul's conception of the
+  spirit ([Greek: pneuma]), but a soul, conceived as endowed with a
+  substantial nature, able to enjoy and suffer quasi-material rewards
+  and punishments in the after-life; and in so far as the safeguard of
+  this soul by good deeds or almsgiving has become a paramount object,
+  the purpose of charitable action has been translated from the actual
+  world to another sphere. Thus, as we have seen, the aid of the poor
+  has been considered not an object in itself, but as a means by which
+  the almsgiver effects his own ulterior purpose and "makes God his
+  debtor." The problem thus handled raises the question of reward and
+  also of punishment. Properly, from the point of view of charity, both
+  are excluded. We may indeed act from a complexity of motives and
+  expect a complexity of rewards, and undoubtedly a good act does
+  refresh the "self," and may as a result, though not as a reward, win
+  approval. But in reality reward, if the word be used at all, is
+  according to purpose; and the only reward of a deed lies in the
+  fulfilment of its purpose. In the theory of almsgiving which we are
+  discussing, however, act and reward are on different planes. The
+  reward is on that of a future life; the act related to a distressed
+  person here and now. The interest in the act on the doer's part lies
+  in its post-mortal consequences to himself, and not either wholly or
+  chiefly in the act itself. Nor, as the interest ends with the act--the
+  giving--can the intelligence be quickened by it. The questions "How?
+  by whom? with what object? on what plan? with what result?" receive no
+  detailed consideration at all. Two general results follow. In so far
+  as it is thus practised, almsgiving is out of sympathy with social
+  progress. It is indeed alien to it. Next also the self-contained,
+  self-sustained poverty that will have no relief and does without it,
+  is outside the range of its thought and understanding. On the other
+  hand, this almsgiving is equally incapable of influencing the weak and
+  the vicious; and those who are suffering from illness or trouble it
+  has not the width of vision to understand nor the moral energy to
+  support so that they shall not fall out of the ranks of the
+  self-supporting. It believes that "the poor" will not cease out of the
+  land. And indeed, however great might be the economic progress of the
+  people, it is not likely that the poor will cease, if the alms given
+  in this spirit be large enough in amount to affect social conditions
+  seriously one way or the other. When we measure the effects of
+  charity, this inheritance of divided thought and inconsistent counsels
+  must be given its full weight.
+
+
+  The organization of the parish and endowed charities.
+
+The sub-apostolic church was a congregation, like a synagogue, the
+centre of a system of voluntary and personal relief, connected with the
+congregational meals (or [Greek: agapai]) and the Eucharist, and under
+the supervision of no single officer or bishop. Out of this was
+developed a system of relief controlled by a bishop, who was assisted
+chiefly by deacons or presbyters, while the [Greek: agapai], consisting
+of offerings laid before the altar, still remained. Subsequently the
+meal was separated from the sacrament, and became a dole of food, or
+poor people's meal--e.g. in St Augustine's time in western Africa--and
+it was not allowed to be served in churches (A.D. 391). As religious
+asceticism became dominant, the sacrament was taken fasting; it appeared
+unseemly that men and women should meet together for such purposes, and
+the [Greek: agapai] fell out of repute. Simultaneously it would seem
+that the parish [Greek: paroikia] became from a congregational
+settlement a geographical area.
+
+The organization of relief at Rome illustrates both a type of
+administration and a transition. St Gregory's reforms (A.D. 590) largely
+developed it. The first factor in the transition was the church fund of
+the second period of Christianity, about A.D. 150 to after 208
+(Tertullian, _Apol_. 39). It served as a friendly fund, was supported by
+voluntary gifts, and was used to succour and to bury the poor, to help
+destitute and orphaned children, old household slaves and those who
+suffered for the faith. This fund is quite different from the _collegia
+tenuiorum_ or _funeratica_ of the Romans, which were societies to which
+the members paid stipulated sums at stated periods, for funeral benefits
+or for common meals (J.P. Waltzing, _Corporations professionnelles chez
+les Romains_, i. 313). It represents the charitable centre round which
+the parochial system developed. That system was adopted probably about
+the middle of the 3rd century, but in Rome the diaconate probably
+remained centralized. At the end of the 4th century Pope Anastasius had
+founded deaconries in Rome, and endowed them largely "to meet the
+frequent demands of the diaconate." Gregory two hundred years later
+reorganized the system. He divided the fourteen old "regions" into seven
+ecclesiastical districts and thirty "titles" (or parishes). The parishes
+were under the charge of sixty-six priests; the districts were
+eleemosynary divisions. Each was placed under the charge of a deacon,
+not (Greg. _Ep_. xi. and xxviii.) under the priests (_presbyteri
+titularii_). Over the deacons was an archdeacon. It was the duty of the
+deacons to care for the poor, widows, orphans, wards, and old people of
+their several districts. They inquired in regard to those who were
+relieved, and drew up under the guidance of the bishop the register of
+poor (_matricula_). Only these received regular relief. In each district
+was an hospital or office for alms, of which the deacon had charge,
+assisted by a steward (or _oeconomus_). Here food was given and meals
+were taken, the sick and poor were maintained, and orphan or foundling
+children lodged. The churches of Rome and of other large towns possessed
+considerable estates, "the patrimony of the patron saints," and to Rome
+belonged estates in Sicily which had not been ravaged by the invaders,
+and they continued to pay to it their tenth of corn, as they had done
+since Sicily was conquered. Four times a year (Milman, _Lat. Christ_,
+ii. 117) the shares of the (1) clergy and papal officers, (2) churches
+and monasteries, and (3) "hospitals, deaconries and ecclesiastical wards
+for the poor," were calculated in money and distributed; and the first
+day in every month St Gregory distributed to the poor in kind corn,
+wine, cheese, vegetables, bacon, meal, fish and oil. The sick and infirm
+were superintended by persons appointed to inspect every street. Before
+the pope sat down to his own meal a portion was separated and sent out
+to the hungry at his door. The Roman _plebs_ had thus become the poor of
+Christ (_pauperes Christi_), and under that title were being fed by
+_civica annona_ and _sportula_ as their ancestors had been; and the
+deaconries had superseded the "regions" and the "steps" from which the
+corn had been distributed. The _hospitium_ was now part of a common
+organization of relief, and the sick were visited according to Jewish
+and early Christian precedent. How far kindly Romans visited the sick of
+their day we do not know. Alms and the _annona_ were now, it would seem,
+administered concurrently; and there was a system of poor relief
+independent of the churches and their alms (unless these, organized, as
+in Scottish towns, on the ancient ecclesiastical lines, were paid wholly
+or in part to a central diaconate fund). Much had changed, but in much
+Roman thought still prevailed.
+
+On lines similar to these the organization of poor relief in the middle
+ages was developed. In the provinces in the later empire the senate or
+_ordo decurionum_ were responsible for the public provisioning of the
+towns (Fustel de Coulanges, _La Gaule romaine_, p. 251), and no doubt
+the care of the poor would thus in some measure devolve on them in times
+of scarcity or distress. On the religious side, on the other hand, the
+churches would probably be constant centres of almsgiving and relief;
+and then, further, when the Roman municipal system had decayed, each
+citizen (as in Charlemagne's time, 742-814) was required to support his
+own dependants--a step suggestive of much after-history.
+
+  The change in sentiment and method could hardly be more strongly
+  marked than by a comparison of "the _Teaching_" with St Ambrose's
+  (334-397) "Duties of the Clergy" (_De Officiis Ministrorum_). For the
+  old instinctive obedience to a command there is now an endeavour to
+  find a reasoned basis for charitable action. Pauperism is recognized.
+  "Never was the greed of beggars greater than it is now.... They want
+  to empty the purses of the poor, to deprive them of the means of
+  support. Not content with a little, they ask for more.... With lies
+  about their lives they ask for further sums of money." "A method in
+  giving is necessary." But in the suggestions made there is little
+  consistency. Liberality is urged as a means of gaining the love of the
+  people; a new and a false issue is thus raised. The relief is neither
+  to be "too freely given to those who are unsuitable, nor too sparingly
+  bestowed upon the needy." Everywhere there is a doctrine of the mean
+  reflected through Cicero's _De Officiis_, the doctrine insufficiently
+  stated, as though it were a mean of quantity, and not that rightly
+  tempered mean which is the harmony of opposing moods. The poor are not
+  to be sent away empty. Those rejected by the church are not to be left
+  to the "outer darkness" of an earlier Christianity. They must be
+  supplied if they are in want. The methodic giver is "hard towards
+  none, but is free towards all." Consequently none are refused, and no
+  account is taken of the regeneration that may spring up in a man from
+  the effort towards self-help which refusal may originate. Thus after
+  all it appears that method means no more than this--to give sometimes
+  more, sometimes less, to all needy people. In the small congregational
+  church of early Christianity, each member of which was admitted on the
+  conditions of strictest discipline, the common alms of the faithful
+  could hardly have done much harm within the body, even though outside
+  they created and kept alive a horde of vagrant alms-seekers and
+  pretenders. Now in this department at least the church had become the
+  state, and discipline and a close knowledge of one's fellow-Christians
+  no longer safeguarded the alms. From Cicero is borrowed the thought of
+  "active help," which "is often grander and more noble," but the
+  thought is not worked out. From the social side the problem is not
+  understood or even stated, and hence no principle of charity or of
+  charitable administration is brought to light in the investigation.
+  Still there are rudiments of the economics of charity in the praise of
+  Joseph, who made the people _buy_ the corn, for otherwise "they would
+  have given up cultivating the soil; for he who has the use of what is
+  another's often neglects his own." Perhaps, as St Augustine inspired
+  the theology of the middle ages, we may say that St Ambrose, in the
+  mingled motives, indefiniteness, and kindliness of this book, stands
+  for the charity of the middle ages, except in so far as the movement
+  which culminated in the brotherhood of St Francis awakened the
+  intelligence of the world to wider issues.
+
+In Constantinople the pauperism seems to have been extreme. The corn
+supplies of Africa were diverted there in great part when it became the
+capital of the empire. This must have left to Rome a larger scope for
+the development of the civic-religious administration of relief. St
+Chrysostom's sermons give no impression of the rise of any new
+administrative force, alike sagacious and dominant. The appeal to give
+alms is constant, but the positive counsel on charitable work is _nil_.
+The people had the _annona civica_, and imperial gifts, corn, allowances
+(_salaria_) from the treasury granted for the poor and needy, and an
+annual gift of 50 gold pounds (rather more than L1400) for funerals.
+Besides these there were many institutions, and the begging and the
+almsgiving at the church doors. "The land could not support the lazy and
+valiant beggars." There were public works provided for them; if they
+refused to work on them they were to be driven away. The sick might
+visit the capital, but must be registered and sent back (A.D. 382); the
+sturdy beggar was condemned to slavery. So little did alms effect. And
+in the East monasticism seems to have produced no firmness of purpose
+such as led to the organization of the church and of charitable relief
+under St Gregory.
+
+Another movement of the Byzantine period was the establishment of the
+endowed charity. The Jewish synagogue long served as a place for the
+reception of strangers--a religious [Greek: xenodocheion]. Probably the
+strangers referred to in "the _Teaching_" were so entertained. The table
+of the bishop and a room in his house served as the guest-chamber, for
+which afterwards a separate building was instituted. In the East the
+Jewish charitable inn first appears, and there took place the earliest
+extension of institutions. There was probably a demand for an
+elaboration of institutions as social changes made themselves felt in
+the churches. We have seen this in the case of the [Greek: agape].
+Similar changes would affect other branches of charitable work. The
+hospital (_hospitalium_, [Greek: xenodocheion]) is defined as a "house
+of God in which strangers who lack hospitality are received" (Suicerus,
+_Thesaur._), a home separated from the church; and round the church, out
+of the primitive [Greek: xenodocheion] of early Christian times and the
+entertainment of strangers at the houses of members of the community,
+would grow up other similar charities. In A.D. 321 licence was given by
+Constantine to leave property to the Church. The churches were thus
+placed in the same position as pagan temples, and though subsequently
+Valentinian (A.D. 379) withdrew the permission on account of the
+shameless legacy-hunting of the clergy, in that period much must have
+been done to endow church and charitable institutions. In the same
+period grew to its height the passion for monasticism. This affected the
+parish and the endowed charity alike. Under its influence the deacon as
+an almoner tends to disappear, except where, as in Rome, there is an
+elaborate system of relief. Nor does it seem that deaconesses, widows,
+and virgins continued to occupy their old position as church workers and
+alms-receivers. Naturally when marriage was considered "in itself an
+evil, perhaps to be tolerated, but still degrading to human nature," and
+(A.D. 385) the marriage of the clergy was prohibited, men, except those
+in charge of parishes, and women would join regular monastic bodies; the
+deacon, as almoner, would disappear, and the "widows" and virgins would
+become nuns. Thus there would grow up a large body of men and women
+living segregated in institutions, and forming a leisured class able to
+superintend institutional charities. And now two new officers appear,
+the _eleemosynarius_ or almoner and the _oeconomus_ or steward (already
+an assistant treasurer to the bishop), who superintend and distribute
+the alms and manage the property of the institution. (In the first six
+books of the _Apost. Constit._, A.D. 300, these officers are not
+mentioned.) In these circumstances the _hospitium_ or hospital ([Greek:
+xenon], [Greek: katagogion]) assumes a new character. It becomes in St
+Basil's hands (A.D. 330-379) a resort not only for those who "visit it
+from time to time as they pass by, but also for those who need some
+treatment in illness." And round St Basil at Caesarea there springs up a
+colony of institutions. Four kinds principally are mentioned in the
+Theodosian code: (i) the guest-houses ([Greek: xenodocheia]); (2) the
+poor-houses ([Greek: ptocheia]), where the poor (_mendici_) were housed
+and maintained (the [Greek: ptocheion] was a general term also applied
+to all houses for the poor, the aged, orphans and sick); (3) there were
+orphanages ([Greek: orphanotropheia]) for orphans and wards; and (4)
+there were houses for infant children ([Greek: brephotropheia]). Thus a
+large number of endowed charities had grown up. This new movement it is
+necessary to consider in connexion with the law relating to religious
+property and bequests, in its bearing on the rule of the monasteries,
+and in its effect on the family.
+
+  The sacred property (_res sacra_) of Roman law consisted of things
+  dedicated to the gods by the pontiff with the approval of the civil
+  authority, in turn, the people, the senate and the emperor. Things so
+  consecrated were inalienable. Apart from this in the empire, the
+  municipalities as they grew up were considered "juristic persons" who
+  were entitled to receive and hold property. In a similar position were
+  authorized _collegia_, amongst which were the mutual aid societies
+  referred to above. Christians associated in these societies would
+  leave legacies to them. Thus (W.M. Ramsay, _Cities and Bishoprics of
+  Phrygia_, I. i. 119) an inscription mentions a bequest (possibly by a
+  Christian) to the council ([Greek: synhedrion]) of the presidents of
+  the dyers in purple for a ceremonial, on the condition that, if the
+  ceremony be neglected, the legacy shall become the property of the
+  gild for the care of nurslings; and in the same way a bequest is left
+  in Rome (Orelli 4420) for a memorial sacrifice, on the condition that,
+  if it be not performed, double the cost be paid to the treasury of the
+  corn-supply (_fisco stationis annonae_). No unauthorized _collegia_
+  could receive a legacy. "The law recognized no freedom of
+  association." Nor could any private individual create a foundation
+  with separate property of its own. Property could only be left to an
+  authorized juristic person, being a municipality or a _collegium_. But
+  as the problem of poverty was considered from a broader standpoint,
+  there was a desire to deal with it in a more permanent manner than by
+  the _annona civica_. The _pueri alimentarii_ (see above) were
+  considered to hold their property as part of the _fiscus_ or property
+  of the state. Pliny (_Ep._ vii. 18), seeking a method of endowment,
+  transferred property in land to the steward of public property, and
+  then took it back again subject to a permanent charge for the aid of
+  children of freemen. By the law of Constantine and subsequent laws no
+  such devices were necessary. Widows or deaconesses, or virgins
+  dedicated to God, or nuns (A.D. 455), could leave bequests to a church
+  or memorial church (_martyrum_), or to a priest or a monk, or to the
+  poor in any shape or form, in writing or without it. Later (A.D. 475)
+  donations of every kind, "to the person of any martyr, or apostle, or
+  prophet, or the holy angels," for building an oratory were made valid,
+  even if the building were promised only and not begun; and the same
+  rule applied to infirmaries ([Greek: nosokomoeia]) and poor-houses
+  ([Greek: ptocheia])--the bishop or steward being competent to appear
+  as plaintiff in such cases. Later, again (A.D. 528), contributions of
+  50 solidi (say about L19, 10s.) to a church, hostel ([Greek:
+  xenodocheion]), &c., were made legal, though not registered; while
+  larger sums, if registered, were also legalized. So (A.D. 529)
+  property might be given for "churches, hostels, poor-houses, infant
+  and orphan homes, and homes for the aged, or any such community"
+  (_consortium_), even though not registered, and such property was free
+  from taxation. The next year (530) it was enacted that prescription
+  even for 100 years did not alienate church and charitable property.
+  The broadest interpretation was allowed. If by will a share of an
+  estate was left "to Christ our Lord," the church of the city or other
+  locality might receive it as heir; "let these, the law says, belong to
+  the holy churches, so that they may become the alimony of the poor."
+  It was sufficient to leave property to the poor (_Corpus Juris
+  Civilis_, ed. Krueger, 1877, ii. 25). The bequest was legal. It went
+  to the legal representative of the poor--the church. Charitable
+  property was thus church property. The word "alms" covered both. It
+  was given to pious uses, and as a kind of public institution "shared
+  that corporate capacity which belonged to all ecclesiastical
+  institutions by virtue of a general rule of law." On a _pia causa_ it
+  was not necessary to confer a juristic personality. Other laws
+  preserved or regulated alienation (A.D. 477, A.D. 530), and checked
+  negligence or fraud in management. The clergy had thus become the
+  owners of large properties, with the _coloni_ and slaves upon the
+  estates and the allowances of civic corn (_annona civica_); and (A.D.
+  357) it was stipulated that whatever they acquired by thrift or
+  trading should be used for the service of the poor and needy, though
+  what they acquired from the labour of their slaves in the labour
+  houses (_ergastula_) or inns (_tabernae_) might be considered a profit
+  of religion (_religionis lucrum_).
+
+Thus grew up the system of endowed charities, which with certain
+modifications continued throughout the middle ages, and, though it
+assumed different forms in connexion with gilds and municipalities, in
+England it still retains, partially at least, its relation to the
+church. It remained the system of institutional relief parallel to the
+more personal almsgiving of the parish.
+
+Monasticism, in acting on men of strong character, endowed them with a
+double strength of will, and to men like St Gregory it seemed to give
+back with administrative power the relentless firmness of the Roman. In
+the East it produced the turbulent soldiery of the church, in the West
+its missionaries; and each mission-monastery was a centre of relief. But
+whatever the services monasticism rendered, it can hardly be said to
+have furthered true charity from the social standpoint, though out of
+regard to some of its institutional work we may to a certain degree
+qualify this judgment. The movement was almost of necessity in large
+measure anti-parochial, and thus out of sympathy with the charities of
+the parish, where personal relations with the poor at their homes count
+for most.
+
+  The good and evil of it may be weighed. Monasticism working through St
+  Augustine helped the world to realize the mood of love as the real or
+  eternal life. Of the natural life of the world and its
+  responsibilities, through which that mood would have borne its
+  completest fruit, it took but little heed, except in so far as, by
+  creating a class possessed of leisure, it created able scholars,
+  lawyers and administrators, and disciplined the will of strong men.
+  It had no power to stay the social evils of the day. Unlike the
+  friars, at their best the monks were a class apart, not a class mixed
+  up with the people. So were their charities. The belief in poverty as
+  a fixed condition--irretrievable and ever to be alleviated without any
+  regard to science or observation, subjected charity to a perpetual
+  stagnation. Charity requires belief in growth, in the sharing of life,
+  in the utility and nobility of what is done here and now for the
+  hereafter of this present world. Monasticism had no thought of this.
+  It was based on a belief in the evil of matter; and from that root
+  could spring no social charity. Economic difficulties also fostered
+  monasticism. Gold was appreciated in value, and necessaries were
+  expensive, and the cost of maintaining a family was great. It was an
+  economy to force a son or a brother into the church. The population
+  was decreasing; and in spite of church feeling Marjorian (A.D. 461)
+  had to forbid women from taking the veil before forty, and to require
+  the remarriage of widows, subject to a large forfeit of property
+  (Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, ii. 420). Monasticism was
+  inconsistent with the social good. As to the family--like the moderns
+  who depreciate thrift and are careless of the life of the family, the
+  monks, believing that marriage was a lower form of morality, if not
+  indeed, as would at times appear, hardly moral at all, could feel but
+  little enthusiasm for what is socially a chief source of health to the
+  community and a well-spring of spontaneous charitable feeling. By the
+  sacerdotal-monastic movement the moralizing force of Christianity was
+  denaturalized. Among the secular clergy the falsity of the position as
+  between men and women revealed itself in relations which being
+  unhallowed and unrecognized became also degrading. But worse than all,
+  it pushed charity from its pivot. For this no monasteries or
+  institutions, no domination of religious belief, could atone. The
+  church that with so fine an intensity of purpose had fostered chastity
+  and marriage was betraying its trust. It was out of touch with the
+  primal unit of social life, the child-school of dawning habits and the
+  loving economy of the home. It produced no treatise on economy in the
+  older Greek sense of the word. The home and its associations no longer
+  retained their pre-eminence. In the extreme advocacy of the celibate
+  state, the honourable development of the married life and its duties
+  were depreciated and sometimes, one would think, quite forgotten.
+
+We may ask, then, What were the results of charity at the close of the
+period which ends with St Gregory and the founding of the medieval
+church?--for if the charity is reflected in the social good the results
+should be manifest. Economic and social conditions were adverse. With
+lessened trade the middle class was decaying (Dill, _Roman Society in
+the Last Century of the Western Empire_, p. 204) and a selfish
+aristocracy rising up. Municipal responsibility had been taxed to
+extinction. The public service was corrupt. The rich evaded taxation,
+the poor were oppressed by it. There were laws upon laws, endeavours to
+underpin the framework of a decaying society. Society was bankrupt of
+skill--and the skill of a generation has a close bearing on its
+charitable administration. While hospitals increased, medicine was
+unprogressive. There were miserable years of famine and pestilence, and
+constant wars. The care of the poorer classes, and ultimately of the
+people, was the charge of the church. The church strengthened the
+feeling of kindness for those in want, widows, orphans and the sick. It
+lessened the degradation of the "actresses," and, co-operating with
+Stoic opinion, abolished the slaughter of the gladiatorial shows. It
+created a popular "dogmatic system and moral discipline," which paganism
+failed to do; but it produced no prophet of charity, such as enlarged
+the moral imagination of the Jews. It ransomed slaves, as did paganism
+also, but it did not abolish slavery. Large economic causes produced
+that great reform. The serf attached to the soil took the place of the
+slave. The almsgiving of the church by degrees took the place of
+_annona_ and _sportula_, and it may have created pauperism. But
+dependence on almsgiving was at least an advance on dependence founded
+on a civic and hereditary right to relief. As the _colonus_ stood higher
+than the slave, so did the pauper, socially at any rate, free to support
+himself, exceed the _colonus_. Bad economic conditions and traditions,
+and a bad system of almsgiving, might enthral him. But the way, at
+least, was open; and thus it became possible that charity, working in
+alliance with good economic traditions, should in the end accomplish the
+self-support of society, the independence of the whole people.
+
+
+PART V.--MEDIEVAL CHARITY AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
+
+It remains to trace the history of thought and administration in
+relation to (1) the development of charitable responsibility in the
+parish, and the use of tithe and church property for poor relief; and
+(2) the revision of the theory of charity, with which are associated the
+names of St Augustine (354-430), St Benedict (480-542), St Bernard
+(1091-1153), St Francis (1182-1226), and St Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274).
+(3) There follows, in reference chiefly to England, a sketch of the
+dependence of the poor under feudalism, the charities of the parish, the
+monastery and the hospital--the medieval system of endowed charity; the
+rise of gild and municipal charities; the decadence at the close of the
+15th century, and the statutory endeavours to cope with economic
+difficulties which, in the 16th century, led to the establishment of
+statutory serfdom and the poor-laws. New elements affect the problem of
+charity in the 17th and 18th centuries; but it is not too much to say
+that almost all these headings represent phases of thought or
+institutions which in later forms are interwoven with the charitable
+thought and endeavours of the present day.
+
+
+  The parish and charitable relief.
+
+Naturally, two methods of relief have usually been prominent: relief
+administered locally, chiefly to residents in their own homes, and
+relief administered in an institution. At the time of Charlemagne
+(742-814) the system of relief was parochial, consisting principally of
+assistance at the home. After that time, except probably in England, the
+institutional method appears to have predominated, and the monastery or
+hospital in one form or another gradually encroached on the parish.
+
+  The system of parochial charity was the outcome, apparently, of three
+  conditions: the position and influence of the bishop, the eleemosynary
+  nature of the church funds, and the need of some responsible
+  organization of relief. It resulted in what might almost be called an
+  ecclesiastical poor-law. The affairs of a local church or congregation
+  were superintended by a bishop. To deal with the outlying districts he
+  detached priests for religious work and, as in Rome and (774)
+  Strassburg, deacons also for the administration of relief. Originally
+  all the income of the church or congregation was paid into one fund
+  only, of which the bishop had charge, and this fund was available
+  primarily for charitable purposes. Church property was the patrimony
+  of the poor. In the 4th century (IV. Council of Carthage, 398) the
+  names of the clergy were entered on a list (_matricula_ or _canon_),
+  as were also the names of the poor, and both received from the church
+  their daily portion (cf. Ratzinger, _Geschichte der kirchlichen
+  Armenpflege_, p. 117). There were no expenses for building. Before the
+  reign of Constantine (306) very few churches were built (Ratzinger, p.
+  120). Thus the early church as has been said, was chiefly a charitable
+  society. By degrees the property of the church was very largely
+  increased by gifts and bequests, and in the West before St Gregory's
+  time the division of it for four separate purposes--the support of the
+  bishop, of the clergy, and of the poor, and for church
+  buildings--still further promoted decentralization. Apart from any
+  special gifts, there was thus created a separate fund for almsgiving,
+  supervised by the bishop, consisting of a fourth of the church
+  property, the oblations (mostly used for the poor), and the tithe,
+  which at first was used for the poor solely. The organization of the
+  church was gradually extended. The church once established in the
+  chief city of a district would become in turn the mother church of
+  other neighbourhoods, and the bishop or priest of the mother church
+  would come to exercise supervision over them and their parishes.
+
+  In France, which may serve as a good illustration, in the 4th century
+  (Ratzinger, p. 181) the civic organization was utilized for a further
+  change. The Roman provinces were divided into large areas,
+  _civitales_, and these were adopted by the church as bishop's parishes
+  or, as we should call them, dioceses; and the chief city became the
+  cathedral city. The bishop thus became responsible in Charlemagne's
+  time both for his own parish--that of the mother church--and for the
+  supervision of the parishes in the _civitas_, and so for the sick and
+  needy of the diocese generally. He had to take charge of the poor in
+  his own parish personally, keep the list of the poor, and houses for
+  the homeless. The other parishes were at first, or in some measure,
+  supported from his funds, but they acquired by degrees tithe and
+  property of their own and were endowed by Charlemagne, who gave one or
+  more manses or lots of land (cf. Fustel de Coulanges, _Hist, des
+  institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_, p. 360) for the support
+  of each parish priest. The priests were required to relieve their own
+  poor so that they should not stray into other cities (II. Counc.
+  Tours, 567), and to provide food and lodging for strangers. The method
+  was indeed elaborated and became, like the Jewish, that contradiction
+  in terms--a compulsory system of charitable relief. The payment of
+  tithe was enforced by Charlemagne, and it became a legal due (Counc.
+  Frankfort, 794; Arelat. 794). At the same time two other conditions
+  were enforced. Each person (_unusquisque fidelium nostrorum_ or _omnes
+  cives_) was to keep his own family, i.e. all dependent on him--all,
+  that is, upon his freehold estate (_allodium_), and no one was to
+  presume to give relief to able-bodied beggars unless they were set to
+  work (Charlem. _Capit_. v. 10). Thus we find here the germ of a
+  poor-law system. As in the times of the _annona civica_, slavery,
+  feudalism, or statutory serfdom, the burthen of the maintenance of the
+  poor fell only in part on charity. Only those who could not be
+  maintained as members of some "family" were properly entitled to
+  relief, and in these circumstances the officially recognized clients
+  of the church consisted of the gradually decreasing number of free
+  poor and those who were tenants of church lands.
+
+  Since 817 there has been no universally binding decision of the church
+  respecting the care of the poor (Ratzinger, p. 236). So long ago did
+  laicization begin in charity. In the wars and confusion of the 9th and
+  10th centuries the poorer freemen lapsed still further into slavery,
+  or became _coloni_ or bond servants; and later they passed under the
+  feudal rule. Thus the church's duty to relieve them became the
+  masters' obligation to maintain them. Simultaneously the activity of
+  the clergy, regular and secular alike, dwindled. They were exhorted to
+  increase their alms. The revenues and property of "the poor" were
+  largely turned to private or partly ecclesiastical purposes, or
+  secularized. Legacies went wholly to the clergy, but only the tithe of
+  the produce of their own lands was used for relief; and of the general
+  tithe, only a third or fourth part was so applied. Eventually to a
+  large extent, but more elsewhere than in England (Ratzinger, pp. 246,
+  269), the tithe itself was appropriated by nobles or even by the
+  monasteries; and thus during and after the 10th century a new
+  organization of charity was created on non-parochial methods of
+  relief. Alms, with prayer and fasting, had always been connected with
+  penance. But the character of the penitential system had altered. By
+  the 7th century private penance had superseded the public and
+  congregational penance of the earlier church (_Dict. Christian
+  Antiquities_, art. "Penitence"). To the penalties of exclusion from
+  the sacraments or from the services of the church or from its
+  communion was coupled, with other penitential discipline, an elaborate
+  penitential system, in which about the 7th century the redemption of
+  sin by the "sacrifice" of property, payments of money fines, &c., was
+  introduced. (Cf. for instance Conc. Elberti:--Labbeus i. 969 (A.D.
+  305), with Conc. Berghamstedense, Wilkins, Conc. p. 60 (A.D. 696), and
+  the Penitential (p. 115) and Canons (A.D. 960), p. 236.) The same sin
+  committed by an overseer (_praepositus paganus_) was compensated by a
+  fine of 100 _solidi_; in the case of a _colonus_ by a fine of 50. So
+  amongst the ways of penitence were entered in the above-mentioned
+  Canons, to erect a church, and if means allowed, add to it land ... to
+  repair the public roads ... "to distribute," to help poor widows,
+  orphans and strangers, redeem slaves, fast, &c.--a combination of
+  "good deeds" which suggests a line of thought such as ultimately found
+  expression in the definition of charities in the Charitable Uses Act
+  of Queen Elizabeth. The confessor, too, was "_spiritualis medicus_,"
+  and much that from the point of view of counsel would now be the work
+  of charity would in his hands be dealt with in that capacity. For
+  lesser sins (cf. Bede (673-735), _Hom._ 34, quoted by Ratzinger) the
+  penalty was prayer, fasting and alms; for the greater sins--murder,
+  adultery and idolatry--to give up all. Thus while half-converted
+  barbarians were kept in moral subjection by material penances, the
+  church was enriched by their gifts; and these tended to support the
+  monastic and institutional methods which were in favour, and to which,
+  on the revival of religious earnestness in the 11th century, the world
+  looked for the reform of social life.
+
+
+  Medieval revision of the theory of charity.
+
+To understand medieval charity it is necessary to return to St
+Augustine. According to him, the motive of man in his legitimate effort
+to assert himself in life was love or desire (_amor_ or _cupido_). "All
+impulses were only evolutions of this typical characteristic" (Harnack,
+_History of Dogma_ (trans.), v. iii.); and this was so alike in the
+spiritual and the sensuous life. Happiness thus depended on desire; and
+desire in turn depended on the regulation of the will; but the will was
+regulated only by grace. God was the _spiritualis substantia_; and
+freedom was the identity of the will with the omnipotent unchanging
+nature. This highest Being was "holiness working on the will in the form
+of omnipotent love." This love was grace--"grace imparting itself in
+love." Love (_caritas_--charity) is identified with justice; and the
+will, the goodwill, is love. The identity of the will with the will of
+God was attained by communion with Him. The after-life consummated by
+sight this communion, which was here reached only by faith. Such a
+method of thought was entirely introspective, and it turned the mind
+"wholly to hope, asceticism and the contemplation of God in worship."
+"Where St Augustine indulges in the exposition of practical piety he has
+no theory at all of Christ's work." To charity on that side he added
+nothing. In the 11th century there was a revival of piety, which had
+amongst its objects the restoration of discipline in the monasteries and
+a monastic training for the secular clergy. To this Augustinian thought
+led the way. "Christianity was asceticism and the city of God" (Harnack
+vi. 6). A new religious feeling took possession of the general mind, a
+regard and adoration of the actual, the historic Christ. Of this St
+Bernard was the expositor. "Beside the sacramental Christ the image of
+the historical took its place,--majesty in humility, innocence in penal
+suffering, life in death." The spiritual and the sensuous were
+intermingled. Dogmatic formulae fell into the background. The picture of
+the historic Christ led to the realization of the Christ according to
+the spirit ([Greek: kata pneuma]). Thus St Bernard carried forward
+Augustinian thought; and the historic Christ became the "sinless man,
+approved by suffering, to whom the divine grace, by which He lives, has
+lent such power that His image takes shape in other men and incites them
+to corresponding humility and love."
+
+Humility and poverty represented the conditions under which alone this
+spirit could be realized; and the poverty must be spiritual, and
+therefore self-imposed ("wilful," as it was afterwards called). This led
+to practical results. Poverty was not a social state, but a spiritual;
+and consequently the poor generally were not the _pauperes Christi_, but
+those who, like the monks, had taken vows of poverty. From these
+premisses followed later the doctrine that gifts to the church were not
+gifts to the poor, as once they had been, but to the religious bodies.
+The church was not the church of the poor, but of the poor in spirit.
+But the immediate effect was the belief for a time, apparently almost
+universal, that the salvation of society would come from the monastic
+orders. By their aid, backed by the general opinion, the secular clergy
+were brought back to celibacy and the monasteries newly disciplined. But
+charity could not thus regain its touch of life and become the means of
+raising the standard of social duty.
+
+Next, one amongst many who were stirred by a kindred inspiration, St
+Francis turned back to actual life and gave a new reality to religious
+idealism. For him the poor were once again the _pauperes Christi_. To
+follow Christ was to adopt the life of "evangelical poverty," and this
+was to live among the poor the life of a poor man. The follower was to
+work with his hands (as the poor clergy of the early church had done and
+the clergy of the early English church were exhorted to do); he was to
+receive no money; he was to earn the actual necessaries of life, though
+what he could not earn he might beg. To ask for this was a right, so
+long as he was bringing a better life into the world. All in excess of
+this he gave to the poor. He would possess no property, buildings or
+endowments, nor was his order to do so. The fulness of his life was in
+the complete realization of it now, without the cares of property and
+without any fear of the future. Having a definite aim and mission, he
+was ready to accept the want that might come upon him, and his life was
+a discipline to enable him to suffer it if it came. To him humility was
+the soul making itself fit to love; and poverty was humility expanded
+from a mood to a life, a life not guarded by seclusion, but spent
+amongst those who were actually poor. The object of life was to console
+the poor--those outside all monasteries and institutions--the poor as
+they lived and worked. The movement was practically a lay movement, and
+its force consisted in its simplicity and directness. Book learning was
+disparaged: life was to be the teacher. The brothers thus became
+observant and practical, and afterwards indeed learned, and their
+learning had the same characteristics. Their power lay in their
+practical sagacity, in their treatment of life, outside the cloister and
+the hospital, at first hand. They knew the people because they settled
+amongst them, living just as they did. This was their method of charity.
+
+The inspiration that drew St Francis to this method was the
+contemplation of the life of Christ. But it was more than this. The
+Christ was to him, as to St Bernard, an ideal, whose nature passed into
+that of the contemplating and adoring beholder, so that, as he said,
+"having lost its individuality, of itself the creature could no longer
+act." He had no impulse but the Christ impulse. He was changed. His
+identity was merged in that of Christ. And with this came the conception
+of a gracious and finely ordered charity, moving like the natural world
+in a constant harmonious development towards a definite end. The
+mysticism was intense, but it was practical because it was intense. In
+that lay the strength of the movement of the true Franciscans, and in
+those orders that, whether called heretical or not, followed
+them--Lollards and others. Religion thus became a personal and original
+possession. It became individual. It was inspired by a social endeavour,
+and for the world at large it made of charity a new thing.
+
+St Thomas Aquinas took up St Bernard's position. Renunciation of
+property, voluntary poverty, was in his view also a necessary means of
+reaching the perfect life; and the feeling that was akin to this
+renunciation and prompted it was charity. "All perfection of the
+Christian life was to be attained according to charity," and charity
+united us to God.
+
+  In the system elaborated by St Thomas Aquinas two lines of thought are
+  wrought into a kind of harmony. The one stands for Aristotle and
+  nature, the other for Christian tradition and theology. We have thus a
+  duplicate theory of thought and action throughout, both rational and
+  theologic virtues, and a duplicate beatitude or state of happiness
+  correspondent to each. On the one hand it is argued that the good act
+  is an act which, in relation to its object, wholly serves its purpose;
+  and thus the measure of goodness (_Prima Secundae Summae Theolog. Q._
+  xviii. 2) is the proportion between action and effect. On the other
+  hand, the act has to satisfy the twofold law, human reason and eternal
+  reason. From the point of view of the former the cardinal factor is
+  desire, which, made proportionate to an end, is love (_amor_); and,
+  seeking the good of others, it loses its quality of concupiscence and
+  becomes friendly love (_amor amicitiae_). But this rational love
+  (_amor_) and charity (_caritas_), the theologic virtue, may meet. All
+  virtue or goodness is a degree of love (_amor_), if by virtue we mean
+  the cardinal virtues and refer to the rule of reason only. But there
+  are also theologic virtues, which are on one side "essential," on the
+  other side participative. As wood ignited participates in the natural
+  fire, so does the individual in these virtues (II. II.^ae lxii. l).
+  Charity is a kind of friendship towards God. It is received _per
+  infusionem spiritus sancti_, and is the chief and root of the
+  theologic virtues of faith and hope, and on it the rational virtues
+  depend. They are not degrees of charity as they are of (_amor_) love,
+  but charity gives purpose, order and quality to them all. In this
+  sense the word is applied to the rational virtues--as, for instance,
+  beneficence. The counterpart of charity in social life is pity
+  (_misericordia_), the compassion that moves us to supply another's
+  want (_summa religionis Christianae in misericordia consistit quantum
+  ad exteriora opera_). It is, however, an emotion, not a virtue, and
+  must be regulated like any other emotion (... _passio est et non
+  virtus. Hic autem motus potest esse secundum rationem regulatus_, II.
+  II.^ae xxx. 3). Thus we pass to alms, which are the instrument of
+  pity--an act of charity done through the intervention of pity. The act
+  is not done in order to purchase spiritual good by a corporal means,
+  but to merit a spiritual good (_per effectum caritatis_) through being
+  in a state of charity; and from that point of view its effect is
+  tested by the recipient being moved to pray for his benefactor. The
+  claim of others on our beneficence is relative, according to
+  consanguinity and other bonds (II. II.^ae xxxi. 3), subject to the
+  condition that the common good of many is a holier obligation
+  (_divinius_) than that of one. Obedience and obligation to parents may
+  be crossed by other obligations, as, for instance, duty to the church.
+  To give alms is a command. Alms should consist of the
+  superfluous--that is, of all that the individual possesses after he
+  has reserved what is necessary. What is necessary the donor should fix
+  in due relation to the claims of his family and dependants, his
+  position in life (_dignitas_), and the sustenance of his body. On the
+  other hand, his gift should meet the actual necessities of the
+  recipient and no more. More than this will lead to excess on the
+  recipient's part (_ut inde luxurietur_) or to want of spirit and
+  apathy (_ut aliis remissio et refrigerium sit_), though allowance must
+  be made for different requirements in different conditions of life. It
+  were better to distribute alms to many persons than to give more than
+  is necessary to one. In individual cases there remains the further
+  question of correction--the removing of some evil or sin from another;
+  and this, too, is an act of charity.
+
+  It will be seen that though St Thomas bases his argument on a
+  duplicate theory of thought, action and happiness, part natural, part
+  theologic, and states fully the conditions of good action, he does not
+  bring the two into unison. Logically the argument should follow that
+  alms that fail in social benefit (produce _remissionem et
+  refrigerium_, for instance) fail also in spiritual good, for the two
+  cannot be inconsistent. But in regard to the former he does not press
+  the importance of purpose, and, in spite of his Aristotle, he misses
+  the point on which Aristotle, as a close observer of social
+  conditions, insists, that gifts without purpose and reciprocity foster
+  the dependence they are designed to meet. The proverb of the "pierced
+  cask" is as applicable to ecclesiastical as to political almsgiving,
+  as has often been proved by the event. The distribution of all
+  "superfluous" income in the form of alms would have the effect of a
+  huge endowment, and would stereotype "the poor" as a permanent and
+  unprogressive class. The proposal suggests that St Thomas contemplated
+  the adoption of a method of relief which would be like a voluntary
+  poor-law; and it is noteworthy that his phrase "necessary relief"
+  forms the defining words of the Elizabethan poor-law, while he also
+  lays stress on the importance of "correction," which, on the decline
+  and disappearance of the penitential system, assumed at the
+  Reformation a prominent position in administration in relation not
+  only to "sin," but also to offences against society, such as idleness,
+  &c.
+
+On this foundation was built up the classification of acts of charity,
+which in one shape or another has a long social tradition, and which St
+Thomas quotes in an elaborated form--the seven spiritual acts
+(_consule_, _carpe_, _doce_, _solare_, _remitte_, _fer_, _ora_),
+counsel, sustain, teach, console, save, pardon, pray; and the seven
+corporal (_vestio_, _poto_, _cibo_, _redimo_, _tego_, _colligo_,
+_condo_) I clothe, I give drink to, I feed, I free from prison, I
+shelter, I assist in sickness, I bury (II. II.^ae xxxii. 2). These in
+subsequent thought became "good works," and availed for the after-life,
+bringing with them definite boons. Thus charity was linked to the system
+of indulgences. The bias of the act of charity is made to favour the
+actor. Primarily the benefit reverts to him. He becomes conscious of an
+ultimate reward accruing to himself. The simplicity of the deed, the
+spontaneity from which, as in a well-practised art, its freshness
+springs and its good effects result, is falsified at the outset. The
+thought that should be wholly concerned in the fulfilment of a definite
+purpose is diverted from it. The deed itself, apart from the outcome of
+the deed, is highly considered. An extreme inducement is placed on
+giving, counselling, and the like, but none on the personal or social
+utility of the gift or counsel. Yet the value of these lies in their
+end. No policy or science of charity can grow out of such a system. It
+can produce innumerable isolated acts, which may or may not be
+beneficent, but it cannot enkindle the "ordered charity." This charity
+is, strictly speaking, by its very nature alike intellectual and
+emotional. Otherwise it would inevitably fail of its purpose, for though
+emotion might stimulate it, intelligence would not guide it.
+
+There are, then, these three lines of thought. That of St Bernard, who
+invigorated the monastic movement, and helped to make the monastery or
+hospital the centre of charitable relief. That of St Francis, who,
+passing by regular and secular clergy alike, revived and reinvigorated
+the conception of charity and gave it once more the reality of a social
+force, knowing that it would find a freer scope and larger usefulness in
+the life of the people than in the religious aristocracy of monasteries.
+And that of St Thomas Aquinas, who, analysing the problem of charity and
+almsgiving, and associating it with definite groups of works, led to its
+taking, in the common thought, certain stereotyped forms, so that its
+social aim and purpose were ignored and its power for good was
+neutralized.
+
+
+  Charity and social conditions in England.
+
+We have now to turn to the conditions of social life in which these
+thoughts fermented and took practical shape. The population of England
+from the Conquest to the 14th century is estimated at between 1-1/2 and
+2-1/2 millions. London, it is believed, had a population of about
+40,000. Other towns were small. Two or three of the larger had 4000 or
+5000 inhabitants. The only substantial building in a village, apart
+perhaps from the manor-house, was the church, used for many secular as
+well as religious purposes. In the towns the mud or wood-paved huts
+sheltered a people who, accepting a common poverty, traded in little
+more than the necessaries of life (Green, _Town Life in the 15th
+Century_, i. 13). The population was stationary. Famine and pestilence
+were of frequent occurrence (Creighton, _Epidemics in Britain_, p. 19),
+and for the careless there was waste at harvest-time and want in winter.
+Hunger was the drill-sergeant of society. Owing to the hardship and
+penury of life infant mortality was probably very great (Blashill,
+_Sutton in Holdernesse_, p. 123). The 15th century was, however, "the
+golden age of the labourer." Our problem is to ascertain what was the
+service of charity to this people till the end of that century. In order
+to estimate this we have to apply tests similar to those we applied
+before to Greece and Rome and the pre-medieval church.
+
+  _The Family._--Largely Germanic in its origin, we may perhaps set down
+  as elemental in the English race what Tacitus said of the Germans.
+  They had the home virtues. They had a high regard for chastity, and
+  respected and enforced the family tie. The wife was honoured. The men
+  were poor, but when the actual pressure of their work--fighting--was
+  removed, idle. They were born gamblers. Much toil fell upon the wife;
+  but slavery was rather a form of tenure than a Roman bondage. As
+  elsewhere, there was in England "the joint family or household"
+  (Pollock and Maitland, _English Law before Edward I._ i. 31). Each
+  member of the community was, or should be, under some lord; for the
+  lordless man was, like the wanderer in Homer, who belonged to no
+  phratry, suspected and dangerous, and his kinsfolk might be required
+  to find a lord for him. There was personal servitude, but it was not
+  of one complexion; there were grades amongst the unfree, and the
+  general advance to freedom was continuous. By the 9th century the
+  larger amount of the slavery was bondage by tenure. In the reign of
+  Edward I., though "the larger half of the rural population was
+  unfree," yet the serf, notwithstanding the fact that he was his lord's
+  chattel, was free against all save his lord. A century later (1381)
+  villenage--that is payment for tenancy by service, instead of by
+  quit-rent--was practically extinguished. So steady was the progress
+  towards the freedom and self-maintenance of the individual and his
+  family.
+
+  _The Manor._--In social importance, next to the family, comes the
+  manor, the organization of which affected charity greatly on one side.
+  It was "an economic unit," the estate of a lord on which there were
+  associated the lord with his demesne, tenants free of service, and
+  villeins and others, tenants by service. All had the use of land, even
+  the serf. The estate was regulated by a manor court, consisting of the
+  lord of the manor or his representative, and the free tenants, and
+  entrusted with wide quasi-domestic jurisdiction. The value of the
+  estate depended on the labour available for its cultivation, and the
+  cultivators were the unfree tenants. Hence the lord, through the
+  manor-court, required an indemnity or fine if a child, for instance,
+  left the manor; and similarly, if a villein died, his widow might have
+  to remarry or pay a fine. Thus the lord reacquired a servant and the
+  widow and her family were maintained. The courts, too, fixed prices,
+  and thus in local and limited conditions of supply and demand were
+  able to equalize them in a measure and neutralize some of the effects
+  of scarcity. In this way, till the reign of Edward I., and, where the
+  manor courts remained active, till much later, a self-supporting
+  social organization made any systematic public or charitable relief
+  unnecessary.
+
+  _The Parish and the Tithe._--The conversion of England in the 7th
+  century was effected by bishops, accompanied by itinerant priests, who
+  made use of conventual houses as the centres of their work. The
+  parochial system was not firmly established till the 10th century
+  (970). Then, by a law of Edgar, a man who had a church on his own land
+  was allowed to pay a third of his tithe to his own church, instead of
+  giving the whole of it to the minister or conventual church. Theodore,
+  archbishop of Canterbury (667), had introduced the Carolingian system
+  into England; and, accordingly, the parish priest was required to
+  provide for strangers and to keep a room in his house for them. Of the
+  tithe, a third and not a fourth was to go to the poor with any
+  surplus; and in order to have larger means of helping them, the
+  priests were urged to work themselves, according to the ancient canons
+  of the church (cf. Labbeus, IV. Conc. Carthag. A.D. 398). The
+  importance of the tithe to the poor is shown by acts of Richard II.
+  and Henry IV., by which it was enacted that, if parochial tithes were
+  appropriated to a monastery, a portion of them should be assigned to
+  the poor of the parish. At a very early date (1287) quasi-compulsory
+  charges in the nature of a rate were imposed on parishioners for
+  various church purposes (Pollock and Maitland, i. 604), though in the
+  14th and 15th centuries a compulsory church rate was seldom made.
+  Collections were made by paid collectors, especially for Hock-tide
+  (q.v.) money--gathered for church purposes (Brand's _Antiquities_,
+  p. 112). But there must have been many varieties in practice. In
+  Somersetshire the churchwardens' accounts (1349 to 1560) show that the
+  parish contributed nothing to the relief of the poor, and it seems
+  probable that the personal charities of the parishioners, and the
+  charities of the gild fellowships and of the parsonage house sufficed
+  (Bishop Hobhouse, _Churchwardens' Accounts, 1349-1560_, Somerset
+  Record Society). Many parishes possessed land, houses and cattle, and
+  received gifts and legacies of all kinds. The proceeds of this
+  property, if given for the use of the parish generally, might, if
+  necessary, be available for the relief of the poor, but, if given
+  definitely for their use, would provide doles, or stock cattle or
+  "poor's" lands, &c. (Cf. Augustus Jessopp, _Before the Great Pillage_,
+  p. 40; and many instances in the reports of the Charity Commissioners,
+  1818-1835.) Of the endowments for parish doles very many may have
+  disappeared in the break-up of the 16th century. There were also
+  "Parish Ales," the proceeds of which would be used for parish purposes
+  or for relief. Further, all the greater festivals were days of
+  feasting and the distribution of food; at funerals also there were
+  often large distributions, and also at marriages. The faithful
+  generally, subject to penance, were required to relieve the poor and
+  the stranger. In the larger part of England the parish and the vill
+  were usually coterminous. In the north a parish contained several
+  vills. There were thus side by side the charitable relief system of
+  the parish, which at an early date became a rating area, and the
+  self-supporting system of the manor.
+
+  _The Monasteries._--As Christianity spread monasteries spread, and
+  each monastery was a centre of relief. Sometimes they were
+  established, like St Albans (796), for a hundred Benedictine monks and
+  for the entertainment of strangers; or sometimes without any such
+  special purpose, like the abbey of Croyland (reorganized 946), which,
+  becoming exceeding rich from its _diversorium pauperum_, or almonry,
+  "relieved the whole country round so that prodigious numbers resorted
+  to it." At Glastonbury, for instance (1537), L140 16s. 8d. was given
+  away in doles. But documents seem to prove (Denton, _England in
+  Fifteenth Century_, p. 245) that the relief generally given by
+  monasteries was much less than is usually supposed.
+
+  The general system may be described (cf. Rule, _St Dunst. Cant.
+  Archp._ p. 42, Dugdale; J.B. Clark, _The Observances_, Augustinian
+  Priory, Barnwell; Abbot Gasquet, _English Monastic Life_). The almonry
+  was usually near the church of the monastery. An almoner was in
+  charge. He was to be prudent and discreet in the distribution of his
+  doles (_portiones_) and to relieve travellers, palmers, chaplains and
+  mendicants (_mendicantes_, apparently the beggars recognized as living
+  by begging, such as we have noted under other social conditions), and
+  the leprous more liberally than others. The old and infirm, lame and
+  blind who were confined to their beds he was to visit and relieve
+  suitably (_in competenti annona_). The importunity of the poor he was
+  to put up with, and to meet their need as far as he could. In the
+  almonry there were usually rooms for the sick. The sick outside the
+  precincts were relieved at the almoner's discretion. Continuous relief
+  might be given after consultation with the superior. All the remnants
+  of meals and the old clothes of the monks were given to the almoner
+  for distribution, and at Christmas he had a store of stockings and
+  other articles to give away as presents to widows, orphans and poor
+  clerks. He also provided the Maundy gifts and selected the poor for
+  the washing of feet. He was thus a local visitor and alms distributor,
+  not merely at the gate of the monastery but in the neighbourhood, and
+  had also at his disposal "indoor" relief for the sick. Separate from
+  the rest the house there was also a dormitory and rooms and the
+  kitchen for strangers. A _hospitularius_ attended to their needs and
+  novices waited on them. Guests who were laymen might stay on, working
+  in return for board and lodging (Smith's _Dict. Christian Antiq._,
+  "Benedictine").
+
+  The monasteries often established hospitals; they served also as
+  schools for the gentry and for the poor; and they were pioneers of
+  agriculture. In the 12th century, in which many monastic orders were
+  constituted, there were many lavish endowments. In the 14th century
+  their usefulness had begun to wane. At the end of that century the
+  larger estates were generally held in entail, with the result that
+  younger sons were put into religious houses. This worldliness had its
+  natural consequences. In the 15th century, owing to mismanagement,
+  waste, and subsequently to the decline of rural prosperity, their
+  resources were greatly crippled. In their relation to charity one or
+  two points may be noted: (1) Of the small population of England the
+  professed monks and nuns with the parish priests (Rogers, _Hist.
+  Agric. and Prices_, i. 58) numbered at least 30,000 or 40,000. This
+  number of celibates was a standing protest against the moral
+  sufficiency of the family life. On the other hand, amongst them were
+  the brothers and sisters who visited the poor and nursed the sick in
+  hospitals; and many who now succumb physically or mentally to the
+  pressure of life, and are cared for in institutions, may then have
+  found maintenance and a retreat in the monasteries. (2) Bound together
+  by no common controlling organization, the monasteries were but so
+  many miscellaneous centres of relief, chiefly casual relief. They were
+  mostly "magnificent hostelries." (3) They stood outside the parish,
+  and they weakened its organization and hampered its development.
+
+  _The Hospitals._--The revival of piety in the 11th century led to a
+  large increase in the number of hospitals and hospital orders. To show
+  how far they covered the field in England two instances may be quoted.
+  At Canterbury (Creighton, _Epidemics_, p. 87) there were four for
+  different purposes, two endowed by Lanfranc (1084), one for poor,
+  infirm, lame and blind men and women, and one outside the town for
+  lepers. These hospitals were put under the charge of a priory, and
+  endowed out of tithes payable to the secular clergy. Later (Henry
+  II.), a hospital for leprous sisters was established, and afterwards a
+  hospital for leprous monks and poor relations of the monks of St
+  Augustine's. In a less populous parish, Luton (Cobbe, _Luton Church_),
+  there were a hospital for the poor, an almshouse, and two hospitals,
+  one for the sick and one for the leprous. The word "leper," it is
+  evident, was used very loosely, and was applied to many diseases other
+  than leprosy. There were hospitals for the infirm and the leprous; the
+  disease was not considered contagious. The hospital in its modern
+  sense was but slowly created. Thus St Bartholomew's in London was
+  founded (1123) for a master, brethren and sisters, and for the
+  entertainment of poor diseased persons till they got well; of
+  distressed women big with child till they were able to go abroad; and
+  for the maintenance, until the age of seven, of all such children
+  whose mothers died in the house. St Thomas's (rebuilt 1228) had a
+  master and brethren and three lay sisters, and 40 beds for poor,
+  infirm and impotent people, who had also victual and firing. There
+  were hospitals for many special purposes--as for the blind, for
+  instance. There were also many hospital orders in England and on the
+  continent. They sprang up beside the monastic orders, and for a time
+  were very popular: brothers and sisters of the Holy Ghost (1198),
+  sisters of St Elizabeth (1207-1231), Beguines and Beghards (see
+  BEGUINES), knights of St John and others.
+
+  _The Mendicant Orders._--The Franciscans tended the sick and poor in
+  the slums of the towns with great devotion--indeed, the whole movement
+  tells of a splendid self-abandonment and an intensity of effort in the
+  early spring of its enthusiasm, and with the aid of reform councils
+  and reformations it lengthened out its usefulness for two centuries.
+
+
+  Medieval endowed charities.
+
+As in the pre-medieval church, the system of relief is that of
+charitable endowments--a marked contrast to the modern method of
+voluntary associations or rate-supported institutions.
+
+  (1) _The Church as Legatee._--The church building among the Teutonic
+  races was not held by the bishop as part of what was originally the
+  charitable property of the church. It was assigned to the patron saint
+  of the church by the donor, who retained the right of administration,
+  of which his own patronage or right of presentation is a relic.
+  Subsequently, with the study of Roman law, the conception of the
+  church as a _persona ficta_ prevailed; and till the larger growth of
+  the gilds and corporations it was the only general legatee for
+  charitable gifts. As these arise a large number of charitable trusts
+  are created and held by lay corporations; and "alms" include gifts for
+  social as well as religious or eleemosynary purposes. (2) _Freedom
+  from Taxation and Service._--Gifts to the church for charitable or
+  other purposes were made in free, pure and perpetual alms ("_ad
+  tenendum in puram et perpetuam eleemosynam sine omni temporali
+  servicio et consuetudine_"). Land held under this _frankalmoigne_ was
+  given "in perpetual alms," therefore the donor could not retract it;
+  in free alms, therefore he could exact no services in regard to it;
+  and in pure alms as being free from secular jurisdiction (cf. Pollock
+  and Maitland). (3) _Alienation and Mortmain._--To prevent alienation
+  of property to religious houses, with the consequent loss of service
+  to the superior or chief lords, a licence from the chief lord was
+  required to legalize the alienation (Magna Carta, and Edw. I., _De
+  viris religiosis_). Other statutes (Edw. I. and Rich. II.) enacted
+  that this licence should be issued out of chancery after
+  investigation; and the principle was applied to civil corporations.
+  The necessity of this licence was one lay check on injurious
+  alienation. (4) _Irresponsible Administration._--Until after the 13th
+  century, when the lay courts had asserted their right to settle
+  disputes as to lands held in alms, the administration of charity was
+  from the lay point of view entirely irresponsible. It was outside the
+  secular jurisdiction; and civilly the professed clergy, who were the
+  administrators, were "dead." They could not sue or be sued except
+  through their sovereign--their chief, the abbot. They formed a large
+  body of non-civic inhabitants free from the pressure and the
+  responsibilities of civil life. (5) _Control_.--Apart from the control
+  of the abbot, prior, master or other head, the bishop was visitor, or,
+  as we should say, inspector; and abuses might be remedied by the visit
+  of the bishop or his ordinary. The bishop's ordinary (2 Henry V. i. 1)
+  was the recognized visitor of all hospitals apart from the founder.
+  The founder and his family retained a right of intervention. Sometimes
+  thus an institution was reorganized, or even dissolved, the property
+  reverting to the founder (Dugdale, _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vi. 2.
+  715). (6) _Cy-pres._--Charities were, especially after Henry V.'s
+  reign, appropriated to other uses, either because their original
+  purpose failed or because some new object had become important. Thus,
+  for instance, a college or hospital for lepers (1363) is
+  re-established by the founder's family with a master and priest, _quod
+  nulli leprosi reperiebantur_; and a similar hospital founded in Henry
+  I.'s time near Oxford has decayed, and is given by Edward III. to
+  Oriel College, Oxford, to maintain a chaplain and poor brethren. Thus,
+  apart from alienation pure and simple, the principle of adaptation to
+  new uses was put in force at an early date, and supplied many
+  precedents to Wolsey, Edward VI. and the post-Reformation bishops. The
+  system of endowments was indeed far more adaptable than it would at
+  first sight seem to have been. (7) _The Sources of Income._--The
+  hospitals were chiefly supported by rents or the produce of land; or,
+  if attached to monasteries, out of the tithe of their monastic lands
+  or other sources of revenue, or out of the appropriated tithes of the
+  secular clergy; or they might be in part maintained by collections
+  made, for instance, by a commissioner duly authorized by a formal
+  attested document, in which were recounted the indulgences by popes,
+  archbishops and bishops to those who became its benefactors (Cobbe, p.
+  75); or, in the case of leper hospitals, by a leper with a "clapdish,"
+  who begged in the markets; or by a proctor, in the case of more
+  important institutions in towns, who "came with his box one day in
+  every month to the churches and other religious houses, at times of
+  service, and there received the voluntary gifts of the congregation";
+  or they might receive inmates on payment, and thus apparently a
+  frequent abuse, decayed servants of the court and others, were "farmed
+  out." (8) _Mode of Admission._--The admission was usually, no doubt,
+  regulated by the prior or master. At York, at the hospital of St
+  Nicholas for the leprous, the conditions of admission were: promise or
+  vow of continence, participation in prayer, the abandonment of all
+  business, the inmate's property at death to go to the house. This may
+  serve as an example. The master was usually one of the regular clergy.
+  (9) _Decline of the Hospitals._--It is said that, in addition to 645
+  monasteries and 90 "colleges" and many chantries, Henry VIII.
+  suppressed 110 hospitals (Speed's _Chronicle_, p. 778). The numbers
+  seem small. In the economic decline at the end of the 15th and
+  beginning of the 16th centuries many hospitals may have lapsed.
+
+
+  Gild and municipal charities.
+
+In the 15th century the towns grew in importance. First the wool trade
+and then the cloth trade flourished, and the English developed a large
+shipping trade. The towns grew up like "little principalities"; and for
+the advancement of trade, gilds, consisting alike of masters and
+workmen, were formed, which endeavoured to regulate and then to
+monopolize the market. By degrees the corporations of the towns were
+worked in their interests, and the whole commercial system became
+restrictive and inadaptable. Meanwhile the towns attracted newcomers;
+freedom from feudal obligations was gained with comparative ease; and a
+new _plebs_ was congregating, a population of inhabitants not qualified
+as burghers or gild members, women, sons living with their fathers,
+menial servants and apprentices. There was thus an increasing
+restriction imposed on trade, coupled with a growing _plebs_. Naturally,
+then, lay charities sprang up for members of gilds, and for burghers and
+for the commonalty. Men left estates to their gilds to maintain decayed
+members in hospitals, almshouses or otherwise, to educate their
+children, portion their daughters, and to assist their widows. The
+middle-class trader was thus in great measure insured against the risks
+of life. The gilds were one sign of the new temper and wants of burghers
+freed from feudalism. Another sign was a new standard of manners. Rules
+and saws, Hesiodic in their tone, became popular--in regard, for
+instance, to such a question as "how to enable a man to live on his
+means, and to keep himself and those belonging to him." The boroughs
+established other charities also, hospitals and almshouses for the
+people, a movement which, like that of the gilds, began very early--in
+Italy as early as the 9th century. They sometimes gave outdoor relief
+also to registered poor (Green i. 41), and they had in large towns
+courts of orphans presided over by the mayor and aldermen, thus taking
+over a duty that previously had been one of conspicuous importance in
+the church. As early as 1257 in Westphalian towns there was a
+rough-and-ready system of Easter relief of the poor; and in Frankfort in
+1437 there was a town council of almoners with a systematic programme of
+relief (Ratzinger, p. 352). Thus at the close of the middle ages the
+towns were gradually assuming what had been charitable functions of the
+church.
+
+
+  Statutory wage control.
+
+While a new freedom was being attained by the labourer in the country
+and the burgher in the town, the difficulty of obtaining a sufficient
+supply of labour for agriculture must have been constant, especially at
+every visitation of plague and famine. In accordance with a general
+policy of state regulation which was to control and supervise industry,
+agriculture and poor relief and to repress vagrancy by gaols and houses
+of correction, the state stepped in as arbiter and organizer. By
+Statutes of Labourers beginning in 1351 (25 Edw. III. 135), it aimed at
+enforcing a settled wage and restraining migration. From 1351 it
+endeavoured to suppress mendicity, and in part to systematize it in the
+interest of infirm and aged mendicants. Each series of enactments is the
+natural complement of the other. In the main their signification, from
+the point of view of charity, lies in the fact that they represent a
+persistent endeavour to prevent social unsettlement and in part the
+distress which unsettlement causes, and which vagrancy in some measure
+indicates, by keeping the people within the ranks of recognized
+dependence, the settled industry of the crafts and of agriculture, or
+forcing them back into it by fear of the gaol or the stocks. The extreme
+point of this policy was reached when by the laws of Edward VI. and
+Elizabeth the "rogue, vagabond or sturdy beggar" was branded with an R
+on the shoulder and handed over as a bondman for a period to any one who
+would take him. On the other hand, it was desired that relief should be
+a means of preventing migration. In any time of general pressure there
+is a desire to organize mendicity, to prevent the wandering of beggars,
+to create a kind of settled poor, distinguished from the rest as infirm
+and not able-bodied, and to keep these at least at home sufficiently
+supported by local and parochial relief; and this, in its simpler form
+all the world over, has in the past been by response to public begging.
+The argument may be summed up thus: We cannot have begging, which
+implies that the beggar is cared for by no one, belongs to no one, and
+therefore throws himself on the world at large. Therefore, if he is
+able-bodied he must be punished as unsocial, for it is his fault that he
+belongs to no one; or we must make him some one's dependant, and so keep
+him; or if he is infirm, and therefore of no service to any one--if no
+one will keep him--we must organize his mendicity, for such mendicity is
+justified. If he cannot dig for the man to whom he does or should
+belong, he must beg. Then out of the failure to organize mendicity--for
+relief of itself is no remedy, least of all casual relief--a poor-law
+springs up, which, afterwards associated with the provision of
+employment, will, it is hoped, make relief in some measure remedial by
+increasing its quantity by means of compulsory levies. This argument,
+which combined statutory wage control and statutory poor relief, seems
+to have been firmly bedded in the English legislative mind for more than
+two centuries, from 1351 till after 1600; and until 1834 these two
+series of laws effectually reduced the English labourer to a new
+industrial dependence. To people imbued with ideas of feudalism the way
+of escape from villenage seemed to be not independence, but a new
+reversion to it.
+
+
+  The decadence.
+
+Many elements produced the social and economic catastrophe of the 16th
+century, for the condition into which the country fell can hardly be
+considered less than a catastrophe. With the growing independence of the
+people there was created after the 13th century an unsettled
+"masterless" class, a residue of failure resulting from social changes,
+which was large and important enough to call for legislation. In the
+15th century, "the golden age of the English labourer," the towns
+increased and flourished. Both town and country did well. At the end of
+the century came the decadence. The measure of the strain, when perhaps
+it had reached its lowest level, is indicated by the following
+comparison: "The cost of a peasant's family of four in the early part of
+the 14th century was L3:4:9; after 1540 it was L8" (Rogers, _Hist, of
+Agric. and Prices_, iv. 756).
+
+  The cause of this has now been fairly investigated. The value of land
+  in the 13th century generally depended chiefly on "the head of labour"
+  retained upon it. Its fertility depended on mainoeuvre (manure). To
+  keep labour upon it was therefore the aim of the lord or owner. The
+  enclosing of lands for sheep began early, and in the time of Edward
+  III., in the great days of the woolstaple, must have been extensive.
+  So long as the demand for the exportation of wool, and then for its
+  consumption at home in the cloth trade, continued, the towns
+  prospered, and the enclosures did not become a grievance. Even before
+  the reign of Henry VII., with the decay of trade, the towns decayed,
+  and their population in some cases diminished extraordinarily. This
+  reacted on the country, where the great families had already become
+  impoverished, and were hardly able to support their retainers. In
+  Henry VIII.'s time the lands of the religious houses were confiscated.
+  Worked on old lines, the custom of tillage remained in force on them.
+  Accordingly, when these estates fell into private hands they were
+  transferred subject to the condition that they should be tilled as
+  heretofore. The condition was evaded by the new owners, and the
+  disbandment of farm labourers went on apace. In England and Wales
+  these changes, it is said, affected a third of the country, more than
+  12,000,000 acres, if the estimates be correct, or rather a third of
+  the best land in the kingdom. With towns decaying, the effect of this
+  must have been terrible. What were really "latifundia" were created,
+  "great landes," "enclosures of a mile or two or thereabouts ...
+  destroying thereby not only the farms and cottages within the same
+  circuits, but also the towns and villages adjoining." A herdsman and
+  his wife took the place of eighteen to twenty-four farm hands. The
+  people thus set wandering could only join the wanderers from the
+  decaying towns. At the same time the economic difficulty was
+  aggravated by a new patrician or commercial greed; and once more the
+  land question--the absorption of property into a few hands instead of
+  its free exchange--led to lasting social demoralization. A few years
+  after the alienation of the monasteries the coinage (1543) was
+  debased. By this means prices were arbitrarily raised, and wages were
+  increased nominally; but nevertheless the price of necessaries was "so
+  enhanced" that neither "the poor labourers can live with their wages
+  that is limited by your grace's laws, nor the artificers can make,
+  much less sell, their wares at any reasonable price" (Lamond, _The
+  Commonweal of this Realm of England_, p. xlvii). No social
+  reformation, such as the charitable instincts of Wycliffe, More,
+  Hales, Latimer and other men suggested, was attempted, or at least
+  persistently carried out. In towns the organization of labour had
+  become restrictive, exclusive and inadaptable, or, judged from the
+  moral standpoint, uncharitable. There had been a time of plenty and
+  extravagance, of which in high quarters the famous "field of the cloth
+  of gold" was typical; and probably, in accordance with the frequently
+  observed law of social economics, as the advance in wages and their
+  purchasing power in the earlier part of the 15th century had not been
+  accompanied by a simultaneous advance in self-discipline and
+  intelligent expenditure, it resulted in part in lessened competence
+  and industrial ability on the part of the workmen, and thus in the end
+  produced pauperism.
+
+The poverty of the country was very great in the reigns of Edward VI.
+and Elizabeth. Adversity then taught the people new manners, and
+households became more simple and thrifty. In the reign of James I.,
+with enforced economy and thrift, a "slow but substantial improvement in
+agriculture" took place, and a new growth of commercial enterprise. The
+vigour of the municipalities had abated, so that in Henry VIII.'s time
+they had become the very humble servants of the government; and the
+government, on the other hand, had become strongly centralized--in
+itself a sign of the general withdrawal of self-sustaining activity in
+all administration, in the administration of charitable relief no less
+than in other departments. A system of endowed charities had been built
+up, supported chiefly by rents from landed property. These now had
+disappeared, and thus the means of relief, which Edward VI. and Queen
+Elizabeth might have utilized at a time of general distress, had been
+dissipated by the acts of their predecessors. The civil independence of
+the monasteries and religious houses might have been justified,
+possibly, when they were engaged in missionary work and were instilling
+into the people the precepts of a higher moral law than that which was
+in force around them. But afterwards, as the ability and intelligence of
+the community increased, their privileges became more and more
+antagonistic to charity, and tended to create a non-social and even
+anti-social ecclesiastical democracy actuated by aims and interests in
+which the general good of the people had little or no place. There was a
+growing alienation between religious tradition and secular opinion, as
+Lollardism slowly permeated the thought of the people and led the way to
+the Reformation. While this alienation existed no national system of
+charity, civic and yet religious, could be created. But worse than all,
+the ideal of charity had been degraded. A self-regarding system of
+relief had superseded charity, and it was productive of nothing but
+alms, large or small, isolated and unmethodic, given with a wrong bias,
+and thus almost inevitably with evil results. Out of this could spring
+no vigorous co-operative charity. Charity--not relief--indeed seemed to
+have left the world. The larger issues were overlooked. Then the
+property of the hospitals and the gilds was wantonly confiscated, though
+the poor had already lost that share in the revenues of the church to
+which at one time they were admitted to have a just claim. A new
+beginning had to be made. The obligations of charity had to be revived.
+A new organization of charitable relief had to be created, and that with
+an empty exchequer and after a vast waste of charitable resources. There
+were signs of a new congregational and parochial energy, yet the task
+could not be entrusted to the religious bodies, divided and disunited as
+they were. In their stead it could be imposed only on some authority
+which represented the general community, such as municipalities; and in
+spite of the centralization of the government there seemed some hope of
+creating a system of relief in connexion with them. They were tried,
+and, very naturally, failed. In the poverty of the time it seemed that
+the poor could be relieved only by a compulsory rate, and the
+administration of statutory relief naturally devolved on the central
+government--the only vigorous administrative body left in the country.
+The government might indeed have adopted the alternative of letting the
+industrial difficulties of the country work themselves out, but they had
+inherited a policy of minute legislative control, and they continued it.
+Revising previous statutes, they enacted the Poor Law, which still
+remains on the statute book. It could be no remedy for social offences
+against charity and the community. But in part at least it was
+successful. It helped to conceal the failure to find a remedy.
+
+
+PART VI.--AFTER THE REFORMATION
+
+  The Reformation theory of charity.
+
+During the Reformation, which extended, it should be understood, from
+the middle of the 14th century to the reign of James I., the groundwork
+of the theory of charity was being recast. The old system and the narrow
+theory on which it had come to depend were discredited. The recoil is
+startling. To a very large extent charitable administration had been in
+the hands of men and women who, as an indispensable condition to their
+participation in it, took the vows of obedience, chastity and "wilful"
+poverty. Now this was all entirely set aside. It was felt (see _Homilies
+on Faith and Good Works, &c._, A.D. 1547) that socially and morally the
+method had been a failure. The vow of obedience, it was argued, led to a
+general disregard of the duties of civic and family life. Those who
+bound themselves by it were outside the state and did not serve it. In
+regard to chastity the _Homily_ states the common opinion: "How the
+profession of chastity was kept, it is more honesty to pass over in
+silence and let the world judge of what is well known." As to wilful
+poverty, the regulars, it is urged, were not poor, but rich, for they
+were in possession of much wealth. Their property, it is true, was held
+_in communi_, and not personally, but nevertheless it was practically
+theirs, and they used it for their personal enjoyment; and "for all
+their riches they might never help father nor mother, nor others that
+were indeed very needy and poor, without the license of their father
+abbot" or other head. This was the negative position. The positive was
+found in the doctrine of justification--the central point in the
+discussions of the time, a plant from the garden of St Augustine.
+Justification was the personal conviction of a lively (or living) faith,
+and was defined as "a true trust and confidence of the mercy of God
+through our Lord Jesus Christ, and a stedfast hope of all good things to
+be received at His hands." Without this justification there could be no
+good works. They were the signs of a lively faith and grew out of it.
+Apart from it, what seemed to be "good works" were of the nature of sin,
+phantom acts productive of nothing, "birds that were lost, unreal." So
+were the works of pagans and heretics. The relation of almsgiving to
+religion was thus entirely altered. The personal reward here or
+hereafter to the actor was eliminated. The deed was good only in the
+same sense in which the doer was good; it had in itself no merit. This
+was a great gain, quite apart from any question as to the sufficiency or
+insufficiency of the Protestant scheme of salvation. The deed, it was
+realized, was only the outcome of the doer, the expression of himself,
+what he was as a whole, neither better nor worse. Logically this led to
+the discipline of the intelligence and the emotions, and undoubtedly
+"justification" to very many was only consistent with such discipline
+and implied it. Thus under a new guise the old position of charity
+reasserted itself. But there were other differences.
+
+  The relation of charity to prayer, fasting, almsgiving and penance was
+  altsred. The prayerful contemplation of the Christ was preserved in
+  the mysticism of Protestantism; but it was dissociated from the
+  "historic Christ," from the fervent idealization of whom St Francis
+  drew his inspiration and his active charitable impulse. The tradition
+  did not die out, however. It remained with many, notably with George
+  Herbert, of whom it made, not unlike St Francis, a poet as well as a
+  practical parish priest; but the absence of it indicated in much
+  post-Reformation endeavour a want, if not of devotion, yet of
+  intensity of feeling which may in part account for the fact that
+  sectarianism in relief has since proved itself stronger than charity,
+  instead of yielding to charity as its superior and its organizer.
+  Fasting was parted from prayer and almsgiving. It was "a thing not of
+  its own proper nature good as the love of father or mother or
+  neighbour, but according to its end." Almsgiving also as a "work"
+  disappeared and with it a whole series of inducements that from the
+  standpoint of the pecuniary and material supply of relief had long
+  been active. It was no wonder that the preachers advocated it in vain,
+  and reproached their hearers with their diminished bounty to the poor;
+  the old personal incentive had gone, and could only gradually be
+  superseded by the spontaneous activity of personal religion very
+  slowly wedding itself to true views of social duty and purpose.
+  Penance, once so closely related to almsgiving, passed out of sight.
+  Charity, the love of God and our neighbour, had two offices, it was
+  said, "to cherish good and harmless men" and "to correct and punish
+  vice without regard to persons." Correction as a means of discipline
+  takes the place of penance, and it becomes judicial, regulating and
+  controlling church membership by the authority of the church, a
+  congregation, minister or elder; or dealing with laziness or ill-doing
+  through the municipality or state, in connexion with what now first
+  appear, not prisons, but houses of correction.
+
+The religious life was to be democratic--not in religious bodies, but in
+the whole people; and in a new sense--in relation to family and social
+life--it was to be moral. That was the significance of the Reformation
+for charity.
+
+
+  The organization of municipal relief.
+
+Consistently with this movement of religious activity towards a complete
+fulfilment of the duties of civic life, the older classical social
+theory, fostered by the Renaissance, assumed a new influence--the great
+conception of the state as a community bound together by charity and
+friendship, "We be not born to ourselves," it was said, "but partly to
+the use of our country, of our parents, of our kinsfolk, and partly of
+our friends and neighbours; and therefore all good virtues are grafted
+on us naturally, whose effects be to do good to others, when it showeth
+forth the image of God in man, whose property is ever to do good to
+others" (Lamond, p. 14). Economic theory also changed. Instead of the
+medieval opinion of the "theologian or social preacher," that "trade
+could only be defended on the ground that honestly conducted it made no
+profit" (Green, ii. 71), we have a recognition of the advantages
+resulting from exchange, and individual interests, it is argued, are not
+necessarily inconsistent with those of the state, but are, on the
+contrary, a source of solid good to the whole community.
+
+  Municipal laws for the suppression of the mendicity of the able-bodied
+  and the organization of relief on behalf of the infirm were common in
+  England and on the continent (Colmar, 1362; Nuremberg, 1478;
+  Strassburg, 1523; London, 1514). Vives (Ehrle, _Beitrage zur
+  Geschichte und Reform der Armenpflege_, p. 26), a Spaniard, who had
+  been at the court of Henry VIII., in a book translated into several
+  languages and widely read, seems to have summed up the thought of the
+  time in regard to the management of the poor. He divided them into
+  three classes: those in hospitals and poor-houses, the public homeless
+  beggars and the poor at home. He would have a census taken of the
+  number of each class in the town, and information obtained as to the
+  causes of their distress. Then he would establish a central
+  organization of relief under the magistrates. Work was to be supplied
+  for all, while begging was strictly forbidden. Non-settled poor who
+  were able-bodied were to be sent to their homes. Able-bodied settled
+  poor who knew no craft were to be put on some public work--the
+  undeserving being set to hard labour. For others work was to be found,
+  or they were to be assisted to become self-supporting. The hospitals
+  provided with medical advice and necessaries were to be classified to
+  meet the needs of the sick, the blind and lunatics. The poor living at
+  home were to work with a view to their self-support. What they earned,
+  if insufficient, might be supplemented. If a citizen found a case of
+  distress he was not to help it, but to send it for inquiry to the
+  magistrate. Children were to be taught. Private relief was to be
+  obtained from the rich. The funds of endowed charities were to be the
+  chief source of income; if more was wanted, bequests and church
+  collections would suffice. The scheme was put in force in Ypres in
+  1524. The Sorbonne approved it, and similar plans were adopted in
+  Paris and elsewhere. It is in outline the scheme of London municipal
+  charity promoted by Edward VI., by which the poor were classified, St
+  Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals appropriated for the sick,
+  Christ's hospital for the children of the poor, and Bridewell for the
+  correction of the able-bodied. Less the institutional arrangements and
+  plus the compulsory rate, the methods are those of the Poor Relief Act
+  of Queen Elizabeth of 1601. At first the attempt had been made to
+  introduce state relief in reliance on voluntary alms (1 Mary 13, 5
+  Eliz. 3, 1562-1563), subject to the right of assessment if alms were
+  refused. But the position was anomalous. Charity is voluntary, and
+  spontaneously meets the demands of distress. Such demands have always
+  a tendency to increase with the supply. Hence the very limitations of
+  charitable finance are in the nature of a safeguard. At most economic
+  trouble can only be assuaged by relief, and it can only be met or
+  prevented by economic and social reforms. If a compulsory rate be not
+  enforced, as in Scotland and formerly in some parishes in England, a
+  voluntary rate may be made in supplementation of the local charities.
+  In Scotland, where the compulsory clauses of the Poor Relief Act of
+  James I. were not put in force, the country weathered the storm
+  without them, and the compulsory rate, which was extended throughout
+  the country by the Poor Act of 1844, came in very slowly in the 18th
+  and 19th centuries. In France (1566) a similar act was passed and set
+  aside. If a compulsory rate be enforced, it is inevitable that the
+  resources of charity, unless kept apart from the poor-law and
+  administered on different lines from it, will diminish, and at the
+  same time, as has happened often in the case of endowed charities, the
+  interest in charitable administration will lapse, while the charges
+  for poor-law relief, drawn without much scruple from the taxation of
+  the community, will mount to millions either to meet increasing
+  demands or to provide more elaborate institutional accommodation. The
+  principle once adopted, it was enacted (1572-1573) that the aged and
+  infirm should be cared for by the overseers of the poor, a new
+  authority; and in 1601 the duplicate acts were passed, that for the
+  relief of the poor (43 Eliz. 2), and that for the furtherance and
+  protection of endowed charities. Thus the poor were brought into the
+  dependence of a legally recognized class, endowed with a claim for
+  relief, on the fulfilment of which, after a time, they could without
+  difficulty insist if they were so minded. The civic authority had
+  indeed taken over the alms of the parish, and an _eleemosyna civica_
+  had taken the place of the _annona civica_. It was a similar system
+  under a different name.
+
+
+  Poor Relief Acts and statutory serfdom.
+
+A phrase of Robert Cecil's (1st earl of Salisbury) indicates the minute
+domestic character of the Elizabethan legislation (D'Ewes, 674). The
+question (1601) was the repeal of a statute of tillage. Cecil says: "If
+in Edward I.'s time a law was made for the maintenance of the fry of
+fish, and in Henry VII.'s for the preservation of the eggs of wild fowl,
+shall we now throw away a law of more consequence and import? If we
+debar tillage, we give scope to the depopulating. And then, if the poor
+being thrust out of their houses go to dwell with others, straight we
+catch them with the statute of inmates; if they wander abroad, they are
+within the danger of the statute of the poor to be whipt. So by this
+undo this statute, and you endanger many thousands." A strong central
+government, a local authority appointed directly by the government, and
+a network of legislation controlled the whole movement of economic life.
+On this reliance was placed to meet economic difficulties. The local
+authorities were the justices of the peace; and they had to carry out
+the statutes for this purpose, to assess the wages of artisans and
+labourers, and to enforce the payment of the wages they had fixed; to
+ensure that suitable provision was made for the relief of the poor at
+the expense of rates which they also fixed; and to suppress vagabondage.
+Since 23 Edw. III. there had been labour statutes, and in 1563 a new
+statute was passed, an "Act containing divers orders for Artificers,
+Labourers, Servants of Husbandry and Apprentices" (5 Eliz. c. 4). It
+recognized and upheld a social classification. On the one hand there was
+the gentleman or owner of property to which the act was not to apply;
+and on the other the artisan and labouring class. This class in turn was
+subdivided, and the justices were to assess their wages annually
+according to "the plenty and scarcity of the time and other
+circumstances." Persons between the ages of twelve and sixty, who were
+not apprentices or engaged in certain specified employments, were
+compelled to serve in husbandry by the year "with any person that
+keepeth husbandry." The length of the day's work and the conditions of
+apprenticeship were fixed. The assessed rate of wages was enforceable by
+fine and imprisonment, and refusal to be apprenticed by imprisonment.
+Thus there was created a life control over labour with an industrial
+settlement and a wage fixed by the justices annually. There are
+differences of opinion in regard to the extent to which this act was
+enforced; and the evidence on the point is comparatively scanty. It was
+enforced throughout the century in which it was passed, and it probably
+continued in force generally until the Restoration, while subsequently
+it was put in operation to meet special emergencies, such as times of
+distress when some settlement of wages seemed desirable (cf. Rogers, v.
+611; Hewins, _English Trade and Finance_, p. 82; Cunningham, _Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce: Modern Times_, i. 168). It was not
+repealed till 1814.
+
+From 1585 to 1622 there was, it is said, a slight increase in labourers'
+wages, which fluctuated from 5s. 3/8d. to 5s. 8-1/4d. a week, with a
+declining standard of comfort and at times great distress. Then there
+was a marked increase of wage till 1662 and "a very marked improvement;
+the rate of increase being very nearly double that of the earlier
+periods," and reaching 9s., "as the highest weekly rate for the whole
+period." Then from 1662 to 1702 there was "a slight improvement"
+(Hewins, p. 89). It would seem indeed that the stir of the times between
+1622 and 1662 may have caused a great demand for labour. But with the
+Restoration, when the assessment system was falling into desuetude, came
+the Poor Relief Act of 1662 (13 & 14 Car. II. cap. 62), which brought in
+the law of settlement, and a settlement for relief of a very strict
+nature was added to the industrial settlement of the Artificers and
+Labourers Act. Thus, if the influence of that act, which had so long
+controlled labour, was waning, its place was now taken by an act which,
+though it had nothing to do with the assessment of wage, yet so settled
+the labourer within the bounds of his parish that he had practically to
+rely, if not upon a wage fixed by the justices, yet upon a customary
+wage limited and restricted as a result of the law of settlement. And
+the assessment by the justices, in so far as it may have continued,
+would therefore be of little or no consequence. Settlement also, like
+the Artificers and Labourers Act, would prevent the country labourer
+from passing to the towns, or the townsmen passing to other towns. At
+least they would do so at the risk of forfeiting their right to relief
+if they lost their settlement without acquiring a new one. Hence the
+industrial control, though under another name and other conditions,
+remained in force to a large extent in practice.
+
+By the Artificers and Labourers Act then, in conjunction with other
+measures, the labouring classes were finally committed to a new bondage,
+when they had freed themselves from the serfdom of feudalism, and when
+the control exercised over them by the gild and municipality was
+relaxed. The statute was so enforced that to earn a year's livelihood
+would have taken a labourer not 52 weeks, but sometimes two years, or 58
+weeks, or 80 weeks, or 72 weeks; sometimes, however, less--48 or 35. It
+followed that on such a system the country could only with the utmost
+good fortune free itself from the economic difficulties of the century,
+and that the need of a poor-law was felt the more as these difficulties
+persisted. A voluntary or a municipal system could not suffice, even as
+a palliative, while such statutes as these were in force to render
+labour immobile and unprogressive. Also, while wages were fixed by
+statute or order, whether chiefly in the interest of the employers or
+not, obviously any shortage on the wages had to be made good by the
+community. The community, by fixing the wages to be earned in a
+livelihood, made itself responsible for their sufficiency. And it is
+suggestive to find that in the year in which the Artificers and
+Labourers Act (1563) was passed, the act for the enforcement of
+assessments of poor-rate (5 Eliz. cap. 3) was also enacted. The Law of
+Settlement, to which we have referred, passed in the reign of Charles
+II., was due, it is said, to a migration of labourers southward from
+counties where less favourable statutory wages prevailed; but it was, in
+fact, only a corollary of the Artificers and Labourers Act of 1563 and
+the Poor Relief Act of 1601. These laws, it may be said, were the means
+of making the English labourer, until the poor-law reform of 1834, a
+settled but landless serf, supported by a fixed wage and a state bounty.
+By the poor-law it was possible to continue this state of things till,
+in consequence of an absolute economic breakdown, there was no
+alternative but reform.
+
+The philanthropic nature of the poor-law is indicated by its
+antecedents: once enacted, its bounties became a right; its philanthropy
+disappeared in a quasi-legal claim. Its object was to relieve the poor
+by home industries, apprentice children, and provide necessary relief to
+the poor unable to work. The act was commonly interpreted so as to
+include the whole of that indefinite class, the "poor"; by a better and
+more rigid interpretation it was, at least in the 19th century, held to
+apply only to the "destitute," that is, to those who required "necessary
+relief"--according to the actual wording of the statute. The economic
+fallacy of home industries founded on rate-supplied capital early
+declared itself, and the method could only have continued as long as it
+did because it formed part of a general system of industrial control.
+When in the 18th century workhouses were established, the same
+industrial fallacy, as records show, repeated itself under new
+conditions. Within the parish it resulted in the farmer paying the
+labourer as small a wage as possible, and leaving the parish to provide
+whatever he might require in addition during his working life and in his
+old age. Thus, indeed, a gigantic experiment in civic employment was
+made for at least two centuries on a vast scale throughout the
+country--and failed. As was natural, the lack of economic independence
+reacted on the morals of the people. With pauperism came want of energy,
+idleness and a disregard for chastity and the obligations of marriage.
+The law, it is true, recognized the mutual obligations of parents and
+grandparents, children and grandchildren; but in the general poverty
+which it was itself a means of perpetuating such obligations became
+practically obsolete, while at all times they are difficult to enforce.
+Still, the fact that they were recognized implies a great advance in
+charitable thought. The act, passed at first from year to year, was very
+slowly put in force. Even before it was passed the poor-rate first
+assessed under the act of 1563 was felt to be "a greater tax than some
+subsidies," and in the time of Charles II. it amounted to a third of the
+revenue of England and Wales (Rogers, v. 81).
+
+The service of villein and cottar was, as we have now seen, in part
+superseded by what we have called a statutory wage-control, founded on a
+basis of wage supplemented by relief, provided by a rate-supported
+poor-law. But it follows that with the decay of this system the poor-law
+itself should have disappeared, or should have taken some new and very
+limited form. Unfortunately, as in Roman times, state relief proved to
+be a popular and vigorous parasite that outlived the tree on which it
+was rooted: assessments of wage under the Statute of Labourers fell into
+disuse after the Restoration, it is said, and the statute was finally
+repealed in 1814, and sixty years later the act against illegal
+combinations of working men; but the serfdom of the poor-law, the
+_eleemosyna civica_, remained, to work the gravest evil to the labouring
+classes, and even after the reform of 1834 greatly impeded the recovery
+of their independence. Nevertheless, by a new law of state alms for the
+aged, or by statutory outdoor relief with, as some would wish, a
+regulated wage, it is now proposed to bring them once again under a
+thraldom similar to that from which they have so slowly emancipated
+themselves.
+
+
+  The endowed charities.
+
+The policy adopted by Queen Elizabeth for the relief of the poor (1601)
+included a scheme for the reorganization of voluntary charity as well as
+plans for the extension of rate-aided relief. During the century, as we
+have seen, endeavours had been made to create a system of voluntary
+charity. This it was proposed to safeguard and promote concurrently with
+the extension of the poor-rate. Accordingly, in the poor-law it was
+arranged that the overseers, the new civic authority, and the
+churchwardens, the old parochial and charitable authority, should act in
+conjunction, and, subject to magisterial approval, together "raise
+weekly or otherwise" the necessary means "by taxation of every
+inhabitant." The old charitable organization was based on endowment, and
+the churchwarden was responsible for the administration of many such
+endowments. What was not available from these and other sources was to
+be raised "by taxation." The object of the new act was to encourage
+charitable gifts.
+
+Towards the end of the 18th century, when the administration of poor
+relief fell into confusion, many charities were lost, or were in danger
+of being lost, and many were mismanaged. In 1786 and 1788 a committee of
+the House of Commons reported on the subject. In 1818, chiefly through
+the instrumentality of Lord Brougham, a commission of inquiry on
+educational charities was appointed, and in 1819 another commission to
+investigate (with some exceptions) all the charities for the poor in
+England and Wales. These and subsequent commissions continued their
+inquiries till 1835, when a select committee of the House of Commons
+made a strong report, advocating the establishment of a permanent and
+independent board, to inquire, to compel the production of accounts, to
+secure the safe custody of charity property, to adapt it to new uses on
+cy-pres lines, &c. A commission followed in 1849, and eventually in 1853
+the first Charitable Trusts Act was passed, under which "The Charity
+Commissioners of England and Wales" were appointed.
+
+  The following are details of importance:--(1) _Definition._--The
+  definition of the act of 1601 (Charitable Uses, 43 Eliz. 4) still
+  holds good. It enumerates as charitable objects all that was once
+  called "alms": (a) "The relief of aged, impotent and poor people"--the
+  normal poor; "the maintenance of sick and maimed soldiers and
+  mariners"--the poor chiefly by reason of war, sometime a class of
+  privileged mendicants; (b) education, "schools of learning, free
+  schools and scholars in universities"; and then (c) a group of objects
+  which include general civic and religious purposes, and the charities
+  of gilds and corporations; "the repair of bridges, ports, havens,
+  causeways, churches, sea-banks and highways; the education and
+  preferment of orphans; the relief, stock, or maintenance for houses of
+  correction; marriages of poor maids, supportation, aid, and help of
+  young tradesmen, handicraftsmen, and persons decayed"; and there
+  follows (d) "the relief or redemption of prisoners or captives"; and,
+  lastly, (e) "the aid and ease of any poor inhabitants concerning
+  payment of fifteens" (the property-tax of Tudor times), setting out of
+  soldiers, and other taxes. The definition might be illustrated by the
+  charitable bequests of the next 60, or indeed 225, years. It is a fair
+  summary of them. (2) _Charitable Gifts._--A public trust and a
+  charitable trust are, as this definition shows, synonymous. It is a
+  trust which relates to public charities, and is not held for the
+  benefit of private persons, e.g. relations, but for the common good,
+  and, subject to the instructions of the founder, by trustees
+  responsible to the community. Gifts for charitable purposes, other
+  than those affected by the law of mortmain, have always been viewed
+  with favour. "Where a charitable bequest is capable of two
+  constructions, one of which would make it void and the other would
+  make it effectual, the latter will be adopted by the court" (Tudor's
+  _Charitable Trusts_, ed. 1906, by Bristowe, Hunt and Burdett, p. 167).
+  Gifts to the poor, or widows, or orphans, indefinitely, or in a
+  particular parish, were valid under the act, or for any purpose or
+  institution for the aid of the "poor." Thus practically the act
+  covered the same field as the poor-law, though afterwards it was
+  decided that, "as a rule, persons receiving parochial relief were not
+  entitled to the benefit of a charity intended for the poor" (Tudor, p.
+  167). (3) _Religious Differences._--In the administration of charities
+  which are for the poor the broadest view is taken of religious
+  differences. (4) _Superstitious Uses._--The superstitious use is one
+  that has for its object the propagation of the rights of a religion
+  not tolerated by the law (Tudor, p. 4). Consequently, so far as
+  charities were held or left subject to such rights, they were illegal,
+  or became legal only as toleration was extended. Thus by degrees,
+  since the Toleration Act of 1688, all charities to dissenters have
+  become legal--that is, trusts for schools, places for religious
+  instruction, education and charitable purposes generally. But bequests
+  for masses for the soul of the donor, or for monastic orders, are
+  still void. (5) _Administration._--The duty of administering
+  charitable trusts falls upon trustees or corporations, and under the
+  term "eleemosynary corporations" are included endowed hospitals and
+  colleges. Under schemes of the Charity Commissioners, where charities
+  have been remodelled, besides trustees elected by corporations, there
+  are now usually appointed _ex-officio_ trustees who represent some
+  office or institution of importance in connexion with the charity. (6)
+  _Jurisdiction by Chancery and Charity Commission._--The Court of
+  Chancery has jurisdiction over charities, under the old principle that
+  "charities are trusts of a public nature, in regard to which no one is
+  entitled by an immediate and peculiar interest to prefer a complaint
+  for compelling the performance by the trustees of their obligations."
+  The court, accordingly, represents the crown as _parens patriae_. Now,
+  by the Charitable Trusts Act 1853, and subsequent acts, a charity
+  commission has been formed which is entrusted with large powers,
+  formerly enforced only by the Court of Chancery. (7) _Jurisdiction by
+  Visitor._--A further jurisdiction is by the "visitor," a right
+  inherent in the founder of any eleemosynary corporation, and his
+  heirs, or those whom he appoints, or in their default, the king. The
+  object of the visitor is "to prevent all perverting of the charity, or
+  to compose differences among members of the corporation." Formerly the
+  bishop's ordinary was the recognized visitor (2 Henry V. I, 1414) of
+  hospitals, apart from the founder. Subsequently his power was limited
+  (14 Eliz. c. 5, 1572) to hospitals for which the founders had
+  appointed no visitors. Then (1601) by the Charitable Uses Act
+  commissions were issued for inquiry by county juries. Now, apart from
+  the duty of visitors, inquiry is conducted by the charity
+  commissioners and the assistant commissioners. By subsequent acts (see
+  below) ecclesiastical and eleemosynary charities have been still
+  further separated and defined. (8) _Advice._--"Trustees, or other
+  persons concerned in the management of a charity, may apply to the
+  charity commissioners for their opinion, advice or direction; and any
+  person acting under such advice is indemnified, unless he has been
+  guilty of misrepresentation in obtaining it." (9) _Limitation of
+  Charity Commissioners' Powers_,--The commissioners cannot, however,
+  make any order with respect to any charity of which the gross annual
+  income amounts to L50 or upwards, except on the application (in
+  writing) of the trustees or a majority of them. Their powers are thus
+  very limited, except when put in motion by the trustees. If a parish
+  is divided they can apportion the charities if the gross income does
+  not exceed L20. (10) _General Powers of the Charity
+  Commission._--Subject to the limitation of L50, &c., the charity
+  commissioners have power (Charitable Trusts Act 1860) to make orders
+  for the appointment or removal of trustees, or of any officer, and for
+  the transfer, payment and vesting of any real or personal estate, or
+  "for the establishment of any scheme for the administration" of the
+  charity, (11) _Schemes and Remodelling of Charities._--Under this
+  power charities are remodelled, and small and miscellaneous charities
+  put into one fund and applied to new purposes. The cy-pres doctrine is
+  applied, by which if a testator leaves directions that are only
+  indefinite, or if the objects for which a charity was founded are
+  obsolete, the charity is applied to some purpose, as far as possible,
+  in accordance with the charitable intention of the founder. This
+  doctrine probably received its widest application in the City of
+  London Parochial Charities Act of 1883. Under other acts doles have
+  been applied to education and to allotments. About 380 schemes are
+  issued in the course of a year. (12) _Objects adopted in remodelling
+  Charities._--In the remodelling of charities for the general benefit
+  of the poor some one or more of thirteen objects are usually included
+  in the scheme. These are subscriptions to a medical charity, to a
+  provident club or coal or clothing society, to a friendly society; for
+  nurses, for annuities, for outfit for service, &c.; for emigration;
+  for recreation grounds, clubs, reading-rooms, museums, lectures; for
+  temporary relief to a limited amount in each year; for clothes fuel,
+  tools, medical aid, food, &c., or in money "in cases of unexpected
+  loss or sudden destitution"; for pensions. (13) _Parochial
+  Charities._--By the Local Government Act of 1892, local ecclesiastical
+  charities, i.e. endowments for "any spiritual purpose that is a
+  legal purpose" (for spiritual persons, church and other buildings, for
+  spiritual uses, &c.), are separated from parochial charities, "the
+  benefits of which are, or the separate distribution of the benefits of
+  which is, confined to inhabitants of a single parish, or of a single
+  ancient ecclesiastical parish, or not more than five neighbouring
+  parishes." These charities, since the Local Government Act 1894, are
+  under the supervision of the parish councils, who appoint trustees for
+  their management in lieu of the former overseer or vestry trustees,
+  or, under certain conditions, "additional trustees." The accounts have
+  to be submitted to the parish meeting, and the names of the
+  beneficiaries of dole charities published. (14) _Official
+  Trustees._--There is also "an official trustee of charity lands," who
+  as "bare trustee" may hold the land or stock of the charity managed by
+  the trustees or administrators. In 1905 the stock transferred to the
+  official trustees amounted to L24,820,945. (15) _Audit_.--The charity
+  commissioners have no power of audit, but the trustees of every
+  charity have to prepare a statement of accounts annually, and transmit
+  it to the commission. The accounts have to be "certified under the
+  hand of one or more of the trustees and by the auditor of the
+  charity." (16) _Taxation_.--In the case of rents and profits of lands,
+  &c., belonging to hospitals or almshouses, or vested in trustees for
+  charitable purposes, allowances are made in diminution of income-tax
+  (56 Vict. 35 S 61). From the inhabited house duty any hospital charity
+  school, or house provided for the reception or relief of poor persons,
+  is exempted (House Tax Act 1808). Also there is an exemption from the
+  land-tax in regard to land rents, &c., in possession of hospitals
+  before 1693. (17) _The Digest._--A digest of endowed charities in
+  England and Wales was compiled in the years 1861 to 1876. A new digest
+  of reports and financial particulars has since been completed.
+
+  The income of endowed charities in 1876 was returned at L2,198,463. It
+  is now, no doubt, considerably larger than it was in 1876. Partial
+  returns show that at least a million a year is now available in
+  England and Wales for the assistance of the aged poor and for doles.
+  Between the poor-law, which, as it is at present administered, is a
+  permanent endowment provided from the rates for the support of a class
+  of permanent "poor," and endowed charities, which are funds available
+  for the poor of successive generations, there is no great difference.
+  But in their resources and administration the difference is marked.
+  Local endowed charities were constantly founded after Queen
+  Elizabeth's time till about 1830, and the poor-rate was at first
+  supplementary of the local charities. When corn and fuel were dear and
+  clothes very expensive, what now seem trivial endowments for food,
+  fuel, coal and clothes were important assets in the thrifty management
+  of a parish. But when the poor were recognized as a class of
+  dependants entitled by law to relief from the community, the rate
+  increased out of all proportion to the charities. A distinction then
+  made itself felt between the "parish" poor and the "second" poor, or
+  the poor who were not relieved from the rates, and relief from the
+  rates altogether overshadowed the charitable aid. Charitable
+  endowments were ignored, ill-administered, and often were lost. After
+  1834 the poor-law was brought under the control of the central
+  government. Poor relief was placed in the hands of boards of guardians
+  in unions of parishes. The method of co-operation between poor-law and
+  charity suggested by the acts of Queen Elizabeth was set aside, and,
+  as a responsible partner in the public work of relief, charity was
+  disestablished. In the parishes the endowed charities remained in
+  general a disorganized medley of separate trusts, jealously guarded by
+  incompetent administrators. To give unity to this mass of units, so
+  long as the principles of charity are misunderstood or ignored, has
+  proved an almost impossible and certainly an unpopular task. So far as
+  it has been achieved, it has been accomplished by the piecemeal
+  legislation of schemes cautiously elaborated to meet local prejudices.
+  Active reform has been resented, and politicians have often
+  accentuated this resentment. In 1894 a select committee was appointed
+  to inquire whether it was desirable to take measures to bring the
+  action of the Charity Commission more directly under the control of
+  parliament, but no serious grievances were substantiated. The
+  committees' reports are of interest, however, as an indication of the
+  initial difficulties of all charitable work, the general ignorance
+  that prevails in regard to the elementary conditions that govern it,
+  the common disregard of these principles, and the absence of any
+  accepted theory or constructive policy that should regulate its
+  development and its administration.
+
+
+  Charity in the parish after 1601.
+
+After the Poor-Law Act of 1601 the history of the voluntary parochial
+charities in a town parish is marked by their decreasing amount and
+utility, as poor-law relief and pauperism increased. The act, it would
+seem, was not adopted with much alacrity by the local authorities. From
+1625 to 1646 there were many years of plague and sickness, but in St
+Giles's, London, as late as 1649, the amount raised by the "collectors"
+(or overseers) was only L176. They disbursed this to "the visited poor"
+as "pensions." In 1665 an extra levy of L600 is mentioned. In the
+accounts of St Martin's-in-the-Fields, where, as in St Giles's, gifts
+were received, the change wrought by another half-century (1714) is
+apparent. The sources of charitable relief are similar to those in all
+the Protestant churches--English, Scottish or continental: church
+collections and offertories; correctional fines, such as composition for
+bastards and conviction money for swearers; and besides these, income
+from annuities and legacies, the parish estate, the royal bounty, and
+"petitions to persons of quality." In all L2041 was collected, but, so
+far as relief was concerned, the parish relied not on it, but on the
+poor-rate, which produced L3765. All this was collected and disbursed on
+their own authority by collectors, to orphans, "pensioners" or the
+"known or standing" poor, or to casual poor (L1818), including nurse
+children and bastards. The begging poor were numerous and the infant
+death-rate enormous, and each year three-fourths of those christened
+were "inhumanly suffered to die by the barbarity of nurses." The whole
+administration was uncharitable, injurious to the community and the
+family, and inhuman to the child. If one may judge from later accounts
+of other parishes even up to 1834, usually it remained the same,
+purposeless and unintelligent; and it can hardly be denied that,
+generally speaking, only since the middle of the 19th century has any
+serious attention been paid to the charitable side of parochial work.
+Parallel to the parochial movement of the poor-law in England, in France
+(about 1617) were established the _bureaux de bienfaisance_, at first
+entirely voluntary institutions, then recognized by the state, and
+during the Revolution made the central administration for relief in the
+communes.
+
+
+  Charitable movements after 1601.
+
+In the 17th century in England, as in France, opinion favoured the
+establishment of large hospitals or _maisons Dieu_ for the reception of
+the poor of different classes. In France throughout the century there
+was a continuous struggle with mendicancy, and the hospitals were used
+as places into which offenders were summarily driven. A new humanity
+was, however, beginning its protest. The pitiful condition of abandoned
+children attracted sympathy in both countries. St Vincent de Paul
+established homes for the _enfants trouves_, followed in England by the
+establishment of the Foundling hospital (1739). In both countries the
+method was applied inconsiderately and pushed to excess, and it affected
+family life most injuriously. Grants from parliament supported the
+foundling movement in England, and homes were opened in many parts of
+the country. The demand soon became overwhelming; the mortality was
+enormous, and the cost so large that it outstripped all financial
+expedients. The lesson of the experiment is the same as that of the
+poor-law catastrophe before 1834; only, instead of the able-bodied poor
+of another age, infants were made the object of a compassionate but
+undiscerning philanthropy. With widespread relief there came widespread
+abandonment of duty and economic bankruptcy. Had the poor-rates instead
+of charitable relief been used in the same way, the moral injury would
+have been as great, but the annual draft from the rates would have
+concealed the moral and postponed the economic disaster. To amend the
+evil, changes were made by which the relation between child and mother
+was kept alive, and a personal application on her part was required; the
+character of the mother and her circumstances were investigated, and
+assistance was only given when it would be "the means of replacing the
+mother in the course of virtue and the way of an honest livelihood."
+General reforms were also made, especially through the instrumentality
+of Jonas Hanway, to check infant mortality, and metropolitan parishes
+were required to provide for their children outside London. A kindred
+movement led to the establishment of penitentiaries (1758), of lock
+hospitals and lying-in hospitals (1749-1752).
+
+In Queen Anne's reign there was a new educational movement, "the charity
+school"--"to teach poor children the alphabet and the principles of
+religion," followed by the Sunday-school movement (1780), and about the
+same time (1788) by "the school of industry"--to employ children and
+teach them to be industrious. In 1844 the Ragged School Union was
+established, and until the Education Act of 1870 continued its voluntary
+educational work. As an outcome of these movements, through the efforts
+of Miss Mary Carpenter and many others, in 1854-1855 industrial and
+reformatory schools were established, to prevent crime and reform child
+criminals. The orphanage movement, beginning in 1758, when the Orphan
+Working Home was established, has been continued to the present day on a
+vastly extended scale. In 1772 a society for the discharge of persons
+imprisoned for small debts was established, and in 1773 Howard began his
+prison reforms. This raised the standard of work in institutional
+charities generally. After the civil wars the old hospital foundations
+of St Bartholomew and St Thomas, municipalized by Edward VI., became
+endowed charities partly supported by voluntary contributions. The same
+fate befell Christ's Hospital, in connexion with which the voting
+system, the admission of candidates by the vote of the whole body of
+subscribers--that peculiarly English invention--first makes its
+appearance.
+
+A new interest in hospitals sprang up at the end of the 17th century. St
+Thomas's was rebuilt (1693) and St Bartholomew's (1739); Guy's was
+founded in 1724, and on the system of free "letters" obtainable in
+exchange for donations, voluntary hospitals and infirmaries were
+established in London (1733 and later) and in most of the large towns.
+Towards the end of the 18th century the dispensary movement was
+developed--a system of local dispensaries with fairly definite districts
+and home visiting, a substitute for attendance at a hospital, where
+"hospital fever" was dreaded, and an alternative to what was then a very
+ill-administered system of poor-law medical relief. After 1840 the
+provident dispensary was introduced, in order that the patients by small
+contributions in the time of health might provide for illness without
+having to meet large doctors' bills, and the doctor might receive some
+sufficient remuneration for his attendance on poor patients. This
+movement was largely extended after 1860. Three hospital funds for
+collecting contributions for hospitals and making them grants, a
+movement that originated in Birmingham in 1859, were established in
+London in 1873 and 1897.
+
+  Since 1868 the poor-law medical system of Great Britain has been
+  immensely improved and extended, while at the same time the number of
+  persons in receipt of free medical relief in most of the large towns
+  has greatly increased. The following figures refer to London: at
+  hospitals, 97 in number, in-patients (1904) during the year, 118,536;
+  out-patients and casualty cases, 1,858,800; patients at free,
+  part-pay, or provident dispensaries, about 280,000; orders issued for
+  attendance at poor-law dispensaries and at home, 114,158. The number
+  of beds in poor-law infirmaries (1904) was 16,976. There are in London
+  12 general hospitals with, 18 without, medical schools, and 67
+  special hospitals. Thus the population in receipt of public and
+  voluntary medical relief is very large, indeed altogether excessive.
+
+Each religious movement has brought with it its several charities. The
+Society of Friends, the Wesleyans, the Baptists have large charities.
+With the extension of the High Church movement there have been
+established many sisterhoods which support penitentiaries, convalescent
+homes and hospitals, schools, missions, &c.
+
+The magnitude of this accumulating provision of charitable relief is
+evident, though it cannot be summed up in any single total.
+
+At the beginning of the 19th century anti-mendicity societies were
+established; and later, about 1869, in England and Scotland a movement
+began for the organization of charitable relief, in connexion with which
+there are now societies and committees in most of the larger towns in
+Great Britain, in the colonies, and in the United States of America.
+More recently the movement for the establishment of settlements in poor
+districts, initiated by Canon Barnett at Toynbee Hall--"to educate
+citizens in the knowledge of one another, and to provide them with
+teaching and recreation"--has spread to many towns in England and
+America.
+
+
+  Progress of thought in 18th and 19th centuries.
+
+These notes of charitable movements suggest an altogether new
+development of thought. On behalf of the charity school of Queen Anne's
+time were preached very formal sermons, which showed but little sympathy
+with child life. After the first half of the century a new humanism with
+which we connect the name of Rousseau, slowly superseded this formal
+beneficence. Rousseau made the world open its eyes and see nature in the
+child, the family and the community. He analysed social life, intent on
+explaining it and discovering on what its well-being depended; and he
+stimulated that desire to meet definite social needs which is apparent
+in the charities of the century. Little as it may appear to be so at
+first sight, it was a period of charitable reformation. Law revised the
+religious conception of charity, though he was himself so strangely
+devoid of social instinct that, like some of his successors, he linked
+the utmost earnestness in belief to that form of almsgiving which most
+effectually fosters beggardom. Howard introduced the era of inspection,
+the ardent apostle of a new social sagacity; and Bentham, no less
+sagacious, propounded opinions, plans and suggestions which, perhaps it
+may be said, in due course moulded the principles and methods of the
+poor-law of 1834. In the broader sense the turn of thought is religious,
+for while usually stress is laid on the religious scepticism of the
+century, the deeper, fervent, conscientious and evangelical charity in
+which Nonconformists, and especially "the Friends," took so large a
+part, is often forgotten. Sometimes, indeed, as often happens now, the
+feeling of charity passed into the merest sentimentality. This is
+evident, for instance, from so ill-considered a measure as Pitt's Bill
+for the relief of the poor. On the other hand, during the 18th century
+the poor-law was the object of constant criticism, though so long as the
+labour statutes and the old law of settlement were in force, and the
+relief of the labouring population as state "poor" prevailed, it was
+impossible to reform it. Indeed, the criticism itself was generally
+vitiated by a tacit acceptance of "the poor" as a class, a permanent and
+irrevocable charge on the funds of the community; and at the end of the
+18th century, when the labour statutes were abrogated, but the
+conditions under which poor relief was administered remained the same,
+serfdom in its later stage, the serfdom of the poor-law, asserted itself
+in its extremest form in times of dearth and difficulty during the
+Napoleonic War. In 1802-1803 it was calculated (Marshall's _Digest_)
+that 28% of the population were in receipt of permanent or occasional
+relief. Those in receipt of the former numbered 734,817, including
+children--so real had this serfdom of the poor become.
+
+In 1832 the expenditure on pauperism in England and Wales was
+L7,036,968. In the early years of the 19th century the mendicity
+societies, established in some of the larger towns, were a sign of the
+general discontent with existing methods of administration. The Society
+for Bettering the Condition of the Poor--representing a group of men
+such as Patrick Colquhoun, Sir I. Bernard, Dr Lettsom, Dr Haygarth,
+James Neald, Count Rumford and others--took a more positive line and
+issued many useful publications (1796). After 1833 the very atmosphere
+of thought seems changed. There was a general desire to be quit of the
+serfdom of pauperism. The Poor-law Amendment Act was passed in 1834, and
+since then male able-bodied pauperism has dwindled to a minimum. The bad
+years of 1860-1870 revived the problem in England and Scotland, and the
+old spirit of reform for a time prevailed. Improved administration
+working with economic progress effected still further reductions of
+pauperism, till on the 1st of January 1905 (exclusive of lunatics in
+county asylums and casual paupers) the mean number of paupers stood at
+764,589, or 22.6 per thousand of the population, instead of 41.8 per
+thousand as in 1859 (see POOR-LAW).
+
+Charity organization societies were formed after 1869, with the object
+of "improving the condition of the poor," or, in other words, to promote
+independence by an ordered and co-operative charity; and the Association
+for Befriending Young Servants, and workhouse aid committees, in order
+to prevent relapse into pauperism on the part of those who as children
+or young women received relief from the poor-law. The Local Government
+Board adopted a restricted out-door relief policy, and a new interest
+was felt in all the chief problems of local administration. The movement
+was general. The results of the Elberfeld system of municipal relief
+administered by unpaid almoners, each dealing with but one or two cases,
+influenced thought both in England and America. The experience gained by
+Mr Joseph Tuckerman of Boston of the utility of registering applications
+for relief, and the teaching of Miss Octavia Hill, led to the foundation
+of the system of friendly visiting and associated charity at Boston
+(1880) and elsewhere. Since that time the influence of Arnold Toynbee
+and the investigations of Charles Booth have led to a better
+appreciation of the conditions of labour; and to some extent, in London
+and elsewhere, the spirit of charity has assumed the form of a new
+devotion to the duties of citizenship. But perhaps, in regard to charity
+in Great Britain, the most important change has been the revival of the
+teaching of Dr Chalmers (1780-1847), who (1819) introduced a system of
+parochial charity at St John's, Glasgow, on independent lines,
+consistent with the best traditions of the Scottish church. In the
+development of the theory of charitable relief on the economic side this
+has been a main factor. His view, which he tested by experience, may be
+summed up as follows: Society is a growing, self-supporting organism. It
+has within it, as between family and family, neighbour and neighbour,
+master and employee, endless links of sympathy and self-support. Poverty
+is not an absolute, but a relative term. Naturally the members of one
+class help one another; the poor help the poor. There is thus a large
+invisible fund available and constantly used by those who, by their
+proximity to one another, know best how to help. The philanthropist is
+an alien to this life around him. Moved by a sense of contrast between
+his own lot, as he understands it, and the lot of those about him, whom
+he but little understands, he concludes that he should relieve them. But
+his gift, unless it be given in such a way as to promote this
+self-support, instead of weakening it, is really injurious. In the first
+place, by his interference he puts a check on the charitable resources
+of another class and lessens their social energy. What he gives they do
+not give, though they might do so. But next, he does more harm than
+this. He stimulates expectation, so that by a false arithmetic his gift
+of a few shillings seems to those who receive it and to those who hear
+of it a possible source of help in any difficulty. To them it represents
+a large command of means; and where one has received what, though it be
+little, is yet, relative to wage, a large sum to be acquired without
+labour, many will seek more, and with that object will waste their time
+and be put off their work, or even be tempted to lie and cheat. So
+social energy is diverted from its proper use. Alms thus given weakens
+social ties, diminishes the natural relief funds of mutual help, and
+beggars a neighbour instead of benefiting him. By this argument a clear
+and well-defined purpose is placed before charity. Charity becomes a
+science based on social principles and observation. Not to give alms,
+but to keep alive the saving health of the family, becomes its problem:
+relief becomes altogether subordinate to this, and institutions or
+societies are serviceable or the reverse according as they serve or fail
+to serve this purpose. Not poverty, but distress is the plea for help;
+not almsgiving, but charity the means. To charity is given a definite
+social aim, and a desire to use consistently with this aim every method
+that increasing knowledge and trained ability can devise.
+
+Under such influences as these, joined with better economic conditions,
+a great reform has been made. The poor-law, however, remains--the modern
+_eleemosyna civica_. It now, indeed, absorbs a proportionately lesser
+amount of the largely increased national income, but, excluding the
+maintenance of lunatics, it costs Great Britain more than twelve
+millions a year; and among the lower classes of the poor, directly or
+indirectly, it serves as a bounty on dependence and is a permanent
+obstacle to thrift and self-reliance. The number of those who are within
+the circle of its more immediate attraction is now perhaps, in different
+parts of the country or different districts in a town, not more than,
+say, 20% of the population. Upon that population the statistics of a day
+census would show a pauperism not of 2.63, the percentage of the mean
+day pauperism on the population in 1908, but of 13.15%; and the
+percentage would be much greater--twice as large, perhaps--if the total
+number of those who in some way received poor relief in the course of a
+year were taken into account. The English poor-law is thus among the
+lower classes, those most tempted to dependence--say some six or seven
+millions of the people--a very potent influence definitely antagonistic
+to the good development of family life, unless it be limited to very
+narrow proportions; as, for instance, to restricted indoor or
+institutional relief for the sick, for the aged and infirm, who in
+extreme old age require special care and nursing, and for the afflicted,
+for whom no sufficient charitable provision is procurable. As ample
+experience shows, only on these conditions can poor-law relief be
+justified from the point of view of charity and the common good. In
+marked contrast to this opinion is the English movement for Old Age
+pensions, which came to its first fruition in 1908--a huge charity
+started on the credit of the state, the extension of which might
+ultimately involve a cost comparable with that of the army or the navy.
+Schemes of the kind have been adopted in the Australasian colonies with
+limitations and safeguards; and they seem likely to develop into a new
+type of poor-relief organization for the aged and infirm (Report: Royal
+Commission on Old Age Pensions, Commonwealth of Australia, 1906). In
+England, partly to meet the demand for better state provision for the
+aged, the Local Government Board in 1900 urged the boards of guardians
+to give more adequate outdoor relief to aged deserving people, and laid
+no stress on the test of destitution, or, in other words, the limitation
+of relief to what was actually "necessary," the neglect of which has led
+to new difficulties. History has proved that demoralization results from
+the wholesale relief whether of the mass of the citizens, or of the
+able-bodied, or of the children, and the proposal to limit the endowment
+to the aged makes no substantial difference. The social results must be
+similar; but social forces work slowly, and usually only the
+unanswerable argument of financial bankruptcy suffices to convert a
+people habituated to dependence, though the inward decay of vitality and
+character may long before be manifest. Ultimately the distribution of
+pensions by way of out-door relief, corrupting a far more independent
+people, is calculated to work a far greater injury than the _annona
+civica_. Such an endowment of old age might indeed be justified as part
+of a system of regulated labour, which, as in earlier times, could not
+be enforced without some such extraneous help, but it could not be
+justified otherwise. It is naturally associated, therefore, with
+socialistic proposals for the regulation of wage.
+
+In the light of the principles of charity, which we have considered
+historically, we have now to turn to two questions: charity and
+economics, and charity and socialism.
+
+
+  The economics of charity.
+
+The object of charity is to render to our neighbour the services and
+duties of goodwill, friendship and love. To prevent distress charity
+has for its further object to preserve and develop the manhood and
+womanhood of individuals and their self-maintenance in and through the
+family; and any form of state intervention is approved or disapproved by
+the same standard. By self-maintenance is meant self-support throughout
+life in its ordinary contingencies--sickness, widowhood, old age, &c.
+Political economy we would define as the science of exchange and
+exchange value. Here it has to be considered in relation to the purposes
+of charity. By way of illustration we take, accordingly, three points:
+distribution and use, supplementation of wage, and the standard of
+well-being or comfort in relation to wage.
+
+  (1) _Distribution and Use._--Economy in the Greek sense begins at this
+  point--the administration and the use of means and resources.
+  Political economy generally ignores this part of the problem. Yet from
+  the point of view of charity it is cardinal to the whole issue. The
+  distribution of wage may or may not be largely influenced by trades
+  unions; but the variation of wage, as is generally the case, by the
+  increase or decrease of a few pence is of less importance than its
+  use. Comparing a careful and an unthrifty family, the difference in
+  use may amount to as much as a third on the total wage. Mere
+  abstention from alcohol may make, in a normal family, a difference of
+  6s. in a wage of 25s. On the other hand, membership of a friendly
+  society is at a time of sickness equivalent to the command of a large
+  sum of money, for the common stock of capital is by that means placed
+  at the disposal of each individual who has a share in it. Further,
+  even a small amount saved may place the holder in a position to get a
+  better market for his labour; he can wait when another man cannot.
+  Rent may be high, but by co-operation that too may be reduced. Other
+  points are obvious and need not be mentioned. It is evident that while
+  the amount of wage is important, still more important is its use. In
+  use it has a large expansive value. (2) _Supplementation of
+  Wage._--The exchange between skill and wage must be free if it is to
+  be valid. The less the skill the greater is the temptation to
+  philanthropists to supplement the lesser wage; and the more important
+  is non-supplementation, for the skilled can usually look after their
+  own interests in the market, while the less skilled, because their
+  labour is less marketable, have to make the greater effort to avoid
+  dependence. But the dole of endowed charities, outdoor relief, and any
+  constant giving, tend to reduce wage, and thus to deprive the
+  recipients of some part of the means of independence. The employer is
+  pressed by competition himself, and in return he presses for profit
+  through a reduced wage, if circumstances make it possible for the
+  workman to take it. And thus a few individuals may lower the wages of
+  a large class of poorly skilled or unskilled hands. In these
+  conditions unionism, even if it were likely to be advantageous, is not
+  feasible. Unionism can only create a coherent unit of workers where
+  there is a limited market and a definite saleable skill. Except for
+  the time, insufficient wage will not be remedied in the individual
+  case by supplementation in any form--doles, clothes, or other kinds of
+  relief; and in that case, too, the relief will probably produce
+  lessened energy after a short time, or in other words lessened ability
+  to live. An insufficient wage may be prevented by increasing the skill
+  of the worker, who will then have the advantage of a better series of
+  economic exchanges, but hardly otherwise. If the supplementation be
+  not immediate, but postponed, as in the case of old-age pensions, its
+  effect will be similar. To the extent of the prospective adventitious
+  gain the attraction to the friendly society and to mutual help and
+  saving will grow less. Necessity has been the inventor of these; and
+  where wage is small, a little that would otherwise be saved is quickly
+  spent if the necessity for saving it is removed. Only necessity
+  schools most men, especially the weak, to whom it makes most
+  difference ultimately, whether they are thrifty or whether or not they
+  save for the future in any way. (3) _The Standard of Well-being or
+  Comfort in Relation to Wage._--With an increase of income there has to
+  be an increase in the power to use income intelligently. Whatever is
+  not so used reacts on the family to its undoing. Constantly when the
+  wife can earn a few shillings a week, the husband will every week idle
+  for two or three days; so also if the husband finds that in a few days
+  he can earn enough to meet what he considers to be his requirements
+  for the week. In these circumstances the standard of well-being falls
+  below the standard of wage; the wage is in excess of the energy and
+  intelligence necessary to its economic use, and in these cases
+  ultimately pauperism often ensues. The family is demoralized. Thus,
+  with a view to the prevention of distress in good times, when there is
+  the less poverty there is the more need of charity, rightly
+  understood; for charity would strive to promote the right use of wage,
+  as the best means of preventing distress and preserving the economic
+  well-being of the family.
+
+
+  Charity and socialism.
+
+The theory of charity separates it entirely from socialism, as that word
+is commonly used. Strictly socialism means, in questions affecting the
+community, a dominant regard for the common or social good in so far as
+it is contrary to private or individual advantage. But even so the
+antithesis is misleading, for the two need not be inconsistent. On the
+contrary, the common good is really and ultimately only individual good
+(not advantage) harmonized to a common end. The issue, indeed, is that
+of old Greek days, and the conditions of a settlement of it are not
+substantially different. Using modern terms one may say that charity is
+"interventionist." It has sought to transform the world by the
+transformation of the will and the inward life in the individual and in
+society. It would intensify the spirit and feeling of membership in
+society and would aim at improving social conditions, as science makes
+clear what the lines of reform should be. So it has constantly
+intervened in all kinds of ways, and, in the 19th century for instance,
+it has initiated many movements afterwards taken up by public
+authorities--such as prison reform, industrial schools, child
+protection, housing, food reform, &c., and it has been a friendly ally
+in many reforms that affect industry very closely, as, for instance, in
+the introduction of the factory acts. But it has never aimed at
+recasting society itself on a new economic plan, as does socialism.
+Socialism indeed offers the people a new state of social security. It
+recognizes that the _annona civica_ and the old poor-law may have been
+bad, but it would meet the objection made against them by insisting on
+the gradual creation of a new industrial society in which wage would be
+regulated and all would be supported, some by wage in adult life, some
+by allowance in old age, and others by maintenance in childhood.
+Accordingly for it all schemes for the state maintenance of school
+children, old age pensions, or state provision for the unemployed are,
+like municipal trading, steps towards a final stage, in which none shall
+want because all shall be supported by society or be dependent on it
+industrially. To charity this position seems to exclude the ethical
+element in life and to treat the people primarily or chiefly as human
+animals. It seems also to exclude the motives for energy and endeavour
+that come from self-maintenance. Against it, on the other hand,
+socialism would urge, that only by close regulation and penalty will the
+lowest classes be improved, and that only the society that maintains
+them can control them. Charity from its experience doubts the
+possibility of such control without a fatal loss of initiative on the
+part of those controlled, and it believes both that there is constant
+improvement on the present conditions of society and that there will be
+constantly more as science grows and its conclusions are put in force.
+Thus charity and socialism, in the usual meaning of the word, imply
+ultimately two quite different theories of social life. The one would
+re-found society industrially, the other would develop it and allow it
+to develop.
+
+
+  The organization of charity.
+
+The springs of charity lie in sympathy and religion, and, one would now
+add, in science. To organize it is to give to it the "ordered nature" of
+an organic whole, to give it a definite social purpose, and to associate
+the members of the community for the fulfilment of that purpose. This in
+turn depends on the recognition of common principles, the adoption of a
+common method, self-discipline and training, and co-operation. In a mass
+of people there may be a large variation in motives coincident with much
+unity in action. Thus there may be acceptance of a common social purpose
+in charity, while in one the impulse is similar to that which moved St
+Francis or George Herbert, in another to that which moved Howard or Dr
+Chalmers, or a modern poor-law reformer like Sir G. Nicholls or E.
+Denison. Accepting, then, the principles of charity, we pass to the
+method in relation to assistance and relief. Details may vary, but on
+the following points there is general agreement among students and
+workers:--
+
+  (1) _The Committee or Conference._--There are usually two kinds of
+  local relief: the public or poor-law relief, and relief connected with
+  religious agencies. Besides, there is the relief of endowments,
+  societies and charitable persons. Therefore, as a condition precedent
+  to all organization, there must be some local centre of association
+  for information and common help. A town should be divided for this
+  purpose into manageable areas coincident with parishes or poor-law
+  divisions, or other districts. Subject to an acceptance of general
+  principles, those engaged in charity should be members of a local
+  conference or committee, or allied to it. The committee would thus be
+  the rallying-point of a large and somewhat loosely knit association
+  of friends and workers. (2) _Inquiry, Aid and Registration_.--The
+  object of inquiry is to ascertain the actual causes of distress or
+  dependence, and to carry on the work there must usually be a staff of
+  several honorary and one or two paid workers. Two methods may be
+  adopted: to inquire in regard to applications for help with a view to
+  forming some plan of material help or friendly aid, or both, which
+  will lead to the ultimate self-support of the family and its members,
+  and, under certain conditions, in the case of the aged or sick, to
+  their continuous or their sufficient help; or to ascertain the facts
+  partly at once, partly by degrees, and then to form and carry out some
+  plan of help, or continue to befriend the family in need of help, in
+  the hope of bringing them to conditions of self-support, leaving the
+  work of relief entirely to other agencies. The committee in neither
+  case should be a relief committee--itself a direct source of relief.
+  On the former method it has usually no relief fund, but it raises from
+  relations, employers, charities and charitable persons the relief
+  required, according to the plan of help agreed upon, unless, indeed,
+  it is better not to relieve the case, or to leave it to the poor-law.
+  The committee thus makes itself responsible for endeavouring to the
+  best of its ability to raise the necessary relief, and acts as trustee
+  for those who co-operate without it, in such a way as to keep intact
+  and to give play to all the natural obligations that lie within the
+  inner circles of a self-supporting community. On the latter method the
+  work of relief is left to general charity, or to private persons, or
+  to the poor-law; and the effort is made to help the family to
+  self-support by a friendly visitor. This procedure is that adopted by
+  the associated charities in Boston, Mass., and other similar societies
+  in America and elsewhere. It is akin also to that adopted in the
+  municipal system of relief in Elberfeld--which has become with many
+  variations in detail the standard method of poor relief in Germany.
+  The method of associated help, combined with personal work, represents
+  the usual practice of charity organization societies. _Mutatis
+  mutandis_, the plan can be adopted on the simplest scale in parochial
+  or other relief committees, subject to the safeguards of sufficient
+  training and settled method. The inquiry should cover the following
+  points: names and address, and ages of family, previous addresses,
+  past employment and wages, present income, rent and liabilities,
+  membership of friendly or other society, and savings, relations,
+  relief (if any) from any source. These points should be verified, and
+  reference should be made to the clergy, the poor-law authorities, and
+  others, to ascertain if they know the applicant. The result should be
+  to show how the applicant has been living, and what are the sources of
+  possible help, and also what is his character. The problem, however,
+  is not whether the person is "deserving" or "undeserving," but
+  whether, granted the facts, the distress can be stayed and
+  self-support attained. If the help can be given privately from within
+  the circle of the family, so much the better. Often it may be best to
+  advise, but not to interfere. In some cases but little help may be
+  necessary; in others again the friendly relation between applicant and
+  friend may last for months and even years. Usually in charitable work
+  the question of the kind of relief available--money, tickets, clothes,
+  &c.--governs the decision how the case should be assisted. But this is
+  quite wrong: the opposite is the true rule. The wants of the case,
+  rightly understood, should govern the decision as to what charity
+  should do and what it should provide. Cases are overwhelming in
+  number, as at the out-patient and casualty departments of a hospital,
+  where the admissions are made without inquiry, and subject practically
+  to no restrictions; but when there is inquiry, and each case is
+  seriously considered and aided with a view to self-support, the
+  numbers will seldom be overwhelming. On this plan appeal is made to
+  the strength of the applicant, and requires an effort on his part.
+  Indiscriminate relief, on the other hand, attracts the applicant by an
+  appeal to his weakness, and it requires of him no effort. Hence, apart
+  even from the differentiating effect of inquiry, one method makes
+  applicants, the other limits their number, although on the latter plan
+  much more strenuous endeavours be made to assist the lesser number of
+  claimants. For the routine work of the office an extremely simple
+  system of records with card index, &c., has been devised. In some
+  cities, particularly in the United States of America, there is a
+  central registration of cases, notified by individual charities,
+  poor-relief authorities and private persons. The system of charity
+  organization or associated charity, it will be seen, allows of the
+  utmost variety of treatment, according to the difficulties in each
+  instance and the remedies available, and the utmost scope for personal
+  work. (3) _Training._--If charitable work is an art, those who
+  undertake it must needs be trained both in practice and method and in
+  judgment. It requires, too, that self-discipline which blends
+  intelligence with emotion, and so endows emotion with strength and
+  purpose. In times of distress a reserve of trained workers is of the
+  utmost service. At all times they do more and produce, socially,
+  better results; but when there is general distress of any kind they do
+  not lose their heads like new recruits, but prevent at least some of
+  the mischief that comes of the panic which often takes possession of a
+  community, when distress is apprehended, and leads to the wildest
+  distribution of relief. Also trained workers make the most useful
+  poor-law guardians, trustees of charities, secretaries of charitable
+  societies and district visitors. All clergy and ministers and all
+  medical men who have to be engaged in the administration of medical
+  relief should learn the art of charity. Poor-law guardians are
+  usually elected on political or general grounds, and have no special
+  knowledge of good methods of charity; and trustees are seldom
+  appointed on the score of their qualifications on this head. To
+  provide the necessary education in charity there should be competent
+  helpers and teachers at charity organization committees and elsewhere,
+  and an alliance for this purpose should be formed between them and
+  professors and teachers of moral science and economics and the
+  "settlements." Those who study social problems in connexion with what
+  a doctor would call "cases" or "practice" see the limits and the
+  falsity of schemes that on paper seem logical enough. This puts a
+  check on the influence of scheme-building and that literary
+  sensationalism which makes capital out of social conditions. (4)
+  _Co-operation._--Organization in charity depends on extensive
+  co-operation, and ultimately on the acceptance of common views. This
+  comes but slowly. But with much tribulation the goal may be reached,
+  if in case after case the effort is made to provide friendly help
+  through charities and private persons,--unless, as may well be, it
+  should seem best not to interfere, but to leave the applicant to apply
+  to the administrators of public relief. Experience of what is right
+  and wrong in charity is thus gained on both sides. Many sources may
+  have to be utilized for aid of different kinds even in a single case,
+  and for the prevention of distress co-operation with members of
+  friendly societies and with co-operative and thrift agencies is
+  indispensable.
+
+
+  The poor law.
+
+Where there is accord between charity and the poor-law pauperism may be
+largely reduced. The poor-law in most countries has at its disposal
+certain institutional relief and out-door allowances, but it has no
+means of devising plans of help which may prevent application to the
+rates or "take" people "off the rates." Thus a widow in the first days
+of widowhood applies and receives an allowance according to the number
+of her children. Helped at the outset by charity on some definite plan,
+she may become self-supporting; and if her family be large one or two of
+her children may be placed in schools by the guardians, while she
+maintains the remaining children and herself. As far as possible there
+should be a division of labour between the poor-law and charity. Except
+where some plan such as that just mentioned is adopted, one or the other
+should take whole charge of the case relieved. There should be no
+supplementation of poor-law relief by charity. This will weaken the
+strength and dissipate the resources of charity without adding to the
+efficiency of the poor-law. Unless the guardians adopt a restrictive
+out-door relief policy, there is no scope for any useful division of
+labour between them and charity; for the many cases which, taken in
+time, charity might save from pauperism, they will draw into chronic
+dependence by their allowances a very much larger number. But if there
+is a restrictive out-door policy, so far as relief is necessary, charity
+may undertake to meet on its own lines distress which the poor-law would
+otherwise have met by allowances, and, subject to the assistance of
+urgent cases, poor-law relief may thus by degrees become institutional
+only. Then, in the main, natural social forces would come into play, and
+dependence on any form of _annona civica_ would cease.
+
+
+  Hospitals.
+
+Open-handed hospitality always creates mendicants. This is what the
+hospitals offer in the out-patient and casualty departments, and they
+have created a class of hospital mendicants. The cases are quickly dealt
+with, without inquiry and without regard to home conditions. The medical
+man in the hospital does not co-operate with any fellow-workers outside
+the hospital. Where his physic or advice ceases to operate his
+usefulness ceases. He regards no conditions of morality. In a large
+number of cases drink or vice is the cause of application, and the cure
+of the patient is dependent on moral conditions; but he returns home,
+drinks and may beat his wife, and then on another visit to the hospital
+he will again be physicked and so on. The man is not even referred to
+the poor-law infirmary for relief. Nor are conditions of home sanitation
+regarded. One cause of constant sickness is thus entirely overlooked,
+while drugs, otherwise unnecessary, are constantly given at the
+hospital. The hospitals are thus large isolated relief stations which
+are creating a new kind of pauperism. So far as the patients can
+pay--and many can do so--the general practitioners, to whom they would
+otherwise go, are deprived of their gains. Still worse is it when the
+hospital itself charges a fee in its out-patient department. The relief
+is then claimed even more absolutely as a right, and the general
+practitioners are still further injured. The doctors, as a medical
+staff, are not only medical men, but whether they recognize the fact or
+not, they are also almsgivers or almoners; what they give is relief. Yet
+few or none of them have ever been trained for that work, and
+consequently they do not realize how very advantageous, even for the
+cure of their own patients, would be a thorough treatment of each case
+both at the hospital and outside it. Nor can they understand how their
+methods at present protract sickness and promote habitual dependence.
+Were this side of their work studied by them in any way they would be
+the first, probably, to press upon the governors of their hospitals the
+necessity for a change. Unfortunately, at present the governors are
+themselves untrained, and to finance the hospital and to make it a good
+institution is their sole object. Hospitals, however, are, after all,
+only a part of the general administration of charity, though as they are
+now managed they have seldom any systematic connexion with that
+administration. Nor is there any co-ordination between the several
+hospitals and dispensaries. If one rightly refuses further treatment to
+certain applicants, they have only to wander to some other hospital,
+there to be admitted with little or no scrutiny. For usually
+out-patients and casualty patients are not even registered, nor can they
+be identified if they apply again. Practically they come and go at will.
+The definite limitation of cases, according to some standard of
+effectual work, association with general charity, trained almonership
+and inquiry, and a just regard for the interests of general
+practitioners, are stepping-stones to reform. In towns where medical
+charities are numerous a representative board would promote mutual help
+and organization.
+
+
+  Endowed charities.
+
+Like the poor-law, endowed charities may be permanent institutions
+established to meet what should be passing and decreasing needs (cf. the
+arguments in _The State and Charity_, by T. Mackay). Administered as
+they usually are in isolation--apart from the living voluntary charities
+of the generation, and consisting often of small trusts difficult to
+utilize satisfactorily, they tend to create a permanent demand which
+they meet by fixed quantities of relief. Also, as a rule, they make no
+systematic inquiries with a view to the verification of the statements
+of the applicants, for they have no staff for these purposes; nor have
+they the assistance of almoners or friendly visitors. Nor does the
+relief which they give form part of any plan of help in conjunction with
+other aid from without; nor is the administration subject to frequent
+inspection, as in the case of the poor-law. All these conditions have
+led to a want of progress in the actual administration of endowed
+charities, in regard to which it is often very difficult to prevent the
+exercise of an undue patronage. But there is no reason why these
+charities should not become a responsible part of the country's
+administration, aiding it to reduce outdoor pauperism. It was never
+intended that the poor-law should extinguish the endowed charities,
+still less, as statistics now prove, that where endowments abound the
+rate of pauperism should be considerably above the average of the rest
+of the country. This shows that these charities often foster pauperism
+instead of preventing it. As a step to reform, the publication of an
+annual register of endowed charities in England and Wales is greatly
+needed. The consolidating schemes of the charity commissioners have done
+much good; still more may be done in some counties by extending to the
+county the benefits of the charities of well-endowed towns, as has been
+accomplished by the extension of the eleemosynary endowments of the city
+of London to the metropolitan police area. Nor, again, until quite
+lately, and that as yet only in a few schemes, has the principle been
+adopted that pensions or other relief should be given only in
+supplementation of the relief of relations, former employers and
+friends, and not in substitution of it. This, coupled with good methods
+of inquiry and supervision, has proved very beneficial. Hitherto,
+however, to a large extent, endowed charities, it must be admitted, have
+tended to weaken the family and to pauperize.
+
+
+  Relief to children at school.
+
+In many places funds are raised for the relief of school children by the
+supply of meals during the winter and spring; and an act has now been
+passed in England (1906) enabling the cost to be put upon the rates.
+Usually a very large number of children are said to be underfed, but
+inquiry shows that such statements may be taken as altogether excessive.
+They are sometimes based on information drawn from the children at
+school; or sometimes on general deductions; they are seldom founded on
+any systematic and competent inquiry at the homes. When this has been
+made, the numbers dwindle to very small proportions. Teachers of
+experience have noted the effect of the meals in weakening the
+independence of the family. While they are forthcoming women sometimes
+give up cooking meals at home, use their money for other things, and
+tell the child he can get his meal at school. Great temptations are put
+before a parent to neglect her family, and very much distress is due to
+this. The meals--just at a time when, owing to the age of her children,
+the mother's care is most needed, and just in those families where the
+temptation is greatest, and where the family instinct should be
+strengthened--stimulate this neglect. Considered from the point of view
+of meeting by eleemosynary provision a normal economic demand for food,
+intervention can only have one result. The demand must continue to
+outstrip the supply, so long as there are resources available on the one
+side, and until on the other side the desire of the social class that is
+chiefly exposed to the temptations of dependence in relation to such
+relief has been satisfied. If the provision be made from the resources
+of local or general taxation the largeness of the fund available will
+allow practically of an unlimited expansion of the supply of food. If
+the provision be made from voluntary sources, in some measure limited
+therefore and less certain, this very fact will tend to circumscribe
+demand and limit the offer of relief. It is indeed the problem of
+poor-law relief in 1832 over again. The relief provided by local
+taxation practically unlimited will create a mass of constant claimants,
+with a kind of assumed right to aid based on the payment of rates; while
+voluntary relief, whatever its short-comings, will be less injurious
+because it is less amply endowed. In Paris the municipal subvention for
+meals rose from 545,900 francs in 1892 to 1,000,000 in 1904. Between
+1894 and 1904 there was an increase of 9% in the school population; and
+an increase of 28% in the municipal grant. In that period the
+contributions from the local school funds (_caisses des ecoles_)
+decreased 36%; while the voluntary contributions otherwise received were
+insignificant; and the payments for meals increased 2%.
+
+The subject has been lately considered from a somewhat different
+standpoint (cf. the reports of the Scottish Royal Commission on Physical
+Education, 1903; of the Inter-departmental committees on Physical
+Deterioration, 1905, and on Medical Inspection and the Feeding of School
+Children, 1905; also the report of the special committee of the Charity
+Organization Society on "the assistance of school children," 1893).
+After careful investigations medical officers especially have drawn
+attention to the low physical condition of children in schools in the
+poorer parts of large English towns, their low stature, their physical
+defects, the improper food supplied to them at home, their
+uncleanliness, and their want of decent bringing-up, and sometimes their
+want of food. Other inquiries have shown that, as women more usually
+become breadwinners their children receive less attention, and the home
+and its duties are neglected, while in the lowest sections of the poorer
+classes social irresponsibility reaches its maximum. Cheap but often
+quite improper food is provided, and infant mortality, which is largely
+preventable, remains as high as ever, though adult life is longer. This
+with a marked decrease in the birth-rate in recent years, has, it may be
+said, opened out a new field for charitable effort and social work.
+Science is at each revision of the problem making its task more
+definite. Actually the mere demand for meals stands for less; the reform
+of home conditions for more. So it was hoped that instead of making
+school meals a charge on taxation, as parliament has done, it would be
+content to leave it a voluntary charge, while the medical inspection of
+elementary Schools will be made universal; representative relief
+committees formed for schools or groups of schools; the cases of want or
+distress among the school children dealt with individually in connexion
+with their families, and, where necessary, day schools established on
+the lines of day industrial schools.
+
+
+  Exceptional distress.
+
+At a time of exceptional distress the following suggestions founded on
+much English experience may be of service (cf. Report of special
+committee of the Charity Organization Society on the best means of
+dealing with exceptional distress, 1886). Usually at such a time
+proposals are made to establish special funds, and to provide employment
+to men and women out of work. But it is best, if possible and as long as
+possible, to rely on existing agencies, and to strengthen them. Round
+them there are usually workers more or less trained. A new fund usually
+draws to it new people, many of whom may not have had any special
+experience at all. If a new fund is inevitable, it is best that it
+should make its grants to existing agencies after consultation with
+them. In any case, a clear policy should be adopted, and people should
+keep their heads. The exaggeration of feeling at a time of apprehended
+or actual distress is sometimes extraordinary, and the unwise action
+which it prompts is often a cause of continuing pauperism afterwards.
+Where there is public or poor-law relief the following plan may be
+adopted:--In any large town there are usually different recognized
+poor-law, charitable or other areas. The local people already at work in
+these areas should be formed into local committees. In each case a quick
+inquiry should be made, and the relieving officer communicated with,
+some central facts verified, and the home visited. Roughly, cases may be
+divided into three classes: the irresponsible casual labouring class, a
+middle class of men with decent homes, who have made no provision for
+the future, and are not members of either friendly society or trades
+union; and a third class, who have made some provision. These usually
+are affected last of all; at all hazards they should be kept from
+receiving public relief, and should be helped, as far as possible,
+privately and personally. If there are public works, the second class
+might be referred to them; if there are not, probably some should be
+left to the poor-law, some assisted in the same way as members of class
+three. Much would turn upon the family and the home. The first class
+should be left to the poor-law. If there is no poor-law system at work
+they should be put on public works. Working men of independent position,
+not the creatures of any political club, but such as are respected
+members of a friendly society, or are otherwise well qualified for the
+task, should be called into consultation. The relief should be settled
+according to the requirements of each case, but if the pressure is
+great, at first at least it may be necessary to make grants according to
+some generally sufficient scale. There should be as constant a revision
+of cases as time permits. Great care should be taken to stop the relief
+as soon as possible, and to do nothing to make it the stepping-stone to
+permanent dependence.
+
+If employment be provided it should be work within the skill of all; it
+should be fairly remunerated, so that at least the scantiness of the pay
+may not be an excuse for neglect; and it should be paid for according to
+measured or piece work. The discipline should be strict, though due
+regard should be paid at first to those unaccustomed to digging or
+earthwork. In England and Wales the guardians have power to open labour
+yards. These, like charities which provide work, tend to attract and
+keep in employment a low class of labourer or workman, who finds it pays
+him to use the institution as a convenience. It is best, therefore, to
+avoid the opening of a labour yard if possible. If it is opened, the
+discipline should be very strict, and when there is laziness or
+insubordination, relief in the workhouse should at once be offered. The
+relief furnished to men employed in a labour yard, of which in England
+at least half has to be given ih kind, should, it has been said, be
+dealt out from day to day. This leads to the men giving up the work
+sooner than they otherwise would. They have less to spend.
+
+
+  Unemployment.
+
+In Great Britain a great change has taken place in regard to the
+provision of employment in connexion with the state. Since about 1890
+there has been a feeling that men in distress from want of employment
+should not be dealt with by the poor-law. A circular letter issued by
+the Local Government Board in 1886, and subsequently in 1895, coincided
+with this feeling. It was addressed to town councils and other local
+authorities, asking them to provide work (1) which will not involve the
+stigma of pauperism, (2) which all can perform whatever may have been
+their previous avocations, and (3) which does not compete with that of
+other labourers at present in employment. This circular led to the
+vestries and subsequently the borough councils in many districts
+becoming partially recognized relief authorities for the unemployed,
+concurrently with the poor-law. Much confusion resulted. The local
+authorities had seldom any suitable organization for the investigation
+of applications. It was difficult to supply work on the terms required;
+and the work was often ill-done and costly. Also it was found that the
+same set of people would apply year after year, unskilled labourers
+usually out of work part of the winter, or men habitually "unemployed."
+As on other occasions when public work was provided, very few of the
+applicants were found to be artisans, or members of trades unions or of
+friendly societies. In 1904 Mr Long, then president of the Local
+Government Board, proposed that local voluntary distress committees
+should be established in London consisting of poor-law guardians and
+town councillors and others, more or less supervised by a central
+committee and ultimately by the Local Government Board. This
+organization was set on foot and large sums were subscribed for its
+work. The report on the results of the movement was somewhat doubtful
+(Report, London Unemployed Fund, 1904-1905, p. 101, &c.), but in 1905
+the Unemployed Workmen's Act was passed, and in London and elsewhere
+distress committees like the voluntary committees of the previous year
+were established by statute. It was enacted that for establishment
+expenses, emigration and removal, labour exchanges, and the acquisition
+of land a halfpenny rate might be levied, but that the rate would not be
+available for the remuneration of men employed. For this purpose
+(1905-1906) a large charitable fund was raised. A training farm at
+Hollesley Bay was acquired, and it was hoped to train Londoners there to
+become fit for agricultural work. It is impossible to judge this
+experiment properly, on the evidence available up to 1908. But one or
+two points are important: (1) something very like the "right to labour"
+has been granted by the legislature; (2) this has been done apart from
+the conditions required by the poor-laws and orders of the Local
+Government Board on poor relief and without imposing disfranchisement on
+the men employed; (3) a labour rate has not been levied, but a rate has
+been levied in aid of the provision of employment; (4) if the line of
+development that the act suggests were to be followed (as the renewed
+Labour agitation in 1908-1909 made probable) it must tend to create a
+class of "unemployed," unskilled labourers of varying grades of industry
+who may become the dependent and state-supported proletariat of modern
+urban life. Thus, unless the administration be extremely rigorous, once
+more will a kind of serfdom be established, to be, as some would say,
+taken over hereafter by the socialist state.
+
+
+  Vagrancy.
+
+In some of the English colonies Homeric hospitality still prevails, but
+by degrees the station-house or some refuge is established in the towns
+as they grow more populous. Finally, some system of labour in exchange
+for relief is evolved. At first this is voluntary, afterwards it is
+officially recognized, and finally it may become part of the system of
+public relief. As bad years come, these changes are made step by step.
+In England the vagrant or wayfarer is tolerated and discouraged, but not
+kept employed. He should be under greater pressure to maintain himself,
+it is thought. The provision made for him in different parts of the
+country is far from uniform, and now, usually, at least in the larger
+towns, after he has had a bath and food, he is admitted to a separate
+room or cell in a casual ward. Before he leaves he has to do a task of
+work, and, subject to the discretion of the master, he is detained two
+nights. This plan has reduced vagrancy, and if it were universally
+adopted clean accommodation would everywhere be provided for the vagrant
+without the attractions of a common or "associated" ward; and probably
+vagrancy would diminish still further. It seems almost needless to say
+that, in these circumstances at any rate, casual alms should not be
+given to vagrants. They know much better how to provide for themselves
+than the almsgiver imagines, for vagrancy is in the main a mode of life
+not the result of any casual difficulty. Vagrancy and criminality are
+also nearly allied. The magistrate, therefore, rather than the
+almsgiver, should usually interfere; and, as a rule, where the
+magistrates are strict, vagrancy in a county diminishes. An
+inter-departmental committee (1906) taking generally this line, reported
+in favour of vagrants being placed entirely under police control, and it
+recommended a system of wayfarers' tickets for men on the roads who are
+not habitual vagrants, and the committal of men likely to become
+habitual vagrants to certified labour colonies for not less than six
+months. Still undoubtedly vagrancy has its economic side. In a bad year
+the number of tramps is increased by the addition of unskilled and
+irresponsible labourers, who are soonest discharged when work is slack.
+As a part-voluntary system under official recognition the German
+_Arbeiter-colonien_ are of interest. This in a measure has led to the
+introduction of labour homes in England, the justification of which
+should be that they recruit the energy of the men who find their way to
+them, and enable them to earn a living which they could not do
+otherwise. In a small percentage of cases their result may be achieved.
+Charitable refuges or philanthropic common lodging-houses, usually
+established in districts where this class already congregate, only
+aggravate the difficulty. They give additional attractions to a vagrant
+and casual life, and make it more endurable. They also make a
+comfortable avoidance of the responsibilities of family life
+comparatively easy, and in so far as they do this they are clearly
+injurious to the community.
+
+
+  American conditions and methods.
+
+The English colonists of the New England states and Pennsylvania
+introduced the disciplinary religious and relief system of Protestantism
+and the Elizabethan poor-law. To the former reference has already been
+made. With an appreciation of the fact that the cause of distress is not
+usually poverty, but weakness of character and want of judgment, and
+that relief is in itself no remedy, those who have inherited the old
+Puritan traditions have, in the light of toleration and a larger social
+experience, organized the method of friendly visiting, the object of
+which is illustrated by the motto, "Not alms, but a friend." To the
+friendship of charity is thus given a disciplinary force, capable of
+immense expansion and usefulness, if the friendship on the side of those
+who would help is sincere and guided by practical knowledge and
+sagacity, and if on the side of those in distress there is awakened a
+reciprocal regard and a willingness to change their way of life by
+degrees. Visiting by "districts" is set aside, for "friendliness" is not
+a quality easily diffused over a wide area. To be real it must be
+limited as time and ability allow. Consequently, a friendly visitor
+usually befriends but one or two, or in any case only a few, families.
+The friendly visitor is the outcome of the movement for "associated
+charities," but in America charity organization societies have also
+adopted the term, and to a certain extent the method. Between the two
+movements there is the closest affinity. The registration of applicants
+for relief is much more complete in American cities than in England,
+where the plan meets with comparatively little support. At the office of
+the associated charities in Boston there is a central and practically a
+complete register of all the applications made to the public authority
+for poor relief, to the associated charities, and to many other
+voluntary bodies.
+
+The Elizabethan poor-law system, with the machinery of overseers,
+poor-houses and out-door relief, is still maintained in New England, New
+York state and Pennsylvania, but with many modifications, especially in
+New York. A chief factor in these changes has been immigration. While
+the County or town remained the administrative area for local poor
+relief, the large number of immigrant and "unsettled" poor, and the
+business connected with their removal from the state, entailed the
+establishment of a secondary or state system of administration and aid,
+with special classes of institutions to which the counties or towns
+could send their poor, as, for instance, state reform schools, farms,
+almshouses, &c. For the oversight of these institutions, and often of
+prisons also and lunatic asylums, in many states there have been
+established state boards of "charity or corrections and charity." The
+members of these boards are selected by the state for a term of years,
+and give their services honorarily. There are state boards in
+Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Minnesota,
+Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Colorado, North Carolina and elsewhere. There
+is also a district board of charities in the district of Columbia. These
+boards publish most useful and detailed reports. Besides the state board
+there is sometimes also, as in New York, a State Charities Aid
+Association, whose members, in the counties in which they reside, have a
+legal right of entry to visit and inspect any public or charitable
+institution owned by the state, and any county and other poor-house. A
+large association of visitors accustomed to inspect and report on
+institutions has thus been created. Further, the counties and towns in
+New York state, for instance, and Massachusetts, and the almshouse
+districts in Pennsylvania, are under boards of supervision. Usually the
+overseers give out-door relief, and the pauperism of some areas is as
+high as that in some English unions, 3, 4 and 5%. On the whole
+population of the United States, however, and of individual states,
+consisting to a great extent of comparatively young and energetic
+immigrants, the pauperism is insignificant. In Massachusetts "it has
+been the general policy of the state to order the removal to the state
+almshouse of unsettled residents of the several cities and towns in need
+of temporary aid, thus avoiding some of the abuses incident to out-door
+relief." In New York state, in the city of New York, including Brooklyn,
+the distribution of out-door relief by the department of charities is
+forbidden, except for purposes of transportation and for the adult
+blind. Most counties in the state have an almshouse, and the county
+superintendents and overseers of the poor "furnish necessary relief to
+such of the county poor as may require only temporary assistance, or are
+so disabled that they cannot be safely removed to the almshouse." Public
+attention is in many cases being drawn to the inutility and injury of
+out-door relief.
+
+In some states and cities the system of subsidizing voluntary
+institutions is in full force, and it is in force also in many English
+colonies. At first sight it has the advantage of providing relief for
+public purposes without the creation of a new staff or establishment.
+There is thus an apparent economy. But the evils are many. Political
+partisanship and favour may influence the amount and disposition of the
+grants. The grants act as a bounty on the establishment and continuance
+of charitable institutions, homes for children, hospitals, &c., but not
+on the expansion of the voluntary charitable funds and efforts that
+should maintain them; and thus charitable homes exist in which charity
+in its truer sense may have little part, but in which the chief motive
+of the administration may be to support sectarian interests by public
+subsidies. Claimants for relief have little scruple in turning such
+institutions to their own account; and the institutions, being
+financially irresponsible, are not in these circumstances scrupulous on
+their side to prevent a misdirection of their bounties. "Parents unload
+their children upon the community more recklessly when they know that
+such children will be provided for in private orphan asylums and
+protectories, where the religious training that the parents prefer will
+be given them" (Amos G. Warner, in _International Congress: Charities
+and Correction_, 1893). Past history in New York city illustrates the
+same evil. The admission was entirely in the hands of the managers. They
+admitted; the city paid. In New York city the population between 1870
+and 1890 increased about 80%; the subsidies for prisoners and public
+paupers increased by 43%, but those for paupers in private institutions
+increased from $334,828 to $1,845,872, or about 461%. The total was at
+that time $3,794,972; in 1898 it was rather less, $3,132,786. The
+alternative to this system is either the establishment of state or
+municipal institutions, and possibly in special cases payments to
+voluntary homes for the maintenance of inmates admitted at the request
+of a state authority, as at certified and other homes in England, with
+grants made conditional on the work being conducted on specified lines,
+and subject to a certain increasing amount of voluntary financial
+support; or a close general and financial inspection of charitable
+institutions--the method of reform adopted in New York; or payment for
+only those inmates who are sent by public authorities and admitted on
+their request.
+
+The enormous extent to which children's aid societies have been
+increased in the United States, sometimes with the help of considerable
+public grants, suggests the greatest need for caution from the point of
+the preservation of the family as the central element of social strength
+in the community. The problem of charity in relation to medical relief
+in the large towns of the United States is similar to that of England;
+its difficulties are alike.
+
+  LITERATURE.--As good translations of the classics become accessible it
+  is easy for the general reader or student to combine a study of the
+  principles of charity in relation to the community with a study of
+  history. Thus, and in connexion with special investigations and the
+  conditions of practical charity, social economics may best be studied.
+  In N. Masterman, _Chalmers on Charity_ (1900); T. Mackay, _Methods of
+  Social Reform_ (1896); B. Bosanquet and others, _Some Aspects of the
+  Social Problem_ (1894); and C.S. Loch, _Methods of Social Advance_
+  (1904), this point of view is generally assumed. Special
+  investigations of importance may be found in the reports of medical
+  officers of health. See Report of Committee on Physical Deterioration
+  referred to above, and, for instance, Dr Newsholme's _Vital
+  Statistics_ and Charles Booth's _Labour and Life in London_. For the
+  history of charity there is no good single work. On details there are
+  many good articles in Daremberg's _Dictionary of Classical
+  Antiquities_, and similar works. _Modern Methods of Charity_, by C.H.
+  Henderson and others (1904), supplies much general information in
+  regard to poor relief and charity in different countries. Apart from
+  books and official documents mentioned in the text as indicating the
+  present state of charitable and public relief, or as aids to practical
+  work, the following may be of service. England:--_Annual Charities'
+  Register and Digest, with Introduction on "How to help Cases of
+  Distress"_; the _Charity Organization Review; Occasional Papers_ (3
+  vols.), published by the London Charity Organization Society
+  (1896-1906); _Reports of Proceedings of Conferences of Poor-Law
+  Guardians; The Strength of the People_, by Helen Bosanquet; _Homes of
+  the London Poor_ and _Our Common Land_, by Miss Octavia Hill; _The
+  Queen's Poor_, by M. Loane. United States of America:--_The
+  Proceedings of the International Conference on Charities and
+  Correction_ (1894), and the proceedings of the annual conferences;
+  _Friendly Visiting among the Poor_, by Mary E. Richmond (1899);
+  _American Charities_, by Amos G. Warner (1908); _The Practice of
+  Charity_, by E.T. Devine; _Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften_,
+  by Dr J. Conrad, &c., vol. ii.; _Das Armenwesen in den Vereinigten
+  Staaten von America_, by Dr Francis G. Peabody (1897); the _Charities
+  Review_, published monthly by the New York Charity Organization
+  Society; the Papers and Reports of the Boston and Baltimore societies.
+  France:--_La Bibliographie charitable_, by Camille Granier (1891); _La
+  Charite avant et depuis 1789_, by P. Hubert Valleroux; Fascicules of
+  the _Conseil superieur de l'assistance publique, Revue d'assistance_,
+  published by the _Societe Internationale pour l'etude des questions
+  d'assistance_. Germany:--Reports and Proceedings of the _Deutsche
+  Vereine fur Armenpflege und Wohltatigkeit; Die Armenpflege_, a
+  practical handbook, by Dr E. Munsterberg (1897).
+  Austria:--_Osterreichs Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen, 1848-1898_, by Dr
+  Ernest Mischler (1899).     (C. S. L.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARIVARI, a French term of uncertain origin, but probably onomatopoeic,
+for a mock serenade "rough music," made by beating on kettles,
+fire-irons, tea-trays or what not. The charivari was anciently in France
+a regular wedding custom, all bridal couples being thus serenaded. Later
+it was reserved for ill-assorted and unpopular marriages, for widows or
+widowers who remarried too soon, and generally as a mockery for all who
+were unpopular. At the beginning of the 17th century, wedding charivaris
+were forbidden by the Council of Tours under pain of excommunication,
+but the custom still lingers in rural districts. The French of Louisiana
+and Canada introduced the charivari into America, where it became known
+under the corrupted name of "shivaree."
+
+
+
+
+CHARKHARI, a native state in the Bundelkhand agency of Central India.
+Area, 745 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 123,594; estimated revenue L33,000. It is
+surrounded on all sides by other states of Central India, except near
+Charkhari town, where it meets the United Provinces. It was founded by
+Bijai Bahadur (vikramaditya), a _sanad_ being granted him in 1804 and
+another in 1811. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the
+Bundela clan, descended from Chhatar Sal, the champion of the
+independence of Bundelkhand in the 18th century. In 1857 Raja Ratan
+Singh received a hereditary salute of 11 guns, a _khilat_ and a
+perpetual _jagir_ of L1300 a year in recognition of his services during
+the Mutiny. The town of Charkhari (locally _Maharajnagar_) is 40 m. W.
+of Banda; pop. (1901) 11,718.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLATAN (Ital. _ciarlatano_, from _ciarlare_, to chatter), originally
+one who "patters" to a crowd to sell his wares, like a "cheap-jack" or
+"quack" doctor--"quack" being similarly derived from the noise made by a
+duck; so an impostor who pretends to have some special skill or
+knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814), Roman emperor, and king of
+the Franks, was the elder son of Pippin the Short, king of the Franks,
+and Bertha, or Bertrada, daughter of Charibert, count of Laon. The place
+of his birth is unknown and its date uncertain, although some
+authorities give it as the 2nd of April 742; doubts have been cast upon
+his legitimacy, and it is just possible that the marriage of Pippin and
+Bertha took place subsequent to the birth of their elder son. When
+Pippin was crowned king of the Franks at St Denis on the 28th of July
+754 by Pope Stephen II., Charles, and his brother Carloman were anointed
+by the pope as a sign of their kingly rank. The rough surroundings of
+the Frankish court were unfavourable to the acquisition of learning, and
+Charles grew up almost ignorant of letters, but hardy in body and
+skilled in the use of weapons.
+
+In 761 he accompanied his father on a campaign in Aquitaine, and in 763
+undertook the government of several counties. In 768 Pippin divided his
+dominions between his two sons, and on his death soon afterwards Charles
+became the ruler of the northern portion of the Frankish kingdom, and
+was crowned at Noyon on the 9th of October 768. Bad feeling had existed
+for some time between Charles and Carloman, and when Charles early in
+769 was called upon to suppress a rising in Aquitaine, his brother
+refused to afford him any assistance. This rebellion, however, was
+easily crushed, its leader, the Aquitainian duke Hunold, was made
+prisoner, and his territory more closely attached to the Frankish
+kingdom. About this time Bertha, having effected a temporary
+reconciliation between her sons, overcame the repugnance with which Pope
+Stephen III. regarded an alliance between Frank and Lombard, and brought
+about a marriage between Charles and a daughter of Desiderius, king of
+the Lombards. Charles had previously contracted a union, probably of an
+irregular nature, with a Frankish lady named Himiltrude, who had borne
+him a son Pippin, the "Hunchback." The peace with the Lombards, in which
+the Bavarians as allies of Desiderius joined, was, however, soon broken.
+Charles thereupon repudiated his Lombard wife (Bertha or Desiderata) and
+married in 771 a princess of the Alamanni named Hildegarde. Carloman
+died in December 771, and Charles was at once recognized at Corbeny as
+sole king of the Franks. Carloman's widow Gerberga had fled to the
+protection of the Lombard king, who espoused her cause and requested the
+new pope, Adrian I., to recognize her two sons as the lawful Frankish
+kings. Adrian, between whom and the Lombards other causes of quarrel
+existed, refused to assent to this demand, and when Desiderius invaded
+the papal territories he appealed to the Frankish king for help.
+Charles, who was at the moment engaged in his first Saxon campaign,
+expostulated with Desiderius; but when such mild measures proved useless
+he led his forces across the Alps in 773. Gerberga and her children were
+delivered up and disappear from history; the siege of Pavia was
+undertaken; and at Easter 774 the king left the seat of war and visited
+Rome, where he was received with great respect.
+
+During his stay in the city Charles renewed the donation which his
+father Pippin had made to the papacy in 754 or 756. This transaction has
+given rise to much discussion as to its trustworthiness and the extent
+of its operation. Our only authority, a passage in the _Liber
+Pontificalis_, describes the gift as including the whole of Italy and
+Corsica, except the lands north of the Po, Calabria and the city of
+Naples. The vast extent of this donation, which, moreover, included
+territories not owning Charles's authority, and the fact that the king
+did not execute, or apparently attempt to execute, its provisions, has
+caused many scholars to look upon the passage as a forgery; but the
+better opinion would appear to be that it is genuine, or at least has a
+genuine basis. Various explanations have been suggested. The area of the
+grant may have been enlarged by later interpolations; or it may have
+dealt with property rather than with sovereignty, and have only referred
+to estates claimed by the pope in the territories named; or it is
+possible that Charles may have actually intended to establish an
+extensive papal kingdom in Italy, but was released from his promise by
+Adrian when the pope saw no chance of its fulfilment. Another
+supposition is that the author of the _Liber Pontificalis_ gives the
+papal interpretation of a grant that had been expressed by Pippin in
+ambiguous terms; and this view is supported by the history of the
+subsequent controversy between king and pope.
+
+Returning to the scene of hostilities, Charles witnessed the
+capitulation of Pavia in June 774, and the capture of Desiderius, who
+was sent into a monastery. He now took the title "king of the Lombards,"
+to which he added the dignity of "Patrician of the Romans," which had
+been granted to his father. Adalgis, the son of Desiderius, who was
+residing at Constantinople, hoped the emperor Leo IV. would assist him
+in recovering his father's kingdom; but a coalition formed for this
+purpose was ineffectual, and a rising led by his ally Rothgaud, duke of
+Friuli, was easily crushed by Charles in 776. In 777 the king was
+visited at Paderborn by three Saracen chiefs who implored his aid
+against Abd-ar-Rahman, the caliph of Cordova, and promised some Spanish
+cities in return for help. Seizing this opportunity to extend his
+influence Charles marched into Spain in 778 and took Pampeluna, but
+meeting with some checks decided to return. As the Frankish forces were
+defiling through the passes of the Pyrenees they were attacked by the
+Wascones (probably Basques), and the rear-guard of the army was almost
+annihilated. It was useless to attempt to avenge this disaster, which
+occurred on the 15th of August 778, for the enemy disappeared as quickly
+as he came; the incident has passed from the domain of history into that
+of legend and romance, being associated by tradition with the pass of
+Roncesvalles. Among the slain was one Hruodland, or Roland, margrave of
+the Breton march, whose death gave rise to the _Chanson de Roland_ (see
+ROLAND, LEGEND OF).
+
+Charles now sought to increase his authority in Italy, where Frankish
+counts were set over various districts, and where Hildebrand, duke of
+Spoleto, appears to have recognized his overlordship. In 780 he was
+again in the peninsula, and at Mantua issued an important _capitulary_
+which increased the authority of the Lombard bishops, relieved freemen
+who under stress of famine had sold themselves into servitude, and
+condemned abuses of the system of vassalage. At the same time commerce
+was encouraged by the abolition of unauthorized tolls and by an
+improvement of the coinage; while the sale of arms to hostile peoples,
+and the trade in Christian slaves were forbidden. Proceeding to Rome,
+the king appears to have come to some arrangement with Adrian about the
+donation of 774. At Easter 781, Carloman, his second son by Hildegarde,
+was renamed Pippin and crowned king of Italy by Pope Adrian, and his
+youngest son Louis was crowned king of Aquitaine; but no mention was
+made at the time of his eldest son Charles, who was doubtless intended
+to be king of the Franks. In 783 the king, having lost his wife
+Hildegarde, married Fastrada, the daughter of a Frankish count named
+Radolf; and in the same year his mother Bertha died. The emperor
+Constantine VI. was at this time exhibiting some interest in Italian
+affairs, and Adalgis the Lombard was still residing at his court; so
+Charles sought to avert danger from this quarter by consenting in 781 to
+a marriage between Constantine and his own daughter Rothrude. In 786 the
+entreaties of the pope and the hostile attitude of Arichis II., duke of
+Benevento, a son-in-law of Desiderius, called the king again into Italy.
+Arichis submitted without a struggle, though the basis of Frankish
+authority in his duchy was far from secure; but in conjunction with
+Adalgis he sought aid from Constantinople. His plans were ended by his
+death in 787, and although the empress Irene, the real ruler of the
+eastern empire, broke off the projected marriage between her son and
+Rothrude, she appears to have given very little assistance to Adalgis,
+whose attack on Italy was easily repulsed. During this visit Charles
+had presented certain towns to Adrian, but an estrangement soon arose
+between king and pope over the claim of Charles to confirm the election
+to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and it was accentuated by Adrian's
+objection to the establishment by Charles of Grimoald III. as duke of
+Benevento, in succession to his father Arichis.
+
+These journeys and campaigns, however, were but interludes in the long
+and stubborn struggle between Charles and the Saxons, which began in 772
+and ended in 804 with the incorporation of Saxony in the Carolingian
+empire (see SAXONY). This contest, in which the king himself took a very
+active part, brought the Franks into collision with the Wiltzi, a tribe
+dwelling east of the Elbe, who in 789 was reduced to dependence. A
+similar sequence of events took place in southern Germany. Tassilo III.,
+duke of the Bavarians, who had on several occasions adopted a line of
+conduct inconsistent with his allegiance to Charles, was deposed in 788
+and his duchy placed under the rule of Gerold, a brother-in-law of
+Charles, to be governed on the Frankish system (see BAVARIA). Having
+thus taken upon himself the control of Bavaria, Charles felt himself
+responsible for protecting its eastern frontier, which had long been
+menaced by the Avars, a people inhabiting the region now known as
+Hungary. He accordingly ravaged their country in 791 at the head of an
+army containing Saxon, Frisian, Bavarian and Alamannian warriors, which
+penetrated as far as the Raab; and he spent the following year in
+Bavaria preparing for a second campaign against them, the conduct of
+which, however, he was compelled by further trouble in Saxony to entrust
+to his son king Pippin, and to Eric, margrave of Friuli. These deputies
+succeeded in 795 and 796 in taking possession of the vast treasures of
+the Avars, which were distributed by the king with lavish generosity to
+churches, courtiers and friends. A conspiracy against Charles, which his
+friend and biographer Einhard alleges was provoked by the cruelties of
+Queen Fastrada, was suppressed without difficulty in 792, and its
+leader, the king's illegitimate son Pippin, was confined in a monastery
+till his death in 811. Fastrada died in August 794, when Charles took
+for his fourth wife an Alamannian lady named Liutgarde.
+
+The continuous interest taken by the king in ecclesiastical affairs was
+shown at the synod of Frankfort, over which he presided in 794. It was
+on his initiative that this synod condemned the heresy of _adoptianism_
+and the worship of images, which had been restored in 787 by the second
+council of Nicaea; and at the same time that council was declared to
+have been superfluous. This policy caused a further breach with Pope
+Adrian; but when Adrian died in December 795, his successor, Leo III.,
+in notifying his elevation to the king, sent him the keys of St Peter's
+grave and the banner of the city, and asked Charles to send an envoy to
+receive his oath of fidelity. There is no doubt that Leo recognized
+Charles as sovereign of Rome. He was the first pope to date his acts
+according to the years of the Frankish monarchy, and a mosaic of the
+time in the Lateran palace represents St Peter bestowing the banners
+upon Charles as a token of temporal supremacy, while the coinage issued
+by the pope bears witness to the same idea. Leo soon had occasion to
+invoke the aid of his protector. In 799, after he had been attacked and
+maltreated in the streets of Rome during a procession, he escaped to the
+king at Paderborn, and Charles sent him back to Italy escorted by some
+of his most trusted servants. Taking the same journey himself shortly
+afterwards, the king reached Rome in 800 for the purpose (as he
+declared) of restoring discipline in the church. His authority was
+undisputed; and after Leo had cleared himself by an oath of certain
+charges made against him, Charles restored the pope and banished his
+leading opponents.
+
+The great event of this visit took place on the succeeding Christmas
+Day, when Charles on rising from prayer in St Peter's was crowned by Leo
+and proclaimed emperor and _augustus_ amid the acclamations of the
+crowd. This act can hardly have been unpremeditated, and some doubt has
+been cast upon the statement which Einhard attributes to Charles, that
+he would not have entered the building had he known of the intention of
+Leo. He accepted the dignity at any rate without demur, and there seems
+little doubt that the question of assuming, or obtaining, this title had
+previously been discussed. His policy had been steadily leading up to
+this position, which was rather the emblem of the power he already held
+than an extension of the area of his authority. It is probable therefore
+that Charles either considered the coronation premature, as he was
+hoping to obtain the assent of the eastern empire to this step, or that,
+from fear of evils which he foresaw from the claim of the pope to crown
+the emperor, he wished to crown himself. All the evidence tends to show
+that it was the time or manner of the act rather than the act itself
+which aroused his temporary displeasure. Contemporary accounts lay
+stress upon the fact that as there was then no emperor, Constantinople
+being under the rule of Irene, it seemed good to Leo and his counsellors
+and the "rest of the Christian people" to choose Charles, already ruler
+of Rome, to fill the vacant office. However doubtful such conjectures
+concerning his intentions may be, it is certain that immediately after
+his coronation Charles sought to establish friendly relations with
+Constantinople, and even suggested a marriage between himself and Irene,
+as he had again become a widower in 800. The deposition and death of the
+empress foiled this plan; and after a desultory warfare in Italy between
+the two empires, negotiations were recommenced which in 810 led to an
+arrangement between Charles and the eastern emperor, Nicephorus I. The
+death of Nicephorus and the accession of Michael I. did not interfere
+with the relations, and in 812 an embassy from Constantinople arrived at
+Aix-la-Chapelle, when Charles was acknowledged as emperor, and in return
+agreed to cede Venice and Dalmatia to Michael.
+
+Increasing years and accumulating responsibilities now caused the
+emperor to alter somewhat his manner of life. No longer leading his
+armies in person he entrusted the direction of campaigns in various
+parts of his empire to his sons and other lieutenants, and from his
+favourite residence at Aix watched their progress with a keen and
+sustained interest. In 802 he ordered that a new oath of fidelity to him
+as emperor should be taken by all his subjects over twelve years of age.
+In 804 he was visited by Pope Leo, who returned to Rome laden with
+gifts. Before his coronation as emperor, Charles had entered into
+communications with the caliph of Bagdad, Harun-al-Rashid, probably in
+order to protect the eastern Christians, and in 801 he had received an
+embassy and presents from Harun. In the same year the patriarch of
+Jerusalem sent him the keys of the Holy Sepulchre; and in 807 Harun not
+only sent further gifts, but appears to have confirmed the emperor's
+rights in Jerusalem, which, however, probably amounted to no more than
+an undefined protectorate over the Christians in that part of the world.
+While thus extending his influence even into Asia, there was scarcely
+any part of Europe where the power of Charles did not make itself felt.
+He had not visited Spain since the disaster of Roncesvalles, but he
+continued to take a lively interest in the affairs of that country. In
+798 he had concluded an alliance with Alphonso II., king of the
+Asturias, and a series of campaigns mainly under the leadership of King
+Louis resulted in the establishment of the "Spanish march," a district
+between the Pyrenees and the Ebro stretching from Pampeluna to
+Barcelona, as a defence against the Saracens. In 799 the Balearic
+Islands had been handed over to Charles, and a long warfare was carried
+on both by sea and land between Frank and Saracen until 810, when peace
+was made between the emperor and El-Hakem, the emir of Cordova. Italy
+was equally the scene of continuous fighting. Grimoald of Benevento
+rebelled against his overlord; the possession of Venice and Dalmatia was
+disputed by the two empires; and Istria was brought into subjection.
+
+With England the emperor had already entered into relations, and at one
+time a marriage was proposed between his son Charles and a daughter of
+Offa, king of the Mercians. English exiles were welcomed at his court;
+he was mainly instrumental in restoring Eardwulf to the throne of
+Northumbria in 809; and Einhard includes the Scots within the sphere of
+his influence. In eastern Europe the Avars had owned themselves
+completely under his power in 805; campaigns against the Czechs in 805
+and 806 had met with some success, and about the same time the land of
+the Sorbs was ravaged; while at the western extremity of the continent
+the Breton nobles had done homage to Charles at Tours in 800. Thus the
+emperor's dominions now stretched from the Eider to the Ebro, and from
+the Atlantic to the Elbe, the Saale and the Raab, and they also included
+the greater part of Italy; while even beyond these bounds he exercised
+an acknowledged but shadowy authority. In 806 Charles arranged a
+division of his territories among his three legitimate sons, but this
+arrangement came to nothing owing to the death of Pippin in 810, and of
+the younger Charles in the following year. Charles then named his
+remaining son Louis as his successor; and at his father's command Louis
+took the crown from the altar and placed it upon his own head. This
+ceremony took place at Aix on the 11th of September 813. In 808 the
+Frankish authority over the Obotrites was interfered with by Gudrod
+(Godfrey), king of the Danes, who ravaged the Frisian coasts and spoke
+boastfully of leading his troops to Aix. To ward off these attacks
+Charles took a warm interest in the building of a fleet, which he
+reviewed in 811; but by this time Gudrod had been killed, and his
+successor Hemming made peace with the emperor.
+
+In 811 Charles made his will, which shows that he contemplated the
+possibility of abdication. The bulk of his possessions were left to the
+twenty-one metropolitan churches of his dominions, and the remainder to
+his children, his servants and the poor. In his last years he passed
+most of his days at Aix, though he had sufficient energy to take the
+field for a short time during the Danish War. Early in 814 he was
+attacked by a fever which he sought to subdue by fasting; but pleurisy
+supervened, and after partaking of the communion, he died on the 28th of
+January 814, and on the same day his body was buried in the church of St
+Mary at Aix. In the year 1000 his tomb was opened by the emperor Otto
+III., but the account that Otto found the body upright upon a throne
+with a golden crown on the head and holding a golden sceptre in the
+hands, is generally regarded as legendary. The tomb was again opened by
+the emperor Frederick I. in 1165, when the remains were removed from a
+marble sarcophagus and placed in a wooden coffin. Fifty years later they
+were transferred by order of the emperor Frederick II. to a splendid
+shrine, in which the relics are still exhibited once in every six years.
+The sarcophagus in which the body originally lay may still be seen at
+Aix, and other relics of the great emperor are in the imperial treasury
+at Vienna. In 1165 Charles was canonized by the antipope Paschal III. at
+the instance of the emperor Frederick I., and Louis XI. of France gave
+strict orders that the feast of the saint should be observed.
+
+The personal appearance of Charles is thus described by Einhard:--"Big
+and robust in frame, he was tall, but not excessively so, measuring
+about seven of his own feet in height. His eyes were large and lustrous,
+his nose rather long and his countenance bright and cheerful." He had a
+commanding presence, a clear but somewhat feeble voice, and in later
+life became rather corpulent. His health was uniformly good, owing
+perhaps to his moderation in eating and drinking, and to his love for
+hunting and swimming. He was an affectionate father, and loved to pass
+his time in the company of his children, to whose education he paid the
+closest attention. His sons were trained for war and the chase, and his
+daughters instructed in the spinning of wool and other feminine arts.
+His ideas of sexual morality were primitive. Many concubines are spoken
+of, he had several illegitimate children, and the morals of his
+daughters were very loose. He was a regular observer of religious rites,
+took great pains to secure decorum in the services of the church, and
+was generous in almsgiving both within his empire and without. He
+reformed the Frankish liturgy, and brought singers from Rome to improve
+the services of the church. He had considerable knowledge of theology,
+took a prominent part in the theological controversies of the time, and
+was responsible for the addition of the clause _filioque_ to the Nicene
+Creed. The most attractive feature of his character, however, was his
+love of learning. In addition to his native tongue he could read Latin
+and understood Greek, but he was unable to write, and Einhard gives an
+account of his futile efforts to learn this art in later life. He loved
+the reading of histories and astronomy, and by questioning travellers
+gained some knowledge of distant parts of the earth. He attended
+lectures on grammar, and his favourite work was St Augustine's _De
+civitate Dei_. He caused Frankish sagas to be collected, began a grammar
+of his native tongue, and spent some of his last hours in correcting a
+text of the Vulgate. He delighted in the society of scholars--Alcuin,
+Angilbert, Paul the Lombard, Peter of Pisa and others, and in this
+company the trappings of rank were laid aside and the emperor was known
+simply as David. Under his patronage Alcuin organized the school of the
+palace, where the royal children were taught in the company of others,
+and founded a school at Tours which became the model for many other
+establishments. Charles was unwearying in his efforts to improve the
+education of clergy and laity, and in 789 ordered that schools should be
+established in every diocese. The atmosphere of these schools was
+strictly ecclesiastical and the questions discussed by the scholars were
+often puerile, but the greatness of the educational work of Charles will
+not be doubted when one considers the rude condition of Frankish society
+half a century before. The main work of the Carolingian renaissance was
+to restore Latin to its position as a literary language, and to
+reintroduce a correct system of spelling and an improved handwriting.
+The manuscripts of the time are accurate and artistic, copies of
+valuable books were made and by careful collation the texts were
+purified.
+
+Charles was not a great warrior. His victories were won rather by the
+power of organization, which he possessed in a marked degree, and he was
+eager to seize ideas and prompt in their execution. He erected a stone
+bridge with wooden piers across the Rhine at Mainz, and began a canal
+between the Altmuhl and the Rednitz to connect the Rhine and the Danube,
+but this work was not finished. He built palaces at Aix (his favourite
+residence), Nijmwegen and Ingelheim, and erected the church of St Mary
+at Aix, modelled on that of St Vitalis at Ravenna and adorned with
+columns and mosaics brought from the same city. He loved the simple
+dress and manners of the Franks, and on two occasions only did he assume
+the more stately attire of a Roman noble. The administrative system of
+Charles in church and state was largely personal, and he brought to the
+work an untiring industry, and a marvellous grasp of detail. He
+admonished the pope, appointed the bishops, watched over the morals and
+work of the clergy, and took an active part in the deliberations of
+church synods; he founded bishoprics and monasteries, was lavish in his
+gifts to ecclesiastical foundations, and chose bishops and abbots for
+administrative work. As the real founder of the ecclesiastical state, he
+must be held mainly responsible for the evils which resulted from the
+policy of the church in exalting the ecclesiastical over the secular
+authority.
+
+In secular affairs Charles abolished the office of duke, placed counts
+over districts smaller than the former duchies, and supervised their
+government by means of _missi dominici_, officials responsible to
+himself alone. Marches were formed on all the borders of the empire, and
+the exigencies of military service led to the growth of a system of
+land-tenure which contained the germ of feudalism. The assemblies of the
+people gradually changed their character under his rule. No longer did
+the nation come together to direct and govern, but the emperor summoned
+his people to assent to his acts. Taking a lively interest in commerce
+and agriculture, Charles issued various regulations for the organization
+of the one and the improvement of the other. He introduced a new system
+of weights and measures, which he ordered should be used throughout his
+kingdom, and took steps to reform the coinage. He was a voluminous
+lawgiver. Without abolishing the customary law of the German tribes,
+which is said to have been committed to writing by his orders, he added
+to it by means of _capitularies_, and thus introduced certain Christian
+principles and customs, and some degree of uniformity.
+
+The extent and glamour of his empire exercised a potent spell on western
+Europe. The aim of the greatest of his successors was to restore it to
+its pristine position and influence, while many of the French rulers
+made its re-establishment the goal of their policy. Otto the Great to a
+considerable extent succeeded; Louis XIV. referred frequently to the
+empire of Charlemagne; and Napoleon regarded him as his prototype and
+predecessor. The empire of Charles, however, was not lasting. In spite
+of his own wonderful genius the seeds of weakness were sown in his
+lifetime. The church was too powerful, an incipient feudalism was
+present, and there was no real bond of union between the different races
+that acknowledged his authority. All the vigilance of the emperor could
+not restrain the dishonesty and the cupidity of his servants, and no
+sooner was the strong hand of their ruler removed than they began to
+acquire territorial power for themselves.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The chief authorities for the life and times of
+  Charlemagne are Einhard's _Vita Karoli Magni_, the _Annales
+  Laurissenses majores_, the _Annales Fuldenses_, and other annals,
+  which are published in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_.
+  _Scriptores_, Band i. and ii., edited by G.H. Pertz (Hanover and
+  Berlin, 1826-1892). For the capitularies see _Capitularia regum
+  Francorum_, edited by A. Boretius in the _Monumenta. Leges_. Many of
+  the songs of the period appear in the _Poetae Latini aevi Carolini_,
+  edited by E. Dummler (Berlin, 1881-1884). The _Bibliotheca rerum
+  Germanicarum_, tome iv., edited by Ph. Jaffe (Berlin, 1864-1873),
+  contains some of the emperor's correspondence, and Hincmar's _De
+  ordine palatii_, edited by M. Prou (Paris, 1884), is also valuable.
+
+  The best modern authorities are S. Abel and B. Simson, _Jahrbucher des
+  frankischen Reiches unter Karl dem Grossen_ (Leipzig, 1883-1888); G.
+  Richter and H. Kohl, _Annalen des frankischen Reichs im Zeitalter der
+  Karolinger_ (Halle, 1885-1887); E. Muhlbacher, _Deutsche Geschichte
+  unter den Karolingern_ (Stuttgart, 1886); H. Brosien, _Karl der
+  Grosse_ (Leipzig and Prague, 1885); J.I. Mombert, _History of Charles
+  the Great_ (London, 1888); M. Lipp, _Das frankische Grenzsystem unter
+  Karl dem Grossen_ (Breslau, 1892); J. von Dollinger, _Das Kaiserthum
+  Karls des Grossen und seiner Nachfolger_ (Munich, 1864); F. von Wyss,
+  _Karl der Grosse als Gesetzgeber_ (Zurich, 1869); Th. Sickel, _Lehre
+  von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger_ (Vienna, 1867); E. Dummler in
+  the _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band xv.; Th. Lindner, _Die
+  Fabel von der Bestattung Karls des Grossen_ (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1893);
+  J.A. Ketterer, _Karl der Grosse und die Kirche_ (Munich and Leipzig,
+  1898); and J.B. Mullinger, _The Schools of Charles the Great and the
+  Restoration of Education in the 9th century_ (London, 1877).
+
+  The work of the monk of St Gall is found in the _Monumenta_, Band ii.;
+  an edition of the _Historia de vita Caroli Magni et Rolandi_, edited
+  by F. Castets, has been published (Paris, 1880), and an edition of the
+  _Kaiserchronik_, edited by E. Schroder (Hanover, 1892). See also P.
+  Clemen, _Die Portratdarstellung Karls des Grossen_ (Aix-la-Chapelle,
+  1896).     (A. W. H.*)
+
+
+THE CHARLEMAGNE LEGENDS
+
+Innumerable legends soon gathered round the memory of the great emperor.
+He was represented as a warrior performing superhuman feats, as a ruler
+dispensing perfect justice, and even as a martyr suffering for the
+faith. It was confidently believed towards the close of the 10th century
+that he had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and, like many other great
+rulers, it was reported that he was only sleeping to awake in the hour
+of his country's need. We know from Einhard (_Vita Karoli_, cap. xxix.)
+that the Frankish heroic ballads were drawn up in writing by
+Charlemagne's order, and it may be accepted as certain that he was
+himself the subject of many such during his lifetime. The legendary
+element crept even into the Latin panegyrics produced by the court
+poets. Before the end of the 9th century a monk of St Gall drew up a
+chronicle _De gestis Karoli Magni_, which was based partly on oral
+tradition, received from an old soldier named Adalbert, who had served
+in Charlemagne's army. This recital contains various fabulous incidents.
+The author relates a conversation between Otkar the Frank (Ogier the
+Dane) and the Lombard king Desiderius (Didier) on the walls of Pavia in
+view of Charlemagne's advancing army. To Didier's repeated question "Is
+this the emperor?" Otkar continues to answer "Not yet," adding at last
+"When thou shalt see the fields bristling with an iron harvest, and the
+Po and the Ticino swollen with sea-floods, inundating the walls of the
+city with iron billows, then shall Karl be nigh at hand." This episode,
+which bears the marks of popular heroic poetry, may well be the
+substance of a lost Carolingian _cantilena_.[1]
+
+The legendary Charlemagne and his warriors were endowed with the great
+deeds of earlier kings and heroes of the Frankish kingdom, for the
+romancers were not troubled by considerations of chronology. National
+traditions extending over centuries were grouped round Charlemagne, his
+father Pippin, and his son Louis. The history of Charles Martel
+especially was absorbed in the Charlemagne legend. But if Charles's name
+was associated with the heroism of his predecessors he was credited with
+equal readiness with the weaknesses of his successors. In the earlier
+_chansons de geste_ he is invariably a majestic figure and represents
+within limitations the grandeur of the historic Charles. But in the
+histories of the wars with his vassals he is often little more than a
+tyrannical dotard, who is made to submit to gross insult. This picture
+of affairs is drawn from later times, and the sympathies of the poet are
+generally with the rebels against the monarchy. Historical tradition was
+already dim when the hypothetical and much discussed _cantilenae_, which
+may be taken to have formed the repository of the national legends from
+the 8th to the 10th century, were succeeded in the 11th and the early
+l2th centuries by the _chansons de geste_. The early poems of the cycle
+sometimes contain curious information on the Frankish methods in war, in
+council and in judicial procedure, which had no parallels in
+contemporary institutions. The account in the _Chanson de Roland_ of the
+trial of Ganelon after the battle of Roncesvalles must have been adopted
+almost intact from earlier poets, and provides a striking example of the
+value of the _chansons de geste_ to the historian of manners and
+customs. In general, however, the trouvere depicted the feeling and
+manners of his own time.
+
+Charlemagne's wars in Italy, Spain and Saxony formed part of the common
+epic material, and there are references to his wars against the Slavs;
+but especially he remained in the popular mind as the great champion of
+Christianity against the creed of Mahomet, and even his Norman and Saxon
+enemies became Saracens in current legend. He is the Christian emperor
+directly inspired by angels; his sword Joyeuse contained the point of
+the lance used in the Passion; his standard was Romaine, the banner of
+St Peter, which, as the oriflamme of Saint Denis, was later to be borne
+in battle before the kings of France; and in 1164 Charles was canonized
+at the desire of the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa by the anti-pope
+Pascal III. This gave him no real claim to saintship, but his festival
+was observed in some places until comparatively recent times.
+Charlemagne was endowed with the good and bad qualities of the epic
+king, and as in the case of Agamemnon and Arthur, his exploits paled
+beside those of his chief warriors. These were not originally known as
+the twelve peers[2] famous in later Carolingian romance. The twelve
+peers were in the first instance the companions in arms of Roland in the
+Teutonic sense.[3] The idea of the paladins forming an association
+corresponding to the Arthurian Round Table first appears in the romance
+of _Fierabras_. The lists of them are very various, but all include the
+names of Roland and Oliver. The chief heroes who fought Charlemagne's
+battles were Roland; Ganelon, afterwards the traitor; Turpin, the
+fighting archbishop of Reims; Duke Naimes of Bavaria, the wise
+counsellor who is always on the side of justice; Ogier the Dane, the
+hero of a whole series of romances; and Guillaume of Toulouse, the
+defender of Narbonne. Gradually most of the _chansons de geste_ were
+attached to the name of Charlemagne, whose poetical history falls into
+three cycles:--the _geste du roi_, relating his wars and the personal
+history of himself and his family; the southern cycle, of which
+Guillaume de Toulouse is the central figure; and the feudal epic,
+dealing with the revolts of the barons against the emperor, the rebels
+being invariably connected by the trouveres with the family of Doon de
+Mayence (q.v.).
+
+The earliest poems of the cycle are naturally the closest to historical
+truth. The central point of the _geste du roi_ is the 11th-century
+_Chanson de Roland_ (see ROLAND, LEGEND OF), one of the greatest of
+medieval poems. Strangely enough the defeat of Roncesvalles, which so
+deeply impressed the popular mind, has not a corresponding importance in
+real history. But it chanced to find as its exponent a poet whose genius
+established a model for his successors, and definitely fixed the type of
+later heroic poems. The other early _chansons_ to which reference is
+made in _Roland--Aspremont, Enfances Ogier, Guiteclin, Balan_, relating
+to Charlemagne's wars in Italy and Saxony--are not preserved in their
+original form, and only the first in an early recension. _Basin_ or
+_Carl el Elegast_ (preserved in Dutch and Icelandic), the _Voyage de
+Charlemagne a Jerusalem_ and _Le Couronnement Looys_ also belong to the
+heroic period. The purely fictitious and romantic tales added to the
+personal history of Charlemagne and his warriors in the 13th century are
+inferior in manner, and belong to the decadence of romance. The old
+tales, very much distorted in the 15th-century prose versions, were to
+undergo still further degradation in 18th-century compilations.
+
+According to _Berte aus grans pies_, in the 13th-century _remaniement_
+of the Brabantine trouvere Adenes li Rois, Charlemagne was the son of
+Pippin and of Berte, the daughter of Flore and Blanchefleur, king and
+queen of Hungary. The tale bears marks of high antiquity, and presents
+one of the few incidents in the French cycle which may be referred to a
+mythic origin. On the night of Berte's marriage a slave, Margiste, is
+substituted for her, and reigns in her place for nine years, at the
+expiration of which Blanchefleur exposes the deception; whereupon Berte
+is restored from her refuge in the forest to her rightful place as
+queen. _Mainet_ (12th century) and the kindred poems in German and
+Italian are perhaps based on the adventures of Charles Martel, who after
+his father's death had to flee to the Ardennes. They relate that, after
+the death of his parents, Charles was driven by the machinations of the
+two sons of Margiste to take refuge in Spain, where he accomplished his
+_enfances_ (youthful exploits) with the Mussulman king Galafre under the
+feigned name of Mainet. He delivered Rome from the besieging Saracens,
+and returned to France in triumph. But his wife Galienne, daughter of
+Galafre, whom he had converted to the Christian faith, died on her way
+to rejoin him. Charlemagne then made an expedition to Italy (_Enfances
+Ogier_ in the Venetian _Charlemagne_, and the first part of the
+_Chevalerie Ogier de Dannemarche_ by Raimbert of Paris, 12th century) to
+raise the siege of Rome, which was besieged by the Saracen emir
+Corsuble. He crossed the Alps under the guidance of a white hart,
+miraculously sent to assist the passage of the army. _Aspremont_ (12th
+century) describes a fictitious campaign against the Saracen King
+Agolant in Calabria, and is chiefly devoted to the _enfances_ of Roland.
+The wars of Charlemagne with his vassals are described in _Girart de
+Roussillon, Renaus de Montauban_, recounting the deeds of the four sons
+of Aymon, _Huon de Bordeaux_, and in the latter part of the _Chevalerie
+Ogier_, which belong properly to the cycle connected with Doon of
+Mayence.
+
+The account of the pilgrimage of Charlemagne and his twelve paladins to
+the Holy Sepulchre must in its first form have been earlier than the
+Crusades, as the patriarch asks the emperor to free Spain, not the Holy
+Land, from the Saracens. The legend probably originated in a desire to
+authenticate the relics in the abbey of Saint Denis, supposed to have
+been brought to Aix by Charlemagne, and is preserved in a 12th-century
+romance, _Le Voyage de Charlemagne a Jerusalem et a Constantinople_.[4]
+This journey forms the subject of a window in the cathedral of Chartres,
+and there was originally a similar one at Saint-Denis. On the way home
+Charles and his paladins visited the emperor Hugon at Constantinople,
+where they indulged in a series of _gabs_ which they were made to carry
+out. _Galien_, a favourite 15th-century romance, was attached to this
+episode, for Galien was the son of the amours of Oliver with Jacqueline,
+Hugon's daughter. The traditions of Charlemagne's fights with the
+Norsemen (Norois, Noreins) are preserved in _Aiquin_ (12th century),
+which describes the emperor's reconquest of Armorica from the "Saracen"
+king Aiquin, and a disaster at Cezembre as terrible in its way as those
+of Roncesvalles and Aliscans. _La destruction de Rome_ is a 13th-century
+version of the older _chanson_ of the emir Balan, who collected an army
+in Spain and sailed to Rome. The defenders were overpowered and the city
+destroyed before the advent of Charlemagne, who, however, avenged the
+disaster by a great battle in Spain. The romance of _Fierabras_ (13th
+century) was one of the most popular in the 15th century, and by later
+additions came to have pretensions to be a complete history of
+Charlemagne. The first part represents an episode in Spain three years
+before Roncesvalles, in which Oliver defeats the Saracen giant Fierabras
+in single combat, and converts him. The hero of the second part is Gui
+de Bourgogne, who recovers the relics of the Passion, lost in the siege
+of Rome. _Otinel_ (13th century) is also pure fiction. _L'Entree en
+Espagne_, preserved in a 14th-century Italian compilation, relates the
+beginning of the Spanish War, the siege of Pampeluna, and the legendary
+combat of Roland with Ferragus. Charlemagne's march on Saragossa, and
+the capture of Huesca, Barcelona and Girone, gave rise to _La Prise de
+Pampelune_ (14th century, based on a lost _chanson_); and _Gui de
+Bourgogne_ (12th century) tells how the children of the barons, after
+appointing Guy as king of France, set out to find and rescue their
+fathers, who are represented as having been fighting in Spain for
+twenty-seven years. The _Chanson de Roland_ relates the historic defeat
+of Roncesvalles on the 15th of August 778, and forms the very crown of
+the whole Carolingian legend. The two 13th-century romances, _Gaidon_,
+by Herbert Leduc de Dammartin, and _Anseis de Carthage_, contain a
+purely fictitious account of the end of the war in Spain, and of the
+establishment of a Frankish kingdom under the rule of Anseis.
+Charlemagne was recalled from Spain by the news of the outbreak of the
+Saxons. The contest between Charlemagne and Widukind (_Guiteclin_)
+offered abundant epic material. Unfortunately the original _Guiteclin_
+is lost, but the legend is preserved in _Les Saisnes_ (c. 1300) of Jehan
+Bodel, which is largely occupied by the loves of Baudouin and Sibille,
+the wife of Guiteclin. The adventures of Blanchefleur, wife of
+Charlemagne, form a variation of the common tale of the innocent wife
+falsely accused, and are told in _Macaire_ and in the extant fragments
+of _La Reine Sibille_ (14th century). After the conquest of the Saracens
+and the Saxons, the defeat of the Northmen, and the suppression of the
+feudal revolts, the emperor abdicated in favour of his son Louis (_Le
+Couronnement Looys_, 12th century). Charles's harangue to his son is in
+the best tradition of epic romance. The memory of Roncesvalles haunts
+him on his death-bed, and at the moment of death he has a vision of
+Roland.
+
+The mythic element is practically lacking in the French legends, but in
+Germany some part of the Odin myth was associated with Charles's name.
+The constellation of the Great Bear, generally associated with Odin, is
+Karlswagen in German, and Charles's Wain in English. According to
+tradition in Hesse, he awaits resurrection, probably symbolic of the
+triumph of the sun over winter, within the Gudensberg (Hill of Odin).
+Bavarian tradition asserts that he is seated in the Untersberg in a
+chair, as in his tomb at Aix-la-Chapelle. His white beard goes on
+growing, and when it has thrice encircled the stone table before him the
+end of the world will come; or, according to another version, Charles
+will arise and after fighting a great battle on the plain of Wals will
+reign over a new Germany. There were medieval chroniclers who did not
+fear to assert that Charles rose from the dead to take part in the
+Crusades. In the MS. _Annales S. Stephani Frisingenses_ (15th century),
+which formerly belonged to the abbey of Weihenstephan, and is now at
+Munich, the childhood of Charlemagne is practically the same as that of
+many mythic heroes. This work, generally known as the chronicle of
+Weihenstephan, gives among other legends a curious history of the
+emperor's passion for a dead woman, caused by a charm given to Charles
+by a serpent to whom he had rendered justice. The charm was finally
+dropped into a well at Aix, which thenceforward became Charles's
+favourite residence. The story of Roland's birth from the union of
+Charles with his sister Gilles, also found in German and Scandinavian
+versions, has abundant parallels in mythology, and was probably
+transferred from mythology to Charlemagne.
+
+The Latin chronicle, wrongly ascribed to Turpin (Tilpinus), bishop of
+Reims from 753 to 800, was in reality later than the earlier poems of
+the French cycle, and the first properly authenticated mention of it is
+in 1165. Its primary object was to authenticate the relics of St James
+at Compostella. Alberic Trium Fontium, a monk of the Cistercian
+monastery of Trois Fontanes in the diocese of Chalons, embodied much
+poetical fiction in his chronicle (c. 1249). A large section of the
+_Chronique rimee_ (c. 1243) of Philippe Mousket is devoted to
+Charlemagne's exploits. At the beginning of the 14th century Girard of
+Amiens made a dull compilation known as _Charlemagne_ from the _chansons
+de gests_, authentic history and the pseudo-Turpin. _La Conqueste que
+fit le grand roi Charlemaigne es Espaignes_ (pr. 1486) is the same work
+as the prose compilation of _Fierabras_ (pr. 1478), and Caxton's _Lyf of
+Charles the Grete_ (1485).
+
+The Charlemagne legend was fully developed in Italy, where it was to
+have later a great poetic development at the hands of Boiardo, Ariosto
+and Tasso. There are two important Italian compilations, MS. XIII. of
+the library of St Mark, Venice (c. 1200), and the _Reali di Francia_ (c.
+1400) of a Florentine writer, Andrea da Barberino (b. 1370), edited by
+G. Vandelli (Bologna, 1892). The six books of this work are rivalled in
+importance by the ten branches of the Norse _Karlamagnus saga_, written
+under the reign of Haakon V. This forms a consecutive legendary history
+of Charles, and is apparently based on earlier versions of the French
+Charlemagne poems than those which we possess. It thus furnishes a guide
+to the older forms of stories, and moreover preserves the substance of
+others which have not survived in their French form. A popular
+abridgment, the _Keiser Karl Magnus Kronike_ (pr. Malmo, 1534), drawn up
+in Danish, serves in some cases to complete the earlier work. The 2000
+lines of the German _Kaiserchronik_ on the history of Charlemagne belong
+to the first half of the 12th century, and were perhaps the work of
+Conrad, the poet of the _Ruolantes Liet_. The German poet known as the
+Stricker used the same sources as the author of the chronicle of
+Weihenstephan for his _Karl_ (c. 1230). The earliest important Spanish
+version was the _Chronica Hispaniae_ (c. 1284) of Rodrigo de Toledo.
+
+The French and Norman-French chansons circulated as freely in England as
+in France, and it was therefore not until the period of decadence that
+English versions were made. The English metrical romances of Charlemagne
+are:--_Rowlandes Song_ (15th century); _The Taill of Rauf Coilyear_ (c.
+1475, pr. by R. Lekpreuik, St Andrews, 1472), apparently original; _Sir
+Ferumbras_ (c. 1380) and the _Sowdone of Babylone_ (c. 1400) from an
+early version of _Fierabras_; a fragmentary _Roland and Vernagu_
+(Ferragus); two versions of _Otuel_ (Otinel); and a _Sege of Melayne_
+(c. 1390), forming a prologue to Otinel unknown in French.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The most important works on the Charlemagne cycle of
+  romance are:--G. Paris, _Hist. poetique de Charlemagne_ (Paris, 1865;
+  reprint, with additional notes by Paris and P. Meyer, 1905); L.
+  Gautier, _Les Epopees francaises_ (Paris, 4 vols. new ed., 1878, 1892,
+  1880, 1882) and the supplementary _Bibliographie des chansons de
+  geste_ (1897). The third volume of the _Epopees francaises_ contains
+  an analysis and full particulars of the _chansons de geste_
+  immediately connected with the history of Charlemagne. See also G.
+  Rauschen, _Die Legende Karls des Grossen im 11ten und 12ten
+  Jahrhundert_ (Leipzig, 1890); Kristoffer Nyrop, _Den oldfranske
+  Heldedigtning_ (Copenhagen, 1883; Ital. trans. Turin, 1886); Pio
+  Rajna, _Le Origini dell' epopea francese_ (Florence, 1884); G.T.
+  Graesse, "Die grossen Sagenkreise des Mittelalters," in his
+  _Litterargeschichte_ (Dresden, 1842); _Histoire litteraire de la
+  France_ (vol. xxii., 1852); H.L. Ward, _Catalogue of Romances in the
+  Dept. of MSS. in the British Museum_ (1883), vol. i. pp. 546-689; E.
+  Muntz, _La Legende de Charlemagne dans l'art du moyen age_ (Paris,
+  1885); and for the German legend, vol. iii. of H.F. Massmann's edition
+  of the _Kaiserchronik_ (Quedlinburg, 1849-1854). _The English
+  Charlemagne Romances_ were edited (extra series) for the Early Eng.
+  Text Soc. by Sidney J. Herrtage, Emil Hausknecht, Octavia Richardson
+  and Sidney Lee (1879-1881), the romance of _Duke Huon of Bordeaux_
+  containing a general account of the cycle by Sidney Lee; the
+  _Karlamagnussaga_, by C.R. Unger (Christiania, 1860), see also G.
+  Paris in _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Charles_ (1864-1865). For individual
+  _chansons_ see _Anseis de Carthage_, ed. J. Alton (Tubingen, 1892);
+  _Aiquin_, ed. F. Jouon des Longrais (Nantes, 1880); _Aspremont_, ed.
+  F. Guessard and L. Gautier (Paris, 1885); _Basin_, or _Charles et
+  Elegast_ or _Le Couronnement de Charles_, preserved only in foreign
+  versions (see Paris, _Hist. Poet._ pp. 315, seq.); _Berta de li gran
+  pie_, ed. A. Mussafia, in _Romania_ (vols. iii. and iv., 1874-1875);
+  _Berte aus grans pies_, ed. A. Scheler (Brussels, 1874);
+  _Charlemagne_, by Girard d'Amiens, detailed analysis in Paris, _Hist.
+  Poet._ (Appendix iv.); _Couronnement Looys_, ed. E. Langlois (Le Puy,
+  1888); _Desier_ (Desiderius or Didier), lost songs of the wars of
+  Lombardy, some fragments of which are preserved in _Ogier le Danois;
+  Destruction de Rome_, ed. G. Grober in _Romania_(1873); A. Thomas,
+  _Nouvelles recherches sur "l'entree de Spagne_," in _Bibl. des ecoles
+  francaises de Rome_ (Paris, 1882); _Fierabras_, ed. A. Krober and G.
+  Servois (Paris, 1860) in _Anciens poetes de la France_, and Provencal
+  text, ed. I. Bekker (Berlin, 1829); _Galien_, ed. E. Stengel and K.
+  Pfeil (Marburg, 1890); _Gaydon_, ed. F. Guessard and S. Luce (_Anciens
+  poetes_ ... 1862); _Gui de Bourgogne_, ed. F. Guessard and H.
+  Michelant (same series, 1859); _Mainet_ (fragments only extant), ed.
+  G. Paris, in _Romania_ (1875); _Otinel_, ed Guessard and Michelant
+  _(Anciens poetes_, 1859), and _Sir Otuel_, ed. S.J. Herrtage
+  (_E.E.T.S._, 1880); _Prise de Pampelune_ (ed. A. Mussafia, Vienna,
+  1864); for the Carolingian romances relating to Roland, see ROLAND;
+  _Les Saisnes_, ed. F. Michel (1839); _The Sege of Melaine_,
+  introductory to Otinel, preserved in English only (ed. _E.E.T.S._,
+  1880); _Simon de Pouille_, analysis in _Epop. fr._ (iii. pp. 346 sq.);
+  _Voyage de C. a Jerusalem_, ed. E. Koschwitz (Heilbronn, 1879). For
+  the chronicle of the Pseudo-Turpin, see an edition by Castets (Paris,
+  1881) for the "Societe des langues romanes," and the dissertation by
+  G. Paris, _De Pseudo-Turpino_ (Paris, 1865). The Spanish versions of
+  Carolingian legends are studied by Mila y Fontanals in _De la poesia
+  heroico-popular castellana_ (Barcelona, 1874).     (M. Br.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A remnant of the popular poetry contemporary with Charlemagne and
+    written in the vernacular has been thought to be discernible under
+    its Latin translation in the description of a siege during
+    Charlemagne's war against the Saracens, known as the "Fragment from
+    the Hague" (Pertz, _Script._ iii. pp. 708-710).
+
+  [2] The words _douze pairs_ were anglicized in a variety of forms
+    ranging from douzepers to dosepers. The word even occurred as a
+    singular in the metrical romance of _Octavian_:--"Ferst they sent out
+    a doseper." At the beginning of the 13th century there existed a
+    _cour des pairs_ which exercised judicial functions and dated
+    possibly from the 11th century, but their prerogatives at the
+    beginning of the 14th century appear to have been mainly ceremonial
+    and decorative. In 1257 the twelve peers were the chiefs of the great
+    feudal provinces, the dukes of Normandy, Burgundy and Aquitaine, the
+    counts of Toulouse, Champagne and Flanders, and six spiritual peers,
+    the archbishop of Reims, the bishops of Laon, Chalons-sur-Marne,
+    Beauvais, Langres and Noyon. (See Du Cange, _Glossarium_, s.v.
+    "Par.").
+
+  [3] See J. Flach, _Le Compagnonnage dans les chansons de geste_
+    (Paris, 1891).
+
+  [4] For clerical accounts of Charles's voyage to the Holy Land see
+    the _Chronicon_ (c. 968) of Benedict, a monk of St Andre, and
+    _Descriptio qualiter Karolus Magnus clavum et coronam Domini ...
+    detulerit_, by an 11th-century writer.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753-1838), French dramatic author, was born
+at Bourget (Seine) on the 30th of November 1753. Originally intended for
+the church, he turned first to being a lawyer's clerk and then a
+soldier. He served in the American War of Independence, and on returning
+to France (1783) began to employ his pen on economic subjects, and later
+in writing for the stage. He became the author of a large number of
+plays, poems and romances, among which may be mentioned the comedies _M.
+de Crac a Paris_ (1793), _Le Souper des Jacobins_ (1795)and _L'Agioteur_
+(1796) and _Observations de quelques patriotes sur la necessite de
+conserver les monuments de la litterature et des arts_ (1794), an essay
+written in collaboration with M.M. Chardin and Renouard, which induced
+the Convention to protect books adorned with the coats of arms of their
+former owners and other treasures from destruction at the hands of the
+revolutionists. He died in Paris on the 6th of March 1838.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEMONT, JAMES CAULFEILD, 1ST EARL OF (1728-1799), Irish statesman,
+son of the 3rd viscount Charlemont, was born in Dublin on the 18th of
+August 1728, and succeeded his father as 4th viscount in 1734. The title
+of Charlemont descended from Sir Toby Caulfeild (1565-1627) of
+Oxfordshire, England, who was given lands in Ireland, and created Baron
+Charlemont (the name of a fort on the Blackwater), for his services to
+King James I. in 1620, and the 1st viscount was the 5th baron (d. 1671),
+who was advanced by Charles II. Lord Charlemont is historically
+interesting for his political connexion with Flood and Grattan; he was
+a cultivated man with literary and artistic tastes, and both in Dublin
+and in London his amiable character gave him considerable social
+influence. For various early services in Ireland he was made an earl in
+1763, but he disregarded court favours and cordially joined Grattan in
+1780 in the assertion of Irish independence. He was president of the
+volunteer convention in Dublin in November 1783, having taken from the
+first a leading part in the embodiment of the volunteers; and he was a
+strong opponent of the proposals for the Union. He died on the 4th of
+August 1799; his eldest son, who succeeded him, being subsequently
+(1837) created an English baron.
+
+  His _Life_, by F. Hardy, appeared in 1810.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEROI (_Carolus Rex_), a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium.
+Pop. (1904) 26,528. It was founded in 1666 on the site of a village
+called Charnoy by the Spanish governor Roderigo and named after his
+sovereign Charles II. of Spain. Charleroi is the centre of the iron
+industry of Belgium. It is connected by a canal with Brussels, and from
+its position on the Sambre enjoys facilities of communication by water
+with France as well as Belgium. It was ceded soon after its foundation
+to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, and Vauban fortified it.
+During the French occupation the town was considerably extended, and the
+fortifications were made so strong that Charleroi twice successfully
+resisted the strenuous attacks of William of Orange. In 1794 Charleroi
+again fell into the hands of the French, and on this occasion instead of
+fortifying they dismantled it. In 1816 Charleroi was refortified under
+Wellington's direction, and it was finally dismantled in 1859. Some
+portions of the old ramparts are left near the railway station. There is
+an archaeological museum with a miscellaneous collection of Roman and
+Frank antiquities.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEROI, a borough of Washington county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+Monongahela river, near the S.W. corner of the state, about 20 m. S. of
+Pittsburgh. Pop. (1900) 5930, (1749 foreign-born); (1910) 9615. It is
+served by the Pennsylvania railway. The surrounding country has good
+farming land and large coal mines. In 1905 the borough ranked fifth
+among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of glass
+(plate-glass, lamp chimneys and bottles), its product (valued at
+$1,841,308) being 2.3% of that of the whole country. Charleroi was
+settled in 1890 and was incorporated in 1891.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (Fr. _Charles_; Span. _Carlos_; Ital. _Carlo_; Ger. _Karl_;
+derived from O.H.G. _Charal_, latinized as _Carolus_, meaning originally
+"man": cf. Mod. Ger., _Kerl_, "fellow," A.S. _ceorl_, Mod. Eng.
+"churl"), a masculine proper name. It has been borne by many European
+princes, notices of the more important of whom are given below in the
+following order: (1) Roman emperors, (2) kings of England, (3) other
+kings in the alphabetical order of their states, (4) other reigning
+princes in the same order, (5) non-reigning princes. Those princes who
+are known by a name in addition to Charles (Charles Albert, &c.) will be
+found after the private individuals bearing Charles as a surname.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II.[1] called THE BALD (823-877), Roman emperor and king of the
+West Franks, was the son of the emperor Louis the Pious and of his
+second wife Judith and was born in 823. The attempts made by his father
+to assign him a kingdom, first Alamannia (829), then the country between
+the Meuse and the Pyrenees (839), at the expense of his half-brothers
+Lothair and Louis led to a rising on the part of these two (see LOUIS
+I., the Pious). The death of the emperor in 840 was the signal for the
+outbreak of war between his sons. Charles allied himself with his
+brother Louis the German to resist the pretensions of the emperor
+Lothair, and the two allies conquered him in the bloody victory of
+Fontenoy-en-Puisaye (25 June 841). In the following year, the two
+brothers confirmed their alliance by the celebrated oaths of Strassburg,
+made by Charles in the Teutonic language spoken by the subjects of
+Louis, and by Louis in the Romance tongue of Charles's subjects. The war
+was brought to an end by the treaty of Verdun (August 843), which gave
+to Charles the Bald the kingdom of the western Franks, which practically
+corresponded with what is now France, as far as the Meuse, the Saone
+and the Rhone, with the addition of the Spanish March as far as the
+Ebro. The first years of his reign up to the death of Lothair I. (855)
+were comparatively peaceful, and during them was continued the system of
+"confraternal government" of the sons of Louis the Pious, who had
+various meetings with one another, at Coblenz (848), at Meersen (851),
+and at Attigny (854). In 858 Louis the German, summoned by the
+disaffected nobles, invaded the kingdom of Charles, who fled to
+Burgundy, and was only saved by the help of the bishops, and by the
+fidelity of the family of the Welfs, who were related to Judith. In 860
+he in his turn tried to seize the kingdom of his nephew, Charles of
+Provence, but met with a repulse. On the death of Lothair II. in 869 he
+tried to seize his dominions, but by the treaty of Mersen (870) was
+compelled to share them with Louis the German. Besides this, Charles had
+to struggle against the incessant rebellions in Aquitaine, against the
+Bretons, whose revolt was led by their chief Nomenoe and Erispoe, and
+who inflicted on the king the defeats of Ballon (845) and Juvardeil
+(851), and especially against the Normans, who devastated the country in
+the north of Gaul, the valleys of the Seine and Loire, and even up to
+the borders of Aquitaine. Charles was several times compelled to
+purchase their retreat at a heavy price. He has been accused of being
+incapable of resisting them, but we must take into account the
+unwillingness of the nobles, who continually refused to join the royal
+army; moreover, the Frankish army does not seem to have been
+sufficiently accustomed to war to make any headway against the pirates.
+At any rate, Charles led various expeditions against the invaders, and
+tried to put a barrier in their way by having fortified bridges built
+over all the rivers. In 875, after the death of the emperor Louis II.,
+Charles the Bald, supported by Pope John VIII., descended into Italy,
+receiving the royal crown at Pavia and the imperial crown at Rome (29th
+December). But Louis the German, who was also a candidate for the
+succession of Louis II., revenged himself for Charles's success by
+invading and devastating his dominions. Charles was recalled to Gaul,
+and after the death of Louis the German (28th August 876), in his turn
+made an attempt to seize his kingdom, but at Andernach met with a
+shameful defeat (8th October 876). In the meantime, John VIII., who was
+menaced by the Saracens, was continually urging him to come to Italy,
+and Charles, after having taken at Quierzy the necessary measures for
+safeguarding the government of his dominions in his absence, again
+crossed the Alps, but this expedition had been received with small
+enthusiasm by the nobles, and even by Boso, Charles's brother-in-law,
+who had been entrusted by him with the government of Lombardy, and they
+refused to come with their men to join the imperial army. At the same
+time Carlo man, son of Louis the German, entered northern Italy.
+Charles, ill and in great distress, started on his way back to Gaul, and
+died while crossing the pass of the Mont Cenis on the 5th or 6th of
+October 877. He was succeeded by his son Louis the Stammerer, the child
+of Ermentrude, daughter of a count of Orleans, whom he had married in
+842, and who had died in 869. In 870 he had married Richilde, who was
+descended from a noble family of Lorraine, but none of the children whom
+he had by her played a part of any importance. Charles seems to have
+been a prince of education and letters, a friend of the church, and
+conscious of the support he could find in the episcopate against his
+unruly nobles, for he chose his councillors for preference from among
+the higher clergy, as in the case of Guenelon of Sens, who betrayed him,
+or of Hincmar of Reims. But his character and his reign have been judged
+very variously. The general tendency seems to have been to accept too
+easily the accounts of the chroniclers of the east Frankish kingdom,
+which are favourable to Louis the German, and to accuse Charles of
+cowardice and bad faith. He seems on the contrary not to have lacked
+activity or decision.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The most important authority for the history of
+  Charles's reign is represented by the _Annales Bertiniani_, which were
+  the work of Prudentius, bishop of Troyes, up to 861, then up to 882 of
+  the celebrated Hincmar, archbishop of Reims. This prince's charters
+  are to be found published in the collections of the _Academie des
+  Inscriptions_, by M.M. Prou. The most complete history of the reign
+  is found in E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ (3
+  vols., Leipzig, 1887-1888). See also J. Calmette, _La Diplomatie
+  carolingienne du traite de Verdun a la mort de Charles le Chauve_
+  (Paris, 1901), and F. Lot, "Une Annee du regne de Charles le Chauve,"
+  in _Le Moyen-Age_, (1902) pp. 393-438.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Charles I., Roman emperor, see CHARLEMAGNE; cf. under Charles
+    I. of France below.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III., THE FAT[1] (832-888), Roman emperor and king of the West
+Franks, was the youngest of the three sons of Louis the German, and
+received from his father the kingdom of Swabia (Alamannia). After the
+death of his two brothers in succession, Carloman (881) and Louis the
+Young (882), he inherited the whole of his father's dominions. In 880 he
+had helped his two cousins in the west Frankish realm, Louis III. and
+Carloman, in their struggle with the usurper Boso of Provence, but
+abandoned them during the campaign in order to be crowned emperor at
+Rome by Pope John VIII. (February 881). On his return he led an
+expedition against the Norsemen of Friesland, who were entrenched in
+their camp at Elsloo, but instead of engaging with them he preferred to
+make terms and paid them tribute. In 884 the death of Carloman brought
+into his possession the west Frankish realm, and in 885 he got rid of
+his rival Hugh of Alsace, an illegitimate son of Lothair II., taking him
+prisoner by treachery and putting out his eyes. However, in spite of his
+six expeditions into Italy, he did not succeed in pacifying the country,
+nor in delivering it from the Saracens. He was equally unfortunate in
+Gaul and in Germany against the Norsemen, who in 886-887 besieged Paris.
+The emperor appeared before the city with a large army (October 886),
+but contented himself by treating with them, buying the retreat of the
+invaders at the price of a heavy ransom, and his permission for them to
+ravage Burgundy without his interfering. On his return to Alamannia,
+however, the general discontent showed itself openly and a conspiracy
+was formed against him. He was first forced to dismiss his favourite,
+the chancellor Liutward, bishop of Vercelli. The dissolution of his
+marriage with the pious empress Richarde, in spite of her innocence as
+proved by the judicial examination, alienated his nobles still more from
+him. He was deposed by an assembly which met at Frankfort or at Tribur
+(November 887), and died in poverty at Neidingen on the Danube (18th
+January 888).
+
+  See E. Dummler, _Geschichte des ostfrankischen Reiches_ vol. iii.
+  (Leipzig 1888).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This surname has only been applied to Charles since the 13th
+    century.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1316-1378), Roman emperor and king of Bohemia, was the
+eldest son of John of Luxemburg, king of Bohemia, and Elizabeth, sister
+of Wenceslas III., the last Bohemian king of the Premyslides dynasty. He
+was born at Prague on the 14th of May 1316, and in 1323 went to the
+court of his uncle, Charles IV., king of France, and exchanged his
+baptismal name of Wenceslas for that of Charles. He remained for seven
+years in France, where he was well educated and learnt five languages;
+and there he married Blanche, sister of King Philip VI., the successor
+of Charles IV. In 1331 he gained some experience of warfare in Italy
+with his father; and on his return to Bohemia in 1333 he was made
+margrave of Moravia. Three years later he undertook the government of
+Tirol on behalf of his brother John Henry, and was soon actively
+concerned in a struggle for the possession of this county. In
+consequence of an alliance between his father and Pope Clement VI., the
+relentless enemy of the emperor Louis IV., Charles was chosen German
+king in opposition to Louis by some of the princes at Rense on the 11th
+of July 1346. As he had previously promised to be subservient to Clement
+he made extensive concessions to the pope in 1347. Confirming the papacy
+in the possession of wide territories, he promised to annul the acts of
+Louis against Clement, to take no part in Italian affairs, and to defend
+and protect the church. Meanwhile he had accompanied his father into
+France and had taken part in the battle of Crecy in August 1346, when
+John was killed and Charles escaped wounded from the field. As king of
+Bohemia he returned to Germany, and after being crowned German king at
+Bonn on the 26th of November 1346, prepared to attack Louis. Hostilities
+were interrupted by the death of the emperor in October 1347, and
+Gunther, count of Schwarzburg, who was chosen king by the partisans of
+Louis, soon abandoned the struggle. Charles, having made good use of the
+difficulties of his opponents, was recrowned at Aix-la-Chapelle on the
+25th of July 1349, and was soon the undisputed ruler of Germany. Gifts
+or promises had won the support of the Rhenish and Swabian towns; a
+marriage alliance secured the friendship of the Habsburgs; and that of
+Rudolph II., count palatine of the Rhine, was obtained when Charles, who
+had become a widower in 1348, married his daughter Anna.
+
+In 1350 the king was visited at Prague by Cola di Rienzi, who urged him
+to go to Italy, where the poet Petrarch and the citizens of Florence
+also implored his presence. Turning a deaf ear to these entreaties,
+Charles kept Rienzi in prison for a year, and then handed him as a
+prisoner to Clement at Avignon. Four years later, however, he crossed
+the Alps without an army, received the Lombard crown at Milan on the 6th
+of January 1355, and was crowned emperor at Rome by a cardinal on the
+5th of April in the same year. His sole object appears to have been to
+obtain the imperial crown in peace, and in accordance with a promise
+previously made to Pope Clement he only remained in the city for a few
+hours, in spite of the expressed wishes of the Romans. Having virtually
+abandoned all the imperial rights in Italy, the emperor recrossed the
+Alps, pursued by the scornful words of Petrarch but laden with
+considerable wealth. On his return Charles was occupied with the
+administration of Germany, then just recovering from the Black Death,
+and in 1356 he promulgated the Golden Bull (q.v.) to regulate the
+election of the king. Having given Moravia to one brother, John Henry,
+and erected the county of Luxemburg into a duchy for another, Wenceslas,
+he was unremitting in his efforts to secure other territories as
+compensation and to strengthen the Bohemian monarchy. To this end he
+purchased part of the upper Palatinate of the Rhine in 1353, and in 1367
+annexed Lower Lusatia to Bohemia and bought numerous estates in various
+parts of Germany. On the death in 1363 of Meinhard, duke of Upper
+Bavaria and count of Tirol, Upper Bavaria was claimed by the sons of the
+emperor Louis IV., and Tirol by Rudolph IV., duke of Austria. Both
+claims were admitted by Charles on the understanding that if these
+families died out both territories should pass to the house of
+Luxemburg. About the same time he was promised the succession to the
+margraviate of Brandenburg, which he actually obtained for his son
+Wenceslas in 1373. He also gained a considerable portion of Silesian
+territory, partly by inheritance through his third wife, Anna, daughter
+of Henry II., duke of Schweidnitz. In 1365 Charles visited Pope Urban V.
+at Avignon and undertook to escort him to Rome; and on the same occasion
+was crowned king of Burgundy, or Arles, at Arles on the 4th of June
+1365.
+
+His second journey to Italy took place in 1368, when he had a meeting
+with Urban at Viterbo, was besieged in his palace at Siena, and left the
+country before the end of the year 1369. During his later years the
+emperor took little part in German affairs beyond securing the election
+of his son Wenceslas as king of the Romans in 1376, and negotiating a
+peace between the Swabian league and some nobles in 1378. After dividing
+his lands between his three sons, he died on the 29th of November 1378
+at Prague, where he was buried, and where a statue was erected to his
+memory in 1848.
+
+Charles, who according to the emperor Maximilian I. was the step-father
+of the Empire, but the father of Bohemia, brought the latter country to
+a high state of prosperity. He reformed the finances, caused roads to be
+made, provided for greater security to life and property, and introduced
+or encouraged various forms of industry. In 1348 he founded the
+university of Prague, and afterwards made this city the seat of an
+archbishop, and beautified it by the erection of several fine buildings.
+He was an accomplished diplomatist, possessed a penetrating intellect,
+and was capable of much trickery in order to gain his ends. By refusing
+to become entangled in Italian troubles and confining himself to
+Bohemia, he proved that he preferred the substance of power to its
+shadow. Apparently the most pliant of men, he had in reality great
+persistence of character, and if foiled in one set of plans readily
+turned round and reached his goal by a totally different path. He was
+superstitious and peace-loving, had few personal wants, and is described
+as a round-shouldered man of medium height, with black hair and beard,
+and sallow cheeks.
+
+  His autobiography the "Vita Caroli IV.," which deals with events down
+  to the year 1346, and various other documents relating to his life and
+  times, are published in the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_, Band I.,
+  edited by J.F. Bohmer (Leipzig, 1885). For other documents relating to
+  the time see _Die Regesten des Kaiserreichs unter Kaiser Karl IV._,
+  edited by J.F. Bohmer and A. Huber (Innsbruck, 1889); _Acta Karoli IV.
+  imperatoris inedita_ (Innsbruck, 1891); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex
+  registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885). See also
+  E. Werunsky, _Geschichte Kaiser Karls IV. und seiner Zeit_ (Innsbruck,
+  1880-1892); H. Friedjung, _Kaiser Karl IV. und sein Antheil am
+  geistigen Leben seiner Zeit_ (Vienna, 1876); A. Gottlob, _Karls IV.
+  private und politische Beziehungen zu Frankreich_ (Innsbruck, 1883);
+  O. Winckelmann, _Die Beziehungen Kaiser Karls IV. zum Konigreich
+  Arelat_ (Strassburg, 1882); K. Palm, "Zu Karls IV. Politik gegen
+  Baiern," in the _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, Band XV.
+  (Gottingen, 1862-1866); Th. Lindner, "Karl IV. und die Wittelsbacher,"
+  and S. Stienherz, "Die Beziehungen Ludwigs I. von Ungarn zu Karl IV.,"
+  and "Karl IV. und die osterreichischen Freiheitsbriefe," in the
+  _Mittheilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische Geschichtsforschung_
+  (Innsbruck, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. (1500-1558), Roman emperor and (as CHARLES I.) king of Spain,
+was born at Ghent on the 24th of February 1500. His parents were Philip
+of Burgundy and Joanna, third child of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip
+died in 1506, and Charles succeeded to his Netherland possessions and
+the county of Burgundy (Franche Comte). His grandfather, the emperor
+Maximilian, as regent, appointed his daughter Margaret vice-regent, and
+under her strenuous guardianship Charles lived in the Netherlands until
+the estates declared him of age in 1515. In Castile, Ferdinand, king of
+Aragon, acted as regent for his daughter Joanna, whose intellect was
+already clouded. On the 23rd of January 1516 Ferdinand died. Charles's
+visit to Spain was delayed until the autumn of 1517, and only in 1518
+was he formally recognized as king conjointly with his mother, firstly
+by the cortes of Castile, and then by those of Aragon. Joanna lived to
+the very eve of her son's abdication, so that he was only for some
+months technically sole king of Spain. During this Spanish visit
+Maximilian died, and Charles succeeded to the inheritance of the
+Habsburgs, to which was shortly added the duchy of Wurttemberg.
+Maximilian had also intended that he should succeed as emperor. In spite
+of the formidable rivalry of Francis I. and the opposition of Pope Leo
+X., pecuniary corruption and national feeling combined to secure his
+election in 1519. Charles hurriedly left Spain, and after a visit to
+Henry VIII. and his aunt Catherine, was crowned at Aix on the 23rd of
+October 1520.
+
+The difficulty of Charles's reign consists in the complexity of
+interests caused by the unnatural aggregate of distinct territories and
+races. The crown of Castile brought with it the two recently conquered
+kingdoms of Navarre and Granada, together with the new colonies in
+America and scattered possessions in northern Africa. That of Aragon
+comprised the three distinct states of Aragon, Valencia and Catalonia,
+and in addition the kingdoms of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia, each with a
+separate character and constitution of its own. No less than eight
+independent cortes or parliaments existed in this Spanish-Italian group,
+adding greatly to the intricacy of government. In the Netherland
+provinces again the tie was almost purely personal; there existed only
+the rudiments of a central administration and a common representative
+system, while the county of Burgundy had a history apart. Much the same
+was true of the Habsburg group of states, but Charles soon freed himself
+from direct responsibility for their government by making them over,
+together with Wurttemberg, to his brother Ferdinand. The Empire entailed
+serious liabilities on its ruler without furnishing any reliable assets:
+only through the cumbrous machinery of the diet could Charles tap the
+military and financial resources of Germany. His problem here was
+complicated by the growth of Lutheranism, which he had to face at his
+very first diet in 1521. In addition to such administrative difficulties
+Charles had inherited a quarrel with France, to which the rivalry of
+Francis I. for the Empire gave a personal character. Almost equally
+formidable was the advance of Sultan Suliman up the Danube, and the
+union of the Turkish naval power with that of the Barbary States of
+northern Africa. Against Lutheran Germany the Catholic emperor might
+hope to rely upon the pope, and against France on England. But the
+attitude of the popes was almost uniformly disagreeable, while from
+Henry VIII. and Edward VI. Charles met with more unpleasantness than
+favour.
+
+The difficulty of Charles himself is also that of the historian and
+reader of his reign. It is probably more instructive to treat it
+according to the emperor's several problems than in strict chronological
+order. Yet an attempt to distinguish the several periods of his career
+may serve as a useful introduction. The two best dividing lines are,
+perhaps, the coronation as emperor at Bologna in 1530, and the peace of
+Crepy in 1544. Until his visit to Italy (1529) Charles remained in the
+background of the European stage, except for his momentous meeting with
+Luther at the diet of Worms (1521). This meeting in itself forms a
+subdivision. Previously to this, during his nominal rule in the
+Netherlands, his visit to Spain, and his candidature for the Empire, he
+seemed, as it was said, spell-bound under the ferule of his minister
+Chievres. Almost every report represented him as colourless, reserved
+and weak. His dependence on his Flemish counsellors provoked the rising
+in Castile, the feebleness of his government the social war in Aragon.
+The religious question first gave him a living interest, and at this
+moment Chievres died. Aleander, the papal nuncio at Worms, now
+recognized that public opinion had been wrong in its estimate of
+Charles. Never again was he under tutelage. The necessity, however, of
+residence in Spain prevented his taking a personal part in the great
+fight with Francis I. for Italy. He could claim no credit for the
+capture of his rival at Pavia. When his army sacked Rome and held Pope
+Clement VII. prisoner, he could not have known where this army was. And
+when later the French overran Naples, and all but deprived him of his
+hold on Italy, he had to instruct his generals that they must shift for
+themselves. The world had become afraid of him, but knew little of his
+character. In the second main division of his career Charles changed all
+this. No monarch until Napoleon was so widely seen in Europe and in
+Africa. Complexity of problems is the characteristic of this period. At
+the head of his army Charles forced the Turks backwards down the Danube
+(1532). He personally conquered Tunis (1535), and was only prevented by
+"act of God" from winning Algiers (1541). The invasion of Provence in
+1536 was headed by the emperor. In person he crushed the rebellion of
+Ghent (1540). In his last war with Francis (1542-44) he journeyed from
+Spain to the Netherlands, brought the rebellious duke of Cleves to his
+knees, and was within easy reach of Paris when he made the peace of
+Crepy (1544). In Germany, meanwhile, from the diet of Augsburg (1530)
+onwards, he had presided at the diets or conferences, which, as he
+hoped, would effect the reunion of the church.
+
+Peace with France and the Turk and a short spell of friendliness with
+Pope Paul III. enabled Charles at last to devote his whole energies to
+the healing of religious schism. Conciliation proving impossible, he led
+the army which received the submission of the Lutheran states, and then
+captured the elector of Saxony at Muhlberg, after which the other
+leader, Philip of Hesse, capitulated. The Armed Diet of 1548 was the
+high-water mark of Charles's power. Here, in defiance of the pope, he
+published the Interim which was meant to reconcile the Lutherans with
+the church, and the so-called Reform which was to amend its abuses.
+During the next four years, owing to ill-health and loss of insight, his
+power was ebbing. In 1552 he was flying over the Brenner from Maurice of
+Saxony, a princeling whose fortunes he had made. Once again the old
+complications had arisen. His old enemy's son, Henry II., had attacked
+him indirectly in Piedmont and Parma, and then directly in Germany in
+alliance with Maurice. Once more the Turk was moving in the Danube and
+in the western Mediterranean. The humiliation of his flight gave Charles
+new spirit, and he once more led an army through Germany against the
+French, only to be checked by the duke of Guise's defence of Metz.
+Henceforth the waves of his fortune plashed to and fro until his
+abdication without much ostensible loss or gain.
+
+Charles had abundance of good sense, but little creative genius, and he
+was by nature conservative. Consequently he never sought to impose any
+new or common principles of administration on his several states. He
+took them as he found them, and at most, as in the Netherlands, improved
+upon what he found. So also in dealing with rival powers his policy may
+be called opportunist. He was indeed accused by his enemies of emulating
+Charlemagne, of aiming at universal empire. Historians have frequently
+repeated this charge. Charles himself in later life laughingly denied
+the imputation, and facts are in favour of his denial. When Francis I.
+was in his power he made no attempt to dismember France, in spite of his
+pledges to his allies Henry VIII. and the duke of Bourbon. He did,
+indeed, demand the duchy of Burgundy, because he believed this to have
+been unrighteously stolen by Louis XI. from his grandmother when a
+helpless girl. The claim was not pressed, and at the height of his
+fortunes in 1548 he advised his son never to surrender it, but also
+never to make it a cause of war. When Clement VII. was his prisoner, he
+was vehemently urged to overthrow the temporal power, to restore
+imperial dominion in Italy, at least to make the papacy harmless for the
+future. In reply he restored his enemy to the whole of his dominions,
+even reimposing him by force on the Florentine republic. To the end of
+his life his conscience was sensitive as to Ferdinand's expulsion of the
+house of Albret from Spanish Navarre, though this was essential to the
+safety of Spain. Though always at war he was essentially a lover of
+peace, and all his wars were virtually defensive. "Not greedy of
+territory," wrote Marcantonio Contarini in 1536, "but most greedy of
+peace and quiet." For peace he made sacrifices which angered his
+hot-headed brother Ferdinand. He would not aid in expelling the sultan's
+puppet Zapolya from Ferdinand's kingdom of Hungary, and he suffered the
+restoration of the ruffianly duke of Wurttemberg, to the grave prejudice
+of German Catholicism. In spite of his protests, Henry VIII. with
+impunity ill-treated his aunt Catherine, and the feeble government of
+Edward VI. bullied his cousin Mary, who had been his fiancee. No serious
+efforts were made to restore his brother-in-law, Christian II., to the
+throne of Denmark, and he advised his son Philip to make friends with
+the usurper. After the defeat of the Lutheran powers in 1547 he did not
+gain a palm's breadth of territory for himself. He resisted Ferdinand's
+claim for Wurttemberg, which the duke had deserved to forfeit; he
+disliked his acceptance of the voluntary surrender of the city of
+Constance; he would not have it said that he had gone to war for the
+benefit of the house of Habsburg.
+
+On the other hand, Charles V.'s policy was not merely negative. He
+enlarged upon the old Habsburg practice of marriage as a means of
+alliance of influence. Previously to his election as emperor, his sister
+Isabella was married to Christian II. of Denmark, and the marriages of
+Mary and Ferdinand with the king of Hungary and his sister had been
+arranged. Before he was twenty Charles himself had been engaged some ten
+times with a view to political combinations. Naturally, therefore, he
+regarded his near relations as diplomatic assets. The federative system
+was equally familiar; Germany, the Netherlands, and even Spain, were in
+a measure federations. Combining these two principles, he would within
+his more immediate spheres of influence strengthen existing federations
+by intermarriage, while he hoped that the same means would convert the
+jarring powers of Europe into a happy family. He made it a condition of
+the treaty of Madrid (1526) that Francis I. should marry his sister
+Eleanor, Manuel of Portugal's widow, in the hope, not that she would be
+an ally or a spy within the enemy's camp, but an instrument of peace.
+His son's marriage with Mary Tudor would not only salve the rubs with
+England, but give such absolute security to the Netherlands that France
+would shrink from war. The personal union of all the Iberian kingdoms
+under a single ruler had long been an aim of Spanish statecraft. So
+Charles had married his sister Eleanor, much against her will, to the
+old king Manuel, and then his sister Catherine to his successor. The
+empress was a Portuguese infanta, and Philip's first wife was another.
+It is thus small wonder that, within a quarter of a century of Charles's
+death, Philip became king of Portugal.
+
+In the wars with Francis I. Italy was the stake. In spite of his success
+Charles for long made no direct conquests. He would convert the
+peninsula into a federation mainly matrimonial. Savoy, the important
+buffer state, was detached from France by the marriage of the somewhat
+feeble duke to Charles's capable and devoted sister-in-law, Beatrice of
+Portugal. Milan, conquered from France, was granted to Francesco Sforza,
+heir of the old dynasty, and even after his treason was restored to him.
+In the vain hope of offspring Charles sacrificed his niece, Christina of
+Denmark, to the valetudinarian duke. In the long negotiations for a
+Habsburg-Valois dynasty which followed Francesco's death, Charles was
+probably sincere. He insisted that his daughter or niece should marry
+the third rather than the second son of Francis I., in order, apart from
+other reasons, to run less risk of the duchy falling under French
+dominion. The final investiture of Philip was forced upon him, and does
+not represent his saner policy. The Medici of Florence, the Gonzaga of
+Mantua, the papal house of Farnese, were all attached by Habsburg
+marriages. The republics of Genoa and Siena were drawn into the circle
+through the agency of their chief noble families, the Doria and
+Piccolomini; while Charles behaved with scrupulous moderation towards
+Venice in spite of her active hostility before and after the League of
+Cognac. Occasional acts of violence there were, such as the
+participation in the murder of Pierluigi Farnese, and the measures which
+provoked the rebellion of Siena. These were due to the difficulty of
+controlling the imperial agents from a distance, and in part to the
+faults of the victim prince and republic. On the whole, the loose
+federation of viceroyalties and principalities harmonized with Italian
+interests and traditions. The alternative was not Italian independence,
+but French domination. At any rate, Charles's structure was so durable
+that the French met with no real success in Italy until the 18th
+century.
+
+Germany offered a fine field for a creative intellect, since the evils
+of her disintegration stood confessed. On the other hand, princes and
+towns were so jealous of an increase of central authority that Charles,
+at least until his victory over the League of Schmalkalden, had little
+effective power. Owing to his wars with French and Turks he was rarely
+in Germany, and his visits were very short. His problem was infinitely
+complicated by the union of Lutheranism and princely independence. He
+fell back on the old policy of Maximilian, and strove to create a party
+by personal alliances and intermarriage. In this he met with some
+success. The friendship of the electors of Brandenburg, whether Catholic
+or Protestant, was unbroken. In the war of Schmalkalden half the
+Protestant princes were on Charles's side or friendly neutrals. At the
+critical moment which preceded this, the lately rebellious duke of
+Cleves and the heir of Bavaria were secured through the agency of two of
+Ferdinand's invaluable daughters. The relations, indeed, between the two
+old enemies, Austria and Bavaria, were permanently improved. The elector
+palatine, whose love affairs with his sister Eleanor Charles as a boy
+had roughly broken, received in compensation a Danish niece. Her sister,
+widow of Francesco Sforza, was utilized to gain a hold upon the French
+dynasty which ruled Lorraine. More than once there were proposals for
+winning the hostile house of Saxony by matrimonial means. After his
+victory over the League of Schmalkalden, Charles perhaps had really a
+chance of making the imperial power a reality. But he lacked either
+courage or imagination, contenting himself with proposals for voluntary
+association on the lines of the defunct Swabian League, and dropping
+even these when public opinion was against them. Now, too, he made his
+great mistake in attempting to foist Philip upon the Empire as
+Ferdinand's successor. Gossip reported that Ferdinand himself was to be
+set aside, and careless historians have given currency to this. Such an
+idea was impossible. Charles wished Philip to succeed Ferdinand, while
+he ultimately conceded that Ferdinand's son Maximilian should follow
+Philip, and even in his lifetime exercise the practical power in
+Germany. This scheme irritated Ferdinand and his popular and ambitious
+son at the critical moment when it was essential that the Habsburgs
+should hold together against princely malcontents. Philip was
+imprudently introduced to Germany, which had also just received a
+foretaste of the unpleasant characteristics of Spanish troops. Yet the
+person rather than the policy was, perhaps, at fault. It was natural
+that the quasi-hereditary succession should revert to the elder line.
+France proved her recuperative power by the occupation of Savoy and of
+Metz, Toul and Verdun, the military keys of Lorraine. The separation of
+the Empire and Spain left two weakened powers not always at accord, and
+neither of them permanently able to cope on equal terms with France.
+Nevertheless, this scheme did contribute in no small measure to the
+failure of Charles in Germany. The main cause was, of course, the
+religious schism, but his treatment of this requires separate
+consideration.
+
+The characteristics of Charles's government, its mingled conservatism
+and adaptability, are best seen in Spain and the Netherlands, with which
+he was in closer personal contact than with Italy and Germany. In Spain,
+when once he knew the country, he never repeated the mistakes which on
+his first visit caused the rising of the communes. The cortes of Castile
+were regularly summoned, and though he would allow no encroachment on
+the crown's prerogatives, he was equally scrupulous in respecting their
+constitutional rights. They became, perhaps, during the reign slightly
+more dependent on the crown. This has been ascribed to the system of
+gratuities which in later reigns became a scandal, but was not
+introduced by Charles, and as yet amounted to little more than the
+payment of members' expenses. Indirectly, crown influence increased
+owing to the greater control which had gradually been exercised over the
+composition of the municipal councils, which often returned the deputies
+for the cortes. Charles was throughout nervous as to the power and
+wealth of the greater nobles. They rather than the crown had conquered
+the communes, and in the past they rather than the towns had been the
+enemies of monarchy. He earnestly warned his son against giving them
+administrative power, especially the duke of Alva, who in spite of his
+sanctimonious and humble bearing cherished the highest ambitions: in
+foreign affairs and war he might be freely used, for he was Spain's best
+soldier. In the cortes of 1538 Charles came into collision with the
+nobles as a class. They usually attended only on ceremonial occasions,
+since they were exempted from direct taxation, which was the main
+function of the cortes. Now, however, they were summoned, because
+Charles was bent upon a scheme of indirect taxation which would have
+affected all classes. They offered an uncompromising opposition, and
+Charles somewhat angrily dismissed them, nor did he ever summon them
+again. The peculiar Spanish system of departmental councils was further
+developed, so that it may be said that the bureaucratic element was
+slightly increasing just as the parliamentary element was on the wane.
+The evils of this tendency were as yet scarcely apparent owing to
+Charles's personal intervention in all departments. The councils
+presented their reports through the minister chiefly concerned; Charles
+heard their advice, and formed his own conclusions. He impressed upon
+Philip that he should never become the servant of his ministers: let him
+hear them all but decide himself. Naturally enough, he was well served
+by his ministers, whom he very rarely changed. After the death of the
+Piedmontese Gattinara he relied mainly on Nicolas Perrenot de Granvella
+for Netherland and German affairs, and on Francisco de los Cobos for
+Spanish, while the younger Granvella was being trained. From 1520 to
+1555 these were the only ministers of high importance. Above all,
+Charles never had a court favourite, and the only women who exercised
+any influence were his natural advisers, his wife, his aunt Margaret and
+his sister Mary. In all these ladies he was peculiarly fortunate.
+Charles was never quite popular in Spain, but the empress whom he
+married at his people's request was much beloved. Complaints were made
+of his absenteeism, but until 1543 he spent the greater portion of his
+reign in Spain, or on expeditions such as those against Tunis and
+Algiers which were distinctively in Spanish interests. Spaniards
+disliked his Netherland and German connexions, but without the vigorous
+blows which these enabled him to strike at France, it is improbable that
+Spain could have retained her hold on Italy, or her monopoly of commerce
+with the Indies. The wars with Francis I. were, in spite of the rival
+candidature for the Empire, Spanish wars entailed by Ferdinand's
+retention of Roussillon, his annexation of Navarre, his summary eviction
+of the French from Naples. The Netherlands had become convinced on
+commercial grounds of the wisdom of peace with France, and the German
+interest in Milan was not sufficiently active to be a standing cause of
+war. Charles and Francis had inherited the hostility of Ferdinand and
+Louis XII.
+
+The reign of Charles was in America the age of conquest and
+organization. Upon his accession the settlements upon the mainland were
+insignificant; by 1556 conquest was practically complete, and civil and
+ecclesiastical government firmly established. Actual expansion was the
+work of great adventurers starting on their own impulse from the older
+colonies. To Charles fell the task of encouraging such ventures, of
+controlling the conquerors, of settling the relations between colonists
+and natives, which involved those between the colonists and the
+missionary colonial church. He must arrest depopulation, provide for the
+labour market, regulate oceanic trade, and check military preponderance
+by civil and ecclesiastical organization. In America Charles took an
+unceasing interest; he had a boundless belief in its possibilities, and
+a determination to safeguard the interests of the crown. Cortes,
+Alvarado and the brothers Pizarro were brought into close personal
+communication with the emperor. If he bestowed on Cortes the confidence
+which the loyal conqueror deserved, he showed the sternest determination
+in crushing the rebellious and autonomous instincts of Almagro and the
+Pizarros. But for this, Peru and Chile must have become independent
+almost as soon as they were conquered. Throughout he strove to protect
+the natives, to prevent actual slavery, and the consequent raids upon
+the natives. Legislation was not, indeed, always consistent, because the
+claims of the colonists could not always be resisted, but on the whole
+he gave earnest support to the missionaries, who upheld the cause of the
+natives against the military, and sometimes the civil and ecclesiastical
+elements. His humane care for his native subjects may well be studied in
+the instructions sent to Philip from Germany in 1548, when Charles was
+at the summit of his power. If Charles had had his will, he would have
+opened the colonial trade to the whole of his wide possessions. The
+Castilians, however, jealously confined it to the city of Seville,
+artificially fostering the indolence of the colonists to maintain the
+agricultural and manufacturing monopoly of Castile, and by extreme
+protective measures forcing them to live on smuggled goods from other
+countries. Charles did actually attempt to cure the exclusive interest
+of the colonists in mineral wealth by the establishment of peasant and
+artisan colonies. If in many respects he failed, yet the organization of
+Spanish America and the survival of the native races were perhaps the
+most permanent results of his reign. It is a proof of the complexity of
+his interests that the march of the Turk upon Vienna and of the French
+on Naples delayed until the following reign the foundation of Spain's
+eastern empire. Charles carefully organized the expedition of Magellan,
+which sailed for the Moluccas and discovered the Philippines.
+Unfortunately, his straits for money in 1529 compelled him to mortgage
+to Portugal his disputed claim to the Moluccas, and the Philippines
+consequently dropped out of sight.
+
+If in the administration of Spain Charles did little more than mark
+time, in the Netherlands advance was rapid. Of the seven northern
+provinces he added five, containing more than half the area of the later
+United Provinces. In the south he freed Flanders and Artois from French
+suzerainty, annexed Tournai and Cambrai, and closed the natural line of
+French advance through the great bishopric of Liege by a line of
+fortresses across its western frontier. Much was done to convert the
+aggregate of jarring provinces into a harmonious unity by means of
+common principles of law and finance, and by the creation of a national
+army. While every province had its own assembly, there were at Charles's
+accession only the rudiments of estates general for the Netherlands at
+large. At the close of the reign the common parliamentary system was in
+full swing, and was fast converting the loosely knit provinces into a
+state. By these means the ruler had wished to facilitate the process of
+supply, but supply soon entailed redress, and the provinces could
+recognize their common interests and grievances. Under Philip II. all
+patriotic spirits passionately turned to this creation of his father as
+the palladium of Netherland liberty. This process of consolidation was
+infinitely difficult, and conflicts between local and central
+authorities were frequent. That they were safely tided over was due to
+Charles's moderation and his legal mind, which prompted him to draw back
+when his case was bad. The harshest act of his life was the punishment
+of the rebellion of Ghent. Yet the city met with little or no sympathy
+in other quarters, because she had refused to act in concert with the
+other members of Flanders and the other provinces. It was no mere local
+quarrel, but a breach of the growing national unity.
+
+In the Netherlands Charles showed none of the jealousy with which he
+regarded the Spanish nobles. He encouraged the growth of large estates
+through primogeniture; he gave the nobles the provincial governorships,
+the great court offices, the command of the professional cavalry. In the
+Order of the Golden Fleece and the long established presence of the
+court at Brussels, he possessed advantages which he lacked in Spain. The
+nobility were utilized as a link between the court and the provinces.
+Very different was it with the church. By far the greater part of the
+Netherlands fell under foreign sees, which were peculiarly liable to
+papal exactions and to the intrigues of rival powers. Thus the usual
+conflict between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction was peculiarly
+acute. To remedy this dualism of authority and the consequent moral and
+religious abuses, Charles early designed the creation of a national
+diocesan system, and this was a darling project throughout his life. He
+was doing what every German territorial prince, Catholic or Lutheran,
+attempted, making bishoprics and abbeys dependent on the crown, with
+nomination and institution in his hands, and with reasonable control
+over taxation and jurisdiction. The papacy unfortunately thwarted him,
+and the scheme, which under Charles would have been carried with
+national assent, and created a national church, took the appearance
+under Philip of alien domination.
+
+If in Germany Charles was emperor, he was in the Netherlands territorial
+prince, and thus his interests might easily be at disaccord with those
+of the Empire. Consequently, just as he had shaken off French suzerainty
+from Flanders and Artois, so he loosened the tie of the other provinces
+to Germany. In 1548 they were declared free and sovereign principalities
+not subject to imperial laws, and all the territories were incorporated
+in the Burgundian circle. It was, indeed, agreed that they should
+contribute to imperial taxation, and in return receive imperial
+protection. But this soon became a dead letter, and the Netherlands were
+really severed from the Empire, save for the nominal feudal tie in the
+case of some provinces. Thus some writers have dated their independence
+from Charles's convention of 1548 rather than from the peace of
+Westphalia, a century later. Having converted his heterogeneous
+territories into a self-sufficient state, Charles often contemplated the
+formation of a middle kingdom between France and Germany. At the last
+moment he spoiled his own work by granting the Netherlands to Philip. It
+was indeed hard to set aside the order of inheritance, and the
+commercial interests of the provinces were closely bound with Spain, and
+with England, whose queen Philip had married. Under any other ruler than
+Philip the breach might not have come so early. Yet it must be regretted
+that Charles had not the courage of his convictions, and that he lost
+the opportunity of completing the new nation which he had faithfully
+laboured to create.
+
+Charles V. is in the eyes of many the very picture of a Catholic zealot.
+Popular opinion is probably mainly based upon the letters written from
+Yuste in 1558, when two hot-beds of heresy had been discovered in Spain
+herself, and on the contemporary codicil to his will. These were,
+perhaps, really in part responsible for the later persecution. Yet the
+circumstances were far from being typical of the emperor's career. Death
+was very near him; devotional exercises were his main occupation. The
+letters, moreover, were cries of warning, and not edicts. Charles was
+not then the responsible authority. There is a long step between a
+violent letter and a violent act. Few men would care to have their lives
+judged by letters written in the last extremities of gout. Less
+pardonable was the earlier persecution of the Valencian Moriscoes in
+1525-1526. They had fought for their landlords in the cause of order,
+had been forcibly converted by the revolutionaries, and on the
+suppression of revolution had naturally relapsed. But for this momentary
+conversion the Inquisition would have had no hold upon them. The edict
+of persecution was cruel and unnecessary, and all expert opinion in
+Valencia was against it. It was not, however, actually enforced until
+after the victory of Pavia. It seems likely that Charles in a fit of
+religious exaltation regarded the persecution as a sacrificial
+thank-offering for his miraculous preservation. It is characteristic
+that, when in the following year he was brought into personal contact
+with the Moors of Granada, he allowed them to buy themselves off from
+the more obnoxious measures of the Inquisition. Henceforth the reign was
+marked by extreme leniency. Spain enjoyed a long lull in the activity of
+her Inquisition. At Naples in 1547 a rumour that the Spanish Inquisition
+was to be introduced to check the growth of heresy in influential
+quarters produced a dangerous revolt. The briefs were, however, issued
+by Paul III., no friend of Charles, and when a Neapolitan deputation
+visited the emperor he disclaimed any intention of making innovations.
+Of a different type to all the above was the persecution in the
+Netherlands. Here it was deliberate, chronic, and on an ascending scale.
+It is not a sufficient explanation that heresy also was persistent,
+ubiquitous and increasing, for this was also the case in Germany where
+Charles's methods were neither uniform nor drastic. But in the
+Netherlands the heretics were his immediate subjects, and as in every
+other state, Catholic or Lutheran, they must conform to their prince's
+religion. But there was more than this. After the suppression of the
+German peasant revolt in 1525 many of the refugees found shelter in the
+teeming Netherland cities, and heresy took the form, not of Lutheranism,
+but of Anabaptism, which was believed to be perilous to society and the
+state. The government put down Anabaptism, as a modern government might
+stamp out Anarchism. The edicts were, indeed, directed against heresy in
+general, and were as harsh as they could be--at least on paper. Yet when
+Charles was assured that they were embarrassing foreign trade he let it
+be understood that they should not affect the foreign mercantile
+communities. Prudential considerations proved frequently a drag upon
+religious zeal.
+
+The relations of Charles to heresy must be judged in the main by his
+treatment of German Lutheranism. Here he had to deal, not with
+drawing-room imprudences nor hole-and-corner conventicles, not with
+oriental survivals nor millenary aspirations, but with organized
+churches protected by their princes, supported by revenues filched from
+his own church and stiffened by formulae as rigid as those of
+Catholicism. The length and stubbornness of the conflict will serve to
+show that Charles's religious conservatism had a measure of elasticity,
+that he was not a bigot and nothing more. It should be remembered that
+all his principal ministers were inclined to be Erasmian or indifferent,
+that one of his favourite confessors, Loaysa, advised compromise, and
+that several intimate members of his court and chapel were, after his
+death, victims of the Inquisition. The two more obvious courses towards
+the restoration of Catholic unity were force and reconciliation, in
+other words, a religious war or a general council. Neither of these was
+a simple remedy. The latter was impossible without papal concurrence,
+inoperative without the assistance of the European powers, and merely
+irritant without the adhesion of the Lutherans. It was most improbable
+that the papacy, the powers and the Lutherans would combine in a
+measure so palpably advantageous to the emperor. Force was hopeless save
+in the absence of war with France and the Turk, and of papal hostility
+in Italian territorial politics. Charles must obtain subsidies from
+ecclesiastical sources, and the support of all German Catholics,
+especially of the traditional rival, Bavaria. Even so the Protestants
+would probably be the stronger, and therefore they must be divided by
+utilizing any religious split, any class distinction, any personal or
+traditional dislikes, or else by bribery. Force and reconciliation
+seeming equally difficult, could an alternative be found in toleration?
+The experiment might take the form either of individual toleration, or
+of toleration for the Lutheran states. The former would be equally
+objectionable to Lutheran and Catholic princes as loosening their grip
+upon their subjects. Territorial toleration might seem equally obnoxious
+to the emperor, for its recognition would strengthen the anti-imperial
+particularism so closely associated with Lutheranism. If Charles could
+find no permanent specific, he must apply a provisional palliative. It
+was absolutely necessary to patch, if not to cure, because Germany must
+be pulled together to resist French and Turks. Such palliatives were
+two--suspension and comprehension. Suspension deferred the execution of
+penalties incurred by heresy, either for a term of years, or until a
+council should decide. Thus it recognized the divorce of the two
+religions, but limited it by time. Comprehension instead of recognizing
+the divorce would strive to conceal the breach. It was a domestic
+remedy, German and national, not European and papal. To become permanent
+it must receive the sanction of pope and council, for the Roman emperor
+could not set up a church of Germany. Yet the formula adopted might
+conceivably be found to fall within the four corners of the faith, and
+so obviate the necessity alike of force or council. Such were the
+conditions of the emperor's task, and such the methods which he actually
+pursued. He would advance now on one line, now on another, now on two or
+three concurrently, but he never definitely abandoned any. This fusion
+of obstinacy and versatility was a marked feature of his character.
+
+Suspension was of course often accidental and involuntary. The two chief
+stages of Lutheran growth naturally corresponded with the periods, each
+of nine years, when Charles was absent. Deliberate suspension was
+usually a consequence of the failure of comprehension. Thus at Augsburg
+in 1530 the wide gulf between the Lutheran confession and the Catholic
+confutation led to the definite suspensive treaty granted to the
+Lutherans at Nuremberg (1532). Charles dared not employ the alternative
+of force, because he needed their aid for the Turkish war. In 1541,
+after a series of religious conferences, he personally presented a
+compromise in the so-called Book of Regensburg, which was rejected by
+both parties. He then proposed that the articles agreed upon should be
+compulsory, while on others toleration should be exercised until a
+national council should decide. Never before nor after did he go so far
+upon the path of toleration, or so nearly accept a national settlement.
+He was then burning to set sail for Algiers. His last formal suspensive
+measure was that of Spires (Speyer) in 1544, when he was marching
+against Francis. He promised a free and general council to be held in
+Germany, and, as a preparation, a national religious congress. The
+Lutherans were privately assured that a measure of comprehension should
+be concluded with or without papal approval. Meanwhile all edicts
+against heresy were suspended. No wonder that Charles afterwards
+confessed that he could scarcely reconcile these concessions with his
+conscience, but he won Lutheran aid for his campaign. The peace of Crepy
+gave all the conditions required for the employment of force. He had
+peace with French and Turk, he won the active support of the pope, he
+had deeply divided the Lutherans and reconciled Bavaria. Finding that
+the Lutherans would not accept the council summoned by the pope to
+Trent, he resorted to force, and force succeeded. At the Armed Diet of
+1548 reunion seemed within reach. But Paul III. in direct opposition to
+Charles's wish had withdrawn the council from Trent to Bologna. Charles
+could not force Lutherans to submit to a council which he did not
+himself recognize, and he could not bring himself to national schism.
+Thus, falling back upon his old palliatives, he issued the Interim and
+the accompanying Reform of the Clergy, pending a final settlement by a
+satisfactory general council. These measures pleased neither party, and
+Charles at the very height of his power had failed. He was conscious of
+failure, and made few attempts even to enforce the Interim. Henceforward
+political complications gathered round him anew. The only remedy was
+toleration in some form, independent of the papacy and limitless in
+time. To this Charles could never assent. His ideal was shattered, but
+it was a great ideal, and the patience, the moderation, even at times
+the adroitness with which he had striven towards it, proved him to be no
+bigot.
+
+The idea of abdication had long been present with Charles. After his
+failure to eject the French from Metz he had not shrunk from a wearisome
+campaign against Henry II., and he was now tired out. His mother's death
+removed an obstacle, for there could now be no question as to his son's
+succession to the Spanish kingdoms. Religious settlement in Germany
+could no longer be postponed, and he shrank from the responsibility; the
+hand that should rend the seamless raiment of God's church must not be
+his. To Ferdinand he gave his full authority as emperor, although at his
+brother's earnest request formal abdication was delayed until 1558. In
+the Hall of the Golden Fleece at Brussels on the 25th of October 1555 he
+formally resigned to Philip the sovereignty of his beloved Netherlands.
+Turning from his son to the representatives of the estates he said,
+"Gentlemen, you must not be astonished if, old and feeble as I am in all
+my members, and also from the love I bear you, I shed some tears." In
+the Netherlands at least the love was reciprocal, and tears were
+infectious among the thousand deputies who listened to their sovereign's
+last speech. On the 16th of January 1556, Charles resigned his Spanish
+kingdoms and that of Sicily, and shortly afterwards his county of
+Burgundy. On the 17th of September he sailed from Flushing on the last
+of his many voyages, an English fleet from Portland bearing him company
+down the Channel. In February 1557 he was installed in the home which he
+had chosen at Yuste in Estremadura.
+
+The excellent books which have been written upon the emperor's
+retirement have inspired an interest out of all proportion to its real
+significance. His little house was attached to the monastery, but was
+not within it. He was neither an ascetic nor a recluse. Gastronomic
+indiscretions still entailed their inevitable penalties. Society was not
+confined to interchange of civilities with the brethren. His relations,
+his chief friends, his official historians, all found their way to
+Yuste. Couriers brought news of Philip's war and peace with Pope Paul
+IV., of the victories of Saint Quentin and Gravelines, of the French
+capture of Calais, of the danger of Oran. As head of the family he
+intervened in the delicate relations with the closely allied house of
+Portugal: he even negotiated with the house of Navarre for reparation
+for the wrong done by his grandfather Ferdinand, which appeared to weigh
+upon his conscience. Above all he was shocked by the discovery that
+Spain, his own court, and his very chapel were infected with heresy. His
+violent letters to his son and daughter recommending immediate
+persecution, his profession of regret at having kept his word when
+Luther was in his power, have weighed too heavily on his reputation. The
+feverish phrases of religious exaltation due to broken health and
+unnatural retirement cannot balance the deliberate humanity and honour
+of wholesome manhood. Apart from such occasional moments of excitement,
+the emperor's last years passed tranquilly enough. At first he would
+shoot pigeons in the monastery woods, and till his last illness tended
+his garden and his animal pets, or watched the operations of Torriani,
+maker of clocks and mechanical toys. After an illness of three weeks the
+call came in the early hours of the feast of St Matthew, who, as his
+chaplain said, had for Christ's sake forsaken wealth even as Charles had
+forsaken empire. The dying man clasped his wife's crucifix to his breast
+till his fingers lost their hold. The archbishop held it before his
+eyes, and with the cry of "_Ay Jesus!_" died, in the words of his
+faithul squire D. Luis de Quijada, "the chief of men that had ever been
+or would ever be." Posterity need not agree, but no great man can boast
+a more honest panegyric.
+
+In character Charles stands high among contemporary princes. It consists
+of pairs of contrasts, but the better side is usually stronger than the
+worse. Steadfast honesty of purpose was occasionally warped by
+self-interest, or rather he was apt to think that his own course must
+needs be that of righteousness. Self-control would give way, but very
+rarely, to squalls of passion. Obstinacy and irresolution were fairly
+balanced, the former generally bearing upon ends, the latter upon means.
+His own ideals were constant, but he could gradually assimilate the
+views of others, and could bend to argument and circumstance; yet even
+here he had a habit of harking back to earlier schemes which he had
+seemed to have definitely abandoned. Intercourse with different
+nationalities taught him a certain versatility; he was dignified with
+Spaniards, familiar with Flemings, while the material Italians were
+pleased with his good sense. His sympathies were neither wide nor quick,
+but he was a most faithful friend, and the most considerate of masters.
+For all who sought him his courtesy and patience were unfailing. At his
+abdication he dwelt with reasonable pride upon his labours and his
+journeyings. Few monarchs have lived a more strenuous life. Yet his
+industry was broken by fits of indolence, which were probably due to
+health. In his prime his confessor warned him against this defect, and
+it caused, indeed, the last great disaster of his life. Fortunately he
+was conscious of his obstinacy, his irresolution and his indolence. He
+would accept admonition from the chapter of the Golden Fleece, would
+comment on his failings as a warning to his son. When Cardinal Contarini
+politely assured him that to hold fast to good opinions is not obstinacy
+but firmness, the emperor replied, "Ah! but I sometimes stick to bad
+ones." Charles was not cruel, indeed the character of his reign was
+peculiarly merciful. But he was somewhat unforgiving. He especially
+resented any slight upon his honour, and his unwise severity to Philip
+of Hesse was probably due to the unfounded accusation that he had
+imprisoned him in violation of his pledge. The excesses of his troops in
+Italy, in Guelders and on the Austrian frontiers caused him acute pain,
+although he called himself "hard to weep." No great nobleman, statesman
+or financier was executed at Charles's order. He was proud of his
+generalship, classing himself with Alva and Montmorenci as the best of
+his day. Yet his failures nearly balanced his successes. It is true that
+in his most important campaign, that against the League of Schmalkalden,
+the main credit must be ascribed to his well-judged audacity at the
+opening, and his dogged persistency at the close. As a soldier he must
+rank very high. It was said that his being emperor lost to Spain the
+best light horseman of her army. At every crisis he was admirably cool,
+setting a truly royal example to his men. His mettle was displayed when
+he was attacked on the burning sands of Tunis, when his troops were
+driven in panic from Algiers, when in spite of physical suffering he
+forded the Elbe at Muhlberg, and when he was bombarded by the vastly
+superior Lutheran artillery under the walls of Ingolstadt. When blamed
+for exposing himself on this last occasion, "I could not help it," he
+apologized; "we were short of hands, 1 could not set a bad example."
+Nevertheless he was by nature timid. Just before this very action he had
+a fit of trembling, and he was afraid of mice and spiders. The force of
+his example was not confined to the field. Melanchthon wrote from
+Augsburg in 1530 that he was a model of continence, temperance and
+moderation, that the old domestic discipline was now only preserved in
+the imperial household. He tenderly loved his wife, whom he had married
+for pecuniary and diplomatic reasons. Of his two well-known illegitimate
+children, Margaret was born before he married, and Don John long after
+his wife's death, but he felt this latter to be a child of shame. His
+sobriety was frequently contrasted with the universal drunkenness of the
+German and Flemish nobles, which he earnestly condemned. But on his
+appetite he could place no control, in spite of the ruinous effects of
+his gluttony upon his health. In dress, in his household, and in his
+stable he was simple and economical. He loved children, flowers, animals
+and birds. Professional jesters amused him, and he was not above a joke
+himself. Maps and mechanical inventions greatly interested him, and in
+later life he became fond of reading. He takes his place indeed among
+authors, for he dictated the commentaries on his own career. Of music he
+possessed a really fine knowledge, and his high appreciation of Titian
+proves the purity of his feeling for art. The little collection of books
+and pictures which he carried to Yuste is an index of his tastes.
+Charles was undeniably plain. He confessed that he was by nature ugly,
+but that as artists usually painted him uglier than he was, strangers on
+seeing him were agreeably disappointed. The protruding lower jaw and the
+thin pale face were redeemed by the fine open brow and the bright
+speaking eyes. He was, moreover, well made, and in youth had an
+incomparable leg. Above all no man could doubt his dignity; Charles was
+every inch an emperor.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Commentaries de Charles-quint_, ed. by Baron Kervyn de
+  Lettenhove (Brussels, 1862); _Memoirs_ written by Charles in 1550, and
+  treating somewhat fully of the years 1543-1548; W. Robertson, _History
+  of the Emperor Charles V._ (latest ed., London, 1887), an English
+  classic, which needs supplementing by later authorities; F.A. Mignet,
+  _Rivalite de Francois I et de Charles-quint_ (2 vols., Paris, 1875);
+  E. Armstrong, _The Emperor Charles V._ (2 vols., London, 1902), to
+  which reference may be made for monographs and collections of
+  documents bearing on the reign; H. Baumgarten, _Geschichte Karls V._
+  (3 vols., Stuttgart, 1885-1893), very full but extending only to 1539;
+  G. de Leva, _Storia documentata di Carlo V. in correlazione all'
+  Italia_ (5 vols., Venice, 1862-1894), a general history of the reign,
+  though with special reference to its Italian aspects, and extending to
+  1552; article by L.P. Gachard in _Biographie nationale_, vol. iii.,
+  1872, an excellent compressed account. The life of Charles V. at Yuste
+  may be studied in L.P. Gachard's _Retraite et mort de Charles-quint au
+  monastere de Yuste_ (Brussels, 1854-1855), and in Sir W.
+  Stirling-Maxwell's _The Cloister Life of the Emperor Charles V._
+  (London, 4 editions from 1852); also in W.H. Prescott's edition of
+  Robertson's _History_ (1857).     (E. Ar.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VI. (1685-1740), Roman emperor, was born on the 1st of October
+1685 at Vienna. He was the second son of the emperor Leopold I. by his
+third marriage with Eleanore, daughter of Philip William of Neuburg,
+elector palatine of the Rhine. When the Spanish branch of the house of
+Habsburg became extinct in 1700, he was put forward as the lawful heir
+in opposition to Philip V., the Bourbon to whom the Spanish dominions
+had been left by the will of Charles II. of Spain. He was proclaimed at
+Vienna on the 19th of September 1703, and made his way to Spain by the
+Low Countries, England and Lisbon, remaining in Spain till 1711, mostly
+in Catalonia, where the Habsburg party was strong. Although he had a
+certain tenacity of purpose, which he showed in later life, he displayed
+none of the qualities required in a prince who had to gain his throne by
+the sword (see SPANISH SUCCESSION, WAR OF). He was so afraid of
+appearing to be ruled by a favourite that he would not take good advice,
+but was easily earwigged by flatterers who played on his weakness for
+appearing independent. In 1708 he was married at Barcelona to Elizabeth
+Christina of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel (1691-1750), a Lutheran princess who
+was persuaded to accept Roman Catholicism by the assurances of
+Protestant divines and of the philosopher Leibnitz, that she could
+always give an Evangelical meaning to Catholic ceremonies. On the death
+of his elder brother Joseph I. on the 17th of April 1711, Charles
+inherited the hereditary possessions of the house of Habsburg, and their
+claims on the Empire. The death of Joseph without male issue had been
+foreseen, and Charles had at one time been prepared to give up Spain and
+the Indies on condition that he was allowed to retain Naples, Sicily and
+the Milanese. But when the case arose, his natural obstinacy led him to
+declare that he would not think of surrendering any of the rights of his
+family. It was with great difficulty that he was persuaded to leave
+Spain, months after the death of his brother (on the 27th of September
+1711). Only the emphatic refusal of the European powers to tolerate the
+reconstruction of the empire of Charles V. forced him to give a sullen
+submission to necessity. He abandoned Spain and was crowned emperor in
+December 1711, but for a long time he would not recognize Philip V. It
+is to his honour that he was very reluctant to desert the Catalans who
+had fought for his cause. Some of their chiefs followed him to Vienna,
+and their advice had an unfortunate influence on his mind. They almost
+succeeded in arousing his suspicions of the loyalty of Prince Eugene at
+the very moment when the prince's splendid victories over the Turks had
+led to the peace of Passarowitz on the 28th of July 1718, and a great
+extension of the Austrian dominions eastward. Charles showed an
+enlightened, though not always successful, interest in the commercial
+prosperity of his subjects, but from the date of his return to Germany
+till his death his ruling passion was to secure his inheritance against
+dismemberment. As early as 1713 he had begun to prepare the "Pragmatic
+Sanction" which was to regulate the succession. An only son, born on the
+13th of April 1716, died in infancy, and it became the object of his
+policy to obtain the recognition of his daughter Maria Theresa as his
+heiress. He made great concessions to obtain his aim, and embarked on
+complicated diplomatic negotiations. His last days were embittered by a
+disastrous war with Turkey, in which he lost almost all he had gained by
+the peace of Passarowitz. He died at Vienna on the 20th of October 1740,
+and with him expired the male line of his house. Charles VI. was an
+admirable representative of the tenacious ambition of the Habsburgs, and
+of their belief in their own "august greatness" and boundless rights.
+
+  For the personal character of Charles VI. see A. von Arneth,
+  _Geschichte Maria Theresias_ (Vienna, 1863-1879). Dr Franz Krones, R.
+  v. Marchland, _Grundriss der dsterreichischen Geschichte_ (Vienna,
+  1882), gives a very copious bibliography.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VII. (1697-1745), Roman emperor, known also as Charles Albert,
+elector of Bavaria, was the son of the elector Maximilian Emanuel and
+his second wife, Theresa Cunigunda, daughter of John Sobieski, king of
+Poland. He was born on the 6th of August 1697. His father having taken
+the side of Louis XIV. of France in the War of the Spanish Succession
+(q.v.), Bavaria was occupied by the allies. Charles and his brother
+Clement, afterwards archbishop of Cologne, were carried prisoners to
+Vienna, and were educated by the Jesuits under the name of the counts of
+Wittelsbach. When his father was restored to his electorate, Charles was
+released, and in 1717 he led the Bavarian contingent of the imperial
+army which served under Prince Eugene against the Turks, and is said to
+have distinguished himself at Belgrade. On the 25th of September 1722 he
+was betrothed to Maria Amelia, the younger of the two orphan daughters
+of the emperor Joseph I. Her uncle Charles VI. insisted that the
+Bavarian house should recognize the Pragmatic Sanction which established
+his daughter Maria Theresa as heiress of the Habsburg dominions. They
+did so, but with secret protests and mental reservations of their
+rights, which were designed to render the recognition valueless. The
+electors of Bavaria had claims on the possessions of the Habsburgs under
+the will of the emperor Ferdinand I., who died in 1564.
+
+Charles succeeded his father on the 26th of February 1726. As a ruler of
+Bavaria, he showed a vague disposition to improve the condition of his
+subjects, but his profuse habits and his efforts to rival the splendour
+of the French court crippled his finances. His policy was one of much
+duplicity, for he was constantly endeavouring to keep on good terms with
+the emperor while slipping out of his obligation to accept the Pragmatic
+Sanction and intriguing to secure French support for his claims whenever
+Charles VI. should die. On hearing of the emperor's last illness, he
+ordered his agent at Vienna to renew his claim to the Austrian
+inheritance. The claim was advanced immediately after the death of
+Charles VI. on the 20th of October 1740. Charles Albert now entered into
+the league against Maria Theresa, to the great misfortune of himself and
+his subjects. By the help of her enemies he was elected emperor in
+opposition to her husband Francis, grand duke of Tuscany, on the 24th of
+January 1742, under the title of Charles VII., and was crowned at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 12th of February. But as his army had been
+neglected, he was utterly unable to resist the Austrian troops. While he
+was being crowned his hereditary dominions in Bavaria were being
+overrun. He described himself as attacked by stone and gout, ill,
+without money or land, and in distress comparable to the sorrows of
+Job. During the War of the Austrian Succession (q.v.) he was a mere
+puppet in the hands of the anti-Austrian coalition, and was often in
+want of mere necessaries. In the changes of the war he was able to
+re-enter his capital, Munich, in 1743, but had immediately afterwards to
+take flight again. He was restored by Frederick the Great in October
+1744, but died worn out at Munich on the 20th of January 1745.
+
+  See A. von Arneth, _Geschichte Maria Theresias_ (Vienna, 1863-1879);
+  and P.T. Heigel. _Der osterreichische Erbfolgestreit und die
+  Kaiserwahl Karls VII._ (Munich, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1600-1649), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second son of
+James I. and Anne of Denmark, was born at Dunfermline on the 19th of
+November 1600. At his baptism he was created duke of Albany, and on the
+16th of January 1605 duke of York. In 1612, by the death of his elder
+brother Henry, he became heir-apparent, and was created prince of Wales
+on the 3rd of November 1616. In 1620 he took up warmly the cause of his
+sister the queen of Bohemia, and in 1621 he defended Bacon, using his
+influence to prevent the chancellor's degradation from the peerage. The
+prince's marriage with the infanta Maria, daughter of Philip III. of
+Spain, had been for some time the subject of negotiation, James desiring
+to obtain through Spanish support the restitution of his son-in-law,
+Frederick, to the Palatinate; and in 1623 Charles was persuaded by
+Buckingham, who now obtained a complete ascendancy over him in
+opposition to wiser advisers and the king's own wishes, to make a secret
+expedition himself to Spain, put an end to all formalities, and bring
+home his mistress himself: "a gallant and brave thing for his Highness."
+"Steenie" and "Baby Charles," as James called them, started on the 17th
+of February, arriving at Paris on the 21st and at Madrid on the 7th of
+March, where they assumed the unromantic names of Mr Smith, and Mr
+Brown. They found the Spanish court by no means enthusiastic for the
+marriage[1] and the princess herself averse. The prince's immediate
+conversion was expected, and a complete religious tolerance for the
+Roman Catholics in England demanded. James engaged to allow the infanta
+the right of public worship and to use his influence to modify the law,
+but Charles himself went much further. He promised the alteration of the
+penal laws within three years, conceded the education of the children to
+the mother till the age of twelve, and undertook to listen to the
+infanta's priests in matters of religion, signing the marriage contract
+on the 25th of July 1623. The Spanish, however, did not trust to words,
+and Charles was informed that his wife could only follow him to England
+when these promises were executed. Moreover, they had no intention
+whatever of aiding the Protestant Frederick. Meanwhile Buckingham,
+incensed at the failure of the expedition, had quarrelled with the
+grandees, and Charles left Madrid, landing at Portsmouth on the 5th of
+October, to the joy of the people, to whom the proposed alliance was
+odious. He now with Buckingham urged James to make war on Spain, and in
+December 1624 signed a marriage treaty with Henrietta Maria, daughter of
+Henry IV. of France. In April Charles had declared solemnly to the
+parliament that in case of his marriage to a Roman Catholic princess no
+concessions should be granted to recusants, but these were in September
+1624 deliberately promised by James and Charles in a secret article, the
+first instance of the duplicity and deception practised by Charles in
+dealing with the parliament and the nation. The French on their side
+promised to assist in Mansfeld's expedition for the recovery of the
+Palatinate, but Louis in October refused to allow the men to pass
+through France; and the army, without pay or provisions, dwindled away
+in Holland to nothing.
+
+On the 27th of March 1625 Charles I. succeeded to the throne by the
+death of his father, and on the 1st of May he was married by proxy to
+Henrietta Maria. He received her at Canterbury on the 13th of June, and
+on the 18th his first parliament assembled. On the day of his marriage
+Charles had given directions that the prosecutions of the Roman
+Catholics should cease, but he now declared his intention of enforcing
+the laws against them, and demanded subsidies for carrying on the war
+against Spain. The Commons, however, responded coldly. Charles had lent
+ships to Louis XIII. to be used against the Protestants at La Rochelle,
+and the Commons were not aware of the subterfuges and fictitious delays
+intended to prevent their employment. The Protestant feelings of the
+Commons were also aroused by the king's support of the royal chaplain,
+Richard Montagu, who had repudiated Calvinistic doctrine. They only
+voted small sums, and sent up a petition on the state of religion and
+reflecting upon Buckingham, whom they deemed responsible for the failure
+of Mansfeld's expedition, at the same time demanding counsellors in whom
+they could trust. Parliament was accordingly dissolved by Charles on the
+12th of August. He hoped that greater success abroad would persuade the
+Commons to be more generous. On the 8th of September 1625 he made the
+treaty of Southampton with the Dutch against Spain, and sent an
+expedition to Cadiz under Sir Edward Cecil, which, however, was a
+failure. In order to make himself independent of parliament he attempted
+to raise money on the crown jewels in Holland, and to diminish the
+opposition in the Commons he excluded the chief leaders by appointing
+them sheriffs. When the second parliament met, however, on the 6th of
+February 1626, the opposition, led by Sir John Eliot, was more
+determined than before, and their attack was concentrated upon
+Buckingham. On the 29th of March, Charles, calling the Commons into his
+presence, accused them of leading him into the war and of taking
+advantage of his difficulties to "make their own game." "I pray you not
+to be deceived," he said, "it is not a parliamentary way, nor 'tis not a
+way to deal with a king. Remember that parliaments are altogether in my
+power for their calling, sitting, and dissolution; therefore as I find
+the fruits of them good or evil, they are to continue or not to be."
+Charles, however, was worsted in several collisions with the two houses,
+with a consequent loss of influence. He was obliged by the peers to set
+at liberty Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, whom he had put into the
+Tower, and to send a summons to the earl of Bristol, whom he had
+attempted to exclude from parliament, while the Commons compelled him,
+with a threat of doing no business, to liberate Eliot and Digges, the
+managers of Buckingham's impeachment, whom he had imprisoned. Finally in
+June the Commons answered Charles's demand for money by a remonstrance
+asking for Buckingham's dismissal, which they decided must precede the
+grant of supply. They claimed responsible ministers, while Charles
+considered himself the executive and the sole and unfettered judge of
+the necessities of the state. Accordingly on the 15th Charles dissolved
+the parliament.
+
+The king was now in great need of money. He was at war with Spain and
+had promised to pay L30,000 a month to Christian IV. of Denmark in
+support of the Protestant campaign in Germany. To these necessities was
+now added a war with France. Charles had never kept his promise
+concerning the recusants; disputes arose in consequence with his wife,
+and on the 31st of July 1626 he ordered all her French attendants to be
+expelled from Whitehall and sent back to France. At the same time
+several French ships carrying contraband goods to the Spanish
+Netherlands were seized by English warships. On the 27th of June 1627
+Buckingham with a large expedition sailed to the Isle of Re to relieve
+La Rochelle, then besieged by the forces of Louis XIII. Though the
+success of the French Protestants was an object much desired in England,
+Buckingham's unpopularity prevented support being given to the
+expedition, and the duke returned to Plymouth on the 11th of November
+completely defeated. Meanwhile Charles had endeavoured to get the money
+refused to him by parliament by means of a forced loan, dismissing Chief
+Justice Crewe for declining to support its legality, and imprisoning
+several of the leaders of the opposition for refusing to subscribe to
+it. These summary measures, however, only brought a small sum into the
+treasury. On the 2nd of January 1628 Charles ordered the release of all
+the persons imprisoned, and on the 17th of March summoned his third
+parliament.
+
+Instead of relieving the king's necessities the Commons immediately
+proceeded to discuss the constitutional position and to formulate the
+Petition of Right, forbidding taxation without consent of parliament,
+arbitrary and illegal imprisonment, compulsory billeting in private
+houses, and martial law. Charles, on the 1st of May, first demanded that
+they should "rest on his royal word and promise." He obtained an opinion
+from the judges that the acceptance of the petition would not absolutely
+preclude in certain cases imprisonments without showing cause, and after
+a futile endeavour to avoid an acceptance by returning an ambiguous
+answer which only exasperated the Commons, he gave his consent on the
+7th of June in the full and usual form. Charles now obtained his
+subsidies, but no real settlement was reached, and his relations with
+the parliament remained as unfriendly as before. They proceeded to
+remonstrate against his government and against his support of
+Buckingham, and denied his right to tonnage and poundage. Accordingly,
+on the 26th of June they were prorogued. New disasters befell Charles,
+in the assassination of Buckingham and in the failure of the fresh
+expedition sent to Re. In January 1629 the parliament reassembled,
+irritated by the exaction of the duties and seizure of goods during the
+interval, and suspicious of "innovations in religion," the king having
+forbidden the clergy to continue the controversy concerning Calvinistic
+and Arminian doctrines, the latter of which the parliament desired to
+suppress. While they were discussing these matters, on the 2nd of March
+1629, the king ordered them to adjourn, but amidst a scene of great
+excitement the speaker, Sir John Finch, was held down in his chair and
+the doors were locked, whilst resolutions against innovations in
+religion and declaring those who levied or paid tonnage and poundage
+enemies to their country were passed. Parliament was immediately
+dissolved, and Charles imprisoned nine members, leaders of the
+opposition, Eliot, Holles, Strode, Selden, Valentine, Coryton, Heyman,
+Hobart and Long, his vengeance being especially shown in the case of
+Eliot, the most formidable of his opponents, who died in the Tower of
+consumption after long years of close and unhealthy confinement, and
+whose corpse even Charles refused to give up to his family.
+
+For eleven years Charles ruled without parliaments and with some
+success. There seemed no reason to think that "that noise," to use
+Laud's expression concerning parliaments, would ever be heard again by
+those then living. A revenue of about L618,000 was obtained by enforcing
+the payment of tonnage and poundage, and while avoiding the taxes,
+loans, and benevolences forbidden by the petition of right, by
+monopolies, fines for knighthood, and for pretended encroachments on the
+royal domains and forests, which enabled the king to meet expenditure at
+home. In Ireland, Charles, in order to get money, had granted the Graces
+in 1628, conceding security of titles of more than sixty years'
+standing, and a more moderate oath of allegiance for the Roman
+Catholics, together with the renunciation of the shilling fine for
+non-attendance at church. He continued, however, to make various
+attempts to get estates into his possession on the pretext of invalid
+title, and on the 12th of May 1635 the city of London estates were
+sequestered. Charles here destroyed one of the most valuable settlements
+in Ireland founded by James I. in the interests of national defence, and
+at the same time extinguished the historic loyalty of the city of
+London, which henceforth steadily favoured the parliamentary cause. In
+1633 Wentworth had been sent to Ireland to establish a medieval monarchy
+and get money, and his success in organization seemed great enough to
+justify the attempt to extend the system to England. Charles at the same
+time restricted his foreign policy to scarcely more than a wish for the
+recovery of the Palatinate, to further which he engaged in a series of
+numerous and mutually destructive negotiations with Gustavus Adolphus
+and with Spain, finally making peace with Spain on the 5th of November
+1630, an agreement which was followed on the 2nd of January 1631 by a
+further secret treaty, the two kings binding themselves to make war on
+the Dutch and partition their territories. A notable feature of this
+agreement was that while in Charles's portion Roman Catholicism was to
+be tolerated, there was no guarantee for the security of Protestantism
+in the territory to be ceded to Spain.
+
+In 1634 Charles levied ship-money from the seaport towns for the
+increase of the navy, and in 1635 the tax was extended to the inland
+counties, which aroused considerable opposition. In February 1637
+Charles obtained an opinion in favour of his claims from the judges, and
+in 1638 the great Hampden case was decided in his favour. The apparent
+success, however, of Charles was imperilled by the general and growing
+resentment aroused by his exactions and whole policy, and this again was
+small compared with the fears excited by the king's attitude towards
+religion and Protestantism. He supported zealously Laud's rigid Anglican
+orthodoxy, his compulsory introduction of unwelcome ritual, and his
+narrow, intolerant and despotic policy, which was marked by several
+savage prosecutions and sentences in the Star Chamber, drove numbers of
+moderate Protestants out of the Church into Presbyterianism, and created
+an intense feeling of hostility to the government throughout the
+country. Charles further increased the popular fears on the subject of
+religion by his welcome given to Panzani, the pope's agent, in 1634, who
+endeavoured unsuccessfully to reconcile the two churches, and afterwards
+to George Conn, papal agent at the court of Henrietta Maria, while the
+favour shown by the king to these was contrasted with the severe
+sentences passed upon the Puritans.
+
+The same imprudent neglect of the national sentiment was pursued in
+Scotland. Charles had already made powerful enemies there by a
+declaration announcing the arbitrary revocation of former church estates
+to the crown. On the 18th of June 1633 he was crowned at Edinburgh with
+full Anglican ceremonial, which lost him the hearts of numbers of his
+Scottish subjects and aroused hostility to his government in parliament.
+After his return to England he gave further offence by ordering the use
+of the surplice, by his appointment of Archbishop Spotiswood as
+chancellor of Scotland, and by introducing other bishops into the privy
+council. In 1636 the new _Book of Canons_ was issued by the king's
+authority, ordering the communion table to be placed at the east end,
+enjoining confession, and declaring excommunicate any who should presume
+to attack the new prayer-book. The latter was ordered to be used on the
+18th of October 1636, but it did not arrive in Scotland till May 1637.
+It was intensely disliked both as "popish" and as English. A riot
+followed its first use in St Giles' cathedral on the 23rd of July, and
+Charles's order to enforce it on the 10th of September was met by fresh
+disturbances and by the establishment of the "Tables," national
+committees which now became the real though informal government of
+Scotland. In 1638 the national covenant was drawn up, binding those that
+signed it to defend their religion to the death, and was taken by large
+numbers with enthusiasm all over the country. Charles now drew back,
+promised to enforce the canons and prayer-book only in a "fair and legal
+way," and sent the marquis of Hamilton as a mediator. The latter,
+however, a weak and incapable man, desirous of popularity with all
+parties, and unfaithful to the king's interests, yielded everything,
+without obtaining the return of Charles's subjects to their allegiance.
+The assembly met at Glasgow on the 21st of November, and in spite of
+Hamilton's opposition immediately proceeded to judge the bishops. On the
+28th Hamilton dissolved it, but it continued to sit, deposed the bishops
+and re-established Presbyterianism. The rebellion had now begun, and an
+appeal to arms alone could decide the quarrel between Charles and his
+subjects. On the 28th of May 1639 he arrived at Berwick with a small and
+ill-trained force, thus beginning what is known as the first Bishops'
+War; but being confronted by the Scottish army at Duns Law, he was
+compelled to sign the treaty of Berwick on the 18th of June, which
+provided for the disbandment of both armies and the restitution to the
+king of the royal castles, referring all questions to a general assembly
+and a parliament. When the assembly met it abolished episcopacy, but
+Charles, who on the 3rd of August had returned to Whitehall, refused his
+consent to this and to other measures proposed by the Scottish
+parliament. His extreme financial necessities, and the prospect of
+renewed hostilities with the Scots, now moved Charles, at the
+instigation of Strafford, who in September had left Ireland to become
+the king's chief adviser, to turn again to parliament for assistance as
+the last resource, and on the 13th of April 1640 the Short Parliament
+assembled. But on its discussing grievances before granting supplies and
+finally refusing subsidies till peace was made with the Scots, it was
+dissolved on the 5th of May. Charles returned once more to measures of
+repression, and on the 10th imprisoned some of the London aldermen who
+refused to lend money. He prepared for war, scraping together what money
+he could and obtaining a grant through Strafford from Ireland. His
+position, however, was hopeless; his forces were totally undisciplined,
+and the Scots were supported by the parliamentary opposition in England.
+On the 20th of August the Scots crossed the Tweed, beginning the
+so-called second Bishops' War, defeated the king's army at Newburn on
+the 28th, and subsequently occupied Newcastle and Durham. Charles at
+this juncture, on the 24th of September, summoned a great council of the
+peers; and on the 21st of October a cessation of arms was agreed to by
+the treaty of Ripon, the Scots receiving L850 a day for the maintenance
+of the army, and further negotiations being transferred to London. On
+the 3rd of November the king summoned the Long Parliament.
+
+Such was the final issue of Charles's attempt to govern without
+parliaments--Scotland in triumphant rebellion, Ireland only waiting for
+a signal to rise, and in England the parliament revived with almost
+irresistible strength, in spite of the king, by the force of
+circumstances alone. At this great crisis, which would indeed have taxed
+the resolution and resource of the most cool-headed and sagacious
+statesman, Charles failed signally. Two alternative courses were open to
+him, either of which still offered good chances of success. He might
+have taken his stand on the ancient and undoubted prerogative of the
+crown, resisted all encroachments on the executive by the parliament by
+legal and constitutional means, which were probably ample, and in case
+of necessity have appealed to the loyalty of the nation to support him
+in arms; or he might have waived his rights, and, acknowledging the
+mistakes of his past administration, have united with the parliament and
+created once more that union of interests and sentiment of the monarchy
+with the nation which had made England so powerful. Charles, however,
+pretended to do both simultaneously or by turns, and therefore
+accomplished neither. The illegally imprisoned members of the last
+parliament, now smarting with the sense of their wrongs, were set free
+to stimulate the violence of the opposition to the king in the new
+assembly. Of Charles's double statecraft, however, the series of
+incidents which terminated the career of the great Strafford form the
+most terrible example. Strafford had come to London in November, having
+been assured by Charles that he "should not suffer in his person, honour
+or fortune," but was impeached and thrown into the Tower almost
+immediately. Charles took no steps to hinder the progress of the
+proceedings against him, but entered into schemes for saving him by
+bringing up an army to London, and this step exasperated Strafford's
+enemies and added new zeal to the prosecution. On the 23rd of April,
+after the passing of the attainder by the Commons, he repeated to
+Strafford his former assurances of protection. On the 1st of May he
+appealed to the Lords to spare his life and be satisfied with rendering
+him incapable of holding office. On the 2nd he made an attempt to seize
+the Tower by force. On the 10th, yielding to the queen's fears and to
+the mob surging round his palace, he signed his death-warrant. "If my
+own person only were in danger," he declared to the council, "I would
+gladly venture it to save my Lord Strafford's life; but seeing my wife,
+children, all my kingdom are concerned in it, I am forced to give way
+unto it." On the 11th he sent to the peers a petition for Strafford's
+life, the force of which was completely annulled by the strange
+postscript: "If he must die, it were a charity to reprieve him until
+Saturday." This tragic surrender of his great and devoted servant left
+an indelible stain upon the king's character, and he lived to repent it
+bitterly. One of his last admonitions to the prince of Wales was "never
+to give way to the punishment of any for their faithful service to the
+crown." It was regarded by Charles as the cause of his own subsequent
+misfortunes, and on the scaffold the remembrance of it disturbed his own
+last moments. The surrender of Strafford was followed by another
+stupendous concession by Charles, the surrender of his right to
+dissolve the parliament without its own consent, and the parliament
+immediately proceeded, with Charles's consent, to sweep away the
+star-chamber, high commission and other extra-legal courts, and all
+extra-parliamentary taxation. Charles, however, did not remain long or
+consistently in the yielding mood. In June 1641 he engaged in a second
+army plot for bringing up the forces to London, and on the 10th of
+August he set out for Scotland in order to obtain the Scottish army
+against the parliament in England; this plan was obviously doomed to
+failure and was interrupted by another appeal to force, the so-called
+Incident, at which Charles was suspected (in all probability unjustly)
+of having connived, consisting in an attempt to kidnap and murder
+Argyll, Hamilton and Lanark, with whom he was negotiating. Charles had
+also apparently been intriguing with Irish Roman Catholic lords for
+military help in return for concessions, and he was suspected of
+complicity in the Irish rebellion which now broke out. He left Scotland
+more discredited than ever, having by his concessions made, to use
+Hyde's words, "a perfect deed of gift of that kingdom," and without
+gaining any advantage.
+
+Charles returned to London on the 25th of November 1641 and was
+immediately confronted by the Grand Remonstrance (passed on the 22nd),
+in which, after reciting the chief points of the king's misgovernment,
+the parliament demanded the appointment of acceptable ministers and the
+constitution of an assembly of divines to settle the religious question.
+On the 2nd of January 1642 Charles gave office to the opposition members
+Colepeper and Falkland, and at the same time Hyde left the opposition
+party to serve the king. Charles promised to take no serious step
+without their advice. Nevertheless, entirely without their knowledge,
+through the influence of the queen whose impeachment was intended,
+Charles on the 4th made the rash and fatal attempt to seize with an
+armed force the five members of the Commons, Pym, Hampden, Holies,
+Hesilrige and Strode, whom, together with Mandeville (afterwards earl of
+Manchester) in the Lords, he had impeached of high treason. No English
+sovereign ever had (or has since that time) penetrated into the House of
+Commons. So complete and flagrant a violation of parliamentary
+liberties, and an appeal so crude and glaring to brute force, could only
+be justified by complete success; but the court plans had been betrayed,
+and were known to the offending members, who, by order of the House, had
+taken refuge in the city before the king's arrival with the soldiers.
+Charles, on entering the House, found "the birds flown," and returned
+baffled, having thrown away the last chance of a peaceful settlement
+(see LENTHALL, WILLIAM). The next day Charles was equally unsuccessful
+in obtaining their surrender in the city. "The king had the worst day in
+London yesterday," wrote a spectator of the scene, "that ever he had,
+the people crying 'privilege of parliament' by thousands and prayed God
+to turn the heart of the king, shutting up their shops and standing at
+their doors with swords and halberds."[2] On the 10th, amidst general
+manifestations of hostility, Charles left Whitehall to prepare for war,
+destined never to return till he was brought back by his victorious
+enemies to die.
+
+Several months followed spent in manoeuvres to obtain the control of the
+forces and in a paper war of controversy. On the 23rd of April Charles
+was refused entry into Hull, and on the 2nd of June the parliament sent
+to him the "Nineteen Propositions," claiming the whole sovereignty and
+government for the parliament, including the choice of the ministers,
+the judges, and the control of the army, and the execution of the laws
+against the Roman Catholics. The military events of the war are
+described in the article GREAT REBELLION. On the 22nd of August the king
+set up his standard at Nottingham, and on the 23rd of October he fought
+the indecisive battle of Edgehill, occupying Oxford and advancing as far
+as Brentford. It seemed possible that the war might immediately be ended
+by Charles penetrating to the heart of the enemy's position and
+occupying London, but he drew back on the 13th of November before the
+parliamentary force at Turnham Green, and avoided a decisive contest.
+
+Next year (1643) another campaign, for surrounding instead of
+penetrating into London, was projected. Newcastle and Hopton were to
+advance from the north and west, seize the north and south banks of the
+river below the city, destroy its commerce, and combine with Charles at
+Oxford. The royalist force, however, in spite of victories at Adwalton
+Moor (June 30th) and Roundway Down (July 13th), did not succeed in
+combining with Charles, Newcastle in the north being kept back by the
+Eastern Association and the presence of the enemy at Hull, and Hopton in
+the west being detained by their successful holding out at Plymouth.
+Being too weak to attempt anything alone against London, Charles marched
+to besiege Gloucester, Essex following him and relieving the place.
+Subsequently the rival forces fought the indecisive first battle of
+Newbury, and Charles failed in preventing the return of Essex to London.
+Meanwhile on the 1st of February the parliament had submitted proposals
+to Charles at Oxford, but the negotiations came to nothing, and
+Charles's unwise attempt at the same time to stir up a rising in his
+favour in the city, known as Waller's Plot, injured his cause
+considerably. He once more turned for help to Ireland, where the
+cessation of the campaign against the rebels was agreed upon on the 15th
+of September 1643, and several English regiments became thereby
+available for employment by the king in England. Charles also accepted
+the proposal for bringing over 2000 Irish. On the 22nd of January 1644
+the king opened the rival parliament at Oxford.
+
+The campaign of 1644 began far less favourably for Charles than the two
+last, principally owing to the alliance now made between the Scots and
+the parliament, the parliament taking the Solemn League and Covenant on
+the 25th of September 1643, and the Scottish army crossing the border on
+the 19th of January 1644. No attempt was this year made against London,
+and Rupert was sent to Newcastle's succour in the north, where the great
+disaster of Marston Moor on the 2nd of July ruined Charles's last
+chances in that quarter. Meanwhile Charles himself had defeated Waller
+at Cropredy Bridge on the 29th of June, and he subsequently followed
+Essex to the west, compelling the surrender of Essex's infantry at
+Lostwithiel on the 2nd of September. With an ill-timed leniency he
+allowed the men to go free after giving up their stores and arms, and on
+his return towards Oxford he was confronted again by Essex's army at
+Newbury, combined now with that of Waller and of Manchester. Charles
+owed his escape here from complete annihilation only to Manchester's
+unwillingness to inflict a total defeat, and he was allowed to get away
+with his artillery to Oxford and to revictual Donnington Castle and
+Basing House.
+
+The negotiations carried on at Uxbridge during January and February 1645
+failed to secure a settlement, and on the 14th of June the crushing
+defeat of the king's forces by the new model army at Naseby practically
+ended the civil war. Charles, however, refused to make peace on Rupert's
+advice, and considered it a point of honour "neither to abandon God's
+cause, injure my successors, nor forsake my friends." His chief hope was
+to join Montrose in Scotland, but his march north was prevented by the
+parliamentary forces, and on the 24th of September he witnessed from the
+walls of Chester the rout of his followers at Rowton Heath. He now
+entered into a series of intrigues, mutually destructive, which,
+becoming known to the different parties, exasperated all and diminished
+still further the king's credit. One proposal was the levy of a foreign
+force to reduce the kingdom; another, the supply through the marquis of
+Ormonde of 10,000 Irish. Correspondence relating to these schemes,
+fatally compromising as they were if Charles hoped ever to rule England
+again, was discovered by his enemies, including the Glamorgan treaty,
+which went much further than the instructions to Ormonde, but of which
+the full responsibility has never been really traced to Charles, who on
+the 29th of January 1646 disavowed his agent's proceedings. He
+simultaneously treated with the parliament, and promised toleration to
+the Roman Catholics if they and the pope would aid in the restoration of
+the monarchy and the church. Nor was this all. The parliamentary forces
+had been closing round Oxford. On the 27th of April the king left the
+city, and on the 5th of May gave himself up to the Scottish army at
+Newark, arriving on the 13th with them at Newcastle. On the 13th of July
+the parliament sent to Charles the "Newcastle Propositions," which
+included the extreme demands of Charles's acceptance of the Covenants,
+the abolition of episcopacy and establishment of Presbyterianism,
+severer laws against the Roman Catholics and parliamentary control of
+the forces, with the withdrawal of the Irish Cessation, and a long list
+of royalists to be exempted from pardon. Charles returned no definite
+answer for several months. He imagined that he might now find support in
+Scottish royalism, encouraged by Montrose's series of brilliant
+victories, but these hopes were destroyed by the latter's defeat at
+Philiphaugh on the 3rd of September. The Scots insisted on the Covenant
+and on the permanent establishment of Presbyterianism, while Charles
+would only consent to a temporary maintenance for three years.
+Accordingly the Scots, in return for the payment of part of their army
+arrears by the parliament, marched home on the 30th of January 1647,
+leaving Charles behind, who under the care of the parliamentary
+commissioners was conducted to Holmby House. Thence on the 12th of May
+he sent his answer to the Newcastle Propositions, offering the militia
+to the parliament for ten years and the establishment of Presbyterianism
+for three, while a final settlement on religion was to be reached
+through an assembly of twenty divines at Westminster. But in the midst
+of the negotiation with the parliament Charles's person was seized, on
+the 3rd of June 1647, by Cornet Joyce under instructions of the army,
+which soon afterwards occupied London and overpowered the parliament,
+placing Charles at Hampton Court.
+
+If Charles could have remained firm to either one or the other faction,
+and have made concessions either to Presbyterianism or on the subject of
+the militia, he might even now have prevailed. But he had learned
+nothing by experience, and continued at this juncture his characteristic
+policy of intrigue and double-dealing, "playing his game," to use his
+own words, negotiating with both parties at once, not with the object or
+wish to arrive at a settlement with either, but to augment their
+disputes, gain time and profit ultimately by their divisions. The "Heads
+of the Proposals," submitted to Charles by the army on the 28th of July
+1647, were terms conceived on a basis far broader and more statesmanlike
+than the Newcastle Propositions, and such as Charles might well have
+accepted. The proposals on religion anticipated the Toleration Act of
+1689. There was no mention of episcopacy, and its existence was thereby
+indirectly admitted, but complete religious freedom for all Protestant
+denominations was provided, and the power of the church to inflict civil
+penalties abolished, while it was also suggested that dangers from Roman
+Catholics and Jesuits might be avoided by means other than enforcing
+attendance at church. The parliament was to dissolve itself and be
+succeeded by biennial assemblies elected on a reformed franchise, not to
+be dissolved without their own consent before 120 days, and not to sit
+more than 240 days in the two years. A council of state was to conduct
+the foreign policy of the state and conclude peace and war subject to
+the approval of parliament, and to control the militia for ten years,
+the commanders being appointed by parliament, as also the officers of
+state for ten years. No peer created since May the 21st, 1642, was to
+sit in parliament without consent of both Houses, and the judicial
+decisions of the House of Lords were to be ratified by the Commons. Only
+five persons were excepted from amnesty, but royalists were not to hold
+office for five years and not to sit in the Commons till the end of the
+second biennial parliament. Proposals for a series of reforms were also
+added. Charles, however, was at the same time negotiating with
+Lauderdale for an invasion of England by the Scots, and imagined he
+could win over Cromwell and Fairfax by "proffers of advantage to
+themselves." The precious opportunity was therefore allowed to slip by.
+On the 9th of September he rejected the proposals of the parliament for
+the establishment of Presbyterianism. His hopes of gaining advantages by
+playing upon the differences of his opponents proved a complete failure.
+Fresh terms were drawn up by the army and parliament together on the
+10th of November, but before these could be presented, Charles, on the
+11th, had escaped to Carisbrooke Castle in the Isle of Wight. Thence on
+the 16th he sent a message offering Presbyterianism for three years and
+the militia for his lifetime to the parliament, but insisting on the
+maintenance of episcopacy. On the 28th of December he refused his assent
+to the Four Bills, which demanded the militia for parliament for twenty
+years and practically for ever, annulled the honours recently granted by
+the king and his declarations against the Houses, and gave to parliament
+the right to adjourn to any place it wished. On the 3rd of January 1648
+the Commons agreed to a resolution to address the king no further, in
+which they were joined by the Lords on the 15th.
+
+Charles had meanwhile taken a further fatal step which brought about his
+total destruction. On the 26th of December 1647 he had signed at
+Carisbrooke with the Scottish commissioners the secret treaty called the
+"Engagement," whereby the Scots undertook to invade England on his
+behalf and restore him to the throne on condition of the establishment
+of Presbyterianism for three years and the suppression of the
+sectarians. In consequence the second civil war broke out and the Scots
+invaded England under Hamilton. The royalist risings in England were
+soon suppressed, and Cromwell gained an easy and decisive victory over
+the Scots at Preston. Charles was now left alone to face his enemies,
+with the whole tale of his intrigues and deceptions unmasked and
+exposed. The last intrigue with the Scots was the most unpardonable in
+the eyes of his contemporaries, no less wicked and monstrous than his
+design to conquer England by the Irish soldiers; "a more prodigious
+treason," said Cromwell, "than any that had been perfected before;
+because the former quarrel was that Englishmen might rule over one
+another; this to vassalize us to a foreign nation." Cromwell, who up to
+this point had shown himself foremost in supporting the negotiations
+with the king, now spoke of the treaty of Newport, which he found the
+parliament in the act of negotiating on his return from Scotland, as
+"this ruining hypocritical agreement." Charles had engaged in these
+negotiations only to gain time and find opportunity to escape. "The
+great concession I made this day," he wrote on the 7th of October, "was
+made merely in order to my escape." At the beginning he had stipulated
+that no concession from him should be valid unless an agreement were
+reached upon every point. He had now consented to most of the demands of
+the parliament, including the repudiation of the Irish Cessation, the
+surrender of the delinquents and the cession of the militia for twenty
+years, and of the offices of state to parliament, but remained firm in
+his refusal to abolish episcopacy, consenting only to Presbyterianism
+for three years. Charles's devotion to the church is undoubted. In April
+1646, before his flight from Oxford, inspired perhaps by superstitious
+fears as to the origin of his misfortunes, he had delivered to Sheldon,
+afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, a written vow (now in the library
+of St Paul's cathedral) to restore all church lands held by the crown on
+his restoration to the throne; and almost his last injunction to the
+prince of Wales was that of fidelity to the national church. His present
+firmness, however, in its support was caused probably less by his
+devotion to it than by his desire to secure the failure of the whole
+treaty, and his attempts to escape naturally weakened the chances of
+success. Cromwell now supported the petitions of the army against the
+treaty. On the 16th of November the council of officers demanded the
+trial of the king, "the capital and grand author of our troubles," and
+on the 27th of November the parliamentary commissioners returned from
+Newport without having secured Charles's consent. Charles was removed to
+Hurst Castle on the 1st of December, where he remained till the 19th,
+thence being taken to Windsor, where he arrived on the 23rd. On the 6th
+"Pride's Purge" had removed from the Commons all those who might show
+any favour to the king. On the 25th a last attempt by the council of
+officers to come to terms with him was repulsed. On the 1st of January
+the remnant of the Commons resolved that Charles was guilty of treason
+by "levying war against the parliament and kingdom of England"; on the
+4th they declared their own power to make laws without the lords or the
+sovereign, and on the 6th established a "high court of justice" to try
+the king. On the 19th Charles was brought to St James's Palace, and on
+the next day his trial began in Westminster Hall, without the assistance
+of any of the judges, who all refused to take part in the proceedings.
+He laughed aloud at hearing himself called a traitor, and immediately
+demanded by what authority he was tried. He had been in treaty with the
+parliament in the Isle of Wight and taken thence by force; he saw no
+lords present. He was told by Bradshaw, the president of the court, that
+he was tried by the authority of the people of England, who had elected
+him king; Charles making the obvious reply that he was king by
+inheritance and not by election, that England had been for more than
+1000 years an hereditary kingdom, and Bradshaw cutting short the
+discussion by adjourning the court. On the 22nd Charles repeated his
+reasoning, adding, "It is not my case alone; it is the freedom and
+liberty of the people of England, and do you pretend what you will, I
+stand more for their liberties, for if power without law may make laws
+... I do not know what subject he is in England that can be sure of his
+life or anything that he calls his own." On the 23rd he again refused to
+plead. The court was adjourned, and there were several signs that the
+army in their prosecution of the king had not the nation at their back.
+While the soldiers had shouted "Justice! justice!" as the king passed
+through their ranks, the civilian spectators from the end of the hall
+had cried "God save the king!" There was considerable opposition and
+reluctance to proceed among the members of the court. On the 26th,
+however, the court decided unanimously upon his execution, and on the
+27th Charles was brought into court for the last time to hear his
+sentence. His request to be heard before the Lords and Commons was
+rejected, and his attempts to answer the charges of the president were
+silenced. Sentence was pronounced, and the king was removed by the
+soldiers, uttering his last broken protest: "I am not suffered to speak.
+Expect what justice other people will have."
+
+In these last hours Charles, who was probably weary of life, showed a
+remarkable dignity and self-possession, and a firm resignation supported
+by religious faith and by the absolute conviction of his own innocence,
+which, says Burnet, "amazed all people and that so much the more because
+it was not natural to him. It was imputed to a very extraordinary
+measure of supernatural assistance....; it was owing to something within
+himself that he went through so many indignities with so much true
+greatness without disorder or any sort of affectation." Nothing in his
+life became Charles like the leaving it. "He nothing common did or mean
+Upon that memorable scene." On the morning of the 29th of January he
+said his last sad farewell to his younger children, Elizabeth and Henry,
+duke of Gloucester. On the 30th at ten o'clock he walked across from St
+James's to Whitehall, calling on his guard "in a pleasant manner" to
+walk apace, and at two he stepped upon the scaffold from a window,
+probably the middle one, of the Banqueting House (see ARCHITECTURE,
+Plate VI., fig. 75). He was separated from the people by large ranks of
+soldiers, and his last speech only reached Juxon and those with him on
+the scaffold. He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of
+the people as much as any; "but I must tell you that their liberty and
+freedom consists in having government. ... It is not their having a
+share in the government; that is nothing appertaining unto them. A
+subject and a sovereign are clean different things." These, together
+with his declaration that he died a member of the Church of England, and
+the mysterious "Remember," spoken to Juxon, were Charles's last words.
+"It much discontents the citizens," wrote a spectator; "ye manner of his
+deportment was very resolutely with some smiling countenances,
+intimating his willingness to be out of his troubles."[3] "The blow I
+saw given," wrote another, Philip Henry, "and can truly say with a sad
+heart, at the instant whereof, I remember well, there was such a grone
+by the Thousands then present as I never heard before and desire I may
+never hear again. There was according to order one Troop immediately
+marching fromwards Charing-Cross to Westminster and another fromwards
+Westminster to Charing-Cross, purposely to masker" (i.e. to overpower)
+"the people and to disperse and scatter them, so that I had much adoe
+amongst the rest to escape home without hurt."[4]
+
+Amidst such scenes of violence was at last effected the destruction of
+Charles. "It is lawful," wrote Milton, "and hath been held so through
+all ages for any one who have the power to call to account a Tyrant or
+wicked King and after due conviction to depose and put him to death."[5]
+But here (it might well be contended) there had been no "due
+conviction." The execution had been the act of the king's personal
+enemies, of "only some fifty or sixty governing Englishmen with Oliver
+Cromwell in the midst of them" an act technically illegal, morally
+unjustifiable because the supposed crimes of Charles had been condoned
+by the later negotiations with him, and indefensible on the ground of
+public expediency, for the king's death proved a far greater obstacle to
+the re-establishment of settled government than his life could have
+been. The result was an extraordinary revulsion of feeling in favour of
+Charles and the monarchy, in which the incidents of his misgovernment
+were completely forgotten. He soon became in the popular veneration a
+martyr and a saint. His fate was compared with the Crucifixion, and his
+trials and sufferings to those of the Saviour. Handkerchiefs dipped in
+his blood wrought "miracles," and the _Eikon Basilike_, published on the
+day of his funeral, presented to the public a touching if not a genuine
+portrait of the unfortunate sovereign. At the Restoration the
+anniversary of his death was ordered to be kept as a day of fasting and
+humiliation, and the service appointed for use on the occasion was only
+removed from the prayer-book in 1859. The same conception of Charles as
+a martyr for religion appeals still to many, and has been stimulated by
+modern writers. "Had Charles been willing to abandon the church and give
+up episcopacy," says Bishop Creighton, "he might have saved his throne
+and his life. But on this point Charles stood firm, for this he died and
+by dying saved it for the future."[6] Gladstone, Keble, Newman write in
+the same strain. "It was for the Church," says Gladstone, "that Charles
+shed his blood upon the scaffold."[7] "I rest," says Newman, "on the
+scenes of past years, from the Upper Room in Acts to the Court of
+Carisbrooke and Uxbridge." The injustice and violence of the king's
+death, however, the pathetic dignity of his last days, and the many
+noble traits in his character, cannot blind us to the real causes of his
+downfall and destruction, and a sober judgment cannot allow that Charles
+was really a martyr either for the church or for the popular liberties.
+
+The constitutional struggle between the crown and parliament had not
+been initiated by Charles I. It was in full existence in the reign of
+James I., and distinct traces appear towards the latter part of that of
+Elizabeth. Charles, therefore, in some degree inherited a situation for
+which he was not responsible, nor can he be justly blamed, according to
+the ideas of kingship which then prevailed, for defending the
+prerogatives of the crown as precious and sacred personal possessions
+which it was his duty to hand down intact to his successors. Neither
+will his persistence in refusing to yield up the control of the
+executive to the parliament or the army, or his zeal in defending the
+national church, be altogether censured. In the event the parliament
+proved quite incapable of governing, an army uncontrolled by the
+sovereign was shown to constitute a more grievous tyranny than Charles's
+most arbitrary rule, and the downfall of the church seen to make room
+only for a sectarian despotism as intolerable as the Laudian. The
+natural inference might be that both conceptions of government had much
+to support them, that they were bound sooner or later to come into
+collision, and that the actual individuals in the drama, including the
+king himself, were rather the victims of the greatness of events than
+real actors in the scene, still less the controllers of their own and
+the national destiny. A closer insight, however, shows that biographical
+more than abstract historical elements determined the actual course and
+issue of the Rebellion. The great constitutional and religious points of
+dispute between the king and parliament, though doubtless involving
+principles vital to the national interests, would not alone have
+sufficed to destroy Charles. Monarchy was too much venerated, was too
+deeply rooted in the national life, to be hastily and easily extirpated;
+the perils of removing the foundation of all government, law and order
+were too obvious not to be shunned at almost all costs. Still less can
+the crowning tragedy of the king's death find its real explanation or
+justification in these disputes and antagonisms. The real cause was the
+complete discredit into which Charles had brought himself and the
+monarchy. The ordinary routine of daily life and of business cannot
+continue without some degree of mutual confidence between the
+individuals brought into contact, far less could relations be maintained
+by subjects with a king endowed with the enormous powers then attached
+to the kingship, and with whom agreements, promises, negotiations were
+merely subterfuges and prevarications. We have seen the series of
+unhappy falsehoods and deceptions which constituted Charles's
+statecraft, beginning with the fraud concerning the concessions to the
+Roman Catholics at his marriage, the evasions with which he met the
+Petition of Right, the abandonment of Strafford, the simultaneous
+negotiation with, and betrayal of, all parties. Strafford's reported
+words on hearing of his desertion by Charles, "Put not your trust in
+princes," re-echo through the whole of Charles's reign. It was the
+degradation and dishonour of the kingship, and the personal loss of
+credit which Charles suffered through these transactions--which never
+appear to have caused him a moment's regret or uneasiness, but the fatal
+consequences of which were seen only too clearly by men like Hyde and
+Falkland--that were the real causes of the rebellion and of the king's
+execution. The constitutional and religious grievances were the outward
+and visible sign of the corroding suspicions which slowly consumed the
+national loyalty. In themselves there was nothing incapable of
+settlement either through the spirit of union which existed between
+Elizabeth and her subjects, or by the principle of compromise which
+formed the basis of the constitutional settlement in 1688. The bond of
+union between his people and himself Charles had, however, early broken,
+and compromise is only possible between parties both of whom can
+acknowledge to some extent the force of the other's position, which can
+trust one another, and which are sincere in their endeavour to reach
+agreement. Thus on Charles himself chiefly falls the responsibility for
+the catastrophe.
+
+His character and motives fill a large place in English history, but
+they have never been fully understood and possibly were largely due to
+physical causes. His weakness as a child was so extreme that his life
+was despaired of. He outgrew physical defects, and as a young man
+excelled in horsemanship and in the sports of the times, but always
+retained an impediment of speech. At the time of his accession his
+reserve and reticence were especially noticed. Buckingham was the only
+person who ever enjoyed his friendship, and after his death Charles
+placed entire confidence in no man. This isolation was the cause of an
+ignorance of men and of the world, and of an incapacity to appreciate
+the ideas, principles and motives of others, while it prepared at the
+same time a fertile soil for receiving those exalted conceptions of
+kingship, of divine right and prerogative, which came into vogue at this
+period, together with those exaggerated ideas of his own personal
+supremacy and importance to which minds not quite normal are always
+especially inclined. His character was marked by a weakness which
+shirked and postponed the settlement of difficulties, by a meanness and
+ingratitude even when dealing with his most devoted followers, by an
+obstinacy which only feigned compliance and by an untruthfulness which
+differed widely from his son's unblushing deceit, which found always
+some reservation or excuse, but which while more scrupulous was also
+more dangerous and insidious because employed continually as a principle
+of conduct. Yet Charles, in spite of his failings, had many fine
+qualities. Clarendon, who was fully conscious of them, who does not
+venture to call him a good king, and allows that "his kingly virtues had
+some mixture and alloy that hindered them from shining in full lustre,"
+declares that "he was if ever any, the most worthy of the title of an
+Honest Man, so great a lover of justice that no temptation could dispose
+him to a wrongful action except that it was disguised to him that he
+believed it just," "the worthiest of gentlemen, the best master, the
+best friend, the best husband, the best father and the best Christian
+that the age in which he lived produced." With all its deplorable
+mistakes and failings Charles I.'s reign belongs to a sphere infinitely
+superior to that of his unscrupulous, corrupt, selfish but more
+successful son. His private life was without a blemish. Immediately on
+his accession he had suppressed the disorder which had existed in the
+household of James I., and let it be known that whoever had business
+with him "must never approach him by backstairs or private doors."[8] He
+maintained a strict sobriety in food and dress. He had a fine artistic
+sense, and Milton reprehends him for having made Shakespeare "the
+closest companion of his solitudes." "Monsieur le Prince de Galles,"
+wrote Rubens in 1625, "est le prince le plus amateur de la peinture qui
+soit au monde." He succeeded in bringing together during twenty years an
+unrivalled collection, of which a great part was dispersed at his death.
+He showed a noble insensibility to flattery. He was deeply and sincerely
+religious. He wished to do right, and was conscious of the purity of his
+motives. Those who came into contact with him, even the most bitter of
+his opponents, were impressed with his goodness. The great tragedy of
+his life, to be read in his well-known, dignified, but weak and unhappy
+features, and to be followed in his inexplicable and mysterious choice
+of baneful instruments, such as Rupert, Laud, Hamilton, Glamorgan,
+Henrietta Maria--all in their several ways working out his
+destruction--seems to have been inspired by a fateful insanity or
+infirmity of mind or will, recalling the great Greek dramas in which the
+poets depicted frenzied mortals rushing into their own destruction,
+impelled by the unseen and superior powers.
+
+The king's body, after being embalmed, was buried by the few followers
+who remained with him to the last, hastily and without any funeral
+service, which was forbidden by the authorities, in the tomb of Henry
+VIII., in St George's Chapel, Windsor, where his coffin was identified
+and opened in 1813. An "account of what appeared" was published by Sir
+Henry Halford, and a bone abstracted on the occasion was replaced in the
+vault by the prince of Wales (afterwards Edward VII.) in 1888. Charles
+I. left, besides three children who died in infancy, Charles (afterwards
+Charles II.); James (afterwards James II.); Henry, duke of Gloucester
+(1639-1660); Mary (1631-1660), who married William of Orange; Elizabeth
+(1635-1650); and Henrietta, duchess of Orleans (1644-1670).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The leading authority for the life and reign of Charles
+  I. is the _History of England_ (1883) and _History of the Great Civil
+  War_ (1893), by S.R. Gardiner, with the references there given. Among
+  recent works may be mentioned _Memoirs of the Martyr King_, by A. Fea
+  (1905); _Life of Charles I, 1600-1625_, by E.B. Chancellor (1886);
+  _The Visits of Charles I. to Newcastle_, by C.S. Terry (1898);
+  _Charles I._, by Sir J. Skelton, valuable for its illustrations
+  (1898); _The Manner of the Coronation of King Charles I._, ed. by C.
+  Wordsworth (Henry Bradshaw Soc., 1892); _The Picture Gallery of
+  Charles I._, by C. Phillips (1896). See also _Calendars of State
+  Papers_, _Irish_ and _Domestic Series_; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series_,
+  esp. _MSS. of J. Eliot Hodgkin, F.J. Savile Foljambe, Lord Montagu of
+  Beaulieu, Duke of Rutland at Belvoir Castle, Marquis of Ormonde, Earl
+  Cowper (Coke MSS.), Earl of Lonsdale_ (note-books of parliaments of
+  1626 and 1628), _Duke of Buccleuch at Montagu House, Duke of
+  Portland_, 11th Rep. app. pt. vi., _Duke of Hamilton_, pt. i.,
+  _Salvetti Correspondence_, 10th Rep. pt. vi., _Lord Braye_; _Add.
+  MSS._ Brit. Mus., 33,596 fols. 21-32 (keys to ciphers), 34,171,
+  35,297; _Notes and Queries_, ser. vi., vii., viii., ix. indexes; _Eng.
+  Hist. Rev._ ii. 687 ("Charles and Glamorgan" by S.R. Gardiner), vii.
+  176; _Cornhill Mag._ vol. 75, January 1897, "Execution of Charles," by
+  C.H. Firth.     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11 Rep. app. Pt. iv. 21.
+
+  [2] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of Lord Montagu of Beaulieu_, 141.
+
+  [3] _Notes and Queries_, 7th ser., viii. 326.
+
+  [4] _Letters and Diaries of P. Henry_ (1882), 12.
+
+  [5] _Tenure of Kings and Magistrates_.
+
+  [6] _Lectures on Archbishop Laud_ (1895), p. 25.
+
+  [7] _Remarks on the Royal Supremacy_ (1850), p. 57.
+
+  [8] Salvetti's Corresp. in _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 11th Rep. app. pt. i.
+    p. 6.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1630-1685), king of Great Britain and Ireland, second son
+of Charles I. and Queen Henrietta Maria, was born on the 29th of May
+1630 at St James's Palace, and was brought up under the care
+successively of the countess of Dorset, William Cavendish, duke of
+Newcastle, and the marquess of Hertford. He accompanied the king during
+the campaigns of the Civil War, and sat in the parliament at Oxford, but
+on the 4th of March 1645 he was sent by Charles I. to the west,
+accompanied by Hyde and others who formed his council. Owing, however,
+to the mutual jealousies and misconduct of Goring and Grenville, and the
+prince's own disregard and contempt of the council, his presence was in
+no way advantageous, and could not prevent the final overthrow of the
+king's forces in 1646. He retired (17th of February) to Pendennis Castle
+at Falmouth, and on the approach of Fairfax (2nd of March) to Scilly,
+where he remained with Hyde till the 16th of April. Thence he fled to
+Jersey, and finally refusing all the overtures from the parliament, and
+in opposition to the counsels of Hyde, who desired the prince to remain
+on English territory, he repaired to the queen at Paris, where he
+remained for two years. He is described at this time by Mme de
+Motteville as "well-made, with a swarthy complexion agreeing well with
+his fine black eyes, a large ugly mouth, a graceful and dignified
+carriage and a fine figure"; and according to the description circulated
+later for his capture after the battle of Worcester, he was over six
+feet tall. He received instruction in mathematics from Hobbes, and was
+early initiated into all the vices of the age by Buckingham and Percy.
+In July 1648 the prince joined the royalist fleet and blockaded the
+Thames with a fleet of eleven ships, returning to Holland, where he
+received the news of the final royalist defeats and afterwards of the
+execution of his father. On the 14th of January 1649 he had forwarded to
+the council a signed _carte blanche_, granting any conditions provided
+his father's life were spared. He immediately assumed the title of king,
+and was proclaimed in Scotland (5th of February) and in some parts of
+Ireland. On the 17th of September, after a visit to his mother at St
+Germain, Charles went to Jersey and issued a declaration proclaiming his
+rights; but, owing to the arrival of the fleet at Portsmouth, he was
+obliged, on the 13th of February 1650, to return again to Breda. The
+projected invasion of Ireland was delayed through want of funds till it
+was too late; Hyde's mission to Spain, in the midst of Cromwell's'
+successes, brought no assistance, and Charles now turned to Scotland for
+aid. Employing the same unscrupulous and treacherous methods which had
+proved so fatal to his father, he simultaneously supported and
+encouraged the expedition of Montrose and the royalists, and negotiated
+with the covenanters. On the 1st of May he signed the first draft of a
+treaty at Breda with the latter, in which he accepted the Solemn League
+and Covenant, conceded the control of public and church affairs to the
+parliament and the kirk, and undertook to establish Presbyterianism in
+the three kingdoms. He also signed privately a paper repudiating Ormonde
+and the loyal Irish, and recalling the commissions granted to them. In
+acting thus he did not scruple to desert his own royalist followers, and
+to repudiate and abandon the great and noble Montrose, whose heroic
+efforts he was apparently merely using in order to extort better terms
+from the covenanters, and who, having been captured on the 4th of May,
+was executed on the 21st in spite of some attempts by Charles to procure
+for him an indemnity.
+
+Thus perjured and disgraced the young king embarked for Scotland on the
+2nd of June; on the 11th when off Heligoland he signed the treaty, and
+on the 23rd, on his arrival at Speymouth, before landing, he swore to
+both the covenants. He proceeded to Falkland near Perth and passed
+through Aberdeen, where he saw the mutilated arm of Montrose suspended
+over the city gate. He was compelled to dismiss all his followers except
+Buckingham, and to submit to interminable sermons, which generally
+contained violent invectives against his parents and himself. To Argyll
+he promised the payment of L40,000 at his restoration, doubtless the sum
+owing as arrears of the Scottish army unpaid when Charles I. was
+surrendered to the English at Newcastle, and entered into negotiations
+for marrying his daughter. In August he was forced to sign a further
+declaration, confessing his own wickedness in dealing with the Irish,
+his father's blood-guiltiness, his mother's idolatry, and his abhorrence
+of prelacy, besides ratifying his allegiance to the covenants and to
+Presbyterianism. At the same time he declared himself secretly to King,
+dean of Tuam, "a true child of the Church of England," "a true
+Cavalier," and avowed that "what concerns Ireland is in no ways
+binding"; while to the Roman Catholics in England he promised
+concessions and expressed his goodwill towards their church to Pope
+Innocent X. His attempt, called "The Start," on the 4th of October 1650,
+to escape from the faction at Perth and to join Huntly and the royalists
+in the north failed, and he was overtaken and compelled to return. On
+the 1st of January 1651 he was crowned at Scone, when he was forced to
+repeat his oaths to both the covenants.
+
+Meanwhile Cromwell had advanced and had defeated the Presbyterians at
+Dunbar on the 3rd of September 1650, subsequently occupying Edinburgh.
+This defeat was not wholly unwelcome to Charles in the circumstances; in
+the following summer, during Cromwell's advance to the north, he shook
+off the Presbyterian influence, and on the 31st of July 1651 marched
+south into England with an army of about 10,000 commanded by David
+Leslie. He was proclaimed king at Carlisle, joined by the earl of Derby
+in Lancashire, evaded the troops of Lambert and Harrison in Cheshire,
+marched through Shropshire, meeting with a rebuff at Shrewsbury, and
+entered Worcester with a small, tired and dispirited force of only
+16,000 men (22nd of August). Here the decisive battle, which ruined his
+hopes, and in which Charles distinguished himself by conspicuous courage
+and fortitude, was fought on the 3rd of September. After leading an
+unsuccessful cavalry charge against the enemy he fled, about 6 P.M.,
+accompanied by Buckingham, Derby, Wilmot, Lauderdale and others, towards
+Kidderminster, taking refuge at Whiteladies, about 25 m. from Worcester,
+where he separated himself from all his followers except Wilmot,
+concealing himself in the famous oak during the 6th of September, moving
+subsequently to Boscobel, to Moseley and Bentley Hall, and thence,
+disguised as Miss Lane's attendant, to Abbots Leigh near Bristol, to
+Trent in Somersetshire, and finally to the George Inn at Brighton,
+having been recognized during the forty-one days of his wanderings by
+about fifty persons, none of whom, in spite of the reward of L1000
+offered for his capture, or of the death penalty threatened for aiding
+his concealment, had betrayed him.
+
+He set sail from Shoreham on the 15th of October 1651, and landed at
+Fecamp in Normandy the next day. He resided at Paris at St Germain till
+June 1654, in inactivity, unable to make any further effort, and living
+with difficulty on a grant from Louis XIV. of 600 livres a month.
+Various missions to foreign powers met with failure; he was excluded
+from Holland by the treaty made with England in April 1654, and he
+anticipated his expulsion from France, owing to the new relations of
+friendship established with Cromwell, by quitting the country in July.
+He visited his sister, the princess of Orange, at Spa, and went to
+Aix-la-Chapelle, thence finally proceeding in November to Cologne, where
+he was hospitably received. The conclusion of Cromwell's treaty with
+France in October 1655, and the war between England and Spain, gave hope
+of aid from the latter power. In April 1656 Charles went to Bruges, and
+on the 7th of February 1658 to Brussels, where he signed a treaty with
+Don John of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, by which he
+received an allowance in place of his French pension and undertook to
+assemble all his subjects in France in aid of the Spanish against the
+French. This plan, however, came to nothing; projected risings in
+England were betrayed, and by the capture of Dunkirk in June 1658, after
+the battle of the Dunes, by the French and Cromwell's Ironsides, the
+Spanish cause in Flanders was ruined.
+
+As long as Cromwell lived there appeared little hope of the restoration
+of the monarchy, and Charles and Hyde had been aware of the plots for
+his assassination, which had aroused no disapproval. By the protector's
+death on the 3rd of September 1658 the scene was wholly changed, and
+amidst the consequent confusion of factions the cry for the restoration
+of the monarchy grew daily in strength. The premature royalist rising,
+however, in August 1659 was defeated, and Charles, who had awaited the
+result on the coast of Brittany, proceeded to Fuenterrabia on the
+Spanish frontier, where Mazarin and Luis de Haro were negotiating the
+treaty of the Pyrenees, to induce both powers to support his cause; but
+the failure of the attempt in England ensured the rejection of his
+request, and he returned to Brussels in December, visiting his mother at
+Paris on the way. Events had meanwhile developed fast in favour of a
+restoration. Charles, by Hyde's advice, had not interfered in the
+movement, and had avoided inconvenient concessions to the various
+factions by referring all to a "free parliament." He left Brussels for
+Breda, and issued in April 1660, together with the letters to the
+council, the officers of the army and the houses of parliament and the
+city, the declaration of an amnesty for all except those specially
+excluded afterwards by parliament, which referred to parliament the
+settlement of estates and promised a liberty to tender consciences in
+matters of religion not contrary to the peace of the kingdom.
+
+On the 8th of May Charles II. was proclaimed king in Westminster Hall
+and elsewhere in London. On the 24th he sailed from the Hague, landing
+on the 26th at Dover, where he was met by Monk, whom he saluted as
+father, and by the mayor, from whom he accepted a "very rich bible,"
+"the thing that he loved above all things in the world." He reached
+London on the 29th, his thirtieth birthday, arriving with the
+procession, amidst general rejoicings and "through a lane of happy
+faces," at seven in the evening at Whitehall, where the houses of
+parliament awaited his coming, to offer in the name of the nation their
+congratulations and allegiance.
+
+No event in the history of England had been attended with more lively
+and general rejoicing than Charles's restoration, and none was destined
+to cause greater subsequent disappointment and disillusion. Indolent,
+sensual and dissipated by nature, Charles's vices had greatly increased
+during his exile abroad, and were now, with the great turn of fortune
+which gave him full opportunity to indulge them, to surpass all the
+bounds of decency and control. A long residence till the age of thirty
+abroad, together with his French blood, had made him politically more of
+a foreigner than an Englishman, and he returned to England ignorant of
+the English constitution, a Roman Catholic and a secret adversary of the
+national religion, and untouched by the sentiment of England's greatness
+or of patriotism. Pure selfishness was the basis of his policy both in
+domestic and foreign affairs. Abroad the great national interests were
+eagerly sacrificed for the sake of a pension, and at home his personal
+ease and pleasure alone decided every measure, and the fate of every
+minister and subject. During his exile he had surrounded himself with
+young men of the same spirit as himself, such as Buckingham and Bennet,
+who, without having any claim to statesmanship, inattentive to business,
+neglectful of the national interests and national prejudices, became
+Charles's chief advisers. With them, as with their master, public office
+was only desirable as a means of procuring enjoyment, for which an
+absolute monarchy provided the most favourable conditions. Such persons
+were now, accordingly, destined to supplant the older and responsible
+ministers of the type of Clarendon and Ormonde, men of high character
+and patriotism, who followed definite lines of policy, while at the same
+time the younger men of ability and standing were shut out from office.
+
+The first period of Charles II.'s reign (1660-1667) was that of the
+administration of Lord Clarendon, the principal author of the
+Restoration settlement. The king was granted the large revenue of
+L1,300,000. The naval and military forces were disbanded, but Charles
+managed to retain under the name of guards three regiments, which
+remained the nucleus of a standing army. The settlement of estates on a
+legal basis provided ill for a large number of the king's adherents who
+had impoverished themselves in his cause. The king's honour was directly
+involved in their compensation and, except for the gratification of a
+few individuals, was tarnished by his neglect to afford them relief.
+Charles used his influence to carry through parliament the act of
+indemnity, and the execution of some of the regicides was a measure not
+more severe than was to be expected in the times and circumstances; but
+that of Sir Henry Vane, who was not a regicide and whose life Charles
+had promised the parliament to spare in case of his condemnation, was
+brought about by Charles's personal insistence in revenge for the
+victim's high bearing during his trial, and was an act of gross cruelty
+and perfidy. Charles was in favour of religious toleration, and a
+declaration issued by him in October 1660 aroused great hopes; but he
+made little effort to conciliate the Presbyterians or to effect a
+settlement through the Savoy conference, and his real object was to gain
+power over all the factions and to free his co-religionists, the Roman
+Catholics, in favour of whom he issued his first declaration of
+indulgence (26th of December 1662), the bill to give effect to it being
+opposed by Clarendon and defeated in the Lords, and being replied to by
+the passing of further acts against religious liberty. Meanwhile the
+plot of Venner and of the Fifth Monarchy men had been suppressed in
+January 1661, and the king was crowned on the 23rd of April. The
+convention parliament had been dissolved on the 29th of December 1660,
+and Charles's first parliament, the Long Parliament of the Restoration,
+which met on the 8th of May 1661 and continued till January 1679,
+declared the command of the forces inherent in the crown, repudiated the
+taking up of arms against the king, and repealed in 1664 the Triennial
+Act, adding only a provision that there should not be intermission of
+parliaments for more than three years. In Ireland the church was
+re-established, and a new settlement of land introduced by the Act of
+Settlement 1661 and the Act of Explanation 1665. The island was excluded
+from the benefit of the Navigation Laws, and in 1666 the importation of
+cattle and horses into England was forbidden. In Scotland episcopacy was
+set up, the covenant to which Charles had taken so many solemn oaths
+burnt by the common hangman, and Argyll brought to the scaffold, while
+the kingdom was given over to the savage and corrupt administration of
+Lauderdale. On the 21st of May 1662, in pursuance of the pro-French and
+anti-Spanish policy, Charles married Catherine of Braganza, daughter of
+John IV. of Portugal, by which alliance England obtained Tangier and
+Bombay. She brought him no children, and her attractions for Charles
+were inferior to those of his mistress, Lady Castlemaine, whom she was
+compelled to receive as a lady of her bedchamber. In February 1665 the
+ill-omened war with Holland was declared, during the progress of which
+it became apparent how greatly the condition of the national services
+and the state of administration had deteriorated since the Commonwealth,
+and to what extent England was isolated and abandoned abroad, Michael de
+Ruyter, on the 13th of June 1667, carrying out his celebrated attack on
+Chatham and burning several warships. The disgrace was unprecedented.
+Charles did not show himself and it was reported that he had abdicated,
+but to allay the popular panic it was given out "that he was very
+cheerful that night at supper with his mistresses." The treaty of Breda
+with Holland (21st of July 1667) removed the danger, but not the
+ignominy, and Charles showed the real baseness of his character when he
+joined in the popular outcry against Clarendon, the upright and devoted
+adherent of his father and himself during twenty-five years of
+misfortune, and drove him into poverty and exile in his old age,
+recalling ominously Charles I.'s betrayal of Strafford.
+
+To Clarendon now succeeded the ministry of Buckingham and Arlington, who
+with Lauderdale, Ashley (afterwards Lord Shaftesbury) and Clifford,
+constituted the so-called Cabal ministry in 1672. With these advisers
+Charles entered into those schemes so antagonistic to the national
+interests which have disgraced his reign. His plan was to render himself
+independent of parliament and of the nation by binding himself to France
+and the French policy of aggrandizement, and receiving a French pension
+with the secret intention as well of introducing the Roman Catholic
+religion again into England. In 1661 under Clarendon's rule, the evil
+precedent had been admitted of receiving money from France, in 1662
+Dunkirk had been sold to Louis, and in February 1667 during the Dutch
+war a secret alliance had been made with Louis, Charles promising him a
+free hand in the Netherlands and Louis undertaking to support Charles's
+designs "in or out of the kingdom." In January 1668 Sir W. Temple had
+made with Sweden and Holland the Triple Alliance against the
+encroachments and aggrandizement of France, but this national policy was
+soon upset by the king's own secret plans. In 1668 the conversion of his
+brother James to Romanism became known to Charles. Already in 1662 the
+king had sent Sir Richard Bellings to Rome to arrange the terms of
+England's conversion, and now in 1668 he was in correspondence with
+Oliva, the general of the Jesuits in Rome, through James de la Cloche,
+the eldest of his natural sons, of whom he had become the father when
+scarcely sixteen during his residence at Jersey. On the 25th of January
+1669, at a secret meeting between the two royal brothers, with
+Arlington, Clifford and Arundell of Wardour, it was determined to
+announce to Louis XIV. the projected conversion of Charles and the
+realm, and subsequent negotiations terminated in the two secret treaties
+of Dover. The first, signed only, among the ministers, by Arlington and
+Clifford, the rest not being initiated, on the 20th of May 1670,
+provided for the return of England to Rome and the joint attack of
+France and England upon Holland, England's ally, together with Charles's
+support of the Bourbon claims to the throne of Spain, while Charles
+received a pension of L200,000 a year. In the second, signed by
+Arlington, Buckingham, Lauderdale and Ashley on the 31st of December
+1670, nothing was said about the conversion, and the pension provided
+for that purpose was added to the military subsidy, neither of these
+treaties being communicated to parliament or to the nation. An immediate
+gain to Charles was the acquisition of another mistress in the person of
+Louise de Keroualle, the so-called "Madam Carwell," who had accompanied
+the duchess of Orleans, the king's sister, to Dover, at the time of the
+negotiations, and who joined Charles's seraglio, being created duchess
+of Portsmouth, and acting as the agent of the French alliance throughout
+the reign.
+
+On the 24th of October 1670, at the very time that these treaties were
+in progress, Charles opened parliament and obtained a vote of L800,000
+on the plea of supporting the Triple Alliance. Parliament was prorogued
+in April 1671, not assembling again till February 1673, and on the 2nd
+of January 1672 was announced the "stop of the exchequer," or national
+bankruptcy, one of the most blameworthy and unscrupulous acts of the
+reign, by which the payments from the exchequer ceased, and large
+numbers of persons who had lent to the government were thus ruined. On
+the reassembling of parliament on the 4th of February 1673 a strong
+opposition was shown to the Cabal ministry which had been constituted at
+the end of 1672. The Dutch War, declared on the 17th of March 1672,
+though the commercial and naval jealousies of Holland had certainly not
+disappeared in England, was unpopular because of the alliance with
+France and the attack upon Protestantism, while the king's second
+declaration of indulgence (15th of March 1672) aroused still further
+antagonism, was declared illegal by the parliament, and was followed up
+by the Test Act, which obliged James and Clifford to resign their
+offices. In February 1674 the war with Holland was closed by the treaty
+of London or of Westminster, though Charles still gave Louis a free hand
+in his aggressive policy towards the Netherlands, and the Cabal was
+driven from office. Danby (afterwards duke of Leeds) now became chief
+minister; but, though in reality a strong supporter of the national
+policy, he could not hope to keep his place without acquiescence in the
+king's schemes. In November 1675 Charles again prorogued parliament, and
+did not summon it again till February 1677, when it was almost
+immediately prorogued. On the 17th of February 1676, with Danby's
+knowledge, Charles concluded a further treaty with Louis by which he
+undertook to subordinate entirely his foreign policy to that of France,
+and received an annual pension of L100,000. On the other hand, Danby
+succeeded in effecting the marriage (4th of November 1677) between
+William of Orange and the princess Mary, which proved the most important
+political event in the whole reign. Louis revenged himself by intriguing
+with the Opposition and by turning his streams of gold in that
+direction, and a further treaty with France for the annual payment to
+Charles of L300,000 and the dismissal of his parliament, concluded on
+the 17th of May 1678, was not executed. Louis made peace with Holland
+at Nijmwegen on the 10th of August, and punished Danby by disclosing
+his secret negotiations, thus causing the minister's fall and
+impeachment. To save Danby Charles now prorogued the parliament on the
+30th of December, dissolving it on the 24th of January 1679.
+
+Meanwhile the "Popish Plot," the creation of a band of impostors
+encouraged by Shaftesbury and the most violent and unscrupulous of the
+extreme Protestant party in order to exclude James from the throne, had
+thrown the whole country into a panic. Charles's conduct in this
+conjuncture was highly characteristic and was marked by his usual
+cynical selfishness. He carefully refrained from incurring suspicion and
+unpopularity by opposing the general outcry, and though he saw through
+the imposture from the beginning he made no attempt to moderate the
+popular frenzy or to save the life of any of the victims, his
+co-religionists, not even intervening in the case of Lord Stafford, and
+allowing Titus Oates to be lodged at Whitehall with a pension. His
+policy was to take advantage of the violence of the faction, to "give
+them line enough," to use his own words, to encourage it rather than
+repress it, with the expectation of procuring finally a strong royalist
+reaction. In his resistance to the great movement for the exclusion of
+James from the succession, Charles was aided by moderate men such as
+Halifax, who desired only a restriction of James's powers, and still
+more by the violence of the extreme exclusionists themselves, who headed
+by Shaftesbury brought about their own downfall and that of their cause
+by their support of the legitimacy and claims of Charles's natural son,
+the duke of Monmouth. In 1679 Charles denied, in council, his supposed
+marriage with Lucy Walter, Monmouth's mother, his declarations being
+published in 1680 to refute the legend of the black box which was
+supposed to contain the contract of marriage, and told Burnet he would
+rather see him hanged than legitimize him. He deprived him of his
+general's commission in consequence of his quasi-royal progresses about
+the country, and in December on Monmouth's return to England he was
+forbidden to appear at court. In February 1679 the king had consented to
+order James to go abroad, and even approved of the attempt of the
+primate and the bishop of Winchester to convert him to Protestantism. To
+weaken the opposition to his government Charles accepted Sir W Temple's
+new scheme of governing by a council which included the leaders of the
+Opposition, and which might have become a rival to the parliament, but
+this was an immediate failure. In May 1679 he prorogued the new
+parliament which had attainted Danby, and in July dissolved it, while in
+October he prorogued another parliament of the same mind till January
+and finally till October 1680, having resolved "to wait till this
+violence should wear off." He even made overtures to Shaftesbury in
+November 1679, but the latter insisted on the departure of both the
+queen and James. All attempts at compromise failed, and on the
+assembling of the parliament in October 1680 the Exclusion Bill passed
+the Commons, being, however, thrown out in the Lords through the
+influence of Halifax. Charles dissolved the parliament in January 1681,
+declaring that he would never give his consent to the Exclusion Bill,
+and summoned another at Oxford, which met there on the 21st of March
+1681, Shaftesbury's faction arriving accompanied by armed bands. Charles
+expressed his willingness to consent to the handing over of the
+administration to the control of a Protestant, in the case of a Roman
+Catholic sovereign, but the Opposition insisted on Charles's nomination
+of Monmouth as his successor, and the parliament was accordingly once
+more (28th of March) dissolved by Charles, while a royal proclamation
+ordered to be read in all the churches proclaimed the ill-deeds of the
+parliament and the king's affection for the Protestant religion.
+
+Charles's tenacity and clever tact were now rewarded. A great popular
+reaction ensued in favour of the monarchy, and a large number of loyal
+addresses were sent in, most of them condemning the Exclusion Bill.
+Shaftesbury was imprisoned, and though the Middlesex jury threw out his
+indictment and he was liberated, he never recovered his power, and in
+October 1682 left England for ever. The Exclusion Bill and the
+limitation of James's powers were no more heard of, and full liberty
+was granted to the king to pursue the retrograde and arbitrary policy to
+which his disposition naturally inclined. In Scotland James set up a
+tyrannical administration of the worst type. The royal enmity towards
+William of Orange was increased by a visit of the latter to England in
+July. No more parliaments were called, and Charles subsisted on his
+permanent revenue and his French pensions. He continued the policy of
+double-dealing and treachery, deceiving his ministers as at the treaty
+of Dover, by pretending to support Holland and Spain while he was
+secretly engaged to Louis to betray them. On the 22nd of March 1681 he
+entered into a compact with Louis whereby he undertook to desert his
+allies and offer no resistance to French aggressions. In August he
+joined with Spain and Holland in a manifesto against France, while
+secretly for a million livres he engaged himself to Louis, and in 1682
+he proposed himself as arbitrator with the intention of treacherously
+handing over Luxemburg to France, an offer which was rejected owing to
+Spanish suspicions of collusion. In the event, Charles's duplicity
+enabled Louis to seize Strassburg in 1681 and Luxemburg in 1684. The
+government at home was carried on principally by Rochester, Sunderland
+and Godolphin, while Guilford was lord chancellor and Jeffreys lord
+chief justice. The laws against the Nonconformists were strictly
+enforced. In order to obtain servile parliaments and also obsequious
+juries, who with the co-operation of judges of the stamp of Jeffreys
+could be depended upon to carry out the wishes of the court, the borough
+charters were confiscated, the charter of the city of London being
+forfeited on the 12th of June 1683.
+
+The popularity of Charles, now greatly increased, was raised to national
+enthusiasm by the discovery of the Rye House plot in 1683, said to be a
+scheme to assassinate Charles and James at an isolated house on the high
+road near Hoddesdon in Hertfordshire as they returned from Newmarket to
+London, among those implicated being Algernon Sidney, Lord Russell and
+Monmouth, the two former paying the death penalty and Monmouth being
+finally banished to the Hague. The administration became more and more
+despotic, and Tangier was abandoned in order to reduce expenses and to
+increase the forces at home for overawing opposition. The first
+preliminary steps were now taken for the reintroduction of the Roman
+Catholic religion. Danby and those confined on account of participation
+in the popish plot were liberated, and Titus Oates thrown into prison. A
+scheme was announced for withdrawing the control of the army in Ireland
+from Rochester, the lord-lieutenant, and placing it in the king's own
+hands, and the commission to which the king had delegated ecclesiastical
+patronage was revoked. In May 1684 the office of lord high admiral, in
+spite of the Test Act, was again given to James, who had now returned
+from Scotland. To all appearances the same policy afterwards pursued so
+recklessly and disastrously by James was now cautiously initiated by
+Charles, who, however, not being inspired by the same religious zeal as
+his brother, and not desiring "to go on his travels again," would
+probably have drawn back prudently before his throne was endangered. The
+developments of this movement were, however, now interrupted by the
+death of Charles after a short illness on the 6th of February 1685. He
+was buried on the 17th in Henry VII.'s chapel in Westminster Abbey with
+funeral ceremonies criticized by contemporaries as mean and wanting in
+respect, but the scantiness of which was probably owing to the fact that
+he had died a Roman Catholic.
+
+On his death-bed Charles had at length declared himself an adherent of
+that religion and had received the last rites according to the Romanist
+usage. There appears to be no trustworthy record of his formal
+conversion, assigned to various times and various agencies. As a youth,
+says Clarendon, "the ill-bred familiarity of the Scotch divines had
+given him a distaste" for Presbyterianism, which he indeed declared "no
+religion for gentlemen," and the mean figure which the fallen national
+church made in exile repelled him at the same time that he was attracted
+by the "genteel part of the Catholic religion." With Charles religion
+was not the serious matter it was with James, and was largely regarded
+from the political aspect and from that of ease and personal
+convenience. Presbyterianism constituted a dangerous encroachment on the
+royal prerogative; the national church and the cavalier party were
+indeed the natural supporters of the authority of the crown, but on the
+other hand they refused to countenance the dependence upon France; Roman
+Catholicism at that moment was the obvious medium of governing without
+parliaments, of French pensions and of reigning without trouble, and was
+naturally the faith of Charles's choice. Of the two papers in defence of
+the Roman Catholic religion in Charles's own hand, published by James,
+Halifax says "though neither his temper nor education made him very fit
+to be an author, yet in this case ... he might write it all himself and
+yet not one word of it his own...."
+
+Of his amours and mistresses the same shrewd observer of human
+character, who was also well acquainted with the king, declares "that
+his inclinations to love were the effects of health and a good
+constitution with as little mixture of the _seraphic_ part as ever man
+had.... I am apt to think his stayed as much as any man's ever did in
+the _lower_ region." His health was the one subject to which he gave
+unremitting attention, and his fine constitution and devotion to all
+kinds of sport and physical exercise kept off the effects of
+uncontrolled debauchery for thirty years. In later years the society of
+his mistresses seems to have been chiefly acceptable as a means to avoid
+business and petitioners, and in the case of the duchess of Portsmouth
+was the price paid for ease and the continuance of the French pensions.
+His ministers he never scrupled to sacrifice to his ease. The love of
+ease exercised an entire sovereignty in his thoughts. "The motive of his
+giving bounties was rather to make men less uneasy to him than more easy
+to themselves." He would rob his own treasury and take bribes to press a
+measure through the council. He had a natural affability, but too
+general to be much valued, and he was fickle and deceitful. Neither
+gratitude nor revenge moved him, and good or ill services left little
+impression on his mind. Halifax, however, concludes by desiring to
+moderate the roughness of his picture by emphasizing the excellence of
+his intellect and memory and his mechanical talent, by deprecating a too
+censorious judgment and by dwelling upon the disadvantages of his
+bringing up, the difficulties and temptations of his position, and on
+the fact that his vices were those common to human frailty. His capacity
+for king-craft, knowledge of the world, and easy address enabled him to
+surmount difficulties and dangers which would have proved fatal to his
+father or to his brother. "It was a common saying that he could send
+away a person better pleased at receiving nothing than those in the good
+king his father's time that had requests granted them,"[1] and his
+good-humoured tact and familiarity compensated for and concealed his
+ingratitude and perfidy and preserved his popularity. He had good taste
+in art and literature, was fond of chemistry and science, and the Royal
+Society was founded in his reign. According to Evelyn he was "debonnaire
+and easy of access, naturally kind-hearted and possessed an excellent
+temper," virtues which covered a multitude of sins.
+
+These small traits of amiability, however, which pleased his
+contemporaries, cannot disguise for us the broad lines of Charles's
+career and character. How far the extraordinary corruption of private
+morals which has gained for the restoration period so unenviable a
+notoriety was owing to the king's own example of flagrant debauchery,
+how far to the natural reaction from an artificial Puritanism, is
+uncertain, but it is incontestable that Charles's cynical selfishness
+was the chief cause of the degradation of public life which marks his
+reign, and of the disgraceful and unscrupulous betrayal of the national
+interests which raised France to a threatening predominance and
+imperilled the very existence of Britain for generations. The reign of
+his predecessor Charles I., and even of that of his successor James II.,
+with their mistaken principles and ideals, have a saving dignity wholly
+wanting in that of Charles II., and the administration of Cromwell, in
+spite of the popularity of the restoration, was soon regretted. "A lazy
+Prince," writes Pepys, "no Council, no money, no reputation at home or
+abroad. It is strange how ... everybody do nowadays reflect upon Oliver
+and commend him, what brave things he did and made all the neighbour
+princes fear him; while here a prince, come in with all the love and
+prayers and good liking of his people ... hath lost all so soon...."
+
+Charles II. had no children by his queen. By his numerous mistresses he
+had a large illegitimate progeny. By Barbara Villiers, Mrs Palmer,
+afterwards countess of Castlemaine and duchess of Cleveland, mistress
+_en titre_ till she was superseded by the duchess of Portsmouth, he had
+Charles Fitzroy, duke of Southampton and Cleveland, Henry Fitzroy, duke
+of Grafton, George Fitzroy, duke of Northumberland, Anne, countess of
+Sussex, Charlotte, countess of Lichfield, and Barbara, a nun; by Louise
+de Keroualle, duchess of Portsmouth, Charles Lennox, duke of Richmond;
+by Lucy Walter, James, duke of Monmouth and Buccleuch, and a daughter;
+by Nell Gwyn, Charles Beauclerk, duke of St Albans, and James Beauclerk;
+by Catherine Peg, Charles Fitz Charles, earl of Plymouth; by Lady
+Shannon, Charlotte, countess of Yarmouth; by Mary Davis, Mary Tudor,
+countess of Derwentwater.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article in the _Dict, of Nat. Biog._ by A.W.
+  Ward (1887), with authorities there given; _Charles II._, by O. Airy
+  (1904); _Life of Sir G. Savile_, by H.C. Foxcroft, and esp. Halifax's
+  _Character of Charles II._ printed in the appendix (1898); _The Essex
+  Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1890); _Despatches of W. Perwich_ (Royal Hist.
+  Soc. Pubtns., 1903); _History of England, of the Civil War_ and _of
+  the Commonwealth_, by S.R. Gardiner; _Hist. of Scotland_, by A. Lang,
+  vol. iii. (1904); Macaulay's _Hist, of England_, vol. i.; _Notes which
+  passed at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the
+  Earl of Clarendon_ (Roxburghe Club, 1896); _A French Ambassador at the
+  Court of Charles II._, by J.J. Jusserand (1902); _The Story of Nell
+  Gwyn and the Sayings of Charles II._, by P. Cunningham, ed. by H.B.
+  Wheatley (1892); for his adventures and period of exile see _Memoiren
+  der Herzogin Sophie_, ed. by A. Kocher (1879); "Briefe der Elisabeth
+  Stuart," by A. Wendland (_Litterarischer Verein in Stuttgart_, No.
+  228); Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz, Mlle de Montpensier and Mme de
+  Motteville; _The King in Exile_, by E. Scott (1905); Scottish History
+  Pubtns. vols. 17 (_Charles II. in Scotland_, by S.R. Gardiner, 1894)
+  and 18 (_Scotland and the Commonwealth, 1651-1653_, ed. by C.H. Firth,
+  1895); _Charles II. in the Channel Islands_, by S.E. Hoskins (1854) i
+  _Boscobel_, by T. Blount, &c., ed. by C.G. Thomas (1894); _The Flight
+  of the King_ (1897) and _After Worcester Fight_ (1904), by A. Fea;
+  _Edinburgh Review_, (January 1894); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ xix. (1904) 363;
+  _Revue historique_, xxviii. and xxix.; _Art Journal_ (1889), p. 178
+  ("Boscobel and Whiteladies," by J. Penderel-Brodhurst); _England under
+  Charles II._, by W.F. Taylor (1889), a collection of passages from
+  contemporary writers; and R. Crawfurd, _The Last Days of Charles II._
+  (1909).     (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Mem. of Thomas, earl of Ailesbury_, p. 95.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. and II., kings of France. By the French, Charles the Great,
+Roman emperor and king of the Franks, is reckoned the first of the
+series of French kings named Charles (see CHARLEMAGNE). Similarly the
+emperor Charles II. the Bald (q.v.) is reckoned as Charles II. of
+France. In some enumerations the emperor Charles III. the Fat (q.v.) is
+reckoned as Charles II. of France, Charlemagne not being included in the
+list, and Charles the Bald being styled Charles I.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III., the Simple (879-929), king of France, was a posthumous son
+of Louis the Stammerer and of his second wife Adelaide. On the
+deposition of Charles the Fat in 887 he was excluded from the throne by
+his youth; but during the reign of Odo, who had succeeded Charles, he
+succeeded in gaining the recognition of a certain number of notables and
+in securing his coronation at Reims on the 28th of January 893. He now
+obtained the alliance of the emperor, and forced Odo to cede part of
+Neustria. In 898, by the death of his rival (Jan. 1), he obtained
+possession of the whole kingdom. His most important act was the treaty
+of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte with the Normans in 911. Some of them were
+baptized; the territory which was afterwards known as the duchy of
+Normandy was ceded to them; but the story of the marriage of their chief
+Rollo with a sister of the king, related by the chronicler Dudo of Saint
+Quentin, is very doubtful. The same year Charles, on the invitation of
+the barons, took possession of the kingdom of Lotharingia. In 920 the
+barons, jealous of the growth of the royal authority and discontented
+with the favour shown by the king to his counsellor Hagano, rebelled,
+and in 922 elected Robert, brother of King Odo, in place of Charles.
+Robert was killed in the battle of Soissons, but the victory remained
+with his party, who elected Rudolph, duke of Burgundy, king. In his
+extremity Charles trusted himself to Herbert, count of Vermandois, who
+deceived him, and threw him into confinement at Chateau-Thierry and
+afterwards at Peronne. In the latter town he died on the 7th of October
+929. In 907 he had married Frederona, sister of Bovo, bishop of Chalons.
+After her death he married Eadgyfu (Odgiva), daughter of Edward the
+Elder, king of the English, who was the mother of Louis IV.
+
+  See A. Eckel, _Charles le Simple_ (Paris, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1294-1328), king of France, called THE FAIR, was the third
+and youngest son of Philip IV. and Jeanne of Navarre. In 1316 he was
+created count of La Marche, and succeeded his brother Philip V. as king
+of France and Navarre early in 1322. He followed the policy of his
+predecessors in enforcing the royal authority over the nobles, but the
+machinery of a centralized government strong enough to hold nobility in
+check increased the royal expenditure, to meet which Charles had
+recourse to doubtful financial expedients. At the beginning of his reign
+he ordered a recast of the coinage, with serious results to commerce;
+civil officials were deprived of offices, which had been conferred free,
+but were now put up to auction; duties were imposed on exported
+merchandise and on goods brought into Paris; the practice of exacting
+heavy fines was encouraged by making the salaries of the magistrates
+dependent on them; and on the pretext of a crusade to free Armenia from
+the Turks, Charles obtained from the pope a tithe levied on the clergy,
+the proceeds of which he kept for his own use; he also confiscated the
+property of the Lombard bankers who had been invited to France by his
+father at a time of financial crisis. The history of the assemblies
+summoned by Charles IV. is obscure, but in 1326, on the outbreak of war
+with England, an assembly of prelates and barons met at Meaux.
+Commissioners were afterwards despatched to the provinces to state the
+position of affairs and to receive complaints. The king justified his
+failure to summon the estates on the ground of the expense incurred by
+provincial deputies. The external politics of his reign were not marked
+by any striking events. He maintained excellent relations with Pope John
+XXII., who made overtures to him, indirectly, offering his support in
+case of his candidature for the imperial crown. Charles tried to form a
+party in Italy in support of the pope against the emperor Louis IV. of
+Bavaria, but failed. A treaty with the English which secured the
+district of Agenais for France was followed by a feudal war in Guienne.
+Isabella, Charles's sister and the wife of Edward II., was sent to
+France to negotiate, and with her brother's help arranged the final
+conspiracy against her husband. Charles's first wife was Blanche,
+daughter of Otto IV., count of Burgundy, and of Matilda (Mahaut),
+countess of Artois, to whom he was married in 1307. In May 1314, by
+order of King Philip IV., she was arrested and imprisoned in the
+Chateau-Gaillard with her sister-in-law Marguerite, daughter of Robert
+II., duke of Burgundy, and wife of Louis Hutin, on the charge of
+adultery with two gentlemen of the royal household, Philippe and Gautier
+d'Aunai. Jeanne, sister of Marguerite and wife of Philip the Tall, was
+also arrested for not having denounced the culprits, and imprisoned at
+Dourdan. The two knights were put to the torture and executed, and their
+goods confiscated. It is impossible to say how far the charges were
+true. Tradition has involved and obscured the story, which is the origin
+of the legend of the _tour de Nesle_ made famous by the drama of A.
+Dumas the elder. Marguerite died shortly in prison; Jeanne was declared
+innocent by the parlement and returned to her husband. Blanche was still
+in prison when Charles became king. He induced Pope John XXII. to
+declare the marriage null, on the ground that Blanche's mother had been
+his godmother. Blanche died in 1326, still in confinement, though at the
+last in the abbey of Maubuisson.
+
+In 1322, freed from his first marriage, Charles married his cousin Mary
+of Luxemburg, daughter of the emperor Henry VII., and upon her death,
+two years later, Jeanne, daughter of Louis, count of Evreux. Charles IV.
+died at Vincennes on the 1st of February 1328. He left no issue by his
+first two wives to succeed him, and daughters only by Jeanne of Evreux.
+He was the last of the direct line of Capetians.
+
+  See A. d'Herbomey, "Notes et documents pour servir a l'histoire des
+  rois fils de Philippe le Bel," in _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (lix.
+  pp. 479 seq. and 689 seq.); de Brequigny, "Memoire sur les differends
+  entre la France et l'Angleterre sous le regne de Charles le Bel," in
+  _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_ (xli. pp. 641-692); H. Lot,
+  "Projets de crusade sous Charles le Bel et sous Philippe de Valois"
+  (_Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_, xx. pp. 503-509); "Chronique
+  parisienne anonyme de 1316 a 1339 ..." ed. Hellot in _Mem. de la soc.
+  de l'hist. de Paris_ (xi., 1884, pp. 1-207).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. (1337-1380), king of France, called THE WISE, was born at the
+chateau of Vincennes on the 21st of January 1337, the son of John II.
+and Bonne of Luxemburg. In 1349 he became dauphin of the Viennois by
+purchase from Humbert II., and in 1355 he was created duke of Normandy.
+At the battle of Poitiers (1356) his father ordered him to leave the
+field when the battle turned against the French, and he was thus saved
+from the imprisonment that overtook his father. After arranging for the
+government of Normandy he proceeded to Paris, where he took the title of
+lieutenant of the kingdom. During the years of John II.'s imprisonment
+in England Charles was virtually king of France. He summoned the
+states-general of northern France (Langue d'oil) to Paris in October
+1356 to obtain men and money to carry on the war. But under the
+leadership of Etienne Marcel, provost of the Parisian merchants and
+president of the third estate, and Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon,
+president of the clergy, a partisan of Charles of Navarre, the states
+refused any "aid" except on conditions which Charles declined to accept.
+They demanded the dismissal of a number of the royal ministers; the
+establishment of a commission elected from the three estates to regulate
+the dauphin's administration, and of another board to act as council of
+war; also the release of Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who had been
+imprisoned by King John. The estates of Languedoc, summoned to Toulouse,
+also made protests against misgovernment, but they agreed to raise a
+war-levy on terms to which the dauphin acceded. Charles sought the
+alliance of his uncle, the emperor Charles IV., to whom he did homage at
+Metz as dauphin of the Viennois, and he was also made imperial vicar of
+Dauphine, thus acknowledging the imperial jurisdiction. But he gained
+small material advantage from these proceedings. The states-general were
+again convoked in February 1357. Their demands were more moderate than
+in the preceding year, but they nominated members to replace certain
+obnoxious persons on the royal council, demanded the right to assemble
+without the royal summons, and certain administrative reforms. In return
+they promised to raise and finance an army of 30,000 men, but the
+money--a tithe levied on the annual revenues of the clergy and
+nobility--voted for this object was not to pass through the dauphin's
+hands. Charles appeared to consent, but the agreement was annulled by
+letters from King John, announcing at the same time the conclusion of a
+two years' truce, and the reformers failed to secure their ends. Charles
+had escaped from their power by leaving Paris, but he returned for a new
+meeting of the estates in the autumn of 1357.
+
+Meanwhile Charles of Navarre had been released by his partisans, and
+allying himself with Marcel had become a popular hero in Paris. The
+dauphin was obliged to receive him and to undergo an apparent
+reconciliation. In Paris Etienne Marcel was supreme. He forced his way
+into the dauphin's palace (February 1358), and Charles's servant, Jean
+de Conflans, marshal of Champagne, and Robert de Clermont, marshal of
+Normandy, were murdered before his eyes. Charles was powerless openly to
+resent these outrages, but he obtained from the provincial assemblies
+the money refused him by the states-general, and deferred his vengeance
+until the dissensions of his enemies should offer him an opportunity.
+Charles of Navarre, now in league with the English and master of lower
+Normandy and of the approaches to Paris, returned to the immediate
+neighbourhood of the city, and Marcel found himself driven to avowed
+co-operation with the dauphin's enemies, the English and the Navarrese.
+Charles had been compelled in March to take the title of regent to
+prevent the possibility of further intervention from King John. In
+defiance of a recent ordinance prohibiting provincial assemblies, he
+presided over the estates of Picardy and Artois, and then over those of
+Champagne. The states-general of 1358 were summoned to Compiegne instead
+of Paris, and granted a large aid. The condition of northern France was
+rendered more desperate by the outbreak (May-June 1358) of the peasant
+revolt known as the Jacquerie, which was repressed with a barbarity far
+exceeding the excesses of the rebels. Within the walls of Paris Jean
+Maillart had formed a royalist party; Marcel was assassinated (31st July
+1358), and the dauphin entered Paris in the following month. A reaction
+in Charles's favour had set in, and from the estates of 1359 he regained
+the authority he had lost. It was with their full concurrence that he
+restored their honours to the officials who had been dismissed by the
+estates of 1356 and 1357. They supported him in repudiating the treaty
+of London (1359), which King John had signed in anxiety for his personal
+freedom, and voted money unconditionally for the continuation of the
+war. From this time the estates were only once convoked by Charles, who
+contented himself thenceforward by appeals to the assembly of notables
+or to the provincial bodies. Charles of Navarre was now at open war with
+the regent; Edward III. landed at Calais in October; and a great part of
+the country was exposed to double depredations from the English and the
+Navarrese troops. In the scarcity of money Charles had recourse to the
+debasement of the coinage, which suffered no less than twenty-two
+variations in the two years before the treaty of Bretigny. This
+disastrous financial expedient was made good later, the coinage being
+established on a firm basis during the last sixteen years of Charles's
+reign in accordance with the principles of Nicolas Oresme. On the
+conclusion of peace King John was restored to France, but, being unable
+to raise his ransom, he returned in 1364 to England, where he died in
+April, leaving the crown to Charles, who was crowned at Reims on the
+19th of May.
+
+The new king found an able servant in Bertrand du Guesclin, who won a
+victory over the Navarrese troops at Cocherel and took prisoner their
+best general, Jean de Grailli, captal of Buch. The establishment of
+Charles's brother, Philip the Bold, in the duchy of Burgundy, though it
+constituted in the event a serious menace to the monarchy, put an end to
+the king of Navarre's ambitions in that direction. A treaty of peace
+between the two kings was signed in 1365, by which Charles of Navarre
+gave up Mantes, Meulan and the county of Longueville in exchange for
+Montpellier. Negotiations were renewed in 1370 when Charles of Navarre
+did homage for his French possessions, though he was then considering an
+offensive and defensive alliance with Edward III. Du Guesclin undertook
+to free France from the depredations of the "free companies," mercenary
+soldiers put out of employment by the cessation of the war. An attempt
+to send them on a crusade against the Turks failed, and Du Guesclin led
+them to Spain to put Henry of Trastamara on the throne of Castile. By
+the marriage of his brother Philip the Bold with Margaret of Flanders,
+Charles detached the Flemings from the English alliance, and as soon as
+he had restored something like order in the internal affairs of the
+kingdom he provoked a quarrel with the English. The text of the treaty
+of Bretigny presented technical difficulties of which Charles was not
+slow to avail himself. The English power in Guienne was weakened by the
+disastrous Spanish expedition of the Black Prince, whom Charles summoned
+before the parlement of Paris in January 1369 to answer the charges
+preferred against him by his subjects, thus expressly repudiating the
+English supremacy in Guienne. War was renewed in May after a meeting of
+the states-general. Between 1371 and 1373 Poitou and Saintonge were
+reconquered by Du Guesclin, and soon the English had to abandon all
+their territory north of the Garonne. John IV. of Brittany (Jean de
+Montfort) had won his duchy with English help by the defeat of Charles
+of Blois, the French nominee, at Auray in 1364. His sympathies remained
+English, but he was now (1373) obliged to take refuge in England, and
+later in Flanders, while the English only retained a footing in two or
+three coast towns. Charles's generals avoided pitched battles, and
+contented themselves with defensive and guerrilla tactics, with the
+result that in 1380 only Bayonne, Bordeaux, Brest and Calais were still
+in English hands.
+
+Charles had in 1378 obtained proof of Charles of Navarre's treasonable
+designs. He seized the Norman towns held by the Navarrese, while Henry
+of Trastamara invaded Navarre, and imposed conditions of peace which
+rendered his lifelong enemy at last powerless. A premature attempt to
+amalgamate the duchy of Brittany with the French crown failed. Charles
+summoned the duke to Paris in 1378, and on his non-appearance committed
+one of his rare errors of policy by confiscating his duchy. But the
+Bretons rose to defend their independence, and recalled their duke. The
+matter was still unsettled when Charles died at Vincennes on the 16th of
+September 1380. His health, always delicate, had been further weakened,
+according to popular report, by a slow poison prepared for him by the
+king of Navarre. His wife, Jeanne of Bourbon, died in 1378, and the
+succession devolved on their elder son Charles, a boy of twelve. Their
+younger son was Louis, duke of Orleans.
+
+Personally Charles was no soldier. He owed the signal successes of his
+reign partly to his skilful choice of advisers and administrators, to
+his chancellors Jean and Guillaume de Dormans and Pierre d'Orgemont, to
+Hugues Aubriot, provost of Paris, Bureau de la Riviere and others;
+partly to a singular coolness and subtlety in the exercise of a not
+over-scrupulous diplomacy, which made him a dangerous enemy. He had
+learnt prudence and self-restraint in the troubled times of the regency,
+and did not lose his moderation in success. He modelled his private life
+on that of his predecessor Saint Louis, but was no fanatic in religion,
+for he refused his support to the violent methods of the Inquisition in
+southern France, and allowed the Jews to return to the country, at the
+same time confirming their privileges. His support of the schismatic
+pope Clement VII. at Avignon was doubtless due to political
+considerations, as favouring the independence of the Gallican church.
+Charles V. was a student of astrology, medicine, law and philosophy, and
+collected a large and valuable library at the Louvre. He gathered round
+him a group of distinguished writers and thinkers, among whom were Raoul
+de Presles, Philippe de Mezieres, Nicolas Oresme and others. The ideas
+of these men were applied by him to the practical work of
+administration, though he confined himself chiefly to the consolidation
+and improvement of existing institutions. The power of the nobility was
+lessened by restrictions which, without prohibiting private wars, made
+them practically impossible. The feudal fortresses were regularly
+inspected by the central authority, and the nobles themselves became in
+many cases paid officers of the king. Charles established a merchant
+marine and a formidable navy, which under Jean de Vienne threatened the
+English coast between 1377 and 1380. The states-general were silenced
+and the royal prerogative increased; the royal domains were extended,
+and the wealth of the crown was augmented; additions were made to the
+revenue by the sale of municipal charters and patents; and taxation
+became heavier, since Charles set no limits to the gratification of his
+tastes either in the collection of jewels and precious objects, of
+books, or of his love of building, examples of which are the renovation
+of the Louvre and the erection of the palace of Saint Paul in Paris.
+
+  See the chronicles of Froissart, and of Pierre d'Orgemont (_Grandes
+  Chroniques de Saint Denis_, Paris, vol. vi, 1838); Christine de Pisan,
+  _Le Livre des fais et bonnes moeurs du sage roy Charles V_, written in
+  1404, ed. Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. ii. (1836); L. Delisle,
+  _Mandements et actes divers de Charles V_ (1886); letters of Charles
+  V. from the English archives in Champollion-Figeac, _Lettres de rois
+  et de reines_, ii. pp. 167 seq.; the anonymous _Songe du vergier_ or
+  _Somnium viridarii_, written in 1376 and giving the political ideas of
+  Charles V. and his advisers; "Relation de la mort de Charles V" in
+  Haureau, _Notices et extraits_, xxxi. pp. 278-284; Ch. Benoist, _La
+  Politique du roi Charles V_ (1874); S. Luce, _La France pendant la
+  guerre de cent ans_; G. Clement Simon, _La Rupture du traite de
+  Bretigny_ (1898); A. Vuitry, _Etudes sur le regime financier de la
+  France_, vols. i. and ii. (1883); and R. Delachenal, _Histoire de
+  Charles V_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VI. (1368-1422), king of France, son of Charles V. and Jeanne of
+Bourbon, was born in Paris on the 3rd of December 1368. He received the
+appanage of Dauphine at his birth, and was thus the first of the princes
+of France to bear the title of dauphin from infancy. Charles V. had
+entrusted his education to Philippe de Mezieres, and had fixed his
+majority at fourteen. He succeeded to the throne in 1380, at the age of
+twelve, and the royal authority was divided between his paternal uncles,
+Louis, duke of Anjou, John, duke of Berry, Philip the Bold, duke of
+Burgundy, and his mother's brother, Louis II., duke of Bourbon. In
+accordance with an ordinance of the late king the duke of Anjou became
+regent, while the guardianship of the young king, together with the
+control of Paris and Normandy, passed to the dukes of Burgundy and
+Bourbon, who were to be assisted by certain of the councillors of
+Charles V. The duke of Berry, excluded by this arrangement, was
+compensated by the government of Languedoc and Guienne. Anjou held the
+regency for a few months only, until the king's coronation in November
+1380. He enriched himself from the estate of Charles V. and by excessive
+exactions, before he set out in 1382 for Italy to effect the conquest of
+Naples. Considerable discontent existed in the south of France at the
+time of the death of Charles V., and when the duke of Anjou re-imposed
+certain taxes which the late king had remitted at the end of his reign,
+there were revolts at Puy and Montpellier. Paris, Rouen, the cities of
+Flanders, with Amiens, Orleans, Reims and other French towns, also rose
+(1382) in revolt against their masters. The _Maillotins_, as the
+Parisian insurgents were named from the weapon they used, gained the
+upper hand in Paris, and were able temporarily to make terms, but the
+commune of Rouen was abolished, and the _Tuchins_, as the marauders in
+Languedoc were called, were pitilessly hunted down. Charles VI. marched
+to the help of the count of Flanders against the insurgents headed by
+Philip van Artevelde, and gained a complete victory at Roosebeke
+(November 27th, 1382). Strengthened by this success the king, on his
+return to Paris in the following January, exacted vengeance on the
+citizens by fines, executions and the suppression of the privileges of
+the city. The help sent by the English to the Flemish cities resulted in
+a second Flemish campaign. In 1385 Jean de Vienne made an unsuccessful
+descent on the Scottish coast, and Charles equipped a fleet at Sluys for
+the invasion of England, but a series of delays ended in the destruction
+of the ships by the English.
+
+In 1385 Charles VI. married Elizabeth, daughter of Stephen II., duke of
+Bavaria, her name being gallicized as Isabeau. Three years later, with
+the help of his brother, Louis of Orleans, duke of Touraine, he threw
+off the tutelage of his uncles, whom he replaced by Bureau de la Riviere
+and others among his father's counsellors, nicknamed by the royal
+princes the _marmousets_ because of their humble origin. Two years later
+he deprived the duke of Berry of the government of Languedoc. The
+opening years of Charles VI.'s effective rule promised well, but excess
+in gaiety of all kinds undermined his constitution, and in 1392 he had
+an attack of madness at Le Mans, when on his way to Brittany to force
+from John V. the surrender of his cousin Pierre de Craon, who had tried
+to assassinate the constable Olivier de Clisson in the streets of Paris.
+Other attacks followed, and it became evident that Charles was unable
+permanently to sustain the royal authority. Clisson, Bureau de la
+Riviere, Jean de Mercier, and the other _marmousets_ were driven from
+office, and the royal dukes regained their power. The rivalries between
+the most powerful of these--the duke of Burgundy, who during the king's
+attacks of madness practically ruled the country, and the duke of
+Orleans--were a constant menace to peace. In 1306 peace with England
+seemed assured by the marriage of Richard II. with Charles VI.'s
+daughter Isabella, but the Lancastrian revolution of 1399 destroyed the
+diplomatic advantages gained by this union. In France the country was
+disturbed by the papal schism. At an assembly of the clergy held in
+Paris in 1398 it was resolved to refuse to recognize the authority of
+Benedict XIII., who succeeded Clement VII. as schismatic pope at
+Avignon. The question became a party one; Benedict was supported by
+Louis of Orleans, while Philip the Bold and the university of Paris
+opposed him. Obedience to Benedict's authority was resumed in 1403, only
+to be withdrawn again in 1408, when the king declared himself the
+guardian and protector of the French church, which was indeed for a time
+self-governing. Edicts further extending the royal power in
+ecclesiastical affairs were even issued in 1418, after the schism was at
+an end.
+
+The king's intelligence became yearly feebler, and in 1404 the death of
+Philip the Bold aggravated the position of affairs. The new duke, John
+the Fearless, did not immediately replace his father in general affairs,
+and the influence of the duke of Orleans increased. Queen Isabeau, who
+had generally supported the Burgundian party, was now practically
+separated from her husband, whose madness had become pronounced. She was
+replaced by a young Burgundian lady, Odette de Champdivers, called by
+her contemporaries _la petite reine_, who rescued the king from the
+state of neglect into which he had fallen. Isabeau of Bavaria was freely
+accused of intrigue with the duke of Orleans. She was from time to time
+regent of France, and as her policy was directed by personal
+considerations and by her love of splendour she further added to the
+general distress. The relations between John the Fearless and the duke
+of Orleans became more embittered, and on the 23rd of November 1407
+Orleans was murdered in the streets of Paris at the instigation of his
+rival. The young duke Charles of Orleans married the daughter of the
+Gascon count Bernard VII. of Armagnac, and presently formed alliances
+with the dukes of Berry, Bourbon and Brittany, and others who formed the
+party known as the Armagnacs (see ARMAGNAC), against the Burgundians who
+had gained the upper hand in the royal council. In 1411 John the
+Fearless contracted an alliance with Henry IV. of England, and civil war
+began in the autumn, but in 1412 the Armagnacs in their turn sought
+English aid, and, by promising the sovereignty of Aquitaine to the
+English king, gave John the opportunity of posing as defender of France.
+In Paris the Burgundians were hand in hand with the corporation of the
+butchers, who were the leaders of the Parisian populace. The
+malcontents, who took their name from one of their number, Caboche,
+penetrated into the palace of the dauphin Louis, and demanded the
+surrender of the unpopular members of his household. A royal ordinance,
+promising reforms in administration, was promulgated on the 27th of May
+1413, and some of the royal advisers were executed. The king and the
+dauphin, powerless in the hands of Duke John and the Parisians, appealed
+secretly to the Armagnac princes for deliverance. They entered Paris in
+September; the ordinance extracted by the Cabochiens was rescinded; and
+numbers of the insurgents were banished the city.
+
+In the next year Henry V. of England, after concluding an alliance with
+Burgundy, resumed the pretensions of Edward III. to the crown of France,
+and in 1415 followed the disastrous battle of Agincourt. The two elder
+sons of Charles VI., Louis, duke of Guienne, and John, duke of Touraine,
+died in 1415 and 1417, and Charles, count of Ponthieu, became heir
+apparent. Paris was governed by Bernard of Armagnac, constable of
+France, who expelled all suspected of Burgundian sympathies and treated
+Paris like a conquered city. Queen Isabeau was imprisoned at Tours, but
+escaped to Burgundy. The capture of Paris by the Burgundians on the 20th
+of May 1418 was followed by a series of horrible massacres of the
+Armagnacs; and in July Duke John and Isabeau, who assumed the title of
+regent, entered Paris. Meanwhile Henry V. had completed the conquest of
+Normandy. The murder of John the Fearless in 1419 under the eyes of the
+dauphin Charles threw the Burgundians definitely into the arms of the
+English, and his successor Philip the Good, in concert with Queen
+Isabeau, concluded (1420) the treaty of Troyes with Henry V., who became
+master of France. Charles VI. had long been of no account in the
+government, and the state of neglect in which he existed at Senlis
+induced Henry V. to undertake the re-organization of his household. He
+came to Paris in September 1422, and died on the 21st of October.
+
+  The chief authorities for the reign of Charles VI. are:--_Chronica
+  Caroli VI._, written by a monk of Saint Denis, commissioned officially
+  to write the history of his time, edited by C. Bellaguet with a French
+  translation (6 vols., 1839-1852); Jean Juvenal des Ursins,
+  _Chronique_, printed by D. Godefroy in _Histoire de Charles VI_
+  (1653), chiefly an abridgment of the monk of St Denis's narrative; a
+  fragment of the _Grandes Chroniques de Saint Denis_ covering the years
+  1381 to 1383 (ed. J. Pichon 1864); correspondence of Charles VI.
+  printed by Champollion-Figeac in _Lettres de rois_, vol. ii.; _Choix
+  de pieces inedites rel. au regne de Charles VI_ (2 vols., 1863-1864),
+  edited by L. Douet d'Arcq for the Societe de l'Histoire de France; J.
+  Froissart, _Chroniques_; Enguerrand de Monstrelet, _Chroniques_,
+  covering the first half of the 15th century (Eng. trans., 4 vols.,
+  1809); _Chronique des quatre premiers Valois_, by an unknown author,
+  ed. S. Luce (1862). See also E. Lavisse, _Hist, de France_, iv. 267
+  seq.; E. Petit, "Sejours de Charles VI," _Bull. du com. des travaux
+  hist._ (1893); Vallet de Viriville, "Isabeau de Baviere," _Revue
+  francaise_ (1858-1859); M. Thibaut, _Isabeau de Baviere_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VII. (1403-1461), king of France, fifth son of Charles VI. and
+Isabeau of Bavaria, was born in Paris on the 22nd of February 1403. The
+count of Ponthieu, as he was called in his boyhood, was betrothed in
+1413 to Mary of Anjou, daughter of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of
+Sicily, and spent the next two years at the Angevin court. He received
+the duchy of Touraine in 1416, and in the next year the death of his
+brother John made him dauphin of France. He became lieutenant-general of
+the kingdom in 1417, and made active efforts to combat the complaisance
+of his mother. He assumed the title of regent in December 1418, but his
+authority in northern France was paralysed in 1419 by the murder of John
+the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, in his presence at Montereau. Although
+the deed was not apparently premeditated, as the English and Burgundians
+declared, it ruined Charles's cause for the time. He was disinherited by
+the treaty of Troyes in 1420, and at the time of his father's death in
+1422 had retired to Mehun-sur-Yevre, near Bourges, which had been the
+nominal seat of government since 1418. He was recognized as king in
+Touraine, Berry and Poitou, in Languedoc and other provinces of southern
+France; but the English power in the north was presently increased by
+the provinces of Champagne and Maine, as the result of the victories of
+Crevant (1423) and Verneuil (1424). The Armagnac administrators who had
+been driven out of Paris by the duke of Bedford gathered round the young
+king, nicknamed the "king of Bourges," but he was weak in body and mind,
+and was under the domination of Jean Louvet and Tanguy du Chastel, the
+instigators of the murder of John the Fearless, and other discredited
+partisans. The power of these favourites was shaken by the influence of
+the queen's mother, Yolande of Aragon, duchess of Anjou. She sought the
+alliance of John V., duke of Brittany, who, however, vacillated
+throughout his life between the English and French alliance, concerned
+chiefly to maintain the independence of his duchy. His brother, Arthur
+of Brittany, earl of Richmond (comte de Richemont), was reconciled with
+the king, and became constable in 1425, with the avowed intention of
+making peace between Charles VII. and the duke of Burgundy. Richemont
+caused the assassination of Charles's favourites Pierre de Giac and Le
+Camus de Beaulieu, and imposed one of his own choosing, Georges de la
+Tremoille, an adventurer who rapidly usurped the constable's power. For
+five years (1427-1432) a private war between these two exhausted the
+Armagnac forces, and central France returned to anarchy.
+
+Meanwhile Bedford had established settled government throughout the
+north of France, and in 1428 he advanced to the siege of Orleans. For
+the movement which was to lead to the deliverance of France from the
+English invaders, see JOAN OF ARC. The siege of Orleans was raised by
+her efforts on the 8th of May 1429, and two months later Charles VII.
+was crowned at Reims. Charles's intimate counsellors, La Tremoille and
+Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, saw their profits menaced by
+the triumphs of Joan of Arc, and accordingly the court put every
+difficulty in the way of her military career, and received the news of
+her capture before Compiegne (1430) with indifference. No measures were
+taken for her deliverance or her ransom, and Normandy and the Isle of
+France remained in English hands. Fifteen years of anarchy and civil war
+intervened before peace was restored. Bands of armed men fighting for
+their own hand traversed the country, and in the ten years between 1434
+and 1444 the provinces were terrorized by these _ecorcheurs_, who, with
+the decline of discipline in the English army, were also recruited from
+the ranks of the invaders. The duke of Bedford died in 1435, and in the
+same year Philip the Good of Burgundy concluded a treaty with Charles
+VII. at Arras, after fruitless negotiations for an English treaty. From
+this time Charles's policy was strengthened. La Tremoille had been
+assassinated in 1433 by the constable's orders, with the connivance of
+Yolande of Aragon. For his former favourites were substituted energetic
+advisers, his brother-in-law Charles of Anjou, Dunois (the famous
+bastard of Orleans), Pierre de Breze, Richemont and others. Richemont
+entered Paris on the 13th of April 1436, and in the next five years the
+finance of the country was re-established on a settled basis. Charles
+himself commanded the troops who captured Pontoise in 1441, and in the
+next year he made a successful expedition in the south.
+
+Meanwhile the princes of the blood and the great nobles resented the
+ascendancy of councillors and soldiers drawn from the smaller nobility
+and the _bourgeoisie_. They made a formidable league against the crown
+in 1440 which included Charles I., duke of Bourbon, John II., duke of
+Alencon, John IV. of Armagnac, and the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI. The
+revolt broke out in Poitou in 1440 and was known as the _Praguerie_.
+Charles VII. repressed the rising, and showed great skill with the rebel
+nobles, finally buying them over individually by considerable
+concessions. In 1444 a truce was concluded with England at Tours, and
+Charles proceeded to organize a regular army. The central authority was
+gradually made effective, and a definite system of payment, by removing
+the original cause of brigandage, and the establishment of a strict
+discipline learnt perhaps from the English troops, gradually stamped out
+the most serious of the many evils under which the country had suffered.
+Pierre Bessonneau, and the brothers Gaspard and Jean Bureau created a
+considerable force of artillery. Domestic troubles in their own country
+weakened the English in France. The conquest of Normandy was completed
+by the battle of Formigny (15th of April 1450). Guienne was conquered in
+1451 by Duncis, but not subdued, and another expedition was necessary in
+1453, when Talbot was defeated and slain at Castillon. Meanwhile in 1450
+Charles VII. had resolved on the rehabilitation of Joan of Arc, thus
+rendering a tardy recognition of her services. This was granted in 1456
+by the Holy See. The only foothold retained by the English on French
+ground was Calais. In its earlier stages the deliverance of France from
+the English had been the work of the people themselves. The change which
+made Charles take an active part in public affairs is said to have been
+largely due to the influence of Agnes Sorel, who became his mistress in
+1444 and died in 1450. She was the first to play a public and political
+role as mistress of a king of France, and may be said to have
+established a tradition. Pierre de Breze, who had had a large share in
+the repression of the Praguerie, obtained through her a dominating
+influence over the king, and he inspired the monarch himself and the
+whole administration with new vigour. Charles and Rene of Anjou retired
+from court, and the greater part of the members of the king's council
+were drawn from the bourgeois classes. The most famous of all these was
+Jacques Coeur (q.v.). It was by the zeal of these councillors that
+Charles obtained the surname of "The Well-Served."
+
+Charles VII. continued his father's general policy in church matters. He
+desired to lessen the power of the Holy See in France and to preserve as
+far as possible the liberties of the Gallican church. With the council
+of Constance (1414-1418) the great schism was practically healed.
+Charles, while careful to protest against its renewal, supported the
+anti-papal contentions of the French members of the council of Basel
+(1431-1449), and in 1438 he promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction at
+Bourges, by which the patronage of ecclesiastical benefices was removed
+from the Holy See, while certain interventions of the royal power were
+admitted. Bishops and abbots were to be elected, in accordance with
+ancient custom, by their clergy. After the English had evacuated French
+territory Charles still had to cope with feudal revolt, and with the
+hostility of the dauphin, who was in open revolt in 1446, and for the
+next ten years ruled like an independent sovereign in Dauphine. He took
+refuge in 1457 with Charles's most formidable enemy, Philip of Burgundy.
+Charles VII. nevertheless found means to prevent Philip from attaining
+his ambitions in Lorraine and in Germany. But the dauphin succeeded in
+embarrassing his father's policy at home and abroad, and had his own
+party in the court itself. Charles VII. died at Mehun-sur-Yevre on the
+22nd of July 1461. He believed that he was poisoned by his son, who
+cannot, however, be accused of anything more than an eager expectation
+of his death.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The history of the reign of Charles VII. has been
+  written by two modern historians,--Vallet de Viriville, _Histoire de
+  Charles VII ... et de son epoque_ (Paris, 3 vols., 1862-1865), and G.
+  du Fresne de Beaucourt, _Hist, de Charles VII_ (Paris, 6 vols.,
+  1881-1891). There is abundant contemporary material. The herald,
+  Jacques le Bouvier or Berry (b. 1386), whose _Chronicques du feu roi
+  Charles VII_ was first printed in 1528 as the work of Alain Chartier,
+  was an eye-witness of many of the events he described. His
+  _Recouvrement de Normandie_, with other material on the same subject,
+  was edited for the "Rolls" series (_Chronicles and Memorials_) by
+  Joseph Stevenson in 1863. The _Histoire de Charles VII_ by Jean
+  Chartier, historiographer-royal from 1437, was included in the
+  _Grandes Chroniques de Saint-Denis_, and was first printed under
+  Chartier's name by Denis Godefroy, together with other contemporary
+  narratives, in 1661. It was re-edited by Vallet de Viriville (Paris, 3
+  vols., 1858-1859). With these must be considered the Burgundian
+  chroniclers Enguerrand de Monstrelet, whose chronicle (ed. L. Douet
+  d'Arcq; Paris, 6 vols., 1857-1862) covers the years 1400-1444, and
+  Georges Chastellain, the existing fragments of whose chronicle are
+  published in his _OEuvres_ (ed. Kervyn de Lettenhove; Brussels, 8
+  vols., 1863-1866). For a detailed bibliography and an account of
+  printed and MS. documents see du Fresne de Beaucourt, already cited,
+  also A. Molinier, _Manuel de bibliographie historique_, iv. 240-306.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES VIII. (1470-1498), king of France, was the only son of Louis XI.
+During the whole of his childhood Charles lived far from his father at
+the chateau of Amboise, which was throughout his life his favourite
+residence. On the death of Louis XI in 1483 Charles, a lad of thirteen,
+was of age, but was absolutely incapable of governing. Until 1492 he
+abandoned the government to his sister Anne of Beaujeu. In 1491 he
+married Anne, duchess of Brittany, who was already betrothed to
+Maximilian of Austria. Urged by his favourite, Etienne de Vesc, he then,
+at the age of twenty-two, threw off the yoke of the Beaujeus, and at the
+same time discarded their wise and able policy. But he was a thoroughly
+worthless man with a weak and ill-balanced intellect. He had a romantic
+imagination and conceived vast projects. He proposed at first to claim
+the rights of the house of Anjou, to which Louis XI. had succeeded, on
+the kingdom of Naples, and to use this as a stepping-stone to the
+capture of Constantinople from the Turks and his own coronation as
+emperor of the East. He sacrificed everything to this adventurous
+policy, signed disastrous treaties to keep his hands free, and set out
+for Italy in 1494. The ceremonial side of the expedition being in his
+eyes the most important, he allowed himself to be intoxicated by his
+easy triumph and duped by the Italians. On the 12th of May 1495 he
+entered Naples in great pomp, clothed in the imperial insignia. A
+general coalition was, however, formed against him, and he was forced to
+return precipitately to France. It cannot be denied that he showed
+bravery at the battle of Fornovo (the 5th of July 1495). He was
+preparing a fresh expedition to Italy, when he died on the 8th of April
+1498, from the results of an accident, at the chateau of Amboise.
+
+  See _Histoire de Charles VIII, roy de France_, by G. de Jaligny, Andre
+  de la Vigne, &c., edited by Godefroy (Paris, 1684); De Cherrier,
+  _Histoire de Charles VIII_ (Paris, 1868); H. Fr. Delaborde,
+  _Expedition de Charles VIII en Italie_ (Paris, 1888). For a complete
+  bibliography see H. Hauser, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France,
+  1494-1610_, vol. i. (Paris, 1906); and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de
+  France_, vol. v. part i., by H. Lemonnier (Paris, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IX. (1550-1574), king of France, was the third son of Henry II.
+and Catherine de' Medici. At first he bore the title of duke of Orleans.
+He became king in 1560 by the death of his brother Francis II., but as
+he was only ten years old the power was in the hands of the
+queen-mother, Catherine. Charles seems to have been a youth of good
+parts, lively and agreeable, but he had a weak, passionate and fantastic
+nature. His education had spoiled him. He was left to his whims--even
+the strangest--and to his taste for violent exercises; and the excesses
+to which he gave himself up ruined his health. Proclaimed of age on the
+17th of August 1563, he continued to be absorbed in his fantasies and
+his hunting, and submitted docilely to the authority of his mother. In
+1570 he was married to Elizabeth of Austria, daughter of Maximilian II.
+It was about this time that he dreamed of making a figure in the world.
+The successes of his brother, the duke of Anjou, at Jarnac and
+Moncontour had already caused him some jealousy. When Coligny came to
+court, he received him very warmly, and seemed at first to accept the
+idea of an intervention in the Netherlands against the Spaniards. For
+the upshot of this adventure see the article ST BARTHOLOMEW, MASSACRE
+OF. Charles was in these circumstances no hypocrite, but weak,
+hesitating and ill-balanced. Moreover, the terrible events in which he
+had played a part transformed his character. He became melancholy,
+severe and taciturn. "It is feared," said the Venetian ambassador, "that
+he may become cruel." Undermined by fever, at the age of twenty he had
+the appearance of an old man, and night and day he was haunted with
+nightmares. He died on the 30th of May 1574. By his mistress, Marie
+Touchet, he had one son, Charles, duke of Angouleme. Charles IX. had a
+sincere love of letters, himself practised poetry, was the patron of
+Ronsard and the poets of the Pleiad, and granted privileges to the first
+academy founded by Antoine de Baif (afterwards the Academie du Palais).
+He left a work on hunting, _Traite de la chasse royale_, which was
+published in 1625, and reprinted in 1859.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The principal sources are the contemporary memoirs and
+  chronicles of T.A. d'Aubigne, Brantome, Castelnau, Haton, la Place,
+  Montluc, la Noue, l'Estoile, Ste Foy, de Thou, Tavannes, &c.; the
+  published correspondence of Catherine de' Medici, Marguerite de
+  Valois, and the Venetian ambassadors; and Calendars of State Papers,
+  &c. See also Abel Desjardins, _Charles IX, deux annees de regne_
+  (Paris, 1873); de la Ferriere, _Le XVIe siecle et les Valois_ (Paris,
+  1879); H. Mariejol, _La Reforme et la Ligue_ (Paris, 1904), in vol. v.
+  of the _Histoire de France_, by E. Lavisse, which contains a
+  bibliography for the reign.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES X. (1757-1836), king of France from 1824 to 1830, was the fourth
+child of the dauphin, son of Louis XV. and of Marie Josephe of Saxony,
+and consequently brother of Louis XVI. He was known before his accession
+as Charles Philippe, count of Artois. At the age of sixteen he married
+Marie Therese of Savoy, sister-in-law of his brother, the count of
+Provence (Louis XVIII.). His youth was passed in scandalous dissipation,
+which drew upon himself and his coterie the detestation of the people of
+Paris. Although lacking military tastes, he joined the French army at
+the siege of Gibraltar in 1772, merely for distraction. In a few years
+he had incurred a debt of 56 million francs, a burden assumed by the
+impoverished state. Prior to the Revolution he took only a minor part in
+politics, but when it broke out he soon became, with the queen, the
+chief of the reactionary party at court. In July 1789 he left France,
+became leader of the _emigres_, and visited several of the courts of
+Europe in the interest of the royalist cause. After the execution of
+Louis XVI. he received from his brother, the count of Provence, the
+title of lieutenant-general of the realm, and, on the death of Louis
+XVII., that of "Monsieur." In 1795 he attempted to aid the royalist
+rising of La Vendee, landing at the island of Yeu. But he refused to
+advance farther and to put himself resolutely at the head of his party,
+although warmly acclaimed by it, and courage failing him, he returned to
+England, settling first in London, then in Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh
+and afterwards at Hartwell. There he remained until 1813, returning to
+France in February 1814, and entering Paris in April, in the track of
+the Allies.
+
+During the reign of his brother, Louis XVIII., he was the leader of the
+ultra-royalists, the party of extreme reaction. On succeeding to the
+throne in September 1824 the dignity of his address and his affable
+condescension won him a passing popularity. But his coronation at Reims,
+with all the gorgeous ceremonial of the old regime, proclaimed his
+intention of ruling, as the Most Christian King, by divine right. His
+first acts, indeed, allayed the worst alarms of the Liberals; but it was
+soon apparent that the weight of the crown would be consistently thrown
+into the scale of the reactionary forces. The _emigres_ were awarded a
+milliard as compensation for their confiscated lands; and Gallicans and
+Liberals alike were offended by measures which threw increased power
+into the hands of the Jesuits and Ultramontanes. In a few months there
+were disquieting signs of the growing unpopularity of the king. The
+royal princesses were insulted in the streets; and on the 29th of April
+1825 Charles, when reviewing the National Guard, was met with cries from
+the ranks of "Down with the ministers!" His reply was, next day, a
+decree disbanding the citizen army.
+
+It was not till 1829, when the result of the elections had proved the
+futility of Villele's policy of repression, that Charles consented
+unwillingly to try a policy of compromise. It was, however, too late.
+Villele's successor was the vicomte de Martignac, who took Decazes for
+his model; and in the speech from the throne Charles declared that the
+happiness of France depended on "the sincere union of the royal
+authority with the liberties consecrated by the charter." But Charles
+had none of the patience and commonsense which had enabled Louis XVIII.
+to play with decency the part of a constitutional king. "I would rather
+hew wood," he exclaimed, "than be a king under the conditions of the
+king of England"; and when the Liberal opposition obstructed all the
+measures proposed by a ministry not selected from the parliamentary
+majority, he lost patience. "I told you," he said, "that there was no
+coming to terms with these men." Martignac was dismissed; and Prince
+Jules de Polignac, the very incarnation of clericalism and reaction, was
+called to the helm of state.
+
+The inevitable result was obvious to all the world. "There is no such
+thing as political experience," wrote Wellington, certainly no friend of
+Liberalism; "with the warning of James II. before him, Charles X. was
+setting up a government by priests, through priests, for priests." A
+formidable agitation sprang up in France, which only served to make the
+king more obstinate. In opening the session of 1830 he declared that he
+would "find the power" to overcome the obstacles placed in his path by
+"culpable manoeuvres." The reply of the chambers was a protest against
+"the unjust distrust of the sentiment and reason of France"; whereupon
+they were first prorogued, and on the 16th of May dissolved. The result
+of the new elections was what might have been foreseen: a large increase
+in the Opposition; and Charles, on the advice of his ministers,
+determined on a virtual suspension of the constitution. On the 25th of
+July were issued the famous "four ordinances" which were the immediate
+cause of the revolution that followed.
+
+With singular fatuity Charles had taken no precautions in view of a
+violent outbreak. Marshal Marmont, who commanded the scattered troops in
+Paris, had received no orders, beyond a jesting command from the duke of
+Angouleme to place them under arms "as some windows might be broken." At
+the beginning of the revolution Charles was at St Cloud, whence on the
+news of the fighting he withdrew first to Versailles and then to
+Rambouillet. So little did he understand the seriousness of the
+situation that, when the laconic message "All is over!" was brought to
+him, he believed that the insurrection had been suppressed. On realizing
+the truth he hastily abdicated in favour of his grandson, the duke of
+Bordeaux (comte de Chambord), and appointed Louis Philippe, duke of
+Orleans, lieutenant-general of the kingdom (July 30th). But, on the news
+of Louis Philippe's acceptance of the crown, he gave up the contest and
+began a dignified retreat to the sea-coast, followed by his suite, and
+surrounded by the infantry, cavalry and artillery of the guard. Beyond
+sending a corps of observation to follow his movements, the new
+government did nothing to arrest his escape. At Maintenon Charles took
+leave of the bulk of his troops, and proceeding with an escort of some
+1200 men to Cherbourg, took ship there for England on the 16th of
+August. For a time he returned to Holyrood Palace at Edinburgh, which
+was again placed at his disposal. He died at Goritz, whither he had
+gone for his health, on the 6th of November 1836.
+
+The best that can be said of Charles X. is that, if he did not know how
+to rule, he knew how to cease to rule. The dignity of his exit was more
+worthy of the ancient splendour of the royal house of France than the
+theatrical humility of Louis Philippe's entrance. But Charles was an
+impossible monarch for the 19th century, or perhaps for any other
+century. He was a typical Bourbon, unable either to learn or to forget;
+and the closing years of his life he spent in religious austerities,
+intended to expiate, not his failure to grasp a great opportunity, but
+the comparatively venial excesses of his youth.[1]
+
+  See Achille de Vaulabelle, _Chute de l'empire: histoire des deux
+  restaurations_ (Paris, 1847-1857); Louis de Vielcastel, _Hist. de la
+  restauration_ (Paris, 1860-1878); Alphonse de Lamartine, _Hist. de la
+  restauration_ (Paris, 1851-1852); Louis Blanc, _Hist. de dix ans,
+  1830-1840_ (5 vols., 1842-1844); G.I. de Montbel, _Derniere Epoque de
+  l'hist. de Charles X_ (5th ed., Paris, 1840); Theodore Anne,
+  _Memoires, souvenirs, et anecdotes sur l'interieur du palais de
+  Charles X et les evenements de 1815 a 1830_ (2 vols., Paris, 1831);
+  ib., _Journal de Saint-Cloud a Cherbourg_; Vedrenne, _Vie de Charles
+  X_ (3 vols., Paris, 1879); Petit, _Charles X_ (Paris, 1886);
+  Villeneuve, _Charles X et Louis XIX en exil. Memoires inedits_ (Paris,
+  1889); Imbert de Saint-Amand, _La Cour de Charles X_ (Paris, 1892).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] This, at any rate, represents the general verdict of history. It
+    is interesting, however, to note that so liberal-minded and shrewd a
+    critic of men as King Leopold I. of the Belgians formed a different
+    estimate. In a letter of the 18th of November 1836 addressed to
+    Princess (afterwards Queen) Victoria he writes:--"History will state
+    that Louis XVIII. was a most liberal monarch, reigning with great
+    mildness and justice to his end, but that his brother, from his
+    despotic and harsh disposition, upset all the other had done, and
+    lost the throne. Louis XVIII. was a clever, hard-hearted man,
+    shackled by no principle, very proud and false. Charles X. an honest
+    man, a kind friend, an honourable master, sincere in his opinions,
+    and inclined to do everything that is right. That teaches us what we
+    ought to believe in history as it is compiled according to ostensible
+    events and results known to the generality of people."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1288-1342), king of Hungary, the son of Charles Martell of
+Naples, and Clemencia, daughter of the emperor Rudolph, was known as
+Charles Robert previously to being enthroned king of Hungary in 1309. He
+claimed the Hungarian crown, as the grandson of Stephen V., under the
+banner of the pope, and in August 1300 proceeded from Naples to Dalmatia
+to make good his claim. He was crowned at Esztergom after the death of
+the last Arpad, Andrew III. (1301), but was forced the same year to
+surrender the crown to Wenceslaus II. of Bohemia (1289-1306). His
+failure only made Pope Boniface VIII. still more zealous on his behalf,
+and at the diet of Pressburg (1304) his Magyar adherents induced him to
+attempt to recover the crown of St Stephen from the Czechs. But in the
+meantime (1305) Wenceslaus transferred his rights to Duke Otto of
+Bavaria, who in his turn was taken prisoner by the Hungarian rebels.
+Charles's prospects now improved, and he was enthroned at Buda on the
+15th of June 1309, though his installation was not regarded as valid
+till he was crowned with the sacred crown (which was at last recovered
+from the robber-barons) at Szekesfehervar on the 27th of August 1310.
+For the next three years Charles had to contend with rebellion after
+rebellion, and it was only after his great victory over all the elements
+of rapine and disorder at Rozgony (June 15, 1312) that he was really
+master in his own land. His foreign policy aimed at the aggrandizement
+of his family, but his plans were prudent as well as ambitious, and
+Hungary benefited by them greatly. His most successful achievement was
+the union with Poland for mutual defence against the Habsburgs and the
+Czechs. This was accomplished by the convention of Trencsen (1335),
+confirmed the same year at the brilliant congress of Visegrad, where all
+the princes of central Europe met to compose their differences and were
+splendidly entertained during the months of October and November. The
+immediate result of the congress was a combined attack by the Magyars
+and Poles upon the emperor Louis and his ally Albert of Austria, which
+resulted in favour of Charles in 1337. Charles's desire to unite the
+kingdoms of Hungary and Naples under the eldest son Louis was frustrated
+by Venice and the pope, from fear lest Hungary might become the dominant
+Adriatic power. He was, however, more than compensated for this
+disappointment by his compact (1339) with his ally and brother-in-law,
+Casimir of Poland, whereby it was agreed that Louis should succeed to
+the Polish throne on the death of the childless Casimir. For an account
+of the numerous important reforms effected by Charles see HUNGARY:
+_History_. A statesman of the first rank, he not only raised Hungary
+once more to the rank of a great power, but enriched and civilized her.
+In character he was pious, courtly and valiant, popular alike with the
+nobility and the middle classes, whose increasing welfare he did so much
+to promote, and much beloved by the clergy. His court was famous
+throughout Europe as a school of chivalry.
+
+Charles was married thrice. His first wife was Maria, daughter of Duke
+Casimir of Teschen, whom he wedded in 1306. On her death in 1318 he
+married Beatrice, daughter of the emperor Henry VII. On her decease two
+years later he gave his hand to Elizabeth, daughter of Wladislaus
+Lokietek, king of Poland. Five sons were the fruit of these marriages,
+of whom three, Louis, Andrew and Stephen, survived him. He died on the
+16th of July 1342, and was laid beside the high altar at Szekesfehervar,
+the ancient burial-place of the Arpads.
+
+  See Bela Kerekgyarto, _The Hungarian Royal Court under the House of
+  Anjou_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1881); _Rationes Collectorum Pontif. in
+  Hungaria_ (Budapest, 1887); _Diplomas of the Angevin Period_, edited
+  by Imre Nagy (Hung. and Lat.), vols. i.-iii. (Budapest, 1878, &c.).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (1226-1285), king of Naples and Sicily and count of Anjou,
+was the seventh child of Louis VIII. of France and Blanche of Castile.
+Louis died a few months after Charles's birth and was succeeded by his
+son Louis IX. (St Louis), and on the death in 1232 of the third son
+John, count of Anjou and Maine, those fiefs were conferred on Charles.
+In 1246 he married Beatrice, daughter and heiress of Raymond Berenger
+V., the last count of Provence, and after defeating James I. of Aragon
+and other rivals with the help of his brother the French king, he took
+possession of his new county. In 1248 he accompanied Louis in the
+crusade to Egypt, but on the defeat of the Crusaders he was taken
+prisoner with his brother. Shortly afterwards he was ransomed, and
+returned to Provence in 1250. During his absence several towns had
+asserted their independence; but he succeeded in subduing them without
+much difficulty and gradually suppressed their communal liberties.
+Charles's ambition aimed at wider fields, and when Margaret, countess of
+Flanders, asked help of the French court against the German king William
+of Holland, by whom she had been defeated, he gladly accepted her offer
+of the county of Hainaut in exchange for his assistance (1253); this
+arrangement was, however, rescinded by Louis of France, who returned
+from captivity in 1254, and Charles gave up Hainaut for an immense sum
+of money. He extended his influence by the subjugation of Marseilles in
+1257, then one of the most important maritime cities of the world, and
+two years later several communes of Piedmont recognized Charles's
+suzerainty. In 1262 Pope Urban IV. determined to destroy the power of
+the Hohenstaufen in Italy, and offered the kingdoms of Naples and
+Sicily, in consideration of a yearly tribute, to Charles of Anjou, in
+opposition to Manfred, the bastard son of the late emperor Frederick II.
+The next year Charles succeeded in getting himself elected senator of
+Rome, which gave him an advantage in dealing with the pope. After long
+negotiations he accepted the Sicilian and Neapolitan crowns, and in 1264
+he sent a first expedition of Provencals to Italy; he also collected a
+large army and navy in Provence and France with the help of King Louis,
+and by an alliance with the cities of Lombardy was able to send part of
+his force overland. Pope Clement IV. confirmed the Sicilian agreement on
+conditions even more favourable to Charles, who sailed in 1265, and
+conferred on the expedition all the privileges of a crusade. After
+narrowly escaping capture by Manfred's fleet he reached Rome safely,
+where he was crowned king of the Two Sicilies. The land army arrived
+soon afterwards, and on the 26th of February 1266 Charles encountered
+Manfred at Benevento, where after a hard-fought battle Manfred was
+defeated and killed, and the whole kingdom was soon in Charles's
+possession. Then Conradin, Frederick's grandson and last legitimate
+descendant of the Hohenstaufen, came into Italy, where he found many
+partisans among the Ghibellines of Lombardy and Tuscany, and among
+Manfred's former adherents in the south. He gathered a large army
+consisting partly of Germans and Saracens, but was totally defeated by
+Charles at Tagliacozzo (23rd of August 1268); taken prisoner, he was
+tried as a rebel and executed at Naples. Charles, in a spirit of the
+most vindictive cruelty, had large numbers of Conradin's barons put to
+death and their estates confiscated, and the whole population of several
+towns massacred.
+
+He was now one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe, for besides
+ruling over Provence and Anjou and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, he
+was imperial vicar of Tuscany, lord of many cities of Lombardy and
+Piedmont, and as the pope's favourite practically arbiter of the papal
+states, especially during the interregnum between the death of Clement
+IV. (1268) and the election of Gregory X. (1272). But his ambition was
+by no means satisfied, and he even aspired to the crown of the East
+Roman empire. In 1272 he took part with Louis IX. in a crusade to north
+Africa, where the French king died of fever, and Charles, after
+defeating the soldan of Tunis, returned to Sicily. The election of
+Rudolph of Habsburg as German king after a long interregnum, and that of
+Nicholas III. to the Holy See (1277), diminished Charles's power, for
+the new pope set himself to compose the difference between Guelphs and
+Ghibellines in the Italian cities, but at his death Charles secured the
+election of his henchman Martin IV. (1281), who recommenced persecuting
+the Ghibellines, excommunicated the Greek emperor, Michael Palaeologus,
+proclaimed a crusade against the Greeks, filled every appointment in the
+papal states with Charles's vassals, and reappointed the Angevin king
+senator of Rome. But the cruelty of the French rulers of Sicily drove
+the people of the island to despair, and a Neapolitan nobleman, Giovanni
+da Procida, organized the rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers (see
+VESPERS, SICILIAN), in which the French in Sicily were all massacred or
+expelled (1282). Charles determined to subjugate the island and sailed
+with his fleet for Messina. The city held out until Peter III. of
+Aragon, whose wife Constance was a daughter of Manfred, arrived in
+Sicily, and a Sicilian-Catalan fleet under the Calabrese admiral,
+Ruggiero di Lauria, completely destroyed that of Charles. "If thou art
+determined, O God, to destroy me," the unhappy Angevin exclaimed, "let
+my fall be gradual!" He was forced to abandon all attempts at
+reconquest, but proposed to decide the question by single combat between
+himself and Peter, to take place at Bordeaux under English protection.
+The Aragonese accepted, but fearing treachery, as the French army was in
+the neighbourhood, he failed to appear on the appointed day. In the
+meanwhile Ruggiero di Lauria appeared before Naples and destroyed
+another Angevin fleet commanded by Charles's son, who was taken prisoner
+(May 1284). Charles came to Naples with a new fleet from Provence, and
+was preparing to invade Sicily again, when he contracted a fever and
+died at Foggia on the 7th of January 1285. He was undoubtedly an
+extremely able soldier and a skilful statesman, and much of his
+legislation shows a real political sense; but his inordinate ambition,
+his oppressive methods of government and taxation, and his cruelty
+created enemies on all sides, and led to the collapse of the edifice of
+dominion which he had raised.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1250-1309), king of Naples and Sicily, son of Charles I.,
+had been captured by Ruggiero di Lauria in the naval battle at Naples in
+1284, and when his father died he was still a prisoner in the hands of
+Peter of Aragon. In 1288 King Edward I. of England had mediated to make
+peace, and Charles was liberated on the understanding that he was to
+retain Naples alone, Sicily being left to the Aragonese; Charles was
+also to induce his cousin Charles of Valois to renounce for twenty
+thousand pounds of silver the kingdom of Aragon which had been given to
+him by Pope Martin IV. to punish Peter for having invaded Sicily, but
+which the Valois had never effectively occupied. The Angevin king was
+thereupon set free, leaving three of his sons and sixty Provencal
+nobles as hostages, promising to pay 30,000 marks and to return a
+prisoner if the conditions were not fulfilled within three years. He
+went to Rieti, where the new pope Nicholas IV. immediately absolved him
+from all the conditions he had sworn to observe, crowned him king of the
+Two Sicilies (1289), and excommunicated Alphonso, while Charles of
+Valois, in alliance with Castile, prepared to take possession of Aragon.
+Alphonso III, the Aragonese king, being hard pressed, had to promise to
+withdraw the troops he had sent to help his brother James in Sicily, to
+renounce all rights over the island, and pay a tribute to the Holy See.
+But Alphonso died childless in 1291 before the treaty could be carried
+out, and James took possession of Aragon, leaving the government of
+Sicily to the third brother Frederick. The new pope Boniface VIII.,
+elected in 1294 at Naples under the auspices of King Charles, mediated
+between the latter and James, and a most dishonourable treaty was
+signed: James was to marry Charles's daughter Bianca and was promised
+the investiture by the pope of Sardinia and Corsica, while he was to
+leave the Angevin a free hand in Sicily and even to assist him if the
+Sicilians resisted. An attempt was made to bribe Frederick into
+consenting to this arrangement, but being backed up by his people he
+refused, and was afterwards crowned king of Sicily. The war was fought
+with great fury on land and sea, but Charles, although aided by the
+pope, by Charles of Valois, and by James II. of Aragon, was unable to
+conquer the island, and his son the prince of Taranto was taken prisoner
+at the battle of La Falconara in 1299. Peace was at last made in 1302 at
+Caltabellotta, Charles II. giving up all rights to Sicily and agreeing
+to the marriage of his daughter Leonora to King Frederick; the treaty
+was ratified by the pope in 1303. Charles spent his last years quietly
+in Naples, which city he improved and embellished. He died in August
+1309, and was succeeded by his son Robert.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A. de Saint-Priest, _Histoire de la conquete de Naples
+  par Charles d'Anjou_ (4 vols., Paris, 1847-1849), is still of use for
+  the documents from the archives of Barcelona, but it needs to be
+  collated with more recent works; S. de Sismondi, in vol. ii. of his
+  _Histoire des republiques italiennes_ (Brussels, 1838), gives a good
+  general sketch of the reigns of Charles I. and II., but is
+  occasionally inaccurate as to details; the best authority on the early
+  life of Charles I. is R. Sternfeld, _Karl von Anjou als Graf von
+  Provence_ (Berlin, 1888); Charles's connexion with north Italy is
+  dealt with in Merkel's _La Dominazione di Carlo d'Angio in Piemonte e
+  in Lombardia_ (Turin, 1891), while the R. Deputazione di Storia
+  Patria Toscana has recently published a _Codice diplomatico delle
+  relazioni di Carlo d'Angio con la Toscana_; the contents of the
+  Angevin archives at Naples have been published by Durrien, _Archives
+  angevines de Naples_ (Toulouse, 1866-1867). M. Amari's _La Guerra del
+  Vespro Siciliano_ (8th ed., Florence, 1876) is a valuable history, but
+  the author is too bitterly prejudiced against the French to be quite
+  impartial; his work should be compared with L. Cadier's _Essai sur
+  l'administration du royaume de Sicile sous Charles I et Charles II
+  d'Anjou_ (Paris, 1891, _Bibl. des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de
+  Rome_, fasc. 59), which contains many documents, and tends somewhat to
+  rehabilitate the Angevin rule.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1332-1387), called THE BAD, king of Navarre and count of
+Evreux, was a son of Jeanne II., queen of Navarre, by her marriage with
+Philip, count of Evreux (d. 1343). Having become king of Navarre on
+Jeanne's death in 1349, he suppressed a rising at Pampeluna with much
+cruelty, and by this and similar actions thoroughly earned his surname
+of "The Bad." In 1352 he married Jeanne (d. 1393), a daughter of John
+II., king of France, a union which made his relationship to the French
+crown still more complicated. Through his mother he was a grandson of
+Louis X. and through his father a great-grandson of Philip III., having
+thus a better claim to the throne of France than Edward III. of England;
+and, moreover, he held lands under the suzerainty of the French king,
+whose son-in-law he now became. Charles was a man of great ability,
+possessing popular manners and considerable eloquence, but he was
+singularly unscrupulous, a quality which was revealed during the years
+in which he played an important part in the internal affairs of France.
+Trouble soon arose between King John and his son-in-law. The promised
+dowry had not been paid, and the county of Angouleme, which had formerly
+belonged to Jeanne of Navarre, was now in the possession of the French
+king's favourite, the constable Charles la Cerda. In January 1354 the
+constable was assassinated by order of Charles, and preparations for war
+were begun. The king of Navarre, who defended this deed, had, however,
+many friends in France and was in communication with Edward III.; and
+consequently John was forced to make a treaty at Mantes and to
+compensate him for the loss of Angouleme by a large grant of lands,
+chiefly in Normandy. This peace did not last long, and in 1355 John was
+compelled to confirm the treaty of Mantes. Returning to Normandy,
+Charles was partly responsible for some unrest in the duchy, and in
+April 1356 he was treacherously seized by the French king at Rouen,
+remaining in captivity until November 1357, when John, after his defeat
+at Poitiers, was a prisoner in England. Charles was regarded with much
+favour in France, and the states-general demanded his release, which,
+however, was effected by a surprise. Owing to his popularity he was
+considered by Etienne Marcel and his party as a suitable rival to the
+dauphin, afterwards King Charles V., and on entering Paris he was well
+received and delivered an eloquent harangue to the Parisians.
+Subsequently peace was made with the dauphin, who promised to restore to
+Charles his confiscated estates. This peace was not enduring, and as his
+lands were not given back Charles had some ground for complaint. War
+again broke out, quickly followed by a new treaty, after which the king
+of Navarre took part in suppressing the peasant rising known as the
+_Jacquerie_. Answering the entreaties of Marcel he returned to Paris on
+June 1358, and became captain-general of the city, which was soon
+besieged by the dauphin. This position, however, did not prevent him
+from negotiating both with the dauphin and with the English; terms were
+soon arranged with the former, and Charles, having lost much of his
+popularity, left Paris just before the murder of Marcel in July 1358. He
+continued his alternate policy of war and peace, meanwhile adding if
+possible by his depredations to the misery of France, until the
+conclusion of the treaty of Bretigny in May 1360 deprived him of the
+alliance of the English, and compelled him to make peace with King John
+in the following October. A new cause of trouble arose when the duchy of
+Burgundy was left without a ruler in November 1361, and was claimed by
+Charles; but, lacking both allies and money, he was unable to prevent
+the French king from seizing Burgundy, while he himself returned to
+Navarre.
+
+In his own kingdom Charles took some steps to reform the financial and
+judicial administration and so to increase his revenue; but he was soon
+occupied once more with foreign entanglements, and in July 1362, in
+alliance with Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, he invaded Aragon,
+deserting his new ally soon afterwards for Peter IV., king of Aragon.
+Meanwhile the war with the dauphin had been renewed. Still hankering
+after Burgundy, Charles saw his French estates again seized; but after
+some desultory warfare, chiefly in Normandy, peace was made in March
+1365, and he returned to his work of interference in the politics of the
+Spanish kingdoms. In turn he made treaties with the kings of Castile and
+Aragon, who were at war with each other; promising to assist Peter the
+Cruel to regain his throne, from which he had been driven in 1366 by his
+half-brother Henry of Trastamara, and then assuring Henry and his ally
+Peter of Aragon that he would aid them to retain Castile. He continued
+this treacherous policy when Edward the Black Prince advanced to succour
+Peter the Cruel; then signed a treaty with Edward of England, and then
+in 1371 allied himself with Charles V. of France. His next important
+move was to offer his assistance to Richard II. of England for an attack
+upon France. About this time serious charges were brought against him.
+Accused of attempting to poison the king of France and other prominent
+persons, and of other crimes, his French estates were seized by order of
+Charles V., and soon afterwards Navarre was invaded by the Castilians.
+Won over by the surrender of Cherbourg in July 1378, the English under
+John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, came to his aid; but a heavy price had
+to be paid for the neutrality of the king of Castile. After the death of
+Charles V. in 1380, the king of Navarre did not interfere in the
+internal affairs of France, although he endeavoured vainly again to
+obtain aid from Richard II., and to regain Cherbourg. His lands in
+France were handed over to his eldest son Charles, who governed them
+with the consent of the new king Charles VI. Charles died on the 1st of
+January 1387, and many stories are current regarding the manner of his
+death. Froissart relates that he was burned to death through his
+bedclothes catching fire; Secousse says that he died in peace with many
+signs of contrition; another story says he died of leprosy; and a
+popular legend tells how he expired by a divine judgment through the
+burning of the clothes steeped in sulphur and spirits in which he had
+been wrapped as a cure for a loathsome disease caused by his debauchery.
+He had three sons and four daughters, and was succeeded by his eldest
+son Charles; one of his daughters, Jeanne, became the wife of Henry IV.
+of England.
+
+  See Jean Froissart, _Chroniques_, edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud
+  (Paris, 1869-1897); D.F. Secousse, _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire
+  de Charles II, roi de Navarre_ (Paris, 1755-1768); E. Meyer, _Charles
+  II, roi de Navarre et la Normandie au XIVe siecle_ (Paris, 1898); F.T.
+  Perrens, _Etienne Marcel_ (Paris, 1874); R. Delachenal, _Premieres
+  negotiations de Charles le Mauvais avec les Anglais_ (Paris, 1900);
+  and E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome iv. (Paris, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. (1361-1425), called THE NOBLE, king of Navarre and count of
+Evreux, was the eldest son of Charles II. the Bad, king of Navarre, by
+his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of John II., king of France, and was
+married in 1375 to Leonora (d. 1415), daughter of Henry II., king of
+Castile. Having passed much of his early life in France, he became king
+of Navarre on the death of Charles II. in January 1387, and his reign
+was a period of peace and order, thus contrasting sharply with the long
+and calamitous reign of his father. In 1393 he regained Cherbourg, which
+had been handed over by Charles II. to Richard II. of England, and in
+1403 he came to an arrangement with the representatives of Charles VI.
+of France concerning the extensive lands which he claimed in that
+country. Cherbourg was given to the French king; certain exchanges of
+land were made; and in the following year Charles III. surrendered the
+county of Evreux, and was created duke of Nemours and made a peer of
+France. After this his only interference in the internal affairs of
+France was when he sought to make peace between the rival factions in
+that country. Charles sought to improve the condition of Navarre by
+making canals and rendering the rivers navigable, and in other ways. He
+died at Olite on the 8th of September 1425 and was buried at Pampeluna.
+After the death of his two sons in 1402 the king decreed that his
+kingdom should pass to his daughter Blanche (d. 1441), who took for her
+second husband John, afterwards John II., king of Aragon; and the cortes
+of Navarre swore to recognize Charles (q.v.), prince of Viana, her son
+by this marriage, as king after his mother's death.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL), king of Rumania
+(1839-   ), second son of Prince Karl Anton of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,
+was born on the 20th of April 1839. He was educated at Dresden
+(1850-1856), and passed through his university course at Bonn. Entering
+the Prussian army in 1857, he won considerable distinction in the Danish
+war of 1864, and received instruction in strategy from General von
+Moltke. He afterwards travelled in France, Italy, Spain and Algeria. He
+was a captain in the 2nd regiment of Prussian Dragoon Guards when he was
+elected _hospodar_ or prince of Rumania on the 20th of April 1866, after
+the compulsory abdication of Prince Alexander John Cuza. Regarded at
+first with distrust by Turkey, Russia and Austria, he succeeded in
+gaining general recognition in six months; but he had to contend for ten
+years with fierce party struggles between the Conservatives and the
+Liberals.
+
+During this period, however, Charles displayed great tact in his
+dealings with both parties, and kept his country in the path of
+administrative and economic reform, organizing the army, developing the
+railways, and establishing commercial relations with foreign powers. The
+sympathy of Rumania with France in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and
+the consequent interruption of certain commercial undertakings, led to a
+hostile movement against Prince Charles, which, being fostered by
+Russia, made him resolve to abdicate; and it was with difficulty that he
+was persuaded to remain. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 he joined
+the Russians before Plevna (q.v.), and being placed in command of the
+combined Russian and Rumanian forces, forced Osman Pasha to surrender.
+As a consequence of the prince's vigorous action the independence of
+Rumania, which had been proclaimed in May 1877, was confirmed by various
+treaties in 1878, and recognized by Great Britain, France and Germany in
+1880. On the 26th of March 1881 he was proclaimed king of Rumania, and,
+with his consort, was crowned on the 22nd of May following. From that
+time he pursued a successful career in home and foreign policy, and
+greatly improved the financial and military position of his country;
+while his appreciation of the fine arts was shown by his formation of an
+important collection of paintings of all schools in his palaces at
+Sinaia and Bucharest. For a detailed account of his reign, see RUMANIA.
+On the 1st of November 1869 he married Princess Elizabeth (q.v.), a
+daughter of Prince Hermann of Wied, widely known under her literary name
+of "Carmen Sylva." As the only child of the marriage, a daughter, died
+in 1874, the succession was finally settled upon the king's nephew,
+Prince Ferdinand of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was created prince of
+Rumania on the 18th of March 1889, and married, on the 10th of January
+1893, Princess Marie, daughter of Alfred, duke of Saxe-Coburg, their
+children being Prince Carol (b. 1893) and Princess Elizabeth (b. 1894).
+
+  The official life of King Charles, mainly his own composition, _Aus
+  dem Leben Konig Karls von Rumanien_ (Stuttgart, 1894-1900, 4 vols.),
+  deals mainly with political history. See for an account of his
+  domestic life, M. Kremnitz, _Konig Karl von Rumanien. Ein Lebensbild_
+  (Breslau, 1903).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (1661-1700), king of Spain, known among Spanish kings as
+"The Desired" and "The Bewitched," was the son of Philip IV. by his
+second marriage with Maria, daughter of the emperor Ferdinand III., his
+niece. He was born on the 11th of November 1661, and was the only
+surviving son of his father's two marriages--a child of old age and
+disease, in whom the constant intermarriages of the Habsburgs had
+developed the family type to deformity. His birth was greeted with joy
+by the Spaniards, who feared the dispute as to the succession which must
+have ensued if Philip IV. left no male issue. The boy was so feeble that
+till the age of five or six he was fed only from the breast of a nurse.
+For years afterwards it was not thought safe to allow him to walk. That
+he might not be overtaxed he was left entirely uneducated, and his
+indolence was indulged to such an extent that he was not even expected
+to be clean. When his brother, the younger Don John of Austria, a
+natural son of Philip IV., obtained power by exiling the queen mother
+from court he insisted that at least the king's hair should be combed.
+Charles made the malicious remark that nothing was safe from Don
+John--not even vermin. The king was then fifteen, and, according to
+Spanish law, of age. But he never became a man in body or mind. The
+personages who ruled in his name arranged a marriage for him with Maria
+Louisa of Orleans. The French princess, a lively young woman of no
+sense, died in the stifling atmosphere of the Spanish court, and from
+the attendance of Spanish doctors. Again his advisers arranged a
+marriage with Maria Ana of Neuburg. The Bavarian wife stood the strain
+and survived him. Both marriages were merely political--the first a
+victory for the French, and the second for the Austrian party. France
+and Austria were alike preparing for the day when the Spanish succession
+would have to be fought for. The king was a mere puppet in the hands of
+each alternately. By natural instinct he hated the French, but there was
+no room in his nearly imbecile mind for more than childish superstition,
+insane pride of birth, and an interest in court etiquette. The only
+touch of manhood was a taste for shooting which he occasionally indulged
+in the preserves of the Escorial. In his later days he suffered much
+pain, and was driven wild by the conflict between his wish to transmit
+his inheritance to "the illustrious house of Austria," his own kin, and
+the belief instilled into him by the partisans of the French claimant
+that only the power of Louis XIV. could avert the dismemberment of the
+empire. A silly fanatic made the discovery that the king was bewitched,
+and his confessor Froilan Diaz supported the belief. The king was
+exorcised, and the exorcists of the kingdom were called upon to put
+stringent questions to the devils they cast out. The Inquisition
+interfered, and the dying king was driven mad among them. Very near his
+end he had the lugubrious curiosity to cause the coffins of his embalmed
+ancestors to be opened at the Escorial. The sight of the body of his
+first wife, at whom he also insisted on looking, provoked a passion of
+tears and despair. Under severe pressure from the cardinal archbishop of
+Toledo, Portocarrero, he finally made a will in favour of Philip, duke
+of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV., and died on the 1st of November 1700,
+after a lifetime of senile decay.
+
+  The best picture of Charles II. is to be found in _Les Memoires de la
+  tour d'Espagne_ of the Marquis de Villars (London, 1861), and the
+  _Letters_ of the Marquise de Villars (Paris, 1868).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. (1716-1788), king of Spain, born on the 20th January 1716,
+was the first son of the second marriage of Philip V. with Elizabeth
+Farnese of Parma. It was his good fortune to be sent to rule as duke of
+Parma by right of his mother at the age of sixteen, and thus came under
+more intelligent influence than he could have found in Spain. In 1734 he
+made himself master of Naples and Sicily by arms. Charles had, however,
+no military tastes, seldom wore uniform, and could with difficulty be
+persuaded to witness a review. The peremptory action of the British
+admiral commanding in the Mediterranean at the approach of the War of
+the Austrian Succession, who forced him to promise to observe neutrality
+under a threat to bombard Naples, made a deep impression on his mind. It
+gave him a feeling of hostility to England which in after-times
+influenced his policy.
+
+As king of the Two Sicilies Charles began there the work of internal
+reform which he afterwards continued in Spain. Foreign ministers who
+dealt with him agreed that he had no great natural ability, but he was
+honestly desirous to do his duty as king, and he showed good judgment in
+his choice of ministers. The chief minister in Naples, Tanucci, had a
+considerable influence over him. On the death of his half-brother
+Ferdinand VI. he became king of Spain, and resigned the Two Sicilies to
+his third son Ferdinand. As king of Spain his foreign policy was
+disastrous. His strong family feeling and his detestation of England,
+which was unchecked after the death of his wife, Maria Amelia, daughter
+of Frederick Augustus II. of Saxony, led him into the Family Compact
+with France. Spain was entangled in the close of the Seven Years' War,
+to her great loss. In 1770 he almost ran into another war over the
+barren Falkland Islands. In 1779 he was, somewhat reluctantly, led to
+join France and the American insurgents against England, though he well
+knew that the independence of the English colonies must have a ruinous
+influence on his own American dominions. For his army he did practically
+nothing, and for his fleet very little except build fine ships without
+taking measures to train officers and men.
+
+But his internal government was on the whole beneficial to the country.
+He began by compelling the people of Madrid to give up emptying their
+slops out of the windows, and when they objected he said they were like
+children who cried when their faces were washed. In 1766 his attempt to
+force the Madrilenos to adopt the French dress led to a riot during
+which he did not display much personal courage. For a long time after it
+he remained at Aranjuez, leaving the government in the hands of his
+minister Aranda. All his reforms were not of this formal kind. Charles
+was a thorough despot of the benevolent order, and had been deeply
+offended by the real or suspected share of the Jesuits in the riot of
+1766. He therefore consented to the expulsion of the order, and was then
+the main advocate for its suppression. His quarrel with the Jesuits, and
+the recollection of some disputes with the pope he had had when king of
+Naples, turned him towards a general policy of restriction of the
+overgrown power of the church. The number of the idle clergy, and more
+particularly of the monastic orders, was reduced, and the Inquisition,
+though not abolished, was rendered torpid. In the meantime much
+antiquated legislation which tended to restrict trade and industry was
+abolished; roads, canals and drainage works were carried out. Many of
+his paternal ventures led to little more than waste of money, or the
+creation of hotbeds of jobbery. Yet on the whole the country prospered.
+The result was largely due to the king, who even when he was ill-advised
+did at least work steadily at his task of government. His example was
+not without effect on some at least of the nobles. In his domestic life
+King Charles was regular, and was a considerate master, though he had a
+somewhat caustic tongue and took a rather cynical view of mankind. He
+was passionately fond of hunting. During his later years he had some
+trouble with his eldest son and his daughter-in-law. If Charles had
+lived to see the beginning of the French Revolution he would probably
+have been frightened into reaction. As he died on the 14th of December
+1788 he left the reputation of a philanthropic and "philosophic" king.
+In spite of his hostility to the Jesuits, his dislike of friars in
+general, and his jealousy of the Inquisition, he was a very sincere
+Roman Catholic, and showed much zeal in endeavouring to persuade the
+pope to proclaim the Immaculate Conception as a dogma necessary to
+salvation.
+
+  See the _Reign of Charles III._, by M. Danvila y Collado (6 vols.), in
+  the _Historia General de Espana de la Real Academia de la Historia_
+  (Madrid, 1892, &c.); and F. Rousseau, _Regne de Charles III d'Espagne_
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. (1748-1819), king of Spain, second son of Charles III. and
+his wife Maria Amelia of Saxony, was born at Portici on the 11th of
+November 1748, while his father was king of the Two Sicilies. The elder
+brother was set aside as imbecile and epileptic. Charles had inherited a
+great frame and immense physical strength from the Saxon line of his
+mother. When young he was fond of wrestling with the strongest
+countrymen he could find. In character he was not malignant, but he was
+intellectually torpid, and of a credulity which almost passes belief.
+His wife, Maria Luisa of Parma, his first cousin, a thoroughly coarse
+and vicious woman, ruled him completely, though he was capable of
+obstinacy at times. During his father's lifetime he was led by her into
+court intrigues which aimed at driving the king's favourite minister,
+Floridablanca, from office, and replacing him by Aranda, the chief of
+the "Aragonese" party. After he succeeded to the throne in 1788 his one
+serious occupation was hunting. Affairs were left to be directed by his
+wife and her lover Godoy (q.v.). For Godoy the king had an unaffected
+liking, and the lifelong favour he showed him is almost pathetic. When
+terrified by the French Revolution he turned to the Inquisition to help
+him against the party which would have carried the reforming policy of
+Charles III. much further. But he was too slothful to have more than a
+passive part in the direction of his own government. He simply obeyed
+the impulse given him by the queen and Godoy. If he ever knew his wife's
+real character he thought it more consistent with his dignity to shut
+his eyes. For he had a profound belief in his divine right and the
+sanctity of his person. If he understood that his kingdom was treated as
+a mere dependence by France, he also thought it due to his "face" to
+make believe that he was a powerful monarch. Royalty never wore a more
+silly aspect than in the person of Charles IV., and it is highly
+credible that he never knew what his wife was, or what was the position
+of his kingdom. When he was told that his son Ferdinand was appealing to
+the emperor Napoleon against Godoy, he took the side of the favourite.
+When the populace rose at Aranjuez in 1808 he abdicated to save the
+minister. He took refuge in France, and when he and Ferdinand were both
+prisoners of Napoleon's, he was with difficulty restrained from
+assaulting his son. Then he abdicated in favour of Napoleon, handing
+over his people like a herd of cattle. He accepted a pension from the
+French emperor and spent the rest of his life between his wife and
+Godoy. He died at Rome on the 20th of January 1819, probably without
+having once suspected that he had done anything unbecoming a king by
+divine right and a gentleman.
+
+  See _Historia del Reinado de Carlos IV._, by General Gomez de Arteche
+  (3 vols.), in the _Historia General de Espana de la Real Academia de
+  la Historia_ (Madrid, 1892, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IX. (1550-1611), king of Sweden, was the youngest son of
+Gustavus Vasa and Margareto Lejonhufrud. By his father's will he got, by
+way of appanage, the duchy of Sodermanland, which included the provinces
+of Nerike and Vermland; but he did not come into actual possession of
+them till after the fall of Eric XIV. (1569). In 1568 he was the real
+leader of the rebellion against Eric, but took no part in the designs of
+his brother John against the unhappy king after his deposition. Indeed,
+Charles's relations with John III. were always more or less strained. He
+had no sympathy with John's high-church tendencies on the one hand, and
+he sturdily resisted all the king's endeavours to restrict his authority
+as duke of Sodermanland (Sudermania) on the other. The nobility and the
+majority of the _Riksdag_ supported John, however, in his endeavours to
+unify the realm, and Charles had consequently (1587) to resign his
+pretensions to autonomy within his duchy; but, fanatical Calvinist as he
+was, on the religious question he was immovable. The matter came to a
+crisis on the death of John III. (1592). The heir to the throne was
+John's eldest son, Sigismund, already king of Poland and a devoted
+Catholic. The fear lest Sigismund might re-catholicize the land alarmed
+the Protestant majority in Sweden, and Charles came forward as their
+champion, and also as the defender of the Vasa dynasty against foreign
+interference. It was due entirely to him that Sigismund was forced to
+confirm the resolutions of the council of Upsala, thereby recognizing
+the fact that Sweden was essentially a Protestant state (see SWEDEN:
+_History_). In the ensuing years Charles's task was extraordinarily
+difficult. He had steadily to oppose Sigismund's reactionary tendencies;
+he had also to curb the nobility, which he did with cruel rigour.
+Necessity compelled him to work rather with the people than the gentry;
+hence it was that the _Riksdag_ assumed under his government a power and
+an importance which it had never possessed before. In 1595 the _Riksdag_
+of Soderkoping elected Charles regent, and his attempt to force Klas
+Flemming, governor of Finland, to submit to his authority, rather than
+to that of the king, provoked a civil war. Technically Charles was,
+without doubt, guilty of high treason, and the considerable minority of
+all classes which adhered to Sigismund on his landing in Sweden in 1598
+indisputably behaved like loyal subjects. But Sigismund was both an
+alien and a heretic to the majority of the Swedish nation, and his
+formal deposition by the _Riksdag_ in 1599 was, in effect, a natural
+vindication and legitimation of Charles's position. Finally, the diet of
+Linkoping (Feb. 24, 1600) declared that Sigismund and his posterity had
+forfeited the Swedish throne, and, passing over duke John, the second
+son of John III., a youth of ten, recognized duke Charles as their
+sovereign under the title of Charles IX.
+
+Charles's short reign was an uninterrupted warfare. The hostility of
+Poland and the break up of Russia involved him in two overseas contests
+for the possession of Livonia and Ingria, while his pretensions to
+Lapland brought upon him a war with Denmark in the last year of his
+reign. In all these struggles he was more or less unsuccessful, owing
+partly to the fact that he had to do with superior generals (e.g.
+Chodkiewicz and Christian IV.) and partly to sheer ill-luck. Compared
+with his foreign policy, the domestic policy of Charles IX. was
+comparatively unimportant. It aimed at confirming and supplementing what
+had already been done during his regency. Not till the 6th of March
+1604, after Duke John had formally renounced his rights to the throne,
+did Charles IX. begin to style himself king. The first deed in which the
+title appears is dated the 20th of March 1604; but he was not crowned
+till the 15th of March 1607. Four and a half years later Charles IX.
+died at Nykoping (Oct. 30, 1611). As a ruler he is the link between his
+great father and his still greater son. He consolidated the work of
+Gustavus Vasa, the creation of a great Protestant state: he prepared the
+way for the erection of the Protestant empire of Gustavus Adolphus.
+Swedish historians have been excusably indulgent to the father of their
+greatest ruler. Indisputably Charles was cruel, ungenerous and
+vindictive; yet he seems, at all hazards, strenuously to have
+endeavoured to do his duty during a period of political and religious
+transition, and, despite his violence and brutality, possessed many of
+the qualities of a wise and courageous statesman. By his first wife
+Marie, daughter of the elector palatine Louis VI., he had six children,
+of whom only one daughter, Catherine, survived; by his second wife,
+Christina, daughter of Adolphus, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, he had five
+children, including Gustavus Adolphus and Charles Philip, duke of
+Finland.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_, vol. iii. (Stockholm, 1878); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905), caps. 5-7.     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES X. [CHARLES GUSTAVUS] (1622-1660), king of Sweden, son of John
+Casimir, count palatine of Zweibrucken, and Catherine, sister of
+Gustavus Adolphus, was born at Nykoping Castle on the 8th of November
+1622. He learnt the art of war under the great Lennart Torstensson,
+being present at the second battle of Breitenfeld and at Jankowitz. From
+1646 to 1648 he frequented the Swedish court. It was supposed that he
+would marry the queen regnant, Christina, but her unsurmountable
+objection to wedlock put an end to these anticipations, and to
+compensate her cousin for a broken half-promise she declared him (1649)
+her successor, despite the opposition of the senate headed by the
+venerable Axel Oxenstjerna. In 1648 he was appointed generalissimo of
+the Swedish forces in Germany. The conclusion of the treaties of
+Westphalia prevented him from winning the military laurels he so
+ardently desired, but as the Swedish plenipotentiary at the executive
+congress of Nuremberg, he had unrivalled opportunities of learning
+diplomacy, in which science he speedily became a past-master. As the
+recognized heir to the throne, his position on his return to Sweden was
+not without danger, for the growing discontent with the queen turned the
+eyes of thousands to him as a possible deliverer. He therefore withdrew
+to the isle of Oland till the abdication of Christina (June 5, 1654)
+called him to the throne.
+
+The beginning of his reign was devoted to the healing of domestic
+discords, and the rallying of all the forces of the nation round his
+standard for a new policy of conquest. He contracted a political
+marriage (Oct. 24, 1654) with Hedwig Leonora, the daughter of Frederick
+III., duke of Holstein-Gottorp, by way of securing a future ally against
+Denmark. The two great pressing national questions, war and the
+restitution of the alienated crown lands, were duly considered at the
+_Riksdag_ which assembled at Stockholm in March 1655. The war question
+was decided in three days by a secret committee presided over by the
+king, who easily persuaded the delegates that a war with Poland was
+necessary and might prove very advantageous; but the consideration of
+the question of the subsidies due to the crown for military purposes was
+postponed to the following _Riksdag_ (see SWEDEN: _History_). On the
+10th of July Charles quitted Sweden to engage in his Polish adventure.
+By the time war was declared he had at his disposal 50,000 men and 50
+warships. Hostilities had already begun with the occupation of Dunaburg
+(Dvinsk) in Polish Livonia by the Swedes (July 1, 1655), and the Polish
+army encamped among the marshes of the Netze concluded a convention
+(July 25) whereby the palatinates of Posen and Kalisz placed themselves
+under the protection of the Swedish king. Thereupon the Swedes entered
+Warsaw without opposition and occupied the whole of Great Poland. The
+Polish king, John Casimir, fled to Silesia. Meanwhile Charles pressed on
+towards Cracow, which was captured after a two months' siege. The fall
+of Cracow extinguished the last hope of the boldest Pole; but before the
+end of the year an extraordinary reaction began in Poland itself. On the
+18th of October the Swedes invested the fortress-monastery of
+Czenstochowa, but the place was heroically defended; and after a seventy
+days' siege the besiegers were compelled to retire with great loss.
+
+This astounding success elicited an outburst of popular enthusiasm which
+gave the war a national and religious character. The tactlessness of
+Charles, the rapacity of his generals, the barbarity of his mercenaries,
+his refusal to legalize his position by summoning the Polish diet, his
+negotiations for the partition of the very state he affected to
+befriend, awoke the long slumbering public spirit of the country. In the
+beginning of 1656 John Casimir returned from exile and the Polish army
+was reorganized and increased. By this time Charles had discovered that
+it was easier to defeat the Poles than to conquer Poland. His chief
+object, the conquest of Prussia, was still unaccomplished, and a new foe
+arose in the elector of Brandenburg, alarmed by the ambition of the
+Swedish king. Charles forced the elector, indeed, at the point of the
+sword to become his ally and vassal (treaty of Konigsberg, Jan. 17,
+1656); but the Polish national rising now imperatively demanded his
+presence in the south. For weeks he scoured the interminable
+snow-covered plains of Poland in pursuit of the Polish guerillas,
+penetrating as far south as Jaroslau in Galicia, by which time he had
+lost two-thirds of his 15,000 men with no apparent result. His retreat
+from Jaroslau to Warsaw, with the fragments of his host, amidst three
+converging armies, in a marshy forest region, intersected in every
+direction by well-guarded rivers, was one of his most brilliant
+achievements. But his necessities were overwhelming. On the 21st of June
+Warsaw was retaken by the Poles, and four days later Charles was obliged
+to purchase the assistance of Frederick William by the treaty of
+Marienburg. On July 18-20 the combined Swedes and Brandenburgers, 18,000
+strong, after a three days' battle, defeated John Casimir's army of
+100,000 at Warsaw and reoccupied the Polish capital; but this brilliant
+feat of arms was altogether useless, and when the suspicious attitude of
+Frederick William compelled the Swedish king at last to open
+negotiations with the Poles, they refused the terms offered, the war was
+resumed, and Charles concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
+the elector of Brandenburg (treaty of Labiau, Nov. 20) whereby it was
+agreed that Frederick William and his heirs should henceforth possess
+the full sovereignty of East Prussia.
+
+This was an essential modification of Charles's Baltic policy; but the
+alliance of the elector had now become indispensable on almost any
+terms. So serious, indeed, were the difficulties of Charles X. in Poland
+that it was with extreme satisfaction that he received the tidings of
+the Danish declaration of war (June 1, 1657). The hostile action of
+Denmark enabled him honourably to emerge from the inglorious Polish
+imbroglio, and he was certain of the zealous support of his own people.
+He had learnt from Torstensson that Denmark was most vulnerable if
+attacked from the south, and, imitating the strategy of his master, he
+fell upon her with a velocity which paralysed resistance. At the end of
+June 1657, at the head of 8000 seasoned veterans, he broke up from
+Bromberg in Prussia and reached the borders of Holstein on the 18th of
+July. The Danish army at once dispersed and the duchy of Bremen was
+recovered by the Swedes, who in the early autumn swarmed over Jutland
+and firmly established themselves in the duchies. But the fortress of
+Fredriksodde (Fredericia) held Charles's little army at bay from
+mid-August to mid-October, while the fleet of Denmark, after a stubborn
+two days' battle, compelled the Swedish fleet to abandon its projected
+attack on the Danish islands. The position of the Swedish king had now
+become critical. In July an offensive and defensive alliance was
+concluded between Denmark and Poland. Still more ominously, the elector
+of Brandenburg, perceiving Sweden to be in difficulties, joined the
+league against her and compelled Charles to accept the proffered
+mediation of Cromwell and Mazarin. The negotiations foundered, however,
+upon the refusal of Sweden to refer the points in dispute to a general
+peace-congress, and Charles was still further encouraged by the capture
+of Fredriksodde (Oct. 23-24), whereupon he began to make preparations
+for conveying his troops over to Funen in transport vessels. But soon
+another and cheaper expedient presented itself. In the middle of
+December 1657 began the great frost which was to be so fatal to Denmark.
+In a few weeks the cold had grown so intense that even the freezing of
+an arm of the sea with so rapid a current as the Little Belt became a
+conceivable possibility; and henceforth meteorological observations
+formed an essential part of the strategy of the Swedes. On the 28th of
+January 1658, Charles X. arrived at Haderslev (Hadersleben) in South
+Jutland, when it was estimated that in a couple of days the ice of the
+Little Belt would be firm enough to bear even the passage of a
+mail-clad host. The cold during the night of the 29th of January was
+most severe; and early in the morning of the 30th the Swedish king gave
+the order to start, the horsemen dismounting where the ice was weakest,
+and cautiously leading their horses as far apart as possible, when they
+swung into their saddles again, closed their ranks and made a dash for
+the shore. The Danish troops lining the opposite coast were quickly
+overpowered, and the whole of Funen was won with the loss of only two
+companies of cavalry, which disappeared under the ice while fighting
+with the Danish left wing. Pursuing his irresistible march, Charles X.,
+with his eyes fixed steadily on Copenhagen, resolved to cross the frozen
+Great Belt also. After some hesitation, he accepted the advice of his
+chief engineer officer Eric Dahlberg, who acted as pioneer throughout
+and chose the more circuitous route from Svendborg, by the islands of
+Langeland, Laaland and Falster, in preference to the direct route from
+Nyborg to Korsor, which would have been across a broad, almost
+uninterrupted expanse of ice. Yet this second adventure was not embarked
+upon without much anxious consideration. A council of war, which met at
+two o'clock in the morning to consider the practicability of Dahlberg's
+proposal, at once dismissed it as criminally hazardous. Even the king
+wavered for an instant; but, Dahlberg persisting in his opinion, Charles
+overruled the objections of the commanders. On the night of the 5th of
+February the transit began, the cavalry leading the way through the
+snow-covered ice, which quickly thawed beneath the horses' hoofs so that
+the infantry which followed after had to wade through half an ell of
+sludge, fearing every moment lest the rotting ice should break beneath
+their feet. At three o'clock in the afternoon, Dahlberg leading the way,
+the army reached Grimsted in Laaland without losing a man On the 8th of
+February Charles reached Falster. On the 11th he stood safely on the
+soil of Sjaelland (Zealand). Not without reason did the medal struck to
+commemorate "the glorious transit of the Baltic Sea" bear the haughty
+inscription: _Natura hoc debuit uni._ An exploit unique in history had
+been achieved. The crushing effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
+Danish government found expression in the treaties of Taastrup (Feb. 18)
+and Roskilde (Feb. 26, 1658), whereby Denmark sacrificed nearly half her
+territory to save the rest (see DENMARK: _History_). But even this was
+not enough for the conqueror. Military ambition and greed of conquest
+moved Charles X. to what, divested of all its pomp and circumstance, was
+an outrageous act of political brigandage. At a council held at Gottorp
+(July 7), Charles X. resolved to wipe from the map of Europe an
+inconvenient rival, and without any warning, in defiance of all
+international equity, let loose his veterans upon Denmark a second time.
+For the details of this second struggle, with the concomitant diplomatic
+intervention of the western powers, see DENMARK: _History_, and SWEDEN:
+_History_. Only after great hesitation would Charles X. consent to
+reopen negotiations with Denmark direct, at the same time proposing to
+exercise pressure upon the enemy by a simultaneous winter campaign in
+Norway. Such an enterprise necessitated fresh subsidies from his already
+impoverished people, and obliged him in December 1659 to cross over to
+Sweden to meet the estates, whom he had summoned to Gothenburg. The
+lower estates murmured at the imposition of fresh burdens; and Charles
+had need of all his adroitness to persuade them that his demands were
+reasonable and necessary. At the very beginning of the _Riksdag_, in
+January 1660, it was noticed that the king was ill; but he spared
+himself as little in the council-chamber as in the battle-field, till
+death suddenly overtook him on the night of the 13th of February 1660,
+in his thirty-eighth year. The abrupt cessation of such an inexhaustible
+fount of enterprise and energy was a distinct loss to Sweden; and signs
+are not wanting that, in his latter years, Charles had begun to feel the
+need and value of repose. Had he lived long enough to overcome his
+martial ardour, and develop and organize the empire he helped to create,
+Sweden might perhaps have remained a great power to this day. Even so
+she owes her natural frontiers in the Scandinavian peninsula to Charles
+X.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);
+  Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+  Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); E. Haumant, _La Guerre du
+  nord et la paix d'Oliva_ (Paris, 1893); Robert Nisbet Bain,
+  _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); G. Jones, _The Diplomatic Relations
+  between Cromwell and Charles X._ (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1897).
+       (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XI. (1655-1697), king of Sweden, the only son of Charles X., and
+Hedwig Leonora of Holstein-Gottorp, was born in the palace at Stockholm,
+on the 24th of November 1655. His father, who died when the child was in
+his fourth year, left the care of his education to the regents whom he
+had appointed. So shamefully did they neglect their duty that when, at
+the age of seventeen, Charles XI. attained his majority, he was ignorant
+of the very rudiments of state-craft and almost illiterate. Yet those
+nearest to him had great hopes of him. He was known to be truthful,
+upright and God-fearing; if he had neglected his studies it was to
+devote himself to manly sports and exercises; and in the pursuit of his
+favourite pastime, bear-hunting, he had already given proofs of the most
+splendid courage. It was the general disaster produced by the
+speculative policy of his former guardians which first called forth his
+sterling qualities and hardened him into a premature manhood. With
+indefatigable energy he at once attempted to grapple with the
+difficulties of the situation, waging an almost desperate struggle with
+sloth, corruption and incompetence. Amidst universal anarchy, the young
+king, barely twenty years of age, inexperienced, ill-served, snatching
+at every expedient, worked day and night in his newly-formed camp in
+Scania (Skane) to arm the nation for its mortal struggle. The victory of
+Fyllebro (Aug. 17, 1676), when Charles and his commander-in-chief S.G.
+Helmfeld routed a Danish division, was the first gleam of good luck, and
+on the 4th of December, on the tableland of Helgonaback, near Lund, the
+young Swedish monarch defeated Christian V. of Denmark, who also
+commanded his army in person. After a ferocious contest, the Danes were
+practically annihilated. The battle of Lund was, relatively to the
+number engaged, one of the bloodiest engagements of modern times. More
+than half the combatants (8357, of whom 3000 were Swedes) actually
+perished on the battle-field. All the Swedish commanders showed
+remarkable ability, but the chief glory of the day indisputably belongs
+to Charles XI. This great victory restored to the Swedes their
+self-confidence and prestige. In the following year, Charles with 9000
+men routed 12,000 Danes near Malmo (July 15, 1678). This proved to be
+the last pitched battle of the war, the Danes never again venturing to
+attack their once more invincible enemy in the open field. In 1679 Louis
+XIV. dictated the terms of a general pacification, and Charles XI, who
+bitterly resented "the insufferable tutelage" of the French king, was
+forced at last to acquiesce in a peace which at least left his empire
+practically intact. Charles devoted the rest of his life to the gigantic
+task of rehabilitating Sweden by means of a _reduktion_, or recovery of
+alienated crown lands, a process which involved the examination of every
+title deed in the kingdom, and resulted in the complete readjustment of
+the finances. But vast as it was, the _reduktion_ represents only a
+tithe of Charles XI.'s immense activity. The constructive part of his
+administration was equally thorough-going, and entirely beneficial.
+Here, too, everything was due to his personal initiative. Finance,
+commerce, the national armaments by sea and land, judicial procedure,
+church government, education, even art and science--everything, in
+short--emerged recast from his shaping hand. Charles XI. died on the 5th
+of April 1697, in his forty-first year. By his beloved consort Ulrica
+Leonora of Denmark, from the shock of whose death in July 1693 he never
+recovered, he had seven children, of whom only three survived him, a son
+Charles, and two daughters, Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein, and
+Ulrica Leonora, who ultimately succeeded her brother on the Swedish
+throne. After Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus Charles XI. was,
+perhaps, the greatest of all the kings of Sweden. His modest, homespun
+figure has indeed been unduly eclipsed by the brilliant and colossal
+shapes of his heroic father and his meteoric son; yet in reality Charles
+XI. is far worthier of admiration than either Charles X. or Charles XII.
+He was in an eminent degree a great master-builder. He found Sweden in
+ruins, and devoted his whole life to laying the solid foundations of a
+new order of things which, in its essential features, has endured to the
+present day.
+
+  See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881);
+  Frederick Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under Konungarne af
+  Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet Bain,
+  _Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905); O. Sjogren, _Karl den Elfte och
+  Svenska Folket_ (Stockholm, 1897); S. Jacobsen, _Den nordiske Kriegs
+  Kronicke, 1675-1679_ (Copenhagen, 1897); J.A. de Mesmes d'Avaux,
+  _Negociations du comte d'Avaux, 1693, 1697, 1698_ (Utrecht, 1882,
+  &c.).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XII. (1682-1718), king of Sweden, the only surviving son of
+Charles XI. and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III. of Denmark,
+was born on the 17th of June 1682. He was carefully educated by
+excellent tutors under the watchful eyes of his parents. His natural
+parts were excellent; and a strong bias in the direction of abstract
+thought, and mathematics in particular, was noticeable at an early date.
+His memory was astonishing. He could translate Latin into Swedish or
+German, or Swedish or German into Latin at sight. Charles XI. personally
+supervised his son's physical training. He was taught to ride before he
+was four, at eight was quite at home in his saddle, and when only
+eleven, brought down his first bear at a single shot. As he grew older
+his father took him on all his rounds, reviewing troops, inspecting
+studs, foundries, dockyards and granaries. Thus the lad was gradually
+initiated into all the _minutiae_ of administration. The influence of
+Charles XI. over his son was, indeed, far greater than is commonly
+supposed, and it accounts for much in Charles XII.'s character which is
+otherwise inexplicable, for instance his precocious reserve and
+taciturnity, his dislike of everything French, and his inordinate
+contempt for purely diplomatic methods. On the whole, his early training
+was admirable; but the young prince was not allowed the opportunity of
+gradually gaining experience under his guardians. At the _Riksdag_
+assembled at Stockholm in 1697, the estates, jealous of the influence of
+the regents, offered full sovereignty to the young monarch, the senate
+acquiesced, and, after some hesitation, Charles at last declared that he
+could not resist the urgent appeal of his subjects and would take over
+the government of the realm "in God's name." The subsequent coronation
+was marked by portentous novelties, the most significant of which was
+the king's omission to take the usual coronation oath, which omission
+was interpreted to mean that he considered himself under no obligation
+to his subjects. The general opinion of the young king was, however,
+still favourable. His conduct was evidently regulated by strict
+principle and not by mere caprice. His refusal to countenance torture as
+an instrument of judicial investigation, on the ground that "confessions
+so extorted give no sure criteria for forming a judgment," showed him to
+be more humane as well as more enlightened than the majority of his
+council, which had defended the contrary opinion. His intense
+application to affairs is noted by the English minister, John Robinson
+(1650-1723), who informed his court that there was every prospect of a
+happy reign in Sweden, provided his majesty were well served and did not
+injure his health by too much work.
+
+The coalition formed against Sweden by Johann Reinhold Patkul, which
+resulted in the outbreak of the Great Northern War (1699), abruptly put
+an end to Charles XII.'s political apprenticeship, and forced into his
+hand the sword he was never again to relinquish. The young king resolved
+to attack the nearest of his three enemies--Denmark--first. The timidity
+of the Danish admiral Ulrik C. Gyldenlove, and the daring of Charles,
+who forced his nervous and protesting admiral to attempt the passage of
+the eastern channel of the Sound, the dangerous _flinterend_, hitherto
+reputed to be unnavigable, enabled the Swedish king to effect a landing
+at Humleback in Sjaelland (Zealand), a few miles north of Copenhagen
+(Aug. 4, 1700). He now hoped to accomplish what his grandfather, fifty
+years before, had vainly attempted--the destruction of the
+Danish-Norwegian monarchy by capturing its capital. But for once
+prudential considerations prevailed, and the short and bloodless war was
+terminated by the peace of Travendal (Aug. 18), whereby Frederick IV.
+conceded full sovereignty to Charles's ally and kinsman the duke of
+Gottorp, besides paying him an indemnity of 200,000 rix-dollars and
+solemnly engaging to commit no hostilities against Sweden in future.
+From Sjaelland Charles now hastened to Livonia with 8000 men. On the 6th
+of October he had reached Pernau, with the intention of first relieving
+Riga, but, hearing that Narva was in great straits, he decided to turn
+northwards against the tsar. He set out for Narva on the 13th of
+November, against the advice of all his generals, who feared the effect
+on untried troops of a week's march through a wasted land, along boggy
+roads guarded by no fewer than three formidable passes which a little
+engineering skill could easily have made impregnable. Fortunately, the
+two first passes were unoccupied; and the third, Pyhajoggi, was captured
+by Charles, who with 400 horsemen put 6000 Russian cavalry to flight. On
+the 19th of November the little army reached Lagena, a village about 9
+m. from Narva, whence it signalled its approach to the beleaguered
+fortress, and early on the following morning it advanced in battle
+array. The attack on the Russian fortified camp began at two o'clock in
+the afternoon, in the midst of a violent snowstorm; and by nightfall the
+whole position was in the hands of the Swedes: the Russian army was
+annihilated. The triumph was as cheap as it was crushing; it cost
+Charles less than 2000 men.
+
+After Narva, Charles XII. stood at the parting of ways. His best
+advisers urged him to turn all his forces against the panic-stricken
+Muscovites; to go into winter-quarters amongst them and live at their
+expense; to fan into a flame the smouldering discontent caused by the
+reforms of Peter the Great, and so disable Russia for some time to come.
+But Charles's determination promptly to punish the treachery of Augustus
+prevailed over every other consideration. It is easy from the
+vantage-point of two centuries to criticize Charles XII. for neglecting
+the Russians to pursue the Saxons; but at the beginning of the 18th
+century his decision was natural enough. The real question was, which of
+the two foes was the more dangerous, and Charles had many reasons to
+think the civilized and martial Saxons far more formidable than the
+imbecile Muscovites. Charles also rightly felt that he could never trust
+the treacherous Augustus to remain quiet, even if he made peace with
+him. To leave such a foe in his rear, while he plunged into the heart of
+Russia would have been hazardous indeed. From this point of view
+Charles's whole Polish policy, which has been blamed so long and so
+loudly--the policy of placing a nominee of his own on the Polish
+throne--takes quite another complexion: it was a policy not of
+overvaulting ambition, but of prudential self-defence.
+
+First, however, Charles cleared Livonia of the invader (July 1701),
+subsequently occupying the duchy of Courland and converting it into a
+Swedish governor-generalship. In January 1702 Charles established
+himself at Bielowice in Lithuania, and, after issuing a proclamation
+declaring that "the elector of Saxony" had forfeited the Polish crown,
+set out for Warsaw, which he reached on the 14th of May. The
+cardinal-primate was then sent for and commanded to summon a diet, for
+the purpose of deposing Augustus. A fortnight later Charles quitted
+Warsaw, to seek the elector; on the 2nd of July routed the combined
+Poles and Saxons at Klissow; and three weeks later, captured the
+fortress of Cracow by an act of almost fabulous audacity. Thus, within
+four months of the opening of the campaign, the Polish capital and the
+coronation city were both in the possession of the Swedes. After
+Klissow, Augustus made every effort to put an end to the war, but
+Charles would not even consider his offers. By this time, too, he had
+conceived a passion for the perils and adventures of warfare. His
+character was hardening, and he deliberately adopted the most barbarous
+expedients for converting the Augustan Poles to his views. Such commands
+as "ravage, singe, and burn all about, and reduce the whole district to
+a wilderness!" "sweat contributions well out of them!" "rather let the
+innocent suffer than the guilty escape!" became painfully frequent in
+the mouth of the young commander, not yet 21, who was far from being
+naturally cruel.
+
+The campaign of 1703 was remarkable for Charles's victory at Pultusk
+(April 21) and the long siege of Thorn, which occupied him eight months
+but cost him only 50 men. On the 2nd of July 1704, with the assistance
+of a bribing fund, Charles's ambassador at Warsaw, Count Arvid Bernard
+Horn, succeeded in forcing through the election of Charles's candidate
+to the Polish throne, Stanislaus Leszczynski, who could not be crowned
+however till the 24th of September 1705, by which time the Saxons had
+again been defeated at Punitz. From the autumn of 1705 to the spring of
+1706, Charles was occupied in pursuing the Russian auxiliary army under
+Ogilvie through the forests of Lithuania. On the 5th of August, he
+recrossed the Vistula and established himself in Saxony, where his
+presence in the heart of Europe, at the very crisis of the war of the
+Spanish Succession, fluttered all the western diplomats. The allies, in
+particular, at once suspected that Louis XIV. had bought the Swedes.
+Marlborough was forthwith sent from the Hague to the castle of
+Altranstadt near Leipzig, where Charles had fixed his headquarters, "to
+endeavour to penetrate the designs" of the king of Sweden. He soon
+convinced himself that western Europe had nothing to fear from Charles,
+and that no bribes were necessary to turn the Swedish arms from Germany
+to Russia. Five months later (Sept. 1707) Augustus was forced to sign
+the peace of Altranstadt, whereby he resigned the Polish throne and
+renounced every anti-Swedish alliance. Charles's departure from Saxony
+was delayed for twelve months by a quarrel with the emperor. The court
+of Vienna had treated the Silesian Protestants with tyrannical severity,
+in direct contravention of the treaty of Osnabruck, of which Sweden was
+one of the guarantors; and Charles demanded summary and complete
+restitution so dictatorially that the emperor prepared for war. But the
+allies interfered in Charles's favour, lest he might be tempted to aid
+France, and induced the emperor to satisfy all the Swedish king's
+demands, the maritime Powers at the same time agreeing to guarantee the
+provisions of the peace of Altranstadt.
+
+Nothing now prevented Charles from turning his victorious arms against
+the tsar; and on the 13th of August 1707, he evacuated Saxony at the
+head of the largest host he ever commanded, consisting of 24,000 horse
+and 20,000 foot. Delayed during the autumn months in Poland by the tardy
+arrival of reinforcements from Pomerania, it was not till November 1707
+that Charles was able to take the field. On New Year's Day 1708 he
+crossed the Vistula, though the ice was in a dangerous condition. On the
+4th of July 1708 he cut in two the line of the Russian army, 6 m. long,
+which barred his progress on the Wabis, near Holowczyn, and compelled it
+to retreat. The victory of Holowczyn, memorable besides as the last
+pitched battle won by Charles XII., opened up the way to the Dnieper.
+The Swedish army now began to suffer severely, bread and fodder running
+short, and the soldiers subsisting entirely on captured bullocks. The
+Russians slowly retired before the invader, burning and destroying
+everything in his path. On the 20th of December it was plain to Charles
+himself that Moscow was inaccessible. But the idea of a retreat was
+intolerable to him, so he determined to march southwards instead of
+northwards as suggested by his generals, and join his forces with those
+of the hetman of the Dnieperian Cossacks, Ivan Mazepa, who had 100,000
+horsemen and a fresh and fruitful land at his disposal. Short of falling
+back upon Livonia, it was the best plan adoptable in the circumstances,
+but it was rendered abortive by Peter's destruction of Mazepa's capital
+Baturin, so that when Mazepa joined Charles at Horki, on the 8th of
+November 1708, it was as a ruined man with little more than 1300
+personal attendants (see MAZEPA-KOLEDINSKY). A still more serious blow
+was the destruction of the relief army which Levenhaupt was bringing to
+Charles from Livonia, and which, hampered by hundreds of loaded wagons,
+was overtaken and almost destroyed by Peter at Lyesna after a two days'
+battle against fourfold odds (October). The very elements now began to
+fight against the perishing but still unconquered host. The winter of
+1708 was the severest that Europe had known for a century. By the 1st of
+November firewood would not ignite in the open air, and the soldiers
+warmed themselves over big bonfires of straw. By the time the army
+reached the little Ukrainian fortress of Hadjacz in January 1709, wine
+and spirits froze into solid masses of ice; birds on the wing fell dead;
+saliva congealed on its passage from the mouth to the ground.
+"Nevertheless," says an eye-witness, "though earth, sea and sky were
+against us, the king's orders had to be obeyed and the daily march
+made."
+
+Never had Charles XII. seemed so superhuman as during these awful days.
+It is not too much to say that his imperturbable equanimity, his serene
+_bonhomie_ kept the host together. The frost broke at the end of
+February 1709, and then the spring floods put an end to all active
+operations till May, when Charles began the siege of the fortress of
+Poltava, which he wished to make a base for subsequent operations while
+awaiting reinforcements from Sweden and Poland. On the 7th of June a
+bullet wound put Charles _hors de combat_, whereupon Peter threw the
+greater part of his forces over the river Vorskla, which separated the
+two armies (June 19-25). On the 26th of June Charles held a council of
+war, at which it was resolved to attack the Russians in their
+entrenchments on the following day. The Swedes joyfully accepted the
+chances of battle and, advancing with irresistible _elan_, were, at
+first, successful on both wings. Then one or two tactical blunders were
+committed; and the tsar, taking courage, enveloped the little band in a
+vast semicircle bristling with the most modern guns, which fired five
+times to the Swedes' once, and swept away the guards before they could
+draw their swords. The Swedish infantry was well nigh annihilated, while
+the 14,000 cavalry, exhausted and demoralized, surrendered two days
+later at Perevolochna on Dnieper. Charles himself with 1500 horsemen
+took refuge in Turkish territory.
+
+For the first time in his life Charles was now obliged to have recourse
+to diplomacy; and his pen proved almost as formidable as his sword. He
+procured the dismissal of four Russo-phil grand-viziers in succession,
+and between 1710 and 1712 induced the Porte to declare war against the
+tsar three times. But after November 1712 the Porte had no more money to
+spare; and, the tsar making a show of submission, the sultan began to
+regard Charles as a troublesome guest. On the 1st of February 1713 he
+was attacked by the Turks in his camp at Bender, and made prisoner after
+a contest which reads more like an extravagant episode from some heroic
+folk-tale than an incident of sober 18th-century history. Charles
+lingered on in Turkey fifteen months longer, in the hope of obtaining a
+cavalry escort sufficiently strong to enable him to restore his credit
+in Poland. Disappointed of this last hope, and moved by the despairing
+appeals of his sister Ulrica and the senate to return to Sweden while
+there was still a Sweden to return to, he quitted Demotika on the 20th
+of September 1714, and attended by a single squire arrived unexpectedly
+at midnight, on the 11th of November, at Stralsund, which, excepting
+Wismar, was now all that remained to him on German soil.
+
+For the diplomatic events of these critical years see SWEDEN: _History_.
+Here it need only be said that Sweden, during the course of the Great
+Northern War, had innumerable opportunities of obtaining an honourable
+and even advantageous peace, but they all foundered oh the dogged
+refusal of Charles to consent to the smallest concession to his
+despoilers. Even now he would listen to no offers of compromise, and
+after defending Stralsund with desperate courage till it was a mere
+rubbish heap, returned to Sweden after an absence of 14 years. Here he
+collected another army of 20,000 men, with which he so strongly
+entrenched himself on the Scanian coast in 1716 that his combined
+enemies shrank from attacking him, whereupon he assumed the offensive by
+attacking Norway in 1717, and again in 1718, in order to conquer
+sufficient territory to enable him to extort better terms from his
+enemies. It was during this second adventure that he met his death. On
+the 11th of December, when the Swedish approaches had come within 280
+paces of the fortress of Fredriksten, which the Swedes were closely
+besieging, Charles looked over the parapet of the foremost trench, and
+was shot through the head by a bullet from the fortress.
+
+  See Charles XII., _Die eigenhandigen Briefe Konig Karls XII._ (Berlin,
+  1894); Friedrich Ferdinand Carlson, _Sveriges Historia under
+  Konungarne af Pfalziska Huset_ (Stockholm, 1883-1885); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire_ (London
+  and Oxford, 1895); _Bidrag til den Store Nordishe Krigs Historie_
+  (Copenhagen, 1899-1900); G. Syveton, _Louis XIV et Charles XII_
+  (Paris, 1900); Daniel Krmann, _Historia ablegationis D. Krmann ad
+  regem Sueciae Carolum XII._ (Budapest, 1894); Oscar II., _Nagra bidrag
+  till Sveriges Krigshistoria aren 1711-1713_ (Stockholm, 1892); Martin
+  Weibull, _Sveriges Storhedstid_ (Stockholm, 1881).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XIII. (1748-1818), king of Sweden and Norway, the second son of
+Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden, and Louisa Ulrica, sister of
+Frederick the Great, was born at Stockholm on the 7th of October 1748.
+In 1772 he co-operated in the revolutionary plans of his brother
+Gustavus III. (q.v.). On the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788
+he served with distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the
+battles of Hogland (June 17, 1788) and Oland (July 26, 1789). On the
+latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the
+unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral Liljehorn. On
+the death of Gustavus III., Charles, now duke of Sudermania, acted as
+regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real ruler of the country was the
+narrow-minded and vindictive Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm (q.v.), whose
+mischievous influence over him was supreme. These four years were
+perhaps the most miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of
+lead succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be
+briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and ruthless
+despotism. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November 1796), the duke
+became a mere cipher in politics till the 13th of March 1809, when those
+who had dethroned Gustavus IV. appointed him regent, and finally elected
+him king. But by this time he was prematurely decrepit, and Bernadotte
+(see CHARLES XIV.) took over the government as soon as he landed in
+Sweden (1810). By the union of 1814 Charles became the first king of
+Sweden and Norway. He married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of
+Holstein-Gottorp (1759-1818), but their only child, Carl Adolf, duke of
+Vermland, died in infancy (1798). Charles XIII., who for eight years had
+been king only in title, died on the 5th of February 1818.
+
+  See _Sveriges Historia_ vol. v. (Stockholm, 1884); _Drottning Hedwig
+  Charlottes Dagbokshandteckningar_ (Stockholm, 1898); Robert Nisbet
+  Bain, _Gustavus III. and his Contemporaries_ (London, 1895)_; ib.
+  Scandinavia_ (Cambridge, 1905).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XIV. (1763-1844), king of Sweden and Norway, born at Pau on the
+26th of January 1763, was the son of Henri Bernadotte (1711-1780),
+procurator at Pau, and Jeanne St Jean (1725-1809). The family name was
+originally Deu Pouey, but was changed into Bernadotte in the beginning
+of the 17th century. Bernadotte's christian names were Jean Baptiste; he
+added the name Jules subsequently. He entered the French army on the 3rd
+of September 1780, and first saw service in Corsica. On the outbreak of
+the Revolution his eminent military qualities brought him speedy
+promotion. In 1794 we find him as brigadier attached to the army of the
+Sambre et Meuse, and after Jourdan's victory at Fleurus he was appointed
+a general of division. At the battle of Theiningen, 1796, he
+contributed, more than any one else, to the successful retreat of the
+French army over the Rhine after its defeat by the archduke Charles. In
+1797 he brought reinforcements from the Rhine to Bonaparte's army in
+Italy, distinguishing himself greatly at the passage of the Tagliamento,
+and in 1798 was sent as ambassador to Vienna, but was compelled to quit
+his post owing to the disturbances caused by his hoisting the tricolor
+over the embassy. On the 16th of August 1798 he married Desiree Clary
+(1777-1860), the daughter of a Marseilles banker, and sister of Joseph
+Bonaparte's wife. From the 2nd of July to the 14th of September he was
+war minister, in which capacity he displayed great ability. About this
+time he held aloof from Bonaparte, but though he declined to help
+Napoleon in the preparations for the _coup d'etat_ of November 1799, he
+accepted employment from the Consulate, and from April 1800 till the
+18th of August 1801 commanded the army in La Vendee. On the introduction
+of the empire he was made one of the eighteen marshals of France, and,
+from June 1804 to September 1805, acted as governor of the
+recently-occupied Hanover. During the campaign of 1805, Bernadotte with
+an army corps from Hanover co-operated in the great movement which
+resulted in the shutting up of Mack in Ulm. He was rewarded for his
+services at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) by the principality of Ponte
+Corvo (June 5, 1806), but during the campaign against Prussia, the same
+year, was severely reproached by Napoleon for not participating with his
+army corps in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, though close at hand.
+In 1808, as governor of the Hanse towns, he was to have directed the
+expedition against Sweden, via the Danish islands, but the plan came to
+nought because of the want of transports and the defection of the
+Spanish contingent. In the war against Austria, Bernadotte led the Saxon
+contingent at the battle of Wagram, on which occasion, on his own
+initiative he issued an order of the day, attributing the victory
+principally to the valour of his Saxons, which Napoleon at once
+disavowed.
+
+Bernadotte, considerably piqued, thereupon returned to Paris, where the
+council of ministers entrusted him with the defence of the Netherlands
+against the English. In 1810 he was about to enter upon his new post of
+governor of Rome when he was, unexpectedly, elected successor to the
+Swedish throne, partly because a large part of the Swedish army, in view
+of future complications with Russia, were in favour of electing a
+soldier, and partly because Bernadotte was very popular in Sweden, owing
+to the kindness he had shown to the Swedish prisoners during the late
+war with Denmark. The matter was decided by one of the Swedish couriers,
+Baron Karl Otto Morner, who, entirely on his own initiative, offered the
+succession to the Swedish crown to Bernadotte. Bernadotte communicated
+Morner's offer to Napoleon, who treated the whole affair as an
+absurdity. Bernadotte thereupon informed Morner that he would not refuse
+the honour if he were duly elected. Although the Swedish government,
+amazed at Morner's effrontery, at once placed him under arrest on his
+return to Sweden, the candidature of Bernadotte gradually gained favour
+there, and, on the 21st of August 1810, he was elected crown-prince.
+
+On the 2nd of November Bernadotte made his solemn entry into Stockholm,
+and on the 5th he received the homage of the estates and was adopted by
+Charles XIII. under the name of Charles John. The new crown-prince was
+very soon the most popular and the most powerful man in Sweden. The
+infirmity of the old king and the dissensions in the council of state
+placed the government, and especially the control of foreign affairs,
+entirely in his hands. The keynote of his whole policy was the
+acquisition of Norway, a policy which led him into many tortuous ways
+(see SWEDEN: _History_), and made him a very tricky ally during the
+struggle with Napoleon in 1813. Great Britain and Prussia very properly
+insisted that Charles John's first duty was to them, the former power
+rigorously protesting against the expenditure of her subsidies on the
+nefarious Norwegian adventure before the common enemy had been crushed.
+After the defeats of Lutzen and Bautzen, it was the Swedish crown-prince
+who put fresh heart into the allies; and at the conference of
+Trachenberg he drew up the general plan for the campaign which began
+after the expiration of the truce of Plaswitz. Though undoubtedly
+sparing his Swedes unduly, to the just displeasure of the allies,
+Charles John, as commander-in-chief of the northern army, successfully
+defended the approaches to Berlin against Oudinot in August and against
+Ney in September; but after Leipzig he went his own way, determined at
+all hazards to cripple Denmark and secure Norway. For the events which
+led to the union of Norway and Sweden, see SWEDEN: _History_ and NORWAY:
+_History_. As unional king, Charles XIV. (who succeeded to that title in
+1818 on the death of Charles XIII.) was popular in both countries.
+Though his ultra-conservative views were detested, and as far as
+possible opposed (especially after 1823), his dynasty was never in
+serious danger, and Swedes and Norsemen alike were proud of a monarch
+with a European reputation. It is true that the _Riksdag_ of 1840
+meditated compelling him to abdicate, but the storm blew over and his
+jubilee was celebrated with great enthusiasm in 1843. He died at
+Stockholm on the 8th of March 1844. His reign was one of uninterrupted
+peace, and the great material development of the two kingdoms during the
+first half of the 19th century was largely due to his energy and
+foresight.
+
+  See J.E. Sars, _Norges politiske historia_ (Christiania, 1899); Yngvar
+  Nielsen, _Carl Johan som han virkelig var_ (Christiania, 1897); Johan
+  Almen, _Atten Bernadotte_ (Stockholm, 1893); C. Schefer, _Bernadotte
+  roi_ (Paris, 1899); G.R. Lagerhjelm, _Napoleon och Carl Johan under
+  Kriget i Tyskland, 1813_ (Stockholm, 1891).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES XV. (1826-1872), king of Sweden and Norway, eldest son of Oscar
+I., king of Sweden and Norway, and Josephine Beauharnais of
+Leuchtenberg, was born on the 3rd of May 1826. On the 19th of June 1850
+he married Louisa, daughter of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands. He
+became regent on the 25th of September 1857, and king on the death of
+his father (8th of July 1859). As crown-prince, Charles's brusque and
+downright manners had led many to regard his future accession with some
+apprehension, yet he proved to be one of the most popular of
+Scandinavian kings and a constitutional ruler in the best sense of the
+word. His reign was remarkable for its manifold and far-reaching
+reforms. Sweden's existing communal law (1862), ecclesiastical law
+(1863) and criminal law (1864) were enacted appropriately enough under
+the direction of a king whose motto was: "Build up the land upon the
+laws!" Charles XV. also materially assisted De Geer (q.v.) to carry
+through his memorable reform of the constitution in 1863. Charles was a
+warm advocate of "Scandinavianism" and the political solidarity of the
+three northern kingdoms, and his warm friendship for Frederick VII., it
+is said, led him to give half promises of help to Denmark on the eve of
+the war of 1864, which, in the circumstances, were perhaps misleading
+and unjustifiable. In view, however, of the unpreparedness of the
+Swedish army and the difficulties of the situation, Charles was forced
+to observe a strict neutrality. He died at Malmo on the 18th of
+September 1872. Charles XV. was highly gifted in many directions. He
+attained to some eminence as a painter, and his _Digte_ show him to have
+been a true poet. He left but one child, a daughter, Louisa Josephina
+Eugenia, who in 1869 married the crown-prince Frederick of Denmark.
+
+  See Cecilia Baath-Holmberg, _Carl XV., som enskild man, konung och
+  konstnar_ (Stockholm, 1891); Yngvar Nielsen, _Det norske og svenske
+  Kongehus fra 1818_ (Christiania, 1883).     (R. N. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (c. 1319-1364), duke of Brittany, known as CHARLES OF BLOIS and
+CHARLES OF CHATILLON, was the son of Guy of Chatillon, count of Blois (d.
+1342), and of Marguerite of Valois, sister of Philip VI. of France. In
+1337 he married Jeanne of Penthievre (d. 1384), daughter of Guy of
+Brittany, count of Penthievre (d. 1331), and thus acquired a right to the
+succession of the duchy of Brittany. On the death of John III., duke of
+Brittany, in April 1341, his brother John, count of Montfort-l'Amaury,
+and his niece Jeanne, wife of Charles of Blois, disputed the succession.
+Charles of Blois, sustained by Philip VI., captured John of Montfort, who
+was supported by King Edward III. at Nantes, besieged his wife Jeanne of
+Flanders at Hennebont, and took Quimper and Guerande (1344). But next
+year his partisans were defeated at Cadoret, and in June 1347 he was
+himself wounded and taken prisoner at Roche-Derrien. He was not liberated
+until 1356, when he continued the war against the young John of Montfort,
+and perished in the battle of Auray, on the 29th of September 1364.
+Charles bore a high reputation for piety, and was believed to have
+performed miracles. The Roman Church has canonized him.
+
+  See Simeon Luce, _Histoire de Bertrand du Gueselin el de son epoque_
+  (Paris, 1876).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, called THE BOLD (1433-1477), duke of Burgundy, son of Philip
+the Good of Burgundy and Isabella of Portugal, was born at Dijon on the
+10th of November 1433. In his father's lifetime he bore the title of
+count of Charolais. He was brought up under the direction of the
+seigneur d'Auxy, and early showed great application to study and also to
+warlike exercises. Although he was on familiar terms with the dauphin
+(afterwards Louis XI.), when the latter was a refugee at the court of
+Burgundy, he could not but view with chagrin the repurchase by the king
+of France of the towns on the Somme, which had been temporarily ceded to
+Philip the Good by the treaty of Arras; and when his father's failing
+health enabled him to take into his hands the reins of government (which
+Philip abandoned to him completely by an act of the 12th of April 1465),
+he entered upon his lifelong struggle against Louis XI., and became one
+of the principal leaders of the League of the Public Weal. His brilliant
+bravery at the battle of Montlhery (16th of July 1465), where he was
+wounded and was left master of the field, neither prevented the king
+from re-entering Paris nor assured Charles a decisive victory. He
+succeeded, however, in forcing upon Louis the treaty of Conflans (1466),
+by which the king restored to him the towns on the Somme, and promised
+him the hand of his infant daughter Catherine, with Champagne as dowry.
+In the meanwhile the count of Charolais obtained the surrender of
+Ponthieu. The revolt of Liege and Dinant intervened to divert his
+attention from the affairs of France. On the 25th of August 1466 Charles
+took possession of Dinant, which he pillaged and sacked, and succeeded
+in treating at the same time with the Liegeois. After the death of
+Philip the Good (15th June 1467), the Liegeois renewed hostilities, but
+Charles defeated them at St Trond, and made a victorious entry into
+Liege, which he dismantled and deprived of some of its privileges.
+
+Alarmed by these early successes of the duke of Burgundy, and anxious to
+settle various questions relating to the execution of the treaty of
+Conflans, Louis requested a meeting with Charles and placed himself in
+his hands at Peronne. In the course of the negotiations the duke was
+informed of a fresh revolt of the Liegeois secretly fomented by Louis.
+After deliberating for four days how to deal with his adversary, who had
+thus maladroitly placed himself at his mercy, Charles decided to respect
+the parole he had given and to treat with Louis (October 1468), at the
+same time forcing him to assist in quelling the revolt. The town was
+carried by assault and the inhabitants were massacred, Louis not having
+the courage to intervene on behalf of his ancient allies. At the expiry
+of the one year's truce which followed the treaty of Peronne, the king
+accused Charles of treason, cited him to appear before the parlement,
+and seized some of the towns on the Somme (1471). The duke retaliated by
+invading France with a large army, taking possession of Nesle and
+massacring its inhabitants. He failed, however, in an attack on
+Beauvais, and had to content himself with ravaging the country as far as
+Rouen, eventually retiring without having attained any useful result.
+
+Other matters, moreover, engaged his attention. Relinquishing, if not
+the stately magnificence, at least the gay and wasteful profusion which
+had characterized the court of Burgundy under the preceding duke, he had
+bent all his efforts towards the development of his military and
+political power. Since the beginning of his reign he had employed
+himself in reorganizing his army and the administration of his
+territories. While retaining the principles of feudal recruiting, he had
+endeavoured to establish a system of rigid discipline among his troops,
+which he had strengthened by taking into his pay foreign mercenaries,
+particularly Englishmen and Italians, and by developing his artillery.
+Furthermore, he had lost no opportunity of extending his power. In 1469
+the archduke of Austria, Sigismund, had sold him the county of Ferrette,
+and the landgraviate of Alsace and some other towns, reserving to
+himself the right to repurchase. In 1472-1473 Charles bought the
+reversion of the duchy of Gelderland from its old duke, Arnold, whom he
+had supported against the rebellion of his son. Not content with being
+"the grand duke of the West," he conceived the project of forming a
+kingdom of Burgundy or Arles with himself as independent sovereign, and
+even persuaded the emperor Frederick to assent to crown him king at
+Trier. The ceremony, however, did not take place owing to the emperor's
+precipitate flight by night (September 1473), occasioned by his
+displeasure at the duke's attitude. In the following year Charles
+involved himself in a series of difficulties and struggles which
+ultimately brought about his downfall. He embroiled himself successively
+with Sigismund of Austria, to whom he refused to restore his
+possessions in Alsace for the stipulated sum; with the Swiss, who
+supported the free towns of Alsace in their revolt against the tyranny
+of the ducal governor, Peter von Hagenbach (who was condemned and
+executed by the rebels in May 1474); and finally, with Rene of Lorraine,
+with whom he disputed the succession of Lorraine, the possession of
+which had united the two principal portions of Charles's
+territories--Flanders and the duchy and county of Burgundy. All these
+enemies, incited and supported as they were by Louis, were not long in
+joining forces against their common adversary. Charles suffered a first
+rebuff in endeavouring to protect his kinsman, the archbishop of
+Cologne, against his rebel subjects. He spent ten months (July 1474-June
+1475) in besieging the little town of Neuss on the Rhine, but was
+compelled by the approach of a powerful imperial army to raise the
+siege. Moreover, the expedition he had persuaded his brother-in-law,
+Edward IV. of England, to undertake against Louis was stopped by the
+treaty of Picquigny (29th of August 1475). He was more successful in
+Lorraine, where he seized Nancy (30th of November 1475). From Nancy he
+marched against the Swiss, hanging and drowning the garrison of Granson
+in spite of the capitulation. Some days later, however, he was attacked
+before Granson by the confederate army and suffered a shamful defeat,
+being compelled to fly with a handful of attendants, and leaving his
+artillery and an immense booty in the hands of the allies (February
+1476). He succeeded in raising a fresh army of 30,000 men, with which he
+attacked Morat, but he was again defeated by the Swiss army, assisted by
+the cavalry of Rene of Lorraine (22nd of June 1476). On the 6th of
+October Charles lost Nancy, which was re-entered by Rene. Making a last
+effort, Charles formed a new army and arrived in the depth of winter
+before the walls of Nancy. Having lost many of his troops through the
+severe cold, it was with only a few thousand men that he met the joint
+forces of the Lorrainers and the Swiss, who had come to the relief of
+the town (6th of January 1477). He himself perished in the fight, his
+mutilated body being discovered some days afterwards.
+
+Charles the Bold has often been regarded as the last representative of
+the feudal spirit--a man who possessed no other quality than a blind
+bravery--and accordingly has often been contrasted with his rival Louis
+XI. as representing modern politics. In reality, he was a prince of wide
+knowledge and culture, knowing several languages and austere in morals;
+and although he cannot be acquitted of occasional harshness, he had the
+secret of winning the hearts of his subjects, who never refused him
+their support in times of difficulty. He was thrice married--to
+Catherine (d, 1446), daughter of Charles VII. of France, by whom he had
+one daughter, Mary, afterwards the wife of the Emperor Maximilian I.; to
+Isabella (d. 1465), daughter of Charles I., duke of Bourbon; and to
+Margaret of York, sister of Edward IV. of England, whom he married in
+1468.
+
+  The original authorities for the life and times of Charles the Bold
+  are the numerous French, Burgundian and Flemish chroniclers of the
+  latter part of the 15th century. Special mention may be made of the
+  _Memoires_ of Philippe de Comines, and of the _Memoires_ and other
+  writings of Olivier de la Marche. See also A. Molinier, _Les Sources
+  de l'histoire de France_, tome iv. (1904), and the compendious
+  bibliography in U. Chevalier's _Repertoire des sources historiques_,
+  part iii. (1904). _Charles the Bold_, by J.F. Kirk (1863-1868), is a
+  good English biography for its date; a more recent life is R. Putnam's
+  _Charles the Bold_ (1908). For a general sketch of the relations
+  between France and Burgundy at this time see E. Lavisse, _Histoire de
+  France_, tome iv. (1902).     (R. Po.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, called THE GOOD (le Bon), or THE DANE (c. 1084-1127), count of
+Flanders, only son of St Canute or Knut IV., king of Denmark, by Adela,
+daughter of Robert the Frisian, count of Flanders, was born about 1084.
+After the assassination of Canute in 1086, his widow took refuge in
+Flanders, taking with her her son. Charles was brought up by his mother
+and grandfather, Robert the Frisian, on whose death he did great
+services to his uncle, Robert II., and his cousin, Baldwin VII., counts
+of Flanders. Baldwin died of a wound received in battle in 1119, and,
+having no issue, left by will the succession to his countship to Charles
+the Dane. Charles did not secure his heritage without a civil war, but
+he was speedily victorious and made his position secure by treating his
+opponents with great clemency. He now devoted himself to promoting the
+welfare of his subjects, and did his utmost to support the cause of
+Christianity, both by his bounty and by his example. He well deserved
+the surname of _Le Bon_, by which he is known to posterity. He refused
+the offer of the crown of Jerusalem on the death of Baldwin, and
+declined to be nominated as a candidate for the imperial crown in
+succession to the emperor Henry V. He was murdered in the church of St
+Donat at Bruges on the 2nd of March 1127.
+
+  See J. Perneel, _Histoire du regne de Charles le Bon, precede d'un
+  resume de l'histoire de Flandres_ (Brussels, 1830).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES I. (c. 950-c. 992), duke of Lower Lorraine, was a younger son of
+the Frankish king Louis IV., and consequently a member of the
+Carolingian family. Unable to obtain the duchy of Burgundy owing to the
+opposition of his brother, King Lothair, he went to the court of his
+maternal uncle, the emperor Otto the Great, about 965, and in 977
+received from the emperor Otto II. the duchy of Lower Lorraine. His
+authority in Lorraine was nominal; but he aided Otto in his struggle
+with Lothair, and on the death of his nephew, Louis V., made an effort
+to secure the Frankish crown. Hugh Capet, however, was the successful
+candidate and war broke out. Charles had gained some successes and had
+captured Reims, when in 991 he was treacherously seized by Adalberon,
+bishop of Laon, and handed over to Hugh. Imprisoned with his wife and
+children at Orleans, Charles did not long survive his humiliation. His
+eldest son Otto, duke of Lower Lorraine, died in 1005.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. (d. 1431), duke of Lorraine, called THE BOLD, is sometimes
+referred to as Charles I. A son of Duke John I., he succeeded his father
+in 1390; but he neglected his duchy and passed his life in warfare. He
+died on the 25th of January 1431, leaving two daughters, one of whom,
+Isabella (d. 1453), married Rene I. of Anjou (1409-1450), king of
+Naples, who succeeded his father-in-law as duke of Lorraine.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES III. or II. (1543-1608), called THE GREAT, duke of Lorraine, was
+a son of Duke Francis I. (d. 1545), and a descendant of Rene of Anjou.
+He was only an infant when he became duke, and was brought up at the
+court of Henry II. of France, marrying Henry's daughter Claude in 1559.
+He took part in the wars of religion in France, and was a member of the
+League; but he was overshadowed by his kinsmen the Guises, although he
+was a possible candidate for the French crown in 1589. The duke, who was
+an excellent ruler of Lorraine, died at Nancy on the 14th of May 1608.
+He had three sons: Henry (d. 1624) and Francis (d. 1632), who became in
+turn dukes of Lorraine, and Charles (d. 1607), bishop of Metz and
+Strassburg.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES IV. or III. (1604-1675), duke of Lorraine, was a son of Duke
+Francis II., and was born on the 5th of April 1604. He became duke on
+the abdication of his father in 1624, and obtained the duchy of Bar
+through his marriage with his cousin Nicole (d. 1657), daughter of Duke
+Henry. Mixing in the tortuous politics of his time, he was in continual
+conflict with the crown of France, and spent much of his time in
+assisting her enemies and in losing and regaining his duchies (see
+LORRAINE). He lived an adventurous life, and in the intervals between
+his several struggles with France fought for the emperor Ferdinand II.
+at Nordlingen and elsewhere; talked of succouring Charles I. in England;
+and after the conclusion of the treaty of Westphalia in 1648 entered the
+service of Spain. He died on the 18th of September 1675, leaving by his
+second wife, Beatrix de Cusance (d. 1663), a son, Charles Henry, count
+of Vaudemont (1642-1723).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES V. or IV. (1643-1690), duke of Lorraine, nephew of Duke Charles
+IV., was born on the 3rd of April 1643, and in 1664 received a colonelcy
+in the emperor's army. In the same year he fought with distinction at
+the battle of St Gotthard, in which he captured a standard from the
+Turks. He was a candidate for the elective crown of Poland in 1668. In
+1670 the emperor made him general of horse, and during the following
+years he was constantly on active service, first against the Turks and
+subsequently against the French. At Seneff (1674) he was wounded. In the
+same year he was again a candidate for the Polish crown, but was
+unsuccessful, John Sobieski, who was to be associated with him in his
+greatest feat of arms, being elected. In 1675, on the death of Charles
+IV., he rode with a cavalry corps into the duchy of Lorraine, then
+occupied by the French, and secured the adhesion of the Lorraine troops
+to himself; a little after this he succeeded Montecucculi as general of
+the imperial army on the Rhine, and was made a field marshal. The chief
+success of his campaign of 1676 was the capture of Philipsburg, after a
+long and arduous siege. The war continued without decisive result for
+some time, and the fate of the duchy, which was still occupied by the
+French, was the subject of endless diplomacy. At the general peace
+Charles had to accept the hard conditions imposed by Louis XIV., and he
+never entered into effective possession of his sovereignty. In 1678 he
+married the widowed queen of Poland, Eleonora Maria of Austria, and for
+nearly five years they lived quietly at Innsbruck. The Turkish invasion
+of 1683, the last great effort of the Turks to impose their will on
+Europe, called Charles into the field again. At the head of a weak
+imperial army the duke offered the best resistance he could to the
+advance of the Turks on Vienna. But he had to fall back, contesting
+every position, and the Turks finally invested Vienna (July 13th, 1683).
+At this critical moment other powers came to the assistance of Austria,
+reinforcements poured into Charles's camp, and John Sobieski, king of
+Poland, brought 27,000 Poles. Sobieski and Charles had now over 80,000
+men, Poles, Austrians and Germans, and on the morning of the 12th of
+September they moved forward to the attack. By nightfall the Turks were
+in complete disorder, Vienna was relieved, and the danger was at an end.
+Soon the victors took the offensive and reconquered part of the kingdom
+of Hungary. The Germans and Poles went home in the winter, but Charles
+continued his offensive with the imperialists alone. Ofen (Buda)
+resisted his efforts in 1684, but in the campaign of 1685 Neuhausel was
+taken by storm, and in 1686 Charles, now reinforced by German
+auxiliaries, resumed the siege of Ofen. All attempts to relieve the
+place were repulsed, and Ofen was stormed on the 2nd of September. In
+the following campaign the Austrians won a decisive victory on the
+famous battle-ground of Mohacs (August 18th, 1687). In 1689 Charles took
+the field on the Rhine against the forces of Louis XIV., the enemy of
+his house. Mainz and Bonn were taken in the first campaign, but Charles
+in travelling from Vienna to the front died suddenly at Wels on the 18th
+of April 1690.
+
+His eldest son, Leopold Joseph (1679-1729), at the peace of Ryswick in
+1697 obtained the duchy, of which his father had been dispossessed by
+France, and was the father of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, who
+became the husband of Maria Theresa (q.v.), and of Charles (Karl
+Alexander), a distinguished Austrian commander in the wars with
+Frederick the Great. The duchy was ceded by Francis Stephen to
+Stanislaus Leczynski, the dethroned king of Poland, in 1736, Francis
+receiving instead the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES II. [CHARLES LOUIS DE BOURBON] (1799-1883), duke of Parma,
+succeeded his mother, Maria Louisa, duchess of Lucca, as duke of Lucca
+in 1824. He introduced economy into the administration, increased the
+schools, and in 1832 as a reaction against the bigotry of the priests
+and monks with which his mother had surrounded him, he became a
+Protestant. He at first evinced Liberal tendencies, gave asylum to the
+Modenese political refugees of 1831, and was indeed suspected of being a
+Carbonaro. But his profligacy and eccentricities soon made him the
+laughing-stock of Italy. In 1842 he returned to the Catholic Church and
+made Thomas Ward, an English groom, his prime minister, a man not
+without ability and tact. Charles gradually abandoned all his Liberal
+ideas, and in 1847 declared himself hostile to the reforms introduced by
+Pius IX. The Lucchesi demanded the constitution of 1805, promised them
+by the treaty of Vienna, and a national guard, but the duke, in spite of
+the warnings of Ward, refused all concessions. A few weeks later he
+retired to Modena, selling his life-interest in the duchy to Tuscany.
+On the 17th of October Maria Louisa of Austria, duchess of Parma, died,
+and Charles Louis succeeded to her throne by the terms of the Florence
+treaty, assuming the style of Charles II. His administration of Parma
+was characterized by ruinous finance, debts, disorder and increased
+taxation, and he concluded an offensive and defensive alliance with
+Austria. But on the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 there were riots
+in his capital (19th of March), and he declared his readiness to throw
+in his lot with Charles Albert, the pope, and Leopold of Tuscany,
+repudiated the Austrian treaty and promised a constitution. Then he
+again changed his mind, abdicated in April, and left Parma in the hands
+of a provisional government, whereupon the people voted for union with
+Piedmont. After the armistice between Charles Albert and Austria (August
+1848) the Austrian general Thurn occupied the duchy, and Charles II.
+issued an edict from Weistropp annulling the acts of the provisional
+government. When Piedmont attacked Austria again in 1849, Parma was
+evacuated, but reoccupied by General d'Aspre in April.
+
+In May 1849 Charles confirmed his abdication, and was succeeded by his
+son CHARLES III. (1823-1854), who, protected by Austrian troops, placed
+Parma under martial law, inflicted heavy penalties on the members of the
+late provisional government, closed the university, and instituted a
+regular policy of persecution. A violent ruler, a drunkard and a
+libertine, he was assassinated on the 26th of March 1854. At his death
+his widow Maria Louisa, sister of the comte de Chambord, became regent,
+during the minority of his son Robert. The duchess introduced some sort
+of order into the administration, seemed inclined to rule more mildly
+and dismissed some of her husband's more obnoxious ministers, but the
+riots of the Mazzinians in July 1854 were repressed with ruthless
+severity, and the rest of her reign was characterized by political
+trials, executions and imprisonments, to which the revolutionists
+replied with assassinations.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Massei, _Storia civile di Lucca_, vol. ii. (Lucca,
+  1878); Anon., _Y Borboni di Parma ... del 1847 al 1859_ (Parma, 1860);
+  N. Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (Turin, 1865,
+  &c.); C. Tivaroni, _L'Italia sotto il dominio austriaco_, ii. 96-101,
+  i. 590-605 (Turin, 1892), and _L'Italia degli Italiani_, i. 126-143
+  (Turin, 1895) by the same; S. Lottici and G. Sitti, _Bibliografia
+  generale per la storia parmense_ (Parma, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES [KARL LUDWIG] (1771-1847), archduke of Austria and duke of
+Teschen, third son of the emperor Leopold II., was born at Florence (his
+father being then grand-duke of Tuscany) on the 5th of September 1771.
+His youth was spent in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian
+Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the war of
+the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at Jemappes, and in the
+campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the action of Aldenhoven and
+the battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became _Statthalter_ in
+Belgium and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, which
+promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. In the remainder
+of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and he was
+present at Fleurus. In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following
+year was entrusted with the chief control of all the Austrian forces on
+that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in
+1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe.
+At first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally
+marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau; falling upon
+Jourdan he beat him in the battles of Amberg and Wurzburg, and drove him
+over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which
+he defeated and forced out of Germany. For this campaign, one of the
+most brilliant in modern history, see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. In 1797
+he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in
+Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with
+the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he was once more opposed to
+Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Osterach and Stokach,
+following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Massena
+in the (first) battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and
+drove the French once more over the Rhine. Ill-health, however, forced
+him to retire to Bohemia, whence he was soon recalled to undertake the
+task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the battle of
+Hohenlinden had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had
+to make the armistice of Steyer. His popularity was now such that the
+diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his
+honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country; but Charles
+refused both distinctions.
+
+In the short and disastrous war of 1805 the archduke Charles commanded
+what was intended to be the main army, in Italy, but events made Germany
+the decisive theatre of operations, and the defeats sustained on the
+Danube neutralized the success obtained by the archduke over Massena in
+the desperately fought battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace
+began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on
+the field in 1809. As generalissimo of the army he had been made field
+marshal some years before. As president of the Council of War, and
+supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved
+capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching
+scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th
+century, the chief characteristics of the new order being the adoption
+of the "nation in arms" principle and of the French war organization and
+tactics. The new army was surprised in the process of transition by the
+war of 1809, in which Charles commanded in chief; yet even so it proved
+a far more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now
+heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS)
+it succumbed only after a desperate struggle. Its initial successes were
+neutralized by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmuhl; but,
+after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won the great battle of
+Aspern-Essling (q.v.) and soon afterwards fought the still more
+desperate battle of Wagram (q.v.), at the close of which the Austrians
+were defeated but not routed; they had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss of
+over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign the
+archduke gave up all his military offices, and spent the rest of his
+life in retirement, except a short time in 1815, when he was governor of
+Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. The archduke
+Charles married, in 1815, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (d.
+1829). He had four sons, the eldest of whom, the archduke Albert (q.v.)
+became one of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters,
+the elder of whom became queen of Naples. He died at Vienna on the 30th
+of April 1847. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory in Vienna,
+1860.
+
+The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategical
+works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand
+it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favour of the
+defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and
+executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in
+the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at
+Wurzburg and Zurich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was
+certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, Napoleon only
+excepted. The campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he
+sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical
+superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition
+of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the
+victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable criticism. As a
+military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very
+important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight.
+Nevertheless they cannot but be considered as antiquated even in 1806.
+Caution and the importance of "strategic points" are the chief features
+of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered
+from the prescription that "this principle is _never_ to be departed
+from." Again and again he repeats the advice that nothing should be
+hazarded unless one's army is _completely_ secure, a rule which he
+himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. "Strategic
+points," he says (not the defeat of the enemy's army), "decide the fate
+of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main
+solicitude"--a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in
+the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a
+feeble defence against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more
+value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical
+writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is
+designed to "cover a retreat." The baneful influence of these antiquated
+principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Koniggratz-Josefstadt
+in 1866 as a "strategic point," which was preferred to the defeat of the
+separated Prussian armies; in the strange plans produced in Vienna for
+the campaign of 1859, and in the "almost unintelligible" battle of
+Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of the archduke
+Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In
+the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest
+skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable
+opponent of Napoleon.
+
+  His writings were edited by the archduke Albert and his brother the
+  archduke William in the _Ausgewahlte Schriften weiland Sr. K. Hoheit
+  Erzh. Carl v. Osterreich_ (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and Leipzig),
+  which includes the _Grundsatze der Kriegskunst fur die Generale_
+  (1806), _Grundsatze der Strategie erlautert durch die Darstellung des
+  Feldzugs 1796_ (1814), _Gesch. des Feldzugs von 1799_ (1819)--the two
+  latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and papers
+  "on the higher art of war," "on practical training in the field," &c.
+  See, besides the histories of the period, C. von
+  B(inder)-K(rieglstein), _Geist und Stoff im Kriege_ (Vienna, 1895);
+  Caemmerer, _Development of Strategical Science_ (English transl.), ch.
+  iv.; M. Edler v. Angeli, _Erzherzog Carl v. Osterr._ (Vienna and
+  Leipzig, 1896); Duller, _Erzh. Karl v. Osterr._ (Vienna, 1845);
+  Schneidawind, _Karl, Erzherzog v. Osterr. und die osterr. Armee_
+  (Vienna, 1840); _Das Buch vom Erzh. Carl_ (1848); Thielen, _Erzh. Karl
+  v. Osterr._ (1858); Wolf, _Erzh. Carl_ (1860); H. von Zeissberg,
+  _Erzh. Karl v. Osterr._ (Vienna, 1895); M. von Angeli, _Erzh. Karl als
+  Feldherr und Organisator_ (Vienna, 1896).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1525-1574), cardinal of Lorraine, French statesman, was the
+second son of Claude of Lorraine, duke of Guise, and brother of Francis,
+duke of Guise. He was archbishop of Reims in 1538, and cardinal in 1547.
+At first he was called the cardinal of Guise, but in 1550, on the death
+of his uncle John, cardinal of Lorraine, he in his turn took the style
+of cardinal of Lorraine. Brilliant, cunning and a master of intrigue, he
+was, like all the Guises, devoured with ambition and devoid of scruples.
+He had, said Brantome, "a soul exceeding smirched," and, he adds, "by
+nature he was exceeding craven." Together with his brother, Duke
+Francis, the cardinal of Lorraine was all-powerful during the reigns of
+Henry II. and Francis II.; in 1558 and 1559 he was one of the
+negotiators of the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis; he fought and pitilessly
+persecuted the reformers, and by his intolerant policy helped to provoke
+the crisis of the wars of religion. The death of Francis II. deprived
+him of power, but he remained one of the principal leaders of the
+Catholic party. In 1561, at the Colloquy of Poissy, he was commissioned
+to reply to Theodore Beza. In 1562 he went to the council of Trent,
+where he at first defended the rights of the Gallican Church against the
+pretensions of the pope; but after the assassination of his brother, he
+approached the court of Rome, and on his return to France he
+endeavoured, but without success, to obtain the promulgation of the
+decrees of the council (1564). In 1567, when the Protestants took up
+arms, he held for some time the first place in the king's council, but
+Catherine de' Medici soon grew weary of his arrogance, and in 1570 he
+had to leave the court. He endeavoured to regain favour by negotiating
+at Rome the dispensation for the marriage of Henry of Navarre with
+Margaret of Valois (1572). He died on the 26th of December 1574, at the
+beginning of the reign of Henry III. An orator of talent, he left
+several harangues or sermons, among them being _Oraison prononcee au
+Colloque de Poissy_ (Paris, 1562) and _Oratio habita in Concil. Trident._
+(_Concil. Trident. Orationes_, Louvain, 1567).
+
+  A large amount of correspondence is preserved in the Bibliotheque
+  Nationale, Paris. See also Rene de Bouille, _Histoire des ducs de
+  Guise_ (Paris, 1849); H. Forneron, _Les Guises et leur epoque_ (Paris,
+  1877); Guillemin, _Le Cardinal de Lorraine_ (1847).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780), prince of Lorraine, was the
+youngest son of Leopold, duke of Lorraine, and grandson of Charles V.,
+duke of Lorraine (see above), the famous general. He was born at
+Luneville on the 12th of December 1712, and educated for a military
+career. After his elder brother Francis, the duke, had exchanged
+Lorraine for Tuscany and married Maria Theresa, Charles became an
+Austrian officer, and he served in the campaigns of 1737 and 1738
+against the Turks. At the outbreak of the Silesian wars in 1740 (see
+AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE), the queen made her brother-in-law a
+field marshal, though he was not yet thirty years old, and in 1742
+Charles encountered Frederick the Great for the first time at the battle
+of Chotusitz (May 17th). The victory of the Prussians on that field was
+far from decisive, and Charles drew off his forces in good order. His
+conduct of the successful campaign of 1743 against the French and
+Bavarians heightened his reputation. He married, in January 1744,
+Marianne of Austria, sister of Maria Theresa, who made them jointly
+governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. Very soon the war broke
+out afresh, and Charles, at the head of the Austrian army on the Rhine,
+won great renown by his brilliant crossing of the Rhine. Once more a
+Lorraine prince at the head of Austrian troops invaded the duchy and
+drove the French before him, but at this moment Frederick resumed the
+Silesian war, all available troops were called back to oppose him, and
+the French maintained their hold on Lorraine. Charles hurried to
+Bohemia, whence, aided by the advice of the veteran field marshal Traun,
+he quickly expelled the Prussians. At the close of his victorious
+campaign he received the news that his wife, to whom he was deeply
+attached, had died in childbirth on the 16th of December 1744 at
+Brussels. He took the field again in 1745 in Silesia, but this time
+without the advice of Traun, and he was twice severely defeated by
+Frederick, at Hohenfriedberg and at Soor. Subsequently, as
+commander-in-chief in the Low Countries he received, at Roucoux, a heavy
+defeat at the hands of Marshal Saxe. His government of the Austrian
+Netherlands during the peace of 1749-1756 was marked by many reforms,
+and the prince won the regard of the people by his ceaseless activity on
+their behalf. After the first reverses of the Seven Years' War (q.v.),
+Maria Theresa called Charles again to the supreme command in the field.
+The campaign of 1757 opened with Frederick's great victory of Prague,
+and Prince Charles was shut up with his army in that fortress. In the
+victory of the relieving army under Daun at Kolin Charles had no part.
+Nevertheless the battle of Breslau, in which the Prussians suffered a
+defeat even more serious than that of Kolin, was won by him, and great
+enthusiasm was displayed in Austria over the victory, which seemed to be
+the final blow to Frederick. But soon afterwards the king of Prussia
+routed the French at Rossbach, and, swiftly returning to Silesia, he
+inflicted on Charles the complete and crushing defeat of Leuthen
+(December 5, 1757). A mere remnant of the Austrian army reassembled
+after the pursuit, and Charles was relieved of his command. He received,
+however, from the hands of the empress the grand cross, of the newly
+founded order of Maria Theresa. For a year thereafter Prince Charles
+acted as a military adviser at Vienna, he then returned to Brussels,
+where, during the remainder of his life, he continued to govern in the
+same liberal spirit as before. The affection of the people for the
+prince was displayed during his dangerous illness in 1765, and in 1775
+the estates of Brabant erected a statue in his honour at Brussels. He
+died on the 4th of July 1780 at the castle of Tervoeren, and was buried
+with his Lorraine ancestors at Nancy.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1270-1325), count of Valois, of Maine, and of Anjou, third son
+of Philip III., king of France, surnamed the Bold, and of Isabella of
+Aragon, was born on the 12th of March 1270. By his father's will he
+inherited the four lordships of Crepy, La Ferte-Milon, Pierrefonds and
+Bethisy, which together formed the countship of Valois. In 1284 Martin
+IV., having excommunicated Pedro III., king of Aragon, offered that
+kingdom to Charles. King Philip failed in an attempt to place his son on
+this throne, and died on the return of the expedition. In 1290 Charles
+married Margaret, daughter of Charles II., king of Naples, and renounced
+his pretensions to Aragon. In 1294, at the beginning of the hostilities
+against England, he invaded Guienne and took La Reole and Saint-Sever.
+During the war Flanders (1300), he took Douai, Bethune and Dam, received
+the submission of Guy of Dampierre, and aided King Philip IV., the Fair,
+to gain the battle of Mons-en-Pevele, on the 18th of August 1304. Asked
+by Boniface VIII. for his aid against the Ghibellines, he crossed the
+Alps in June 1301, entered Florence, and helped Charles II., the Lame,
+king of Sicily, to reconquer Calabria and Apulia from the house of
+Aragon, but was defeated in Sicily. As after the death of his first wife
+Charles had married Catherine de Courtenay, a granddaughter of Baldwin
+II., the last Latin emperor of Constantinople, he tried to assert his
+rights to that throne. Philip the Fair also wished to get him elected
+emperor; but Clement V. quashed his candidature in favour of Henry of
+Luxemburg, afterwards the emperor Henry VII. Under Louis X. Charles
+headed the party of feudal reaction, and was among those who compassed
+the ruin of Enguerrand de Marigny. In the reign of Charles IV., the
+Fair, he fought yet again in Guienne (1324), and died at Perray
+(Seine-et-Oise) on the 16th of December 1325. His second wife had died
+in 1307, and in July 1308 he had married a third wife, Mahaut de
+Chatillon, countess of Saint-Pol. Philip, his eldest son, ascended the
+French throne in 1328, and from him sprang the royal house of Valois.
+
+  See Joseph Petit, _Charles de Valois_ (Paris, 1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES (1421-1461), prince of Viana, sometimes called Charles IV. king
+of Navarre, was the son of John, afterwards John II., king of Aragon, by
+his marriage with Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of
+Navarre. Both his grandfather Charles and his mother, who ruled over
+Navarre from 1425 to 1441, had bequeathed this kingdom to Charles, whose
+right had also been recognized by the Cortes; but when Blanche died in
+1441 her husband John seized the government to the exclusion of his son.
+The ill-feeling between father and son was increased when in 1447 John
+took for his second wife Joanna Henriquez, a Castilian princess, who
+soon bore him a son, afterwards Ferdinand I. king of Spain, and who
+regarded her stepson as an interloper. When Joanna began to interfere in
+the internal affairs of Navarre civil war broke out; and in 1452
+Charles, although aided by John II., king of Castile, was defeated and
+taken prisoner. Released upon promising not to take the kingly title
+until after his father's death, the prince, again unsuccessful in an
+appeal to arms, took refuge in Italy with Alphonso V., king of Aragon,
+Naples and Sicily. In 1458 Alphonso died and John became king of Aragon,
+while Charles was offered the crowns of Naples and Sicily. He declined
+these proposals, and having been reconciled with his father returned to
+Navarre in 1459. Aspiring to marry a Castilian princess, he was then
+thrown into prison by his father, and the Catalans rose in his favour.
+This insurrection soon became general and John was obliged to yield. He
+released his son, and recognized him as perpetual governor of Catalonia,
+and heir to the kingdom. Soon afterwards, however, on the 23rd of
+September 1461, the prince died at Barcelona, not without a suspicion
+that he had been poisoned by his stepmother. Charles was a cultured and
+amiable prince, fond of music and literature. He translated the _Ethics_
+of Aristotle into Spanish, a work first published at Saragossa in 1509,
+and wrote a chronicle of the kings of Navarre, _Cronica de los reyes de
+Navarra_, an edition which, edited by J. Yangues y Miranda, was
+published at Pampeluna in 1843.
+
+  See J. de Moret and F. de Aleson, _Anales del reyno de Navarra_, tome
+  iv. (Pampeluna, 1866); M.J. Quintana, _Vidas de espanoles celebres_
+  (Paris, 1827); and G. Desdevises du Dezert, _Carlos d'Aragon_ (Paris,
+  1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896), English author, was born at Tavistock on
+the 2nd of January 1828, the daughter of John Rundle, M.P. Some of her
+youthful poems won the praise of Tennyson, who read them in manuscript.
+In 1851 she married Andrew Paton Charles. Her best known book, written
+to order for an editor who wished for a story about Martin Luther, _The
+Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta Family_, was published in 1862, and
+was translated into most of the European languages, into Arabic, and
+into many Indian dialects. Mrs Charles wrote in all some fifty books,
+the majority of a semi-religious character. She took an active part in
+the work of various charitable institutions, and among her friends and
+correspondents were Dean Stanley, Archbishop Tait, Charles Kingsley,
+Jowett and Pusey. She died at Hampstead on the 28th of March 1896.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823), French mathematician and
+physicist, was born at Beaugency, Loiret, on the 12th of November 1746.
+After spending some years as a clerk in the ministry of finance, he
+turned to scientific pursuits, and attracted considerable attention by
+his skilful and elaborate demonstrations of physical experiments. He was
+the first, in 1783, to employ hydrogen for the inflation of balloons
+(see AERONAUTICS), and about 1787 he anticipated Gay Lussac's law of the
+dilatation of gases with heat, which on that account is sometimes known
+by his name. In 1785 he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, and
+subsequently he became professor of physics at the Conservatoire des
+Arts et Metiers. He died in Paris on the 7th of April 1823. His
+published papers are chiefly concerned with mathematical topics.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born of
+humble parentage at Longmoor, in the parish of Llanfihangel Abercywyn,
+near St Clears, Carmarthenshire, on the 14th of October 1755. He was
+educated for the Anglican ministry at Llanddowror and Carmarthen, and at
+Jesus College, Oxford (1775-1778). In 1777 he studied theology under the
+evangelical John Newton at Olney. He was ordained deacon in 1778 on the
+title of the curacies of Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford, Somerset; and
+took priest's orders in 1780. He afterwards added to his charge at
+Sparkford, Lovington, South Barrow and North Barrow, and in September
+1782 was presented to the perpetual curacy of South Barrow by the Rev.
+John Hughes, Coln St Denys. But he never left Sparkford, though the
+contrary has been maintained, until he resigned all his curacies in June
+1783, and returned to Wales, marrying (on August 20th) Sarah Jones of
+Bala, the orphan of a flourishing shopkeeper. He had early fallen under
+the influence of the great revival movement in Wales, and at the age of
+seventeen had been "converted" by a sermon of Daniel Rowland's. This was
+enough to make him unpopular with many of the Welsh clergy, and being
+denied the privilege of preaching for nothing at two churches, he helped
+his old Oxford friend John Mayor, now vicar of Shawbury, Shropshire,
+from October until January 11th, 1784. On the 25th of January he took
+charge of Llan yn Mowddwy (14 m. from Bala), but was not allowed to
+continue there more than three months. Three influential people, among
+them the rector of Bala, agitated some of the parishioners against him,
+and persuaded his rector to dismiss him. His preaching, his catechizing
+of the children after evensong, and his connexion with the Bala
+Methodists--his wife's step-father being a Methodist preacher--gave
+great offence. After a fortnight more at Shawbury, he wrote to John
+Newton and another clergyman friend in London for advice. The Church of
+England denied him employment, and the Methodists desired his services.
+His friends advised him to return to England, but it was too late. By
+September he had crossed the Rubicon, Henry Newman (his rector at
+Shepton Beauchamp and Sparkford) accompanying him on a tour in
+Carnarvonshire. In December, he was preaching at the Bont Uchel
+Association; so that he joined the Methodists (see CALVINISTIC
+METHODISTS) in 1784.
+
+Before taking this step, he had been wont in his enforced leisure to
+gather the poor children of Bala into his house for instruction, and so
+thickly did they come that he had to adjourn with them to the chapel.
+This was the origin of the Welsh Circulating Schools, which he developed
+on the lines adopted by Griffith Jones (d. 1761), formerly vicar of
+Llanddowror. First one man was trained for the work by himself, then he
+was sent to a district for six months, where, (for L8 a year) he taught
+gratis the children and young people (in fact, all comers) reading and
+Christian principles. Writing was added later. The expenses were met by
+collections made in the Calvinistic Methodist Societies, and as the
+funds increased masters were multiplied, until in 1786 Charles had
+seven masters to whom he paid L10 per annum; in 1787, twelve; in 1789,
+fifteen; in 1794, twenty. By this time the salary had been increased to
+L12; in 1801 it was L14. He had learnt of Raikes's Sunday Schools before
+he left the Establishment, but he rightly considered the system set on
+foot by himself far superior; the work and object being the same, he
+gave six days' tuition for every one given by them, and many people not
+only objected to working as teachers on Sunday, but thought the children
+forgot in the six days what they learnt on the one. But Sunday Schools
+were first adopted by Charles to meet the case of young people in
+service who could not attend during the week, and even in that form much
+opposition was shown to them because teaching was thought to be a form
+of Sabbath breaking. His first Sunday School was in 1787. Wilberforce,
+Charles Grant, John Thornton and his son Henry, were among the
+philanthropists who contributed to his funds; in 1798 the Sunday School
+Society (established 1785) extended its operations to Wales, making him
+its agent, and Sunday Schools grew rapidly in number and favour. A
+powerful revival broke out at Bala in the autumn of 1791, and his
+account of it in letters to correspondents, sent without his knowledge
+to magazines, kindled a similar fire at Huntly. The scarcity of Welsh
+bibles was Charles's greatest difficulty in his work. John Thornton and
+Thomas Scott helped him to secure supplies from the Society for the
+Promotion of Christian Knowledge from 1787 to 1789, when the stock
+became all but exhausted. In 1799 a new edition was brought out by the
+Society, and he managed to secure 700 copies of the 10,000 issued; the
+Sunday School Society got 3000 testaments printed, and most of them
+passed into his hands in 1801.
+
+In 1800, when a frost-bitten thumb gave him great pain and much fear for
+his life, his friend, Rev. Philip Oliver of Chester, died, leaving him
+director and one of three trustees over his chapel at Boughton; and this
+added much to his anxiety. The Welsh causes at Manchester and London,
+too, gave him much uneasiness, and burdened him with great
+responsibilities at this juncture. In November 1802 he went to London,
+and on the 7th of December he sat at a committee meeting of the
+Religious Tract Society, as a country member, when his friend, Joseph
+Tarn--a member of the Spa Fields and Religious Tract Society
+committees--introduced the subject of a regular supply of bibles for
+Wales. Charles was asked to state his case to the committee, and so
+forcibly did he impress them, that it was there and then decided to move
+in the matter of a general dispersion of the bible. When he visited
+London a year later, his friends were ready to discuss the name of a new
+Society, and the sole object of which should be to supply bibles.
+Charles returned to Wales on the 30th of January 1804, and the British
+and Foreign Bible Society was formally and publicly inaugurated on March
+the 7th. The first Welsh testament issued by that Society appeared on
+the 6th of May 1806, the bible on the 7th of May 1807--both being edited
+by Charles.
+
+Between 1805 and 1811 he issued his Biblical Dictionary in four volumes,
+which still remains the standard work of its kind in Welsh. Three
+editions of his Welsh catechism were published for the use of his
+schools (1789, 1791 and 1794); an English catechism for the use of
+schools in Lady Huntingdon's Connexion was drawn up by him in 1797; his
+shorter catechism in Welsh appeared in 1799, and passed through several
+editions, in Welsh and English, before 1807, when his _Instructor_
+(still the Connexional catechism) appeared. From April 1799 to December
+1801 six numbers of a Welsh magazine called _Trysorfa Ysprydol_
+(Spiritual Treasury) were edited by Thomas Jones of Mold and himself; in
+March 1809 the first number of the second volume appeared, and the
+twelfth and last in November 1813.
+
+The London Hibernian Society asked him to accompany Dr David Bogue, the
+Rev. Joseph Hughes, and Samuel Mills to Ireland in August 1807, to
+report on the state of Protestant religion in the country. Their report
+is still extant, and among the movements initiated as a result of their
+visit was the Circulating School system. In 1810, owing to the growth of
+Methodism and the lack of ordained ministers, he led the Connexion in
+the movement for connexionally ordained ministers, and his influence
+was the chief factor in the success of that important step. From 1811
+to 1814 his energy was mainly devoted to establishing auxiliary Bible
+Societies. By correspondence he stimulated some friends in Edinburgh to
+establish charity schools in the Highlands, and the Gaelic School
+Society (1811) was his idea. His last work was a corrected edition of
+the Welsh Bible issued in small pica by the Bible Society. As a preacher
+he was in great request, though possessing but few of the qualities of
+the popular preacher. All his work received very small remuneration; the
+family was maintained by the profits of a business managed by Mrs
+Charles--a keen, active and good woman. He died on the 5th of October
+1814. His influence is still felt, and he is rightly claimed as one of
+the makers of modern Wales.     (D. E. J.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES ALBERT [CARLO ALBERTO] (1798-1849), king of Sardinia (Piedmont),
+son of Prince Charles of Savoy-Carignano and Princess Albertine of
+Saxe-Courland, was born on the 2nd of October 1798, a few days before
+the French occupied Piedmont and forced his cousin King Charles Emmanuel
+to take refuge in Sardinia. Although Prince and Princess Carignano
+adhered to the French Republican regime, they soon fell under suspicion
+and were summoned to Paris. Prince Charles died in 1800, and his widow
+married a Count de Montleart and for some years led a wandering
+existence, chiefly in Switzerland, neglecting her son and giving him
+mere scraps of education, now under a devotee of J.J. Rousseau, now
+under a Genevan Calvinist. In 1802 King Charles Emmanuel abdicated in
+favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I.; the latter's only son being
+dead, his brother Charles Felix was heir to the throne, and after him
+Charles Albert. On the fall of Napoleon in 1814 the Piedmontese court
+returned to Turin and the king was anxious to secure the succession for
+Charles Albert, knowing that Austria meditated excluding him from it in
+favour of an Austrian archduke, but at the same time he regarded him as
+an objectionable person on account of his revolutionary upbringing.
+Charles Albert was summoned to Turin, given tutors to instruct him in
+legitimist principles, and on the 1st of October 1817 married the
+archduchess Maria Theresa of Tuscany, who, on the 14th of March 1820,
+gave birth to Victor Emmanuel, afterwards king of Italy.
+
+The Piedmontese government at this time was most reactionary, and had
+made a clean sweep of all French institutions. But there were strong
+Italian nationalists and anti-Austrian tendencies among the younger
+nobles and army officers, and the Carbonari and other revolutionary
+societies had made much progress.
+
+Their hopes centred in the young Carignano, whose agreeable manners had
+endeared him to all, and who had many friends among the Liberals and
+Carbonari. Early in 1820 a revolutionary movement was set on foot, and
+vague plans of combined risings all over Italy and a war with Austria
+were talked of. Charles Albert no doubt was aware of this, but he never
+actually became a Carbonaro, and was surprised and startled when after
+the outbreak of the Neapolitan revolution of 1820 some of the leading
+conspirators in the Piedmontese army, including Count Santorre di
+Santarosa and Count San Marzano, informed him that a military rising was
+ready and that they counted on his help (2nd March 1821). He induced
+them to delay the outbreak and informed the king, requesting him,
+however, not to punish anyone. On the 10th the garrison of Alessandria
+mutinied, and two days later Turin was in the hands of the insurgents,
+the people demanding the Spanish constitution. The king at once
+abdicated and appointed Charles Albert regent. The latter, pressed by
+the revolutionists and abandoned by his ministers, granted the
+constitution and sent to inform Charles Felix, who was now king, of the
+occurrence. Charles Felix, who was then at Modena, repudiated the
+regent's acts, accepted Austrian military assistance, with which the
+rising was easily quelled, and exiled Charles Albert to Florence. The
+young prince found himself the most unpopular man in Italy, for while
+the Liberals looked on him as a traitor, to the king and the
+Conservatives he was a dangerous revolutionist. At the Congress of
+Verona (1822) the Austrian chancellor, Prince Metternich, tried to
+induce Charles Felix to set aside Charles Albert's rights of succession.
+But the king was piqued by Austria's interference, and as both the
+grand-duke of Tuscany and the duke of Wellington supported him, Charles
+Albert's claims were respected. France having decided to intervene in
+the Spanish revolution on the side of autocracy, Charles Albert asked
+permission to join the duc d'Angouleme's expedition. The king granted it
+and the young prince set out for Spain, where he fought with such
+gallantry at the storming of the Trocadero (1st of September 1823) that
+the French soldiers proclaimed him the "first Grenadier of France." But
+it was not until he had signed a secret undertaking binding himself, as
+soon as he ascended the throne, to place himself under the tutelage of a
+council composed of the higher clergy and the knights of the Annunziata,
+and to maintain the existing forms of the monarchy (D. Berti, _Cesare
+Alfieri_, xi. 77, Rome, 1871), that he was allowed to return to Turin
+and forgiven.
+
+On the death of Charles Felix (27th of April 1831) Charles Albert
+succeeded; he inherited a kingdom without an army, with an empty
+treasury, a chaotic administration and medieval laws. His first task was
+to set his house in order; he reorganized the finances, created the
+army, and started Piedmont on a path which if not liberalism was at
+least progress. "He was," wrote his reactionary minister, Count della
+Margherita, "hostile to Austria from the depths of his soul and full of
+illusions as to the possibility of freeing Italy from dependence on
+her.... As for the revolutionaries, he detested them but feared them,
+and was convinced that sooner or later he would be their victim." In
+1833 a conspiracy of the _Giovane Italia_ Society, organized by Mazzini,
+was discovered, and a number of its members punished with ruthless
+severity. On the election in 1846 of Pius IX., who appeared to be a
+Liberal and an Italian patriot, the eyes of all Italy were turned on him
+as the heaven-born leader who was to rescue the country from the
+foreigner. This to some extent reconciled the king to the Liberal
+movement, for it accorded with his religious views. "I confess," he
+wrote to the marquis of Villamarina, in 1847, "that a war of national
+independence which should have for its object the defence of the pope
+would be the greatest happiness that could befall me." On the 30th of
+October he issued a decree granting wide reforms, and when risings broke
+out in other parts of Italy early in 1848 and further liberties were
+demanded, he was at last induced to grant the constitution (8th
+February).
+
+When the news of the Milanese revolt against the Austrians reached Turin
+(19th of March) public opinion demanded that the Piedmontese should
+succour their struggling brothers; and after some hesitation the king
+declared war. But much time had been wasted and many precious
+opportunities lost. With an army of 60,000 Piedmontese troops and 30,000
+men from other parts of Italy the king took the field, and after
+defeating the Austrians at Pastrengo on the 30th of April, and at Goito
+on the 30th of May, where he was himself slightly wounded, more time was
+wasted in useless operations. Radetzky, the Austrian general, having
+received reinforcements, drove the centre of the extended Italian line
+back across the Mincio (23rd of July), and in the two days' fighting at
+Custozza (24th and 25th of July) the Piedmontese were beaten, forced to
+retreat, and to ask for an armistice. On re-entering Milan Charles
+Albert was badly received and reviled as a traitor by the Republicans,
+and although he declared himself ready to die defending the city the
+municipality treated with Radetzky for a capitulation; the mob, urged on
+by the demagogues, made a savage demonstration against him at the
+Palazzo Greppi, whence he escaped in the night with difficulty and
+returned to Piedmont with his defeated army. [** amended from armp] The
+French Republic offered to intervene in the spring of 1848, but Charles
+Albert did not desire foreign aid, the more so as in this case it would
+have had to be paid for by the cession of Nice and Savoy. The
+revolutionary movement throughout Italy was breaking down, but Charles
+Albert felt that while he possessed an army he could not abandon the
+Lombards and Venetians, and determined to stake all on a last chance. On
+the 12th of March 1849 he denounced the armistice and took the field
+again with an army of 80,000 men, but gave the chief command to the
+Polish general Chrzanowski. General Ramorino commanding the Lombard
+division proved unable to prevent the Austrians from crossing the Ticino
+(20th of April), and Chrzanowski was completely out-generalled and
+defeated at La Bicocca near Novara on the 23rd. The Piedmontese fought
+with great bravery, and the unhappy king sought death in vain. After the
+battle he asked terms of Radetzky, who demanded the occupation by
+Austria of a large part of Piedmont and the heir to the throne as a
+hostage. Thereupon, feeling himself to be the obstacle to better
+conditions, Charles Albert abdicated in favour of his son Victor
+Emmanuel. That same night he departed alone and made his way to Oporto,
+where he retired into a monastery and died on the 28th of July 1849.
+
+Charles Albert was not a man of first-rate ability; he was of a
+hopelessly vacillating character. Devout and mystical to an almost
+morbid degree, hating revolution and distrusting Liberalism, he was a
+confirmed pessimist, yet he had many noble qualities: he was brave to
+the verge of foolhardiness, devoted to his country, and ready to risk
+his crown to free Italy from the foreigner. To him the people of Italy
+owe a great debt, for if he failed in his object he at least
+materialized the idea of the Risorgimento in a practical shape, and the
+charges which the Republicans and demagogues brought against him were
+monstrously unjust.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Besides the general works on modern Italy, see the
+  Marquis Costa de Beauregard's interesting volumes _La Jeunesse du roi
+  Charles Albert_ (Paris, 1899) and _Novare et Oporto_ (1890), based on
+  the king's letters and the journal of Sylvain Costa, his faithful
+  equerry, though the author's views are those of an old-fashioned
+  Savoyard who dislikes the idea of Italian unity; Ernesto Masi's _Il
+  Segreto del Re Carlo Alberto_ (Bologna, 1891) is a very illuminating
+  essay; Domenico Perrero, _Gli Ultimi Reali di Savoia_ (Turin, 1889);
+  L. Cappelletti, _Storia di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1891); Nicomede
+  Bianchi, _Storia della diplomazia europea in Italia_ (8 vols., Turin,
+  1865, &c.), a most important work of a general character, and the same
+  author's _Scritti e lettere di Carlo Alberto_ (Rome, 1879) and his
+  _Storia della monarchia piemontese_ (Turin, 1877); Count S. della
+  Margherita, _Memorandum storico-politico_ (Turin, 1851).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES AUGUSTUS [KARL AUGUST] (1757-1828), grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar,
+son of Constantine, duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, and Anna Amalia of
+Brunswick, was born on the 3rd of September 1757. His father died when
+he was only nine months old, and the boy was brought up under the
+regency and supervision of his mother, a woman of enlightened but
+masterful temperament. His governor was Count Eustach von Gorz, a German
+nobleman of the old strait-laced school; but a more humane element was
+introduced into his training when, in 1771, Wieland was appointed his
+tutor. In 1774 the poet Karl Ludwig von Knebel came to Weimar as tutor
+to the young Prince Constantine; and in the same year the two princes
+set out, with Count Gorz and Knebel, for Paris. At Frankfort, Knebel
+introduced Karl August to the young Goethe: the beginning of a momentous
+friendship. In 1775 Karl August returned to Weimar, and the same year
+came of age and married Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt.
+
+One of the first acts of the young grand-duke was to summon Goethe to
+Weimar, and in 1776 he was made a member of the privy council. "People
+of discernment," he said, "congratulate me on possessing this man. His
+intellect, his genius is known. It makes no difference if the world is
+offended because I have made Dr Goethe a member of my most important
+_collegium_ without his having passed through the stages of minor
+official professor and councillor of state." To the undiscerning, the
+beneficial effect of this appointment was not at once apparent. With
+Goethe the "storm and stress" spirit descended upon Weimar, and the
+stiff traditions of the little court dissolved in a riot of youthful
+exuberance. The duke was a deep drinker, but also a good sportsman; and
+the revels of the court were alternated with break-neck rides across
+country, ending in nights spent round the camp fire under the stars.
+Karl August, however, had more serious tastes. He was interested in
+literature, in art, in science; critics, unsuspected of flattery,
+praised his judgment in painting; biologists found in him an expert in
+anatomy. Nor did he neglect the government of his little state. His
+reforms were the outcome of something more than the spirit of the
+"enlightened despots" of the 18th century; for from the first he had
+realized that the powers of the prince to play "earthly providence" were
+strictly limited. His aim, then, was to educate his people to work out
+their own political and social salvation, the object of education being
+in his view, as he explained later to the dismay of Metternich and his
+school, to help men to "independence of judgment." To this end Herder
+was summoned to Weimar to reform the educational system; and it is
+little wonder that, under a patron so enlightened, the university of
+Jena attained the zenith of its fame, and Weimar became the intellectual
+centre of Germany.
+
+Meanwhile, in the affairs of Germany and of Europe the character of Karl
+August gave him an influence out of all proportion to his position as a
+sovereign prince. He had early faced the problem presented by the decay
+of the Empire, and began to work for the unity of Germany. The plans of
+the emperor Joseph II., which threatened to absorb a great part of
+Germany into the heterogeneous Habsburg monarchy, threw him into the
+arms of Prussia, and he was the prime mover in the establishment of the
+league of princes (_Furstenbund_) in 1785, by which, under the
+leadership of Frederick the Great, Joseph's intrigues were frustrated.
+He was, however, under no illusion as to the power of Austria, and he
+wisely refused the offer of the Hungarian crown, made to him in 1787 by
+Prussia at the instance of the Magyar malcontents, with the dry remark
+that he had no desire to be another "Winter King." In 1788 Karl August
+took service in the Prussian army as major-general in active command of
+a regiment. As such he was present, with Goethe, at the cannonade of
+Valmy in 1792, and in 1794 at the siege of Mainz and the battles of
+Pirmasenz (September 14) and Kaiserslautern (October 28-30). After this,
+dissatisfied with the attitude of the powers, he resigned; but rejoined
+on the accession of his friend King Frederick William III. to the
+Prussian throne. The disastrous campaign of Jena (1806) followed; on the
+14th of October, the day after the battle, Weimar was sacked; and Karl
+August, to prevent the confiscation of his territories, was forced to
+join the Confederation of the Rhine. From this time till after the
+Moscow campaign of 1812 his contingent fought under the French flag in
+all Napoleon's wars. In 1813, however, he joined the Grand Alliance, and
+at the beginning of 1814 took the command of a corps of 30,000 men
+operating in the Netherlands.
+
+At the congress of Vienna Karl August was present in person, and
+protested vainly against the narrow policy of the powers in confining
+their debates to the "rights of the princes" to the exclusion of the
+"rights of the people." His services in the war of liberation were
+rewarded with an extension of territory and the title of grand-duke; but
+his liberal attitude had already made him suspect, and his subsequent
+action brought him still further into antagonism to the reactionary
+powers. He was the first of the German princes to grant a liberal
+constitution to his state under Article XIII. of the Act of
+Confederation (May 5, 1816); and his concession of full liberty to the
+press made Weimar for a while the focus of journalistic agitation
+against the existing order. Metternich dubbed him contemptuously "der
+grosse Bursche" for his patronage of the "revolutionary"
+_Burschenschaften_; and the celebrated "festival" held at the Wartburg
+by his permission in 1818, though in effect the mildest of political
+demonstrations, brought down upon him the wrath of the great powers.
+Karl August, against his better judgment, was compelled to yield to the
+remonstrances of Prussia, Austria and Russia; the liberty of the press
+was again restricted in the grand-duchy, but, thanks to the good
+understanding between the grand-duke and his people, the regime of the
+Carlsbad Decrees pressed less heavily upon Weimar than upon other German
+states.
+
+Karl August died on the 14th of June 1828. Upon his contemporaries of
+the most various types his personality made a great impression. Karl von
+Dalberg, the prince-primate, who owed the coadjutorship of Mainz to the
+duke's friendship, said that he had never met a prince "with so much
+understanding, character, frankness and true-heartedness"; the Milanese,
+when he visited their city, called him the "uomo principe"; and Goethe
+himself said of him "he had the gift of discriminating intellects and
+characters and setting each one in his place. He was inspired by the
+noblest good-will, the purest humanity, and with his whole soul desired
+only what was best. There was in him something of the divine. He would
+gladly have wrought the happiness of all mankind. And finally, he was
+greater than his surroundings,... Everywhere he himself saw and judged,
+and in all circumstances his surest foundation was in himself." He left
+two sons: Charles Frederick (d. 1853), by whom he was succeeded, and
+Bernhard, duke of Saxe-Weimar (1792-1862), a distinguished soldier, who,
+after the congress of Vienna, became colonel of a regiment in the
+service of the king of the Netherlands, distinguished himself as
+commander of the Dutch troops in the Belgian campaign of 1830, and from
+1847 to 1850 held the command of the forces in the Dutch East Indies.
+Bernhard's son, William Augustus Edward, known as Prince Edward of
+Saxe-Weimar (1823-1902), entered the British army, served with much
+distinction in the Crimean War, and became colonel of the 1st Life
+Guards and a field marshal; in 1851 he contracted a morganatic marriage
+with Lady Augusta Gordon-Lennox (d. 1904), daughter of the 5th duke of
+Richmond and Gordon, who in Germany received the title of countess of
+Dornburg, but was granted the rank of princess in Great Britain by royal
+decree in 1866. Karl August's only daughter, Caroline, married Frederick
+Louis, hereditary grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and was the mother
+of Helene (1814-1858), wife of Ferdinand, duke of Orleans, eldest son of
+King Louis Philippe.
+
+  Karl August's correspondence with Goethe was published in 2 vols. at
+  Weimar in 1863. See the biography by von Wegele in the _Allgem.
+  deutsche Biographie._
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES EDWARD [CHARLES EDWARD LOUIS PHILIP CASIMIR STUART] (1720-1788),
+English prince, called the "Young Pretender" and also the "Young
+Chevalier," was born at Rome on December 31st, 1720. He was the grandson
+of King James II. of England and elder son of James, the "Old
+Pretender," by whom (as James III.) he was created at his birth prince
+of Wales, the title he bore among the English Jacobites during his
+father's lifetime. The young prince was educated at his father's
+miniature court in Rome, with James Murray, Jacobite earl of Dunbar, for
+his governor, and under various tutors, amongst whom were the learned
+Chevalier Ramsay, Sir Thomas Sheridan and the abbe Legoux. He quickly
+became conversant with the English, French and Italian languages, but
+all his extant letters written in English appear singularly ill-spelt
+and illiterate. In 1734 his cousin, the duke of Liria, afterwards duke
+of Berwick, who was proceeding to join Don Carlos in his struggle for
+the crown of Naples, passed through Rome. He offered to take Charles on
+his expedition, and the boy of thirteen, having been appointed general
+of artillery by Don Carlos, shared with credit the dangers of the
+successful siege of Gaeta.
+
+The handsome and accomplished youth, whose doings were eagerly reported
+by the English ambassador at Florence and by the spy, John Walton, at
+Rome, was now introduced by his father and the pope to the highest
+Italian society, which he fascinated by the frankness of his manner and
+the grace and dignity of his bearing. In 1737 James despatched his son
+on a tour through the chief Italian cities, that his education as a
+prince and man of the world might be completed. The distinction with
+which he was received on his journey, the royal honours paid to him in
+Venice, and the jealous interference of the English ambassador in regard
+to his reception by the grand-duke of Tuscany, show how great was the
+respect in which the exiled house was held at this period by foreign
+Catholic powers, as well as the watchful policy of England in regard to
+its fortunes. The Old Pretender himself calculated upon foreign aid in
+his attempts to restore the monarchy of the Stuarts; and the idea of
+rebellion unassisted by invasion or by support of any kind from abroad
+was one which it was left for Charles Edward to endeavour to realize. Of
+all the European nations France was the one on which Jacobite hopes
+mainly rested, and the warm sympathy which Cardinal Tencin, who had
+succeeded Fleury as French minister, felt for the Old Pretender resulted
+in a definite scheme for an invasion of England to be timed
+simultaneously with a prearranged Scottish rebellion. Charles was
+secretly despatched to Paris in January 1744. A squadron under Admiral
+Roquefeuil sailed from the coast of France. Transports containing 7000
+troops, to be led by Marshal Saxe, accompanied by the young prince, were
+in readiness to set sail for England. A severe storm effected, however,
+a complete disaster without any actual engagement taking place.
+
+The loss in ships of the line, in transports, and in lives was a
+crushing blow to the hopes of Charles, who remained in France for over a
+year in a retirement which he keenly felt. He had at Rome already made
+the acquaintance of Lord Elcho and of John Murray of Broughton; at Paris
+he had seen many supporters of the Stuart cause; he was aware that in
+every European court the Jacobites were represented in earnest intrigue;
+and he had now taken a considerable share in correspondence and other
+actual work connected with the promotion of his own and his father's
+interests. Although dissuaded by all his friends, on the 13th of July
+1745 he sailed from Nantes for Scotland on board the small brig "La
+Doutelle," which was accompanied by a French man-of-war, the
+"Elisabeth," laden with arms and ammunition. The latter fell in with an
+English man-of-war, the "Lion," and had to return to France; Charles
+escaped during the engagement, and at length arrived on the 2nd of
+August off Erisca, a little island of the Hebrides. Receiving, however,
+but a cool reception from Macdonald of Boisdale, he set sail again and
+arrived at the bay of Lochnanuagh on the west coast of Inverness-shire.
+
+The Macdonalds of Clanranald and Kinloch Moidart, along with other
+chieftains, again attempted to dissuade him from the rashness of an
+unaided rising, but they yielded at last to the enthusiasm and charm of
+his manner, and Charles landed on Scottish soil in the company of the
+"Seven Men of Moidart" who had come with him from France. Everywhere,
+however, he met with discouragement among the chiefs, whose adherence he
+wished to secure; but at last, by enlisting the support of Cameron of
+Lochiel, he gained a footing for a serious rebellion. With secrecy and
+speed communications were entered into with the known leaders of the
+Highland clans, and on the 19th of August, in the valley of Glenfinnan,
+the standard of James III. and VIII. was raised in the midst of a motley
+but increasing crowd. On the same day Sir John Cope at the head of 1500
+men left Edinburgh in search of Charles; but, fearing an attack in the
+Pass of Corryarrick, he changed his proposed route to Inverness, and
+Charles thus had the undefended south country before him. In the
+beginning of September he entered Perth, having gained numerous
+accessions to his forces on his march. Crossing the Forth unopposed at
+the Fords of Frew and passing through Stirling and Linlithgow, he
+arrived within a few miles of the astonished metropolis, and on the 16th
+of September a body of his skirmishers defeated the dragoons of Colonel
+Gardiner in what was known as the "Canter of Coltbrig." His success was
+still further augmented by his being enabled to enter the city, a few of
+Cameron's Highlanders having on the following morning, by a happy ruse,
+forced their way through the Canon-gate. On the 18th he publicly
+proclaimed James VIII. of Scotland at the Market Cross and occupied
+Holyrood.
+
+Cope had by this time brought his disappointed forces by sea to Dunbar.
+On the 20th Charles met and defeated him at Prestonpans, and returned to
+prosecute the siege of Edinburgh Castle, which, however, he raised on
+General Guest's threatening to lay the city in ruins. In the beginning
+of November Charles left Edinburgh, never to return. He was at the head
+of at least 6000 men; but the ranks were being gradually thinned by the
+desertion of Highlanders, whose traditions had led them to consider war
+merely as a raid and an immediate return with plunder. Having passed
+through Kelso, on the 9th of November he laid siege to Carlisle, which
+capitulated in a week. Manchester received the prince with a warm
+welcome and with 150 recruits under Francis Towneley. On the 4th of
+December he had reached Derby and was within ten days' march of London,
+where the inhabitants were terror-struck and a commercial panic
+immediately ensued. Two armies under English leadership were now in the
+field against him, one under Marshal Wade, whom he had evaded by
+entering England by the west, and the other under William, duke of
+Cumberland, who had returned from the continent. London was not to be
+supposed helpless in such an emergency; Manchester, Glasgow and
+Dumfries, rid of his presence, had risen against him, and Charles
+paused. There was division among his advisers and desertion among his
+men, and on the 6th of December he reluctantly was forced to begin his
+retreat northward. Closely pursued by Cumberland, he marched by way of
+Carlisle across the border, and at last stopped to invest Stirling
+Castle. At Falkirk, on the 17th of January 1746, he defeated General
+Hawley, who had marched from Edinburgh to intercept his retreat. A
+fortnight later, however, Charles raised the siege of Stirling, and
+after a weary though successful march rested his troops at Inverness.
+Having taken Forts George and Augustus, and after varying success
+against the supporters of the government in the north, he at last
+prepared to face the duke of Cumberland, who had passed the early spring
+at Aberdeen. On the 8th of April the duke marched thence to meet
+Charles, whose little army, exhausted with a futile night march,
+half-starving, and broken by desertion, was completely worsted at
+Culloden on the 16th of April 1746.
+
+This decisive and cruel defeat sealed the fate of Charles Edward and the
+house of Stuart. Accompanied by the faithful Ned Burke and a few other
+followers, Charles at last gained the wild western coast. Hunted hither
+and thither, he wandered on foot or cruised restlessly in open boats
+among the many barren isles of the Scottish shore, enduring the greatest
+hardships with marvellous courage and cheerfulness. Charles, upon whose
+head a reward L30,000 had a year before been set, was thus for over five
+months relentlessly pursued by the troops and spies of the government.
+Disguised in female attire and aided by a passport obtained by the
+devoted Flora Macdonald, he passed through Skye and parted from his
+gallant conductress at Portree. Towards the end of July he took refuge
+in the cave of Coiraghoth in the Braes of Glenmoriston, and in August he
+joined Lochiel and Cluny Macpherson, with whom he remained in hiding
+until the news was brought that two French ships were in waiting for him
+at the place of his first arrival in Scotland--Lochnanuagh. He embarked
+with speed and sailed for France, reaching the little port of Roscoff,
+near Morlaix, on the 29th of September 1746. He was warmly welcomed by
+Louis XV., and ere long he was again vigorously intriguing in Paris, and
+even in Madrid. So far as political assistance was concerned, his
+efforts proved fruitless, but he became at once the popular hero and
+idol of the people of Paris. So enraged was he with his brother Henry's
+acceptance of a cardinal's hat in July 1747, that he deliberately broke
+off communication with his father in Rome (who had approved the step),
+nor did he ever see him again. The enmity of the British government to
+Charles Edward made peace with France an impossibility so long as she
+continued to harbour the young prince. A condition of the treaty of
+Aix-la-Chapelle, concluded in October 1748, was that every member of the
+house of Stuart should be expelled the French dominions. Charles had
+forestalled the proclamation of the treaty by an indignant protest
+against its injustice, and a declaration that he would not be bound by
+its provisions. But his indignation and persistent refusal to comply
+with the request that he should voluntarily leave France had to be met
+at last with force: he was apprehended, imprisoned for a week at
+Vincennes, and on the 17th of December conducted to the French border.
+He lingered at Avignon; but the French, compelled to hard measures by
+the English, refused to be satisfied; and Pope Benedict XIV., alarmed by
+the threat of a bombardment of Civita Vecchia, advised the prince to
+withdraw. Charles quietly disappeared; for years Europe watched for him
+in vain. It is now established, almost with certainty, that he returned
+to the neighbourhood of Paris; and it is supposed that his residence was
+known to the French ministers, who, however, firmly proclaimed their
+ignorance. In 1750, and again, it is thought, in 1754, he was in London,
+hatching futile plots and risking his safety for his hopeless cause, and
+even abjuring the Roman Catholic faith in order to further his political
+interests.
+
+During the next ten years of his life Charles Edward's illicit connexion
+with Miss Clementina Walkinshaw (d. 1802), whom he had first met at
+Bannockburn House while conducting the siege of Stirling, his imperious
+fretful temper, his drunken habits and debauched life, could no longer
+be concealed. He wandered over Europe in disguise, alienating the
+friends and crushing the hopes of his party; and in 1766, on returning
+to Rome at the death of his father, he was treated by Pope Clement XIII.
+with coldness, and his title as heir to the British throne was openly
+repudiated by all the great Catholic powers. It was probably through the
+influence of the French court, still intriguing against England, that
+the marriage between Charles (now self-styled count of Albany) and
+Princess Louise of Stolberg was arranged in 1772. The union proved
+childless and unhappy, and in 1780 the countess fled for refuge from her
+husband's drunken violence to a convent in Florence, where Charles had
+been residing since 1774. Later, the countess of Albany (q.v.) threw
+herself on the protection of her brother-in-law Henry, Cardinal York, at
+Rome, and the formal separation between the ill-matched pair was finally
+brought about in 1784, chiefly through the kind offices of King Gustavus
+III. of Sweden. Charles, lonely, ill, and evidently near death, now
+summoned to Florence his natural daughter, Charlotte Stuart, the child
+of Clementina Walkinshaw, born at Liege in October 1753 and hitherto
+neglected by the prince. Charlotte Stuart, who was declared legitimate
+and created duchess of Albany, tended her father for the remaining years
+of his life, during which she contrived to reconcile the two Stuart
+brothers, so that in 1785 Charles returned to Rome, where he died in the
+old Palazzo Muti on the 30th of January 1788. He was buried in his
+brother's cathedral church at Frascati, but in 1807 his remains were
+removed to the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's. His daughter Charlotte
+survived her father less than two years, dying unmarried at Bologna in
+November 1789, at the early age of thirty-six.
+
+  See A.C. Ewald, _Life and Times of Charles Stuart, the Young
+  Pretender_ (2 vols., 1875); C.S. Terry, _Life of the Young Pretender_,
+  and _The Rising of 1745; with Bibliography of Jacobite History
+  1689--1788_ (Scott. Hist. fr. Contemp. Writers, iii.) (1900); Earl
+  Stanhope, _History of England_ (1836) and _Decline of the Last
+  Stuarts_ (1854); Bishop R. Forbes, _The Lyon in Mourning_ (1895-1896);
+  Andrew Lang, _Pickle, the Spy_ (1897), and _Prince Charles Edward_
+  (1900); R. Chambers, _History of the Rebellion in Scotland_, &c. &c.
+       (H. M. V.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES EMMANUEL I. [CARLO EMANUELE] (1562-1630), duke of Savoy,
+succeeded his father, Emmanuel Philibert, in 1580. He continued the
+latter's policy of profiting by the rivalry of France and Spain in order
+to round off and extend his dominions. His three chief objects were the
+conquest of Geneva, of Saluzzo and of Monferrato. Saluzzo he succeeded
+in wresting from France in 1588. He intervened in the French religious
+wars, and also fought with Bern and other Swiss cantons, and on the
+murder of Henry III. of France in 1580 he aspired to the French throne
+on the strength of the claims of his wife Catherine, sister of Henry of
+Navarre, afterwards King Henry IV. In 1590 he sent an expedition to
+Provence in the interests of the Catholic League, and followed it
+himself later, but the peace of 1593, by which Henry of Navarre was
+recognized as king of France, put an end to his ambitions. In the war
+between France and Spain Charles sided with the latter, with varying
+success. Finally, by the peace of Lyons (1601), he gave up all
+territories beyond the Rhone, but his possession of Saluzzo was
+confirmed. He now meditated a further enterprise against Geneva; but his
+attempt to capture the city by treachery and with the help of Spain (the
+famous _escalade_) in 1602 failed completely. The next few years were
+filled with negotiations and intrigues with Spain and France which did
+not lead to any particular result, but on the death in 1612 of Duke
+Francesco Gonzaga of Mantua, who was lord of Monferrato, Charles
+Emmanuel made a successful _coup de main_ on that district. This
+arrayed the Venetians, Tuscany, the Empire and Spain against him, and
+he was obliged to relinquish his conquest. The Spaniards invaded the
+duchy from Lombardy, and although the duke was defeated several times he
+fought bravely, gained some successes, and the terms of the peace of
+1618 left him more or less in the _status quo ante_. We next find
+Charles Emmanuel aspiring to the imperial crown in 1619, but without
+success. In 1628 he was in alliance with Spain in the war against
+France; the French invaded the duchy, which, being abandoned by Spain,
+was overrun by their armies. The duke fought desperately, but was taken
+ill at Savigliano and died in 1630. He was succeeded by his son Victor
+Amedeo I., while his third son Tommaso founded the line of
+Savoy-Carignano from which the present royal house of Italy is
+descended. Charles Emmanuel achieved a great reputation as a statesman
+and warrior, and increased the prestige of Savoy, but he was too shifty
+and ingenious, and his schemes ended in disaster.
+
+  See E. Ricotti, _Storia della monarchia piemontese_, vols. iii. and
+  iv. (Florence, 1865); T. Raulich, _Storia di Carlo Emanuele I._
+  (Milan, 1896-1902); G. Curti, _Carlo Emanuele I. secondo; piu recenti
+  studii_ (Milan, 1894).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES MARTEL[1] (c. 688-741), Frankish ruler, was a natural son of
+Pippin II., mayor of the palace, and Chalpaida. Charles was baptized by
+St Rigobert, bishop of Reims. At the death of his father in 714,
+Pippin's widow Plectrude claimed the government in Austrasia and
+Neustria in the name of her grandchildren, and had Charles thrown into
+prison. But the Neustrians threw off the Austrasian yoke and entered
+into an offensive alliance with the Frisians and Saxons. In the general
+anarchy Charles succeeded in escaping, defeated the Neustrians at
+Ambleve, south of Liege, in 716, and at Vincy, near Cambrai, in 717, and
+forced them to come to terms. In Austrasia he wrested the power from
+Plectrude, and took the title of mayor of the palace, thus prejudicing
+the interests of his nephews. According to the Frankish custom he
+proclaimed a king in Austrasia in the person of the young Clotaire IV.,
+but in reality Charles was the sole master--the entry in the annals for
+the year 717 being "Carolus regnare coepit." Once in possession of
+Austrasia, Charles sought to extend his dominion over Neustria also. In
+719 he defeated Ragenfrid, the Neustrian mayor of the palace, at
+Soissons, and forced him to retreat to Angers. Ragenfrid died in 731,
+and from that time Charles had no competitor in the western kingdom. He
+obliged the inhabitants of Burgundy to submit, and disposed of the
+Burgundian bishoprics and countships to his _leudes_. In Aquitaine Duke
+Odo (Eudes) exercised independent authority, but in 719 Charles forced
+him to recognize the suzerainty of northern France, at least nominally.
+After the alliance between Charles and Odo on the field of Poitiers, the
+mayor of the palace left Aquitaine to Odo's son Hunald, who paid homage
+to him. Besides establishing a certain unity in Gaul, Charles saved it
+from a very great peril. In 711 the Arabs had conquered Spain. In 720
+they crossed the Pyrenees, seized Narbonensis, a dependency of the
+kingdom of the Visigoths, and advanced on Gaul. By his able policy Odo
+succeeded in arresting their progress for some years; but a new vali,
+Abdur Rahman, a member of an extremely fanatical sect, resumed the
+attack, reached Poitiers, and advanced on Tours, the holy town of Gaul.
+In October 732--just 100 years after the death of Mahomet--Charles
+gained a brilliant victory over Abdur Rahman, who was called back to
+Africa by the revolts of the Berbers and had to give up the struggle.
+This was the last of the great Arab invasions of Europe. After his
+victory Charles took the offensive, and endeavoured to wrest Narbonensis
+from the Mussulmans. Although he was not successful in his attempt to
+recover Narbonne (737), he destroyed the fortresses of Agde, Beziers and
+Maguelonne, and set fire to the amphitheatre at Nimes. He subdued also
+the Germanic tribes; annexed Frisia, where Christianity was beginning to
+make progress; put an end to the duchy of Alemannia; intervened in the
+internal affairs of the dukes of Bavaria; made expeditions into Saxony;
+and in 738 compelled some of the Saxon tribes to pay him tribute. He
+also gave St Boniface a safe conduct for his missions in Thuringia,
+Alemannia and Bavaria.
+
+During the government of Charles Martel important changes appear to have
+been made in the internal administration. Under him began the great
+assemblies of nobles known as the _champs de Mars_. To attach his
+_leudes_ Charles had to give them church lands as _precarium_, and this
+had a very great influence in the development of the feudal system. It
+was from the _precarium_, or ecclesiastical benefice, that the feudal
+fief originated. Vassalage, too, acquired a greater consistency at this
+period, and its rules began to crystallize. Under Charles occurred the
+first attempt at reconciliation between the papacy and the Franks. Pope
+Gregory III., menaced by the Lombards, invoked the aid of Charles (739),
+sent him a deputation with the keys of the Holy Sepulchre and the chains
+of St Peter, and offered to break with the emperor and Constantinople,
+and to give Charles the Roman consulate (_ut a partibus imperatoris
+recederet et Romanum consulatum Carolo sanciret_). This proposal, though
+unsuccessful, was the starting-point of a new papal policy. Since the
+death of Theuderich IV. in 737 there had been no king of the Franks. In
+741 Charles divided the kingdom between his two sons, as though he were
+himself master of the realm. To the elder, Carloman, he gave Austrasia,
+Alemannia and Thuringia, with suzerainty over Bavaria; the younger,
+Pippin, received Neustria, Burgundy and Provence. Shortly after this
+division of the kingdom Charles died at Quierzy on the 22nd of October
+741, and was buried at St Denis. The characters of Charles Martel and
+his grandson Charlemagne offer many striking points of resemblance. Both
+were men of courage and activity, and the two men are often confused in
+the _chansons de geste_.
+
+  See T. Breysig, _Jahrbucher d. frank. Reichs, 714--741; die Zeit Karl
+  Martells_ (Leipzig, 1869); A.A. Beugnot, "Sur la spoliation des biens
+  du clerge attribuee a Charles Martel," in the _Mem. de l'Acad. des
+  Inscr. et Belles-Lettres_, vol. xix. (Paris, 1853); Ulysse Chevalier,
+  _Bio-bibliographie_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).     (C. Pf.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Or "The Hammer."
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, a city and the county-seat of Coles county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, about 45 m. W. of Terre Haute,
+Indiana. Pop. (1900) 5488; (1910) 5884. It is served by the Cleveland,
+Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western
+railways, and by interurban electric lines. It is the seat of the
+Eastern Illinois state normal school (opened in 1899). The city is
+situated in an important broom-corn raising district, and has broom
+factories, a tile factory and planing mills. The water-works are owned
+and operated by the municipality. Charleston was settled about 1835, was
+incorporated in 1839, and was reincorporated in 1865. One of the
+Lincoln-Douglas debates was held here in 1858.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, the largest city of South Carolina, U.S.A., the county-seat
+of Charleston county, a port of entry, and an important South Atlantic
+seaport, on a narrow peninsula formed by the Cooper river on the E. and
+the Ashley on the W. and S.W., and within sight of the ocean about 7 m.
+distant. Pop. (1890) 54,955; (1900) 55,807, of whom 31,522 were of negro
+descent and 2592 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 58,833. It is served
+by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern railways, the Clyde
+Steamship Line to New York, Boston and Jacksonville, the Baltimore &
+Carolina Steamship Co. to Baltimore and Georgetown, and a branch of the
+North German Lloyd Steamship Co., which brings immigrants from Europe
+direct to the Southern states; there are freight boat lines to ports in
+the West Indies, Central America and other foreign countries.
+
+The city extends over 3.76 sq. m. of surface, nowhere rising more than 8
+or 10 ft. above the rivers, and has about 9 m. of water front. In the
+middle of the harbour, on a small island near its entrance, is the
+famous Fort Sumter; a little to the north-east, on Sullivan's Island, is
+the scarcely less historic Fort Moultrie, as well as extensive modern
+fortifications; on James Island, opposite, is Fort Johnson, now the
+United States Quarantine Station, and farther up, on the other islands,
+are Fort Ripley and Castle Pinckney (now the United States buoy
+station). Viewed from any of these forts, Charleston's spires and public
+buildings seem to rise out of the sea. The streets are shaded with the
+live oak and the linden, and are ornamented with the palmetto; and the
+quaint specimens of colonial architecture, numerous pillared porticoes,
+spacious verandas--both upper and lower--and flower gardens made
+beautiful with magnolias, palmettoes, azaleas, jessamines, camelias and
+roses, give the city a peculiarly picturesque character.
+
+King Street, running north and south through the middle of the
+peninsula, and Market Street, crossing it about 1 m. from its lower end,
+are lined with stores, shops or stalls; on Broad Street are many of the
+office buildings and banks; the wholesale houses are for the most part
+on Meeting Street, the first thoroughfare east of King; nearly all of
+the wharves are on the east side; the finest residences are at the lower
+end of the peninsula on East Battery and South Battery, on Meeting
+Street below Broad, on Legare Street, on Broad Street and on Rutledge
+Avenue to the west of King. At the south-east corner of Broad and
+Meeting streets is Saint Michael's (built in 1752-1761), the oldest
+church edifice in the city, and a fine specimen of colonial
+ecclesiastical architecture; in its tower is an excellent chime of eight
+bells. Beneath the vestry room lie the remains of Charles Cotesworth
+Pinckney, and in the churchyard are the graves of John Rutledge, James
+Louis Petigru (1789-1863), and Robert Young Hayne. At the intersection
+of the same streets are also the massive United States post office
+building (Italian Renaissance in style), with walls of granite; the
+county court house, the city hall and Washington Square--in which stand
+a statue of William Pitt (one arm of which was broken off by a cannon
+shot during the British bombardment in 1780), and a monument to the
+memory of Henry Timrod (1829-1867), the poet. At the foot of Broad
+Street is the Colonial Exchange in which the South Carolina convention
+organized a new government during the War of Independence; and at the
+foot of Market Street is the large modern custom house of white marble,
+built in the Roman-Corinthian style. Saint Philip's church, with
+admirable architectural proportions, has a steeple nearly 200 ft. in
+height, from which a beacon light shines for the guidance of mariners
+far out at sea. In the west cemetery of this church are the tombs of
+John C. Calhoun, and of Robert James Turnbull (1775-1833), who was
+prominent locally as a nullifier and under the name of "Brutus" wrote
+ably on behalf of nullification, free trade and state's rights. The
+French Protestant Church, though small, is an attractive specimen of
+Gothic architecture; and the Unitarian, which is in the Perpendicular
+style and is modelled after the chapel of Edward VI. in Westminster, has
+a beautiful fan-tracery ceiling.
+
+Of the few small city squares, gardens or parks, the White Point Garden
+at the lower end of the peninsula is most frequented; it is shaded with
+beautiful live oaks, is adorned with palmettoes and commands a fine view
+of the harbour. About 1-1/2 m. north of this on Meeting Street is Marion
+Square, with a tall graceful monument to the memory of John C. Calhoun
+on the south side, and the South Carolina Military Academy along the
+north border. The largest park in Charleston is Hampton Park, named in
+honour of General Wade Hampton. It is situated in the north-west part of
+the city and is beautifully laid out. The Isle of Palms, to the north of
+Sullivan's Island, has a large pavilion and a wide sandy beach with a
+fine surf for bathing, and is the most popular resort for visitors. The
+Magnolia Gardens are about 8 m. up the Ashley. Twenty-two miles beyond
+is the town of Summerville (pop. in 1900, 2420), a health resort in the
+pine lands, with one of the largest tea farms in the country. Magnolia
+Cemetery, the principal burial-place, is a short distance north of the
+city limits; in it are the graves of William Washington (1732-1810) and
+Hugh Swinton Legare. Charleston was the home of the Pinckneys, the
+Rutledges, the Gadsdens, the Laurenses, and, in a later generation, of
+W.G. Simms. A trace of the early social organization of the brilliant
+colonial town remains in the St Cecilia Society, first formed in 1737 as
+an amateur concert society.
+
+Charleston has an excellent system of public schools. Foremost among the
+educational institutions is the college of Charleston, chartered in 1785
+and again in 1791, and opened in 1790; it is supported by the city and
+by funds of its own, ranks high within the state, and has a large and
+well-equipped museum of natural history, probably founded as early as
+1777 and transferred to the college in 1850. Here, too, are the Medical
+College of the state of South Carolina, which includes a department of
+pharmacy; the South Carolina Military Academy (opened in 1843), which is
+a branch of the University of South Carolina; the Porter Military
+Academy (Protestant Episcopal), the Confederate home school for young
+women, the Charleston University School, and the Avery Normal Institute
+(Congregationalist) for coloured students. In the Charleston library
+(about 25,000 volumes), founded in 1748, are important collections of
+rare books and manuscripts; the rooms of the South Carolina Historical
+Society are in the same building. The Charleston _News and Courier_,
+published first as the _Courier_ in 1803 and combined with the _Daily
+News_ (1865) in 1873, is one of the most influential newspapers in the
+South. The charitable institutions of the city include the Roper
+hospital, the Charleston Orphan Asylum (founded in 1792), the William
+Euston home for the aged, and a home for the widows of Confederate
+soldiers.
+
+In 1878 the United States government began the construction of jetties
+to remove the bar at the entrance to Charleston harbour, which was
+otherwise deep and spacious and well protected, and by means of these
+jetties the bar has been so far removed as to admit vessels drawing
+about 30 ft. of water. The result has been not only the promotion of the
+city's commerce, but the removal of the United States naval station and
+navy yard from Port Royal to what was formerly Chicora Park on the left
+bank of the Cooper river, a short distance above the city limits. The
+city's commerce consists largely in the export of cotton,[1] rice,
+fertilizers, fruits, lumber and naval stores; the value of its exports,
+$10,794,000 in 1897, decreased to $2,196,596 in 1907 ($3,164,089 in
+1908), while that of the import trade ($1,255,483 in 1897) increased to
+$3,840,585 in 1907 ($3,323,844 in 1908). The principal industries are
+the preparation of fertilizers--largely from the extensive beds of
+phosphate rock along the banks of the Ashley river and from cotton-seed
+meal--cotton compressing, rice cleaning, canning oysters, fruits and
+vegetables, and the manufacture of cotton bagging, of lumber, of
+cooperage goods, clothing and carriages and wagons. Between 1880 and
+1890 the industrial development of the city was very rapid, the
+manufactures in 1890 showing an increase of 229.6% over those of 1880;
+the increase between 1890 and 1900 was only 6.2%. In 1900 the total
+value of the city's manufactures, 16.3% (in value) of the product of the
+entire state, was $9,562,387, the value of the fertilizer product alone,
+much the most important, being $3,697,090.[2]
+
+_History._--The first English settlement in South Carolina, established
+at Albemarle Point on the west bank of the Ashley river in 1670, was
+named Charles Town in honour of Charles II. The location proving
+undesirable, a new Charles Town on the site of the present city was
+begun about 1672, and the seat of government was removed to it in 1680.
+The name Charles Town became Charlestown about 1719 and Charleston in
+1783. Among the early settlers were English Churchmen, New England
+Congregationalists, Scotch and Irish Presbyterians, Dutch and German
+Lutherans, Huguenots (especially in 1680-1688) from France and
+Switzerland, and a few Quakers; later the French element of the
+population was augmented by settlers from Acadia (1755) and from San
+Domingo (1793). Although it soon became the largest and the wealthiest
+settlement south of Philadelphia, Charleston did not receive a charter
+until 1783, and did not have even a township government. Local
+ordinances were passed by the provincial legislature and enforced partly
+by provincial officials and partly by the church wardens. It was,
+however, the political and social centre of the province, being not only
+the headquarters of the governor, council and colonial officials, but
+also the only place at which courts of justice were held until the
+complaints of the Up Country people led to the establishment of circuit
+courts in 1772. After the American War of Independence it continued to
+be the capital of South Carolina until 1790. The charter of 1783, though
+frequently amended and altered, is still in force. By an act of the
+state legislature passed in 1837 the terms "mayor" and "alderman"
+superseded the older terms "intendant" and "wardens." The city was the
+heart of the nullification movement of 1832-1833; and in St Andrew's
+Hall, in Broad Street, on the 20th of December 1860, a convention called
+by the state legislature passed an ordinance of secession from the
+Union.
+
+Charleston has several times been attacked by naval forces and has
+suffered from many storms. Hurricane and epidemic together devastated
+the town both in 1699 and in 1854; the older and more thickly settled
+part of the town was burnt in 1740, and a hurricane did great damage in
+1752. In 1706, during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined
+fleet of Spanish and French under Captain Le Feboure was repulsed by the
+forces of Governor Nathaniel Johnson (d. 1713) and Colonel William Rhett
+(1666-1721). During the War of Independence Charleston withstood the
+attack of Sir Peter Parker and Sir Henry Clinton in 1776, and that of
+General Augustus Prevost in 1779, but shortly afterwards became the
+objective of a more formidable attack by Sir Henry Clinton, the
+commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In the later years
+of the contest the British turned their attention to the reduction of
+the colonies in the south, and the prominent point and best base of
+operations in that section was the city of Charleston, which was
+occupied in the latter part of 1779 by an American force under General
+Benjamin Lincoln. In December of that year Sir Henry Clinton embarked
+from New York with 8000 British troops and proceeded to invest
+Charleston by land. He entrenched himself west of the city between the
+Cooper and Ashley rivers, which bound it north and south, and thus
+hemmed Lincoln in a _cul-de-sac_. The latter made the mistake of
+attempting to defend the city with an inferior force. Delays had
+occurred in the British operations and Clinton was not prepared to
+summon the Americans to surrender until the 10th of April 1780. Lincoln
+refused, and Clinton advanced his trenches to the third parallel,
+rendering his enemy's works untenable. On the 12th of May Lincoln
+capitulated. About 2000 American Continentals were made prisoners, and
+an equal number of militia and armed citizens. This success was regarded
+by the British as an offset against the loss of Burgoyne's army in 1777,
+and Charleston at once became the base of active operations in the
+Carolinas, which Clinton left Cornwallis to conduct. Thenceforward
+Charleston was under military rule until evacuated by the British on the
+14th of December 1782.
+
+The bombardment and capture of Fort Sumter (garrisoned by Federal
+troops) by the South Carolinians, on the 12th and 13th of April 1861,
+marked the actual beginning of the American Civil War. From 1862 onwards
+Charleston was more or less under siege by the Federal naval and
+military forces until 1865. The Confederates repulsed a naval attack
+made by the Federals under Admiral S.F. Du Pont in April 1863, and a
+land attack under General Q.A. Gillmore in June of the same year. They
+were compelled to evacuate the city on the 17th of February 1865, after
+having burned a considerable amount of cotton and other supplies to
+prevent them from falling into the hands of the enemy. After the Civil
+War the wealth and the population steadily increased, in spite of the
+destruction wrought by the earthquake of 31st August 1886 (see
+EARTHQUAKE). In that catastrophe 27 persons were killed, many more were
+injured and died subsequently, 90% of the buildings were injured, and
+property to the value of more than $5,000,000 was destroyed. The South
+Carolina Interstate and West Indian Exposition, held here from the 1st
+of December 1901 to the 1st of June 1902, called the attention of
+investors to the resources of the city and state, but was not successful
+financially, and Congress appropriated $160,000 to make good the
+deficit.
+
+  Much information concerning Charleston may be obtained in A.S.
+  Salley's _A Guide and Historical Sketch of Charleston_ (Charleston,
+  1903), and in Mrs St Julien Ravenel's _Charleston; The Place and the
+  People_ (New York, 1906). The best history of Charleston is William A.
+  Courtenay's _Charleston, S.C.: The Centennial of Incorporation_
+  (Charleston, 1884). There is also a good sketch by Yates Snowden in
+  L.P. Powell's _Historic Towns of the Southern States_ (New York,
+  1900). For the earthquake see the account by Carl McKinley in the
+  _Charleston Year-Book_ for 1886. See also SOUTH CAROLINA.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] At an early date cotton became an important article in
+    Charleston's commerce; some was shipped so early as 1747. At the
+    outbreak of the Civil War Charleston was one of the three most
+    important cotton-shipping ports in the United States, being exceeded
+    in importance only by New Orleans and New York.
+
+  [2] The special census of 1905 dealt only with the factory product,
+    that of 1905 ($6,007,094) showing an increase of 5.1% over that of
+    1900 ($5,713,315). In 1905 the (factory) fertilizer product of
+    Charleston was $1,291,859, which represented more than 35% of the
+    (factory) fertilizer product of the whole state.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTON, the capital of West Virginia, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
+Kanawha county, situated near the centre of the state, on the N. bank of
+the Kanawha river, at the mouth of the Elk river, about 200 m. E. of
+Cincinnati, Ohio, and about 130 m. S.W. of Wheeling. Pop. (1890) 6742;
+(1900) 11,099, of whom 1787 were negroes, and 353 were foreign-born;
+(1910 census) 22,996. It is served by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Toledo
+& Ohio Central, the Coal & Coke, and the Kanawha & West Virginia (39 m.
+to Blakeley) railways, and by several river transportation lines on the
+Kanawha river (navigable throughout the year by means of movable locks)
+connecting with Ohio and Mississippi river ports. The city is
+attractively built on high level land, above the river; in addition to a
+fine customs house, court house and high school, it contains the West
+Virginia state capitol, erected in 1880. The libraries include the state
+law library, with 14,000 volumes in 1908, and the library of the state
+Department of Archives and History, with about 11,000 volumes.
+Charleston is in the midst of a region rich in bituminous coal, the
+shipment of which by river and rail constitutes one of its principal
+industries. Oil wells in the vicinity also furnish an important product
+for export, and there are iron and salt mines near. An ample supply of
+natural gas is utilized by its manufacturing establishments; and among
+its manufactures are axes, lumber, foundry and machine shop products,
+furniture, boilers, woollen goods, glass and chemical fire-engines. The
+value of the city's factory products increased from $1,261,815 in 1900
+to $2,728,074 in 1905, or 116.2%, a greater rate of increase than that
+of any other city (with 8000 or more inhabitants) in the state during
+this period. The first permanent white settlement at Charleston was made
+soon after the close of the War of Independence; it was one of the
+places through which the streams of immigrants entered the Ohio Valley,
+and it became of considerable importance as a centre of transfer and
+shipment, but it was not until the development of the coal-mining region
+that it became industrially important. Charleston was incorporated in
+1794, and was chartered as a city in 1870. Since the latter year it has
+been the seat of government of West Virginia, with the exception of the
+decade 1875-1885, when Wheeling was the capital.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLESTOWN, formerly a separate city of Middlesex county,
+Massachusetts, U.S.A., but since 1874 a part of the city of Boston, with
+which it had long before been in many respects practically one. It is
+situated on a small peninsula on Boston harbour, between the mouths of
+the Mystic and Charles rivers; the first bridge across the Charles,
+built in 1786, connected Charlestown and Boston. A United States navy
+yard (1800), occupying about 87 acres, and the Massachusetts state
+prison (1805) are here; the old burying-ground contains the grave of
+John Harvard and that of Thomas Beecher, the first American member of
+the famous Beecher family; and there is a soldiers' and sailors'
+monument (1872), designed by Martin Milmore. Charlestown was founded in
+1628 or 1629, being the oldest part of Boston, and soon rose into
+importance; it was organized as a township in 1630, and was chartered as
+a city in 1847. Within its limits was fought, on the 17th of June 1775,
+the battle of Bunker Hill (q.v.), when Charlestown was almost completely
+destroyed by the British. The Bunker Hill Monument commemorates the
+battle; and the navy yard at Moulton's Point was the landing-place of
+the attacking British troops. Little was done toward the rebuilding of
+Charlestown until 1783. The original territory of the township was very
+large, and from parts of it were formed Woburn (1642), Malden (1649),
+Stoneham (1725), and Somerville (1842); other parts were annexed to
+Cambridge, to Medford and to Arlington. S.F.B. Morse, the inventor of
+the electric telegraph, was born here; and Charlestown was the
+birthplace and home of Nathaniel Gorham (1738-1796), a member of the
+Continental Congress in 1782-1783 and 1785-1787, and its president in
+1786; and was the home of Loammi Baldwin (1780-1838), a well-known civil
+engineer; of Samuel Dexter (1761-1816), an eminent lawyer, secretary of
+war and for a short time secretary of the treasury in the cabinet of
+President John Adams; and of Oliver Holden (1765-1831), a composer of
+hymn-tunes, including "Coronation."
+
+  See R. Frothingham, _History of Charlestown_ (Boston, 1845), covering
+  1629-1775; J.F. Hunnewell, _A Century of Town Life ... 1775-1887_
+  (Boston, 1888); and Timothy T. Sawyer, _Old Charlestown_ (1902).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLET, NICOLAS TOUSSAINT (1792-1845), French designer and painter,
+more especially of military subjects, was born in Paris on the 20th of
+December 1792. He was the son of a dragoon in the Republican army, whose
+death in the ranks left the widow and orphan in very poor circumstances.
+Madame Charlet, however, a woman of determined spirit and an extreme
+Napoleonist, managed to give her boy a moderate education at the Lycee
+Napoleon, and was repaid by his lifelong affection. His first employment
+was in a Parisian mairie, where he had to register recruits: he served
+in the National Guard in 1814, fought bravely at the Barriere de Clichy,
+and, being thus unacceptable to the Bourbon party, was dismissed from
+the mairie in 1816. He then, having from a very early age had a
+propensity for drawing, entered the atelier of the distinguished painter
+Baron Gros, and soon began issuing the first of those lithographed
+designs which eventually brought him renown. His "Grenadier de
+Waterloo," 1817, with the motto "La Garde meurt et ne se rend pas" (a
+famous phrase frequently attributed to Cambronne, but which he never
+uttered, and which cannot, perhaps, be traced farther than to this
+lithograph by Charlet), was particularly popular. It was only towards
+1822, however, that he began to be successful in a professional sense.
+Lithographs (about 2000 altogether), water-colours, sepia-drawings,
+numerous oil sketches, and a few etchings followed one another rapidly;
+there were also three exhibited oil pictures, the first of which was
+especially admired--"Episode in the Campaign of Russia" (1836), the
+"Passage of the Rhine by Moreau" (1837), "Wounded Soldiers Halting in a
+Ravine" (1843). Besides the military subjects in which he peculiarly
+delighted, and which found an energetic response in the popular heart,
+and kept alive a feeling of regret for the recent past of the French
+nation and discontent with the present,--a feeling which increased upon
+the artist himself towards the close of his career,--Charlet designed
+many subjects of town life and peasant life, the ways of children, &c.,
+with much wit and whim in the descriptive mottoes. One of the most
+famous sets is the "Vie civile, politique, et militaire du Caporal
+Valentin," 50 lithographs, dating from 1838 to 1842. In 1838 his health
+began to fail owing to an affection of the chest. He died in Paris on
+the 30th of October 1845. Charlet was an uncommonly tall man, with an
+expressive face, bantering and good natured; his character corresponded,
+full of boyish fun and high spirits, with manly independence, and a vein
+of religious feeling, and he was a hearty favourite among his intimates,
+one of whom was the painter Gericault. Charlet married in 1824, and two
+sons survived him.
+
+  A life of Charlet was published in 1856 by a military friend, De la
+  Combe.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVILLE, a town of north-eastern France, in the department of
+Ardennes, 151 m. N.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906)
+19,693. Charleville is situated within a bend of the Meuse on its left
+bank, opposite Mezieres, with which it is united by a suspension bridge.
+The town was founded in 1606 by Charles III. (Gonzaga), duke of Nevers,
+afterwards duke of Mantua, and is laid out on a uniform plan. Its
+central and most interesting portion is the Place Ducale, a large square
+surrounded by old houses with high-pitched roofs, the porches being
+arranged so as to form a continuous arcade; in the centre there is a
+fountain surmounted by a statue of the duke Charles. A handsome church
+in the Romanesque style and the other public buildings date from the
+19th century. An old mill, standing on the bank of the river, dates from
+the early years of the town's existence. On the right bank of the Meuse
+is Mont Olympe, with the ruins of a fortress dismantled under Louis XIV.
+Charleville, which shares with Mezieres the administrative institutions
+of the department of Ardennes, has tribunals of first instance and of
+commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators and lycees
+and training colleges for both sexes. Its chief industries are
+metal-founding and the manufacture of nails, anvils, tools and other
+iron goods, and brush-making; leather-working and sugar-refining, and
+the making of bricks and clay pipes are also carried on.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (1682-1761), French Jesuit
+traveller and historian, was born at St Quentin on the 29th of October
+1682. At the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus; and at the
+age of twenty-three was sent to Canada, where he remained for four years
+as professor at Quebec. He then returned and became professor of belles
+lettres at home, and travelled on the errands of his society in various
+countries. In 1720-1722, under orders from the regent, he visited
+America for the second time, and went along the Great Lakes and down the
+Mississippi. In later years (1733-1755) he was one of the directors of
+the _Journal de Trevoux_. He died at La Fleche on the 1st of February
+1761. His works, enumerated in the _Bibliographie des Prers de la
+Compagnie de Jesus_ (by Carlos Sommervogel), fall into two groups. The
+first contains his _Histoire de l'etablissement, du progres et de la
+decadence du Christianisme dans l'empire du Japon_ (Rouen, 1715; English
+trans. _History of the Church of Japan_, 1715), and his _Histoire et
+description generale du Japon_ (1736), a compilation chiefly from
+Kampfer. The second group includes his historical work on America:
+_Histoire de l'Isle Espagnole ou de Saint Domingue_ (1730), based on
+manuscript memoirs of P. Jean-Baptiste Le Pers and original sources;
+_Histoire de Paraguay_ (1756); _Vie de la Mere Marie de l'Incarnation,
+institutrice et premiere superieure des Urselines de la Nouvelle-France_
+(1724); _Histoire et description generale de la Nouvelle-France_ (1744;
+in English 1769; tr. J.G. Shea, 1866-1872), a work of capital importance
+for Canadian history.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLEVOIX, a village and the county-seat of Charlevoix county,
+Michigan, U.S.A., 16 m. E.S.E. of Petoskey, on Lake Michigan and Pine
+Lake, which are connected by Pine river and Round Lake. Pop. (1890)
+1496; (1900) 2079; (1904) 2395; (1910) 2420. It is on the main line of
+the Pere Marquette railway, and during the summer season is served by
+lake steamers. The village is best known as a summer resort; it is built
+on bluffs and on a series of terraces rising from Round and Pine lakes
+and affording extensive views; and there are a number of attractive
+summer residences. Charlevoix is an important hardwood lumber port, and
+the principal industries are the manufacture of lumber and of cement;
+fishing (especially for lake trout and white fish); the raising of sugar
+beets; and the manufacture of rustic and fancy wood-work. Charlevoix was
+settled about 1866, and was incorporated as a village in 1879.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTE, a city and the county-seat of Mecklenburg county, North
+Carolina, U.S.A., situated on Sugar Creek, in the south-west part of the
+state, about 175 m. south-west of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 11,557; (1900)
+18,091, of whom 7151 were negroes; (1910 census) 34,014. It is served by
+the Seaboard Air Line and the Southern railways. Among the public
+buildings are a fine city hall, court-house, Federal and Young Men's
+Christian Association buildings, and a Carnegie library; several
+hospitals: St Peter's (Episcopal) for whites, Good Samaritan (Episcopal)
+for negroes, Mercy General (Roman Catholic) and a Presbyterian. The city
+is the seat of Elizabeth College and Conservatory of Music (1897), a
+non-sectarian institution for women, of the Presbyterian College for
+women, and of Biddle University (Presbyterian) for negroes, established
+in 1867. There is a United States assay office, established as a branch
+mint in 1837, during the days of North Carolina's great importance as a
+gold producing state, and closed from 1861 to 1869. The city has large
+cotton, clothing, and knitting mills, and manufactories of cotton-seed
+oil, tools, machinery, fertilizers and furniture. The total value of its
+factory products was $4,849,630 in 1905. There are large electric power
+plants in and near the city. Printing and publishing are of some
+importance: Charlotte is the publication headquarters of the African
+Methodist Episcopal Zion Church; and several textile trade journals and
+two medical periodicals are published here. The water-works are owned by
+the municipality. Charlotte was settled about 1750 and was incorporated
+in 1768. Here in May 1775 was adopted the "Mecklenburg Declaration of
+Independence" (see NORTH CAROLINA), and in honour of its signers there
+is a monument in front of the court-house. Charlotte was occupied in
+September 1780 by Cornwallis, who left it after learning of the battle
+of King's Mountain, and subsequently it became the principal base and
+rendezvous of General Greene.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
+Spree, lying immediately west of Berlin, of which it forms practically
+the entire western suburb. The earlier name of the town was Lietzenburg.
+Pop. (1890) 76,859; (1900) 189,290; (1905) 237,231. It is governed by a
+council of 94 members. The central part of the town is connected with
+Berlin by a magnificent avenue, the Charlottenburger Chaussee, which
+runs from the Brandenburger Tor through the whole length of the
+Tiergarten. Although retaining its own municipal government,
+Charlottenburg, together with the adjacent suburban towns of Schoneberg
+and Rixdorf, was included in 1900 in the police district of the capital.
+The Schloss, built in 1696 for the electress Sophie Charlotte, queen of
+the elector Frederick, afterwards King Frederick I., after whom the town
+was named, contains a collection of antiquities and paintings. In the
+grounds stands a granite mausoleum, the work of Karl Friedrich Schinkel,
+with beautiful white marble recumbent statues of Frederick William III.
+and his queen Louise by Christian Daniel Rauch, and also those of the
+emperor William I. and the empress Augusta by Erdmann Encke. It was in
+the Schloss that the emperor Frederick III. took over the reins of
+government in 1888, and here he resided for nearly the whole of his
+three months' reign. The town contains an equestrian statue of
+Frederick. Of public buildings, the famous technical academy and the
+Kaiser Wilhelm memorial church are referred to in the article BERLIN. In
+Charlottenburg is the Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, a state
+institution for the carrying out of scientific experiments and
+measurements, and for testing instruments of precision, materials, &c.
+It was established in 1886 with money provided by Ernst Werner Siemens.
+In addition to the famous royal porcelain manufactory, Charlottenburg
+has many flourishing industries, notably iron-works grouped along the
+banks of the Spree. Its main thoroughfares are laid out on a spacious
+plan, while there are many quiet streets containing pretty villas. See
+F. Schultz, _Chronik von Charlottenburg_ (Charlottenburg, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Albemarle county,
+Virginia, U.S.A., picturesquely situated on the Rivanna river, 96 m. (by
+rail) N.W. of Richmond in the beautiful Piedmont region. Pop. (1890)
+5591; (1900) 6449 (2613 being negroes); (1910) 6765. The city is served
+by the Chesapeake & Ohio, and the Southern railways, and is best known
+as the seat of the University of Virginia (q.v.), which was founded by
+Thomas Jefferson. Here are also the Rawlings Institute for girls,
+founded as the Albemarle Female Institute in 1857, and a University
+school. Monticello, Jefferson's home, is still standing about 2 m.
+south-east of the city on a fine hill, called Little Mountain until
+Jefferson Italianised the name. The south pavilion of the present house
+is the original brick building, one and a half storeys high, first
+occupied by Jefferson in 1770. He was buried near the house, which was
+sold by his daughter some years after his death. George Rogers Clark was
+born near Monticello. Charlottesville is a trade centre for the
+surrounding country; among its manufactures are woollen goods, overalls,
+agricultural implements and cigars and tobacco. The city owns its
+water-supply system and owns and operates its gas plant; an electric
+plant, privately owned, lights the streets and many houses. The site of
+the city was a part of the Castle Hill estate of Thomas Walker
+(1715-1794), an intimate friend of George Washington. The act
+establishing the town of Charlottesville was passed by the Assembly of
+Virginia in November 1762, when the name Charlottesville (in honour of
+Queen Charlotte, wife of George III.) first appeared. In 1779-1780 about
+4000 of Burgoyne's troops, surrendered under the "Convention" of
+Saratoga, were quartered here; in October 1780 part of them were sent to
+Lancaster, Pa., and later the rest were sent north. In June 1781
+Tarleton raided Charlottesville and the vicinity, nearly captured Thomas
+Jefferson, and destroyed the public records and some arms and
+ammunition. In 1888 Charlottesville was chartered as a city
+administratively independent of the county.
+
+
+
+
+CHARLOTTETOWN, a city of Canada, the capital of Prince Edward Island,
+situated in Queen's county, on Hillsborough river. Pop. (1901) 12,080.
+It has a good harbour, and the river is navigable by large vessels for
+several miles. The export trade of the island centres here, and the city
+has regular communication by steamer with the chief American and
+Canadian ports. Besides the government buildings and the court-house, it
+contains numerous churches, the Prince of Wales College, supported by
+the province, the Roman Catholic college of St Dunstan's and a normal
+school; among its manufactures are woollen goods, lumber, canned goods,
+and foundry products. The head office and workshops of the Prince Edward
+Island railway are situated here. The town was founded in 1750 by the
+French under the name of Port la Joie, but under British rule changed
+its name in honour of the queen of George III.
+
+
+
+
+CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. _carmen_, a song), an incantation,
+verses sung with supposed magical results, hence anything possessing
+powers of bringing good luck or averting evil, particularly articles
+worn with that purpose, such as an amulet. It is thus used of small
+trinkets attached to bracelets or chains. The word is also used,
+figuratively, of fascinating qualities of feature, voice or character.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNAY, (CLAUDE JOSEPH) DESIRE (1828- ), French traveller and
+archaeologist, was born in Fleurie (Rhone), on the 2nd of May 1828. He
+studied at the Lycee Charlemagne, in 1850 became a teacher in New
+Orleans, Louisiana, and there became acquainted with John Lloyd
+Stephens's books of travel in Yucatan. He travelled in Mexico, under a
+commission from the French ministry of education, in 1857-1861; in
+Madagascar in 1863; in South America, particularly Chile and Argentina,
+in 1875; and in Java and Australia in 1878. In 1880-1883 he again
+visited the ruined cities of Mexico. Pierre Lorillard of New York
+contributed to defray the expense of this expedition, and Charnay named
+a great ruined city near the Guatemalan boundary line Ville Lorillard in
+his honour. Charnay went to Yucatan in 1886. The more important of his
+publications are _Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage_
+(1863), being his personal report on the expedition of 1857-61, of
+which the official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc's _Cites et
+ruines americaines: Mitla, Palenque, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal_
+(1863), vol. 19 of _Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les Anciennes
+Villes du Nouveau Monde_ (1885; English translation, _The Ancient Cities
+of the New World_, 1887, by Mmes. Gonino and Conant); a romance, _Une
+Princesse indienne avant la conquete_ (1888); _A travers les forets
+vierges_ (1890); and _Manuscrit Ramirez: Histoire de I'origine des
+Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions_ (1903).
+He translated Cortez's letters into French, under the title _Lettres de
+Fernand Cortes a Charles-quint sur la decouverte et la conquete du
+Mexique_ (1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and
+considered the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because of
+observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration,
+Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNEL HOUSE (Med. Lat. _carnarium_), a place for depositing the bones
+which might be thrown up in digging graves. Sometimes, as at Gloucester,
+Hythe and Ripon, it was a portion of the crypt; sometimes, as at Old St
+Paul's and Worcester (both now destroyed), it was a separate building in
+the churchyard; sometimes chantry chapels were attached to these
+buildings. Viollet-le-Duc has given two very curious examples of such
+_ossuaires_ (as the French call them)--one from Fleurance (Gers), the
+other from Faouet (Finistere).
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCK, JOB (d. 1693), English founder of Calcutta, went out to India
+in 1655 or 1656, apparently not in the East India Company's service, but
+soon joined it. He was stationed at Cossimbazar, and subsequently at
+Patna. In 1685 he became chief agent at Hugli. Being besieged there by
+the Mogul viceroy of Bengal, he put the company's goods and servants on
+board his light vessels and dropped down the river 27 m. to the village
+of Sutanati, a place well chosen for the purpose of defence, which
+occupied the site of what is now Calcutta. It was only, however, at the
+third attempt that Charnock finally settled down at this spot, and the
+selection of the future capital of India was entirely due to his
+stubborn resolution. He was a silent morose man, not popular among his
+contemporaries, but "always a faithfull Man to the Company." He is said
+to have married a Hindu widow.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCK (or CHERNOCK), ROBERT (c.1663-1696), English conspirator,
+belonged to a Warwickshire family, and was educated at Magdalen College,
+Oxford, becoming a fellow of his college and a Roman Catholic priest.
+When in 1687 the dispute arose between James II. and the fellows of
+Magdalen over the election of a president Charnock favoured the first
+royal nominee, Anthony Farmer, and also the succeeding one, Samuel
+Parker, bishop of Oxford. Almost alone among the fellows he was not
+driven out in November 1687, and he became dean and then vice-president
+of the college under the new regime, but was expelled in October 1688.
+Residing at the court of the Stuarts in France, or conspiring in
+England, Charnock and Sir George Barclay appear to have arranged the
+details of the unsuccessful attempt to kill William III. near Turnham
+Green in February 1696, Barclay escaped, but Charnock was arrested, was
+tried and found guilty, and was hanged on the 18th of March 1696.
+
+
+
+
+CHARNOCKITE, a series of foliated igneous rocks of wide distribution and
+great importance in India, Ceylon, Madagascar and Africa. The name was
+given by Dr T.H. Holland from the fact that the tombstone of Job
+Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, is made of a block of this rock. The
+charnockite series includes rocks of many different types, some being
+acid and rich in quartz and microcline, others basic and full of
+pyroxene and olivine, while there are also intermediate varieties
+corresponding mineralogically to norites, quartz-norites and diorites. A
+special feature, recurring in many members of the group, is the presence
+of strongly pleochroic, reddish or green hypersthene. Many of the
+minerals of these rocks are "schillerized," as they contain minute platy
+or rod-shaped enclosures, disposed parallel to certain crystallographic
+planes or axes. The reflection of light from the surfaces of these
+enclosures gives the minerals often a peculiar appearance, e.g. the
+quartz is blue and opalescent, the felspar has a milky shimmer like
+moonshine, the hypersthene has a bronzy metalloidal gleam. Very often
+the different rock types occur in close association as one set forms
+bands alternating with another set, or veins traversing it, and where
+one facies appears the others also usually are found. The term
+charnockite consequently is not the name of a rock, but of an assemblage
+of rock types, connected in their origin because arising by
+differentiation of the same parent magma. The banded structure which
+these rocks commonly present in the field is only in a small measure due
+to crushing, but is to a large extent original, and has been produced by
+fluxion in a viscous crystallizing intrusive magma, together with
+differentiation or segregation of the mass into bands of different
+chemical and mineralogical composition. There have also been, of course,
+earth movements acting on the solid rock at a later time and injection
+of dikes both parallel to and across the primary foliation. In fact, the
+history of the structures of the charnockite series is the history of
+the most primitive gneisses in all parts of the world, for which we
+cannot pretend to have as yet any thoroughly satisfactory explanations
+to offer. A striking fact is the very wide distribution of rocks of this
+group in the southern hemisphere; but they also, or rocks very similar
+to them, occur in Norway, France, Germany, Scotland and North America,
+though in these countries they have been mostly described as pyroxene
+granulites, pyroxene gneisses, anorthosites, &c. They are usually
+regarded as being of Archean age (pre-Cambrian), and in most cases this
+can be definitely proved, though not in all. It is astonishing to find
+that in spite of their great age their minerals are often in excellent
+preservation. In India they form the Nilgiri Hills, the Shevaroys and
+part of the Western Ghats, extending southward to Cape Comorin and
+reappearing in Ceylon. Although they are certainly for the most part
+igneous gneisses (or orthogneisses), rocks occur along with them, such
+as marbles, scapolite limestones, and corundum rocks, which were
+probably of sedimentary origin.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARNWOOD FOREST, an upland tract in the N.-W. of Leicestershire,
+England. It is undulating, rocky, picturesque, and in great part barren,
+though there are some extensive tracts of woodland; its elevation is
+generally 600 ft. and upwards, the area exceeding this height being
+about 6100 acres. The loftiest point, Bardon Hill, is 912 ft. On its
+western flank lies a coalfield, with Coalville and other mining towns,
+and granite and hone-stones are worked.
+
+
+
+
+CHAROLLES, a town of east-central France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Saone-et-Loire, situated at the confluence of the
+Semence and the Arconce, 39 m. W.N.W. of Macon on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 3228. It has a sub-prefecture, tribunals of primary
+instance and commerce, and a communal college. There are stone quarries
+in the vicinity; the town manufactures pottery, and is the centre for
+trade in the famous breed of Charolais cattle and in agricultural
+products. The ruins of the castle of the counts of Charolais occupy the
+summit of a hill in the immediate vicinity of the town. Charolles was
+the capital of Charolais, an old division of France, which from the
+early 14th century gave the title of count to its possessors. In 1327
+the countship passed by marriage to the house of Armagnac, and in 1390
+it was sold to Philip of Burgundy. After the death of Charles the Bold,
+who in his youth had borne the title of count of Charolais, it was
+seized by Louis XI. of France, but in 1493 it was ceded by Charles VIII.
+to Maximilian of Austria, the representative of the Burgundian family.
+Ultimately passing to the Spanish kings, it became for a considerable
+period an object of dispute between France and Spain, until at length in
+1684 it was assigned to the great Conde, a creditor of the king of
+Spain. It was united to the French crown in 1771.
+
+
+
+
+CHARON, in Greek mythology, the son of Erebus and Nyx (Night). It was
+his duty to ferry over the Styx (or Acheron) those souls of the deceased
+who had duly received the rites of burial, in payment for which service
+he received an obol, which was placed in the mouth of the corpse. It was
+only exceptionally that he carried living passengers (_Aeneid_, vi. 295
+ff). As ferryman of the dead he is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod, and
+in this character is probably of Egyptian origin. He is represented as a
+morose and grisly old man in a black sailor's cape. By the Etruscans he
+was also supposed to be a kind of executioner of the powers of the
+nether world, who, armed with an enormous hammer, was associated with
+Mars in the slaughter of battle. Finally he came to be regarded as the
+image of death and the world below. As such he survives in the Charos or
+Charontas of the modern Greeks--a black bird which darts down upon its
+prey, or a winged horseman who fastens his victims to the saddle and
+bears them away to the realms of the dead.
+
+  See J.A. Ambrosch, _De Charonte Etrusco_ (1837), a learned and
+  exhaustive monograph; B. Schmidt, _Volksleben der Neugriechen_
+  (1871), i. 222-251; O. Waser, _Charon, Charun, Charos,
+  mythologisch-archaologische Monographie_ (1898); S. Rocco, "Sull'
+  origine del Mito di Caronte," in _Rivista di storia antica_, ii.
+  (1897), who considers Charon to be an old name for the sun-god Helios
+  embarking during the night for the East.
+
+
+
+
+CHARONDAS, a celebrated lawgiver of Catina in Sicily. His date is
+uncertain. Some make him a pupil of Pythagoras (c. 580-504 B.C.); but
+all that can be said is that he was earlier than Anaxilaus of Rhegium
+(494-476), since his laws were in use amongst the Rhegians until they
+were abolished by that tyrant. His laws, originally written in verse,
+were adopted by the other Chalcidic colonies in Sicily and Italy.
+According to Aristotle there was nothing special about these laws,
+except that Charondas introduced actions for perjury; but he speaks
+highly of the precision with which they were drawn up (_Politics_, ii.
+12). The story that Charondas killed himself because he entered the
+public assembly wearing a sword, which was a violation of his own law,
+is also told of Diocles and Zaleucus (Diod. Sic. xii. 11-19). The
+fragments of laws attributed to him by Stobaeus and Diodorus are of late
+(neo-Pythagorean) origin.
+
+  See Bentley, _On Phalaris_, which (according to B. Niese s.v. in
+  Pauly, _Realencyclopadie_) contains what is even now the best account
+  of Charondas; A. Holm, _Geschichte Siciliens_, i.; F.D. Gerlach,
+  _Zaleukos, Charondas, und Pythagoras_ (1858); also art. GREEK LAW.
+
+
+
+
+CHARPENTIER, FRANCOIS (1620-1702), French archaeologist and man of
+letters, was born in Paris on the 15th of February 1620. He was intended
+for the bar, but was employed by Colbert, who had determined on the
+foundation of a French East India Company, to draw up an explanatory
+account of the project for Louis XIV. Charpentier regarded as absurd the
+use of Latin in monumental inscriptions, and to him was entrusted the
+task of supplying the paintings of Lebrun in the Versailles Gallery with
+appropriate legends. His verses were so indifferent that they had to be
+replaced by others, the work of Racine and Boileau, both enemies of his.
+Charpentier in his _Excellence de la langue francaise_ (1683) had
+anticipated Perrault in the famous academical dispute concerning the
+relative merit of the ancients and moderns. He is credited with a share
+in the production of the magnificent series of medals that commemorate
+the principal events of the age of Louis XIV. Charpentier, who was long
+in receipt of a pension of 1200 livres from Colbert, was erudite and
+ingenious, but he was always heavy and commonplace. His other works
+include a _Vie de Socrate_ (1650), a translation of the _Cyropaedia_ of
+Xenophon (1658), and the _Traite de la peinture parlante_ (1684).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRIERE, AGNES ISABELLE EMILIE DE (1740-1805), Swiss author, was Dutch
+by birth, her maiden name being van Tuyll van Seeroskerken van Zuylen.
+She married in 1771 her brother's tutor, M. de Charriere, and settled
+with him at Colombier, near Lausanne. She made her name by the
+publication of her _Lettres neuchateloises_ (Amsterdam, 1784), offering
+a simple and attractive picture of French manners. This, with _Caliste,
+ou lettres ecrites de Lausanne_ (2 vols. Geneva, 1785-1788), was
+analysed and highly praised by Sainte-Beuve in his _Portraits de femmes_
+and in vol. in of his _Portraits litteraires_. She wrote a number of
+other novels, and some political tracts; but is perhaps best remembered
+by her liaison with Benjamin Constant between 1787 and 1796.
+
+  Her letters to Constant were printed in the _Revue suisse_ (April
+  1844), her _Lettres-Memoires_ by E.H. Gaullieur in the same review in
+  1857, and all the available material is utilized in a monograph on her
+  and her work by P. Godet, _Madame de Charriere et ses amis_ (2 vols.,
+  Geneva, 1906).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRON, PIERRE (1541-1603), French philosopher, born in Paris, was one
+of the twenty-five children of a bookseller. After studying law he
+practised at Paris as an advocate, but, having met with no great
+success, entered the church, and soon gained the highest popularity as a
+preacher, rising to the dignity of canon, and being appointed preacher
+in ordinary to Marguerite, wife of Henry IV. of Navarre. About 1588, he
+determined to fulfil a vow which he had once made to enter a cloister;
+but being rejected by the Carthusians and the Celestines, he held
+himself absolved, and continued to follow his old profession. He
+delivered a course of sermons at Angers, and in the next year passed to
+Bordeaux, where he formed a famous friendship with Montaigne. At the
+death of Montaigne, in 1592, Charron was requested in his will to bear
+the Montaigne arms.
+
+In 1594 Charron published (at first anonymously, afterwards under the
+name of "Benoit Vaillant, Advocate of the Holy Faith," and also, in
+1594, in his own name) _Les Trois Verites_, in which by methodical and
+orthodox arguments, he seeks to prove that there is a God and a true
+religion, that the true religion is the Christian, and that the true
+church is the Roman Catholic. The last book (which is three-fourths of
+the whole work) is chiefly an answer to the famous Protestant work
+entitled _Le Traite de l'Eglise_ by Du Plessis Mornay; and in the second
+edition (1595) there is an elaborate reply to an attack made on the
+third _Verite_ by a Protestant writer. _Les Trois Verites_ ran through
+several editions, and obtained for its author the favour of the bishop
+of Cahors, who appointed him grand vicar and theological canon. It also
+led to his being chosen deputy to the general assembly of the clergy, of
+which body he became chief secretary. It was followed in 1600 by
+_Discours chrestiens_, a book of sermons, similar in tone, half of which
+treat of the Eucharist. In 1601 Charron published at Bordeaux his third
+and most remarkable work--the famous _De la sagesse_, a complete popular
+system of moral philosophy. Usually, and so far correctly, it is coupled
+with the Essays of Montaigne, to which the author is under very
+extensive obligations. There is, however, distinct individuality in the
+book. It is specially interesting from the time when it appeared, and
+the man by whom it was written. Conspicuous as a champion of orthodoxy
+against atheists, Jews and Protestants--without resigning this position,
+and still upholding practical orthodoxy--Charron suddenly stood forth as
+the representative of the most complete intellectual scepticism. The _De
+la sagesse_, which represented a considerable advance on the standpoint
+of the _Trois Verites_, brought upon its author the most violent
+attacks, the chief being by the Jesuit Francois Garasse (1585-1631), who
+described him as a "brutal atheist." It received, however, the warm
+support of Henry IV. and of the president Pierre Jeannin (1540-1622). A
+second edition was soon called for. In 1603, notwithstanding much
+opposition, it began to appear; but only a few pages had been printed
+when Charron died suddenly in the street of apoplexy. His death was
+regarded as a judgment for his impiety.
+
+Charron's psychology is sensationalist. With sense all our knowledge
+commences, and into sense all may be resolved. The soul, located in the
+ventricles of the brain, is affected by the temperament of the
+individual; the dry temperament produces acute intelligence; the moist,
+memory; the hot, imagination. Dividing the intelligent soul into these
+three faculties, he shows--after the manner which Francis Bacon
+subsequently adopted--what branches of science correspond with each.
+With regard to the nature of the soul he merely quotes opinions. The
+belief in its immortality, he says, is the most universal of beliefs,
+but the most feebly supported by reason. As to man's power of attaining
+truth his scepticism is decided; and he plainly declares that none of
+our faculties enable us to distinguish truth from error. In comparing
+man with the lower animals, Charron insists that there are no breaks in
+nature. The latter have reason; nay, they have virtue; and, though
+inferior in some respects, in others they are superior. The estimate
+formed of man is not, indeed, flattering. His most essential qualities
+are vanity, weakness, inconstancy, presumption. Upon this view of human
+nature and the human lot Charron founds his moral system. Equally
+sceptical with Montaigne, and decidedly more cynical, he is
+distinguished by a deeper and sterner tone. Man comes into the world to
+endure; let him endure then, and that in silence. Our compassion should
+be like that of God, who succours the suffering without sharing in their
+pain. Avoid vulgar errors; cherish universal sympathy. Let no passion or
+attachment become too powerful for restraint. Follow the customs and
+laws which surround you. Morality has no connexion with religion. Reason
+is the ultimate criterion.
+
+Special interest attaches to Charron's treatment of religion. He insists
+on the diversities in religions; he dwells also on what would indicate a
+common origin. All grow from small beginnings and increase by a sort of
+popular contagion; all teach that God is to be appeased by prayers,
+presents, vows, but especially, and most irrationally, by human
+suffering. Each is said by its devotees to have been given by
+inspiration. In fact, however, a man is a Christian, Jew, or Mahommedan,
+before he knows he is a man. One religion is built upon another. But
+while he openly declares religion to be "strange to common sense," the
+practical result at which Charron arrives is that one is not to sit in
+judgment on his faith, but to be "simple and obedient," and to allow
+himself to be led by public authority. This is one rule of wisdom with
+regard to religion; and another equally important is to avoid
+superstition, which he boldly defines as the belief that God is like a
+hard judge who, eager to find fault, narrowly examines our slightest
+act, that He is revengeful and hard to appease, and that therefore He
+must be flattered and importuned, and won over by pain and sacrifice.
+True piety, which is the first of duties, is, on the other hand, the
+knowledge of God and of one's self, the latter knowledge being necessary
+to the former. It is the abasing of man, the exalting of God,--the
+belief that what He sends is all good, and that all the bad is from
+ourselves. It leads to spiritual worship; for external ceremony is
+merely for our advantage, not for His glory. Charron is thus the founder
+of modern secularism. His political views are neither original nor
+independent. He pours much hackneyed scorn on the common herd, declares
+the sovereign to be the source of law, and asserts that popular freedom
+is dangerous.
+
+  A summary and defence of the _Sagesse_, written shortly before his
+  death, appeared in 1606. In 1604 his friend Michel de la Rochemaillet
+  prefixed to an edition of the _Sagesse_ a Life, which depicts Charron
+  as a most amiable man of purest character. His complete works, with
+  this Life, were published in 1635. An excellent abridgment of the
+  _Sagesse_ is given in Tennemann's _Philosophie_, vol. ix.; an edition
+  with notes by A. Duval appeared in 1820.
+
+  See Liebscher, _Charron u. sein Werk, De la sagesse_ (Leipzig, 1890);
+  H.T. Buckle, _Introd. to History of Civilization in England_, vol. ii.
+  19; Abbe Lezat, _De la predication sous Henri IV._ c. vi.; J.M.
+  Robertson, _Short History of Free Thought_ (London, 1906), vol. ii. p.
+  19; J. Owen, _Skeptics of the French Renaissance_ (1893); Lecky,
+  _Rationalism in Europe_ (1865).
+
+
+
+
+CHARRUA, a tribe of South American Indians, wild and warlike, formerly
+ranging over Uruguay and part of S. Brazil. They were dark and heavily
+built, fought on horses and used the bolas or weighted lasso. They were
+always at war with the Spaniards, and Juan Diaz de Solis was killed by
+them in 1516. As a tribe they are now almost extinct, but the modern
+Gauchos of Uruguay have much Charrua blood in them.
+
+
+
+
+CHART (from Lat. _carta, charta_, a map). A chart is a marine map
+intended specially for the use of seamen (for history, see MAP), though
+the word is also used loosely for other varieties of graphical
+representation. The marine or nautical chart is constructed for the
+purpose of ascertaining the position of a ship with reference to the
+land, of finding the direction in which she has to steer, the distance
+to sail or steam, and the hidden dangers to avoid. The surface of the
+sea on charts is studded with numerous small figures. These are known as
+the _soundings_, indicating in fathoms or in feet (as shown upon the
+title of the chart), at low water of ordinary spring tides, the least
+depth of water through which the ship may be sailing. Charts show the
+nature of the unseen bottom of the sea--with the irregularities in its
+character in the shape of hidden rocks or sand-banks, and give
+information of the greatest importance to the mariner. No matter how
+well the land maybe surveyed or finely delineated, unless the soundings
+are shown a chart is of little use.
+
+The British admiralty charts are compiled, drawn and issued by the
+hydrographic office. This department of the admiralty was established
+under Earl Spencer by an order in council in 1795, consisting of the
+hydrographer, one assistant and a draughtsman. The first hydrographer
+was Alexander Dalrymple, a gentleman in the East India Company's civil
+service. From this small beginning arose the important department which
+is now the main source of the supply of hydrographical information to
+the whole of the maritime world. The charts prepared by the officers and
+draughtsmen of the hydrographic office, and published by order of the
+lords commissioners of the admiralty, are compiled chiefly from the
+labours of British naval officers employed in the surveying service; and
+also from valuable contributions received from time to time from
+officers of the royal navy and mercantile marine. In addition to the
+work of British sailors, the labours of other nations have been
+collected and utilized. Charts of the coasts of Europe have naturally
+been taken from the surveys made by the various nations, and in charts
+of other quarters of the world considerable assistance has been
+received from the labours of French, Spanish, Dutch and American
+surveyors. Important work is done by the Hydrographic Office of the
+American navy, and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The admiralty
+charts are published with the view of meeting the wants of the sailor in
+all parts of the world. They may be classed under five heads, viz.
+ocean, general, and coast charts, harbour plans and physical charts; for
+instance, the Indian Ocean, the Mediterranean, approaches to Plymouth,
+Plymouth Sound and wind and current charts. The harbour plans and coast
+sheets are constructed on the simple principles of plane trigonometry by
+the surveying officers. (See SURVEYING: _Nautical_.) That important
+feature, the depth of the sea, is obtained by the ordinary sounding line
+or wire; all soundings are reduced to low water of ordinary spring
+tides. The times and heights of the tides, with the direction and
+velocity of the tidal streams, are also ascertained. These MS. charts
+are forwarded to the admiralty, and form the foundation of the
+hydrography of the world. The ocean and general charts are compiled and
+drawn at the hydrographic office, and as originals, existing charts,
+latest surveys and maps, have to be consulted, their compilation
+requires considerable experience and is a painstaking work, for the
+compiler has to decide what to omit, what to insert, and to arrange the
+necessary names in such a manner that while full information is given,
+the features of the coast are not interfered with. As a very slight
+error in the position of a light or buoy, dot, cross or figure, might
+lead to grave disaster, every symbol on the admiralty chart has been
+delineated with great care and consideration, and no pains are spared in
+the effort to lay before the public the labours of the nautical
+surveyors and explorers not only of England, but of the maritime world;
+reducing their various styles into a comprehensive system furnishing the
+intelligent seaman with an intelligible guide, which common industry
+will soon enable him to appreciate and take full advantage of.
+
+As certain abbreviations are used in the charts, attention is called to
+the "signs and abbreviations adopted in the charts published by the
+admiralty." Certain parts of the world are still unsurveyed, or not
+surveyed in sufficient detail for the requirements that steamships now
+demand. Charts of these localities are therefore drawn in a light
+hair-line and unfinished manner, so that the experienced seaman sees at
+a glance that less trust is to be reposed upon charts drawn in this
+manner. The charts given to the public are only correct up to the time
+of their actual publication. They have to be kept up to date. Recent
+publications by foreign governments, newly reported dangers, changes in
+character or position of lights and buoys, are as soon as practicable
+inserted on the charts and due notice given of such insertions in the
+admiralty "Notices to Mariners."
+
+  The charts are supplemented by the _Admiralty Pilots_, or books of
+  sailing directions, with tide tables, and lists of lighthouses, light
+  vessels, &c., for the coasts to which a ship may be bound. The
+  physical charts are the continuation of the work so ably begun by
+  Maury of the United States and FitzRoy of the British navy, and give
+  the sailor a good general idea of the world's ocean winds and currents
+  at the different periods of the year; the probable tracks and seasons
+  of the tropical revolving or cyclonic storms; the coastal winds; the
+  extent or months of the rainy seasons; localities and times where ice
+  may be fallen in with; and, lastly, the direction and force of the
+  stream and drift currents of the oceans.     (T. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTER (Lat. _charta, carta_, from Gr. [Greek: chartes], originally for
+_papyrus_, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from
+this material to the document, in O. Eng. _boc_, book), a written
+instrument, contract or convention by which cessions of sales of
+property or of rights and privileges are confirmed and held, and which
+may be produced by the grantees in proof of lawful possession. The use
+of the word for any written document is obsolete in England, but is
+preserved in France, e.g. the Ecole des Chartes at Paris. In feudal
+times charters of privileges were granted, not only by the crown, but by
+mesne lords both lay and ecclesiastical, as well to communities, such as
+boroughs, gilds and religious foundations, as to individuals. In modern
+usage grants by charter have become all but obsolete, though in England
+this form is still used in the incorporation by the crown of such
+societies as the British Academy.
+
+The grant of the Great Charter by King John in 1215 (see MAGNA CARTA),
+which guaranteed the preservation of English liberties, led to a special
+association of the word with constitutional privileges, and so in modern
+times it has been applied to constitutions granted by sovereigns to
+their subjects, in contradistinction to those based on "the will of the
+people." Such was the Charter (_Charte_) granted by Louis XVIII. to
+France in 1814. In Portugal the constitution granted by Dom Pedro in
+1826 was called by the French party the "Charter," while that devised by
+the Cortes in 1821 was known as the "Constitution." Magna Carta also
+suggested to the English radicals in 1838 the name "People's Charter,"
+which they gave to their published programme of reforms (see CHARTISM).
+This association of the idea of liberty with the word charter led to its
+figurative use in the sense of freedom or licence. This is, however,
+rare; the most common use being in the phrase "chartered libertine"
+(Shakespeare, _Henry V._ Act i. Sc. 1) from the derivative verb "to
+charter," e.g. to grant a charter. The common colloquialism "to
+charter," in the sense of to take, or hire, is derived from the special
+use of "to charter" as to hire (a ship) by charter-party.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERED COMPANIES. A chartered company is a trading corporation
+enjoying certain rights and privileges, and bound by certain obligations
+under a special charter granted to it by the sovereign authority of the
+state, such charter defining and limiting those rights, privileges and
+obligations, and the localities in which they are to be exercised. Such
+companies existed in early times, but have undergone changes and
+modifications in accordance with the developments which have taken place
+in the economic history of the states where they have existed. In Great
+Britain the first trading charters were granted, not to English
+companies, which were then non-existent, but to branches of the
+Hanseatic League (q.v.), and it was not till 1597 that England was
+finally relieved from the presence of a foreign chartered company. In
+that year Queen Elizabeth closed the steel-yard where Teutons had been
+established for 700 years.
+
+The origin of all English trading companies is to be sought in the
+Merchants of the Staple. They lingered on into the 18th century, but
+only as a name, for their business was solely to export English products
+which, as English manufactures grew, were wanted at home. Of all early
+English chartered companies, the "Merchant Adventurers" conducted its
+operations the most widely. Itself a development of very early trading
+gilds, at the height of its prosperity it employed as many as 50,000
+persons in the Netherlands, and the enormous influence it was able to
+exercise undoubtedly saved Antwerp from the institution of the
+Inquisition within its walls in the time of Charles V. In the reign of
+Elizabeth British trade with the Netherlands reached in one year
+12,000,000 ducats, and in that of James I. the company's yearly commerce
+with Germany and the Netherlands was as much as L1,000,000. Hamburg
+afterwards was its principal depot, and it became known as the "Hamburg
+Company." In the "Merchant Adventurers'" enterprises is to be seen the
+germ of the trading companies which had so remarkable a development in
+the 16th and 17th centuries. These old regulated trade gilds passed
+gradually into joint-stock associations, which were capable of far
+greater extension, both as to the number of members and amount of stock,
+each member being only accountable for the amount of his own stock, and
+being able to transfer it at will to any other person.
+
+It was in the age of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts that the chartered
+company, in the modern sense of the term, had its rise. The discovery of
+the New World, and the opening out of fresh trading routes to the
+Indies, gave an extraordinary impulse to shipping, commerce and
+industrial enterprise throughout western Europe. The English, French and
+Dutch governments were ready to assist trade by the granting of charters
+to trading associations. It is to the "Russia Company," which received
+its first charter in 1554, that Great Britain owed its first intercourse
+with an empire then almost unknown. The first recorded instance of a
+purely chartered company annexing territory is to be found in the action
+of this company in setting up a cross at Spitzbergen in 1613 with King
+James's arms upon it. Among other associations trading to the continent
+of Europe, receiving charters at this time, were the Turkey Company
+(Levant Co.) and the Eastland Company. Both the Russia and Turkey
+Companies had an important effect upon British relations with those
+empires. They maintained British influence in those countries, and even
+paid the expenses of the embassies which were sent out by the English
+government to their courts. The Russia Company carried on a large trade
+with Persia through Russian territory; but from various causes their
+business gradually declined, though the Turkey Company existed in name
+until 1825.
+
+The chartered companies which were formed during this period for trade
+with the Indies and the New World have had a more wide-reaching
+influence in history. The extraordinary career of the East India Company
+(q.v.) is dealt with elsewhere.
+
+Charters were given to companies trading to Guinea, Morocco, Guiana and
+the Canaries, but none of these enjoyed a very long or prosperous
+existence, principally owing to the difficulties caused by foreign
+competition. It is when we turn to North America that the importance of
+the chartered company, as a colonizing rather than a trading agency, is
+seen in its full development. The "Hudson's Bay Company," which still
+exists as a commercial concern, is dealt with under its own heading, but
+most of the thirteen British North American colonies were in their
+inception chartered companies very much in the modern acceptation of the
+term. The history of these companies will be found under the heading of
+the different colonies of which they were the origin. It is necessary,
+however, to bear in mind that two classes of charters are to be found in
+force among the early American colonies: (1) Those granted to trading
+associations, which were often useful when the colony was first founded,
+but which formed a serious obstacle to its progress when the country had
+become settled and was looking forward to commercial expansion; the
+existence of these charters then often led to serious conflicts between
+the grantees of the charter and the colonies; ultimately elective
+assemblies everywhere superseded control of trading companies. (2) The
+second class of charters were those granted to the settlers themselves,
+to protect them against the oppressions of the crown and the provincial
+governors. These were highly prized by the colonists.
+
+In France and Holland, no less than in England, the institution of
+chartered companies became a settled principle of the governments of
+those countries during the whole of the period in question. In France
+from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 of such companies came into existence,
+but after 1770, when the great _Compagnie des Indes orientales_ went
+into liquidation, they were almost abandoned, and finally perished in
+the general sweeping away of privileges which followed on the outbreak
+of the Revolution.
+
+If we inquire into the economic ideas which induced the granting of
+charters to these earlier companies and animated their promoters, we
+shall find that they were entirely consistent with the general
+principles of government at the time and what were then held to be sound
+commercial views. Under the old regime everything was a matter of
+monopoly and privilege, and to this state of things the constitution of
+the old companies corresponded, the sovereign rights accorded to them
+being also quite in accordance with the views of the time. It would have
+been thought impossible then that private individuals could have found
+the funds or maintained the magnitude of such enterprises. It was only
+this necessity which induced statesmen like Colbert to countenance them,
+and Montesquieu took the same view (_Esprit des lois_, t. xx. c. 10).
+John de Witt's view was that such companies were not useful for
+colonization properly so called, because they want quick returns to pay
+their dividends. So, even in France and Holland, opinion was by no means
+settled as to their utility. In England historic protests were made
+against such monopolies, but the chartered companies were less exclusive
+in England than in either France or Holland, the governors of provinces
+almost always allowing strangers to trade on receiving some pecuniary
+inducement. French commercial companies were more privileged, exclusive
+and artificial than those in Holland and England. Those of Holland may
+be said to have been national enterprises. French companies rested more
+than did their rivals on false principles; they were more fettered by
+the royal power, and had less initiative of their own, and therefore had
+less chance of surviving. As an example of the kind of rules which
+prevented the growth of the French companies, it may be pointed out that
+no Protestants were allowed to take part in them. State subventions,
+rather than commerce or colonization, were often their object; but that
+has been a characteristic of French colonial enterprise at all times.
+
+Such companies, however, under the old commercial system could hardly
+have come into existence without exclusive privileges. Their existence
+might have been prolonged had the whole people in time been allowed the
+chance of participating in them.
+
+To sum up the causes of failure of the old chartered companies, they are
+to be attributed to (1) bad administration; (2) want of capital and
+credit; (3) bad economic organization; (4) distribution of dividends
+made prematurely or fictitiously. But those survived the longest which
+extended the most widely their privileges to outsiders. According to
+contemporary protests, they had a most injurious effect on the commerce
+of the countries where they had their rise. They were monopolies, and
+therefore, of course, obnoxious; and it is undoubted that the colonies
+they founded only became prosperous when they had escaped from their
+yoke.
+
+On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that they contributed in no
+small degree to the commercial progress of their own states. They gave
+colonies to the mother country, and an impulse to the development of its
+fleet. In the case of England and Holland, the enterprise of the
+companies saved them from suffering from the monopolies of Spain and
+Portugal, and the wars of the English, and those of the Dutch in the
+Indies with Spain and Portugal, were paid for by the companies. They
+furnished the mother country with luxuries which, by the 18th century,
+had become necessaries. They offered a career for the younger sons of
+good families, and sometimes greatly assisted large and useful
+enterprises.
+
+During the last twenty years of the 19th century there was a great
+revival of the system of chartered companies in Great Britain. It is a
+feature of the general growth of interest in colonial expansion and
+commercial development which has made itself felt almost universally
+among European nations. Great Britain, however, alone has succeeded in
+establishing such companies as have materially contributed to the growth
+of her empire. These companies succeed or fail for reasons different
+from those which affected the chartered companies of former days, though
+there are points in common. Apart from causes inherent in the particular
+case of each company, which necessitates their being examined
+separately, recent experience leads us to lay down certain general
+principles regarding them. The modern companies are not like those of
+the 16th and 17th centuries. They are not privileged in the sense that
+those companies were. They are not monopolists; they have only a limited
+sovereignty, always being subject to the control of the home government.
+It is true that they have certain advantages given them, for without
+these advantages no capital would risk itself in the lands where they
+carry on their operations. They often have very heavy corresponding
+obligations, as will be seen in the case of one (the East Africa) where
+the obligations were too onerous for the company to discharge, though
+they were inseparable from its position. The charters of modern
+companies differ in two points strongly from those of the old: they
+contain clauses prohibiting any monopoly of trade, and they generally
+confer some special political rights directly under the control of the
+secretary of state. The political freedom of the old companies was much
+greater. In these charters state control has been made a distinguishing
+feature. It is to be exercised in almost all directions in which the
+companies may come into contact with matters political. Of course, it is
+inevitable in all disputes of the companies with foreign powers, and is
+extended over all decrees of the company regarding the administration of
+its territories, the taxation of natives, and mining regulations. In all
+cases of dispute between the companies and the natives the secretary of
+state is _ex officio_ the judge, and to the secretary of state (in the
+case of the South Africa Company) the accounts of administration have to
+be submitted for his approbation. It is deserving of notice that the
+British character of the company is insisted upon in each case in the
+charter which calls it into life. The crown always retains complete
+control over the company by reserving to itself the power of revoking
+the charter in case of the neglect of its stipulations. Special clauses
+were inserted in the charters of the British East Africa and South
+Africa Companies enabling the government to forfeit their charters if
+they did not promote the objects alleged as reasons for demanding a
+charter. This bound them still more strongly; and in the case of the
+South Africa Company the duration of the charter was fixed at
+twenty-five years.
+
+The chartered company of these days is therefore very strongly fixed
+within limits imposed by law on its political action. As a whole,
+however, very remarkable results have been achieved. This may be
+attributed in no small degree to the personality of the men who have had
+the supreme direction at home and abroad, and who have, by their social
+position and personal qualities, acquired the confidence of the public.
+With the exception of the Royal Niger Company, it would be incorrect to
+say that they have been financially successful, but in the domain of
+government generally it may be said that they have added vast
+territories to the British empire (in Africa about 1,700,000 sq. m.),
+and in these territories they have acted as a civilizing force. They
+have made roads, opened facilities for trade, enforced peace, and laid
+at all events the foundation of settled administration. It is not too
+much to say that they have often acted unselfishly for the benefit of
+the mother country and even humanity. We may instance the anti-slavery
+and anti-alcohol campaigns which have been carried on, the latter
+certainly being against the immediate pecuniary interests of the
+companies themselves. It must, of course, be recognized that to a
+certain extent this has been done under the influence of the home
+government. The occupation of Uganda certainly, and of the Nigerian
+territory and Rhodesia probably, will prove to have been rather for the
+benefit of posterity than of the companies which effected it. In the two
+cases where the companies have been bought out by the state, they have
+had no compensation for much that they have expended. In fact, it would
+have been impossible to take into account actual expenditure day by day,
+and the cost of wars. To use the expression of Sir William Mackinnon,
+the shareholders have been compelled in some cases to "take out their
+dividends in philanthropy."
+
+The existence of such companies to-day is justified in certain political
+and economic conditions only. It may be highly desirable for the
+government to occupy certain territories, but political exigencies at
+home will not permit it to incur the expenditure, or international
+relations may make such an undertaking inexpedient at the time. In such
+a case the formation of a chartered company may be the best way out of
+the difficulty. But it has been demonstrated again and again that,
+directly, the company's interests begin to clash with those of foreign
+powers, the home government must assume a protectorate over its
+territories in order to simplify the situation and save perhaps
+disastrous collisions. So long as the political relations of such a
+company are with savages or semi-savages, it may be left free to act,
+but directly it becomes involved with a civilized power the state has
+(if it wishes to retain the territory) to acquire by purchase the
+political rights of the company, and it is obviously much easier to
+induce a popular assembly to grant money for the purpose of maintaining
+rights already existing than to acquire new ones. With the strict system
+of government supervision enforced by modern charters it is not easy for
+the state to be involved against its will in foreign complications.
+Economically such companies are also justifiable up to a certain point.
+When there is no other means of entering into commercial relations with
+remote and savage races save by enterprise of such magnitude that
+private individuals could not incur the risk involved, then a company
+may be well entrusted with special privileges for the purpose, as an
+inventor is accorded a certain protection by law by means of a patent
+which enables him to bring out his invention at a profit if there is
+anything in it. But such privileges should not be continued longer than
+is necessary for the purpose of reasonably recompensing the adventurers.
+A successful company, even when it has lost monopoly or privileges, has,
+by its command of capital and general resources, established so strong a
+position that private individuals or new companies can rarely compete
+with it successfully. That this is so is clearly shown in the case of
+the Hudson's Bay Company as at present constituted. In colonizing new
+lands these companies often act successfully. They have proved more
+potent than the direct action of governments. This may be seen in
+Africa, where France and England have of late acquired vast areas, but
+have developed them with very different results, acting from the
+opposite principles of private and state promotion of colonization.
+Apart from national characteristics, the individual has far more to gain
+under the British system of private enterprise. A strong point in favour
+of some of the British companies has been that their undertakings have
+been practically extensions of existing British colonies rather than
+entirely isolated ventures. But a chartered company can never be
+anything but a transition stage of colonization; sooner or later the
+state must take the lead. A company may act beneficially so long as a
+country is undeveloped, but as soon as it becomes even semi-civilized
+its conflicts with private interests become so frequent and serious that
+its authority has to make way for that of the central government.
+
+The companies which have been formed in France during recent years do
+not yet afford material for profitable study, for they have been subject
+to so much vexatious interference from home owing to lack of a fixed
+system of control sanctioned by government, that they have not been
+able, like the British, to develop along their own lines.
+
+  See also BORNEO; NIGERIA; BRIT. EAST AFRICA; RHODESIA; &c. The
+  following works deal with the subject of chartered companies
+  generally: Bonnassieux, _Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce_ (Paris,
+  1892); Chailly-Bert, _Les Compagnies de colonisation sous l'ancien
+  regime_ (Paris, 1898); Cawston and Keane, _The Early Chartered
+  Companies_ (London, 1896); W. Cunningham, _A History of British
+  Industry and Commerce_ (Cambridge, 1890, 1892); Egerton, _A Short
+  History of British Colonial Policy_ (London, 1897); J. Scott Keltie,
+  _The Partition of Africa_ (London, 1895); Leroy-Beaulieu, _De la
+  colonisation chez les peuples modernes_ (Paris, 1898); _Les Nouvelles
+  Societes anglo-saxonnes_ (Paris, 1897); MacDonald, _Select Charters
+  illustrative of American History, 1606-1775_ (New York, 1899); B.P.
+  Poore, _Federal and State Constitutions_, &c (Washington, 1877; a more
+  complete collection of American colonial charters); H.L. Osgood,
+  _American Colonies in the 17th Cent._ (1904-7); Carton de Wiart, _Les
+  Grandes Compagnies coloniales anglaises au 19me siecle_ (Paris, 1899).
+  Also see articles "Compagnies de Charte," "Colonies," "Privilege," in
+  _Nouveau Dictionnaire d'economie politique_ (Paris, 1892); and
+  article "Companies, Chartered," in _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of
+  England_, edited by A. Wood Renton (London, 1907-1909).     (W. B. Du.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERHOUSE. This name is an English corruption of the French _maison
+chartreuse_, a religious house of the Carthusian order. As such it
+occurs not uncommonly in England, in various places (e.g.
+Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Charterhouse Hinton) where the Carthusians were
+established. It is most familiar, however, in its application to the
+Charterhouse, London. On a site near the old city wall, west of the
+modern thoroughfare of Aldersgate, a Carthusian monastery was founded in
+1371 by Sir Walter de Manny, a knight of French birth. After its
+dissolution in 1535 the property passed through various hands. In 1558,
+while in the possession of Lord North, it was occupied by Queen
+Elizabeth during the preparations for her coronation, and James I. held
+court here on his first entrance into London. The Charterhouse was then
+in the hands of Thomas Howard, earl of Suffolk, but in May 1611 it came
+into those of Thomas Sutton (1532-1611) of Snaith, Lincolnshire. He
+acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had
+leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he
+carried on a commercial career. In the year of his death, which took
+place on the 12th of December 1611, he endowed a hospital on the site
+of the Charterhouse, calling it the hospital of King James; and in his
+will he bequeathed moneys to maintain a chapel, hospital (almshouse) and
+school. The will was hotly contested but upheld in court, and the
+foundation was finally constituted to afford a home for eighty male
+pensioners ("gentlemen by descent and in poverty, soldiers that have
+borne arms by sea or land, merchants decayed by piracy or shipwreck, or
+servants in household to the King or Queen's Majesty"), and to educate
+forty boys. The school developed beyond the original intentions of its
+founder, and now ranks among the most eminent public schools in England.
+In 1872 it was removed, during the headmastership (1863-1897) of the
+Rev. William Haig-Brown (d. 1907), to new buildings near Godalming in
+Surrey, which were opened on the 18th of June in that year. The number
+of foundation scholarships is increased to sixty. The scholars are not
+now distinguished by wearing a special dress or by forming a separate
+house, though one house is known as Gownboys, preserving the former
+title of the scholars. The land on which the old school buildings stood
+in London was sold for new buildings to accommodate the Merchant
+Taylors' school, but the pensioners still occupy their picturesque home,
+themselves picturesque figures in the black gowns designed for them
+under the foundation. The buildings, of mellowed red brick, include a
+panelled chapel, in which is the founder's tomb, a fine dining-hall,
+governors' room with ornate ceiling and tapestried walls, the old
+library, and the beautiful great staircase.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTER-PARTY (Lat. _charta partita_, a legal paper or instrument,
+"divided," i.e. written in duplicate so that each party retains half), a
+written, or partly written and partly printed, contract between merchant
+and shipowner, by which a ship is let or hired for the conveyance of
+goods on a specified voyage, or for a definite period. (See
+AFFREIGHTMENT.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARTERS TOWERS, a mining town of Devonport county, Queensland,
+Australia, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Townsville and 820 m. direct N.N.W. of
+Brisbane. It is the centre of an important gold-field, the reefs of
+which improve at the lower depths, the deepest shaft on the field being
+2558 ft. below the surface-level. The gold is of a very fine quality. An
+abundant water-supply is obtained from the Burdekin river, some 8 m.
+distant. The population of the town in 1901 was 5523; but within a 5 m.
+radius it was 20,976. Charters Towers became a municipality in 1877.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTIER, ALAIN (c. 1392-c. 1430), French poet and political writer, was
+born at Bayeux about 1392. Chartier belonged to a family marked by
+considerable ability. His eldest brother Guillaume became bishop of
+Paris; and Thomas became notary to the king. Jean Chartier, a monk of St
+Denis, whose history of Charles VII. is printed in vol. iii. of _Les
+Grands Chroniques de Saint-Denis_ (1477), was not, as is sometimes
+stated, also a brother of the poet Alain studied, as his elder brother
+had done, at the university of Paris. His earliest poem is the _Livre des
+quatre dames_, written after the battle of Agincourt. This was followed
+by the _Debat du reveille-matin_, _La Belle Dame sans merci_, and others.
+None of these poems show any very patriotic feeling, though Chartier's
+prose is evidence that he was not indifferent to the misfortunes of his
+country. He followed the fortunes of the dauphin, afterwards Charles
+VII., acting in the triple capacity of clerk, notary and financial
+secretary. In 1422 he wrote the famous _Quadrilogue-invectif_. The
+interlocutors in this dialogue are France herself and the three orders of
+the state. Chartier lays bare the abuses of the feudal army and the
+sufferings of the peasants. He rendered an immense service to his country
+by maintaining that the cause of France, though desperate to all
+appearance, was not yet lost if the contending factions could lay aside
+their differences in the face of the common enemy. In 1424 Chartier was
+sent on an embassy to Germany, and three years later he accompanied to
+Scotland the mission sent to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of
+Scotland, then not four years old, with the dauphin, afterwards Louis XI.
+In 1429 he wrote the _Livre d'esperance_, which contains a fierce attack
+on the nobility and clergy. He was the author of a diatribe on the
+courtiers of Charles VII. entitled _Le Curial_, translated into English
+(_Here foloweth the copy of a lettre whyche maistre A. Charetier wrote to
+his brother_) by Caxton about 1484. The date of his death is to be placed
+about 1430. A Latin epitaph, discovered in the 18th century, says,
+however, that he was archdeacon of Paris, and declares that he died in
+the city of Avignon in 1449. This is obviously not authentic, for Alain
+described himself as a _simple clerc_ and certainly died long before
+1449. The story of the famous kiss bestowed by Margaret of Scotland on
+_la precieuse bouche de laquelle sont issus et sortis tant de bons mots
+et vertueuses paroles_ is mythical, for Margaret did not come to France
+till 1436, after the poet's death; but the story, first told by Guillaume
+Bouchet in his _Annales d'Aquitaine_ (1524), is interesting, if only as a
+proof of the high degree of estimation in which the ugliest man of his
+day was held. Jean de Masles, who annotated a portion of his verse, has
+recorded how the pages and young gentlemen of that epoch were required
+daily to learn by heart passages of his _Breviaire des nobles_. John
+Lydgate studied him affectionately. His _Belle Dame sans merci_ was
+translated into English by Sir Richard Ros about 1640, with an
+introduction of his own; and Clement Marot and Octavien de Saint-Gelais,
+writing fifty years after his death, find many fair words for the old
+poet, their master and predecessor.
+
+  See Mancel, _Alain Chartier, etude bibliographique et litteraire_, 8vo
+  (Paris, 1849); D. Delaunay's _Etude sur Alain Chartier_ (1876), with
+  considerable extracts from his writings. His works were edited by A.
+  Duchesne (Paris, 1617). On Jean Chartier see Vallet de Viriville,
+  "Essais critiques sur les historiens originaux du regne de Charles
+  VIII," in the _Bibl. de l'Ecole des Chartes_ (July-August 1857).
+
+
+
+
+CHARTISM, the name given to a movement for political reform in England,
+from the so-called "People's Charter" or "National Charter," the
+document in which in 1838 the scheme of reforms was embodied. The
+movement itself may be traced to the latter years of the 18th century.
+Checked for a while by the reaction due to the excesses of the French
+Revolution, it received a fresh impetus from the awful misery that
+followed the Napoleonic wars and the economic changes due to the
+introduction of machinery. The Six Acts of 1819 were directed, not only
+against agrarian and industrial rioting, but against the political
+movement of which Sir Francis Burdett was the spokesman in the House of
+Commons, which demanded manhood suffrage, the ballot, annual
+parliaments, the abolition of the property qualification for members of
+parliament and their payment. The movement was checked for a while by
+the Reform Bill of 1832; but it was soon discovered that, though the
+middle classes had been enfranchised, the economic and political
+grievances of the labouring population remained unredressed. Two
+separate movements now developed: one socialistic, associated with the
+name of Robert Owen; the other radical, aiming at the enfranchisement of
+the "masses" as the first step to the amelioration of their condition.
+The latter was represented in the Working Men's Association, by which in
+1838 the "People's Charter" was drawn up. It embodied exactly the same
+programme as that of the radical reformers mentioned above, with the
+addition of a demand for equal electoral districts.
+
+In support of this programme a vigorous agitation began, the principal
+leader of which was Feargus O'Connor, whose irresponsible and erratic
+oratory produced a vast effect. Monster meetings were held, at which
+seditious language was occasionally used, and slight collisions with the
+military took place. Petitions of enormous size, signed in great part
+with fictitious names, were presented to parliament; and a great many
+newspapers were started, of which the _Northern Star_, conducted by
+Feargus O'Connor, had a circulation of 50,000. In November 1839 a
+Chartist mob consisting of miners and others made an attack on Newport,
+Mon. The rising was a total failure; the leaders, John Frost and two
+others, were seized, were found guilty of high treason, and were
+condemned to death. The sentence, however, was changed to one of
+transportation, and Frost spent over fourteen years in Van Diemen's
+Land. In 1854 he was pardoned, and from 1856 until his death on the 29th
+of July 1877 he lived in England. In 1840 the Chartist movement was
+still further organized by the inauguration at Manchester of the
+National Charter Association, which rapidly became powerful, being the
+head of about 400 sister societies, which are said to have numbered
+40,000 members. Some time after, efforts were made towards a coalition
+with the more moderate radicals, but these failed; and a land scheme was
+started by O'Connor, which prospered for a few years. In 1844 the
+uncompromising spirit of some of the leaders was well illustrated by
+their hostile attitude towards the Anti-Corn-Law League. O'Connor,
+especially, entered into a public controversy with Cobden and Bright, in
+which he was worsted. But it was not till 1848, during a season of great
+suffering among the working classes, and under the influence of the
+revolution at Paris, that the real strength of the Chartist movement was
+discovered and the prevalent discontent became known. Early in March
+disturbances occurred in Glasgow which required the intervention of the
+military, while in the manufacturing districts all over the west of
+Scotland the operatives were ready to rise in the event of the main
+movement succeeding. Some agitation, too, took place in Edinburgh and in
+Manchester, but of a milder nature; in fact, while there was a real and
+widespread discontent, men were indisposed to resort to decided
+measures.
+
+The principal scene of intended Chartist demonstration was London. An
+enormous gathering of half a million was announced for the 10th of April
+on Kennington Common, from which they were to march to the Houses of
+Parliament to present a petition signed by nearly six million names, in
+order by this imposing display of numbers to secure the enactment of the
+six points. Probably some of the more violent members of the party
+thought to imitate the Parisian mob by taking power entirely into their
+own hands. The announcement of the procession excited great alarm, and
+the most decided measures were taken by the authorities to prevent a
+rising. The procession was forbidden. The military were called out under
+the command of the duke of Wellington, and by him concealed near the
+bridges and other points where the procession might attempt to force its
+way. Even the Bank of England and other public buildings were put in a
+state of defence, and special constables, to the number, it is said, of
+170,000, were enrolled, one of whom was destined shortly after to be the
+emperor of the French. After all these gigantic preparations on both
+sides the Chartist demonstration proved to be a very insignificant
+affair. Instead of half a million, only about 50,000 assembled on
+Kennington Common, and their leaders, Feargus O'Connor and Ernest
+Charles Jones, shrank from the responsibility of braving the authorities
+by conducting the procession to the Houses of Parliament. The monster
+petition was duly presented, and scrutinized, with the result that the
+number of signatures was found to have been grossly exaggerated, and
+that the most unheard-of falsification of names had been resorted to.
+Thereafter the movement specially called Chartism soon died out. It
+became merged, so far as its political programme is concerned, with the
+advancing radicalism of the general democratic movement.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTRES, a city of north-western France, capital of the department of
+Eure-et-Loir, 55 m. S.W. of Paris on the railway to Le Mans. Pop. (1906)
+19,433. Chartres is built on the left bank of the Eure, on a hill
+crowned by its famous cathedral, the spires of which are a landmark in
+the surrounding country. To the south-east stretches the fruitful plain
+of Beauce, "the granary of France," of which the town is the commercial
+centre. The Eure, which at this point divides into three branches, is
+crossed by several bridges, some of them ancient, and is fringed in
+places by remains of the old fortifications, of which the Porte
+Guillaume (14th century), a gateway flanked by towers, is the most
+complete specimen. The steep, narrow streets of the old town contrast
+with the wide, shady boulevards which encircle it and divide it from the
+suburbs. The Clos St Jean, a pleasant park, lies to the north-west, and
+squares and open spaces are numerous. The cathedral of Notre-Dame (see
+ARCHITECTURE: _Romanesque and Gothic Architecture in France_; and
+CATHEDRAL), one of the finest Gothic churches in France, was founded in
+the 11th century by Bishop Fulbert on the site of an earlier church
+destroyed by fire. In 1194 another conflagration laid waste the new
+building then hardly completed; but clergy and people set zealously to
+work, and the main part of the present structure was finished by 1240.
+Though there have been numerous minor additions and alterations since
+that time, the general character of the cathedral is unimpaired. The
+upper woodwork was consumed by fire in 1836, but the rest of the
+building was saved. The statuary of the lateral portals, the stained
+glass of the 13th century, and the choir-screen of the Renaissance are
+all unique from the artistic standpoint. The cathedral is also renowned
+for the beauty and perfect proportions of its western towers. That to
+the south, the Clocher Vieux (351 ft. high), dates from the 13th
+century; its upper portion is lower and less rich in design than that of
+the Clocher Neuf (377 ft.), which was not completed till the 16th
+century. In length the cathedral measures 440 ft., its choir measures
+150 ft. across, and the height of the vaulting is 121 ft. The abbey
+church of St Pierre, dating chiefly from the 13th century, contains,
+besides some fine stained glass, twelve representations of the apostles
+in enamel, executed about 1547 by Leonard Limosin. Of the other churches
+of Chartres the chief are St Aignan (13th, 16th and 17th centuries) and
+St Martin-au-Val (12th century). The hotel de ville, a building of the
+17th century, containing a museum and library, an older hotel de ville
+of the 13th century, and several medieval and Renaissance houses, are of
+interest. There is a statue of General F.S. Marceau-Desgraviers (b.
+1769), a native of the town.
+
+The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefecture, a court of assizes, and
+has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce,
+training colleges, a lycee for boys, a communal college for girls, and a
+branch of the Bank of France. Its trade is carried on chiefly on
+market-days, when the peasants of the Beauce bring their crops and
+live-stock to be sold and make their purchases. The game-pies and other
+delicacies of Chartres are well known, and the industries also include
+flour-milling, brewing, distilling, iron-founding, leather manufacture,
+dyeing, and the manufacture of stained glass, billiard requisites,
+hosiery, &c.
+
+Chartres was one of the principal towns of the Carnutes, and by the
+Romans was called _Autricum_, from the river _Autura_ (Eure), and
+afterwards _civitas Carnutum_. It was burnt by the Normans in 858, and
+unsuccessfully besieged by them in 911. In 1417 it fell into the hands
+of the English, from whom it was recovered in 1432. It was attacked
+unsuccessfully by the Protestants in 1568, and was taken in 1591 by
+Henry IV., who was crowned there three years afterwards. In the
+Franco-German War it was seized by the Germans on the 21st of October
+1870, and continued during the rest of the campaign an important centre
+of operations. During the middle ages it was the chief town of the
+district of Beauce, and gave its name to a countship which was held by
+the counts of Blois and Champagne and afterwards by the house of
+Chatillon, a member of which in 1286 sold it to the crown. It was raised
+to the rank of a duchy in 1528 by Francis I. After the time of Louis
+XIV. the title of duke of Chartres was hereditary in the family of
+Orleans.
+
+  See M.T. Bulteau, _Monographie de la cathedrale de Chartres_ (1887);
+  A. Pierval, _Chartres, sa cathedrale, ses monuments_ (1896); H.J.L.J.
+  Masse, _Chartres: its Cathedral and Churches_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CHARTREUSE, a liqueur, so called from having been made at the famous
+Carthusian monastery, La Grande Chartreuse, at Grenoble (see below). In
+consequence of the Associations Law, the Chartreux monks left France in
+1904, and now continue the manufacture of this liqueur in Spain. There
+are two main varieties of Chartreuse, the green and the yellow. The
+green contains about 57, the yellow about 43% of alcohol. There are
+other differences due to the varying nature and quantity of the
+flavouring matters employed, but the secrets of manufacture are
+jealously guarded. The genuine liqueur is undoubtedly produced by means
+of a distillation process.
+
+
+
+
+CHARTREUSE, LA GRANDE, the mother house of the very severe order of
+Carthusian monks (see CARTHUSIANS). It is situated in the French
+department of the Isere, about 12-1/2 m. N. of Grenoble, at a height of
+3205 ft. above the sea, in the heart of a group of limestone mountains,
+and not far from the source of the Guiers Mort. The original settlement
+here was founded by St Bruno about 1084, and derived its name from the
+small village to the S.E., formerly known as Cartusia, and now as St
+Pierre de Chartreuse. The first convent on the present site was built
+between 1132 and 1137, but the actual buildings date only from about
+1676, the older ones having been often burnt. The convent stands in a
+very picturesque position in a large meadow, sloping to the S.W., and
+watered by a tiny tributary of the Guiers Mort. On the north, fine
+forests extend to the Col de la Ruchere, and on the west rise
+well-wooded heights, while on the east tower white limestone ridges,
+culminating in the Grand Som (6670 ft.). One of the most famous of the
+early Carthusian monks was St Hugh of Lincoln, who lived here from 1160
+to 1181, when he went to England to found the first Carthusian house at
+Witham in Somerset; in 1186 he became bishop of Lincoln, and before his
+death in 1200 had built the angel choir and other portions of the
+wonderful cathedral there.
+
+The principal approach to the convent is from St Laurent du Pont, a
+village situated on the Guiers Mort, and largely built by the monks--it
+is connected by steam tramways with Voiron (for Grenoble) and St Beron
+(for Chambery). Among the other routes may be mentioned those from
+Grenoble by Le Sappey, or by the Col de la Charmette, or from Chambery
+by the Col de Couz and the village of Les Echelles. St Laurent is about
+5-1/2 m. from the convent. The road mounts along the Guiers Mort and
+soon reaches the hamlet of Fourvoirie, so called from _forata via_, as
+about 1510 the road was first pierced hence towards the convent. Here
+are iron forges, and here was formerly the chief centre of the
+manufacture of the famed Chartreuse liqueur. Beyond, the road enters the
+"Desert" and passes through most delightful scenery. Some way farther
+the Guiers Mort is crossed by the modern bridge of St Bruno, the older
+bridge of Parant being still visible higher up the stream. Here begins
+the splendid carriage road, constructed by M.E. Viaud between 1854 and
+1856. It soon passes beneath the bold pinnacle of the Oeillette or
+Aiguillette, beyond which formerly women were not allowed to penetrate.
+After passing through four tunnels the road bends north (leaving the
+Guiers Mort which flows past St Pierre de Chartreuse), and the valley
+soon opens to form the upland hollow in which are the buildings of the
+convent. These are not very striking, the high roofs of dark slate, the
+cross-surmounted turrets and the lofty clock-tower being the chief
+features. But the situation is one of ideal peace and repose. Women were
+formerly lodged in the old infirmary, close to the main gate, which is
+now a hotel. Within the conventual buildings are four halls formerly
+used for the reception of the priors of the various branch houses in
+France, Italy, Burgundy and Germany. The very plain and unadorned chapel
+dates from the 15th century, but the cloisters, around which cluster the
+thirty-six small houses for the fully professed monks, are of later
+date. The library contained before the Revolution a very fine collection
+of books and MSS., now mostly in the town library at Grenoble.
+
+The monks were expelled in 1793, but allowed to return in 1816, but then
+they had to pay rent for the use of the buildings and the forests
+around, though both one and the other were due to the industry of their
+predecessors. They were again expelled in 1904, and are dispersed in
+various houses in England, at Pinerolo (Italy) and at Tarragona (Spain).
+It is at the last-named spot that the various pharmaceutical
+preparations are now manufactured for which they are famous (though sold
+only since about 1840)--the _Elixir_, the _Boule d'acier_ (a mineral
+paste or salve), and the celebrated _liqueur_. The magnificent revenues
+derived from the profits of this manufacture were devoted by the monks
+to various purposes of benevolence, especially in the neighbouring
+villages, which owe to this source their churches, schools, hospitals,
+&c., &c., built and maintained at the expense of the monks.
+
+  See _La Grande Chartreuse par un Chartreux_ (Grenoble, 1898); H.
+  Ferrand, _Guide a la Grande Chartreuse_ (1889); and _Les Montagnes de
+  la Chartreuse_ (1899)     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHARWOMAN, one who is hired to do occasional household work. "Char" or
+"chare," which forms the first part of the word, is common, in many
+forms, to Teutonic languages, meaning a "turn," and, in this original
+sense, is seen in "ajar," properly "on char," of a door "on the turn" in
+the act of closing. It is thus applied to a "turn of work," an odd job,
+and is so used, in the form "chore," in America, and in dialects of the
+south-west of England.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873), American statesman and jurist, was
+born in Cornish township, New Hampshire, on the 13th of January 1808.
+His father died in 1817, and the son passed several years (1820-1824) in
+Ohio with his uncle, Bishop Philander Chase (1775-1852), the foremost
+pioneer of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the West, the first bishop
+of Ohio (1819-1831), and after 1835 bishop of Illinois. He graduated at
+Dartmouth College in 1826, and after studying law under William Wirt,
+attorney-general of the United States, in Washington, D.C., was admitted
+to the bar in 1829, and removed to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1830. Here he
+soon gained a position of prominence at the bar, and published an
+annotated edition, which long remained standard, of the laws of Ohio. At
+a time when public opinion in Cincinnati was largely dominated by
+Southern business connexions, Chase, influenced probably by James G.
+Birney, associated himself after about 1836 with the anti-slavery
+movement, and became recognized as the leader of the political reformers
+as opposed to the Garrisonian abolitionists. To the cause he freely gave
+his services as a lawyer, and was particularly conspicuous as counsel
+for fugitive slaves seized in Ohio for rendition to slavery under the
+Fugitive Slave Law of 1793--indeed, he came to be known as the
+"attorney-general of fugitive slaves." His argument (1847) in the famous
+Van Zandt case before the United States Supreme Court attracted
+particular attention, though in this as in other cases of the kind the
+judgment was against him. In brief he contended that slavery was "local,
+not national," that it could exist only by virtue of positive State Law,
+that the Federal government was not empowered by the Constitution to
+create slavery anywhere, and that "when a slave leaves the jurisdiction
+of a state he ceases to be a slave, because he continues to be a man and
+leaves behind him the law which made him a slave." In 1841 he abandoned
+the Whig party, with which he had previously been affiliated, and for
+seven years was the undisputed leader of the Liberty party in Ohio; he
+was remarkably skilful in drafting platforms and addresses, and it was
+he who prepared the national Liberty platform of 1843 and the Liberty
+address of 1845. Realizing in time that a third party movement could not
+succeed, he took the lead during the campaign of 1848 in combining the
+Liberty party with the Barnburners or Van Buren Democrats of New York to
+form the Free-Soilers. He drafted the famous Free-Soil platform, and it
+was largely through his influence that Van Buren was nominated for the
+presidency. His object, however, was not to establish a permanent new
+party organization, but to bring pressure to bear upon Northern
+Democrats to force them to adopt a policy opposed to the further
+extension of slavery.
+
+In 1849 he was elected to the United States Senate as the result of a
+coalition between the Democrats and a small group of Free-Soilers in the
+state legislature; and for some years thereafter, except in 1852, when
+he rejoined the Free-Soilers, he classed himself as an Independent
+Democrat, though he was out of harmony with the leaders of the
+Democratic party. During his service in the Senate (1849-1855) he was
+pre-eminently the champion of anti-slavery in that body, and no one
+spoke more ably than he did against the Compromise Measures of 1850 and
+the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. The Kansas-Nebraska legislation, and
+the subsequent troubles in Kansas, having convinced him of the futility
+of trying to influence the Democrats, he assumed the leadership in the
+North-west of the movement to form a new party to oppose the extension
+of slavery. The "Appeal of the Independent Democrats in Congress to the
+People of the United States," written by Chase and Giddings, and
+published in the New York _Times_ of the 24th of January 1854, may be
+regarded as the earliest draft of the Republican party creed. He was the
+first Republican governor of Ohio, serving from 1855 to 1859. Although,
+with the exception of Seward, he was the most prominent Republican in
+the country, and had done more against slavery than any other
+Republican, he failed to secure the nomination for the presidency in
+1860, partly because his views on the question of protection were not
+orthodox from a Republican point of view, and partly because the old
+line Whig element could not forgive his coalition with the Democrats in
+the senatorial campaign of 1849; his uncompromising and conspicuous
+anti-slavery record, too, was against him from the point of view of
+"availability." As secretary of the treasury in President Lincoln's
+cabinet in 1861-1864, during the first three years of the Civil War, he
+rendered services of the greatest value. That period of crisis witnessed
+two great changes in American financial policy, the establishment of a
+national banking system and the issue of a legal tender paper currency.
+The former was Chase's own particular measure. He suggested the idea,
+worked out all of the important principles and many of the details, and
+induced Congress to accept them. The success of that system alone
+warrants his being placed in the first rank of American financiers. It
+not only secured an immediate market for government bonds, but it also
+provided a permanent uniform national currency, which, though inelastic,
+is absolutely stable. The issue of legal tenders, the greatest financial
+blunder of the war, was made contrary to his wishes, although he did
+not, as he perhaps ought to have done, push his opposition to the point
+of resigning.
+
+Perhaps Chase's chief defect as a statesman was an insatiable desire for
+supreme office. It was partly this ambition, and also temperamental
+differences from the president, which led him to retire from the cabinet
+in June 1864. A few months later (December 6, 1864) he was appointed
+chief justice of the United States Supreme Court to succeed Judge Taney,
+a position which he held until his death in 1873. Among his most
+important decisions were _Texas v. White_ (7 Wallace, 700), 1869, in
+which he asserted that the Constitution provided for an "indestructible
+union composed of indestructible states," _Veazie Bank_ v. _Fenno_ (8
+Wallace, 533), 1869, in defence of that part of the banking legislation
+of the Civil War which imposed a tax of 10% on state bank-notes, and
+_Hepburn_ v. _Griswold_ (8 Wallace, 603), 1869, which declared certain
+parts of the legal tender acts to be unconstitutional. When the legal
+tender decision was reversed after the appointment of new judges,
+1871-1872 (Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wallace, 457), Chase prepared a very
+able dissenting opinion. Toward the end of his life he gradually drifted
+back toward his old Democratic position, and made an unsuccessful effort
+to secure the nomination of the Democratic party for the presidency in
+1872. He died in New York city on the 7th of May 1873. Chase was one of
+the ablest political leaders of the Civil War period, and deserves to be
+placed in the front rank of American statesmen.
+
+  The standard biography is A.B. Hart's _Salmon Portland Chase_ in the
+  "American Statesmen Series" (1899). Less philosophical, but containing
+  a greater wealth of detail, is J.W. Shuckers' _Life and Public
+  Services of Salmon Portland Chase_ (New York, 1874). R.B. Warden's
+  _Account of the Private Life and Public Services of Salmon Portland
+  Chase_ (Cincinnati, 1874) deals more fully with Chase's private life.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, SAMUEL (1741-1811), American jurist, was born in Somerset county,
+Maryland, on the 17th of April 1741. He was admitted to the bar at
+Annapolis in 1761, and for more than twenty years was a member of the
+Maryland legislature. He took an active part in the resistance to the
+Stamp Act, and from 1774 to 1778 and 1784 to 1785 was a member of the
+Continental Congress. With Benjamin Franklin and Charles Carroll he was
+sent by Congress in 1776 to win over the Canadians to the side of the
+revolting colonies, and after his return did much to persuade Maryland
+to advocate a formal separation of the thirteen colonies from Great
+Britain, he himself being one of those who signed the Declaration of
+Independence on the 2nd of August 1776. In this year he was also a
+member of the convention which framed the first constitution for the
+state of Maryland. After serving in the Maryland convention which
+ratified for that state the Federal Constitution, and there vigorously
+opposing ratification, though afterwards he was an ardent Federalist, he
+became in 1791 chief judge of the Maryland general court, which position
+he resigned in 1796 for that of an associate justice of the Supreme
+Court of the United States. His radical Federalism, however, led him to
+continue active in politics, and he took advantage of every opportunity,
+on the bench and off, to promote the cause of his party. His overbearing
+conduct while presiding at the trials of John Fries for treason, and of
+James Thompson Callender (d. 1813) for seditious libel in 1800, drove
+the lawyers for the defence from the court, and evoked the wrath of the
+Republicans, who were stirred to action by a political harangue on the
+evil tendencies of democracy which he delivered as a charge to a grand
+jury at Baltimore in 1803. The House of Representatives adopted a
+resolution of impeachment in March 1804, and on the 7th of December 1804
+the House managers, chief among whom were John Randolph, Joseph H.
+Nicholson (1770-1817), and Caesar A. Rodney (1772-1824), laid their
+articles of impeachment before the Senate. The trial, with frequent
+interruptions and delays, lasted from the 2nd of January to the 1st of
+March 1805. Judge Chase was defended by the ablest lawyers in the
+country, including Luther Martin, Robert Goodloe Harper (1765-1825),
+Philip Barton Key (1757-1815), Charles Lee (1758-1815), and Joseph
+Hopkinson (1770-1842). The indictment, in eight articles, dealt with his
+conduct in the Fries and Callender trials, with his treatment of a
+Delaware grand jury, and (in article viii.) with his making "highly
+indecent, extra-judicial" reflections upon the national administration,
+probably the greatest offence in Republican eyes. On only three articles
+was there a majority against Judge Chase, the largest, on article viii.,
+being four short of the necessary two-thirds to convict. "The case,"
+says Henry Adams, "proved impeachment to be an impracticable thing for
+partisan purposes, and it decided the permanence of those lines of
+constitutional development which were a reflection of the common law."
+Judge Chase resumed his seat on the bench, and occupied it until his
+death on the 19th of June 1811.
+
+  See _The Trial of Samuel Chase_ (2 vols., Washington, 1805), reported
+  by Samuel H. Smith and Thomas Lloyd; an article in _The American Law
+  Review_, vol. xxxiii. (St Louis, Mo., 1899); and Henry Adams's
+  _History of the United States_, vol. ii. (New York, 1889).
+
+
+
+
+CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849-   ), American painter, was born at
+Franklin, Indiana, on the 1st of November 1849. He was a pupil of B.F.
+Hays at Indianapolis, of J.O. Eaton in New York, and subsequently of A.
+Wagner and Piloty in Munich. In New York he established a school of his
+own, after teaching with success for some years at the Art Students'
+League. A worker in all mediums--oils, water-colour, pastel and
+etching--painting with distinction the figure, landscape and still-life,
+he is perhaps best known by his portraits, his sitters numbering some of
+the most important men and women of his time. Mr Chase won many honours
+at home and abroad, became a member of the National Academy of Design,
+New York, and for ten years was president of the Society of American
+Artists. Among his important canvases are "Ready for the Ride" (Union
+League Club, N.Y.), "The Apprentice," "Court Jester," and portraits of
+the painters Whistler and Duveneck; of General Webb and of Peter Cooper.
+
+
+
+
+CHASE. (1) (Fr. _chasse_, from Lat. _captare_, frequentative of
+_capere_, to take), the pursuit of wild animals for food or sport (see
+HUNTING). The word is used of the pursuit of anything, and also of the
+thing pursued, as, in naval warfare, of a ship. A transferred meaning is
+that of park land reserved for the breeding and hunting of wild animals,
+in which sense it appears in various place-names in England, as Cannock
+Chase. It is also a term for a stroke in tennis (q.v.). (2) (Fr.
+_chasse_, Lat. _capsa_, a box, cf. _caisse_, and "chest"), an enclosure,
+such as the muzzle-end of a gun in front of the trunnions, a groove cut
+to hold a pipe, and, in typography, the frame enclosing the "forme."
+
+
+
+
+CHASING, or ENCHASING, the art of producing figures and ornamental
+patterns, either raised or indented, on metallic surfaces by means of
+steel tools or punches. It is practised extensively for the
+ornamentation of goldsmith and silversmith work, electro-plate and
+similar objects, being employed to produce bold flutings and bosses, and
+in another manner utilized for imitating engraved surfaces. Minute work
+can be produced by this method, perfect examples of which may be seen in
+the watch-cases chased by G.M. Moser, R.A. (1704-1783). The chaser first
+outlines the pattern on the surface he is to ornament, after which, if
+the work involves bold or high embossments, these are blocked out by a
+process termed "snarling." The snarling iron is a long iron tool turned
+up at the end, and made so that when securely fastened in a vise the
+upturned end can reach and press against any portion of the interior of
+the vase or other object to be chased. The part to be raised being held
+firmly against the upturned point of the snarling iron, the workman
+gives the shoulder or opposite end of the iron a sharp blow, which
+causes the point applied to the work to give it a percussive stroke, and
+thus throw up the surface of the metal held against the tool. When the
+blocking out from the interior is finished, or when no such embossing is
+required, the object to be chased is filled with molten pitch, which is
+allowed to harden. It is then fastened to a sandbag, and with hammer and
+a multitude of small punches of different outline the whole details of
+the pattern, lined, smooth or "matt," are worked out. Embossing and
+stamping from steel dies and rolled ornaments have long since taken the
+place of chased ornamentations in the cheaper kinds of plated works.
+(See EMBOSSING.)
+
+
+
+
+CHASLES, VICTOR EUPHEMIEN PHILARETE (1798-1873), French critic and man
+of letters, was born at Mainvilliers (Eure et Loir) on the 8th of
+October 1798. His father, Pierre Jacques Michel Chasles (1754-1826), was
+a member of the Convention, and was one of those who voted the death of
+Louis XVI. He brought up his son according to the principles of
+Rousseau's _Emile_, and the boy, after a regime of outdoor life,
+followed by some years' classical study, was apprenticed to a printer,
+so that he might make acquaintance with manual labour. His master was
+involved in one of the plots of 1815, and Philarete suffered two months'
+imprisonment. On his release he was sent to London, where he worked for
+the printer Valpy on editions of classical authors. He wrote articles
+for the English reviews, and on his return to France did much to
+popularize the study of English authors. He was also one of the earliest
+to draw attention in France to Scandinavian and Russian literature. He
+contributed to the _Revue des deux mondes_, until he had a violent
+quarrel, terminating in a lawsuit, with Francois Buloz, who won his
+case. He became librarian of the Bibliotheque Mazarine, and from 1841
+was professor of comparative literature at the College de France. During
+his active life he produced some fifty volumes of literary history and
+criticism, and of social history, much of which is extremely valuable.
+He died at Venice on the 18th of July 1873. His son, Emile Chasles (b.
+1827), was a philologist of some reputation.
+
+  Among his best critical works is _Dix-huitieme Siecle en Angleterre_
+  ... (1846), one of a series of 20 vols. of _Etudes de litterature
+  comparee_ (1846-1875), which he called later _Trente ans de critique_.
+  An account of his strenuous boyhood is given in his _Maison de mon
+  pere_. His _Memoires_ (1876-1877) did not fulfil the expectations
+  based on his brilliant talk.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSE (from the Fr., in full _chasse-cafe_, or "coffee-chaser"), a
+draught of spirit or liqueur, taken with or after coffee, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSE (Fr. for "chased"), a gliding step in dancing, so called since
+one foot is brought up behind or chases the other. The _chasse croise_
+is a double variety of the step.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSELOUP-LAUBAT, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1754-1833), French general and
+military engineer, was born at St Sernin (Lower Charente) on the 18th of
+August 1754, of a noble family, and entered the French engineers in
+1774. He was still a subaltern at the outbreak of the Revolution,
+becoming captain in 1791. His ability as a military engineer was
+recognized in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. In the following year he
+won distinction in various actions and was promoted successively _chef
+de bataillon_ and colonel. He was chief of engineers at the siege of
+Mainz in 1796, after which he was sent to Italy. He there conducted the
+first siege of Mantua, and reconnoitred the positions and lines of
+advance of the army of Bonaparte. He was promoted general of brigade
+before the close of the campaign, and was subsequently employed in
+fortifying the new Rhine frontier of France. His work as chief of
+engineers in the army of Italy (1799) was conspicuously successful, and
+after the battle of Novi he was made general of division. When Napoleon
+took the field in 1800 to retrieve the disasters of 1799, he again
+selected Chasseloup as his engineer general. During the peace of
+1801-1805 he was chiefly employed in reconstructing the defences of
+northern Italy, and in particular the afterwards famous Quadrilateral.
+His _chef-d'oeuvre_ was the great fortress of Alessandria on the Tanaro.
+In 1805 he remained in Italy with Massena, but at the end of 1806
+Napoleon, then engaged in the Polish campaign, called him to the _Grande
+Armee_, with which he served in the campaign of 1806-07, directing the
+sieges of Colberg, Danzig and Stralsund. During the Napoleonic
+domination in Germany, Chasseloup reconstructed many fortresses, in
+particular Magdeburg. In the campaign of 1809 he again served in Italy.
+In 1810 Napoleon made him a councillor of state. His last campaign was
+that of 1812 in Russia. He retired from active service soon afterwards,
+though in 1814 he was occasionally engaged in the inspection and
+construction of fortifications. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France
+and a knight of St Louis. He refused to join Napoleon in the Hundred
+Days, but after the second Restoration he voted in the chamber of peers
+against the condemnation of Marshal Ney. In politics he belonged to the
+constitutional party. The king created him a marquis. Chasseloup's later
+years were employed chiefly in putting in order his manuscripts, a task
+which he had to abandon owing to the failure of his sight. His only
+published work was _Correspondence d'un general francais, &c. sur divers
+sujets_ (Paris, 1801, republished Milan, 1805 and 1811, under the title
+_Correspondance de deux generals, &c., essais sur quelques parties
+d'artillerie et de fortification_). The most important of his papers are
+in manuscript in the Depot of Fortifications, Paris.
+
+As an engineer Chasseloup was an adherent, though of advanced views, of
+the old bastioned system. He followed in many respects the engineer
+Bousmard, whose work was published in 1797 and who fell, as a Prussian
+officer, in the defence of Danzig in 1807 against Chasseloup's own
+attack. His front was applied to Alessandria, as has been stated, and
+contains many elaborations of the bastion trace, with, in particular,
+masked flanks in the tenaille, which served as extra flanks of the
+bastions. The bastion itself was carefully and minutely retrenched. The
+ordinary ravelin he replaced by a heavy casemated caponier after the
+example of Montalembert, and, like Bousmard's, his own ravelin was a
+large and powerful work pushed out beyond the glacis.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSEPOT, officially "fusil modele 1866," a military breech-loading
+rifle, famous as the arm of the French forces in the Franco-German War
+of 1870-71. It was so called after its inventor, Antoine Alphonse
+Chassepot (1833-1905), who, from 1857 onwards, had constructed various
+experimental forms of breech-loader, and it became the French service
+weapon in 1866. In the following year it made its first appearance on
+the battle-field at Mentana (November 3rd, 1867), where it inflicted
+severe losses upon Garibaldi's troops. In the war of 1870 it proved very
+greatly superior to the German needle-gun. The breech was closed by a
+bolt very similar to those of more modern rifles, and amongst the
+technical features of interest were the method of obturation, which was
+similar in principle to the de Bange obturator for heavy guns (see
+ORDNANCE), and the retention of the paper cartridge. The principal
+details of the chassepot are:--weight of rifle, 9 lb. 5 oz.; length with
+bayonet, 6 ft. 2 in.; calibre, .433 in.; weight of bullet (lead), 386
+grains; weight of charge (black powder), 86.4 grains; muzzle velocity,
+1328 f.s.; sighted to 1312 yds. (1200 m.). The chassepot was replaced in
+1874 by the Gras rifle, which had a metal cartridge, and all rifles of
+the older model remaining in store were converted to take the same
+ammunition (fusil modele 1866/74).
+
+
+
+
+CHASSESRIAU, THEODORE (1819-1856), French painter, was born in the
+Antilles, and studied under Ingres at Paris and at Rome, subsequently
+falling under the influence of Paul Delaroche. He was a well-known
+painter of portraits and historical pieces, his "Tepidarium at Pompeii"
+(1853) being now in the Louvre.
+
+
+
+
+CHASSIS (Fr. _chassis_, a frame, from the Late. Lat. _capsum_, an
+enclosed space), properly a window-frame, from which is derived the word
+"sash"; also the movable traversing frame of a gun, and more
+particularly that part of a motor vehicle consisting of the wheels,
+frame and machinery, on which the body or carriage part rests.
+
+
+
+
+CHASTELARD, PIERRE DE BOCSOZEL DE (1540-1563), French poet, was born in
+Dauphine, a scion of the house of Bayard. His name is inseparably
+connected with Mary, queen of Scots. From the service of the Constable
+Montmorency, Chastelard, then a page, passed to the household of Marshal
+Damville, whom he accompanied in his journey to Scotland in escort of
+Mary (1561). He returned to Paris in the marshal's train, but left for
+Scotland again shortly afterward, bearing letters of recommendation to
+Mary from his old protector, Montmorency, and the _Regrets_ addressed to
+the ex-queen of France by Pierre Ronsard, his master in the art of song.
+He undertook to transmit to the poet the service of plate with which
+Mary rewarded him. But he had fallen in love with the queen, who is said
+to have encouraged his passion. Copies of verse passed between them; she
+lost no occasion of showing herself partial to his person and
+conversation. The young man hid himself under her bed, where he was
+discovered by her maids of honour. Mary pardoned the offence, and the
+old familiar terms between them were resumed. Chastelard was so rash as
+again to violate her privacy. He was discovered a second time, seized,
+sentenced and hanged the next morning. He met his fate valiantly and
+consistently, reading, on his way to the scaffold, his master's noble
+_Hymne de la mort_, and turning at the instant of doom towards the
+palace of Holyrood, to address to his unseen mistress the famous
+farewell--"Adieu, toi si belle et si cruelle, qui me tues et que je ne
+puis cesser d'aimer." This at least is the version of the _Memoires_ of
+Brantome, who is, however, notoriously untrustworthy. But for his
+madness of love, it is possible that Chastelard would have left no
+shadow or shred of himself behind. As it is, his life and death are of
+interest as illustrating the wild days in which his lot was cast.
+
+
+
+
+CHASTELLAIN, GEORGES (d. 1475), Burgundian chronicler, was a native of
+Alost in Flanders. He derived his surname from the fact that his
+ancestors were burgraves or chatelains of the town; his parents, who
+belonged to illustrious Flemish families, were probably the Jean
+Chastellain and his wife Marie de Masmines mentioned in the town records
+in 1425 and 1432. A copy of an epitaph originally at Valenciennes states
+that he died on the 20th of March 1474-5 aged seventy. But since he
+states that he was so young a child in 1430 that he could not recollect
+the details of events in that year, and since he was "_ecolier_" at
+Louvain in 1430, his birth may probably be placed nearer 1415 than 1405.
+He saw active service in the Anglo-French wars and probably elsewhere,
+winning the surname of _L'adventureux_. In 1434 he received a gift from
+Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, for his military services, but on the
+conclusion of the peace of Arras in the next year he abandoned
+soldiering for diplomacy. The next ten years were spent in France, where
+he was connected with Georges de la Tremoille, and afterwards entered
+the household of Pierre de Breze, at that time seneschal of Poitou, by
+whom he was employed on missions to the duke of Burgundy, in an attempt
+to establish better relations between Charles VII. and the duke. During
+these years Chastellain had ample opportunity of obtaining an intimate
+knowledge of French affairs, but on the further breach between the two
+princes, Chastellain left the French service to enter Philip's
+household. He was at first pantler, then carver, titles which are
+misleading as to the nature of his services, which were those of a
+diplomatist; and in 1457 he became a member of the ducal council. He was
+continually employed on diplomatic errands until 1455, when, owing
+apparently to ill-health, he received apartments in the palace of the
+counts of Hainaut at Salle-le-Comte, Valenciennes, with a considerable
+pension, on condition that the recipient should put in writing "_choses
+nouvelles et morales_," and a chronicle of notable events. That is to
+say, he was appointed Burgundian historiographer with a recommendation
+to write also on other subjects not strictly within the scope of a
+chronicler. From this time he worked hard at his _Chronique_, with
+occasional interruptions in his retreat to fulfil missions in France, or
+to visit the Burgundian court. He was assisted, from about 1463 onwards,
+by his disciple and continuator, Jean Molinet, whose rhetorical and
+redundant style may be fairly traced in some passages of the
+_Chronique_. Charles the Bold maintained the traditions of his house as
+a patron of literature, and showed special favour to Chastellain, who,
+after being constituted _indiciaire_ or chronicler of the order of the
+Golden Fleece, was himself made a knight of the order on the 2nd of May
+1473. He died at Valenciennes on the 13th of February (according to the
+treasury accounts), or on the 20th of March (according to his epitaph)
+1475. He left an illegitimate son, to whom was paid in 1524 one hundred
+and twenty livres for a copy of the _Chronique_ intended for Charles
+V.'s sister Mary, queen of Hungary. Only about one-third of the whole
+work, which extended from 1410 to 1474, is known to be in existence, but
+MSS. carried by the Habsburgs to Vienna or Madrid may possibly yet be
+discovered.
+
+Among his contemporaries Chastellain acquired a great reputation by his
+poems and occasional pieces now little considered. The unfinished state
+of his _Chronique_ at the time of his death, coupled with political
+considerations, may possibly account for the fact that it remained
+unprinted during the century that followed his death, and his historical
+work was only disinterred from the libraries of Arras, Paris and
+Brussels by the painstaking researches of M. Buchon in 1825. Chastellain
+was constantly engaged during the earlier part of his career in
+negotiations between the French and Burgundian courts, and thus had
+personal knowledge of the persons and events dealt with in his history.
+A partisan element in writing of French affairs was inevitable in a
+Burgundian chronicle. This defect appears most strongly in his treatment
+of Joan of Arc; and the attack on Agnes Sorel seems to have been
+dictated by the dauphin (afterwards Louis XI.), then a refugee in
+Burgundy, of whom he was afterwards to become a severe critic. He was
+not, however, misled, as his more picturesque predecessor Froissart had
+been, by feudal and chivalric tradition into misconception of the
+radical injustice of the English cause in France; and except in isolated
+instances where Burgundian interests were at stake, he did full justice
+to the patriotism of Frenchmen. Among his most sympathetic portraits are
+those of his friend Pierre de Breze and of Jacques Coeur. His French
+style, based partly on his Latin reading, has, together with its
+undeniable vigour and picturesqueness, the characteristic redundance and
+rhetorical quality of the Burgundian school. Chastellain was no mere
+annalist, but proposed to fuse and shape his vast material to his own
+conclusions, in accordance with his political experience. The most
+interesting feature of his work is the skill with which he pictures the
+leading figures of his time. His "characters" are the fruit of acute and
+experienced observation, and abound in satirical traits, although the
+42nd chapter of his second book, devoted expressly to portraiture, is
+headed "_Comment Georges escrit et mentionne les louanges vertueuses des
+princes de son temps._"
+
+  The known extant fragments of Chastellain's _Chroniques_ with his
+  other works were edited by Kervyn de Lettenhove for the Brussels
+  Academy in 1863-1866 (8 vols., Brussels) as _OEuvres de Georges
+  Chastellain_. This edition includes all that had been already
+  published by Buchon in his _Collection de chroniques_ and _Choix de
+  chroniques_ (material subsequently incorporated in the _Pantheon
+  litteraire_), and portions printed by Renard in his _Tresor national_,
+  vol. i. and by Quicherat in the _Proces de la Pucelle_ vol. iv. Kervyn
+  de Lettenhove's text includes the portions of the chronicle covering
+  the periods September 1419, October 1422, January 1430 to December
+  1431, 1451-1452, July 1454 to October 1458, July 1461 to July 1463,
+  and, with omissions, June 1467 to September 1470; and three volumes of
+  minor pieces of considerable interest, especially _Le Temple de
+  Boccace_, dedicated to Margaret of Anjou, and the _Deprecation_ for
+  Pierre Breze, imprisoned by Louis XI. In the case of these minor works
+  the attribution to Chastellain is in some cases erroneous, notably in
+  the case of the _Livre des faits de Jacques de Lalain_, which is the
+  work of Lefebvre de Saint-Remi, herald of the Golden Fleece. In the
+  allegorical _Oultre d'amour_ it has been thought a real romance
+  between Breze and a lady of the royal house is concealed.
+
+  See A. Molinier, _Les Sources de l'histoire de France_; as well as
+  notices by Kervyn de Lettenhove prefixed to the _OEuvres_ and in the
+  _Biographie nationale de Belgique_; and an article (three parts) by
+  Vallet de Viriville in the _Journal des savants_ (1867).
+
+
+
+
+CHASUBLE (Fr. _chasuble_, Ger. _Kasel_, Span. _casulla_; Late Lat.
+_casula_, a little house, hut, from _casa_), a liturgical vestment of
+the Catholic Church. It is the outermost garment worn by bishops and
+priests at the celebration of the Mass, forming with the alb (q.v.) the
+most essential part of the eucharistic vestments. Since it is only used
+at the Mass, or rarely for functions intimately connected with the
+sacrament of the altar, it may be regarded as the Mass vestment _par
+excellence_. The chasuble is thus in a special sense the sacerdotal
+vestment, and at the ordination of priests, according to the Roman rite,
+the bishop places on the candidate a chasuble rolled up at the back
+(_planeta plicata_), with the words, "Take the sacerdotal robe, the
+symbol of love," &c.; at the end of the ordination Mass the vestment is
+unrolled. The chasuble or _planeta_ (as it is called in the Roman
+missal), according to the prevailing model in the Roman Catholic Church,
+is a scapular-like cloak, with a hole in the middle for the head,
+falling down over breast and back, and leaving the arms uncovered at the
+sides. Its shape and size, however, differ considerably in various
+countries (see fig. 1), while some churches--e.g. those of certain
+monastic orders--have retained or reverted to the earlier "Gothic" forms
+to be described later. According to the decisions of the Congregation of
+Rites chasubles must not be of linen, cotton or woollen stuffs, but of
+silk; though a mixture of wool (or linen and cotton) and silk is allowed
+if the silk completely cover the other material on the outer side; spun
+glass thread, as a substitute for gold or silver thread, is also
+forbidden, owing to the possible danger to the priest's health through
+broken fragments falling into the chalice.
+
+[Illustration: From Braun's _Liturgische Gewandung_, by permission of
+the publisher, B. Herder.
+
+FIG. 1.--Comparative shape and size of Chasubles as now in use in
+various countries.
+
+a, b, German. c, Roman. d, Spanish.]
+
+The chasuble, like the kindred vestments (the [Greek: phelonion], &c.)
+in the Eastern Churches, is derived from the Roman _paenula_ or
+_planeta_, a cloak worn by all classes and both sexes in the
+Graeco-Roman world (see VESTMENTS). Though early used in the celebration
+of the liturgy it had for several centuries no specifically liturgical
+character, the first clear instances of its ritual use being in a letter
+of St Germanus of Paris (d. 576), and the next in the twenty-eighth
+canon of the Council of Toledo (633). Much later than this, however, it
+was still an article of everyday clerical dress, and as such was
+prescribed by the German council convened by Carloman and presided over
+by St Boniface in 742. Amalarius of Metz, in his _De ecclesiasticis
+officiis_ (ii. 19), tells us in 816 that the _casula_ is the _generale
+indumentum sacrorum ducum_ and "is proper generally to all the clergy."
+It was not until the 11th century, when the cope (q.v.) had become
+established as a liturgical vestment, that the chasuble began to be
+reserved as special to the sacrifice of the Mass. As illustrating this
+process Father Braun (p. 170) cites an interesting correspondence
+between Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and John of Avranches,
+archbishop of Rouen, as to the propriety of a bishop wearing a chasuble
+at the consecration of a church, Lanfranc maintaining as an established
+principle that the vestment should be reserved for the Mass. By the 13th
+century, with the final development of the ritual of the Mass, the
+chasuble became definitely fixed as the vestment of the celebrating
+priest; though to this day in the Roman Church relics of the earlier
+general use of the chasuble survive in the _planeta plicata_ worn by
+deacons and subdeacons in Lent and Advent, and other penitential
+seasons.
+
+At the Reformation the chasuble was rejected with the other vestments by
+the more extreme Protestants. Its use, however, survived in the Lutheran
+churches; and though in those of Germany it is no longer worn, it still
+forms part of the liturgical costume of the Scandinavian Evangelical
+churches. In the Church of England, though it was prescribed
+alternatively with the cope in the First Prayer-Book of Edward VI., it
+was ultimately discarded, with the other "Mass vestments," the cope
+being substituted for it at the celebration of the Holy Communion in
+cathedral and collegiate churches; its use has, however, during the last
+fifty years been widely revived in connexion with the reactionary
+movement in the direction of the pre-Reformation doctrine of the
+eucharist. The difficult question of its legality is discussed in the
+article VESTMENTS.
+
+_Form._--The chasuble was originally a tent-like robe which fell in
+loose folds below the knee (see Plate I. fig. 4). Its obvious
+inconvenience for celebrating the holy mysteries, however, caused its
+gradual modification. The object of the change was primarily to leave
+the hands of the celebrant freer for the careful performance of the
+manual acts, and to this end a process of cutting away at the sides of
+the vestment began, which continued until the tent-shaped chasuble of
+the 12th century had developed in the 16th into the scapular-like
+vestment at present in use. This process was, moreover, hastened by the
+substitution of costly and elaborately embroidered materials for the
+simple stuffs of which the vestment had originally been composed; for,
+as it became heavier and stiffer, it necessarily had to be made smaller.
+For the extremely exiguous proportions of some chasubles actually in
+use, which have been robbed of all the beauty of form they ever
+possessed, less respectable motives have sometimes been responsible,
+viz. the desire of their makers to save on the materials. The most
+beautiful form of the chasuble is undoubtedly the "Gothic" (see the
+figure of Bishop Johannes of Lubeck in the article VESTMENTS), which is
+the form most affected by the Anglican clergy, as being that worn in the
+English Church before the Reformation.
+
+_Decoration._--Though _planetae_ decorated with narrow orphreys are
+occasionally met with in the monuments of the early centuries, these
+vestments were until the 10th century generally quite plain, and even at
+the close of this century, when the custom of decorating the chasuble
+with orphreys had become common, there was no definite rule as to their
+disposition; sometimes they were merely embroidered borders to the
+neck-opening or hem, sometimes a vertical strip down the back, less
+often a forked cross, the arms of which turned upwards over the
+shoulders. From this time onward, however, the embroidery became ever
+more and more elaborate, and with this tendency the orphreys were
+broadened to allow of their being decorated with figures. About the
+middle of the 13th century, the cross with horizontal arms begins to
+appear on the back of the vestment, and by the 15th this had become the
+most usual form, though the forked cross also survived--e.g. in England,
+where it is now considered distinctive of the chasuble as worn in the
+Anglican Church. Where the forked cross is used it is placed both on the
+back and front of the vestment; the horizontal-armed cross, on the other
+hand, is placed only on the back, the front being decorated with a
+vertical strip extending to the lower hem (fig. 1, b, d). Sometimes
+the back of the chasuble has no cross, but only a vertical orphrey, and
+in this case the front, besides the vertical stripe, has a horizontal
+orphrey just below the neck opening (see Plate I. fig. 2). This latter
+is the type used in the local Roman Church, which has been adopted in
+certain dioceses in South Germany and Switzerland, and of late years in
+the Roman Catholic churches in England, e.g. Westminster cathedral (see
+Plate I. figs. 3 and 5).
+
+[Illustration PLATE I.
+
+  FIG. 2.--Chasuble of Pope Calixtus III. (15th century) preserved at
+  Valencia.
+
+  From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_, by
+  permission of the publisher, B. Herder.
+
+  FIG. 3.--Chasuble of Pope Pius V. (late 15th century) at S. Maria
+  Maggiore at Rome.
+
+  From a photograph by Father J.L. Braun in _Die liturg Gewandung_.
+
+  FIG. 4.--Chasuble dedicated by Stephen of Hungary (997-1038) and his
+  wife Gisela, used as the Hungarian Coronation Robe.
+
+  (From Braun, _Die liturg. Gewandung_.)
+
+  FIG. 5.--Modern Roman Chasuble of Archbishop Bourne of Westminster.
+
+  FIG. 6.--Modern English Chasuble, used at St Paul's Church,
+  Knightsbridge, London.]
+
+[Illustration PLATE II.
+
+  FIG. 7.--Back of a Chasuble of Italian Brocaded Damask (Red) with
+  Embroidered Orphreys. The Vestment is of the early 16th century, the
+  Orphreys of the late 14th century. (English. In the Victoria and
+  Albert Museum.)]
+
+It has been widely held that the forked cross was a conscious imitation
+of the archiepiscopal pallium (F. Bock, _Gesch. der liturg. Gewander_,
+ii. 107), and that the chasuble so decorated is proper to archbishops.
+Father Braun, however, makes it quite clear that this was not the case,
+and gives proof that this decoration was not even originally conceived
+as a cross at all, citing early instances of its having been worn by
+laymen and even by non-Christians (p. 210). It was not until the 13th
+century that the symbolical meaning of the cross began to be elaborated,
+and this was still further accentuated from the 14th century onward by
+the increasingly widespread custom of adding to it the figure of the
+crucified Christ and other symbols of the Passion. This, however, did
+not represent any definite rule; and the orphreys of chasubles were
+decorated with a great variety of pictorial subjects, scriptural or
+drawn from the stories of the saints, while the rest of the vestment was
+either left plain or, if embroidered, most usually decorated with
+arabesque patterns of foliage or animals. The local Roman Church, true
+to its ancient traditions, adhered to the simpler forms. The modern
+Roman chasuble pictured in Plate I. fig. 5, besides the conventional
+arabesque pattern, is decorated, according to rule, with the arms of the
+archbishop and his see.
+
+_The Eastern Church._--The original equivalent of the chasuble is the
+phelonion ([Greek: phelonion, phelones, phainolion], from _paenula_). It
+is a full vestment of the type of the Western bell chasuble; but,
+instead of being cut away at the sides, it is for convenience' sake
+either gathered up or cut short in front. In the Armenian, Syrian,
+Chaldaean and Coptic rites it is cope-shaped. There is some difference
+of opinion as to the derivation of the vestment in the latter case; the
+Five Bishops (Report to Convocation, 1908) deriving it, like the cope,
+from the _birrus_, while Father Braun considers it, as well as the cope,
+to be a modification of the _paenula_.[1] The phelonion (Arm.
+_shurtshar_, Syr. _phaina_, Chald. _maaphra_ or _phaina_, Copt, _burnos,
+felonion, kuklion_) is confined to the priests in the Armenian, Syrian,
+Chaldaean and Coptic rites; in the Greek rite it is worn also by the
+lectors. It is not in the East so specifically a eucharistic vestment as
+in the West, but is worn at other solemn functions besides the liturgy,
+e.g. marriages, processions, &c.
+
+Until the 11th century the phelonion is always pictured as a perfectly
+plain dark robe, but at this period the custom arose of decorating the
+patriarchal phelonion with a number of crosses, whence its name of
+[Greek: polystaurion]. By the 14th century the use of these polystauria
+had been extended to metropolitans and later still to all bishops. The
+purple or black phelonion, however, remained plain in all cases. The
+Greeks and Greek Melchite metropolitans now wear the _sakkos_ instead of
+the phelonion; and in the Russian, Ruthenian, Bulgarian and Italo-Greek
+churches this vestment has superseded the phelonion in the case of all
+bishops (see DALMATIC and VESTMENTS).
+
+  See J. Braun, S.J., _Die liturgische Gewandung_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,
+  1907), pp. 149-247, and the bibliography to the article VESTMENTS.
+       (W. A. P.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The writer is indebted to the courtesy of Father Braun for the
+    following note:--"That the Syrian _phaina_ was formerly a closed
+    mantle of the type of the bell chasuble is clearly proved by the
+    evidence of the miniatures of a Syrian pontifical (dated 1239) in the
+    Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris (cf. Bild 16, 112, 284, in _Die
+    liturgische Gewandung_). The liturgical vestments of the Armenians
+    are derived, like their rite, from the Greek rite; so that in this
+    case also there can be no doubt that the _shurtshar_ was originally
+    closed. The Coptic rite is in the same relation to the Syrian.
+    Moreover, it would be further necessary to prove that the _birrus_,
+    in contradistinction to the _paenula_, was always open in front;
+    whereas, _per contra_, the _paenula_, both as worn by soldiers and in
+    ordinary life, was, like the modern Arab _burnus_, often slit up the
+    front to the neck. For the rest, it is obvious that if the Syrian
+    _phaina_ was still quite closed in the 13th century, and was only
+    provided with a slit since that time, the same is very probable in
+    the case of the Armenian chasuble. The absence of the hood might also
+    be taken as additional proof of the derivation of the _phaina_ from
+    the _paenula_, but I should not lay particular stress upon it. The
+    question is settled by the above-mentioned miniatures."
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAU (from Lat. _castellum_, fortress, through O. Fr. _chastel,
+chasteau_), the French word for castle (q.v.). The development of the
+medieval castle, in the 15th and 16th centuries, into houses arranged
+rather for residence than defence led to a corresponding widening of the
+meaning of the term _chateau_, which came to be applied to any
+seigniorial residence and so generally to all houses, especially country
+houses, of any pretensions (cf. the Ger. _Schloss_). The French
+distinguish the fortified castle from the residential mansion by
+describing the former as the _chateau fort_, the latter as the _chateau
+de plaisance_. The development of the one into the other is admirably
+illustrated by surviving buildings in France, especially in the
+_chateaux_ scattered along the Loire. Of these Langeais, still in
+perfect preservation, is a fine type of the _chateau fort_, with its
+10th-century keep and 13th-century walls. Amboise (1490), Blois
+(1500-1540), Chambord (begun 1526), Chenonceaux (1515-1560),
+Azay-le-Rideau (1521), may be taken as typical examples of the _chateau
+de plaisance_ of the transition period, all retaining in greater or less
+degree some of the architectural characteristics of the medieval castle.
+Some description of these is given under their several headings. In
+English the word _chateau_ is often used to translate foreign words
+(e.g. _Schloss_) meaning country house or mansion.
+
+  For the Loire chateaux see Theodore Andrea Cook, _Old Touraine_
+  (1892).
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUBRIAND, FRANCOIS RENE, VICOMTE DE (1768-1848), French author,
+youngest son of Rene Auguste de Chateaubriand, comte de Combourg,[1] was
+born at St Malo on the 4th of September 1768. He was a brilliant
+representative of the reaction against the ideas of the French
+Revolution, and the most conspicuous figure in French literature during
+the First Empire. His naturally poetical temperament was fostered in
+childhood by picturesque influences, the mysterious reserve of his
+morose father, the ardent piety of his mother, the traditions of his
+ancient family, the legends and antiquated customs of the sequestered
+Breton district, above all, the vagueness and solemnity of the
+neighbouring ocean. His closest friend was his sister Lucile,[2] a
+passionate-hearted girl, divided between her devotion to him and to
+religion. Francois received his education at Dol and Rennes, where Jean
+Victor Moreau was among his fellow-students. From Rennes he proceeded to
+the College of Dinan, and passed some years in desultory study in
+preparation for the priesthood. He finally decided, after a year's
+holiday at the family chateau of Combourg, that he had no vocation for
+the Church, and was on the point of proceeding to try his fortune in
+India when he received (1786) a commission in the army. After a short
+visit to Paris he joined his regiment at Cambrai, and early in the
+following year was presented at court. In 1788 he received the tonsure
+in order to enter the order of the Knights of Malta. In Paris
+(1787-1789) he made acquaintance with the Parisian men of letters. He
+met la Harpe, Evariste Parny, "Pindare" Lebrun, Nicolas Chamfort, Pierre
+Louis Ginguene, and others, of whom he has left portraits in his
+memoirs.
+
+Chateaubriand was not unfavourable to the Revolution in its first
+stages, but he was disturbed by its early excesses; moreover, his
+regiment was disbanded, and his family belonged to the party of
+reaction. His political impartiality, he says, pleased no one. These
+causes and the restlessness of his spirit induced him to take part in a
+romantic scheme for the discovery of the North-West Passage, in
+pursuance of which he departed for America in the spring of 1791. The
+passage was not found or even attempted, but the adventurer returned
+enriched with the--to him--more important discovery of his own powers
+and vocation, conscious of his marvellous faculty for the delineation of
+nature, and stored with the new ideas and new imagery, derived from
+the virgin forests and magnificent scenery of the western continent.
+That he actually lived among the Indians, however, is shown by Bedier to
+be doubtful, and the same critic has exposed the untrustworthiness of
+the autobiographical details of his American trip. His knowledge of
+America was mainly derived from the books of Charlevoix and others.
+
+The news of the arrest of Louis XVI. at Varennes in June 1791 recalled
+him to France. In 1792 he married Mlle Celeste Buisson de Lavigne, a
+girl of seventeen, who brought him a small fortune. This enabled him to
+join the ranks of the emigrants, a course practically imposed on him by
+his birth and his profession as a soldier. After the failure of the duke
+of Brunswick's invasion he contrived to reach Brussels, where he was
+left wounded and apparently dying in the street. His brother succeeded
+in obtaining some shelter for him, and sent him to Jersey. The captain
+of the boat in which he travelled left him on the beach in Guernsey. He
+was once more rescued from death, this time by some fishermen. After
+spending some time in the Channel Islands under the care of an emigrant
+uncle, the comte de Bedee, he made his way to London. In England he
+lived obscurely for several years, gaining an intimate acquaintance with
+English literature and a practical acquaintance with poverty. His own
+account of this period has been exposed by A. le Braz, _Au pays d'exil
+de Chateaubriand_ (1909), and by E. Dick, _Revue d'histoire litteraire
+de la France_ (1908), i. From his English exile dates the _Natchez_
+(first printed in his _OEuvres completes_, 1826-1831), a prose epic
+designed to portray the life of the Red Indians. Two brilliant episodes
+originally designed for this work, _Atala_ and _Rene_, are among his
+most famous productions. Chateaubriand's first publication, however, was
+the _Essai historique, politique et moral sur les revolutions_ ...
+(London, 1797), which the author subsequently retracted, but took care
+not to suppress. In this volume he appears as a mediator between
+royalist and revolutionary ideas, a free-thinker in religion, and a
+philosopher imbued with the spirit of Rousseau. A great change in his
+views was, however, at hand, induced, according to his own statement, by
+a letter from his sister Julie (Mme de Farcy), telling him of the grief
+his views had caused his mother, who had died soon after her release
+from the Conciergerie in the same year. His brother had perished on the
+scaffold in April 1794, and both his sisters, Lucile and Julie, and his
+wife had been imprisoned at Rennes. Mme de Farcy did not long survive
+her imprisonment.
+
+Chateaubriand's thoughts turned to religion, and on his return to France
+in 1800 the _Genie du christianisme_ was already in an advanced state.
+Louis de Fontanes had been a fellow-exile with Chateaubriand in London,
+and he now introduced him to the society of Mme de Stael, Mme Recamier,
+Benjamin Constant, Lucien Bonaparte and others. But Chateaubriand's
+favourite resort was the salon of Pauline de Beaumont, who was destined
+to fill a great place in his life, and gave him some help in the
+preparation of his work on Christianity, part of the book being written
+at her house at Savigny. _Atala, ou les amours de deux sauvages dans le
+desert_, used as an episode in the _Genie du christianisme_, appeared
+separately in 1801 and immediately made his reputation. Exquisite style,
+impassioned eloquence and glowing descriptions of nature gained
+indulgence for the incongruity between the rudeness of the personages
+and the refinement of the sentiments, and for the distasteful blending
+of prudery with sensuousness. Alike in its merits and defects the piece
+is a more emphatic and highly coloured _Paul et Virginie_; it has been
+justly said that Bernardin Saint-Pierre models in marble and
+Chateaubriand in bronze. Encouraged by his success the author resumed
+his _Genie du christianisme, ou beautes de la religion chretienne_,
+which appeared in 1802, just upon the eve of Napoleon's re-establishment
+of the Catholic religion in France, for which it thus seemed almost to
+have prepared the way. No coincidence could have been more opportune,
+and Chateaubriand came to esteem himself the counterpart of Napoleon in
+the intellectual order. In composing his work he had borne in mind the
+admonition of his friend Joseph Joubert, that the public would care very
+little for his erudition and very much for his eloquence. It is
+consequently an inefficient production from the point of view of serious
+argument. The considerations derived from natural theology are but
+commonplaces rendered dazzling by the magic of style; and the parallels
+between Christianity and antiquity, especially in arts and letters, are
+at best ingenious sophistries. The less polemical passages, however,
+where the author depicts the glories of the Catholic liturgy and its
+accessories, or expounds its symbolical significance, are splendid
+instances of the effect produced by the accumulation and judicious
+distribution of particulars gorgeous in the mass, and treated with the
+utmost refinement of detail. The work is a masterpiece of literary art,
+and its influence in French literature was immense. The _Eloa_ of Alfred
+de Vigny, the _Harmonies_ of Lamartine and even the _Legende des
+siecles_ of Victor Hugo may be said to have been inspired by the _Genie
+du christianisme_. Its immediate effect was very considerable. It
+admirably subserved the statecraft of Napoleon, and Talleyrand in 1803
+appointed the writer _attache_ to the French legation at Rome, whither
+he was followed by Mme de Beaumont, who died there.
+
+When his insubordinate and intriguing spirit compelled his recall he was
+transferred as envoy to the canton of the Valais. The murder of the duke
+of Enghien (21st of March 1804) took place before he took up this
+appointment. Chateaubriand, who was in Paris at the time, showed his
+courage and independence by immediately resigning his post. In 1807 he
+gave great offence to Napoleon by an article in the _Mercure de France_
+(4th of July), containing allusions to Nero which were rightly taken to
+refer to the emperor. The _Mercure_, of which he had become proprietor,
+was temporarily suppressed, and was in the next year amalgamated with
+the _Decade_. Chateaubriand states in his _Memoires_ that his life was
+threatened, but it is more than possible that he exaggerated the danger.
+Before this, in 1806, he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, undertaken, as
+he subsequently acknowledged, less in a devotional spirit than in quest
+of new imagery. He returned by way of Tunis, Carthage, Cadiz and
+Granada. At Granada he met Mme de Mouchy, and the place and the meeting
+apparently suggested the romantic tale of _Le Dernier Abencerage_,
+which, for political reasons, remained unprinted until the publication
+of the _OEuvres completes_ (1826-1831). The journey also produced
+_L'Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem_ ... (3 vols., 1811), a record of
+travel distinguished by the writer's habitual picturesqueness; and
+inspired his prose epic, _Les Martyrs, ou le triomphe de la religion
+chretienne_ (2 vols., 1809). This work may be regarded as the argument
+of the _Genie du christianisme_ thrown into an objective form. As in the
+_Epicurean_ of Thomas Moore, the professed design is the contrast
+between Paganism and Christianity, which fails of its purpose partly
+from the absence of real insight into the genius of antiquity, and
+partly because the heathen are the most interesting characters after
+all. _Rene_ had appeared in 1802 as an episode of the _Genie du
+christianisme_, and was published separately at Leipzig without its
+author's consent in the same year. It was perhaps Chateaubriand's most
+characteristic production. The connecting link in European literature
+between _Werther_ and _Childe Harold_, it paints the misery of a morbid
+and dissatisfied soul. The representation is mainly from the life.
+Chateaubriand betrayed amazing egotism in describing his sister Lucile
+in the Amelie of the story, and much is obviously descriptive of his own
+early surroundings. With _Les Natchez_ his career as an imaginative
+writer is closed. In 1831 he published his _Etudes ou discours
+historiques_ ... (4 vols.) dealing with the fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+As a politician Chateaubriand was equally formidable to his antagonists
+when in opposition and to his friends when in office. His poetical
+receptivity and impressionableness rendered him no doubt honestly
+inconsistent with himself; his vanity and ambition, too morbidly acute
+to be restrained by the ties of party allegiance, made him dangerous and
+untrustworthy as a political associate. He was forbidden to deliver the
+address he had prepared (1811) for his reception to the Academy on M.J.
+Chenier on account of the bitter allusions to Napoleon contained in it.
+From this date until 1814 Chateaubriand lived in seclusion at the
+Vallee-aux-loups, an estate he had bought in 1807 at Aulnay. His
+pamphlet _De Bonaparte, des Bourbons, et de la necessite de se rattier a
+nos princes legitimes_, published on the 31st of March 1814, the day of
+the entrance of the allies into Paris, was as opportune in the moment of
+its appearance as the _Genie du christianisme_, and produced a hardly
+less signal effect. Louis XVIII. declared that it had been worth a
+hundred thousand men to him. Chateaubriand, as minister of the interior,
+accompanied him to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and for a time
+associated himself with the excesses of the royalist reaction. Political
+bigotry, however, was not among his faults; he rapidly drifted into
+liberalism and opposition, and was disgraced in September 1816 for his
+pamphlet _De la monarchie selon la charte_. He had to sell his library
+and his house of the Vallee-aux-loups.
+
+After the fall of his opponent, the due Decazes, Chateaubriand obtained
+the Berlin embassy (1821), from which he was transferred to London
+(1822), and he also acted as French plenipotentiary at the Congress of
+Verona (1822). He here made himself mainly responsible for the
+iniquitous invasion of Spain--an expedition undertaken, as he himself
+admits, with the idea of restoring French prestige by a military parade.
+He next received the portfolio of foreign affairs, which he soon lost by
+his desertion of his colleagues on the question of a reduction of the
+interest on the national debt. After another interlude of effective
+pamphleteering in opposition, he accepted the embassy to Rome in 1827,
+under the Martignac administration, but resigned it at Prince Polignac's
+accession to office. On the downfall of the elder branch of the
+Bourbons, he made a brilliant but inevitably fruitless protest from the
+tribune in defence of the principle of legitimacy. During the first half
+of Louis Philippe's reign he was still politically active with his pen,
+and published a _Memoire sur la captivite de madame la duchesse de
+Berry_ (1833) and other pamphlets in which he made himself the champion
+of the exiled dynasty; but as years increased upon him, and the prospect
+of his again performing a conspicuous part diminished, he relapsed into
+an attitude of complete discouragement. His _Congres de Verone_ (1838),
+_Vie de Rance_ (1844), and his translation of Milton, _Le Paradis perdu
+de Milton_ (1836), belong to the writings of these later days. He died
+on the 4th of July 1848, wholly exhausted and thoroughly discontented
+with himself and the world, but affectionately tended by his old friend
+Madame Recamier, herself deprived of sight. For the last fifteen years
+of his life he had been engaged on his _Memoires_, and his chief
+distraction had been his daily visit to Madame Recamier, at whose house
+he met the European celebrities. He was buried in the Grand Be, an islet
+in the bay of St Malo. Shortly after his death his memory was revived,
+and at the same time exposed to much adverse criticism, by the
+publication, with sundry mutilations as has been suspected, of his
+celebrated _Memoires d'outre-tombe_ (12 vols., 1849-1850). These memoirs
+undoubtedly reveal his vanity, his egotism, the frequent hollowness of
+his professed convictions, and his incapacity for sincere attachment,
+except, perhaps, in the case of Madame Recamier. Though the book must be
+read with the greatest caution, especially in regard to persons with
+whom Chateaubriand came into collision, it is perhaps now the most read
+of all his works.
+
+Chateaubriand ranks rather as a great rhetorician than as a great poet.
+Something of affectation or unreality commonly interferes with the
+enjoyment of his finest works. The _Genie du christianisme_ is a
+brilliant piece of special pleading; _Atala_ is marred by its
+unfaithfulness to the truth of uncivilized human nature, _Rene_ by the
+perversion of sentiment which solicits sympathy for a contemptible
+character. Chateaubriand is chiefly significant as marking the
+transition from the old classical to the modern romantic school. The
+fertility of ideas, vehemence of expression and luxury of natural
+description, which he shares with the romanticists, are controlled by a
+discipline learnt in the school of their predecessors. His palette,
+always brilliant, is never gaudy; he is not merely a painter but an
+artist. He is also a master of epigrammatic and incisive sayings.
+Perhaps, however, the most truly characteristic feature of his genius is
+the peculiar magical touch which Matthew Arnold indicated as a note of
+Celtic extraction, which reveals some occult quality in a familiar
+object, or tinges it, one knows not how, with "the light that never was
+on sea or land." This incommunicable gift supplies an element of
+sincerity to Chateaubriand's writings which goes far to redeem the
+artificial effect of his calculated sophistry and set declamation. It is
+also fortunate for his fame that so large a part of his writings should
+directly or indirectly refer to himself, for on this theme he always
+writes well. Egotism was his master-passion, and beyond his intrepidity
+and the loftiness of his intellectual carriage his character presents
+little to admire. He is a signal instance of the compatibility of
+genuine poetic emotion, of sympathy with the grander aspects both of man
+and nature, and of munificence in pecuniary matters, with absorption in
+self and general sterility of heart.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _OEuvres completes_ of Chateaubriand were printed
+  in 28 vols., 1826-1831; in 20 vols., 1829-1831; and in many later
+  editions, notably in 1858-1861, in 20 volumes, with an introductory
+  study by Sainte-Beuve. The principal authority for Chateaubriand's
+  biography is the _Memoires d'outre-tombe_ (1849-1850), of which there
+  is an English translation, _The Memoirs of ... Chateaubriand_ (6
+  vols., 1902), by A. Teixeira de Mattos, based on the admirable edition
+  (4 vols., 1899-1901) of Edmond Bire. This work should be supplemented
+  by the _Souvenirs et correspondances tires des papiers de Mme
+  Recamier_ (2 vols., 1859, ed. Mme Ch. Lenormant). See also Comte de
+  Marcellus, _Chateaubriand et son temps_ (1859); the same editor's
+  _Souvenirs diplomatiques; correspondance intime de Chateaubriand_
+  (1858); C.A. Sainte-Beuve, _Chateaubriand et son groupe litteraire
+  sous l'empire_ (2 vols., 1861, new and revised ed., 3 vols., 1872);
+  other articles by Sainte-Beuve, who was in this case a somewhat
+  prejudiced critic, in the _Portraits contemporains_, vols. i. and ii.;
+  _Causeries du lundi_, vols. i., ii. and x.; _Nouveaux Lundis_, vol.
+  iii.; _Premiers Lundis_, vol. iii.; A. Vinet, _Etudes sur la litt.
+  francaise au XIXe siecle_ (1849); M. de Lescure, _Chateaubriand_
+  (1892) in the _Grands ecrivains francais_; Emile Faguet, _Etudes
+  litteraires sur le XIXe siecle_ (1887); and _Essai d'une
+  bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_ (Vannes, 1896),
+  by Rene Kerviler. Joseph Bedier, in _Etudes critiques_ (1903), deals
+  with the American writings. Some correspondence with Sainte-Beuve was
+  edited by Louis Thomas in 1904, and some letters to Mme de Stael
+  appeared in the _Revue des deux mondes_ (Oct. 1903).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] For full details of the Chateaubriand family see R. Kerviler,
+    _Essai d'une bio-bibliographie de Chateaubriand et de sa famille_
+    (Vannes, 1895).
+
+  [2] Her _OEuvres_ were edited in 1879, with a memoir, by Anatole
+   France.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUBRIANT, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Loire-Inferieure, on the left bank of the Chere, 40 m.
+N.N.E. of Nantes by rail. Pop. (1906) 5969. Chateaubriant takes its name
+from a castle founded in the 11th century by Brient, count of
+Penthievre, remains of which, consisting of a square donjon and four
+towers, still exist. Adjoining it is another castle, built in the first
+half of the 16th century by Jean de Laval, and famous in history as the
+residence of Francoise de Foix, mistress of Francis I. Of this the most
+beautiful feature is the colonnade running at right angles to the main
+building, and connecting it with a graceful pavilion. It is occupied by
+a small museum and some of the public offices. There is also an
+interesting Romanesque church dedicated to St Jean de Bere.
+Chateaubriant is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance. It is an important centre on the Ouest-Etat railway, and has
+trade in agricultural products. The manufacture of leather, agricultural
+implements and preserved angelica are carried on. In 1551 Henry II.
+signed an edict against the reformed religion at Chateaubriant.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUDUN, a town of north central France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Eure-et-Loir, 28 m. S.S.W. of Chartres by rail.
+Pop. (1906) 5805. It stands on an eminence near the left bank of the
+Loire. The streets, which are straight and regular, radiate from a
+central square, a uniformity due to the reconstruction of the town after
+fires in 1723 and 1870. The chateau, the most remarkable building in the
+town, was built in great part by Jean, count of Dunois, and his
+descendants. Founded in the 10th century, and rebuilt in the 12th and
+15th centuries, it consists of a principal wing with a fine staircase of
+the 16th century, and, at right angles, a smaller wing adjoined by a
+chapel. To the left of the courtyard thus formed rises a lofty keep of
+the 12th century. The fine apartments and huge kitchens of the chateau
+are in keeping with its imposing exterior. The church of La Madeleine
+dates from the 12th century; the buildings of the abbey to which it
+belonged are occupied by the subprefecture, the law court and the
+hospital. The medieval churches of St Valerien and St Jean and the
+ruined chapel of Notre-Dame du Champde, of which the facade in the
+Renaissance style now forms the entrance to the cemetery, are other
+notable buildings. The public institutions include a tribunal of first
+instance and a communal college. Flour-milling, tanning and
+leather-dressing, and the manufacture of blankets, silver jewelry, nails
+and machinery are the prominent industries. Trade is in cattle, grain,
+wool and hemp. Chateaudun (_Castrodunum_), which dates from the
+Gallo-Roman period, was in the middle ages the capital of the countship
+of Dunois.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAU-GONTIER, a town of western France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne, 18 m. S. by E. of Laval by
+road. Pop. (1906) 6871. Of its churches, that of St Jean, a relic of the
+castle, dates from the 11th century. Chateau-Gontier is the seat of a
+subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college for
+boys and a small museum. It carries on wool- and cotton-spinning, the
+manufacture of serge, flannel and oil, and is an agricultural market.
+There are chalybeate springs close to the town. Chateau-Gontier owes its
+origin and its name to a castle erected in the first half of the 11th
+century by Gunther, the steward of Fulk Nerra of Anjou, on the site of a
+farm belonging to the monks of St Aubin d'Angers. On the extinction of
+the family, the lordship was assigned by Louis XI. to Philippe de
+Comines. The town suffered severely during the wars of the League. In
+1793 it was occupied by the Vendeans.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUNEUF, LA BELLE, the name popularly given to RENEE DE RIEUX,
+daughter of Jean de Rieux, seigneur de Chateauneuf, who was descended
+from one of the greatest families of Brittany. The dates both of her
+birth and death are not known. She was maid of honour to the
+queen-mother Catherine de' Medici, and inspired an ardent passion in the
+duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX. This intrigue deterred the duke
+from the marriage which it was desired to arrange for him with Elizabeth
+of England; but he soon abandoned La Belle Chateauneuf for Marie of
+Cleves (1571). The court then wished to find a husband for Renee de
+Rieux, whose singular beauty gave her an influence which the
+queen-mother feared, and matches were in turn suggested with the voivode
+of Transylvania, the earl of Leicester, with Du Prat, provost of Paris,
+and with the count of Brienne, all of which came to nothing. Ultimately,
+on the ground that she had been lacking in respect towards the queen,
+Louise of Lorraine-Vaudemont, Renee was banished from the court. She
+married a Florentine named Antinotti, whom she stabbed in a fit of
+jealousy (1577); then she remarried, her husband being Philip Altoviti,
+who in 1586 was killed in a duel by the Grand Prior Henry of Angouleme,
+who was himself mortally wounded.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAU-RENAULT, FRANCOIS LOUIS DE ROUSSELET, MARQUIS DE (1637-1716),
+French admiral, was the fourth son of the third marquis of
+Chateau-Renault. The family was of Breton origin, but had been long
+settled near Blois. He entered the army in 1658, but in 1661 was
+transferred to the navy, which Louis XIV. was eager to raise to a high
+level of strength. After a short apprenticeship he was made captain in
+1666. His early services were mostly performed in cruises against the
+Barbary pirates (1672). In 1673 he was named _chef d'escadre_, and he
+was promoted _lieutenant general des armees navales_ in 1687. During the
+wars up to this date he had few chances of distinction, but he had been
+wounded in action with the pirates, and had been on a cruise to the West
+Indies. When war broke out between England and France after the
+revolution of 1688, he was in command at Brest, and was chosen to carry
+the troops and stores sent by the French king to the aid of James II. in
+Ireland. Although he was watched by Admiral Herbert (Lord Torrington,
+q.v.), with whom he fought an indecisive action in Bantry Bay, he
+executed his mission with success. Chateau-Renault commanded a squadron
+under Tourville at the battle of Beachy Head in 1690. He was with
+Tourville in the attack of the Smyrna convoy in 1693, and was named
+grand cross of the order of Saint Louis in the same year. Though in
+constant service, the reduced state of the French navy (owing to the
+financial embarrassments of the treasury) gave him few openings for
+fighting at sea during the rest of the war.
+
+On the death of Tourville in 1701 he was named to the vacant post of
+vice-admiral of France. On the outbreak of the War of the Spanish
+Succession he was named for the difficult task of protecting the Spanish
+ships which were to bring the treasure from America. It was a duty of
+extreme delicacy, for the Spaniards were unwilling to obey a foreigner,
+and the French king was anxious that the bullion should be brought to
+one of his own ports, a scheme which the Spanish officials were sure to
+resent if they were allowed to discover what was meant. With the utmost
+difficulty Chateau-Renault was able to bring the galleons as far as
+Vigo, to which port he steered when he learnt that a powerful English
+and Dutch armament was on the Spanish coast, and had to recognize that
+the Spanish officers would not consent to make for a French harbour or
+for Passages, which they thought too near France. His fleet of fifteen
+French and three Spanish war-ships, having under their care twelve
+galleons, had anchored on the 22nd of September in Vigo Bay. Obstacles,
+some of an official character, and others due to the poverty of the
+Spanish government in resources, arose to delay the landing of the
+treasure. There was no adequate garrison in the town, and the local
+militia was untrustworthy. Knowing that he would probably be attacked,
+Chateau-Renault strove to protect his fleet by means of a boom. The
+order to land the treasure was delayed, and until it came from Madrid
+nothing could be done, since according to law it should have been landed
+at Cadiz, which had a monopoly of the trade with America. At last the
+order came, and the bullion was landed under the care of the Gallician
+militia which was ordered to escort it to Lugo. A very large part, if
+not the whole, was plundered by the militiamen and the farmers whose
+carts had been commandeered for the service. But the bulk of the
+merchandise was on board of the galleons when the allied fleet appeared
+outside of the bay on the 22nd of October 1702. Sir George Rooke and his
+colleagues resolved to attack. The fleet was carrying a body of troops
+which had been sent out to make a landing at Cadiz, and had been beaten
+off. The fortifications of Vigo were weak on the sea side, and on the
+land side there were none. There was therefore nothing to offer a
+serious resistance to the allies when they landed soldiers. The fleet of
+twenty-four sail was steered at the boom and broke through it, while the
+troops turned the forts and had no difficulty in scattering the
+Gallician militia. In the bay the action was utterly disastrous to the
+French and Spaniards. Their ships were all taken or destroyed. The booty
+gained was far less than the allies hoped, but the damage done to the
+French and Spanish governments was great.
+
+Chateau-Renault suffered no loss of his master's favour by his failure
+to save the treasure. The king considered him free from blame, and must
+indeed have known that the admiral had been trusted with too many
+secrets to make it safe to inflict a public rebuke. The Spanish
+government declined to give him the rank of grandee which was to have
+been the reward for bringing home the bullion safe. But in 1703 he was
+made a marshal of France, and shortly afterwards lieutenant-general of
+Brittany. The fight in Vigo Bay was the last piece of active service
+performed by Chateau-Renault. In 1708 on the death of his nephew he
+inherited the marquisate, and on the 15th of November 1716 he died in
+Paris. He married in 1684 Marie-Anne-Renee de la Porte, daughter and
+heiress of the count of Crozon. His eldest son was killed at the battle
+of Malaga 1704, and another, also a naval officer, was killed by
+accident in 1708. A third son, who too was a naval officer, succeeded
+him in the title.
+
+  A life of Chateau-Renault was published in 1903 by M. Calmon-Maison.
+  There is a French as well as an English account of the part played by
+  him at Bantry Bay and Beachy Head, and the controversy still
+  continues. For the French history of the navy under Louis XIV. see
+  Leon Guerin, _Histoire maritime de la France_ (1863), vols. iii., iv.;
+  and his _Les Marins illustres_ (1861). Also the naval history by
+  Charles Bouzel de la Ronciere.     (D. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUROUX, MARIE ANNE DE MAILLY-NESLE, DUCHESSE DE (1717-1744),
+mistress of Louis XV. of France, was the fourth daughter of Louis,
+marquis de Nesle, a descendant of a niece of Mazarin. In 1740, upon the
+death of her husband, the marquis de la Tournelle, she attracted the
+attention of Louis XV.; and by the aid of the duc de Richelieu, who,
+dominated by Madame de Tencin, hoped to rule both the king and the
+state, she supplanted her sister, Madame de Mailly, as titular mistress
+in 1742. Directed by Richelieu, she tried to arouse the king, dragging
+him off to the armies, and negotiated the alliance with Frederick II. of
+Prussia, in 1744. Her political role, however, has been exaggerated. Her
+triumph after the passing disgrace provoked by the king's illness at
+Metz did not last long, for she died on the 8th of December 1744.
+
+  See Ed. and J. de Goncourt, _La Duchesse de Chateauroux et ses soeurs_
+  (Paris, 1879).
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAUROUX, a town of central France, capital of the department of
+Indre, situated in a plain on the left bank of the Indre, 88 m. S. of
+Orleans on the main line of the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 21,048. The
+old town, close to the river, forms a nucleus round which a newer and
+more extensive quarter, bordered by boulevards, has grown up; the
+suburbs of St Christophe and Deols (q.v.) lie on the right bank of the
+Indre. The principal buildings of Chateauroux are the handsome modern
+church of St Andre, in the Gothic style, and the Chateau Raoul, of the
+14th and 15th centuries; the latter now forms part of the prefecture.
+The hotel de ville contains a library and a museum which possesses a
+collection of paintings of the Flemish school and some interesting
+souvenirs of Napoleon I. A statue of General Henri Bertrand (1773-1844)
+stands in one of the principal squares. Chateauroux is the seat of a
+prefect and of a court of assizes. It has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a branch of the Bank of
+France, a chamber of commerce, a lycee, a college for girls and training
+colleges. The manufacture of coarse woollens for military clothing and
+other purposes, and a state tobacco-factory, occupy large numbers of the
+inhabitants. Wool-spinning, iron-founding, brewing, tanning, and the
+manufacture of agricultural implements are also carried on. Trade is in
+wool, iron, grain, sheep, lithographic stone and leather. The castle
+from which Chateauroux takes its name was founded about the middle of
+the 10th century by Raoul, prince of Deols, and during the middle ages
+was the seat of a seigniory, which was raised to the rank of countship
+in 1497, and in 1616, when it was held by Henry II., prince of Conde, to
+that of duchy. In 1736 it returned to the crown, and was given by Louis
+XV. in 1744 to his mistress, Marie Anne de Mailly-Nesle, duchess of
+Chateauroux.
+
+
+
+
+CHATEAU-THIERRY, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Aisne, 59 m. E.N.E. of Paris on the Eastern railway
+to Nancy. Pop. (1906) 6872. Chateau-Thierry is built on rising ground on
+the right bank of the Marne, over which a fine stone bridge leads to the
+suburb of Marne. On the quay stands a marble statue erected to the
+memory of La Fontaine, who was born in the town in 1621; his house is
+still preserved in the street that bears his name. On the top of a hill
+are the ruins of a castle, which is said to have been built by Charles
+Martel for the Frankish king, Thierry IV., and is plainly the origin of
+the name of the town. The chief relic is a gateway flanked by massive
+round towers, known as the Porte Saint-Pierre. A belfry of the 15th
+century and the church of St Crepin of the same period are of some
+interest. The town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of
+first instance and a communal college. The distinctive industry is the
+manufacture of mathematical and musical instruments. There is trade in
+the white wine of the neighbourhood, and in sheep, cattle and
+agricultural products. Gypsum, millstone and paving-stone are quarried
+in the vicinity. Chateau-Thierry was formerly the capital of the
+district of Brie Pouilleuse, and received the title of duchy from
+Charles IX. in 1566. It was captured by the English in 1421, by Charles
+V. in 1544, and sacked by the Spanish in 1591. During the wars of the
+Fronde it was pillaged in 1652; and in the campaign of 1814 it suffered
+severely. On the 12th of February of the latter year the Russo-Prussian
+forces were beaten by Napoleon in the neighbourhood.
+
+
+
+
+CHATELAIN (Med. Lat. _castellanus_, from _castellum_, a castle), in
+France originally merely the equivalent of the English castellan, i.e.
+the commander of a castle. With the growth of the feudal system,
+however, the title gained in France a special significance which it
+never acquired in England, as implying the jurisdiction of which the
+castle became the centre. The _chatelain_ was originally, in Carolingian
+times, an official of the count; with the development of feudalism the
+office became a fief, and so ultimately hereditary. In this as in other
+respects the chatelain was the equivalent of the viscount (q.v.)
+sometimes the two titles were combined, but more usually in those
+provinces where there were chatelains there were no viscounts, and vice
+versa. The title chatelain continued also to be applied to the inferior
+officer, or _concierge chatelain_, who was merely a castellan in the
+English sense. The power and status of chatelains necessarily varied
+greatly at different periods and places. Usually their rank in the
+feudal hierarchy was equivalent to that of the simple _sire_
+(_dominus_), between the baron and the _chevalier_; but occasionally
+they were great nobles with an extensive jurisdiction, as in the Low
+Countries (see BURGRAVE). This variation was most marked in the cities,
+where in the struggle for power that of the chatelain depended on the
+success with which he could assert himself against his feudal superior,
+lay or ecclesiastical, or, from the 12th century onwards, against the
+rising power of the communes. The _chatellenie_ (_castellania_), or
+jurisdiction of the chatelain, as a territorial division for certain
+judicial and administrative purposes, survived the disappearance of the
+title and office of the chatelain in France, and continued till the
+Revolution.
+
+  See Achille Luchaire, _Manuel des institutions francaises_ (Paris,
+  1892); Du Cange, _Glossarium, s._ "Castellanus."
+
+
+
+
+CHATELAINE (Fr. _chatelaine_, the feminine form of _chatelain_, a keeper
+of a castle), the mistress of a castle. From the custom of a chatelaine
+to carry the keys of the castle suspended from her girdle, the word is
+now applied to the collection of short chains, often worn by ladies, to
+which are attached various small articles of domestic and toilet use, as
+keys, penknife, needlecase, scissors, &c.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 5, Slice 8, by Various
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