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diff --git a/33421-8.txt b/33421-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c53d3e --- /dev/null +++ b/33421-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5708 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Speech of Monkeys, by R. L. Garner + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Speech of Monkeys + +Author: R. L. Garner + +Release Date: August 13, 2010 [EBook #33421] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SPEECH OF MONKEYS *** + + + + +Produced by Sharon Joiner, monkeyclogs and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + THE + SPEECH OF MONKEYS + + + + + Heinemann's Scientific Handbooks. + + _Each Volume Crown 8vo, Uniformly Bound and Illustrated._ + +=MANUAL OF ASSAYING GOLD, SILVER, COPPER, AND LEAD ORES.= By WALTER LEE +BROWN, B.Sc. Revised, Corrected, and considerably Enlarged, with a +chapter on the Assaying of Fuel, &c. By A. B. GRIFFITHS, Ph.D., F.R.S. +(Edin.), F.C.S. 7s. 6d. + + _Financial World._--"The most complete and practical manual on + everything which concerns assaying of all which have come before + us." + +=GEODESY.= By J. HOWARD GORE. 5s. + + _Science Gossip._--"It is the best we could recommend to all + geodetic students. It is full and clear, thoroughly accurate, + and up to date in all matters of earth-measurements." + +=THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GASES.= By ARTHUR L. KIMBALL. 5s. + + _Chemical News._--"The man of culture who wishes for a general + and accurate acquaintance with the physical properties of gases, + will find in Mr. Kimball's work just what he requires." + +=HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY.= BY R. H. THURSTON. 5s. + + _Journal of Microscopy and Natural Science._--"The author + presents in popular language an outline of the growth of our + modern philosophy of the form of energy known as heat." + +=A MANUAL OF BACTERIOLOGY.= By A. B. GRIFFITHS, Ph.D., F.R.S. +(Edin.), F.C.S. + + [_In the Press._ + LONDON: + WILLIAM HEINEMANN, + 21 BEDFORD STREET, W.C. + + + + + THE + SPEECH OF MONKEYS + + BY + + R. L. GARNER + + LONDON + WILLIAM HEINEMANN + 1892 + [_All rights reserved_] + + * * * * * + + +_To_ + +_MY DEVOTED WIFE_ + +_Whose zeal for my success is the light which guides me along the +highway of my labours, and to those earnest friends, Mr. Walter S. +Logan, Judge Charles P. Daly, Mr. James Muhlenberg Bailey, Mr. Samuel S. +McClure, Hon. O. B. Potter, Dr. Alexander Melville Bell, Hon. John Hay, +Professor S. E. Tillman, Mrs. Henry Draper, Mr. J. V. V. Booream, Mr. G. +Hilton Scribner, and Mr. B. Schlesinger, who have opened their purse as +they opened their hearts, and afforded me that aid which made it +possible for me to continue my researches. With them I shall gladly +share the glory of all that my efforts may achieve, and to them, with +profound and affectionate gratitude, this first contribution to Science +on this subject is justly dedicated by_ + + _THE AUTHOR._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PREFACE + + +I desire here to express my gratitude to _The New Review_, _The North +American Review_, _The Cosmopolitan_, _The Forum_, and many of the +leading journals of America, for the use of their valuable and popular +pages through which my work has been given to the public. To the press, +English and American, I gladly pay my tribute of thanks for the liberal +discussion, candid criticism, and kind consideration which they have +bestowed upon my efforts to solve the great problem of speech. + +In contributing to Science this mite, I do not mean to intimate that my +task has been completed, for I am aware that I have only begun to +explore the field through which we may hope to pass beyond the confines +of our own realm and invade the lower spheres of life. + +This volume is intended as a record of my work, and a voluntary report +of my progress, to let the world know with what results my labours have +been rewarded, and with the hope that it may be the means of inducing +others to pursue like investigations. + +In prosecuting my studies I have had no precedents to guide me, no +literature to consult, and no landmarks by which to steer my course. I +have, therefore, been compelled to find my own means, suggest my own +experiments, and solve my own problems. Not a line on this subject is to +be found in all the literature of the world, and yet the results which I +have obtained have far surpassed my highest hopes. Considering the +difficulties under which I have been compelled to work, I have been +rewarded with results for which I dared not hope, and this inspires me +to believe that my success will meet my highest wishes when I am placed +in touch with such subjects as I expect to find in the forests of +Tropical Africa. + +Only a few of my experiments are recorded in this volume, but as they +illustrate my methods and set forth the results, they will serve to +show, in a measure, the scope of my work. + +In the latter part of this work will be found a definition of the word +Speech as I have used it, and the deductions which I have made from my +experiments. I have not ventured into any extreme theories, either to +confirm or controvert the opinions of others, but simply commit to the +world these initial facts, and the working hypotheses upon which I have +proceeded to obtain them. + +In Chapter XXI. I have mentioned the particular characteristics which +mark the sound of monkeys as speech, and distinguish them from mere +automatic sounds. + +With all the gravity of sincere conviction I commit this volume to the +friends of Science as the first contribution upon this subject. + + R. L. GARNER. + + NEW YORK, _June 1, 1892_. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER I. PAGE + + Early Impressions--First Observations of Monkeys--First Efforts + to Learn their Speech--Barriers--The Phonograph Used--A Visit to + Jokes--My Efforts to Speak to Him--The Sound of Alarm Inspires + Terror + 1 + + +CHAPTER II. + + The Reconciliation--The Acquaintance of Jennie--The + Salutation--The Words for Food and Drink--Little Banquo, Dago, + McGinty, and others + 14 + + +CHAPTER III. + + Monkeys have favourite Colours--Can distinguish Numbers and + Quantity--Music and Art very limited + 24 + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Pedro's Speech Recorded--Delivered to Puck through the + Phonograph--Little Darwin learns a new Word + 34 + + +CHAPTER V. + + Five little Brown Cousins: Mickie, Nemo, Dodo, Nigger, and + McGinty--Nemo apologises to Dodo + 47 + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Dago Talks about the Weather--Tells me of his Troubles--Dodo in + the "Balcony Scene"--Her Portrait by a great Artist + 59 + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Interpretation of Words--Specific Words and Signs--The Negative + Sign and Sounds--Affirmative Expressions--Possible Origin of + Negative and Positive Signs + 69 + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Meeting with Nellie--Nellie was my Guest--Her Speech and + Manners--The little Blind Girl--One of Nellie's Friends--Her + Sight and Hearing--Her Toys, and how she Played with Them + 83 + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Nellie's Affections--A little Flirtation--Some of my Personal + Friends + 97 + + +CHAPTER X. + + The Capuchin Vocabulary--What I have Found--What I Foresee in it + 105 + + +CHAPTER XI. + + The Word for Food in the Rhesus Dialect--The Rhesus Sound of + Alarm--The Dialect of the White-face--Dolly Varden, "Uncle + Rhemus," and others + 111 + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Atelles or Spider Monkeys--The Common Macaque--Java Monkeys, and + what they say--A Happy Family + 121 + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + The Extent of my Experiments--Apes and Baboons--Miscellaneous + Records of Sound--The Vocal Index + 131 + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Monkeys and the Mirror--Some of their Antics--Baby Macaque and + her Papa--Some other Monkeys + 138 + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Man and Ape--Their Physical Relations--Their Mental + Relations--Evolution was the Means--Who was the Progenitor of + the Ape?--The Scale of Life + 146 + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + The Faculty of Thought--Emotion and Thought--Instinct and + Reason--Monkeys Reason--Some Examples + 156 + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Speech Defined--The True Nature of Speech--The Use of + Speech--The Limitations of Speech + 169 + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + The Motives of Speech--Expression--The Beginning of Human + Speech--The Present Condition of Speech + 177 + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + Language embraces Speech--Speech, Words, Grammar, and Rhetoric + 183 + + +CHAPTER XX. + + Life and Consciousness--Consciousness and Emotion--Emotion and + Thought--Thought and Expression--Expression and Speech--The + Vocal Organs and Sound--Speech in City and Country--Music, + Passions, and Taste--Life and Reason + 190 + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + Certain Marks which Characterise the Sounds of Monkeys as + Speech--Sounds Accompanied by Gestures--Certain Acts follow + certain Sounds--They acquire new Sounds--Their Speech addressed + to certain Individuals--Deliberation and Premeditation--They + remember and anticipate Results--Thought and Reason + 200 + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + The Phonograph as an Aid to Science--Vowels the Basis of + Phonation--Consonants Developed from a Vowel Basis--Vowels are + Compound--The Analysis of Vowels by the Phonograph--Current + Theories of Sound--Augmentation of Sounds--Sound Waves and Sound + Units--Consonants among the Lower Races + 208 + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + The Human Voice--Human Bagpipe--Human Piccolo, Flute, and + Fife--The Voice as a Whistle--Music and Noise--Dr. Bell and his + "Visible Speech" + 219 + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + Some Curious Facts in Vocal Growth--Children and + Consonants--Single, Double, and Treble Consonants--Sounds of + Birds--Fishes and their Language--Insects and their Language + 224 + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + Facts and Fancies of Speech--Language in the Vegetable + Kingdom--Language in the Mineral Kingdom + 237 + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +THE SPEECH AND REASON OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. + + Dash and the Baby--Two Collies talk--Eunice understands her + Mistress--Two Dogs and the Phonograph--A Canine Family--Cats and + Dogs--Insects--Signs and Sounds + 246 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPEECH OF MONKEYS + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + Early Impressions--First Observations of Monkeys--First Efforts + to Learn their Speech--Barriers--The Phonograph Used--A Visit to + Jokes--My Efforts to Speak to Him--The Sound of Alarm inspires + Terror. + + +From childhood, I have believed that all kinds of animals have some mode +of speech by which they could talk among their own kind, and have often +wondered why man had never tried to learn it. I often wondered how it +occurred to man to whistle to a horse or dog instead of using some sound +more like their own; and even yet I am at a loss to know how such a +sound has ever become a fixed means of calling these animals. I was not +alone in my belief that all animals had some way to make known to others +some certain things; but to my mind the means had never been well +defined. + +[Sidenote: FIRST OBSERVATIONS OF MONKEYS] + +About eight years ago, in the Cincinnati Zoological Garden, I was deeply +impressed by the conduct of a number of monkeys occupying a cage with a +huge, savage mandril, which they seemed very much to fear and dislike. +By means of a wall, the cage was divided into two compartments, through +which was a small doorway, just large enough to allow the occupants of +the cage to pass from one room to the other. The inner compartment of +the cage was used for their winter quarters and sleeping apartments; the +outer, consisting simply of a well-constructed iron cage, was intended +for exercise and summer occupancy. Every movement of this mandril seemed +to be closely watched by the monkeys that were in a position to see him, +and instantly reported to the others in the adjoining compartment. I +watched them for hours, and felt assured that they had a form of speech +by means of which they communicated with each other. During the time I +remained, I discovered that a certain sound would invariably cause them +to act in a certain way, and, in the course of my visit, I discovered +that I could myself tell, by the sounds the monkeys would make, just +what the mandril was doing--that is, I could tell whether he was asleep +or whether he was moving about in his cage. Having interpreted one or +two of these sounds, I felt inspired with the belief that I could learn +them, and felt that the "key to the secret chamber" was within my grasp. + +I regarded the task of learning the speech of a monkey as very much the +same as learning that of some strange race of mankind, more difficult in +the degree of its inferiority, but less in volume. + +Year by year, as new ideas were revealed to me, new barriers arose, and +I began to realise how great a task was mine. One difficulty was to +utter the sounds I heard, another was to recall them, and yet another +to translate them. But impelled by an inordinate hope and not +discouraged by poor success, I continued my studies, as best I could, in +the Gardens of New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati and Chicago, and with +such specimens as I could find from time to time with travelling shows, +hand-organs, aboard some ship, or kept as a family pet. I must +acknowledge my debt of gratitude to all these little creatures who have +aided me in the study of their native tongue. + +[Sidenote: ACTING AS INTERPRETER] + +Having contended for some years with the difficulties mentioned, a new +idea dawned upon me, and, after maturely considering it, I felt assured +of ultimate success. I went to Washington, and proposed the novel +experiment of acting as interpreter between two monkeys. Of course this +first evoked from the great fathers of science a smile of incredulity; +but when I explained the means by which I expected to accomplish this, a +shadow of seriousness came over the faces of those dignitaries to whom +I first proposed the novel feat. I procured a phonograph upon which to +record the sounds of the monkeys. I separated two monkeys which had +occupied the same cage together for some time, and placed them in +separate rooms of the building where they could not see or hear each +other. I then arranged the phonograph near the cage of the female, and +by various means induced her to utter a few sounds, which were recorded +on the cylinder of the phonograph. The machine was then placed near the +cage containing the male, and the record repeated to him and his conduct +closely studied. He gave evident signs of recognising the sounds, and at +once began a search for the mysterious monkey doing the talking. His +perplexity at this strange affair cannot well be described. The familiar +voice of his mate would induce him to approach, but that squeaking, +chattering horn was a feature which he could not comprehend. He traced +the sounds, however, to the horn from which they came, and, failing to +find his mate, thrust his arm into the horn quite up to his shoulder, +then withdrew it, and peeped into it again and again. The expressions of +his face were indeed a study. I then secured a few sounds of his voice +and delivered them to the female, who showed some signs of interest, but +the record was very imperfect and her manner seemed quite indifferent. +In this experiment, for the first time in the history of language, was +the Simian speech reduced to record; and while the results were not +fully up to my hopes, they served to inspire me to further efforts to +find the fountain-head from which flows out the great river of human +speech. Having satisfied myself that each one recognised the sound made +by the other when delivered through the phonograph, I felt rewarded for +my labour and assured of the possibility of learning the language of +monkeys. The faith of others was strengthened also, and while this +experiment was very crude and imperfect, it served to convince me that +my opinions were correct as to the speech of these animals. + +[Sidenote: RECORDS OF SOUNDS] + +In this case I noticed the defects which occurred in my work and +provided against them, as well as I could, for the future. Soon after +this I went to Chicago and Cincinnati, where I made a number of records +of the sounds of a great number of monkeys, and among others I secured a +splendid record of the two chimpanzees contained in the Cincinnati +collection, which I brought home with me for study. The records that I +made of various specimens of the Simian race I repeated to myself over +and over, until I became familiar with them, and learned to imitate a +few of them, mostly by the use of mechanical devices. After having +accomplished this I returned to Chicago, and went at once to visit a +small Capuchin monkey whose record had been my chief study. Standing +near his cage, I imitated a sound which I had translated "milk," but +from many tests I concluded it meant "food," which opinion has been +somewhat modified by many later experiments which led me to believe +that he uses it in a still wider sense. It is difficult to find any +formula of human speech equivalent to it. While the Capuchin uses it +relating to food and sometimes to drink, I was unable to detect any +difference in the sounds. He also seemed to connect the same sound to +every kindly office done him, and to use it as a kind of "Shibboleth." +More recently, however, I have detected in the sound slight changes of +inflection under different conditions, until I am now led to believe +that the meaning of the word depends somewhat, if not wholly, on its +modulation. The phonetic effect is rich and rather flute-like, and the +word resembles somewhat the word "who." Its dominant is a pure vocal +"u," sounded like "oo" in "too," which has a faint initial "wh," both +elements of which are sounded, and the word ends with a vanishing "w." +The literal formula by which I would represent it is "wh-oo-w." The word +which I have translated "drink" begins with a faint guttural "ch," and +glides through a sound resembling the French diphthong "eu," and ends +with a slight "y" sound as in "ye." + +So far I have found no trace of the English vowels "a," "i," or "o," +unless it be in the sound emitted under stress of great alarm or in case +of assault, in which I find a close resemblance to the vowel "i," short +as in "it." + +[Sidenote: FIELD OF OPERATIONS EXTENDED] + +After having acquired a sound or two, I extended my field of operations +and began to try my skill as a Simian linguist on every specimen with +which I came in contact. + +In Charleston, a gentleman owns a fine specimen of the brown Cebus whose +name is Jokes. He is naturally shy of strangers, but on my first visit +to him I addressed him in his native tongue, and he really seemed to +regard me very kindly; he would eat from my hand and allow me to caress +him through the bars of his cage. He eyed me with evident curiosity, but +invariably responded to the word which I uttered in his own language. +On my third visit to him I determined to try the effect of the peculiar +sound of "alarm" or "assault" which I had learned from one of this +species; but I cannot very well represent it in letters. While he was +eating from my hand, I gave this peculiar piercing note, and he +instantly sprang to a perch in the top of his cage, thence in and out of +his sleeping apartment with great speed, and almost wild with fear. + +[Sidenote: HARSH MEANS RESORTED TO] + +As I repeated the sound his fears seemed to increase, until from a mere +sense of compassion I desisted. No amount of coaxing would induce him to +return to me or to accept any offer of peace which I could make. I +retired to a distance of about twenty feet from his cage, and his master +induced him to descend from the perch, which he did, with the greatest +reluctance and suspicion. I gave the sound again from where I stood, and +it produced almost the same results as before. The monkey gave out a +singular sound in response to my efforts to appease him, but refused to +become reconciled. After the lapse of eight or ten days, I had not been +able to reinstate myself in his good graces, or to induce him to accept +anything whatever from me. At this juncture I resorted to harsher means +of bringing him to terms, and began to threaten him with a rod. At first +he resented this, but soon yielded and came down merely from fear. He +would place the side of his head on the floor, put out his tongue, and +utter a very plaintive sound having a slight interrogative inflection. +At first this act quite defied interpretation; but during the same +period I was visiting a little monkey called Jack. For strangers, we +were quite good friends, and Jack allowed me many liberties which the +family assured me he had uniformly refused to others. On one of my +visits he displayed his temper, and made an attack upon me because I +refused to let go of a saucer from which I was feeding him with some +milk. I jerked him up by the chain and slapped him sharply, whereupon +he instantly laid the side of his head on the floor, put out his tongue, +and made just such a sound as Jokes had made a number of times before. +It occurred to me that it was a sign of surrender, and many subsequent +tests have confirmed this opinion. Mrs. M. French Sheldon, in her +journey through East Africa, shot a small monkey in a forest near Lake +Charla. She described to me how the little fellow stood high up in a +tree and chattered to her in his sharp, musical voice, until at the +crack of her gun he fell mortally wounded. When he was laid dying at her +feet, he turned his bright little eyes pleadingly upon her as if to ask +for pity. Touched by his appeal, she took the little creature in her +arms to try to soothe him. Again and again he would touch his tongue to +her hand as if kissing it, and seemed to wish in the hour of death to be +caressed, even by the hand that slew him, and which had taken from him +without reward that life which could be of no value except to spend in +the wild forest where his kindred monkeys live. + +[Sidenote: MODE OF EXPRESSING SUBMISSION] + +This peculiar mode of expressing submission seems to be very widely +used, and from her description of the actions of that monkey, his +conduct must have been identical with that of the Cebus; and to my mind +may justly be interpreted to mean, "Pity me, I will not harm you." I +have recently learned that a Scotch naturalist, commenting on my +description of this act and its meaning, quite agrees with me, and +states that he has observed the same thing in other species of monkeys. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + The Reconciliation--The Acquaintance of Jennie--The + Salutation--The Words for Food and Drink--Little Banquo, Dago, + McGinty, and others. + + +[Sidenote: ACQUAINTANCE OF JENNIE] + +During a period of many weeks I visited Jokes almost daily, but after +the lapse of more than two months I had not won him back nor quieted his +suspicions against me. On my approach, he would manifest great fear and +go through the act of humiliation described above. I observed that he +entertained an intense hatred for a negro boy on the place, who teased +and vexed him on all occasions. I had the boy come near the cage, and +Jokes fairly raved with anger. I took a stick and pretended to beat the +boy, and this delighted Jokes very greatly. I held the boy near enough +to the cage to allow the monkey to scratch and pull his clothes, and +this would fill his little Simian soul with joy. I would then release +the boy, and to the evident pleasure of Jokes I would drive him away by +throwing wads of paper at him. I repeated this a number of times, and by +such means we again became the best of friends. After each encounter +with the boy, he would come up to the bars, touch my hand with his +tongue, chatter and play with my fingers, and show every sign of +confidence and friendship. He always warned me of the approach of any +one, and his conduct towards them was largely governed by my own. He +never failed, after this, to salute me with the sound described in the +first chapter. About the same time I paid a few visits to another little +monkey of the same species, named "Jennie." Her master had warned me in +advance that she was not well disposed towards strangers. At my request, +he had her chained in a small side yard which he forbade any of the +family entering. When I approached the little lady for the first time, +I gave her the usual salutation, which she responded to, and seemed to +understand. I unceremoniously sat down by her side and fed her from my +hands. She eyed me with evident interest and curiosity, while I studied +her every act and expression. During the process of this mutual +investigation, a negro girl who lived with the family, overcome by +curiosity, stealthily came into the yard and came up within a few feet +of us. I determined to sacrifice this girl upon the altar of science, so +I arose and placed her between the monkey and myself, and vigorously +sounded the alarm or menace. "Jennie" flew into a fury, while I +continued to sound the alarm and at the same time pretended to attack +the girl with a club and some paper wads, thus causing the monkey to +believe that the girl had uttered the alarm and made the assault. I then +drove the girl from the yard with a great show of violence, and for days +afterwards she could not feed or approach the little Simian. This +confirmed my opinion of the meaning of the sound, which can be fairly +imitated by placing the back of the hand gently on the mouth and kissing +it with great force, prolonging the sound for some seconds. This +imitation, however, is indifferent, and its quality is especially +noticeable when analysed on the phonograph. The pitch corresponds to the +highest "F" sharp on the piano, while the word "food" is four octaves +lower and the word "drink" three. + +[Sidenote: THE GARDEN IN CINCINNATI] + +On one occasion I visited the Garden in Cincinnati, and found in a cage +a small Capuchin, to whom I gave the name of Banquo. It was near night +and the visitors had left the house, and the little monkey, worried out +by the day's annoyance from visitors, sat quietly in the back of his +cage as though he was glad another day was done. I approached the cage +and uttered the sound which I have described and translated "drink." My +first effort caught his attention and caused him to turn and look at me. +He then arose and answered me with the same word, and came at once to +the front of the cage. He looked at me as if in doubt, and I repeated +the word. He responded with the same and turned to a small pan in his +cage, which he took up and placed near the door through which the keeper +usually passed his food, returned to me, and uttered the word again. I +asked the keeper for some milk, which he did not have, but brought me +some water instead. The efforts of my little Simian friend to secure the +glass were very earnest, and his pleading manner and tone assured me of +his extreme thirst. I allowed him to dip his hand into the glass, and he +would then lick the water from his fingers and reach again. I kept the +glass out of reach of his hand, and he would repeat the sound earnestly +and look at me beseechingly, as if to say, "Please give me some more." I +was thus convinced that the word which I had translated "milk" must also +mean "water," and from this and other tests I at last determined that +it meant "drink" in its broad sense, and possibly "thirst." It evidently +expressed his desire for something with which to allay his thirst. The +sound is very difficult to imitate, and quite impossible to write +exactly. + +[Sidenote: IMITATING SOUNDS] + +On one of my visits to the Chicago Garden, I stood with my side to a +cage containing a small Capuchin and gave the sound which I had +translated "milk." It caused him to turn and look at me, and on +repeating the sound a few times, he answered me very distinctly with the +same, picking up the pan from which he usually drank; and as I repeated +the word, he brought the pan to the front of the cage, set it down, and +came up to the bars and uttered the word distinctly. I had not shown him +any milk or any kind of food, but the man in charge, at my request, +brought me some milk, which I gave to him. He drank it with great +delight, then looked at me and held up his pan, repeating the sound. I +am quite sure that he used the same sound each time that he wanted +milk. During this same visit, I tried many experiments with the word +which I am now convinced means "food" or "hunger." And I was led to the +belief that he used the same word for apple, carrot, bread and banana; +but a few later experiments have led me to modify this view in a +measure, since the phonograph shows me slight variations of the sound, +and I now think it probable that these faint inflections may possibly +indicate a difference in the kinds of food he has in mind. However, they +usually recognise this sound, even when poorly imitated. I am impressed +with the firm belief that in this word I have found the clue to the +great secret of speech; and while I have taken only one short step in +the direction of its solution, I have pointed out the way which leads to +it. + +[Sidenote: BROWN CAPUCHINS] + +In the fall of 1891, I visited New York for the purpose of experimenting +with the monkeys in Central Park. Early one morning I repaired to the +monkey-house, and for the first time approached a cage containing five +brown Capuchins, whom I saluted with the word which I have translated +"food," and which seems to be an "open-sesame" to the hearts of all +monkeys of this species. On delivering this word, one of them responded +promptly and came to the front of the cage. I repeated it two or three +times and the remaining four came to the front, and as I thrust my +fingers through the bars of the cage, they took hold of them and began +playing with great familiarity and apparent pleasure. They seemed to +recognise the sound, and to realise that it had been delivered to them +by myself. Whether they regarded me as a great ape, monkey, or some +other kind of animal speaking their tongue, I do not know. But they +evidently understood the sound, though up to this time I had shown them +no food or water. A little later I secured some apples and carrots, and +gave them in small bits in response to their continual requests for +food, and this further confirmed my belief that I had translated the +word correctly. This was gratifying to me in view of the fact that I +was accompanied by two gentlemen who had been permitted to witness the +experiment, and it was evident to them that the monkeys understood the +sound. I placed the phonograph in order and made a record of the sound, +which I preserved for study. After an absence of some days, I returned +to the Park and went to the monkey-house. They recognised me as I +entered the door, notwithstanding there were many visitors present. They +began begging me to come to their cage, which I did, and gave them my +hand to play with. One of them in particular, whose name is "McGinty," +showed every sign of pleasure at my visit; he would play with my +fingers, hug them, and caress them in the most affectionate manner. +Another occupant of the same cage had shown a disposition to become +friendly with me, and on this occasion came bravely to the bars of the +cage and showed a desire to share the pleasure of my visit with his +little Simian brother. But this was denied him on any terms by +"McGinty," who pounced upon him and drove him away, as he also did the +other monkeys in the cage in order to monopolise my entire society +himself. He refused to allow any other inmate of the cage to receive my +caresses or any part of the food that I had brought them. I spent the +past winter in Washington and New York, much of the time in company with +these little creatures, and have made many novel and curious +experiments, some of which have resulted in surprises to myself. +[Sidenote: MONKEYS CAN COUNT] Among the facts which I have obtained, I +may state that certain monkeys can count three; that they discern values +by quantity and by number; that they have favourite colours, and are +pleased with some musical sounds. And I shall explain how I arrived at +some of these conclusions, in order that I may not be supposed to have +merely guessed at them. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + Monkeys have favourite Colours--Can distinguish Numbers and + Quantity--Music and Art very limited. + + +[Sidenote: MONKEYS HAVE FAVOURITE COLOURS] + +In order to ascertain whether monkeys have any choice of colours or not, +I selected some bright candies, balls, marbles, bits of ribbon, &c. I +took a piece of pasteboard, and on it placed a few bright-coloured bits +of candy, which I offered to a monkey and watched to see whether he +would select a certain colour or not. In this experiment I generally +used two colours at a time, and changed their places from time to time +in order to determine whether he selected the colour by design or +accident. After having determined which of two colours he preferred, I +substituted a third colour for the one which he cared least for, and +continued thus until I exhausted the list of bright colours. By +changing the arrangement of the objects a great number of times, it +could be ascertained with comparative certainty whether the colour was +his preference or not. I find that all monkeys do not select the same +colour, nor does the same monkey invariably select the same colour at +different times; but I think, as a rule, that bright green is a +favourite colour with the Capuchin, and their second choice is white. In +a few cases, white seemed to be their preference. I have sometimes used +paper wads of various colours, or bits of candy of the same flavour +rolled in various coloured papers. They seemed to choose the same +colours in selecting their toys. I have sometimes used artificial +flowers, and find, as a rule, that they will select a flower having many +green leaves about it. It may be that they associate this colour with +some green food which they are fond of, and consequently that they are +influenced by this in selecting other things. I kept a cup for a monkey +to drink milk from, on the sides of which were some brilliant flowers +and green leaves, and she would frequently quit drinking the milk to +play with the flowers on the cup, and seemed never able to understand +why she could not get hold of them. In one test I had a board about two +feet long, and laid a few pieces of white and pink candies in four +places on it. The monkey took the white from each pile before touching +the pink, except in one instance it took the pink piece from one pile. I +repeated this test many times. In another test I took a white paper ball +in one hand and a pink one in the other, and held out my hands to the +monkey, who selected the white one nearly every time, although I changed +hands with the balls from time to time. These experiments were mostly +confined to the Cebus monkeys, but a few of them were made with +Macaques. They seem to be attracted generally by all brilliant colours, +but when reduced to a choice between two, such seems to be their tastes. + +[Sidenote: CAN DISTINGUISH NUMBERS] + +In my efforts to ascertain their mathematical skill, I would take in +one hand a little platter containing one nut, or one small bit of +something to eat, such as a piece of apple or carrot cut into a small +cube. In the other hand I held a small platter, with two or three such +articles of the same size and colour, and holding them just out of reach +of the monkey and changing them from hand to hand, I observed that the +monkey would try to reach the one containing the greater number. He +readily discerned which platter contained one and which contained two or +three pieces. I was long in doubt whether he distinguished by number or +by quantity, and my belief was that it was by quantity only. I first +determined that he could tell singular from plural, by making the one +piece larger and sometimes of a different shape, and from his choice of +these I quite satisfied my own mind that he could distinguish by number. +[Sidenote: THE TEST WITH MARBLES] I next set out to find how far in +numerals his acquirements reached, and after a great number of +indecisive trials I fell upon this simple plan: I took a little square +wooden box and made a hole in one side just large enough for the monkey +to withdraw his hand with a marble in it. I took three marbles of the +same size and colour, and gave them to the monkey to play with. After a +time I put the marbles in a box and allowed him to take them out, which +he could do by taking out only one at a time. I repeated this several +times, so as to impress his mind with the number of marbles in the box. +I then concealed one of the marbles and returned two to the box. On +taking them out, he evidently missed the absent one, felt in the box, +arose, and looked around where he had been sitting. Then he would put +his hand into the box again and look at me; but failing to find it, he +became reconciled, and began to play with the two. When he had become +content with the two, I abstracted one of them, and when he failed to +find it he began to search for it, and seemed quite unwilling to proceed +without it. He would put the one back into the box and take it out +again, as if in hope that it might find the other. I helped him to look +for the missing marbles, and, of course, soon found them. When he +learned that I could find the lost marbles, he would appeal to me as +soon as he missed them, and in several instances he would take his +little black fingers and open my lips to see if I had concealed them in +my mouth, the place where all monkeys conceal what they wish to keep in +safety from other monkeys, who never venture to put their fingers into +one another's mouth, and when any article is once lodged in a monkey's +mouth it is safe from the reach of all the tribe. I repeated this until +I felt quite sure of the ability of my subject to count three, and I +then increased the number of marbles to four. When I would abstract one +of them, sometimes he seemed to miss it, or at least to be in doubt, but +would soon proceed with his play and not worry himself about it; yet he +rarely failed to show that he was aware that something was wrong. +Whether he missed one from four, or only acted on general principles, I +do not know; but that he missed one from three was quite evident. + +I may here add that there is a great difference in different specimens, +and their tastes vary like those of human beings. The same idea is much +clearer to some monkeys than it is to others, and a choice of colours +much more definite; but I think that all of them assign to different +numbers a difference of value. Some are talkative and others taciturn. I +think I may state with safety that the Cebus is the most intelligent and +talkative of all the monkeys I have known; that the Old World monkeys, +as a group, are more taciturn and less intelligent than the New World +monkeys, but I do not mean to include the anthropoid apes in this +remark. + +[Sidenote: MUSICAL RECORDS ON PHONOGRAPH] + +As a test of their taste for music or musical sounds, I took three +little bells, which I suspended by three strings, one end of which was +tied to a button. The bells were all alike, except that from two of them +I had removed the clappers. I dropped the bells through the meshes of +the cage about a foot apart, and allowed the monkey to play with them. I +soon discovered that he was attracted by the one which contained the +clapper. He played with it, and soon became quite absorbed in it. I +attracted his attention to another part of the cage with some food, and +while he was thus diverted I changed the position of the bells by +withdrawing and dropping them through other meshes. On his return he +would go to the place he had left, and, of course, get a bell with no +clapper in it. He would drop this and take another, until he found the +one with the clapper, which showed clearly that the sound was a part of +the attraction. I have repeated to monkeys many musical records on the +phonograph, but frequently they show no sign of concern, while at other +times they display some interest. It may be, however, that music, as we +understand it, is somewhat too high for them. Musical sounds seem to +attract and afford them pleasure, but they do not appreciate melody or +rhythm. As monkeys readily discern the larger of two pieces of food from +the smaller, and by the aid of concrete things can count a limited +number, I feel justified in saying that they have the first principles +of mathematics as dealing with numbers and quantity in a concrete form. +Their ability to distinguish colours and their selection thereof, would +indicate that they possess the first rudiment of art as dealing with +colour. And the fact that they are attracted in a slight degree by +musical sounds shows that they possess the germ from which music itself +is born. I must not be understood to claim that they possess anything +more than the mere germ from which such faculties might have been +evolved. I do not think that they have any names for numbers, colours or +quantities, nor do I think that they possess an abstract idea of these +things, except in the feeblest degree; but as the concrete must have +preceded the abstract idea in the development of human reason, it +impresses me that these creatures are now in a condition such as man +has once passed through in the course of his evolution; and it is not +difficult to understand how such feeble faculties may develop into the +very highest degree of strength and usefulness by constant use and +culture. + +[Sidenote: RUDIMENTS OF FACULTIES] + +We find in them the rudiments from which all the faculties possessed by +man could easily develop, including thought, reason, speech, and the +moral and social traits of man. In brief, they appear to have at least +the raw material out of which is made the most exalted attributes of +man, and I shall not contest with them the right of such possession. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + Pedro's Speech Recorded--Delivered to Puck through the + Phonograph--Little Darwin learns a new Word. + +[Sidenote: PEDRO THE CAPUCHIN] + +In the Washington collection there is a little Capuchin by the name of +Pedro. When I first visited this bright little monk he occupied a cage +in common with several other monkeys of different kinds. All of them +seemed to impose upon little Pedro, and a young spider monkey in the +cage found special delight in catching him by the tail and dragging him +around the floor of the cage. I interfered on behalf of Pedro, and drove +the spider monkey away. On account of this, Pedro soon began to look +upon me as his benefactor, and when he would see me he would scream and +beg for me to come to him. I induced the keeper to place him in a small +cage to himself, and this he seemed to appreciate very much. When I +would go to record his sounds on the phonograph, I held him in one hand, +while he would take the tube in his tiny black hands, hold it close up +to his mouth, and talk into it just like a good little boy who knew what +to do and how to do it. He would sometimes laugh and always chatter to +me as long as he could see me. He would sit on my hand and kiss my +cheeks, put his mouth up to my ear and chatter just as though he knew +what my ears were for. He was quite fond of the head-keeper and also of +the director, but he entertained a great dislike for one of the +assistant-keepers, and he has very often told me some very bad things +about that man, but I could not understand them. I shall long remember +how this dear little monk would cuddle up under my chin, and try so hard +to make me understand some sad story which seemed to be the burden of +his life. He readily understood the sounds of his own speech which I +repeated to him, and I have made some of the best records of his voice +that I have ever succeeded in making of any monkey, some of which I have +preserved up to this time. They present a wide range of sounds, and I +have studied them with special care and pleasure because I knew that +they were addressed to me in person; and being aware that the little +creature was uttering these sounds to me with the hope that I would +understand them, I was more anxious to learn just what he really said to +me in this record than if it had contained only some casual remark not +addressed to me. This little Simian was born in the Amazon Valley in +Brazil, and was named for the late Emperor. + +[Sidenote: PUCK AND THE PHONOGRAPH] + +A short time ago I borrowed from a dealer in Washington a little +Capuchin called Puck, and had him sent to my apartments, where I kept a +phonograph. I placed the cage in front of the machine upon which I had +adjusted the horn, and had placed the record of my little friend Pedro. +I concealed myself in an adjoining room, where I could watch the +conduct of my subject through a small hole in the door. I had a string +attached to the lever of the machine and drawn taut through another hole +in the door, so that I could start the machine at any desired moment, +and at the same time avoid attracting the attention of the monkey, +either by my presence or by allowing him to see anything move. After a +time, when everything was quiet, I set the machine in motion and treated +him to a phonographic recital by little Pedro. This speech was +distinctly delivered through the horn to Puck, from whose actions it was +evident that he recognised it as the voice of one of his tribe. He +looked at the horn in surprise and made a sound or two, glanced around +the room and again uttered a couple of sounds as he retired from the +horn, apparently somewhat afraid. Again the horn delivered some +exclamations in a pure Capuchin dialect, which Puck seemed to regard as +sounds of some importance. He cautiously advanced and made a feeble +response, but a quick, sharp sound from the horn seemed to startle him, +and failing to find any trace of a monkey, except the sound of a voice, +he looked at the horn with evident suspicion, and scarcely ventured to +answer any sound it made. When I had delivered to him the contents of +the record I entered the room again, and this seemed to afford him some +relief. + +[Sidenote: PUCK'S VOICE AND ACTIONS] + +A little later I adjusted my apparatus for another trial, and this time +I hung a small mirror just above the mouth of the horn. Then retiring +again from the room I left him to examine his new surroundings, and he +soon discovered the new monkey in the glass and began to caress and +chatter to it. After a while I started the phonograph again by means of +the string, and when the horn began to deliver its Simian oration it +appeared to disconcert and perplex Puck. He would look at the image in +the glass, then he would look into the horn; he would retire with a +feeble grunt and a kind of inquisitive grin, showing his little white +teeth, and acting as though in doubt whether to regard the affair as a +joke, or to treat it as a grim and scientific fact. His voice and +actions were exactly like those of a child, declaring in words that he +was not afraid, but betraying fear in every act, and finally blending +his feelings into a genuine cry. Puck did not cry, but the evidence of +fear made the grin on his face rather ghostly. Again he would approach +the mirror, then listen to the sounds which came from the horn, and it +appeared from his conduct that there was a conflict somewhere. It was +evident that he did not believe that the monkey which he saw in the +glass was making the sounds which came from the horn. He repeatedly put +his mouth to the glass, and caressed the image which he saw there, and +at the same time showed a grave suspicion and some concern about the one +which he heard in the horn, and tried to keep away from it as much as +possible. His conduct in this case was a source of surprise to me, as +the sounds contained in the record which I had repeated to him were all +uttered in a mood of anxious, earnest entreaty, which to me seemed to +contain no sound of anger, warning, or alarm, but which, on the +contrary, I had interpreted as a kind of love speech, full of music and +tenderness. I had not learned the exact meaning of any one of the sounds +contained in this cylinder, but had ascribed in a collective and general +way such a meaning to this speech. But from Puck's conduct I was led to +believe that it was a general complaint of some kind against those +monkeys in that other cage who had made life a burden to little Pedro. +One thing was clear to my mind, and that is that Puck interpreted the +actions of the monkey which he saw in the glass to mean one thing, and +the sounds which he heard from the horn to mean quite another. + +[Sidenote: FORM OF SPEECH USED BY MONKEYS] + +I do not think that their language is capable of shaping sentences into +narrative or giving any detail in a complaint, for I have never seen +anything yet among them which would justify one in ascribing to them so +high a type of speech; but in terms of general grievance it may have +conveyed to Puck the idea of a monkey in distress, and hence his desire +to avoid it; while the image in the glass presented to him a picture of +his own mood, and he therefore had no cause to shun it. I do think, +however, that the present form of speech used by monkeys is developed +far above a mere series of grunts and groans, and that some species +among them have a much more copious and expressive form of speech than +others. From many experiments with the phonograph, I am prepared to say +with certainty that some have much higher phonetic types than others. I +have traced some slight inflections which I think beyond a doubt modify +the values of their sounds. I find that some monkeys do not make some of +these inflections at all, although the phonation of a species is +generally uniform in other respects. In some cases it seems to me that +the inflections differ slightly in the same species, but long and +constant association seems to unify these dialects in some degree, very +much the same as like causes blend and unify the dialects of human +speech. I have found one instance in which a Capuchin had acquired two +sounds which strictly belonged to the tongue of the white-faced Cebus. I +was surprised when I heard him utter the sounds, and thought at first +that they were common to the speech of both varieties; but on inquiry I +found that he had been confined in a cage with the white-face for nearly +four years, and hence my belief that he acquired them during that time. + +The most remarkable case which has come under my observation is one in +which a young white-face has acquired the sound which means food in the +Capuchin tongue. This event occurred under my own eyes. I regard this +matter as so noteworthy and attended by such conditions as to show that +the monkey had a motive in learning the sound, that I shall relate the +case in detail. + +[Sidenote: THE WHITE-FACED CEBUS] + +In the room where the monkeys were kept by a dealer in Washington, there +was a cage which contained a young white-faced Cebus of rather more than +average intelligence. He was a quiet, sedate, and thoughtful little +monk, whose grey hair and beard gave him quite a venerable aspect, and +for this reason I called him Darwin. From some cause unknown to me he +was afraid of me, and I showed him but little attention. On the same +shelf and in an adjacent cage lived the little Capuchin, Puck. The cages +were only separated by an open wire partition, through which they could +easily see and hear each other. For some weeks I visited Puck almost +daily, and in response to his sound for food I always supplied him with +some nuts, banana, or other food. I never gave him any of these things +to eat unless he would ask me for them in his own speech. On one of my +visits my attention was attracted by little Darwin, who was uttering a +strange sound which I had never before heard one of his species utter. I +did not recognise the sound at first, but very soon discovered that it +was intended to imitate the sound of the Capuchin, in response to which +I always gave Puck some nice morsel of food. Darwin had undoubtedly +observed that this sound made by Puck was always rewarded with something +good to eat, and his evident motive was to secure a like reward. After +this I always gave him some food in acknowledgment of his efforts, and I +observed from day to day that he improved in making this sound, until at +last it could scarcely be detected from the sound made by Puck. This was +accomplished within a period of less than six weeks from my first visit. +In this case, at least, I have seen one step taken by a monkey in +learning the tongue of another. This was most interesting to me in view +of the fact that I had long believed, and had announced as my belief, +that no monkey ever acquired the sounds made by another species, or, +indeed, ever tried to do so. I admit, however, that this one instance +alone is sufficient to cause me to recede from a conclusion thus +rendered untenable, and the short time in which this one feat was +accomplished would indicate that the difficulty was not so great as I +had regarded it. [Sidenote: SPEECH USUALLY LIMITED] I still regard it as +a rule, however, that monkeys do not learn each other's speech, but the +rule is not without exceptions. I have observed, and called attention to +the fact, that when two monkeys of different species are caged together, +that each one will learn to understand the speech of the other, but does +not try to speak it as a rule. When he replies at all, it is always in +his own vernacular. I wish to impress the fact, that monkeys do not +generally carry on a connected conversation. Their speech is usually +limited to a single sound or remark, which is replied to in the same +manner; and to suppose that their conversations are elaborate or of a +highly social character, is to go beyond the bounds of reason. This is +the respect in which the masses fail to understand the real nature of +the speech of monkeys or other animals. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + Five little Brown Cousins: Mickie, Nemo, Dodo, Nigger, and + McGinty--Nemo apologises to Dodo. + + +During the past winter there lived in Central Park a bright, fine, +little monkey by the name of Mickie. He did not belong to the Park, but +was merely kept as a guest of the city during the absence of his master +in Europe. Mickie is a well-built, robust, good-natured monkey of the +Capuchin variety. He does not talk much except when he wants food or +drink, but he and I are the best of friends, and I frequently go into +his cage to have a romp with him and his four little cousins. + +When I first began to visit the Park in the fall of 1891, Mickie showed +a disposition to cultivate my acquaintance, and as it ripened into a +friendship day by day, we found great pleasure in each other's society. +As the monkey-house was open to the public at nine o'clock in the +morning, I had to make my calls at sunrise or thereabouts, in order to +avoid the visitors who daily throng this building. + +[Sidenote: NEMO AND MICKIE] + +In this cage was kept another little boarder of the same species, which +belonged to Mr. G. Hilton Scribner, of Yonkers. The keeper did not know +the name or anything of the past history of this little stranger, and +for want of some identity and a name I called him Nemo. He was a timid, +taciturn little fellow, quite intelligent, and possessed of an amount of +diplomacy equal to that of some human beings. He was the smallest monkey +in the cage, on which account he was somewhat shy of the others. He was +thoughtful, peaceable, but full of "guile." He sought on all occasions +to keep on the best terms with Mickie, to whom he would toady like a +sycophant. He would put his little arms about Mickie's neck and hang on +to him in the most affectionate manner. He would follow him like a +shadow, and stay by him like a last hope. If anything ever aroused the +temper of Mickie it was sure to make Nemo mad too; if Mickie was +diverted and would laugh, Nemo would laugh also if he was suffering with +a toothache. He was as completely under the control of Mickie as the +curl in Mickie's tail. When I first began to visit them Nemo would see +Mickie bite my fingers while we were playing, and he supposed it was +done in anger. Nemo never lost a chance to bite my fingers, which he +would always do with all his might, but his little teeth were not strong +enough to hurt me very much. He would only do this after seeing Mickie +bite me, and he did not evince any anger in the act, but appeared to do +so merely as a duty. He would sneak up to my hands and bite me unawares; +then he would run to Mickie and put his arm about his neck just as you +have seen some boys do when trying to curry favour with a larger boy. +On one occasion while in the cage with them he slipped up to me and bit +my finger, for which I kindly boxed his little ears. I would then give +Mickie my finger and allow him to bite it, after doing which I slapped +him gently and then give it to him again. I would then allow Nemo to +bite my finger, and if he bit it too hard I would slap him again, and in +this manner soon taught him to understand that Mickie only bit me in +fun, and he evidently learned that this was a fact. He did not appear, +however, to catch the point clearly or see any reason therefor, but on +all occasions thereafter he would take my finger in his mouth and hold +it in his teeth, which were scarcely closed upon it. This he would do +for a minute at a time without having the least apparent motive except +that he had seen Mickie do so. [Sidenote: MICKIE'S ATTACHMENT] Often +while holding my finger in this manner, with a look of seriousness +worthy of a supreme judge, he would roll his little eyes at me in the +most inquiring manner, as if to say "how is that"? When he once +realised that Mickie was so much attached to me, Nemo always showed a +desire to be on friendly terms with me; and when I would go into the +cage to play with Mickie and McGinty, he always wanted to be counted in +the game. When I had anything for them to eat he always wanted a seat of +honour at the table, and he would at times want to fight for me when the +other monkeys got too friendly. Poor little fellow, he is now dead, but +the image of his cute little face and original character are deeply +imprinted on my mind. I was never able to secure a record of the sounds +of his little voice, though I have often heard him talk. He had a soft +musical voice, and great power of facial expression. + +[Sidenote: APOLOGY TO DODO] + +One of the most remarkable things I have ever observed among monkeys was +done by this little fellow. On two separate occasions I have seen him +apologise to Dodo in the most humble manner for something he had done, +and I tried very hard to secure a record of this particular speech, in +which I totally failed, as I could not foreknow when such an act would +be done, and therefore could not have my phonograph in place to obtain +such a record. I called the attention of Mr. F. S. Church, the eminent +artist, to this act, with the hope that he might be able to make a +sketch of Nemo while in this attitude. I do not know what the offence +was, but the pose and expression as well as the speech were very +impressive. He sat in a crouching position, with the left hand clasping +the right wrist, and delivered his speech in a most energetic but humble +manner. The expression on his face could not be misunderstood. After a +few moments he paused briefly, and then seemed to repeat the same thing +some two or three times. The manner of his delivery was very suggestive, +and his demeanour was conciliatory. When he had quite finished his +speech, Dodo, to whom the apology was being made, and who had listened +to it in perfect silence, delivered a sound blow with her right hand on +the left side of the face of the little penitent, to which he responded +with a soft cry, while Dodo turned and left him without further debate. +I also called the attention of the keeper to this act, and he assured me +that he had repeatedly witnessed the same. What the subject of his +speech was or the cause which brought it about I am not able to say, nor +can I say with certainty to what extent he explained, but that it was an +apology, or explanation of some kind at least, I have not the slightest +doubt. I do not believe, of course, that his speech contained any +details concerning the offence, but that it expressed regret, penitence, +or submission does not to my mind admit of a doubt. I have seen a few +other cases somewhat similar to this, but none of them comparing in +point of polish and pathos to that of Nemo in his unique little speech. + +Nigger was of this same species: he was in poor health most of the +winter, being afflicted with some spinal trouble. But, notwithstanding +his affliction, he was a good talker. His infirmity, however, placed him +at the mercy of the other inmates of the cage, and as monkeys are +naturally cruel and entirely destitute of sympathy, the daily life of +Nigger could not be expected to be a very happy one. From this state of +facts Nigger usually kept to himself, and was not intimate with any +other monkey in the cage. I have frequently given Nigger some choice +bits of food while I was in the cage, and protected him from the other +monkeys while he was eating it. This he seemed to fully appreciate, and +always located himself at a certain point in the cage where his defence +could be effected with the least difficulty. Nigger frequently indulged +in the most pathetic and touching appeals to his keeper, and went +through many of the gestures, sounds, and contortions which will be +described in the next chapter, as a part of the speech and conduct of +Dodo, some of whose remarkable poses and expressions have been +faithfully portrayed by Mr. Church. + +[Sidenote: McGINTY AT CENTRAL PARK] + +Among my personal friends of the Simian race, there is none more devoted +to me than little McGinty, another winter boarder at Central Park. From +the first of my acquaintance with McGinty we had been staunch friends, +and when I go to visit him he expresses the most unbounded delight. He +will reach his little arms through the bars of the cage, and put his +hands on my cheeks, hold his mouth up to the wires, and talk to me at +great length. When I go into the cage he will place himself on a perch +in the cage, where he will sit with his arms around my neck, lick my +cheeks affectionately, pull my ears, and chatter to me in a sweet but +plaintive tone. When Mickie joins the play, which he invariably does, by +climbing or jumping on to my shoulders, and interrupting the +_tête-à-tête_ between McGinty and myself, poor little McGinty's +jealousy, which is his supreme passion, causes him to retire in +disgust, and he will sometimes pout for several minutes without even +accepting food from me. After he has pouted for a while, however, he +will sometimes make overtures of reconciliation and seek by various +means to divert my attention. One of his favourite means of renewing +favour with me, was to whip poor little Nigger. He would look at me and +laugh, grin and make grimaces, and then dash off at Nigger and want to +eat him up. He did not seem to understand why I objected to this +whipping Nigger. Monkeys do not regard it as a breach of honour to whip +the helpless and feeble members of their tribe. They are not unlike a +large percentage of mankind. They always hunt for easy prey, and want to +fight something that is easily whipped. They are not great cowards, but +when once whipped they rarely attempt the second time to contest matters +with their victors. [Sidenote: CAGE OF CAPUCHIN MONKEYS] In this cage, +containing five brown Capuchin monkeys, it was not difficult to see +that Mickie ran things to suit himself. McGinty was the only one of the +four in the cage with him that ever contested any right with Mickie, and +for a long time it was a question in my mind who was to win in the end. +The next to them in authority was Dodo, who never attempted to control +Mickie or McGinty, but always made Nemo and Nigger stand about. Fourth +in line of authority was Nemo, who always resented any offence from +others by making Nigger take a corner; and the only victims that Nigger +had were the little white-faces, which never fight anything and are +always on the run. When it was finally decided between Mickie and +McGinty that Mickie should be captain, McGinty readily accepted the +place of first lieutenant, which rank he has continued to hold without +challenge. When once the question is settled among the cage of Simians, +the debate does not appear to be renewed at any future time. They never +go to court with their grievances, and rarely appeal a second time to +force when the question has once been decided against them. Some human +beings might profit by studying this trait of monkeys. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + Dago Talks about the Weather--Tells me of his Troubles--Dodo in + the "Balcony Scene"--Her Portrait by a great Artist. + + +On one of my visits to Chicago, in the autumn of 1890, I went to pay my +respects to Dago, the little brown monkey in Lincoln Park. He had been +sick for a while, and had not fully recovered, although he was able to +receive visitors, and his appetite for pea-nuts was fairly well +restored. On the morning of which I speak, it was dark and stormy. A +fierce wind and terrible rain prevailed from the north-west. I went to +the building just after daylight, in order to be alone with the monkey, +and when I entered the house, Frenchie, the head-keeper, told me how +very sick little Dago had been since I had left him on the day before. +I approached the cage and began to caress him, to which he replied in +low whimpering tones, as though he understood the nature of what I was +saying to him. Presently he raised himself erect upon his hind feet, and +placing his hands on his side, pressed and rubbed it as though he was in +great pain, and uttered some sounds in a low, piping voice. The sound +itself was pathetic, and when accented by his gestures, it was really +very touching. [Sidenote: DAGO AND THE WEATHER] At this juncture, a hard +gust of wind and rain dashed against the window near his cage, whereupon +the little monk turned away from me, ran to the window and looked out, +and uttered a sound quite different from the ones he had just been +delivering to me. Still standing erect, he appeared deeply interested, +and stood for a few moments at the window, during which time he would +turn his head towards me and utter this sound. That the sound he uttered +was addressed to me could not be doubted, and his manner in doing so was +very human-like. Then returning to me, still standing erect, he would +renew this plaintive speech in the most earnest manner, and continue it +until another gust would call him to the window. I observed that each +time he went to the window he uttered the same sound, as well as I could +detect by ear, and would stand for some time watching out of the window, +and occasionally turn his head and repeat this sound to me. When +returning to me again, he would resume his sad story, whatever it was. I +secured a good record of that part of his speech which was made when +near me at the front of the cage, but the remarks made while at the +window were not so well recorded, yet they were audible, and I +reproduced them on the phonograph at a subsequent visit. My opinion was +that the sound he uttered while at the window must allude in some way to +the state of the weather, and this opinion was confirmed by the fact +that on a later occasion, when I repeated the record to him, the weather +was fair; but when the machine repeated those sounds which he had +uttered at the window on the day of the storm, it would cause him to +turn away and look out of the window; while at the other part of the +record he evinced but little interest, and, in fact, seemed rather to +avoid the phonograph as though the sounds suggested something which he +disliked. I am quite sure that the remarks which he made to me at the +front of the cage were a complaint of some kind, and, from its +intonation and the manner in which it was delivered, I believed that it +was an expression of pain. It occurred to me that the state of the +weather might have something to do with his feelings, and that he was +conscious of this fact, and desired to inform me of it. + +About a year from that time, I became quite intimate with a feeble +little monkey, which is described elsewhere by the name of Pedro, and of +whose speech I made a good record. The sounds of his speech so closely +resembled those made by Dago, that I was not able to see that they +differed in any respect, except in loudness. Unfortunately, the +cylinders containing Dago's record had been broken in shipping, and I +was therefore unable to compare the two by analysis; but the sounds +themselves resembled in a striking degree, and the manner of delivery +was not wholly unlike, except that Pedro did not assume the same pose +nor emphasise them with the same gestures. + +[Sidenote: DODO, THE JULIET OF THE TRIBE] + +During my stay in New York the past winter, I have been frequently +entertained by a like speech from little Dodo, who was the Juliet of the +Simian tribe. She belonged to the same species as the others, but her +oratory was of a type far superior to that of any other of its kind that +I have ever heard. At almost any hour of the day, at the approach of her +keeper, she would stand upright and deliver to him the most touching and +impassioned address. The sounds which she used, and the gestures with +which she accented them, as far as I could determine, were the same as +those used by Dago and Pedro in their remarks to me as above described, +except that Dodo delivered her lines in a much more impressive manner +than either of the others. [Sidenote: DODO AND HER KEEPER] I asked the +keeper to go into the cage with me, and see if he could take her into +his hands. We entered the cage, and after a little coaxing she allowed +him to take her into his arms, and after caressing her for a while, and +assuring her that no harm was meant, she would put her slender little +arms about his neck, and cuddle her head up under his chin like an +injured child. She would caress him by licking his cheeks and chattering +to him in a voice full of sympathy, and an air of affection worthy of a +human being. During most of this time she would continue her pathetic +speech without a moment's pause, and was not willing under any +conditions to be separated from him. The only time at which she would +ever show any anger at me, or threaten me with assault, would be when I +would attempt to lay hands on her keeper, or release him from her warm +embrace. At such times, however, she would fly at me with great fury, +and attempt to tear my very clothes off, and on these occasions she +would not allow any other inmate of the cage to approach him, or to +receive his attention or caresses. The sounds which she uttered were +pitiful at times, and the tale she told must have been full of the +deepest woe. I have not been able up to this time to translate these +sounds literally, but their import cannot be misunderstood. My belief is +that her speech was a complaint against the inmates of the cage, and +that she was begging her keeper not to leave her alone in that great +iron prison, with all those big, bad monkeys, who were so cruel to her. +One reason for believing this to be the nature of her speech, is that in +all cases where I have heard this speech and seen these gestures made, +the conditions were such as to indicate that such was its nature. It +has, however, every appearance of love-making of the most intense type. +It is quite impossible to describe fully and accurately the sounds, and +much more so the gestures, made on these occasions, so that the reader +would be impressed as with the real act and speech. Dodo would stand +erect on her feet, cross her hands on her heart, and in the most +touching but graceful manner go through with the most indescribable +contortions; she would sway her body from side to side, turn her head in +the most coquettish manner, and move her folded hands dramatically, +while her face would be adorned with a Simian grin of the first order, +and the soft, rich notes of her voice were perfectly musical. She would +bend her body into every graceful curve that can be imagined, move her +feet with the grace of the minuet, and continue her fervent speech as +long as the object of her admiration appeared to be touched by her +appeals. Her voice would range from pitch to pitch and from key to key, +and, with her arms folded, she would glide across the floor of her cage +with the grace of a ballet girl; and I have seen her stand with her eyes +fixed upon her keeper, and hold her face in such a position as not to +lose sight of him for a moment, and at the same time turn her body +entirely around, in her tracks, with the skill which no contortionist +has ever attained. [Sidenote: MONKEYS SHED TEARS] During these orations +I have observed the little tears standing in the corner of her eyes, +which indicated that she herself must have felt what her speech was +intended to convey. These little creatures do not shed tears in such +abundance as human beings do, but they are real tears, and are doubtless +the result of the same causes that move the human eyes to tears. + +It has been my experience that these sounds appeal directly to our +better feelings. What there is in the sound itself I cannot say, but it +touches some chord in the human heart which vibrates in response to it. +It has impressed me with the thought that all our senses are like the +strings of some great harp, each one having a certain tension; so that +any sound produced through an emotion would find response in that chord +which is in unison with it. Indeed, I have thought that our emotions and +sensations may be like the diatonic scale in music, and that the organs +through which they act may respond in tones and semitones, and that each +multiple of any fundamental tone will affect the chord in unison with +it, like the strings upon a musical instrument. The logical deduction +thence would be, that our sympathies and affections are the chords, and +our aversions and contempt the discords, of that great harp of passion. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + Interpretation of Words--Specific Words and Signs--The Negative + Sign and Sounds--Affirmative Expressions--Possible Origin of + Negative and Positive Signs. + + +In my intercourse with these little creatures, I cannot forget how often +I have caught the spirit of their tones when no ray of meaning as mere +words of speech had dawned upon me, and it is partly through such means +that I have been able to interpret them. As a rule, each act of a monkey +is attended by some sound, and each sound by some act, which, to another +monkey of the same species, always means a certain thing. There are many +cases, perhaps, in which acquired words or shades of dialect are not +quite clear to them, just as we often find in human speech; but monkeys +appear to meet this difficulty and overcome it, just as men do. They +talk with one another on a limited number of subjects, but in very few +words, which they frequently repeat if necessary. Their language is +purely one of sounds, and while those sounds are accompanied by signs, +as a rule, I think they are quite able to get along better with the +sounds alone than with the signs alone. The rules by which we may +interpret the sounds of Simian speech are the same as those by which we +would interpret human speech. If you should be cast away upon an island +inhabited by some strange race of people whose speech was so unlike your +own that you could not understand a single word of it, you would watch +the actions of those people and see what act they did in connection with +any sound they made, and in this way you would gradually learn to +associate a certain sound with a certain act, until at last you would be +able to understand the sound without seeing the act at all; and such is +the simple line I have pursued in the study of the speech of this +little race--only I have been compelled to resort to some very novel +means of doing my part of the talking. Since I have been so long +associated with them, I have learned to know in many cases what act they +will perform in response to certain sounds; and as I grow more and more +familiar with these sounds, I become better able to distinguish them, +just as we do with human speech. + +[Sidenote: SPECIFIC TERMS] + +Until recently, I have believed that their sounds were so limited in +number as to preclude any specific terms in their vocabulary; but now I +am inclined to modify this opinion somewhat, as I have reason to believe +that they have some specific terms--such as a word for monkey, another +word for fruit, and so on. They do not specify, perhaps, the various +kinds of monkeys; but monkeys in general, in contradistinction to birds +or dogs. Their word for fruit does not specify the kind, but only means +fruit in a collective sense, and only as a kind of food. I am not +positive as yet that their specific terms may even go so far as this, +but I infer that such may be the case from one fact which I have +observed in my experience. When I show a monkey his image in a mirror, +he utters a sound on seeing it, especially if he has been kept away from +other monkeys for a long time; and all monkeys of the same species, so +far as I have observed, under like conditions use the same sound and +address it in the same way to the image in the glass. In a few instances +I have seen strange monkeys brought in contact with each other, and have +observed that they use this same sound on their first meeting. The sound +is always uttered in a low, soft tone, and appears to have the value of +a salutation. When kept in a cage with other monkeys, they do not appear +to salute the image in the glass, but chatter to it, and show less +surprise at seeing it than in cases where they have been kept alone for +some time. + +In cases where monkeys have been fed for a long time on bread and milk, +or on any one kind of food, when a banana is shown him he uses a sound +which the phonograph shows to differ slightly from the ordinary food +sound. I have recently had reason to suspect that this difference of +inflection somewhat qualifies the sound, and has a tendency to make it +more specific. The rapidity with which these creatures utter their +speech is so great that only such ears as theirs can detect these very +slight inflections. I am now directing my observations and experiments +to this end, with the hope that I may determine with certainty in what +degree they qualify their sounds, by inflections or otherwise. I have +observed that in the phonograph the sounds which formerly appeared to me +to be the same are easily distinguished when treated in the manner +described in the second part of this work, where I describe at length +some of my experiments with this wonderful machine. + +[Sidenote: THE NEGATIVE SIGN] + +One of the most certain of my discoveries in the Simian speech, is the +negative sign and the word "no." The sign is made by shaking the head +from side to side in a fashion almost exactly like that used by man to +express the same idea. I have no longer any doubt of the intent and +meaning of this sign, and the many tests to which I have subjected it +compel me accept the result as final. + +[Sidenote: SIGN COMMON TO MAN AND SIMIAN] + +A little more than a year ago, my attention was called to this sign by +the children who own the little Capuchin, Jack, in Charlestown. A number +of times they said to him in my presence, "Jack, you must go to bed." At +which he would shake his little black head, as if he really did not wish +to comply. I watched this with great interest; but it was my belief at +that time that he had been trained to do this, and that the sign did not +really signify to him anything at all. The children, however, declared +to me that he really meant "no." To believe that he meant this would +presuppose that he understood the combination of words quoted; and this +was beyond the limits of my faith, although it was certain that a +repetition of the sentence always elicited from him the same sign, +which indicated that he recognised it as the same sentence or +combination of sounds, and gave it the same reply each time. I concluded +that he had been taught to associate this sign with some sound--for +instance, "bed" or "go"; but since that time I have found the sign to be +almost universal with this species of monkey, and they use the sign to +express negation. I have seen them use the sign in response to certain +things which were wholly new to them, but where the idea was clear to +them and they desired to express dissent. The fact that this sign is +common to both man and Simian, I regard as more than a mere coincidence; +and I believe that in this sign I have found the psycho-physical basis +of expression. + +I have made scores of experiments on this subject, and I find this sign +a fixed factor of expression. In one case, where I tried to induce a +monkey to allow me to take him into my hands from the hand of his +master, he would shake his head each time, and make a peculiar sound +somewhat like a suppressed cluck. I would try to coax him with nuts, in +response to which he would make the same sound and sign each time, and +his actions showed beyond all controversy his intention. I had taught a +monkey to drink milk from a bottle by sucking it through a rubber +nipple, and after he had satisfied his thirst, when I would try to force +the bottle to his lips, he would invariably respond by a shake of the +head in the manner described, and at the same time utter a clucking +sound. I tried many similar experiments with three or four other +monkeys, and secured the same result in each case. In another instance, +where a monkey was confined in a small cage so that I could easily catch +him in order to tame him by handling, when I would put my hand into the +cage to catch him, he would shake his head in this manner and accompany +the act by a plaintive sound which was so touching, that I could not +obtain my own consent to persecute the little prisoner by compelling him +to submit to my caresses. I have found that the little rogue, McGinty, +in Central Park does the same thing at times when I go into the cage and +attempt to put my hands on him, and especially when he has taken refuge +in a corner to nurse his jealousy. While I remain outside the cage, he +is so devoted to me that he will scarcely leave me to get something to +eat; but when I enter the cage, and reach out my hand toward him, he +will shake his little head and utter that peculiar clucking sound. Many +of these tests I have repeated over and over with the same results, and, +noting the conditions at the time, I am thoroughly convinced that the +sign and sound mean "no." I have observed that this sign is always made +in the same manner; but sometimes it is accompanied by a clucking sound, +while at other times it is a soft whimpering sound, almost like a low +plaintive whistle. [Sidenote: SIGN USED WITHOUT SOUND] The sign is +frequently used without the sound at all, and I must impress it upon my +reader that these results do not always present themselves in every +experiment, as much depends upon the mood and surroundings of the +subject. I have found that one advantage is to have the monkey confined +in a very small cage, as otherwise he will turn away and get out of your +reach when you press anything upon him that he does not want. I have +also found much better results by having the monkey alone, and where he +can neither see nor hear other monkeys. + +Having discovered the sign of negation among the Simians, I began an +investigation to ascertain how far it could be found among the races of +mankind. I have carried my search far beyond the limits of local +inquiry, and up to this time I have found only a few trifling exceptions +in the use of this sign among all the races of men, and those few +exceptions are found among the Caucasian race, and appear to be confined +to Southern Europe. I have heard that among certain island tribes of +Polynesia these signs are reversed, but I have been assured by two +officers of the English navy and two of the United States navy, who have +visited the islands in question, that such is not the case. Among the +Indians, Mongolians, and Negroes I have found no noteworthy exceptions. +I have inquired among mothers who have raised families to ascertain when +they first observed this sign as an expression among their children; and +from the consensus of opinion it appears that this is about the first +sign used by infants to express negation. + +[Sidenote: THE POSITIVE SIGN] + +I have not found the positive sign, or sign of affirmation, by a nod of +the head, to be so general, yet it has a wide range within the human +family, and appears to be used to some extent among the lower primates. + +Seeking a source from which these signs may have originated, I have +concluded that they may arise from two circumstances. The negative sign +doubtless comes from an effort to turn the head away from something +which is not desired, and that with such an intent it has gradually +crystallised into an instinctive expression of negation or refusal; +while the nod of affirmation or approval may have grown out of the +intuitive lowering of the head, as an act of submission or acquiescence, +or from reaching the head forward to receive something desired, or they +may have come from these two causes conjointly. + +[Sidenote: ALPHABET FOR SIMIAN SPEECH] + +This is only one of a great many points in which the speech of Simians +coincides with that of man. It is true we have no letters in our +alphabet with which to represent the sounds of their speech, nor have we +the phonetic equivalence of their speech in our language; but it is also +true that our alphabet does not fully represent or correctly express the +entire phonetic range of our own speech; but the fact that our speech is +not founded upon the same phonetic basis, or built up into the same +phonetic structures, is no reason that their speech is not as truly +speech as our own. That there are no letters in any alphabet which +represent the phonetic elements of Simian speech, is doubtless due to +the fact that there has never been any demand for such; but the same +genius which invented an alphabet for human speech, actuated by the same +motives and led by the same incentives, could as easily invent an +alphabet for Simian speech. It is not only true that the phonetic +elements of our language are not represented by the characters of our +alphabet, but the same is true to some extent of our words, which do not +quite keep pace with human thought. In the higher types of human speech +there are thousands of words and ideas which cannot be translated into +or expressed by any savage tongue, because no savage ever had use for +them, and no savage tongue contains their equivalence. The growth of +speech is always measured by the growth of mind. They are not always of +the same extent, but always bear a common ratio. It is a mental product, +and must be equal to the task of coining thoughts into words. It is +essential to all social order, and no community could long survive as +such without it. It is as much the product of mind and matter as salt is +the product of chlorine and sodium. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + Meeting with Nellie--Nellie was my Guest--Her Speech and + Manners--The little Blind Girl--One of Nellie's Friends--Her + Sight and Hearing--Her Toys, and how she Played with them. + + +One of the most intelligent of all the brown Capuchins that I have ever +seen was Nellie, who belonged to a dealer in Washington. When she +arrived there, I was invited to call and see her. I introduced myself in +my usual way, by giving her the sound for food, to which she promptly +replied. She was rather informal, and we were soon engaged in a chat on +that subject, the one above all others that would interest a monkey. On +my second visit she was like an old acquaintance, and we had a fine +time. On my third visit she allowed me to put my hands into her cage, +and handle her with impunity. On my next visit I took her out of the +cage, and we had a real romp. This continued for some days, during which +time she would answer me on all occasions when I used the word for food +or drink. She had grown quite fond of me, and always recognised me as I +entered the door. [Sidenote: NELLIE AND THE BLIND GIRL] About this time +there came to Washington a little girl who was deaf, dumb, and blind; +she was accompanied by her teacher, who acted as her interpreter. One of +the greatest desires of this little girl's life was to see a live +monkey--that is, to see it with her fingers. The dealer who owned the +monkey sent for me to come down and show it to her, as I could handle +the monkey for her. I took Nellie from the cage, and when any one except +myself would put hands upon her she would growl and scold and show her +temper; and when the little blind girl first attempted to put her hands +on her, Nellie did not like it at all. I stroked the child's hair and +cheeks with my own hand first, and then with Nellie's; she looked up at +me in an inquiring manner, and uttered one of those soft, flute-like +sounds a few times, and then began to pull at the cheeks and ears of the +child. Within a few moments they were like old friends and playmates, +and for nearly an hour they afforded each other great pleasure, at the +end of which time they separated with reluctance. The little Simian +acted as if she was conscious of the sad affliction of the child, but +seemed at perfect ease with her, although she would decline the +tenderest approach of others. She would look at the child's eyes, which +were not disfigured, but lacked expression, and then look up at me as if +to indicate that she was aware that the child was blind, and the little +girl appeared not to be aware that monkeys could bite at all. It was a +beautiful and touching scene, and one in which the lamp of instinct shed +its feeble light on all around. + +On the following day, by an accident in which I really had no part, +except that of being present, Nellie escaped from her cage, and climbed +up on a shelf occupied by some bird-cages. As she attempted to climb up, +of course the light wicker cages with their little yellow occupants fell +to the floor by the dozen. I tried to induce her to return or to come to +me, but the falling cages, the cry of the birds, the talking of parrots, +and the scream of other monkeys, frightened poor Nellie almost out of +her wits. Thinking that I was the cause of her trouble, because I was +present, she would scream with fright at my approach. She was not an +exception to that general rule which governs monkeydom, which is to +suspect every one of doing wrong except itself. + +I had her removed to my apartment, where I supplied her with bells and +toys, and fed her on the fat of the land; and by this means we slowly +knitted together the broken bones of our friendship once more. But when +once a monkey has grown suspicious of you they never recover entirely +from it, it seems, for in every act thereafter, however slight, you can +readily see that they suspect you of it; but with great care and caution +you can make them almost forget the trouble. While I kept Nellie at my +rooms I made some good records of her speech on the phonograph, and +studied her with special care; but as the province of this work is the +speech of that little race, I must forego the pleasure of telling some +intensely funny things with which she entertained me, excepting so far +as they are relevant to speech. + +[Sidenote: NELLIE'S FONDNESS FOR A LITTLE BOY] + +A frequent and welcome visitor to my study was a bright little boy, +about six years old, for whom Nellie entertained a great fondness, as +she also did for my wife. At the sight of the boy Nellie would go into +perfect raptures, and when he would leave her, she would call him so +earnestly and whine so pitifully that one could not refrain from +sympathy. On his return she would laugh audibly, and give every sign of +extreme joy. She never tired of his company, nor gave any part of her +attention to others when he was present. Some children living next door +always found great delight in calling to see Nellie, and she always +showed her pleasure at their visits. On these occasions, Nellie made it +a point to entertain them, and always showed herself to the best +advantage. When I wished to make a good record of her sounds, and +especially of her laughter, I always brought the little boy to my aid. +The boy would conceal himself in the room, and after Nellie had called +him a few times he would jump out from his place of concealment and +surprise her, whereupon she would laugh till she could be heard through +the whole house; and in this manner I secured some of the best records I +have ever made of the laughter of any monkey. When the boy would conceal +himself again, I secured the peculiar sound with which she would try to +attract his attention. The sound which she used in calling him or my +wife was unlike that which she made for any other purpose; and while it +is difficult to say whether the grammatical value of this sound is that +of a noun or of a verb, it is evident that it was used for the special +purpose of calling or attracting attention. If its value is that of a +noun, it has not, in my opinion, any specific character, but a term +which would be applied alike to boys, monkeys, horses, birds, or any +other thing which she might desire to call. If in its nature it is a +verb, it is equivalent to the name of the act, and combines the force of +the imperative and infinitive moods. + +[Sidenote: EMOTIONS OF MAN AND SIMIAN] + +The uniform expression of the emotions of man and Simian is such as to +suggest that, if thought was developed from emotion and speech was +developed from thought, that the expressions of emotion were the +rudiments from which speech is developed. + +A striking point of resemblance between human speech and that of the +Simian is found in a word which Nellie used to warn me of approaching +danger. It is not that sound which I have elsewhere described as the +alarm-sound, and which is used only in case of imminent and awful +danger; but this sound is used in case of remote danger or in announcing +something unusual. As nearly as I can represent the sound by letters, it +would be "e-c-g-k," and with this word I have been warned by these +little friends many times since I first heard it from Nellie. + +[Sidenote: NELLIE'S ACTIONS ALMOST HUMAN] + +In the following experiment this sound was used with great effect. +Nellie's cage occupied a place in my study near my desk. She would stay +awake at night as long as the light was kept burning, and as I have +always kept late hours, I did not violate the rule of my life in order +to give her a good night's rest. About two o'clock one morning, when I +was about to retire, I found Nellie wide awake. I drew my chair up to +her cage, and sat watching her pranks as she tried to entertain me with +bells and toys. I tied a long thread to a glove, which I placed in a +corner of the room at a distance of several feet from me, but without +letting her see it. I held one end of the string in my hand, I drew the +glove obliquely across the floor towards the cage. When I first +tightened the string, which I had drawn across one knee and under the +other, the glove moved very slightly, and this her quick eye caught at +the very first motion. Standing almost on tip-toe, her mouth half open, +she would peep cautiously at the glove, and then in a low whisper would +say "e-c-g-k"! And every second or so would repeat it, at the same time +watching me, to see whether I was aware of the approach of this goblin. +Her actions were almost human, while her movements were as stealthy as +those of a cat. As the glove came closer and closer she became more and +more demonstrative, and when at last she saw the monster climbing up the +leg of my trousers, she uttered the sound aloud and very rapidly, and +tried to get to the object, which she evidently thought was some living +thing. She detected the thread with which I drew the glove across the +floor, but seemed in doubt as to what part it played in this act. I saw +her eyes several times follow the thread from my knee to the glove, but +I do not think she discovered what caused the glove to move. Having done +this for a few times, however, with about the same result each time, I +relieved her anxiety and fright by allowing her to examine the glove, +which she did with marked interest for a moment and then turned away. I +tried the same thing over again, but failed to elicit from her the +slightest interest after she had examined the glove. + +[Sidenote: SOUND OF WARNING] + +It will be observed that when Nellie first discovered the glove moving +on the floor, as she attempted to call my attention in a low whisper, +and as the object approached me she became more earnest, and uttered the +sound somewhat louder, and when she discovered the monster, as she +regarded it, climbing up my leg, she uttered her warning in a loud +voice, not a scream or a yell, but in a tone sufficiently loud for the +distance over which the warning was conveyed. The fact of her whispering +indicates that her idea of sound was well defined; her purpose was to +warn me of the approaching danger without alarming the object against +which her warning was intended to prepare me; and as the danger +approached me, her warning became more urgent, and when she saw the +danger was at hand her warning was no longer concealed or restrained. + +Another sound which these little creatures use in a somewhat similar +manner, is a word which may be represented by the letters "c-h-i." The +"c-h" is guttural like the final "ch" in German, and "i" short like the +sound of "i" in hit. This sound is used to give warning of the approach +of something which the monkey does not fear, such as approaching +footsteps or the sound of voices; and this sound Nellie always used to +warn my wife of my approach when I was coming up the stairway. The rooms +which I occupied while I kept Nellie were located on the second floor, +and the dining-room was on the ground-floor; and hence there were two +flights of stairs between, both of which were carpeted. So acute was +her sense of hearing, that she would detect my footsteps on the lower +stairway, and warn my wife of my approach. She manifested no interest, +as a rule, in the sounds made by other persons passing up and down the +stairway, which indicated that she not only heard the sounds of my +footsteps but recognised them. The first intimation she would give of my +coming was always in a whisper. She would first make the sound "c-h-i," +and then she would stop and listen. She would repeat the sound and +listen again, and as I would approach the door in the hall she would +lift her voice to its natural pitch, and utter this sound three or four +times in quick succession; and when I turned the door-knob she would +show some excitement, and when I entered the room she would always +express her satisfaction with a little chuckle. This sound she did not +use except to announce something of which she was not afraid, but when +she apprehended danger from the cause of the sound, she would use the +word "e-c-g-k," and when greatly alarmed she would use the sound which I +have described in the former chapter as that of intense alarm or +assault. + +[Sidenote: MONKEYS DO NOT TALK WHEN ALONE] + +Nellie was an affectionate little creature, and could not bear to be +left alone, even when supplied with toys and everything she wanted to +eat. When she would see me put on my overcoat, or get my hat and cane, +she knew what it meant; and when she would see my wife, to whom she was +much devoted, put on her cloak and bonnet, she at once foresaw that she +would be left alone. Then she would plead and beg and chatter, until she +sometimes dissuaded my wife, and she seemed aware that she had +accomplished her purpose. I have watched her by the hour, through a +small hole in the door, and when quite alone she would play with her +toys in perfect silence, and sometimes for hours together she would not +utter a single word. She was not an exception to the rule which I have +mentioned heretofore, that monkeys do not talk when alone, or when it is +not necessary to their comfort or pleasure; and while I am aware that +their speech is far inferior to human speech, yet in it there is an +eloquence that soothes, and a meaning that appeals to the human heart. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + Affections--A little Flirtation--Some of my personal Friends. + + +Nellie had spent much of her life in captivity and had been used to the +society of children, for whom she showed the greatest fondness, and +rarely ever betrayed the slightest aversion to any of them. She +delighted to pat their cheeks, pull their ears, and tangle their hair. +One of her favourite pastimes was to pull the hairpins out of my wife's +hair so that she could get hold of it the better to play with, and my +wife has often remarked that Nellie would make an excellent lady's-maid. +She would clean one's finger-nails with the skill of a manicure. She +would pick every shred, ravelling, or speck from one's clothing. Her +aversions and attachments were equally strong. She was not selfish in +selecting her friends, nor did she seem to be influenced by age or +beauty. + +[Sidenote: MONKEYS SHOULD HAVE TOYS] + +To let her out of her cage and give her something to play with was +happiness enough for her, and I almost think she preferred such a life +to the freedom of her Amazon forests. But you cannot afford to turn one +out of the cage in a room where there is anything that can be torn or +broken, as they enjoy such mischief in the highest degree. Nellie would +beg me so piteously to be taken from her little iron prison that I could +not have the cruelty to refuse her, even at the cost of some trouble in +preparing the room for her; and as we retain these little captives +against their will, and treat them worse than slaves by keeping them in +close confinement, I think we should at least try to amuse them. It is +true they do not have to toil, but I think it would be more humane to +make them work in the open air than to confine them so closely, and then +deprive them of every source of pleasure. As an act of humanity and +simple justice, I would impress upon those who keep such little pets how +important a thing it is to keep them supplied with toys. They are just +like children in this respect, and for a trifle one can furnish them +with all the toys they need. It is cruel, absolutely cruel, to keep +these little creatures confined in solitude and deny them the simple +pleasure they find in playing with a bell, ball or marbles; and besides +this, a trifling outlay in this way will very much prolong their lives. +A monkey is always happy if he has something to play with and plenty to +eat. [Sidenote: NELLIE WITH THE MATCH-BOX] I do not know of any +investment of mine which ever yielded such a great return in pleasure as +one little pocket match-safe which cost me twenty-five cents, and which +I gave to Nellie one evening to play with. I had put into it a small key +to make it rattle, and also some bits of candy. She rattled the box, and +found some pleasure in the noise it made. I showed her a few times how +to press the spring in order to open it, but her little black fingers +were not strong enough to release the spring and make the lid fly open. +However, she caught the idea, and knew that the spring was the secret +which held it; and when she found that she could not open it with her +fingers, she tried it with her teeth. Failing in this, she turned to the +wall, and standing upright on the top of her cage, she took the box in +both hands and struck the spring against the wall until the lid flew +open. She was perfectly delighted at the result, and for the hundredth +time at least I closed the box for her to open again. On the following +day, when some friends came in to visit her, I gave her the match-box to +open again. On this occasion, however, she was in her cage and could not +reach the wall through its meshes, and hence had nothing against which +to strike the spring to force it open. After looking around her in all +directions and striking the box against the wires of her cage a few +times, she discovered a block of wood in her cage about six inches +square by an inch thick, and this she took and mounted her perch. +Balancing the block on the perch she held it with the left foot, while +with her right foot she held on to the perch, and with her tail wound +through the meshes of her cage to steady herself, she carefully adjusted +the match-box in her hands in such a manner as to protect her fingers +from the blow. Then striking the spring against the block of wood the +lid flew open, and she fairly screamed with delight, and held the box up +with pride, wanting me to close the lid again, in order that she might +open it. + +Finding that the late hours which I kept were beginning to tell on +Nellie, and that during the day from time to time I would catch her +taking a little nap, I concluded to use some curtains around her cage to +avoid disturbing her rest. I drew them around the cage, lapped them +over, and pinned them down in front. Then I turned down the light and +kept quiet for a while to allow her to go to sleep. After the lapse of +a few minutes, I slowly turned up the light and resumed my writing. In +an instant I heard the curtains rustle, and looked around, and there I +saw her little brown eyes peeping through the folds of the curtains, +which she held apart with her little black hands. When she saw what it +was that caused all this disturbance, she chattered to me in her soft +rich tones, and tried so hard to pull the curtains apart that I removed +them from her cage so that she could look around the room. To see her +holding the curtains apart in that graceful manner, turning her head +from side to side, peeping and smiling at me, and talking in such low +tones, was so much like a real flirtation that one who has not seen the +like cannot fully appreciate it. And only those who have experienced the +warm and unselfish friendship of these little creatures can realise how +strong the attachment becomes. When once you enjoy the confidence of a +monkey, nothing can shake it, except some act of your own, or one at +least which they attribute to you. Their little ears are proof against +gossip, and their tongues are free from it. + +[Sidenote: THE LOVE OF MONKEYS] + +Among the little captives of the Simian race who spend their lives in +iron prisons to gratify the cruelty of man, and not to expiate some +crime committed or inherent, I have many little friends to whom I am +attached, and whose devotion to me is as warm and sincere, so far as I +can see, as that of any human being. I must confess that I cannot +discern in what intrinsic way the love they have for me differs from my +own for them. I cannot see in what respect their love is less divine +than is my own. I cannot see in what respect the affections of a dog for +a kind master differ from those of a child for a kind parent, nor can I +see in what respect the sense of fear for a cruel master differs from +that of a child for a cruel parent. It is mere sentiment that ascribes +to those of a child a higher source than the same passions in the +dog--the dog could have loved or feared another master just as well; and +filial love or fear would have reached out its tendrils just as far with +all the ties of kindred blood removed. It has been said that one is able +to assign a definite reason _why_, and that the other is a vague +impulse; but I am too obtuse to understand how reason actuates to love, +and instinct to a mere attachment. I cannot believe that in the +essential and ultimate nature of these passions there can be shown any +real difference. Whether it be reason or instinct in man, the affections +of the lower animals are actuated by the same motives, governed by the +same conditions, and guided by the same reasons as those of man. I shall +not soon forget some of my monkey friends, and I am sure they will not +forget me; for I see them sometimes after months of absence, and they +usually recognise me at sight and show every sign of pleasure at my +return. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + + The Capuchin Vocabulary--What I have Found--What I Foresee in + it. + + +Up to this time I have been able to determine with a fair degree of +certainty nine words or sounds belonging to Capuchins, some of which +sounds are so inflected as to have two or three different meanings, I +think. The sound which I have translated food and found to have a much +wider meaning, long perplexed me, because I found it used under so many +conditions and had not been able to detect any difference of modulation. +I find one form of this sound used for food in general, but when +modulated in a certain way seems to specify the kind of food. I observed +that this sound seemed to be a salutation or peacemaking term with them, +which I attributed to the fact that food was the central thought of +every monkey's life, and that consequently that word would naturally be +the most important of his whole speech. During the past winter, I found +that another modulation of this word expressed a wish to obtain a thing, +and appeared to me to be almost equivalent to the verb "give," when used +in the imperative mood, something like this, "Give me that." I have +succeeded a great number of times, by the use of this word, in inducing +McGinty to give me a part of his food, and on many occasions to hand me +from his cage a ball, a club, or some such thing that I had given him to +play with. Under suitable conditions, I could soon determine to what +extent these inflections control their actions, but with the +surroundings of a zoological garden the task is very difficult. However, +I am quite satisfied that the sound which I have translated food is +shaded by them into several kindred meanings. + +The word "drink" appears to be more fixed, both in its form and +meaning. I have not yet been able to detect any difference in the sound +whether water, milk, or other liquids be desired; but this is quite +natural, since they have but little variety in the things they drink. + +[Sidenote: SOUNDS "WEATHER" AND "LOVE"] + +The sound which I had thought meant "weather," or in some way alluded to +the state of the weather, I am not sure how far that may be relied upon +as a separate word. It was so closely connected to the speech of +discontent or pain when made by little Dago, that I have not been able +since to separate the sounds, and I finally abandoned it as a separate +word; but reviewing my work, and recalling the peculiar conduct of this +monkey and the conditions attending it, I believe it is safe to say that +he had in mind the state of the weather. + +The sound which I have translated "love" is only in the sense of firm +and ardent friendship. The expressions of love between sexes I have not +been able as yet to find with certainty. A few sounds, however, made +under certain conditions, I have reason to believe bear upon this +subject, but I am not yet ready to announce my opinions thereon. + +The "alarm" sound, as I have translated it, has been described; but +among the Capuchins I find three kindred words, quite unlike as mere +sounds, but closely allied in meaning. The one just mentioned is used +under the stress of great fear, or in case of assault. It is a shrill, +piercing sound, very loud and very high in pitch. The second word, +"e-c-g-k," used only to express apprehension, or as a warning of the +approach of a thing they fear or do not like; and the last of these, +which is a guttural whisper, is used merely to call attention to the +approach of something which the monkey does not fear or dislike, which I +have spelt "c-h-i." + +I have referred elsewhere, without describing it, to the sound which +Nellie used for calling, and which she employed when attempting to +dissuade my wife from going out and leaving her alone. It is a peculiar +sound, something like a whine, but very plaintive and suggestive. I +cannot represent it in letters. + +[Sidenote: THE CAPUCHIN TONGUE] + +There are many sounds about which I am yet in doubt, and some shades of +meaning are not clear, but these sounds described include the greater +part of my knowledge of the Capuchin tongue, and I shall now proceed to +the sounds of some of the other monkeys. + +Standing on this frail bridge of speech, I see into that broad field of +life and thought which lies beyond the confines of our care, and into +which, through the gates that I have now unlocked, may soon be borne the +sunshine of human intellect. What prophet now can foretell the relations +which may yet obtain between the human race and those inferior forms +which fill some place in the design, and execute some function in the +economy of nature? + +A knowledge of their language cannot injure man, and may conduce to the +good of others, because it would lessen man's selfishness, widen his +mercy, and restrain his cruelty. It would not place man more remote from +his divinity, nor change the state of facts which now exist. Their +speech is the only gateway to their minds, and through it we must pass +if we would learn their secret thoughts and measure the distance from +mind to mind. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + + The Word for Food in the Rhesus Dialect--The Rhesus Sound of + Alarm--The Dialect of the White-face--Dolly Varden, "Uncle + Remus," and others. + + +From a number of sounds uttered by the Rhesus monkeys, I finally +selected the word which, for many reasons, I believed meant food, and +was the equivalent in meaning to that word in the Capuchin tongue. The +phonetic character of the words differs very widely. The sound uttered +by the Rhesus, as nearly as I can represent it by letters, is "nqu-u-w." +The "u" sound is about the same as in the Capuchin word, but on close +examination with the phonograph it appears to be uttered in five +syllables very slightly separated, while the ear only detects two. + +One of the most unique of my experiments I made in Central Park, in the +autumn of 1891. I secured a very fine phonograph record of the food +sound of the Rhesus monkeys belonging to the Park. During the following +night there arrived at the Park a shipment of Rhesus monkeys, just from +their home in the east of Asia. There were seven of these new monkeys, +three adult females and four babies, one of whom was left an orphan by +the death of its mother in her passage across the ocean. At my request +the superintendent had these monkeys stored in the vacant room in the +upper story of the Old Armoury building. They had never seen the monkeys +in Central Park, nor had they ever been brought near enough to the +monkey-house for them to learn by any means that any other monkeys were +about. About sunrise I repaired to this room, where I had my phonograph +placed in order, and I enjoined those who were present, by special +permission, not to do anything to attract the attention of the monkeys, +nor under any condition to show them any food or anything to drink. +Having arranged my phonograph, I delivered to them the sounds contained +on my cylinder which I had recorded on the day preceding. Up to this +time not a sound had been uttered by any inmate of the shipping cage. +The instant my phonograph began to reproduce the record, the seven new +monkeys began to answer vociferously. After having delivered this record +to them, I gave them time to become quiet again. I showed them some +carrots and apples, on seeing which they began to utter the same sounds +which they had uttered before, and this time I secured a good record of +their sounds to compare with the others. + +[Sidenote: RHESUS MONKEYS] + +The alarm-sound as given by the Rhesus is very energetic, but not so +shrill nor sharp as that of the Capuchin, nor have I discovered more +than one such sound. As they are not of a high order of intelligence, +nor kindly disposed unless kept in fear, I have not given them a great +amount of study, but their sounds come more closely to the range of the +human voice than do the sounds of the Cebus, which I regard as the +Caucasian of monkeys. + +The Rhesus is not very intelligent, but when reared in captivity appears +to be capable of some degree of domestication. The adult reared in a +wild state shows many phases of vicious and uncongenial temper. When +well cared for, they are rather hardy and undergo training quite well. +They are not a handsome animal, being of a faded tan colour on the back, +merged into a yellowish white on the less exposed parts. They have large +cheek-pouches which, when not filled with food, allow the skin on the +neck and jaws to hang in folds, which give them an appearance of extreme +emaciation, and when full of food they are so distended as to present +rather an unpleasant aspect. + +The sounds which the Rhesus utters in anger are harsh and unmusical, +while their sound for food is soft and sympathetic, and I have made a +machine which imitates it quite well. The Rhesus belong to the genus +_Macacus_, one of the oldest and largest of all Simian genera. + +I have found the word in the dialect of the white-faced Cebus which +corresponds in value to those sounds described in the dialects of the +Capuchin and Rhesus monkeys meaning food, but I cannot give the faintest +idea of the sound by any combination of letters, nor have I as yet +devised any means by which I can imitate it. I recorded this sound on +the phonograph more than a year ago, but only within the last few months +have been able to tell its meaning. + +[Sidenote: SOUND OF DANGER] + +Another sound which is made by this species to express apprehension of +remote danger, such as an approaching footstep or some unusual sound, I +have also learned. It is very much the same phonetically as that sound +which he utters in case of great and sudden alarm, but uttered with much +less energy. It resembles slightly the alarm-sound of the Capuchin, but +up to this time I have not been able to make a good record of it. + +Another sound which is peculiar to this species I think is used as a +kind of salutation or expression of friendship, which phonetically is +quite unlike the corresponding sound in any other dialect that I have +studied. + +I must mention Dolly Varden, who belongs to this species, and with whom +I was at one time on very warm terms of friendship. Dolly was very fond +of me, and would laugh and play with me by the hour. Her laughter was +very human-like, except that it was silent, and in all our play during +the lapse of some weeks she never uttered a sound, not even so much as a +growl, although I tried by every possible means to induce her to talk. +It has occurred to me since that time that she may have been deaf and +dumb, but I did not think of testing her on these points while I had an +opportunity. It is not usual for monkeys to laugh in silence, although +they frequently laugh aloud like human beings; but it is not a common +thing for them to remain silent at all times and under all conditions. +Dolly was good-natured, playful, and always showed every sign of +pleasure at my visits. + +[Sidenote: "UNCLE REMUS"] + +In Central Park there is a monkey of this species which I call "Uncle +Remus." He is quite fond of me, and, for my amusement, he always wants +to whip a little baby monk in the same cage with him whenever I go to +visit them. This species belongs to the same genus as the Capuchin, but +they differ in mental calibre as widely as the Caucasian differs from +the Negro; but in this case the colours are reversed. I have seen a few +fairly intelligent white-faces and a great many very stupid Capuchins, +but, to strike an average from a great number of each kind, they will be +found very widely separated in brain power. + +The white-faced Cebus always has a languid expression, and looks like +some poor, decrepit old man, who has borne a great burden of care +through a long life, and finds his toil and patience ill-requited and is +now awaiting his last call. He always has a sad face, and looks as if +his friends were false. His type of speech is very far inferior to that +of the Capuchin, and I do not regard him as a good subject for my work. + +[Sidenote: JIM AND THE MANGABY] + +I have learned the food sound in the dialect of the sooty Mangaby, but I +have not been able to record it sufficiently well to study; but it is +one of the most peculiar sounds in the whole range of Simian speech. The +phonetic elements are nearly like "wuh-uh-uh," but the manner in which +it is delivered is very singular. It appears to be intermixed with a +peculiar clucking sound, and each sound seems independent of the other, +although so closely joined in their utterance as to sound almost like +they were uttered simultaneously by separate means. It is a deep +guttural, below the middle pitch of the human voice, while the clucking +element appears much higher in pitch, and the whole sound is marked with +a strong tremolo effect. The syllables are uttered in rapid succession, +and this peculiar sound under different conditions is uttered in at +least three different degrees of pitch about an octave apart, but the +contour appears to me the same in each. This species talks but little, +is very shy, makes few friends, and is afraid of the phonograph; hence I +have never been able to make a good record of its voice. I was +cultivating the friendship of Jim, who recently died in Central Park, +and we were getting on the best of terms; but the little Mangaby that +survives him is very shy and suspicious. Immediately after Jim's death, +however, when I would visit the Garden, she would always jump on the +perch and take the same position that Jim had occupied whenever I would +feed him. During his lifetime, she always kept her distance and never +would take anything out of my hand, because she was afraid of him; but +as soon as he was out of the way she assumed his place, and would utter +the same sound that he had uttered at my approach. She evidently was +aware of the fact that Jim and I were friends, that I always gave him +something good to eat at that particular place in the cage, and that he +always sat in a certain position when I gave it to him. I do not regard +this species as very intelligent, nor their language as being of a high +type; but they have a very human-like face, almost without hair, and +very large and expressive eyes. They abound in West Africa, and have +been colonised with success in the island of Mauritius; they are not +very common in captivity, but much more so than some other species of +less interest. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + + Atelles or Spider Monkeys--The Common Macaque--Java Monkeys, and + what they say--A Happy Family. + + +I have caught one sound from the spider monkey by which I have been able +to attract the attention of others of the same species, but I am as yet +uncertain about its meaning. I do not believe that it has any reference +to food; but I think perhaps it is a term of friendship, or a sound of +endearment. One reason for this belief is, that I have heard it used on +several occasions when a monkey of this kind would see its image in a +mirror. I have used the sound in Washington, Philadelphia, and Atlanta, +and induced the monkey addressed to respond to it and come to me. I +almost concluded at one time that this species was nearly dumb, until I +saw one enraged by a green monkey that occupied an adjoining cage. On +this occasion she raised her voice to an extremely high pitch, and +uttered a sound having great volume and significance. This she repeated +several times, and it was the first time I had ever seen a spider monkey +show any sign of resentment. On another occasion, where this same +specimen saw a brilliant peacock near the window by her cage, the sounds +which she made at that strange object were loud, clear, and varied. + +I have read with surprise an account of a spider monkey which Dr. +Gardner had with him in his travels through South America. He describes +it as the most intelligent of all monkeys, but I cannot believe that his +experience with monkeys was sufficient to rank him as an authority on +that subject. I do not pretend, however, to know all that there is to be +known concerning this species, but so far as my study of them goes they +scarcely laugh, cry, or show any sign of emotion. They do not usually +resent anything; thus they are harmless and timid. Their long, lean, +half-clad limbs look like the ghost of poverty, and their slow, cautious +movements like decrepitude begging alms. They would be objects of pity +if they only had sense enough to know how Nature has slighted them. + +[Sidenote: "JESS"] + +I have recently received a letter from Mr. A. E. McCall, of Bath, New +York, enclosing a photograph of a monkey of this kind, by the name of +"Jess." The gentleman tells me that he has been giving some time to the +study of the actions and language of this monkey, and assures me that it +is very docile, and follows him like a dog, and kindly offers to make +such experiments with it as I may suggest, by which to aid me in the +pursuit of my own researches, and I shall take advantage of his kind +offer. + +I am aware that there are exceptions to all rules, and I am not disposed +to deprive the spider monkey of the place he may deserve in the scale of +Simian life by reason of his intellect or speech; but as this book is a +record of what I know, and not what I have heard of, I shall for the +present be compelled to place the spider monkey very far down in the +scale of intellect and speech. + +The common Macaque is a strong, well-built monkey, of a dark grey +colour, with a short stubby tail. He has but few friends, and at times +appears to regret having any at all. He is quite active, energetic, and +aggressive. He endures captivity well, but as a rule never becomes quite +tame or trustworthy. His speech is of a low type, but he has a very +singular expression of the mouth, which seems to indicate friendship. In +fact, there are several different species of the genus _Macacus_ that +use this peculiar movement of the lips. They thrust the head forward and +lower it slightly, and in this position work their lips as if talking +with the greatest possible energy, but without uttering a sound. They do +not do this for food, but I have seen them do it to their image in the +glass, and have had them do so with me a great number of times. I have +been told by some that this is meant as a sign of anger or assault, but +my own observations tend to attribute to it exactly the reverse of this +meaning. Occasionally, when I have offered them food, I have observed +them do this; but I do not think it referred to the food, unless it was +intended as a vote of thanks. The first monkey whose voice I ever +captured on the phonograph belonged to this tribe; he is still in the +Washington collection, and bears the name of "Prince," under which name +he may go down to history as the first monkey whose speech was ever +recorded. But whatever his fame may become on that account, I do not +think he will ever justly obtain the reputation of being an amiable +monkey. + +[Sidenote: JAVA MONKEYS] + +Among the Java monkeys are several varieties which make very good pets. +They show a fair degree of intelligence and docility, and are not +generally very vicious. I have not succeeded in making any very good +records of these monkeys, although I have observed, without the aid of +the phonograph, that they have one or two very distinct and well-marked +sounds. I have not up to this time attempted to differentiate their +sounds, but in a general way have interpreted the meanings of one or two +groups of them, especially those of a friendly character. I may with +propriety remark here, that in all the different tongues of monkeys +there appear to be certain words which are much more significant, of a +much better phonetic type, than the others, and occur much more +frequently among their sounds. This appears to be true of the speech or +sounds of all the lower animals. + +[Sidenote: MONKEYS RECOGNISE BY SIGHT] + +In a former chapter I have described the happy little family in Central +Park, which consisted of the five little brown cousins, only a few +months ago; but death has reduced their number to two. In this +connection I shall mention a very important fact concerning the use of +the natural senses of these animals. I have several times been assured +that monkeys depended more upon their sense of smell than upon that of +sight as a means of recognition, and that in this respect they were very +much like the canines. I have made frequent tests of the power of their +senses, and am prepared to say with certainty that such is not the case. +When I visit the Park, I frequently enter at Sixty-fourth Street and +Fifth Avenue, at which place there is a flight of stairs leading from +the street down to a large plazza in front of the Old Armoury; and +something more than a hundred feet from the foot of the stairway, and +nearly at right angles to it, is a window opening into the monkey-house +by the cage occupied by these particular monkeys. When I descend the +stairway and come within view of this window, they frequently see me as +I reach the plazza, and the keeper always knows of my approach by the +conduct of the monkeys, who recognise me the instant I come in sight at +that distance. At other times I have approached the house from another +direction, and come within a few feet of their cage, where I have stood +for some time, in order to ascertain whether they were aware of my +presence; and on a few occasions have slipped into the house with the +crowd, and they did not detect my presence except by sight. It is +evident, if they depended upon the sense of smell, that they would have +discovered my presence when so near them, although they could not see +me. But no matter what the condition of the weather, or how many people +are present, the instant one of them sees me he spreads the news, and +every inmate of the cage rushes to the window and begins to scream at +the top of his voice. If their sense of smell was such as to enable them +to detect my presence as a dog would, it is reasonable also that the +monkey which possessed the most sensitive organs would have been the +first to detect it in each case; whereas, sometimes one monkey, and +sometimes another, made the discovery. It is my belief, however, that +their sense of smell is much more acute than that of man, but far less +so than that of most other animals, especially the dog. [Sidenote: +HEARING VERY DELICATE] The sense of hearing in these animals is very +delicate, as may be seen from the account of Nellie discovering my +footsteps on the lower stairway, and as I have witnessed in scores of +other cases. The same is true also of their sight; their eyes are like a +photo-camera, nothing ever escapes them. I think their organs of taste +are also quite sensitive, as I have made some tests from time to time, +and find them very hard to deceive. The sense of touch, which is rather +obtuse in most animals, is much more acute in these. I have frequently +interlaced my fingers with those of some person whom they dislike, and +extending the hand towards them, they rarely make a mistake by getting +hold of the wrong finger, and yet it has frequently occurred that they +could not see the hands at all, and had to depend alone upon the sense +of touch. In cases where the hands were very nearly the same size they +were not able to select the fingers so readily, but where a lady's hand +was used, or that of a boy, the selection was made without hesitancy and +without error. I have tried this experiment a great many times with a +view to ascertaining to some extent the delicacy of their sense of +touch. Another fact that I may mention is, that they do not habitually +smell articles of food or other things given to them; but they depend +chiefly upon their sight for finding and their taste for choosing their +food. My opinion is, that the sense of smell does not play an important +part in these affairs. I may add, too, that, in the Cebus, his tail is +perhaps the most sensitive organ of touch, although it is not used in +this capacity to any great extent. He is generally very watchful over +this useful member, because it serves him in so many ways, and I think +perhaps it is safe to say that the tail is the last part of the monkey +that ever becomes tame. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + + The Extent of my Experiments--Apes and Baboons--Miscellaneous + Records of Sound--The Vocal Index. + + +In quest of the great secret of speech, I have pursued my investigations +chiefly in the direction of learning one tongue, but incidentally I have +made many detours, and I have recorded the sounds of many other forms of +the animal kingdom, besides primates. I have examined the phonation of +lions, tigers, leopards, cats, dogs, birds of many kinds, and the human +voice in speech, music, and laughter. Besides these, I have examined +various musical sounds, especially of the pipe and whistle kinds. + +More than a year ago I made some splendid records of the sounds of the +two chimpanzees in the Cincinnati collection. I have not had the +opportunity to study these apes themselves, as I desired to do, since +they are kept so closely confined in a glass house, and for ever under +the eye of their keeper, which conditions are not favourable to the best +results. I am not prepared therefore to give much detail concerning +their speech; but from a careful study of one cylinder containing a +record of their sounds, I was able to discern as many as seven different +phones, all of which come within the scope of the human vocal organs. I +learned one of these sounds, and on a subsequent visit to Cincinnati I +succeeded in attracting the attention of the female, and eliciting from +her a response. She would come to the lattice door of the inner cage by +which I was standing, and when I would utter the sound she would press +her face against the door of the cage and answer it with a like sound. +The male, however, did not appear to notice it with any degree of +concern. I have no idea what the sound meant, and my opportunities have +not been such that I could translate it with the remotest degree of +certainty. [Sidenote: STUDIES IN TROPICAL AFRICA] These apes will be one +of the chief objects of my studies in tropical Africa, as I believe them +to possess a higher type of speech even than the gorilla. In this +opinion, which I reached from the study of other sounds and the types of +skull to which they belonged, I am not alone: Mr. Paul Du Chaillu, Mr. +E. J. Glave, and others who have seen both of these apes in their native +habitat, agree with me on this point. I am aware that this view is not +in strict accord with that of Professor Huxley, who assigns the gorilla +the highest place next to man in the order of Nature, and the chimpanzee +next below him. I shall not here attempt to discuss the question with so +high an authority, and I must confess that the vocal index is not yet so +well defined that it may be relied upon in classifying apes. One aim I +have in view is to study the gorilla and chimpanzee side by side in +their native wilds, and to record, if possible, the sounds of their +voices in a wild state. From the study of the sounds I have made, I feel +confident that all the vocal sounds made by these apes may be uttered by +the human vocal organs. + +Some months ago I made a record of the voice of the great Anubis baboon, +in Philadelphia. I did not expect to find in him an elevated type of +speech; but my purpose was to compare it with other Simian sounds, to +see if I could not establish a series of steps in the quality of vocal +sounds which would coincide with certain other characters. I had found +by the study of certain cranial forms that certain vocal types conformed +to certain skulls, and were as much a conformation thereof as are the +cerebral hemispheres. I then believed, and have had no cause since to +recede from it, that the vocal powers were correctly measured by the +gnathic index; that the mind and voice were commensurate; and that as +the cranio-facial angle widens the voice degrades in quality and scope. +In man, I find the highest vocal type, and just as we descend in the +cranial scale, the vocal type descends into sounds less flexible, less +capable, and less musical. These deductions apply only to mammals; among +birds, insects, &c., a different order may prevail. + +[Sidenote: RECORDS OF LIONS] + +The records of the lions show some strange features in the construction +of sound; and when analysed on the phonograph present some novel +effects. The sound as a whole appears to be broken into broad waves or +pulsations; but on analysing it the fundamental tones somewhat resemble +the sounds produced by drawing a mallet rapidly across the keyboard of a +xylophone, and are characterised by a peculiar resonance something like +the tremulous vibrations of a thin glass containing a small quantity of +water. Each of these separate fundamental sounds, or sound units as they +appear to be, can be further reduced to still smaller vibrations; and +the result suggests that the fundamental sounds themselves are an +aggregation of smaller vibrations. I have not as yet been able to +compare the notes one by one with the scale of the xylophone in order to +ascertain whether or not they obey the laws of sound upon which is +founded the chromatic scale of music. The lion makes only a small number +of different sounds, nearly of the same pitch. I have not analysed the +vocal sounds of the other felines to ascertain to what extent they +coincide with those of the lion; but his appear to be somewhat unlike +any other sounds which I have examined. + +Among the few sounds of birds which I have analysed, I may mention the +Trumpeter Crane. I have made one record of this bird which was +sufficiently loud to enable me to obtain some idea of the character of +the sound. I am in doubt as to what the real mode of producing this +sound is. The volume of sound evidently comes from the mouth of the +bird; but while in the act of making it, he appears to bring the whole +body into use, even the feathers appear to take some part in its +production, and the whole frame of the bird vibrates in the act. The +record which I have shows some resemblance, on analysis, to the sound +made by the lion; but it is not sufficiently strong to admit of +analysing the sound units or fundamental sounds. + +[Sidenote: DIFFERENCE IN PHONES OF GENERA] + +From the many sounds that I have analysed, it appears to me that there +is a difference in the phones of all different genera, and that the +phonetic basis of human speech more closely resembles that of the Simian +than any other sounds; but I wish to be understood distinctly not to +offer this in evidence to establish any physical, mental, or phonetic +affinity between mankind and Simians. I merely state the facts from +which all theorists may deduce their own conclusions. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + + Monkeys and the Mirror--Some of their Antics--Baby Macaque and + her Papa--Some other Monkeys. + + +I have incidentally mentioned elsewhere the use of the mirror in some of +my experiments, but I have not described in detail how it affected +various monkeys. Of course, it does not always affect the same monkey in +the same way at different times, nor does it affect all monkeys of the +same species in exactly the same way, and therefore I cannot deduce a +rule from my experiments by which the species can be determined by its +conduct before the glass. + +[Sidenote: PUCK AND NELLIE WITH MIRROR] + +When Puck saw himself in the mirror he undoubtedly mistook the image for +another monkey, to which he would talk more freely than he would to the +sounds made by the phonograph. He would frequently caress the image, +and show signs of friendship; at the same time he was very timid and +retiring. + +Nellie would chatter to herself in the mirror, and seemed never to tire +of looking at that beautiful monkey she saw there, and I do not think +the propensity could be accounted for merely by her sex. I do not think +she ever quite understood where that monkey was concealed, and the +scores of times in a day that she would turn the glass around was +evidence that she never fully despaired of finding it. + +I accidentally dropped a small mirror one day by the cage in which there +was a green monkey. The glass was broken into many small pieces. Quick +as thought, the green monkey thrust her arm through the bars, grabbed +the largest piece, and got it into her cage before I was fully aware of +what she was trying to do. The fragment was about an inch wide by an +inch and a half long. She caught a glimpse of herself in the glass, and +her conduct was more like that of a crazy monkey than anything I can +compare it to. She peeped into the fragment of the mirror, which she +seemed to regard as a hole in something which separated her from another +monkey. She held it up over her head at arm's-length, laid it down on +the floor, held it against the wall, and twisted herself into every pose +to get a better peep at that mysterious monkey on the other side of +something, she could not tell what. When the glass was reversed, she +seemed much perplexed, and would sometimes jump high off the floor, and +turn herself entirely around, as if to untangle the mystery. Then again +she would discover the right side of the glass, and would go through +these antics again. Several times while holding it against the wall she +would put her eyes close up against the glass, just as she would to a +knot-hole in the wall. I tried in vain for some time to get the glass +away from her lest she might injure herself with it, but only succeeded +after considerable labour and through the help of her keeper. + +[Sidenote: McGINTY'S DELIGHT WITH MIRROR] + +McGinty always tries to find the image behind the glass. He reaches his +little black hand as far as he can around behind it, peeps over and +under it, pecks on the glass with his fingers, kisses and caresses it, +and grins at it with infinite delight. He often tries to turn the glass +around to look on the back of it, and when he finds no monkey there he +works his eyebrows as if perplexed, and utters a sound which reminds me +of a child under similar circumstances saying "gone" when in play +something is concealed from it to make the child believe it is lost. +Then he will suddenly turn the glass around again, as if the thought had +just occurred to him, and when he again discovers the image, he will +laugh, chatter, peep and peck at the glass, as if to say "There it is, +there it is!" But, like all other monkeys, he does not quite understand +where that monkey conceals itself when he peeps over the glass. + +Mickie does not appear to enjoy the sight of himself in the glass. He +always looks at it earnestly but doubtfully, and utters a low sound in a +kind of undertone, frowns and scowls as though he regarded the new +monkey as an intruder. He rarely talks to the image only with this low, +muttering sound, and never tries to find it by reaching his hand behind +the glass or making any other investigation. Mickie, however, has been +very much petted, in consequence of which he is very selfish, just as +children become under like treatment. + +Little Nemo always looked at himself in the glass in the most +inquisitive and respectful manner, without ever winking an eye or +betraying any sign of emotion, except that he would caress the image in +the glass over and over again by pressing his lips to it in perfect +silence. Indeed, his conduct would suggest to you that he regarded the +image as a portrait of some dear departed one, which awoke the tender +memories of the past and filled the heart too full for utterance. His +sedate manners were very becoming. + +Dodo always appeared to be afraid of the image. She would merely take a +peep and turn away. She would sometimes utter a single sound, but rarely +touched her mouth to the glass, and never felt behind it for the other +monkey. This, perhaps, was due to the fact that she was afraid of some +of the other inmates of the cage, and I do not think that she desired +the colony increased. + +Nigger always showed great interest in the mirror when left alone, but +when the other monkeys would crowd around to peep into the glass he +would always leave to avoid trouble with them. + +[Sidenote: "UNCLE REMUS," THE WHITE-FACE] + +"Uncle Remus," the white-face, always goes through a series of facial +contortions with the gravity of a rural judge. He will look into the +glass, and then at me, as if to say "Where did you get that monkey?" + +The little baby Macaque, who was born in Central Park, tries to engage +the image in a romp, reaches for it in the glass, clucks, jumps +playfully to her perch, and looks back to see if the image follows; then +she will return to the glass, and try again to induce the little ghost +to join her in her play. Again, she will spring to her perch, looking +back, but does not understand why it will not join her. During all this, +the baby's father, a sedate old Macaque, looks on with suspicion and a +scowl, and on a few occasions has pulled the baby away from the glass, +as if he knew that there was something wrong, and expressed his opinion +in a low, ominous growl. He reminds me at times of some people whom I +have seen that look very wise, and intimate by their conduct that they +know something. + +Another little Macaque makes the most indescribable faces, and works her +lips in that peculiar fashion which I have elsewhere described, but she +does not utter one sound. She merely looks in silence, and never tries +to find the monkey concealed behind the glass. + +[Sidenote: THE SPIDER MONKEY] + +The spider monkey is a study worthy of great minds. When shown her image +in the glass, she takes her seat on the floor, crosses her legs, and +fixes herself as if she expected to spend the day there. She will then +look into the glass and utter a low sound, and begin to reach out her +long arms in search of the other monkey. It is surprising to see how she +will adjust her reach as you change positions with the glass. Of course, +as you remove the mirror from her the image is removed accordingly, and +she extends or contracts her reach to suit that distance. This is not, +however, an evidence of her mathematical skill, since to her mind the +image is doubtless a real thing, and she is governed by the same +instinct or judgment in reaching for it as she would be if it were real. +More than any other, the spider monkey seems to admire herself in the +glass; notwithstanding she is about the homeliest of all the Simian +tribes, yet she will sit for hours in almost perfect silence, and gaze +upon her image. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + + Man and Ape--Their Physical Relations--Their Mental + Relations--Evolution was the Means--Who was the Progenitor of + the Ape?--The Scale of Life. + + +If we could free our hands from the manacles of tradition and stand +aloof from our prejudices, and look the stern facts in the face, we +should be compelled to admit that between man and ape there is such a +unity of design, structure and function, that we dare not in the light +of reason deny to the ape that rank in Nature to which he is assigned by +virtue of these facts. Physiologically, there is no hiatus between man +and ape which may not be spanned by such evidence as would be admitted +under the strictest rules of interpretation. We may briefly compare +these two creatures in a broad and general way, so that the +unscientific and casual reader may comprehend. + +[Sidenote: MAN AND APE] + +The skeleton of man is only the polished structure of which that of the +ape is the rough model. The identity of the two, part by part, is as +much the same as the light sulky is the outgrowth of the massive +framework of the old-time cart. Whether man and ape are related by any +ties of blood or not, it is evident that they were modelled on the same +plan, provided with the same means, and designed for like purposes, +whatever they may be. The organs of sensation and the functions which +they discharge are the same in both, and the same external forces +addressing themselves thereto produce the same results. I do not mean to +say that the same organ in each is developed in the same degree as that +in the other, for this is not the case even in different individuals of +the same kind. In the muscular system of the one is found an exact +duplicate of the other, except in such slight changes of model as will +better adapt the parts to those conditions of life under which the +animal having them may be placed, and through the whole physical +structure of both we find that unity of part and purpose in structure +and function, in bone, muscle, nerve, and brain. It has been shown +beyond a reasonable doubt that the brain in the higher races of mankind +has reached its present form through a series of changes which are +constant and definite; and this organ in the lower types of man +resembles more that of the ape than does the same organ in the higher +types of man; and by a method of deduction, such as we use to determine +the height of a tree or the width of a stream by the length of a shadow, +we find that the fiducial lines which bound the planes in the +perspective of man's cerebral growth, likewise embrace those of the ape. +While it is a fact that the mind of man so far transcends that of the +ape, it is also a fact that in reaching this condition it has passed +through such planes as those now occupied by the ape. The physical +changes of man's brain do not appear to keep pace with the growth of his +mind. This may be a paradox, but the evidence upon which it rests is +ample to sustain it. + +[Sidenote: MAN AND APE] + +I do not pretend to know whether man was evolved from ape, or ape from +man; whether they are congenetic products of a common authorship, or the +masterpieces of two rival authors; but I cannot see in what respect +man's identity would be affected, whatever may be the case. If it be +shown that man descended from the ape, it does not change the facts +which have existed from the beginning, nor does it change the destiny to +which he is assigned. If it can be shown that apes descended from man, +it does not leave upon man the censure for this degeneracy. If man has +risen from the low plane of brutehood which the ape now occupies, has +scaled the barriers which now separate him from apes, and has climbed to +the divine heights of mental and moral manhood, the ape deserves no +praise for this. On the other hand, if apes have fallen from the state +of man, have wandered so far from the gates of light, and are now +wandering in the twilight of intellect and degradation, it is no +reproach to man; and while I shall not sit in judgment in the cause, nor +testify on either side, I am willing to accept whatever verdict may be +founded on the real facts, and I shall not appeal therefrom. But I shall +not allow my prejudice to conceal the truth, whenever it is shown to me. +It is always acceptable to my mind, and, stripped of all sophistry and +oblique conditions, it would appear the same to every mind. + +That evolution is the mode by which the world was peopled, there is +little doubt, but there are many details yet unsettled as to the manner +in which this was effected. I cannot regard the matter as proven beyond +appeal that man has come from any antecedent type that was not man, nor +yet do I deny that such may be the case; but I do deny that the broad +chasm which separates man from other primates cannot be crossed on the +bridge of speech; and while this does not prove their identity or common +origin, it does show that Nature did not intend that either one should +monopolise any gift which she had to bestow. It is as reasonable to +believe that man has always occupied a sphere of life apart from that of +apes, as to believe that apes have occupied a sphere of life apart from +birds, except that the distance from centre to centre is greater between +birds and apes than that distance between apes and man. So far as any +fossil proofs contribute to our knowledge, we find no point at which the +line is crossed in either case; and the earliest traces of man's +physiological history find him distinctly man, and this history reaches +back on meagre evidence many, many centuries before historic time. Among +these earlier remains of man, we find no fossils of the Simian type to +show that he existed at that time; but at a somewhat later period we +find some remnants of the Simian type in deposits of Southern Europe; +but they are of the smaller tribes, and have been assigned to the +_Macacus_. We cannot trace the history of this genus from that to the +present time to ascertain whether they were the progenitors of apes or +not; but between this type and that of apes the hiatus is as broad as +that which intervenes between the ape and man. + +That somewhere in the lapse of time all genera began, admits of no +debate; and by inversion it is plain that all generic outlines must +focus at the point from which they first diverged, and such an operation +does not indicate that man and Simian have ever been more closely allied +than they are at the present time; but the evidence is clear that man +has been evolved from a lower plane than he now occupies. The inference +may be safely applied to apes, as progress is the universal law of life. + +The question has been asked, "Who is the progenitor of man?" The +solution of this problem has engaged the most profound minds of modern +time. If it be said in reply that apes were the progenitors of man, the +question then arises, "Who was the progenitor of the ape?" If it be said +that man and ape had a common progenitor, a like question arises, and it +becomes necessary to connect all types allied to each other as these two +types are physically allied. If man is the climax of a great scheme in +Nature by which one type is gradually transformed into another, we must +descend the scale of life by crossing the chasm which lies between +mankind and apes, another lying between the apes and monkeys, another +between the monkeys and baboons, another between the baboons and lemurs, +and yet another between the lemurs and the lemuroids, and thus from form +to form like islands in the great sea of life. From man to infinity the +question constantly recurs, and over each hiatus must be built a +separate bridge. + +[Sidenote: DARWIN'S PROFOUND WORK] + +Darwin has given to the world the most profound and conscientious work, +and from the chaos and confusion of human ignorance and bigotry has +erected the most sublime monuments of thought and truth. It does not +detract from his character and honesty, nor lessen the value of his +labours, to admit that he may have been mistaken in some conclusions +which he deduced from the great store of facts at his command. + +It is not the purpose of this work, however, to enter into a discussion +of any theory aside from speech and its possible origin and growth, but +all subjects pertaining to life, thought, and the modes of living and +thinking, must contribute in some degree to a clear understanding of the +subject in hand. + +[Sidenote: DARWIN'S SIN OF OMISSION] + +It has been a matter of surprise to me that so careful and observant a +man as Mr. Darwin should have so nearly omitted the question of speech +from a work of such ample scope, such minute detail, and such infinite +care as characterises the "Descent of Man," and such like works. But +science will cheerfully forgive an error, and pardon the sin of omission +in one who has given to the world so much good. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + + The Faculty of Thought--Emotion and Thought--Instinct and + Reason--Monkeys Reason--Some Examples. + + +The study of biology has revealed many facts which conspire to show that +the incipient forms of animal and vegetable life are the same in those +two great kingdoms; and parallel with this fact, I think it can be shown +that the faculty of expression goes hand in hand with life. And why +should not this be the case? From the standpoint of religion, I cannot +see why the bounty of God should not be equal to such a gift, nor can I +conceive of a more sublime act of universal justice than that all things +endowed with thought, however feeble, should be endowed with the power +of expressing it. From the standpoint of evolution, I cannot understand +by what rule Nature would have worked to develop the emotions, +sensations, and faculties alike in all these various forms, and make +this one exception in the case of speech. It does not seem in keeping +with her laws. From the standpoint of chance, I cannot see why such an +accident might not have occurred at some other point in the scale of +life, or why such anomalies are not more frequent. Man appears to be the +only one. From any point of view we take, it does not seem consistent +with other facts. All other primates think and feel, and live and die +under like conditions and on like terms with man; then why should he +alone possess the gift of speech? + +[Sidenote: FACULTY OF THOUGHT] + +I confess that such an inference is not evidence, however logical; but I +have many facts to offer in proof that speech is not possessed by man +alone. It is quite difficult to draw the line at any given point between +the process of thought and those phenomena we call emotions. They merge +into and blend with each other like the colours in light, and in like +manner the faculty of speech, receding through the various modes of +expression, is for ever lost in the haze and distance of desire. The +faculty of reason blends into thought like the water of a bay blends +into the open sea; there is nowhere a positive line dividing them. When +we are in the midst of one we point to the other, and say, "There it +is;" but we cannot say at what exact point we pass out of one into the +other. + +[Sidenote: THE POWER OF REASONING] + +To reason is to think methodically and to judge from attending facts. +When a monkey examines the situation and acts in accordance with the +facts, doing a certain thing with the evident purpose of accomplishing a +certain end, in what respect is this not reason? When a monkey remembers +a thing which has passed and anticipates a thing which is to come; when +he has learned a thing by experience which he avoids through memory and +the apprehension of its recurrence, is it instinct that guides his +conduct? When a monkey shows clearly by his actions that he is aware of +the relation between cause and effect, and acts in accordance therewith, +is it instinct or reason that guides him? If there be a point in the +order of Nature where reason became an acquired faculty, it is somewhere +far below the plane occupied by monkeys. Their power of reasoning is far +inferior to that of man, but not more so than their power of thinking +and expression; but a faculty does not lose its identity by reason of +its feebleness. When the same causes under the same conditions prompt +man and ape alike to do the same act in the same way, looking forward to +the same results, I cannot understand why the motive of the one should +be called reason, and that of the other called instinct. Scholars have +tried so hard to keep the peace between theology and themselves, that +they have explained things in accordance with accepted belief in order +that they might not incur the charge of heresy. To this end they have +reconciled the two extremes by ignoring the means, and making a +distinction without a difference on which to found it. + +Whatever may be the intrinsic difference between reason and instinct, it +is evident to my mind that the same motives actuate both man and ape in +the same way, but not to the same extent. I am aware that many acts +performed by Simians are meaningless to them and done without a +well-defined motive. The strong physical resemblance between man and ape +often causes one to attach more importance to the act than it really +justifies. In many cases the same act performed by some other animal +less like man would scarcely be noticed. To teach an ape or monkey to +eat with knife, fork, cup and spoon, to use a napkin and chair, or such +like feats, does not indicate to my mind a high order of reason; nor it +is safe to judge the mental status of these creatures from such data. +When he is placed under new conditions and committed to his own +resources, we are then better able to judge by his conduct whether he +is actuated by reason or not. + +[Sidenote: CONNECTING CAUSES AND EFFECTS] + +In any simple act where a monkey can see the cause connected with, and +closely followed by, the effect, he is actuated by reason, and while he +may not be able to explain to his own mind a remote or complex cause but +simply accepts the fact, it does not make the act any less rational in a +monkey than the same act would be in man where he fails to grasp the +ultimate cause. The difference is that man is able to trace the +connecting causes and effects through a longer series than a monkey can. +Man assigns a more definite reason for his acts than a monkey can; but +it is also true that one man may assign a more definite reason for his +acts than another man can for his when prompted by the same motives to +the same act. + +The processes, motives, acts and results are the same with man and ape; +the degree to which they reason differs, but the kind of reason in both +cases is the same. + +I shall here relate some instances in my experience and leave the reader +to judge whether reason or instinct guided the acts of the monkeys as I +shall detail them in the next few paragraphs. It will be remembered that +these were new conditions under which the monkeys acted. + +I taught Nellie to drink milk from a bottle with a rubber nipple. While +I would hold the bottle, it was easy for her to secure the milk; but +when she undertook it alone, she utterly failed. The thing which puzzled +her was how to get the milk to come up to her end of the bottle. She +turned it in every way, and held it in every position that she could +think of, but the milk always kept at the other end of the bottle. She +would throw the bottle down in despair, and when she saw the milk flow +to the end having the nipple, she would go back and pick it up, and try +it again. Poor Nellie worried her little head over this, and again +abandoned it in despair. While trying to solve the mystery, she +discovered a new trick. While the bottle was partly inverted she caught +hold of the nipple, and squeezed it. By this means she accidentally +spurted the milk into the faces of some ladies who were watching her. +This afforded her so much fun that she could scarcely be restrained, and +while she remained with me she remembered this funny trick, and never +failed to perform it when she was allowed to do so. It was no trouble +for her to connect the immediate effect to the immediate cause. But she +could not for a long time understand that the position of the bottle or +the location of the milk in it had anything to do with the trick. In the +course of time, however, she learned to hold the bottle so that she +could drink the milk, and she also discovered that it had to be held in +a certain position in order to play her amusing trick. + +Another instance was in the case of a little monkey, heretofore +described by the name of Jennie. When you would throw a nut, just out +of her reach, she would take a stick which had a nail in the end, and +rake the nut to her. She never took the wrong end of the stick, and +never placed the nail on the wrong side of the nut. Her master assured +me that she had not been taught this, but had found the stick and +applied it to this use. When she did not want any one to play with her +or handle her, she would coil her chain up and sit down on it to keep +any one from taking hold of it. + +It is not an uncommon thing for monkeys to discover the means by which +their cage is kept fastened, and they have frequently been known to +untie a knot in a rope or chain, and thus release themselves. I have +known a monkey that learned to reach its hand through the meshes of the +cage, and withdraw the pin which fastened the hasp and thus open the +door and get out. The keeper substituted a small wire, which he twisted +three or four times in order that it could not be released. The monkey +realised that the wire performed the duties of the pin and prevented +the door from opening. He also knew that the wire was twisted and that +this was the reason he could not remove it. I have seen him put his hand +through the meshes of the cage, catch the loose end of the wire and turn +it as though he was turning a crank. He evidently knew that the twist in +the wire was made by such a motion and his purpose was to untwist it, +but so far as I know he never succeeded in doing so. I have frequently +seen a monkey gather up his chain and measure his distance from where he +stood to the point at which he expected to alight, with the skill and +accuracy of an engineer. + +A gentleman of my acquaintance assured me recently that during his +sojourn of two years in the Island of Sumatra, he had in his service a +large orang. This ape did many chores about the place, and performed +many simple duties as well as the other domestics did. + +On one occasion, this ape was induced to go aboard a steamer which lay +in the harbour. The purpose was to kidnap him and carry him to Europe. +Either through fear, instinct, reason, or some other cause, this ape +jumped overboard and swam ashore, although he was naturally afraid of +water. From that time on to the end of the gentleman's residence there, +he assures me that whenever a steamer made its appearance in the +harbour, the ape would take flight to the forest, where he would stay as +long as the vessel remained in sight. He was seen from time to time, but +could not be induced to return to the house until the vessel had +departed. + +A few years ago, I saw on board the United States receiving ship +_Franklin_, a bright little monkey which was kept chained in a temporary +workshop built on the gun-deck. Her chain was just long enough to allow +her to reach the stove. The day was pleasant outside, but in the shade a +trifle chilly. The little monk descended from the sill on which she +usually sat and carefully felt the top of the stove with her hands. +Finding it slightly warm, although the fire had died out, she mounted +the stove and laid the side of her head on the warm surface. She would +turn first one cheek and then the other, and continued rubbing the stove +with her hands. Not finding it warm enough, she jumped down on the +floor, opened the stove door with her hand, and slammed it two or three +times. She then picked up a stick of wood lying within reach, and tried +to lift it to the stove. The stick was too heavy for her to handle, so +she would lift up one end of it and drop it heavily on the floor with +the evident purpose of attracting the attention of her master. Again she +would open and slam the door, lift up the end of the stick and drop it, +and utter a peculiar sound, showing in every possible way that she +wanted a fire. She finally picked up a small stick and stuck the end of +it into the ashes in the front of the stove. She knew that it was +necessary to put the wood into the stove; she knew where to put it in, +and, while she could not do it herself, she knew who could put it in. +Her master told me that she would gather up the shavings from the floor +when they came within her reach and pile them up by the stove. He also +told me that he frequently gave her a lighted match when he had prepared +the fuel for building a fire, and that she would touch the match to the +shavings and start the fire. She never ventured to get on the stove +without first examining it to ascertain how hot it was. + +Another feat which she performed was to try to remove some tar from the +cup in which he gave her water and milk. The cup had been lined with tar +as a sanitary measure to prevent consumption, and she was aware that the +tar imparted an unpleasant taste and odour, hence she tried very hard to +remove it from the cup. Was this instinct? + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + + Speech Defined--The True Nature of Speech--The Use of + Speech--The Limitations of Speech. + +[Sidenote: SPEECH DEFINED] + +What is speech? I shall endeavour to define it in such terms as will +relieve it of ambiguity, and deal with it as a known quantity in the +problems of mental commerce. Speech is that form of materialised thought +which is confined to oral sounds, when they are designed to convey a +definite idea from mind to mind. It is, therefore, only one mode of +expressing thought, and to come within the limits of speech, the sounds +must be voluntary, have fixed values, and be intended to suggest to +another mind a certain idea, or group of ideas, more or less complex. +The idea is one factor, and sound the other, and the two conjointly +constitute speech. The empty sounds alone, however modulated, having no +integral value, cannot be speech, nor can the concept unexpressed be +speech. Separately, the one would be noise, and the other would be +thought; and they only become speech when the thought is expressed in +oral sounds. Sounds which only express emotion are not speech, as +emotion is not thought, although it is frequently attended by thought, +and is a cause of which thought is the effect. Music expresses emotion +by means of sounds, but they are not speech; and even though the sounds +which express them may impart a like emotion to the hearer, they are not +speech. The sounds which express crying, sighing, or laughter, may +indeed be a faint suggestion of speech, since we infer from them the +state of the mind attending the emotions which produce them, yet they +are not truly speech. To be regarded as speech, the expression must be +preceded by consciousness, and the desire to make known to another the +sensation by which the expression is actuated. As the impulse can only +come from within, it appears that emotion is one source from which +thought is evolved, and speech is the natural issue of thought. Desire +gives rise to a class of thoughts having reference to the sensations +which produce them, and such thoughts find expression in such sounds as +may suggest supplying the want. As the wants of man have increased with +his changing modes of life and thought, his speech has drawn upon the +resources of sound to meet those increased demands for expression. It +appears only reasonable to me that thought must precede in point of time +and order any expression of thought, for thought is the motive of +expression, and the expression of thought in oral sounds is speech. +[Sidenote: NATURE OF SPEECH] Speech is not an invention, and therefore +is not symbolic in its radical nature. True, that much that is symbolic +has been added to it, and its bounds have been widened as men have risen +in the scale of civil life, until our higher types of modern speech have +departed so far from the natural modes of speech and first forms of +expression, that we can rarely trace a single word to its ultimate +source. And viewing it as we do from our present standpoint, it appears +to be purely symbolic; but if that be so, then we must deny the first +law of progress, and assign the origin of this faculty to that class of +phenomena known as miracles, which once explained by increasing the +mystery what we could not understand, and served at the same time to +conceal the exact magnitude of our ignorance; but as we added little by +little to our stock of knowledge, such phenomena were brought within the +realm of our understanding, and to-day our children are familiar with +the causes of many simple effects which our forefathers dared not +attempt to solve, but reverently ascribed to the immediate influence of +Divinity. If speech in its ultimate nature is symbolic, what must have +been the condition of man before its invention, and how did he arrive at +the first term or sound of speech? He did not invent sound nor the +means of making it. He did not invent thought, the thing which speech +expresses, and it is no more reasonable to believe that he invented +speech than to believe that he invented the faculties of sight and +hearing, which are certainly the natural products of his organic nature +and environments. So far as I can find through the whole range of animal +life, all forms of land mammals possess vocal organs which are developed +in a degree corresponding to the condition of the brain, and seem to be +in every instance as capable of producing and controlling sounds as the +brain is of thinking: in other words, the power of expression is in +perfect keeping with the power of thinking. From my acquaintance with +the animal kingdom, it is my firm belief that all mammals possess the +faculty of speech in a degree commensurate with their experience and +needs, and that domestic animals have a somewhat higher type of speech +than their wild progenitors. Why are all forms of mammals endowed with +vocal organs? Why should Nature bestow on them these organs if not +designed for use? One or the other of two conclusions seems inevitable. +As a law of evolution and progress, all organs are imparted to animals +for use and not for ornament. It seems consistent with what we know of +Nature, to suppose that the vocal organs of these lower forms are being +developed to meet a new requirement in the animal economy, or having +once discharged some function necessary to the being and comfort of the +animal, they are now lapsing into disuse and becoming atrophied. If they +are in the course of development, it argues that the creature which +possesses them must possess a rudimentary speech which is developing at +a like rate into a higher type of speech. If they are in a state of +decay or atrophy, it argues that the animal must have been able to speak +at some former period, and that now, in losing the power of speech it is +gradually losing the organ. In either case, the organs themselves would +be in a state of development in harmony with the condition of the speech +of the animal. [Sidenote: LIMITATIONS OF SPEECH] The function which +speech discharges is the communication of ideas, and its growth must +depend upon the extent of those ideas; and in all conditions of life, +and in all forms of the animal kingdom, the uses of speech are confined +to, and limited by the desires, thoughts, and concepts of those using +it. Its extent is commensurate with requirement. To believe that there +was a time in the history of the human race when man could not speak, is +to destroy his identity as man, and the romance of the _alalus_ could be +justified from a scientific standpoint only as a compromise between the +giants of science and superstition. Among the tribes of men whose modes +of life are simple, whose wants are few, and whose knowledge is confined +to their primitive condition, the number of words necessary to convey +their thoughts is very limited. Among some savage races there are +languages consisting of only a few hundred words at most, while as we +rise in the scale of civil and domestic culture, languages become more +copious and expressive as the wants become more numerous and the +conditions of life more complex. As we descend from man to the lower +animals, we find the types of speech degenerate just in proportion as we +descend in the mental and moral plane, but it does not lose its identity +as speech. Through the whole animal kingdom from man to protozoa, types +of speech differ as do the physical types to which they belong. But as +the same vital processes are found throughout the whole circle of life, +so the same phonetic basis is found through the whole range of speech. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + + The Motives of Speech--Expression--The Beginning of Human + Speech--The Present Condition of Speech. + + +In vital economy, the search-light of science has found the protoplasm +which from our present state of knowledge seems to be the first point of +contact between elemental matter and the vital force. What secrets of +biology remain unknown within the realm of life, only those who live in +the future may ever know. In the first condition of vitalised matter we +find the evidence of autonomy. Whatever may be the ultimate force which +actuates this monad, the manifestations of its presence and the result +of its energy are seen externally. Whatever may be the nature of that +force which imparts motion to matter, the first impulse of the biod is +to secure food or to associate itself with a unit of its own kind. This +is perhaps the first act of volition within the sphere of life, the +first expression of some internal want, and is the first faint +suggestion of a consciousness, however feeble; and I may add with +propriety, that it is my opinion that the vital and psychic forces +operate in a manner not unlike the electric and chemical forces. They +appear to polarise, and in this condition act on matter in harmony with +that great law of Nature under which positive repels positive and +attracts negative, and _vice versâ_. We shall not attempt to follow the +tedious steps of progress from inanimate matter to man, but begin with +those intermediate forms which are so far developed as to utter sounds +and understand the sounds of others. We will deal only with tangible +facts as we find them. From whatever source expression may arise, or at +whatever point it may appear, it is prompted by desire or some kindred +emotion, either positive or negative. + +[Sidenote: MODES OF EXPRESSION] + +At the point where we begin to discuss this question there are two +distinct modes of expression, either one of which can be used without +the other. But I may mention here a cogent fact, that in the lower forms +of life the normal mode of expression is by signs with supplemental +sounds. In the higher forms, expression is by sounds, and signs are +supplemental. And from the lower to the higher forms this transition is +in harmony with the development of physical types. It occurs to me that +signs were the first form of expression, and that sounds were first used +to call attention to the sign made; and by an association of ideas the +sounds became a factor of expression, and were used to emphasise signs. +As we ascend the scale of life, sounds become more abundant, and signs +less significant, and in the middle types they appear to be of nearly +equal value, while in the higher tribes of man sounds are the normal +mode of expression, and signs or gestures are used to emphasise them; +and thus we see that signs and sounds in the development of the faculty +of expression have quite changed places. This is consistent with the +observed facts within the limits of human speech. There are tribes of +mankind whose language is scarcely intelligible among themselves unless +accompanied by signs; and it is said of some of the African tribes that +their gestures are more eloquent than their speech. It appears to me +consistent to believe that speech appears in the animal organism +simultaneously with the vocal organs, and that the desire of expression +must have preceded this. [Sidenote: PRESENT CONDITION OF SPEECH] The +condition of the vocal organs depends upon the type of speech which they +are used to utter, and the speech depends upon the quality of thought it +is intended to express. That type of speech used by the Caucasian race +within the space of a few centuries has developed from a vocabulary +limited to a few thousand words into the polished languages of modern +Europe, comprising new types and tens of thousands of new words, until +to-day our own language contains more than two hundred and twenty +thousand words, very few of which, however, if any, are entirely new. +The phonetic elements on which is built up this huge vocabulary do not +very greatly exceed in number those found in the lowest types of human +speech in the world. The total number of these sounds does not much +exceed two score in the highest forms of human speech; and about half +this number can be shown as the vocal products of some species of the +lower animals. Some philologists claim that the blending of consonant +and vowel sounds is the mark which distinguishes human speech from the +sounds uttered by the lower animals. To show how poorly this gigantic +superstructure of fossilised science is supported by the facts, I have +developed such effects in the phonograph from a basis of sounds purely +mechanical, and without the aid of any part of the vocal apparatus of +man or animal. The sounds from which I have developed such results were +neither vowel nor consonant as those sounds are defined, but simply +prolonged musical notes. In another chapter will be found some of the +experiments which I have performed with the phonograph in the +investigation of sounds of various kinds. If I am allowed to think for +myself at all, I am not ready to accept as final some of the dogmas on +the theory of sound which have long been held and taught, and many of +which remain orthodox for no other reason than that no one has denied +them. I am not ready at this point to spring upon the world any new +theory of sound, but I am quite ready to refuse to believe some of the +tenets set forth in the creeds of philology. + +Heresy is the author of progress, and I confess myself a heretic on many +of the current doctrines of the science of sounds. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + + Language embraces Speech--Speech, Words, Grammar, and Rhetoric. + + +A definition of the word speech as used in this particular work is given +elsewhere, and by this definition the word is used only in that sense +which limits it to the sphere of oral sounds. It is that form of +language which addresses itself only to the ear. The sounds which +constitute it may be supplemented by signs or gestures, but such signs +are only adjuncts, and are not to be regarded as an integral part of +speech in its true sense. Speech cannot be acquired by those forms of +life which occupy the lowest horizons of the animal kingdom, and have no +organs with which to produce sound. In the light of modern use and +acceptation language, broadly interpreted, includes all modes and means +of communication between mind and mind. It therefore includes speech as +one form, while signs or gestures constitute another form. Writing in +all its various modes is another form of language. It may be substituted +for either speech or gestures, but it does not thereby become speech in +a literal sense, but within itself it constitutes another form of +language. There seems to be some vague and subtle method of +communication found in certain spheres of life which is called +telepathy. While it is a mere ghost of language, so to speak, it has an +identity which cannot be denied. This may perhaps be called another form +of language. + +[Sidenote: LANGUAGE EMBRACES SPEECH] + +By some eminent men of letters it is claimed that speech was invented, +and therefore cannot be universally the same; and this is proven by the +fact that different tribes of men have different tongues. They do not +appear to realise, that to the first cardinal sounds of speech so much +has been added age by age, by slow accretions, that the radex of speech +is but a mere drop in the great ocean of sounds. The mobility of speech +is such as to make it more susceptible to change than matter is; and yet +we find that, by the laws of change, man has been evolved from a less +complex state of matter, and that in these latter years he can only be +identified as the descendant of his prototype by the most scrutinising +care, and by picking up the dropped stitches in the great fabric of +Nature. To illustrate the slow and imperceptible, yet never ceasing, +never failing process of evolution, we may imagine a man picking up a +single grain of sand at a certain point and carrying it a distance of a +thousand feet, where he deposits it at another certain point; returning, +takes a second grain of sand from the same place as he secured the +first, and carries it to the point at which he deposited the first, and +thus continues through his life. At his death his son succeeds him in +the task, and continues through his life, and at the death of this man +his son succeeds; and thus in turn each one succeeds the other through +a million generations. Supposing the wind and rain left these grains of +sand unmolested during this long lapse of time, it is evident that at +the place from which the sand was taken there would be a hole, and where +it was deposited there would be a hill. It is by such slight changes +that Nature does her work; and thus it is that speech, as well as +matter, has been transformed from what it was to what it is. The +physical basis of life retains its identity through all those varied +forms, from protozoa to the highest type; and so the phonetic basis of +speech adheres through all the changing modes of thought and expression. +Speech is the highest type of language and the most accurate mode of +expression, and belongs only to the higher forms of the animal kingdom. +It has passed through all inferior horizons coinciding with the mental, +moral, and social planes through which man has passed in the course of +his evolution. + +[Sidenote: SPEECH AND WORDS] + +Words are the factors of speech and the highest development of that +faculty. A word may be composed of one or more sounds so articulated as +to preclude any interval of time between the utterance of any two of +them, as "tune," in which the sounds appear to overlap and blend into +each other. A single word may signify more than a single thing, and +sometimes will suggest to the mind a category or group of connected +thoughts, as "eat" or "telegraph," and such is the value of many of our +words. This is especially true of words which combine two roots; but +such a combination is usually found only in the higher types of human +speech. But in these higher types words bear such relations to each +other that we cannot well convey a complete idea with a single word; and +hence it is that in the modes of expression used by man, each separate +statement consists of two or more words bearing certain relations to +each other, and these are often qualified by other words of less +importance. This redundancy is due to the higher and more complex modes +of thought used by man; and it is on such a state of facts that we have +founded that branch of science called grammar, which would be of little +use among those forms which occupy the planes of life inferior to man, +and it is found of little use among the lower tribes of man, where it +does not exist in any written form. Grammar does not make language, but +serves as a kind of anchor by which the dialects of human speech are +somewhat unified and made more stable; and to this is due in some +measure the fact that savage tongues and dialects are more susceptible +to change in their structure, while the phonetic basis upon which they +rest remains the same. + +[Sidenote: GRAMMAR AND RHETORIC] + +In the more refined tongues of human speech, we go beyond that code of +laws called grammar and amplify them into rhetoric. This branch of the +science of speech could find no place among the lower types, as the +words are few from which they may select; and so exact and arbitrary is +the meaning of each one, and so uniform the relations, that no great +variety of expression can be made with such a limited vocabulary. Their +eloquence is in their brevity of speech. But while the types of speech +used by the lower primates occupy a plane so low in the scale, they are +as truly speech as the vocal organs that produce the sounds are truly +vocal organs. Life is life, in what form soever it is found. It is not +less real in the mollusc than in the man. The same is true of emotion, +of thought, of expression, and of speech. Life, emotion, thought, +expression, and speech began in embryo, and have developed co-ordinately +with all the faculties possessed by man. They are as dependent upon each +other as matter is on force, and as inseparable as light from energy. +Speech is the physical manifestation of which thought is the ultimate +force; it is a spoke in the chariot-wheels of consciousness; it is the +body of which thought is the soul. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + + Life and Consciousness--Consciousness and Emotion--Emotion and + Thought--Thought and Expression--Expression and Speech--The + Vocal Organs and Sound--Speech in City and Country--Music, + Passions, and Taste--Life and Reason. + + +At the beginning of life there is a consciousness which is not more +feeble than is the life with which it is associated; and as that spark +of life kindles into a flame, so that spark of consciousness kindles +into the "ego," and nowhere can a line be drawn at which it may be said +"here consciousness first intercepted life." But as the living form +develops organs and members, through the agency of the vital force, +whatever that may be, so consciousness develops into desires, emotion +and thought. Where shall the line be drawn which separates these +attributes? Standing in the centre, we look around and see the horizon +touching the plain on every side, and this appears to us as a great +circle, the centre of which is always occupied by the observer, and from +our standpoint we imagine that everything between us and that horizon +must be that distance from the centre; but as we move our point of view +from place to place, we move the circle with us, and yet we cannot find +the boundary line which marks this circle at any time. In a manner not +unlike this we pass from centre to centre of the circles of life, and +carry with us the circle, so that at no one point do we ever appear to +be much closer to the horizon than we were at any other point. + +[Sidenote: LIFE AND CONSCIOUSNESS] + +The classification of genera and species is in a great degree arbitrary; +but much less so than are these abstract characters of life and mind. +There is nowhere a line at which emotion stops and thought begins; there +is nowhere a line at which thought stops and expression begins; there is +nowhere a line at which expression stops and speech begins. These blend +into each other so that only by comparing the extremes can we discern a +difference. + +The tenets of metaphysics have heretofore been made to harmonise with +the tenets of theology, and hence it is that we have learned to follow +the laws laid down by others and not to think for ourselves. It has been +as much a heresy to gainsay the dogmas of science as those of religion +until recently; and even now the tender-footed doctors guard their +theories with a vigilance and jealousy worthy of the angel that guarded +the gates of Eden. + +[Sidenote: CONSCIOUSNESS AND EMOTION] + +Why should it be thought strange that monkeys talk? They see, hear, +love, hate, think, and act by the same means and to the same end as man +does. They experience pain and pleasure, to express which they cry and +laugh just as man does. If the voluntary sounds they make do not mean +something, why may those creatures not as well be dumb? If they do mean +something, why may we not determine what that meaning is? It is true +that their language is quite meagre and suited only to a low plane of +life, but it may be the cytula from which all human speech proceeds, or +it may be the inferior fruit borne upon the same great tree of speech. +The organs of sensation in these creatures are modelled by the same +design as those of man, are adapted to the same uses, and discharge the +same functions. Then why should the vocal powers alone be abnormal, +except in a degree measured by the difference of place which they occupy +in the scale of Nature? + +Social intercourse among men has been the chief means of developing +human speech, and we find a true index to its condition in the social +status of the different races of mankind; and by coming closer home, we +find that even in different communities of the same race and within the +limits of the same nation, a difference in the accuracy and volume of +speech, which is measured by the difference of social culture. We find +in rural districts, sparsely peopled and remote from the great centres +of population, that speech is less polished and the number of words used +greatly reduced in comparison to the same language used in the great +cities and more populous communities, where, by reason of contact with +each other and the constant use of speech, the vocal powers are much +more developed and the command of language very much improved. This same +law of development, inversely applied, would lead us in a direct line +down through Nature, rank by rank, and we would find it a reliable unit +of measure throughout the whole perspective of development. The +faculties of music, taste, and reason are measured by a like unit. It is +difficult to trace the musical powers of animals, since music does not +contribute to the comfort or development of types and only affords +pleasure to the intellectual being, and hence is only an accomplishment +obeying no rule of normal growth. + +[Sidenote: THE FACULTY OF REASON] + +As the use of the natural sense of taste makes possible the choice of +nourishment, and all forms of life are thus sustained, the natural taste +becomes an important factor of their comfort, and upon this physical +basis rests, perhaps, the whole superstructure of ethics. The first idea +of ownership is doubtless found in the possession of food; and this +right of property is protected by the unwritten laws of incipient life. +The faculty of reason, which man has arrogated to himself, is only +limited by that dim line which bounds the vital sphere and sheds its +rays through all the kingdom of life, from that point where the vital +spark first lights the monad, through all the labyrinths of change, to +man in the full pride of his divinity, standing upon the threshold of +the angelic state. It is not by the exercise of reason that water flows +down hill, or that matter obeys the law of gravity; but in the exercise +of autonomy, however feeble may be the motive, reason guides the act. +The power of this faculty is measured by the development of others, and +there is no point between the two extremes at which reason intercepts +life. The degree in which all the powers of sense and faculty are +developed determines the horizon of the thing which possesses them. The +aggregation of powers to act constitutes life; and the aggregation of +powers to guide the action constitutes reason. + +[Sidenote: ALL MAMMALS REASON] + +Leaving the realm of metaphysics and returning to the order of primates, +to which we shall confine our present work, I shall resume by repeating +that not only do primates have the faculty of speech, but the whole +family of mammals have some form of speech which is in keeping with +their conditions of life. In addition to this declaration, I assert that +all mammals reason by the same means and to the same ends, but not to +the same degree. The reason which controls the conduct of a man is just +the same in kind as that which prompts the ape. The latter cannot carry +the process to such a great extent, but _microsophic_ pedants have not +shown in what respect the methods differ only in degree. That same +faculty which guided man to tame the winds of commerce, taught the +nautilus to lift its tentacles and embrace the passing breeze. Yet we +are told that reason guides the man and instinct guides the nautilus. +These are but two names for light; the one is dawn, the other noon, but +both are light. I cannot see in what respect the light of a lamp differs +from that of a bonfire except in volume; they are the products of the +same forces in Nature, acting through the same media, and, becoming +causes, produce the same effects. That psychic spark which dimly glows +in the animal bursts into a blaze of effulgence in man. The one differs +from the other just as a single ray of sunlight differs from the glaring +light of noon. [Sidenote: EFFECTS OF ONE GREAT CAUSE] If man could +disabuse his mind of that contempt for things below his plane of life, +and hush the siren voice of self-conceit, his better senses might be +touched by the eloquence of truth. But while the vassals of his empty +pride control his mind, the plainest facts appeal to him in vain, and +all the cogency of proof is lost. He is unwilling to forego that vain +belief that he is Nature's idol, and that he is a duplicate of Deity. +Held in check by the strong reins of theology and tradition, he has not +dared to controvert those dogmas which bear the stamp of error on their +face; he dares not turn away from the idols of his own conceit and read +the rubrics written in the fossil rocks; he dares not take those proofs +which none can counterfeit, and whose authority is not gainsaid; he +dares not lay aside the yoke which galls the neck of patience, or +breathe the air unblest by some mysterious rite performed in fear. By +such restraints his ears are closed against those voices which appeal to +him from without the temple gates of his belief. In what respect would +man be less god-like if it be shown that monkeys talk? To elevate the +humbler ranks could not degrade mankind. Whether man is the work of +Deity or was evolved by laws of change from primal matter; whether he +was made in one specific act or is the last amendment to a million prior +types; whether he is the creature of design or accident, the authorship +of his being and that of all the forms which roam the broad empire of +life must be the same. We are all the effects of one Great Cause, +whatever that may be, and that which gave to man the power of speech +imparted it to apes; and I can see no reason why Nature should have +drawn a line about this faculty, and made the rest a common heritage. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + + Certain Marks which Characterise the Sounds of Monkeys as + Speech--Sounds accompanied by Gestures--Certain Acts follow + certain Sounds--They acquire new Sounds--Their Speech addressed + to certain Individuals--Deliberation and Premeditation--They + remember and anticipate Results--Thought and Reason. + + +As a result of my experience with monkeys, I shall here sum up the chief +points in which their speech is found to coincide with that of man, and +note those features which distinctly characterise the sounds as a form +of speech. + +[Sidenote: SOUNDS OF MONKEYS AS SPEECH] + +The sounds which monkeys make are voluntary, deliberate, and articulate. +They are always addressed to some certain individual with the evident +purpose of having them understood. The monkey indicates by his own acts +and the manner of delivery that he is conscious of the meaning which he +desires to convey through the medium of the sounds. They wait for and +expect an answer, and if they do not receive one they frequently repeat +the sounds. They usually look at the person addressed, and do not utter +these sounds when alone or as a mere pastime, but only at such times as +some one is present to hear them, either some person or another monkey. +They understand the sounds made by other monkeys of their own kind, and +usually respond to them with a like sound. They understand these sounds +when imitated by a human being, by a whistle, a phonograph, or other +mechanical devices, and this indicates that they are guided by the +sounds alone, and not by any signs, gestures, or psychic influence. The +same sound is interpreted to mean the same thing, and obeyed in the same +manner by different monkeys of the same species. Different sounds are +accompanied by different gestures, and produce different results under +the same conditions. They make their sounds with the vocal organs, and +modulate them with the teeth, tongue and lips, in the same manner that +man controls his vocal sounds. The fundamental sounds appear to be pure +vowels, but faint traces of consonants are found in many words, +especially those of low pitch; and since I have been able to develop +certain consonant sounds from a vowel basis, the conclusion forces +itself upon me that the consonant elements of human speech are developed +from a vowel basis. This opinion is further confirmed by the fact that +the sounds produced by the types of the animal kingdom lower than the +monkey, appear to be more like the sounds of pipe instruments; and as we +rise in the scale, the vocal organs appear to become somewhat more +complex, and capable of varying these sounds so as to give the effect of +consonants, which very much extends the vocal scope. The present state +of the speech of monkeys appears to have been reached by development +from a lower form. [Sidenote: EACH RACE HAS ITS PECULIAR TONGUE] Each +race or kind of monkey has its own peculiar tongue, slightly shaded +into dialects, and the radical sounds do not appear to have the same +meaning in different tongues. The phonetic character of their speech is +equally as high as that of children in a like state of mental +development; and seems to obey the same laws of phonetic growth, change, +and decay as human speech. It appears to me that their speech is capable +of communicating the ideas that they are capable of conceiving, and, +measured by their mental, moral, and social status, is as well developed +as the speech of man, measured by the same units. Strange monkeys of the +same species seem to understand each other at sight, whereas two monkeys +of different species do not understand each other until they have been +together for some time. Each one learns to understand the speech of the +other; but, as a rule, he does not try to speak it. When he deigns an +answer, it is usually in his own tongue. The more fixed and pronounced +the social and gregarious instincts are in any species, the higher the +type of its speech. They often utter certain sounds under certain +conditions in a whisper, which indicates they are conscious of the +effect which will result from the use of speech. Monkeys reason from +cause to effect, communicate to others the conclusion deduced therefrom, +and act in accordance therewith. If their sounds convey a fixed idea on +a given subject from one mind to another, what more does human speech +accomplish? If one sound communicates that idea clearly, what more could +volumes do? If their sounds discharge all the functions of speech, in +what respect are they not speech? + +[Sidenote: CANNOT THINK WITHOUT WORDS] + +It is as reasonable to attribute meaning to their sounds as to attribute +motives to their actions; and the fact that they ascribe a meaning to +the sounds of human speech, would show that they are aware that ideas +can be conveyed by sounds. If they can interpret certain sounds of human +speech, they can ascribe a meaning to their own. They think, and speech +is but the natural exponent of thought; it is the audible expression of +thought, and signs are the visible expression of the same; born of the +same cause, acts to the same end, and discharges the same functions in +the economy of life. To reason is to think methodically; and if it be +true that man cannot think without words, the same must be true of +monkeys. I do not mean, however, to claim that such is a fact with +regard to man thinking; but if such can be shown to be a fact, it will +decide the question as to the invention of human speech, as it was +necessary for man to think in order to invent; and, by the same rule, he +could not think a word which did not exist, and therefore could not have +invented it. But I beg to be allowed to stand aside and let Prof. Max +Müller and Prof. Whitney, the great giants of comparative philology, +settle this question between themselves; and I shall abide by the +verdict which may be finally reached. + +But theories are useless things when the facts are known; and since I +have actually learned from a monkey a certain sound having a certain +value and meaning a certain thing, and by repeating that sound to a +monkey of the same species have met with uniform results, have +understood him, and been understood by him, no argument could be so +potent as to cause me to believe that this was accident. I am aware that +coincidents occur; but when they become the rule instead of the +exception, they are no longer mere coincidents, but are the normal state +of things. + +[Sidenote: THOUGHT AND REASON] + +In conclusion, I would say that since the sounds uttered by monkeys +perform all that speech performs, is made of the same material, produced +by the same means, acts to the same ends, and through the same media, it +is as near an approach to speech as the mental operations by which it is +produced are an approach to thought. If it can be shown that these +mental feats are not thought, the same process of reasoning could show +that these sounds are not speech. If man derived his other faculties +from such an ancestry, may not his speech have been acquired from such +a source? If the prototype of man has survived through all the +vicissitudes of time, may not his speech likewise have survived? If the +races of mankind are the progeny of the Simian stock, may not their +languages be the progeny of the Simian tongue? + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + + The Phonograph as an aid to Science--Vowels the basis of + Phonation--Consonants developed from a Vowel basis--Vowels are + Compound--The Analysis of Vowels by the Phonograph--Current + Theories of Sound--Augmentation of Sounds--Sound Waves and Sound + Units--Consonants among the Lower Races. + + +The application of the phonograph to my special work is really the +discovery of a new field of usefulness for that wonderful instrument, +which, up to this time, has held the place of a toy more than that of a +scientific apparatus of the very highest importance in the study of +acoustics and philology. In many ways the use of this machine is so +hampered by the avarice of men as to lessen its value as an aid to +scientific research, and the Letters Patent under which it is protected +preclude all competition and prevent improvements. However, I have been +able, even with the poor machines in general use, to discover some of +the most important facts upon which are based the laws of phonation. I +shall here attempt to give in detail but a few of these experiments, as +they are yet crude, and in some cases the deductions therefrom not +positively certain. [Sidenote: VOICES OF MEN AND MONKEYS] From the +various records that I have made of the voices of men and monkeys, I am +prepared to say that the difference is not so great as is commonly +supposed, and that I have converted each one into the other. I would not +be understood to say that I have done this with all their sounds, nor +that the monkey's sounds were converted into human speech, but the +fundamental sounds of each were changed into those of the other. I find +that human laughter coincides in nearly every point with that of +monkeys. They differ in volume and pitch. By the aid of the phonograph I +have been able to analyse the vowel sounds of human speech, which I find +to be compound, and some of them contain as many as three distinct +syllables of unlike sounds. From the vowel basis I have succeeded in +developing certain consonant elements, both initial and final, from +which I have deduced the belief that the most complex sounds of +consonants are developed from the simple vowel basis, somewhat like +chemical compounds result from the union of simple elements. Without +describing in detail the results, I shall mention some simple +experiments which have given me some very strange phenomena. I dictate +to the phonograph a vowel in different keys while the cylinder rotates +at a given rate of speed. I then adjust the speed to a certain higher or +lower rate and follow the results. By reversing the motion of the +cylinder the sounds are reduced to their fundamental state. By this +means we eliminate all familiar intonation, and disassociate it from any +meaning which will sway the mind, and in this way it can be studied to +advantage. [Sidenote: THE SOUND WAVES] At a given rate of speed I have +taken the record of certain sounds made by a monkey, and by reducing the +rate of speed from two hundred revolutions per minute to forty, it can +be seen that I increased the intervals between what is called the sound +waves and magnified the wave itself fivefold, at the same time reducing +the pitch in like degree, and by this means I could detect the slightest +shades of modulation. I may remind you here that in this process all +parts of the sound are magnified alike in all directions, so that +instead of obtaining five times the length, as it were, of the sound +unit or interval, we obtain the cube of five times the normal length of +every unit of the sound. The slightest variation of tension in the vocal +chords may be detected, and every part of the sound compared to every +other part. + +Having thus augmented the quantity of sound, by increasing alike the +sound unit and interval, it can be recorded on another cylinder and +multiplied again as long as the vibrations can produce sound. From the +constant relation of parts and their uniform augmentations under this +treatment, it has suggested to my mind the idea that all sounds have +definite geometrical outlines, and as we change the magnitude without +changing the form of the sound, I shall describe this constancy of form +by the term contour. + +In a few instances I have been able, by reducing the record of certain +sounds from a high pitch to a lower one, to imitate the sound thus +reduced with my own vocal organs, then by restoring this record of my +voice to its normal speed have obtained almost a perfect imitation of +the sound. This effect, however, does not always follow, and in many +instances my best imitations have not developed the original at all. But +this presents a new problem in acoustics. I must here take occasion to +say that the difference of pitch, quality, &c., in sounds does not +appear to me to depend alone upon the length of the sound unit, but +there seems to be a difference of ultimate form and mode of propagation +which have much to do with the contour of the developed sound. + +[Sidenote: THE SOUND FORCE] + +By _mode of propagation_ I mean the organs brought into use for the +purpose of producing the sound, the apertures through which the sound +force passes, and the auxiliaries by which it is moulded into certain +shapes. By _ultimate form_ I mean the geometrical shape of the sound +force when first converted into sound. That there is such a thing as +form has been clearly demonstrated by the phoneidoscope. Prof. John B. +De Mott has very kindly aided me in reducing certain sounds to a visible +condition. I had conceived an idea before this that if the path +described by the energy which produced sound could be made visible, that +it would be found to have the form of a convolute spiral, that these +spirals recede from the centre or point of propagation in every +direction like the radii of a sphere, and that that aspect of sound +which we call waves, is simply the point at which these spirals +intercept each other, which of necessity would be of uniform distance +from the centre, increasing at each successive point throughout the +entire sound-sphere or space through which the sound passes in all +directions from the centre to infinity. I shall refrain from discussing +this point till such a time as I can show at greater length my reasons +for this belief. I may add here that I have made records of the human +voice with which I have deceived the monkeys, and I have made records of +the monkey's voice with which I have deceived the very elect of +linguists and musicians. Some critic once remarked to me that the sound +made by a monkey was not really laughter, but only a kind of +good-natured growling. This may be correct, but the same is true of +human laughter, as the one may be converted into the other, and a +good-natured growl expresses the emotion which is felt by man as well as +monkey. + +The phonograph shows that they are identical in sound and form, besides +the fact that they are the outburst of the same passion, actuated by the +same cause and executed by the same muscles, so that their identity, +mentally, physically, and mechanically, is the same. + +[Sidenote: VOWEL SOUNDS] + +Among the sounds of the Simian voice I have not found the English vowels +"a," "i," or "o," except, perhaps, "i" short as sounded in the word +"it." The vowel "u," as sounded like "oo" in "shoot," seems to be the +chief sound of their speech. One important point which I discovered from +the phonograph is, that sounds or tones which are purely musical are +reproduced alike with the cylinder turning either way, while all speech +sounds are slightly changed when the cylinder is reversed, which shows +the sounds to be compound. I find that "w" may be developed from any +consonant by manipulating the cylinder of the phonograph, and it is a +fact also that the initial consonant imparted to any vowel does not +continue through the vowel. This I have shown by making a vowel sound +which I prolong for some seconds with the cylinder revolving at a given +rate of speed. While reproducing this at a normal speed I intercepted at +any point, and developed the sound "w" as heard in "woe." The instant I +have blended this into the vowel, I lift the diaphragm until the normal +speed is restored, when I replace the reproducing tooth showing the +sound without the consonant. In like manner I dictate to the phonograph +any vowel sound preceded by a consonant. The consonant I utter in a +natural way, the vowel I prolong for some seconds, and in the act of +reproducing this I cut the sound in two and find the vowel element is +not modified by the consonant which preceded it, hence, I observe that +the consonant merely suggests to the mind a certain form of sound which +does not change the fundamental vowel. In fact, it aids the voice +somewhat in uttering the vowel. + +If human speech were composed of none but vowel sounds the human voice +could scarcely utter them in a continued conversation; their monotony +would not so much offend the ear as it would try the vocal powers, and +man would soon acquire consonants to aid the voice if for no other use. + +[Sidenote: DOUBLE AND TREBLE CONSONANTS] + +Among the Simians the better types of speech show this tendency, and in +the lower types of human speech we find all the vowel elements, while +consonants are not by any means so numerous. Another fact is this, among +the lower races of mankind double consonants are rare, and treble more +so. Of course their tongues consist of fewer words, as has been shown +before, which paucity arises from their few wants and simple modes of +life, and hence the scope of vocal growth is much contracted. Beginning +with the lowest tribes of men, we find the consonants increase in number +and complexity as we ascend the scale of speech. To this, perhaps, is +due the fact that the Negroes now found in the United States after a +sojourn of two hundred years with the white race on this continent are +unable to utter the sounds of "th" "thr," and other double consonants. +The former of these they pronounce "d" if breathing, and "t" if +aspirate. The latter they pronounce like "trw" or "tww." The sound of +"v" they usually pronounce "b," while "r" resembles "w" or "rw" when +initial, but as a final sound is usually suppressed. They have a marked +tendency to omit auxiliary and final sounds, and in all departures from +the higher types of speech tend back to ancestral forms. + +I believe if we could apply the rule of perspectives and throw our +vanishing point far back beyond the chasm that separates man from his +Simian prototype, that we would find one unbroken outline tangent to +every circle of life from man to protozoa in language, mind, and +matter. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + + The Human Voice--Human Bagpipe--Human Piccolo, Flute, and + Fife--The Voice as a Whistle--Music and Noise--Dr. Bell and his + "Visible Speech." + + +One of the very curious feats which I have performed with the phonograph +is the conversion of the human voice into the sounds of various +instruments. I had my wife sing the familiar Scotch ballad, "Comin' +through the Rye," to the phonograph while the cylinder was rotating at +the rate of about forty revolutions per minute. Each word in the song +was distinctly pronounced and the music rendered in a plain, smooth +tone. I then increased the speed of the machine to about one hundred and +twenty per minute, at which rate I reproduced the song. It was a very +perfect imitation of the bagpipe with no sign whatever of articulation. +The melody was preserved with only a change of time. The speech +character was so completely destroyed that I repeated this record to a +large audience in which were several eminent musicians, not one of whom +suspected that it was not a real bagpipe solo. In like manner I have +converted the sounds of the voice into a very perfect piccolo, flute, +fife, and into a fairly good imitation of a whistle sound. To produce +the whistling effect and the fife sound the rate of speed must be +necessarily very high, and some notes will not be perfectly converted +for some reason which I have not yet fully understood. Some voices are +much more easily converted into the flute effect than others. To get the +best flute sounds, a full, smooth, mezzo-soprano gives the best effect. +In reversing the operation, the sounds of these instruments can be made +to imitate the human voice somewhat, but not exactly, not only in the +fact that the modulation is wanting and there is no semblance to +consonant sounds, but the tone itself differs in quality from that of +the voice. + +[Sidenote: CONTOUR OF SOUNDS] + +Among other respects in which the vocal sounds of man and Simian +resemble is in the contour of the sounds, which I have defined +elsewhere. I have called attention to the fact that by reversing the +cylinder of the phonograph and repeating the sound recorded thereon that +a musical note or sound would repeat alike each way. Most of the sounds +made by other animals do this, but those made by man and Simian alike +show modulation, not, however, equally distinct. The notes of birds +repeat alike both ways except their order is reversed. Again, to magnify +the sounds as I have shown it can be done, allows you to inspect them, +as it were, under the microscope, and this examination shows the contour +of the sounds of these two genera to resemble. + +Dr. Alexander Melville Bell has shown, in his work on "Visible Speech," +that the organs brought into use in the production and modification of +sounds must work in harmony with each other; hence it is that by a study +of the external forms of the mouth the movements of all the organs used +in making any sound can be determined with such certainty that +deaf-mutes can be, and have been, successfully taught to distinguish +these sounds by the eye alone. And it was by such a method that I set +out to read the temple inscriptions from the ruins of Palenque, some +years ago, at which time I had not heard of Dr. Bell's learned and +excellent work. The main feature of those glyphs, by which I was guided, +was the outline of the mouth, which the artist had sought to preserve +and emphasise at the cost of every other feature, and by this process I +found to my satisfaction some ten or twelve sounds or phonetic elements +of the speech used by these people; but not knowing the meaning of the +sounds in that lost tongue, I did not attempt to verify them, but when I +find the time to devote to them I believe I can accomplish that. + +[Sidenote: TRIP TO AFRICA] + +It is a part of my purpose, in my trip to Africa, to try to secure +photographs of the mouths of the great apes while they are in the act of +talking, and to this end I am having constructed an electric trigger, +with which to operate my photo-camera at long range, and I shall try to +furnish to the eminent author of "Visible Speech" some new and novel +subjects for study. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + + Some Curious Facts in Vocal Growth--Children and + Consonants--Single, Double, and Treble Consonants--Sounds of + Birds--Fishes and their Language--Insects and their Language. + + +[Sidenote: SOUNDS UTTERED BY CHILDREN] + +I shall take occasion here to mention some curious experiments, which +have suggested themselves to me in my work with the phonograph. For lack +of time and opportunity, I have not carried them far enough to give +exact and final results; but it has occurred to me that philology may be +aided by taking a record of the sounds made by a number of children +daily through a period of two or three years from birth. The few +experiments which I have tried in this particular line are sufficient to +show that the growth of speech obeys certain laws in the development of +vocal power. It is apparent to me that the first sounds uttered by +children have no consonants, and that certain consonants always appear +in a regular succession and always single. The double consonants develop +later, and the triple consonants appear to be the last acquirement. I +have not the space to go to great length on this subject, and my +experiments have not been sufficient to enable me to formulate with +certainty any set of rules by which the development of this faculty is +uniformly governed. + +It is my purpose, on my return from Africa, to set on foot a series of +such experiments, with the hope of ascertaining the facts connected +therewith. And while in Africa I shall aim to make such records of the +natives as to ascertain whether their speech conforms to the same laws +of development or not. It is my earnest hope to be able to do the same +thing with the great apes which I am going chiefly to study. I think if +I can record on a phonograph cylinder the sounds uttered by a young +chimpanzee under certain conditions once each day for a year or so, I +can determine whether there is a like growth in their speech, and to +what extent the same laws control it. I have already observed that the +quality of voice in a given species of monkey changes with his age very +much in the same manner as the human voice; but I have not been able to +follow the changes through one individual specimen by which to ascertain +the exact manner of such change. + +[Sidenote: SOUNDS OF BIRDS] + +The sounds of birds have been studied perhaps more than any others +except those of man, but they have not been studied as speech, nor to +ascertain their meanings. Their musical character has attracted +attention and been the subject of some discussion. My opinion is that +much that has been said on that subject belongs more properly to the +realm of poetry than of science. I think the sounds of birds are chiefly +intended for speech, but it may supply the place of music in their +æsthetic being; but, so far as I have observed, I confess that I cannot +find that they obey the laws of harmony, melody, or time, and it is my +opinion that most of the efforts to write the sounds of birds on a +musical staff are not to be relied upon as accurate records of the +sounds. There is no doubt that each sound uttered by a bird is in unison +with some note in the chromatic scale of music, but the intervals +between the tones of the same bird do not coincide with those of the +human voice. It is quite evident that birds possess an acute sense and +ready faculty for music, and many of them show great aptitude in +imitating the sounds of musical instruments; some varieties of birds, +such as the southern mocking-bird, the thrush, and others, imitate with +great success the sounds of other birds. They often do this so perfectly +as to deceive the species to which the sounds belong. The songs of +birds, as they are called, appear to afford them great pleasure, and +they often indulge in them, I think, as a pastime; the effect is +pleasing to the ear because of its cheerfulness, and it is not +discordant or wanting in richness of tone in most birds. From the little +study I have given them I think it safe to say that the range of sounds +possessed by any one bird is quite limited and their notes are strictly +monophones. This last remark does not apply to the sounds made by +parrots and birds of that kind. + +The parrot is perhaps possessed of the greatest vocal power of any other +bird. He imitates almost the entire range of sounds that are uttered by +all other birds combined, and can also imitate the sounds of human +speech from the highest to the lowest pitch of the human voice. In +addition to all this, he imitates many noises, such as the sounds of +sawing wood, the slam of a door, and the whistling of the wind. The +vocal range of the parrot is perhaps the most marvellous of all the +vocal products of the animal kingdom. One strange thing, however, that I +observe among them is, that the range of sounds that they use among +themselves is very small. I have made some records of parrots, macaws, +cockatoos, &c., and I find their natural vocal sounds usually wanting in +quality: most of their sounds are hoarse and guttural. + +Among the gallinaceous birds there does not appear to be much music. +There is a great sameness of sounds in the different species, and they +seem to be confined to the economic use of speech. + +In my early life I devoted much time to gunning, and I observed then, +and called attention to the fact, that when a covey of birds became +scattered I could tell at what point they would huddle. I could tell +this by the call of one bird and the reply of the others. The call-bird, +which was always the leader of the covey, would sound his call from a +certain point near which the other birds would usually assemble, and +during this time they would answer him from various other points. The +sound used by the call-bird is unlike that used by the rest of the +flock, but the sounds with which they reply to him are all alike, and +by observing this I could always find the covey again by allowing them +time to come together, especially if it was late in the afternoon. + +Mr. Wood, of Washington, D.C., has given such attention to the sounds of +birds that he can interpret and imitate nearly all the sounds made by +domestic birds, and many of those made by wild birds. He has twice +confused and arrested the flight of an army of crows by imitating the +calls of their leader. His feats have been witnessed with astonishment +by many men of science. + +[Sidenote: SOUNDS OF FISHES] + +Among fishes I have found but few sounds, and most of these I have never +heard except when the fish was taken out of the water. The carp and +high-fin, however, I have frequently heard while in the water. It has +occurred to me that the sound is not the medium of communication, but it +is the result of an action by which they do communicate even when the +sound is not audible. I have observed while holding the fish in my hand +when he makes this sound that it produces a jarring sensation which is +very perceptible. It is quite possible that in his natural element these +powerful vibrations are imparted to the surrounding water, and through +it communicated to another fish, who feels it in his sensitive body +instead of hearing it as sound. It may be accompanied by the sound +merely resulting from the force applied, but not in itself constituting +any part of the means of communication. It is not unlike what we call +sound, in the fact that it is generated in the same way, transmitted in +the same way, and received in the same way as sound. When I have time +and opportunity I shall carry my studies of the language of fishes much +farther. Their means of communication are very contracted, but it is +superfluous for me to say that they have such means. + +Many observations have already been made on the language of insects, and +much diversity of opinion prevails. Very little has been said about the +details of their intercourse, but the consensus of opinion is that they +must in some way communicate among themselves. To me they seem to live +within a world of their own, as other classes of the animal kingdom do. +The means of communication used by mammals could not be available among +aquatic forms, any more than could their modes of locomotion. Each +different class of the animal kingdom is endowed with such characters +and faculties as best adapt them to the sphere in which they live; and +the mode of communication best fitted to the conditions of insect life +would be as little suited to mammals, perhaps, as the feathers of a bird +would be for locomotion in the realm of fishes. + +[Sidenote: LANGUAGE OF INSECTS] + +I am aware that some high authorities have claimed that insects +communicate by sounds. My own opinion is that they employ a system of +grating or scratching by means of their stigmata, but that the sound +created thus performs no function in the act of communicating, but is +only a bi-product, so to speak, and that the jarring sensation +transmitted through the air is the real means by which they understand +each other, possibly somewhat like telegraphy, in which the sounds are +not modulated, but are distinguished by their duration and the interval +between them. I do not announce this as conclusive, but merely suggest +it as a possible key to their mode of intercourse. + +[Sidenote: A COLONY OF ANTS] + +I have observed that signs prevail to a great extent among ants. Some +years ago I had an opportunity of studying a colony of ants, and I +watched them almost daily for several weeks. I had seen it stated that +they found their way by the sense of smell, but these observations +confirmed my doubts on that point, and I feel justified in saying that +they are guided almost, if not entirely, by landmarks. On the bark of a +tree from which they were gathering in their winter stores, I observed +that there were certain little knots or protuberances by which they +directed their course and which they always passed in a certain order. +Between these landmarks they did not confine themselves to any exact +path, but the concourse would sometimes widen out over the space of more +than an inch, but as they approached a landmark every ant fell into line +and went in the exact path of the others, which rarely exceeded in any +case more than an eighth of an inch in width. Whenever an ant would lose +its way it would lift its head high into the air, look around, and then +turn almost at right angles from the course it was pursuing towards the +path of the others. In scores of cases I observed that the outward-bound +ant, when it had been lost and returned to the path, always came on the +homeward side of the landmark and passed out. On the other hand, if a +homeward-bound ant was lost it would approach from the outward side of +the landmark and pass in. About five feet from the ground were two +small, round knots, about one-eighth of an inch in height, and a space +between them of about the same width. This appeared to be one of their +most conspicuous and reliable landmarks, and every ant that I saw pass +in or out during the lapse of weeks passed between these two points. The +burdened ant always appeared to have the right of way, and when meeting +another without a burden there was no question of this right. In such a +case the burden was usually held aloft, and the right of way conceded +without debate. A little later in the season I had the opportunity of +seeing the same colony emigrate to a point about eighty feet distant +from their original abode, at which time they carried large burdens and +were many days in completing their work, but the same system and methods +prevailed. + +As far as desire can be found in life the means of expression go hand in +hand with it, but I do not contend that desire alone is the origin of +this faculty. So far as human ears can ascertain, the lowest forms of +life appeared to dwell in perpetual silence, but there may be voices yet +unheard, more eloquent than we have ever dreamed of. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + + Facts and Fancies of Speech--Language in the Vegetable + Kingdom--Language in the Mineral Kingdom. + + +In the early part of this work I have recorded the material and tangible +facts with which I have dealt, and have not departed from such facts to +formulate a theory beyond a working hypothesis. I have not allowed +myself to be transported into the realm of fancy, nor have I claimed for +my work anything which lies beyond the bounds of proof. But in the wide +range through which I have sought for the first hint of speech, it is +only natural that many theories have suggested themselves to me from +time to time, some of which would appear almost like the dreams of +hasheesh. But while they are like the fairyland of speculation, they are +not more wild and incoherent than are many of the dogmas of +metaphysics. And at this point I shall digress from my text so far as to +say that I have followed the motives of language through the higher +planes of life and thence downward to the very sunrise to the vegetable +kingdom, and on through the dim twilight across the mineral world to +that point where elemental matter is first delivered from the hands of +force. Standing upon the elevated plane of human development, it is +difficult for man to stoop to the level of those inferior forms from +which he is so far removed in all his faculties; but if his senses could +be made so delicate as to discern the facts, he would find perhaps that +in the polity of life all horizons are equidistant from each other. But +looking back from where he stands, his powers fail to reach the real +point of vital force at which all life began, and his contracted senses +bring the vanishing point of this perspective far into the foreground of +the facts. + +From the highest type of human speech to the feeblest hint of +expression there is a gradual descent, and at no point between these two +extremes can there be drawn a line at which it may be said "here one +begins, and here another ends." The same is true of other faculties; and +from the vital centre at which matter first receives the touch of life +to the circumference of the vital sphere, all powers radiate alike, and +there is no point that I can find between that centre and infinity at +which some new endowment intercepts the line. + +Descending the scale of life by long strides, from man to the lowest +form of zooids, we cannot designate the point at which a faculty is +first imparted to the form which has it, and this truth extends +throughout the vital cosmos. + +[Sidenote: LANGUAGE IN THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM] + +The line of demarcation which separates the animal and vegetable is but +a wavering, blended mezzotint, and the highest forms of vegetable life +seem to overlap the lowest forms of animal, so far that no dividing line +is positively fixed. The highest types of vegetable seem to have the +faculty of expression in a degree corresponding to, and in harmony with, +the rest of their organism. I do not mean to say that the impulse under +which a plant acts is synonymously with that which prompts the animal, +but both appear to be the effect of the same cause. + +In some forms of vegetation the selection of food of certain kinds and +the aversion to other certain kinds, would indicate that the organism is +capable of design and purpose in a degree perhaps much higher than some +of the lowest forms of the animal kingdom. The reaching out of roots in +search of food in the earth, the opening and closing of leaf and bloom, +seeking the moisture and carbon from the atmosphere, suggest a feeble +expression of desire. The choice of food is so well defined in some +plants as to indicate a power of selection far greater than some +protozoans exercise. It is a known fact that a change of food and +conditions often modify a plant in such degree as to make it difficult +to recognise except by the technical laws of classification, and yet its +identity is not lost. Such changes do not effect all plants in the same +degree, as some of them will undergo a change of diet or conditions +without material effect. In many instances a marked dislike to certain +kinds of food has been observed, and the sensitiveness of some plants is +shown in the foliage, bloom, and even in the roots. + +[Sidenote: LANGUAGE OF THE MINERAL KINGDOM] + +In passing from the vegetable to the mineral kingdom, we find a like +diffusion of types overlapping and blending into each other. Some forms +of vegetation are so low in the scale of organism as to make it +difficult to say whether they are vegetable or mineral compounds. Of +course we find no trace of speech, but there is that hint of expression +or suggestion of desire as found in the vegetable kingdom. In the +chemical world one element will select another with which it will +combine, while to other elements it shows a great aversion. When one +chemical element selects another and combines with it we call this +chemical affinity. The ultimate force which causes this affinity is one +of the unknown facts concerning matter; but it is possible that such +affinities and aversions constitute the basis upon which rests the +selections and aversions of plants and animals. But as we rise in the +scale the combinations of matter become more complex and the functions +of each part more specific. It is possible, when we become more familiar +with the forces of Nature, that we shall find that affinity and +repulsion are but the positive and negative poles of the forces which +act on matter; that chemical, vegetable and animal activity are based +upon the same fundamental causes, and that speech, which is only one +form of expression, is the highest product of such an ultimate force, +but in all conditions of matter, such forces, either positive or +negative, are the ultimate motives of expression. + +[Sidenote: VITALISATION OF MATTER] + +As chemical formulas differ from each other without losing the identity +of their elements which constitute them, so animal organisms and plant +forms differ as the spheres of life to which they are assigned differ. +It is possible that chemical affinity may be the germ from which all +language springs, as the chemical elements are the materials from which +all compounds are built up. The vitalisation of matter itself, and the +arrangement of the ultimate particles which constitute a living body, +are the work of the vital force in a polarised condition. This will +account, in a measure, for all the individuals of one type selecting one +mode of expression, as they select or conform to one physical outline. +In every rank of life there seems to be some intuitive mode of +expression which suggest itself to all the individuals of that kind when +they desire, under the same conditions, to express the same thing. The +exceptions to this law of expression increase in number as we rise in +the scale of life, and the means of expression increase and widen and +the faculty of thought enlarges. The laws of chemical affinity are +rigid and uncompromising, and there are but few exceptions in them, and +only marked changes of condition can modify the results. As we ascend +even in the mineral kingdom to the higher compounds we find a wider +range of variation; and as we continue our ascent through the vegetable +world, we find the same, and on through animals to the highest type. In +the lower planes types are more strictly adhered to, habits and food +more rigidly observed, while among the highest types of cultivated +plants we find a great diversity of fruit and bloom, the capability of +transplanting and the creation of new species, without losing the +generic identity of the plant or even making it questionable. In the +animal kingdom the same law is complied with; and step by step as we +ascend the same types show greater and greater diversity, until we reach +man--the climax of all life, and within his genus, variation knows no +bound. + +[Sidenote: CONCLUSION] + +In conclusion, I may say that man as he now is has the faculty of +speech. It is reasonable to believe that he has always had this faculty +since he was man. If there has ever been a time in the history of his +organism when he acquired his being from some progenitor which was not +man, he acquired at the same time the faculty of speech, and that +progenitor did not impart a thing which he did not have. While it is +true that speech, as I have used it, is confined to vocal sounds, other +modes of expression have preceded it, and such has been a common faculty +inherent through all forms and planes of life. I am aware that two +ingredients combined may make a compound unlike either one, and such may +be the case with speech, but the elements which constitute the compound +must have been for ever present. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +THE SPEECH AND REASON OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS. + + Dash and the Baby--Two Collies talk--Eunice understands her + Mistress--Two Dogs and the Phonograph--A Canine Family--Cats and + Dogs--Insects--Signs and Sounds. + + +[Sidenote: THE SPEECH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS] + +To those who are familiar with rural life, there can be nothing strange +in hearing it said that all animals can talk among their kind. Among the +daily incidents of farm life, there occur so many proofs of this as to +place the question beyond debate. The cattle have means of conveying +ideas to other cattle, and sheep and hogs understand other sheep and +hogs, and the means employed are sounds. These sounds are used in the +same way that man uses them to convey his thoughts, and since they +discharge all the functions of speech, in what respect are they not +speech? The types of speech differ in different genera, as their +physical types do, but they are not any the less speech on that account. +Among the domestic animals, I think the dog has, perhaps, the highest +type of speech; and this is doubtless, in some measure, due to his +intimate relations with man, from whom he has learned and added a little +to his mental store, and this must find an outlet through speech. That +dogs think and reason is not to be doubted by the most stupid observer, +and they often make known their thoughts so that even man can interpret +them with certainty; but the speech by which they express those thoughts +is of course rudimentary. Dogs often discharge certain duties with such +promptness that bigots declare that it is mechanical and done without +motive, but there are many thousands of cases where the dog has assumed +and performed duties of others, entirely outside of his own sphere, +which nothing but reason could have prompted. + +When I was only a few weeks old, my father had given to him a little +white poodle, which he called Dash. He was about my own age, and we grew +up together. In those days, children were rocked in the old-time cradle, +and I, like other babies, had a cradle. When I was a few months old, on +one occasion I was left asleep in my cradle, and no one was in the room +but Dash and myself. Having been disturbed in my sleep, I woke up and +cried, and Dash, seeing the condition of things, came to the cradle, +and, rearing on his hind feet, rocked it with his paws, and whined and +barked until I had gone to sleep again. My mother has often told me of +this, and assured me that he had never been taught to do this, but +always after practised it, not only with myself, but with my younger +brothers and sisters, until, at the age of thirteen, he came to an +untimely death at the hands of a bull-dog, whose name and tribe I have +never ceased to hate. I gave Dash the burial that he deserved, and had +a long procession of mourning children follow his remains to the grave, +where I delivered the funeral sermon, and we all sung a hymn. About +three years ago, in company with an older sister, I visited the spot for +the first time in nearly thirty years, but no sign of the little grave +remained. + +What else but reason could have prompted this act? The dog had seen it +done by human beings, and had noted the result. Whether his whining was +intended as singing or not, I am unable to say, but from my recollection +of seeing him do this with the younger children, I believe that it was +intended to soothe or entertain, and his barking to call some one into +the room. + +A farmer by the name of Taylor, living in East Tennessee, some years ago +owned two very fine collies, and they had been trained to drive the +cattle and sheep about the farm, to drive strange cattle away from the +premises, to guard the gates or gaps opened temporarily for hauling +about the farm, and many similar duties. On one occasion, in haymaking +time, as night was approaching, the waggon made its last homeward trip +for the day, and the men working in the meadow prepared to go home. The +driver of the waggon, supposing the men from the meadow were following +and would close the gates, left them open, and one of these was between +the corn-field and a pasture containing a number of cattle. The men, +however, did not follow the waggon, but took a near way across the +field, and the gate was left open. While the family was at supper, one +of the collies was restless and barked continually, and gave such signs +of uneasiness as to assure all that something was wrong. His master went +to the door, and the dog ran to the gate in the front of the house, and +continued barking and lashing his tail with great energy. The master +followed to the front gate, and the dog immediately ran barking down the +road, but looking back from time to time to see that his master +followed, which he did, and was thus led to the open gate, where he +found the other collie on guard and keeping the cattle from passing, +which they were trying to do. What less than reason could have prompted +these dogs to such an act? And what less than speech could have enabled +them to execute this feat? They observed the neglect or error of the +driver, and foresaw the evil consequences, and it could only have been +by agreement reached through an interchange of thoughts that one of them +watched while the other gave the alarm. I have known some of these dogs +that knew certain cattle by name, and would go into the herd and drive +out the one whose name was designated, while it is true in other cases +that the dog would only drive out such as were pointed out to him. But +many instances proved that they are able to learn the names of the +cattle. It is certain that in many instances dogs know the names of the +children belonging to the family, and often distinguish them by name. I +presume no one doubts that they learn their own names, so that each dog +may know when he is called. I know a dog, now living near Leominster, +Mass., that extinguished an accidental fire which had been caused by the +hired man carelessly dropping a burning match in some straw in the +barn-yard after lighting his lantern. The dog had to fight the fire with +his paws, and by the time he had extinguished it they were much singed. +His loud barking was sufficient to warn the family that something +unusual was taking place. They soon responded to his call, and found +that he had the fire quite under control. He had thus saved his master's +barn and house from the flames, and since that time, as I have witnessed +myself, will not allow any one to light a cigar with a match in his +presence. The peculiar sound which he makes under such circumstances +appeals to the sense of fear or apprehension, and I have observed that +the significance of all speech depends much upon intonation. It is less +so with man, perhaps, than with other animals, because of the great +number of words which amplify and shade his meanings. But by a single +word of human speech we can express many shades of meaning simply by +modulation; but having at our command so many words to qualify our +meaning, we lose sight of the value and power of intonation. The +difficulty of discerning the delicate shades of meaning imparted by +intonation, depends upon the mode of thought, and the simpler this is +the keener the power to interpret inflections. One very important fact +is that a dog only learns to interpret one sound on one subject at any +one time. He cannot put together in his mind a great number of sounds, +nor interpret complex ideas in detail. I know a dog in Charleston, South +Carolina, that would fly into a rage and bark fiercely if you say, +"Chad, where is that big black dog that whipped you so badly?" But +repeated experiments proved to my mind that the dog did not interpret +any part of the sentence except the words "black dog," and even this +seemed to depend chiefly upon the sound "black," and by saying this +sound you would get the same results as to use the entire sentence. He +had been whipped by a dog of this description, and had been so often +reminded of it that he had associated the sound with the incident. + +I know a little dog in New York that understands the same sound in a +similar way and for similar reasons. She also recognises the name of the +lady who owns the black dog. A family, with whom I am on close terms of +friendship, owns an ugly little mongrel, to which two of the daughters +are very devoted. They have reared her with great care, and lavished +upon her many luxuries, far better than most human beings enjoy. The +young ladies declared to me that Eunice (which is the dog's name) could +understand every word they said on any subject that she had been +accustomed to hear. + +Mattie would say to her, "Eunice, go tell Miss Kate to get on her hat +and let us go take a walk." The little dog would run to Miss Kate's room +and bark and jump until the young lady would comply. I found that the +dog associated the sounds "hat" and "walk" with the act of taking a +stroll in the company of the young ladies; but she would act just the +same when either one of these words were said to her as she would if one +were to repeat a whole canto of Milton; and I think the young ladies +have never quite forgiven me for trying to prove to them that Eunice was +not a fine English scholar. + +I find, by means of many experiments, that much depends upon the manner +of delivering these sounds; but that the animal is largely guided by the +sound alone is proven by the fact that some dogs understand English, +others French, German, or some other language, and they do not really +understand unless addressed in the speech with which they are familiar. + +A short time since I tried a novel experiment with the phonograph and +two black-and-tan terriers, mother and son. The son was a notorious +talker in the way of barking almost continuously at everything, and on +all occasions and at all times, while the mother was naturally taciturn, +good-natured, and fairly intelligent. I first took the son to a room +where I had the phonograph, and I made a record of a number of sounds of +his voice. The children aided me in the experiment by getting him to +talk for food, bark at his image in the mirror, and by various other +ways they induced him to other sounds in the presence of the phonograph. +A few days later I had them bring the mother to the same place, where I +discharged the contents of my phonograph cylinder in her presence. She +gave every evidence of recognising the sounds of the young dog, and in a +few instances responded to them. She was naturally perplexed at not +being able to find him, and searched the horn and various parts of the +room in quest of the young dog. I delivered to her at the same time the +record of another dog, to which she paid little attention except by an +occasional growl and a look into the horn to see what it meant. She +evidently recognised the sounds of the young dog with which she was +familiar and seemed to interpret their meanings, whereas the sounds from +the other cylinder did little more than attract her attention. + +Last summer I stopped at a small town in Northern Virginia. A young man +at the same hotel had two setters and a black-and-tan terrier. I +experimented extensively with these three dogs during my stay, and +deduced therefrom some conclusions which were inevitable. The hotel +verandah opened on the street, and was a place of resort for gentlemen +of leisure about town. There was also a side entrance through a large +yard. I have frequently observed the dogs lying asleep on the verandah, +when the owner would enter the side yard on a flagstone walk, often in +the midst of conversation of a dozen men. The terrier would recognise +the footsteps of his master, would utter a low sound and spring to his +feet, and rush at once in the direction whence he heard the steps. The +setters invariably seemed to know what it meant, would raise their +heads, lash their tails upon the floor, showing evident signs of +understanding the situation. I have seen this terrier recognise the +steps of his master when the latter was accompanied by two or three +other persons. The delicate precision of his hearing was marvellous, and +in no instance, so far as I observed, was he deceived in the approaching +footsteps. I cannot believe that he was guided by the sense of smell, as +it is evident that the setters, whose habits of hunting have developed +in them a much more sensitive olfactory power, would naturally have been +the first to have detected their master's approach, and yet it was +equally evident that the terrier's ears were the first to catch the +sounds. + +I have observed among dogs associated with each other that where one +should bark in the distance, as though he had something at bay, his +companion, hearing him from the house, would prick up his ears, listen +for a moment, and then dash off in the direction from whence the sounds +came; whereas the bark of a strange dog, even having something at bay, +would only cause him to listen, utter a low sound or grunt, and lie down +again and take a nap, as much as to say "That's nothing to me!" I have +known many instances where dogs would follow the farm waggon to town, +and faithfully guard the waggon and its contents all day long, with a +fidelity that we seldom see in the most devoted servants. The attachment +of a dog to his master has been a subject of remark from time +immemorial, until the saying has crystallised into a maxim--"As faithful +as a watch-dog." A friend of mine had a little terrier, whose name was +Nicodemus, that had a habit of sitting in the kitchen window to watch +people pass the street. She assures me that on washdays, when the steam +condensed on the window-panes, Nicodemus would lick the moisture from +the glass in order to see through it more clearly. Could instinct be the +guide in such an act? + +If man would only pause and calmly view the facts, he would find that he +is but a joint heir of Nature; and why not so? From a religious point of +view I cannot doubt that the wisdom and mercy of God would bestow alike +on all the faculties of speech and reason as their conditions of life +require them, and from a scientific point of view I cannot charge the +laws of evolution with such disorder. In either case it were a harsh and +jarring discord in the great harp of Nature, whether played by the hand +of Chance or swept by the fingers of Omniscience. + + * * * * * + + + _Printed by_ BALLATYNE HANSON & CO. + _London and Edinburgh_ + + + + +_MR. WILLIAM HEINEMANN'S LIST._ + + * * * * * + + THE WORKS OF HEINRICH HEINE. + + TRANSLATED BY + CHARLES GODFREY LELAND, M.A., F.R.L.S. + + (HANS BREITMANN). + + Crown 8vo, Cloth, 5s. per volume. + +Volume I. FLORENTINE NIGHTS, SCHNABELEWOPSKI, THE RABBI OF BACHARACH, +and SHAKESPEARE'S MAIDENS AND WOMEN. + + _Times._--"We can recommend no better medium for making + acquaintance at first hand with 'the German Aristophanes' than + the works of Heinrich Heine, translated by Charles Godfrey + Leland. Mr. Leland manages pretty successfully to preserve the + easy grace of the original." + +Volumes II. and III. PICTURES OF TRAVEL, 1823-1828. In Two Volumes. + + _Daily Chronicle._--"Mr. Leland's translation of 'The Pictures + of Travel' is one of the acknowledged literary feats of the age. + As a traveller Heine is delicious beyond description, and a + volume which includes the magnificent Lucca series, the North + Sea, the memorable Hartz wanderings, must needs possess an + everlasting charm." + +Volumes V. and VI. GERMANY. In Two Volumes. + + _Daily Telegraph._--"Mr. Leland has done his translation in able + and scholarly fashion." + +Volume IV. THE BOOK OF SONGS. + + [_In the Press._ + +*.* _Large Paper Edition, limited to 100 Numbered Copies. Particulars on +application._ + + * * * * * + + THE POSTHUMOUS WORKS OF THOMAS DE QUINCEY. + +Edited, with Introduction and Notes from the Author's Original MSS., by + + ALEXANDER H. JAPP, LL.D., F.R.S.E., &c. + + Crown 8vo, Cloth, 6s. + + VOLUME I. + + SUSPIRIA DE PROFUNDIS. + + _WITH OTHER ESSAYS._ + + _Times._--"Here we have De Quincey at his best. Will be welcome + to lovers of De Quincey and good literature." + + VOLUME II. + + CONVERSATION AND COLERIDGE. + + _WITH OTHER ESSAYS._ + + + [_In preparation._ + + * * * * * + +The Great Educators. + +A new series, by writers of wide educational experience, on the leading +movers in educational thought from the earliest time to the present day, +will be issued under the general title of "The Great Educators." + +Much has been written of the great philosophical systems, and of the +lives of great thinkers and founders of schools of philosophical +speculation, yet nothing has so far been done to give a picture of what +is at least of equal importance, the educational effects of these +systems in the special periodical ethics of the world. It is not +surprising that these ethics, as applied to education, should change +with religions, with philosophical systems, even with periodical +revolutions, and historical development. But it is surprising that no +one has thought the subject sufficiently important to fix from time to +time the point of view obtaining as to these educational ethics. + +It is now proposed, in a limited number of volumes, devoted more to the +systems and to the teachings of the greatest educators of the world than +to their lives, to show the different points of view, from which races +and times and climatic influences have determined the education of +mankind. The volumes will therefore range from Aristotle to Dr. Arnold +of Rugby. + +Each subject will form a complete volume of about 300 pages, crown 8vo, +_5s._ + + _Now ready._ + +=ARISTOTLE, and the Ancient Educational Ideals.= By THOMAS DAVIDSON, +M.A., LL.D. + +=LOYOLA, and the Educational System of the Jesuits.= By Rev. THOMAS +HUGHES, S.J. + + _In preparation._ + +=ALCUIN, and the Rise of the Christian Schools.= By Professor ANDREW F. +WEST, Ph.D. + +=ABELARD, and the Origin and Early History of Universities.= By JULES +GABRIEL COMPAYRE, Professor in the Faculty of Toulouse. + +=ROUSSEAU; or, Education according to Nature.= + +=HERBART; or, Modern German Education.= + +=PESTALOZZI; or, the Friend and Student of Children.= + +=FROEBEL.= By H. COURTHOPE BOWEN, M.A. + +=HORACE MANN, and Public Education in the United States.= By NICHOLAS +MURRAY BUTLER, Ph.D. + +=BELL, LANCASTER, and ARNOLD; or, the English Education of To-Day.= By +J. G. FITCH, LL.D., Her Majesty's Inspector of Schools. + + _Others in preparation._ + + * * * * * + In One Volume, 4to, Illustrated. + +THE GREAT WAR OF 1892. + +_A FORECAST._ + + BY REAR-ADMIRAL COLOMB, + COL. MAURICE, R.A., + MAJOR HENDERSON, STAFF COLLEGE, + CAPTAIN MAUDE, + ARCHIBALD FORBES, + CHARLES LOWE, + D. CHRISTIE + MURRAY, F. SCUDAMORE, + AND SIR CHARLES DILKE. + + +In this narrative, which is reprinted from the pages of _Black and +White_, an attempt is made to forecast the course of events preliminary +and incidental to the Great War which, in the opinion of military and +political experts, will probably occur in the immediate future. + +The writers, who are well-known authorities on international politics +and strategy, have striven to derive the conflict from its most likely +source, to conceive the most probable campaigns and acts of policy, and +generally to give to their work the verisimilitude and actuality of real +warfare. The work has been profusely illustrated from sketches by Mr. +Frederic Villiers, the well-known war artist. + + [_Nearly ready._ + +=THE OLD MAIDS' CLUB.= By I. ZANGWILL, Author of "The Bachelors' Club." +Illustrated by F. H. TOWNSEND. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +=WOMAN--THROUGH A MAN'S EYEGLASS.= By MALCOLM C. SALAMAN. With +Illustrations by DUDLEY HARDY. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + _Daily Graphic._--"A most amusing book." + + _Daily Telegraph._--"Written with brightness and elegance, and + with touches of both caustic satire and kindly humour." + + _Daily Chronicle._--"It is the very thing for a punt cushion or + a garden hammock." + +=ADDRESSES.= By HENRY IRVING. Small crown 8vo. With Portrait. + + [_In the Press._ + +=STRAY MEMORIES.= By ELLEN TERRY. 4to, Illustrated. + + [_In preparation._ + +=GIRLS AND WOMEN.= By E. CHESTER. Pott 8vo, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._, or gilt +extra, 3_s._ 6_d._ + + _Literary World._--"We gladly commend this delightful little + work to the thoughtful girls of our own country. We hope that + many parents and daughters will read and ponder over the little + volume." + +=THE JEW AT HOME.= Impressions of a Summer and Autumn Spent with Him. By +JOSEPH PENNELL. With Illustrations by the Author. + + [_In the Press._ + +=GOSSIP IN A LIBRARY.= By EDMUND GOSSE, Author of "Northern Studies," +&c. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, buckram, gilt top, 7_s._ 6_d._ + + _Athenæum._--"There is a touch of Leigh Hunt in this picture of + the book-lover among his books, and the volume is one that Leigh + Hunt would have delighted in." + + *.* _Large Paper Edition, limited to 100 Numbered Copies, 25s. net._ + +=THE NEW EXODUS.= The Story of the Jew in Russia. By HAROLD FREDERIC. +Demy 8vo, Illustrated. + + [_In the Press._ + +=THE WORD OF THE LORD UPON THE WATERS.= Sermons read by His Imperial +Majesty the Emperor of Germany, while at Sea on his Voyages to the Land +of the Midnight Sun. Composed by Dr. RICHTER, Army Chaplain, and +Translated from the German by JOHN R. McILRAITH. 4to, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + _Times._--"The Sermons are vigorous, simple, and vivid in + themselves, and well adapted to the circumstances in which they + were delivered." + +=THE HOURS OF RAPHAEL, IN OUTLINE.= Together with the Ceiling of the +Hall where they were originally painted. By MARY E. WILLIAMS. Folio, +cloth, _£_2 2_s._ net. + +=THE PASSION PLAY AT OBERAMMERGAU, 1890.= By F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., +Archdeacon and Canon of Westminster, &c. &c. 4to, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + _Spectator._--"This little book will be read with delight by + those who have, and by those who have not, visited + Oberammergau." + +=DE QUINCEY MEMORIALS.= Being Letters and other Records here first +Published, with Communications from COLERIDGE, The WORDSWORTHS, +HANNAH MORE, PROFESSOR WILSON and others. Edited, with Introduction, +Notes, and Narrative, by ALEXANDER H. JAPP, LL.D., F.R.S.E. In two +volumes, demy 8vo, cloth, with portraits, 30_s._ net. + + _Daily Telegraph._--"Few works of greater literary interest have + of late years issued from the press than the two volumes of 'De + Quincey Memorials.' They comprise most valuable materials for + the historian of literary and social England at the beginning of + the century; but they are not on that account less calculated to + amuse, enlighten, and absorb the general reader of biographical + memoirs." + +=THE SOCIAL LIFE OF MARIE BASHKIRTSEFF.= Letters and Journals. With +Drawings and Studies by the youthful Artist. + + [_In preparation._ + +=PRINCE BISMARCK.= An Historical Biography. By CHARLES LOWE, M.A. With +Portraits. In One Volume. + + [_In the Press._ + +=LIFE OF HEINRICH HEINE.= By RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. With Portrait. Crown +8vo (uniform with the translation of Heine's Works). + + [_In preparation._ + +=THE LIFE OF HENRIK IBSEN.= By HENRIK JÆGER. Translated by CLARA BELL. +With the Verse done into English from the Norwegian Original by EDMUND +GOSSE. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ + + _Academy._--"We welcome it heartily. An unqualified boon to the + many English students of Ibsen." + +=THE GENTLE ART OF MAKING ENEMIES.= As pleasingly exemplified in many +instances, wherein the serious ones of this earth, carefully +exasperated, have been prettily spurred on to indiscretions and +unseemliness, while overcome by an undue sense of right. By J. MCNEIL +WHISTLER. A New Edition. Pott 4to, half cloth, 10_s._ 6_d._ + + _Punch._--"The book in itself, in its binding, print and + arrangement, is a work of art.... A work of rare humour, a thing + of beauty and a joy for now and ever." + +=THE COMING TERROR.= And other Essays and Letters. By ROBERT BUCHANAN. +Second Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + _Daily Chronicle._--"This amusing, wrong-headed, audacious, + 'cranky' book should be widely read, for there is not a dull + line in it." + +=ARABIC AUTHORS=: A Manual of Arabian History and Literature. By F. F. +ARBUTHNOT, M.R.A.S., Author of "Early Ideas," "Persian Portraits," &c. +8vo, cloth, 10_s._ + + _Manchester Examiner._--"The whole work has been carefully + indexed, and will prove a handbook of the highest value to the + student who wishes to gain a better acquaintance with Arabian + letters." + +=THE GARDEN'S STORY=; or, Pleasures and Trials of an Amateur Gardener. +By G. H. ELLWANGER. With an Introduction by the Rev. C. WOLLEY DOD. +12mo, cloth, with Illustrations, 5_s._ + + _Scotsman._--"It deals with a charming subject in a charming + manner." + +=IDLE MUSINGS=: Essays in Social Mosaic. By E. CONDER GRAY, Author +of "Wise Words and Loving Deeds," &c. &c. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ + + _Saturday Review._--"Light, brief, and bright." + +=THE LABOUR MOVEMENT IN AMERICA.= By RICHARD T. ELY, Ph.D., Associate in +Political Economy, Johns Hopkins University. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5_s_. + + _Saturday Review._--"Both interesting and valuable." + +=THE LITTLE MANX NATION.= (Lectures delivered at the Royal Institution, +1891.) By HALL CAINE, Author of "The Bondman," "The Scapegoat," &c. +Crown 8vo, cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._; paper, 2_s._ 6_d._ + + _World._--"Mr. Hall Caine takes us back to the days of old + romance, and, treating tradition and history in the pictorial + style of which he is a master, he gives us a monograph of Man + especially acceptable." + +=NOTES FOR THE NILE.= Together with a Metrical Rendering of the Hymns of +Ancient Egypt and of the Precepts of Ptahhotep (the oldest book in the +world). By HARDWICKE D. RAWNSLEY, M.A. 16mo, cloth, 5_s._ + +=DENMARK=: Its History, Topography, Language, Literature, Fine Arts, +Social Life, and Finance. Edited by H. WEITEMEYER. Demy 8vo, cloth, with +Map, 12_s._ 6_d._ + + *.* _Dedicated, by permission, to H.R.H. the Princess of Wales._ + + _Morning Post._--"An excellent account of everything relating to + this Northern country." + +=IMPERIAL GERMANY.= A Critical Study of Fact and Character. By +SIDNEY WHITMAN. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth +2_s._ 6_d._; paper, 2_s._ + + _Prince Bismarck._--"I consider the different chapters of this + book masterly." + +=THE CANADIAN GUIDE-BOOK.= The Tourist's and Sportsman's Guide to +Eastern Canada and Newfoundland, including full descriptions of Routes, +Cities, Points of Interest, Summer Resorts, Fishing Places, &c., in +Eastern Ontario, The Muskoka District, The St. Lawrence Region, The Lake +St. John Country, The Maritime Provinces, Prince Edward Island, and +Newfoundland. With an Appendix giving Fish and Game Laws, and Official +Lists of Trout and Salmon Rivers and their Lessees. By CHARLES G. D. +ROBERTS, Professor of English Literature in King's College, Windsor, +N.S. With Maps and many Illustrations. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 6_s._ + +=THE GENESIS OF THE UNITED STATES.= A Narrative of the Movement in +England, 1605-1616, which resulted in the Plantation of North America by +Englishmen, disclosing the Contest between England and Spain for the +Possession of the Soil now occupied by the United States of America; set +forth through a series of Historical Manuscripts now first printed, +together with a Re-issue of Rare Contemporaneous Tracts, accompanied by +Bibliographical Memoranda, Notes, and Brief Biographies. Collected, +Arranged, and Edited by ALEXANDER BROWN, F.R.H.S. With 100 Portraits, +Maps, and Plans. In two volumes. Roy. 8vo, buckram, _£_3 13_s._ 6_d._ + + _Times._--"Should prove invaluable to all serious students of + the early history of the United States." + + + Fiction. + +=THE NAULAHKA.= A Tale of West and East. By RUDYARD KIPLING and WOLCOTT +BALESTIER. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ + +=THE AVERAGE WOMAN.= By WOLCOTT BALESTIER. With Portrait of the Author, +and Biographical Introduction by HENRY JAMES. Small crown 8vo, 3_s._ +6_d._ + +=NOR WIFE, NOR MAID.= By Mrs. HUNGERFORD, Author of "Molly Bawn," &c. In +three volumes. 31_s._ 6_d._ + +=ORIOLE'S DAUGHTER.= A Novel. By JESSIE FOTHERGILL, Author of "The First +Violin," &c. In two volumes. + + [_In the Press._ + +=THE HEAD OF THE FIRM.= By Mrs. RIDDELL, Author of "George Geith," +"Maxwell Drewett," &c. + + [_In the Press._ + +=THE TOWER OF TADDEO.= A Novel. By OUIDA, Author of "Two Little Wooden +Shoes," &c. In volumes. + + [_In the Press._ + +=WOMAN AND THE MAN.= A Love Story. By ROBERT BUCHANAN, Author of "Come +Live with Me and be My Love," "The Moment After," "The Coming Terror," +&c. In two volumes. + + [_In preparation._ + +=LITTLE JOHANNES.= By FREDERICK VAN EEDEN. Translated from the Dutch by +CLARA BELL. With an Introduction by ANDREW LANG. Illustrated. + + [_In preparation._ + + *.* _Also a Large Paper Edition._ + +=THE DOMINANT SEVENTH.= A Musical Story. By KATE ELIZABETH CLARKE. Crown +8vo, cloth, 5_s._ + + _Speaker._--"A very romantic story." + +=PASSION THE PLAYTHING.= A Novel. By R. MURRAY GILCHRIST. Crown 8vo, +cloth, 6_s._ + + _Athenæum._--"This well-written story must be read to be + appreciated." + + + The Crown Copyright Series. + +Mr. HEINEMANN has made arrangements with a number of the FIRST AND MOST +POPULAR ENGLISH, AMERICAN, and COLONIAL AUTHORS which will enable him to +issue a series of NEW AND ORIGINAL WORKS, to be known as THE CROWN +COPYRIGHT SERIES, complete in One Volume, at a uniform price of FIVE +SHILLINGS EACH. These Novels will not pass through an Expensive Two or +Three Volume Edition, but they will be obtainable at the CIRCULATING +LIBRARIES, as well as at all Booksellers' and Bookstalls. + +=ACCORDING TO ST. JOHN.= By AMÉLIE RIVES, Author of "The Quick or the +Dead." + + _Scotsman._--"The literary work is highly artistic.... It has + beauty and brightness, and a kind of fascination which carries + the reader on till he has read to the last page." + +=THE PENANCE OF PORTIA JAMES.= By TASMA, Author of "Uncle Piper of +Piper's Hill," &c. + + _Athenæum._--"A powerful novel." + + _Daily Chronicle._--"Captivating and yet tantalising, this story + is far above the average." + + _Vanity Fair._--"A very interesting story, morally sound, and + flavoured throughout with ease of diction and lack of strain." + +=INCONSEQUENT LIVES.= A Village Chronicle, shewing how certain folk set +out for El Dorado; what they attempted; and what they attained. By J. H. +PEARCE, Author of "Esther Pentreath," &c. + + _Saturday Review._--"A vivid picture of the life of Cornish + fisher-folk. It is unquestionably interesting." + + _Literary World._--"Powerful and pathetic ... from first to last + it is profoundly interesting. It is long since we read a story + revealing power of so high an order, marked by such evident + carefulness of workmanship, such skill in the powerful and yet + temperate presentation of passion, and in the sternly realistic + yet delicate treatment of difficult situations." + +=A QUESTION OF TASTE.= By MAARTEN MAARTENS, Author of "An Old Maid's +Love," &c. + + _National Observer._--"There is more than cleverness; there is + original talent, and a good deal of humanity besides." + +=COME LIVE WITH ME AND BE MY LOVE.= By ROBERT BUCHANAN, Author of "The +Moment After," "The Coming Terror," &c. + + [_In the Press._ + +=THE O'CONNORS OF BALLINAHINCH.= By Mrs. HUNGERFORD, Author of "Molly +Bawn," &c. + + [_In the Press._ + +=A BATTLE AND A BOY.= By BLANCHE WILLIS HOWARD, Author of "Guenn," &c. + + [_In preparation._ + +=VANITAS.= By VERNON LEE, Author of "Hauntings," &c. + + [_In preparation._ + + + Heinemann's International Library. + + EDITED BY EDMUND GOSSE. + + _New Review._--"If you have any pernicious remnants of literary + chauvinism I hope it will not survive the series of foreign + classics of which Mr. William Heinemann, aided by Mr. Edmund + Gosse, is publishing translations to the great contentment of + all lovers of literature." + + _Times._--"A venture which deserves encouragement." + +_Each Volume has an Introduction specially written by the Editor._ + +Price, in paper covers, 2_s._ 6_d._ each, or cloth, 3_s._ 6_d._ + +=IN GOD'S WAY.= From the Norwegian of BJÖRNSTJERNE BJÖRNSON. + + _Athenæum._--"Without doubt the most important and the most + interesting work published during the twelve months.... There + are descriptions which certainly belong to the best and + cleverest things our literature has ever produced. Amongst the + many characters, the doctor's wife is unquestionably the first. + It would be difficult to find anything more tender, soft, and + refined than this charming personage." + +=PIERRE AND JEAN.= From the French of GUY DE MAUPASSANT. + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"So fine and faultless, so perfectly + balanced, so steadily progressive, so clear and simple and + satisfying. It is admirable from beginning to end." + + _Athenæum._--"Ranks amongst the best gems of modern French + fiction." + +=THE CHIEF JUSTICE.= From the German of KARL EMIL FRANZOS, Author of +"For the Right," &c. + + _New Review._--"Few novels of recent times have a more sustained + and vivid human interest." + + _Christian World._--"A story of wonderful power ... as free from + any thing objectionable as 'The Heart of Midlothian.'" + +=WORK WHILE YE HAVE THE LIGHT.= From the Russian of Count LYOF TOLSTOY. + + _Liverpool Mercury._--"Marked by all the old power of the great + Russian novelist." + + _Manchester Guardian._--"Readable and well translated; full of + high and noble feeling." + +=FANTASY.= From the Italian of MATILDE SERAO. + + _National Observer._--"The strongest work from the hand of a + woman that has been published for many a day." + + _Scottish Leader._--"The book is full of a glowing and living + realism.... There is nothing like 'Fantasy' in modern + literature.... It is a work of elfish art, a mosaic of light and + love, of right and wrong, of human weakness and strength, and + purity and wantonness, pieced together in deft and witching + precision." + +=FROTH.= From the Spanish of Don ARMANDO PALACIO-VALDÉS. + + _Daily Telegraph._--"Vigorous and powerful in the highest + degree. It abounds in forcible delineation of character, and + describes scenes with rare and graphic strength." + +=FOOTSTEPS OF FATE.= From the Dutch of LOUIS COUPERUS. + + _Daily Chronicle._--"A powerfully realistic story which has been + excellently translated." + + _Gentlewoman._--"The consummate art of the writer prevents this + tragedy from sinking to melodrama. Not a single situation is + forced or a circumstance exaggerated." + +=PEPITA JIMÉNEZ.= From the Spanish of JUAN VALERA. + + _W. D. Howells._--"An exquisite masterpiece." + + _New Review_ (Mr. George Saintsbury):--"There is no doubt at all + that it is one of the best stories that have appeared in any + country in Europe for the last twenty years." + +=THE COMMODORE'S DAUGHTERS.= From the Norwegian of JONAS LIE. + + _Athenæum._--"Everything that Jonas Lie writes is attractive and + pleasant; the plot of deeply human interest, and the art noble." + +=THE HERITAGE OF THE KURTS.= From the Norwegian of BJÖRNSTJERNE +BJÖRNSON. + + +Popular 3s. 6d. Novels. + +=THE SCAPEGOAT.= By HALL CAINE, Author of "The Bondman," &c. + + _Mr. Gladstone writes:_--"I congratulate you upon 'The + Scapegoat' as a work of art, and especially upon the noble and + skilfully drawn character of Israel." + + _Times._--"In our judgment it excels in dramatic force all his + previous efforts. For grace and touching pathos Naomi is a + character which any romancist in the world might be proud to + have created." + +=DAUGHTERS OF MEN.= By HANNAH LYNCH, Author of "The Prince of the +Glades," &c. + +=THE BONDMAN.= A New Saga. By HALL CAINE. Twentieth Thousand. + + _Mr. Gladstone._--"'The Bondman' is a work of which I recognise + the freshness, vigour, and sustained interest no less than its + integrity of aim." + + _Standard._--"Its argument is grand, and it is sustained with a + power that is almost marvellous." + +=A MARKED MAN=: Some Episodes in his Life. By ADA CAMBRIDGE, Author of +"Two Years' Time," "A Mere Chance," &c. + + _Morning Post._--"A depth of feeling, a knowledge of the human + heart, and an amount of tact that one rarely finds. Should take + a prominent place among the novels of the season." + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"Contains one of the best written stories + of a mésalliance that is to be found in modern fiction." + +=THE THREE MISS KINGS.= By ADA CAMBRIDGE, Author of "A Marked Man." + + _Athenæum._--"A charming study of character. The love stories + are excellent, and the author is happy in tender situations." + + _British Weekly._--"A novel to be bought and kept for + re-reading. From beginning to end pure as the breath of a flower + garden in June." + + _National Observer._--"A pleasanter tale has not been told these + many days. The picture of the three maidens is one of the most + delightful in recent fiction." + +=A ROMANCE OF THE CAPE FRONTIER.= By BERTRAM MITFORD, Author of "Through +the Zulu Country," &c. + + _Academy._--"The love story is a particularly pleasing one." + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"A very lively and a very picturesque + story." + + _Observer._--"This is a rattling tale, genial, healthy, and + spirited." + +=UNCLE PIPER OF PIPER'S HILL.= By TASMA. New Popular Edition. + + _Guardian._--"Every page of it contains good wholesome food, + which demands and repays digestion. The tale itself is + thoroughly charming, and all the characters are delightfully + drawn. We strongly recommend all lovers of wholesome novels to + make acquaintance with it themselves, and are much mistaken if + they do not heartily thank us for the introduction." + +=IN THE VALLEY.= By HAROLD FREDERIC, Author of "The Lawton Girl," +"Seth's Brother's Wife," &c. With Illustrations. + + _Times._--"The literary value of the book is high; the author's + studies of bygone life presenting a life-like picture." + +=PRETTY MISS SMITH.= By FLORENCE WARDEN, Author of "The House on the +Marsh," "A Witch of the Hills," &c. + + _Punch._--"Since Miss Florence Warden's 'House on the Marsh,' I + have not read a more exciting tale." + +=LOS CERRITOS.= A Romance of the Modern Time. By GERTRUDE FRANKLIN +ATHERTON, Author of "Hermia Suydam," and "What Dreams may Come." + + _Athenæum._--"Full of fresh fancies and suggestions. Told with + strength and delicacy. A decidedly charming romance." + +=A MODERN MARRIAGE.= By the Marquise CLARA LANZA. + + _Queen._--"A powerful story, dramatically and consistently + carried out." + + _Black and White._--"A decidedly clever book." + + _In preparation._ + +='TWEEN SNOW AND FIRE.= A Tale of the Kafir War of 1877. By BERTRAM +MITFORD. + + [_In June._ + +=NOT ALL IN VAIN.= By ADA CAMBRIDGE, Author of "A Marked Man," "The +Three Miss Kings," &c. + +=MAMMON.= A Novel. By Mrs. ALEXANDER, Author of "The Wooing O't," &c. + + _Scotsman._--"The present work is not behind any of its + predecessors. 'Mammon' is a healthy story, and as it has been + thoughtfully written it has the merit of creating thought in its + readers." + +=HAUNTINGS=: Fantastic Stories. By VERNON LEE, Author of "Baldwin," +"Miss Brown," &c. &c. + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"Well imagined, cleverly constructed, + powerfully executed. 'Dionea' is a fine and impressive idea, and + 'Oke of Okehurst' a masterly story." + +=MEA CULPA=: A Woman's Last Word. By HENRY HARLAND. + + _Times._--"There is no denying its cleverness; it is the very + reverse of conventional. The author in his social touches + reminds us of About, and it would be difficult to say anything + more flattering." + + + Popular Shilling Books. + +=MADAME VALERIE.= By F. C. PHILIPS, Author of "As in a Looking-Glass," +&c. + +=THE MOMENT AFTER=: A Tale of the Unseen. By ROBERT BUCHANAN. + + _Athenæum._--"Should be read--in daylight." + + _Observer._--"A clever _tour de force_." + + _Guardian._--"Particularly impressive, graphic, and powerful." + +=CLUES=; or, Leaves from a Chief Constable's Note-Book. By WILLIAM +HENDERSON, Chief Constable of Edinburgh. + + _Mr. Gladstone._--"I found the book full of interest." + + _THE SHILLING LIBRARY._ + + A New Series of handy Pocket Volumes. + +=A VERY STRANGE FAMILY.= By F. W. ROBINSON, Author of "Grandmother's +Money," "Lazarus in London," &c. + + _Glasgow Herald._--"An ingeniously devised plot, of which the + interest is kept up to the very last page. A judicious blending + of humour and pathos further helps to make the book delightful + reading from start to finish." + + _*.* Others in preparation._ + + + Dramatic Literature. + + THE PLAYS OF ARTHUR W. PINERO. + +With Introductory Notes by MALCOLM C. SALAMAN. 16mo, Paper Covers, 1_s._ +6_d._; or Cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._ each. + +=THE TIMES=: A Comedy in Four Acts. With a Preface by the Author. (Vol. +I.) + + _Daily Telegraph._--"'The Times' is the best example yet given + of Mr. Pinero's power as a satirist. So clever is his work that + it beats down opposition. So fascinating is his style that we + cannot help listening to him." + + _Morning Post._--"Mr. Pinero's latest belongs to a high order of + dramatic literature, and the piece will be witnessed again with + all the greater zest after the perusal of such admirable + dialogue." + +=THE PROFLIGATE=: A Play in Four Acts. With Portrait of the Author, +after J. MORDECAI. (Vol. II.) + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"Will be welcomed by all who have the true + interests of the stage at heart." + +=THE CABINET MINISTER=: A Farce in Four Acts. (Vol. III.) + + _Observer._--"It is as amusing to read as it was when played." + +=THE HOBBY HORSE=: A Comedy in Three Acts. (Vol. IV.) + +=LADY BOUNTIFUL.= A Play in Four Acts. (Vol. V.) + +To be followed by The Magistrate, Dandy Dick, The Schoolmistress, The +Weaker Sex, Lords and Commons, The Squire, and Sweet Lavender. + +=THE PRINCESSE MALEINE=: A Drama in Five Acts (Translated by Gerard +Harry), and + +=THE INTRUDER=: A Drama in One Act. By MAURICE MAETERLINCK. With an +Introduction by HALL CAINE, and a Portrait of the Author. Small 4to, +cloth, 5_s._ + + _Athenæum._--"In the creation of the 'atmosphere' of the play M. + Maeterlinck shows his skill. It is here that he communicates to + us the _nouveau frisson_, here that he does what no one else has + done. In 'The Intruder' the art consists of the subtle + gradations of terror, the slow, creeping progress of the + nightmare of apprehension. Nothing quite like it has been done + before--not even by Poe--not even by Villiers." + +=THE FRUITS OF ENLIGHTENMENT=: A Comedy in Four Acts. By Count LYOF +TOLSTOY. Translated from the Russian by E. J. DILLON. With Introduction +by A. W. PINERO. Small 4to, with Portrait, 5_s._ + + _Pall Mall Gazette._--"The whole effect of the play is + distinctly Molièresque; it has something of the large humanity + of the master. Its satire is genial, almost gay." + +=HEDDA GABLER=: A Drama in Four Acts. By HENRIK IBSEN. Translated from +the Norwegian by EDMUND GOSSE. Small 4to, cloth, with Portrait, 5_s._ +Vaudeville Edition, paper, 1_s._ Also a Limited Large Paper Edition, +21_s._ _net_. + + _Times._--"The language in which this play is couched is a model + of brevity, decision, and pointedness.... Every line tells, and + there is not an incident that does not bear on the action + immediate or remote. As a corrective to the vapid and foolish + writing with which the stage is deluged 'Hedda Gabler' is + perhaps entitled to the place of honour." + +=NERO AND ACTÉA=: A Tragedy. By ERIC MACKAY, Author of "A Lover's +Litanies," and "Love Letters of a Violinist." Crown 8vo, cloth, 5_s._ + + _Morning Post._--"Well written, picturesque, and thoroughly + dramatic." + +=A NEW PLAY.= By HALL CAINE. Small 4to. + + [_In preparation._ + +=STRAY MEMORIES.= By ELLEN TERRY. In one volume. Illustrated. + + [_In preparation._ + +=SOME INTERESTING FALLACIES OF THE= Modern Stage. An Address delivered +to the Playgoers' Club at St. James's Hall, on Sunday, 6th December, +1891. By HERBERT BEERBOHM TREE. Crown 8vo, sewed, 6_d._ + +=THE LIFE OF HENRIK IBSEN.= By HENRIK JÆGER. Translated by CLARA BELL. +With the Verse done into English from the Norwegian Original by EDMUND +GOSSE. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6_s._ + + _St. James's Gazette._--"Admirably translated. Deserves a + cordial and emphatic welcome." + + _Guardian._--"Ibsen's dramas at present enjoy a considerable + vogue, and their admirers will rejoice to find full descriptions + and criticisms in Mr. Jæger's book." + + * * * * * + + + + +TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +Side notes have been taken from the page headers and moved to the +beginnings of paragraphs or where more appropriate to the beginnings of +sentences in the text. + +page xi Litle replaced with Little in "Little Darwin learns a new + word". + +page 5 space added between The and familiar "The familiar voice of + his mate". + +page 124 freindship replaced with friendship in "which seems to + indicate friendship." + +page 216 full stop added after "does not continue through the vowel". + +page 231 every replaced with very in "Their means of communication are + very contracted,". + +page 232 sigmata replaced with stigmata in "scratching by means of + their stigmata,". + +Endpapers: + +A full stop was added after Daily Telegraph in the ad for Volumes V and +VI GERMANY. + +A " was added after "Both interesting and valuable" in the ad for THE +LABOUR MOVEMENT IN AMERICA. + +ex replaced by Sex in "The Weaker Sex," in the ad for LADY BOUNTIFUL. + +In the ad for THE FRUITS OF ENLIGHTENMENT full stop added after 5s. + +In the ad for HEDDA GABLER anguage replaced with language in "The +language in which this play". + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Speech of Monkeys, by R. 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